fH )
%
»
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
E L E
Sledlricity LECTRICITY, Medical. See Materia Me-
J dica.
ter?me* ELECTRIDES, anciently iflands in the Adriatic
> v-~ i Tea, which received their name from the quantity
of amber (^eleBrum^ which they produced. They
were at the mouth of the Po, according to Apollonius
of Rhodes; but fome hiftorians doubt of their exis¬
tence.
ELECTROMETER. In various parts of the ar¬
ticle Electricity, we have defcribed a great variety
of instruments for afcertaining the prefence of electrici¬
ty, and meafuring its quantity or proportion.
But there are feveral iniiruments of this kind that
have not been defcribed in that article^ and as they are
well deferving a place in this work, either from the in¬
genuity of their conftruftion, the reputation of their in¬
ventors, or the intrinfic value of the inftruments them-
felves, we fhall give an account of them here.
Fig. i. Plate CC. is a geometrical reprefentation
of Mr Cavallo’s improved atmofpherical electrometer,
of half its real fize. The principal part of this in¬
strument is a glafs tube CDMN, cemented at the bot¬
tom into the wooden piece AB, by which part the inftru-
ment is to be held when ufed for the atmofphere 5 and
it alfo Serves to fcrew the inltrument into its wooden
cafe ABO, fig. 2. when it is not to be ufed. The
upper part of the tube CDMN, is fhaped tapering to a
fmaller extremity, which is entirely covered with feal-
ing-wax, melted by heat, and not diffolved in Spirits..
Into this tapering part a fmall tube is cemented, the
lower extremity G of which being alfo covered with Seal¬
ing wax, projefts a fhort way within the tube CDMN.
Into this fmaller tube a wire is cemented, w’hich wdth
its lower extremity touches the flat piece of ivory H, faften-
ed to the tube by means of cork 3 the upper extremity of
the wire prbjeCts about a quarter of an inch above the
tube, and fcrews into the brafs cap EF, wdiich cap is
open at the bottom, and Serves to defend the waxed
part of the inftrument from the rain, &c. In fig. 3.
a feCtion of this brafs cap is reprefented, in order to
Shew' its internal fhape, and the manner in which it is
Screwed to the wire, projecting above the tube L. The
fmall tube L, and the upper extremity of the large
tube CDMN, appear like one continued pie<;e, on ac¬
count of the fealing-wax, which covers them both.
'I he conical corks P of this eleftrometer, which by
tLeir repulfion fhow the eledricity, &c. are as Small as
Vol, VIII Part L
E L E
can conveniently be made, and they are fufpended byEle&rome-
exceedingly fine filver wires. Thefe wires are fhaped ter.
in a ring at the top, by which they hang very loofely *
on the flat piece of ivory H, which has twTo holes for
that purpofe. By this method of fufpenfion, which is
applicable to every fort of eleftrometer, the friCtion is
leffened almofl to nothing, and thence the inftrument
is fenfible of a very fmall degree of eleClricity. IM,
and KN, are two narrow flips of tin-foil, ftuck to the
infide of the glafs CDMN, and communicating with
the wooden bottom AB; they ferve to convey off
that eleClricity, which, when the corks touch the glafs,
is communicated to it, and being accumulated, might
difturb the free motion of the corks.
In regard to its ufe, this inftfument may ferve to
obferve the artificial, as well as the atmofpherical elec¬
tricity. When it is to be ufed for artificial eleClricity,
this eleClrometer is fet upon a table or other convenient
Support; then it is eleCtrified by touching the brafs cap
EF with an eleCtrified body, which eleClricity wdll
fometimes be preferved for more than an hour. Mr
Cavallo had one of thefe electrometers which would re^
main eleCtrical for more than twelve hours, though in
a room without a fire. If in an ekarified Hate, any
ekarified fubftance be brought near the cap EF, the
corks of the ekarometer, by their converging, or by
increafmg their divergency, will ftiew the Species of
that body’s ekaricity.
It is neceffary to remark, that to communicate any
ekaricity to this ekarometer, by means of an excited
ekaric, e. g. a piece of fealing-wax, (which we fup-
pofe is always negatively ekarified), is not very rea¬
dily done in the ufual manner, on account of the cap
EF being well rounded, and free from points or ftiarp
edges. By the approach of the wax, the ekarometer
will be caufed to diverge ; but as foon as the wrax is re¬
moved, the wires immediately collapfe. The belt me¬
thod to ekarify it, is to bring the excited wax fo near
the cap, that one or both the corks may touch the fide
of the bottle CDMN ; after which, they wdll foon col¬
lapfe and appear unekarifkd : if now the w^ax be
moved, they will again diverge, and remain ekarified
pofitively.
_ When this inftrument is to be ufed to try the ekari¬
city of the fogs, the air, the clouds, &c. the obkrver
is to do nothing more than to unfcrew it from its cafe
nnd, holding it by the bottom AB, to prefent it to the
A open
E L E * [2
E’etfrome- open air, a little above bis head, fo that he may conve-
 niently fee the corks P, which will immediately diverge
v' if there be any fufhcient quantity of eleftricity j whoJe
nature, i. e. whether politive or negative, may be af-
certained by bringing an excited piece of feaiing-wax,
or other electric, towards the brafs cap EF.
It is perhaps unneceffary to remark, that this obfer-
vation muft be made in an open place, as the roads out
oftown, the fields, the top of a houfe, &.c.
The principal advantages of this eleftrometer, as Hat¬
ed by Mr Cavallo, are as follow.
1. The fmallnefs of its fize. Mr Cavallo made one
fo fmall, that its cafe, which wTas of brals, meafured
only three inches and a half in length, and nine tenths
of an inch in diameter, and yet it adled perfectly well.
2. Its being always ready for experiments, without
fear of entangling the threads, or having an equivocal
refult by the lluggilhnefs of its motion.
3. Its not being dillurbed by wind' or rain.
4. Its great fenfibility } and
5. Its keeping the communicated electricity longer
than any other eleftrometer.
II. Saujfure's Electrometer. M. de Sauffure’s
eleCtrometer, with which he made the obfervations on
atmofpherical eleCtricity, that have been related in the
fecond chapter of Part V. of the article Electrici¬
ty, and is reprefented at fig. 4* is much the fame wdth
that of Mr Cavallo above defcribed. The following
are the molt material circumftances in which they dif¬
fer : Fir it, the fine wares, by which the balls are fuf-
pended, ihould not be long enough to reach the tin-
foil wdiich is palled on the infide of the glafs, becaufe
the eleCtricity, when itrong, will caufe them to touch
this tin-foil twice confecutively, and thus deprive them
in a moment of their eleCtricity. d o prevent this de-
feCl, and yet give them a fufficient degree of motion,
it is neceffary to ufe larger glaffes than thofe that are
generally applied to Mr Cavallo’s eleCtrometer \ twTo
or three inches diameter will be found to anfwer the
purpofe very w7ell. But as it is neceffary to carry oft
the eleCtricity which may be communicated to the in¬
fide of the glafs, and thus be confounded with that
which belongs to thofe fubftances that are under exa¬
mination ^ four pieces of tin-foil Ihould be palted on the
infide of the glafs \ the balls ihould not be more than
one-twrentieth of an inch diameter, fufpended by filver
wires, moving freely in holes nicely rounded. The
bottom of the eleCtrometer ihould be of metal ■, for this
renders it more eafy to deprive it of any acquired elec¬
tricity, by touching the bottom and top at the fame
time.
In order to colleCt a great quantity of eleCtricity
from the air, the eleCtrometer is furniftied with a point¬
ed wire, 15 inches or two feet long, which unfcrews
in three or four pieces, to render the inftrument more
portable •, fee fig. 4. When it rains or fnows, the fmall
parapluie, fig. 5. is to be fere wed on the top of the
inftrument, as by this its infulation is preferved, not-
withftanding the rain.
This inftrument indicates not only the eleCtricity of
fogs, but that alfo of ferene weather, and enables us to
difeover the kind of eleCtricity which reigns in the at-
mofphere ; and to a certain degree, to form an eftimate
of its quantity, and that under two different points of
] E L E
view7, the degree of intenfity, and the diftance from Eltftrome-
the earth at which it firft begins to be fenfible. 1
A conduCtor raifed for the purpofe of making obfer-
vation on atmofpherical eleCtricity wrill be found to ex¬
hibit figns of eleCtricity, only when the eleCtric fluid is
more or lefs condenfed in the air, than in the earth.
Though the air refills the paflage of the eleCtric fluid,
it is not abfolutely impermeable to it j it fuffers it to pals
gradually, and generally with more eafe in proportion
as its mafs or thicknefs is lefs. It is therefore intereft-
ing to difeover at what height it is neceffary to be ele¬
vated, in order to find a fenfible difference between the
eleCtricity of the earth, and that of the air. A very
fenfible difference may be generally difeovered by this
inftrument, at the diftance of four or five feet from the
ground } fometimes it may be feen if the inftrument is
placed even on the ground } while at others, it muft
be raifed feven or more feet before the balls will open j
fometimes, though feldom, this height is not fufficient.
This diftance is generally greateft when the electricity^
is ftrongeft, though neceffarily modified by a variety ot
circumftances, fome of wffiich are known, as the de¬
gree of drynefs or humidity of the air, and others are
unknown.
The degree of intenfity, at a given height, may be
difeovered ..thus •, raife the eleCtrometer, and judge by
the divilions which are placed on the edge of it, the de¬
gree of their divergence. To find the relation between
this degree of divergence, and the force of the eleCtri¬
city, M. de Sauffure took the following method : . As
he could not with certainty double or triple a given
quantity of eleCtricity \ yet as a given force may be re¬
duced one half, a fourth or eighth, &c. by dividing
between twro equal and fimilar bodies, the eleCtricity
contained in one} he took twro of his unarmed electro¬
meters, which wrere as fimilar as poflible, and eleCtri-
fied one of them, fo that the balls feparated precifely
fix lines } he then touched the top thereof by the top
of that which wTas not eleCtrified} in an inftant the elec¬
tricity was equally divided between them, as was evi¬
dent by the divergence of the balls, which was four
lines in each j confequently a diminution of half the
denfity had only leffened the divergence one-third.
One of thefe eleClrometers was then deprived of its elec¬
tricity, and wras afterwrards brought in contact wTith the
other, as before} the remaining eleCtricity divided it-
felf again between them, and the balls fell from four to
twenty-eight lines, nearly in the fame proportion as be ¬
fore^ in the third operation they fell to nineteen j in
the fourth to one, where he wras obliged to flop, as there
was not now fufficient force in the fluid to pafs from one
eleClrometer to the other, and diftribute itfelf uniform¬
ly between them. The fame experiment, repeated fe-
veral times, gave very nearly the fame refults. Nega¬
tive eleCtricity decreafed alfo in the fame proportion as
the pofitive. The following table may therefore be
confidered as giving a general, though not exaCt idea
of the increafe in force, which correfponds to different
degrees of divergence in the balls } it is only calculated,
to every fourth of a line \ the force of eleCtricity is al¬
ways expreffed by whole numbers, as it would be ridi¬
culous to put a greater degree of exaCtnefs in the num¬
bers than is to be found in the experiments wffiich form
the bafes of the calculation.
Diftanee
E L
Eledrame- Diftance of the balls
teJ‘ in fourths of a line.
2 —
3
4 -
5
7
8
9
10
ii
1 2
!3
14
15
16
I?
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
E . t 3
Correfponding forces
of electricity.
    2-
  4
HZ 6
  8
  10
  12
  14
  17
  20
23
26
29
32
3 6
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
Thofe who are defirous to carry this meafure of the
eleCtric force further, may do it by having limilar e-
leftrometers conftrufted, but made upon a larger fcale,
and with heavier balls, which would only feparate one
line, with the degree of eleCtricity that makes the
fmaller ones diverge fix lines*, thefe would confequently
meafure a force 1 o 24 times greater than that which
forms the unity of the preceding table j and thus by
decrees we may be enabled to difcover the ratio of the
ftrongeft difcharge of a great battery, or perhaps
of thunder itfelf, to that of a piece of amber, which
only attrafts a bit of ftraw or any other light fub-
ftcincc #
In order to obferve the eleftricity of the atmofpl ere
with this inftrument, we muft firit bring the electric
fluid contained in the eleCtrometer to the fame degree
of denfity with that at the furface of the earth } this is
eafily done by letting the bottom and top touch the
ground at the fame time} then raife the point, keep¬
ing the bottom ftill in contaCt with the ground,_ from
whence it may be lifted up in a vertical pofition till the
balls are level with the eye.
The fecond circumftance is to render the divergence
of the balls, which is occafioned by the electricity of
the air permanent. This is effeCted by touching the
top of the eleCtrometer with the finger j but here the
acquired eleCtricity becomes contrary to that of the bo¬
dy by which they are eleCtrified. Let us fuppofe, for
example, that the eleCtrometer is at five feet from the
ground, and the balls diverging } touch the top of the
eleCtrometer with the finger, and the balls will clofe }
but they will again open, if the elearometer is with¬
drawn from the influence of the elearicity of the air,
by being brought nearer the ground, or into the houfe.
M. Sauffure only employed this method when the elec¬
tricity was fo weak that he could not perceive any un¬
till the elearometer was railed confiderably above his
eye; as in tins cafe he could net perceive the diver-
] E L E
gence of the balls, he always endeavoured to obtain Elearcme.
a permanent elearicity in the foregoing manner. , tei'
The following example will render the ufe of the
foregoing obfervations more familiar. Choole an open
fituation free from trees and houfes, fcrew the conduaor
on the top of the elearometer, lay hold of it by its
bafe, and place it fo that the bafe and conduaor may
touch the ground at the fame time j then elevate it to
the height of the eye, and obferve the quantity of lines.,
or fourths of a line, that the balls have diverged *, now
lower it till the balls almofi touch each other, and ob¬
ferve at what diftance the top of the conduaor is from
the ground ; and this is the height from the ground at
which the elearicity of the air begins to be fenfible.
If the elearicity of the air is fufficiently ftrong to make
the balls diverge when it Hands upon the ground, one
of the lengths of the elearometer muft be unfcrewed
from it. If the balls, however, ftill diverge, the other-
parts of the conduaor fliould alfo be unfcrewed, and
you may mark down, that the elearicity is fenfible at
zero, or on the furface of the earth. If, on the con¬
trary, the elearicity is fo weak, as not to caufe the
balls to diverge when they are even with the eye, and
confequently when the conduaor is two feet higher, or
feven feet from the ground, you Ihould then raife it a
foot higher; wdfile it is thus elevated, touch the top
with the other hand ; when this hand is taken away,
low-er the elearometer, and if it is ekarified, you may
fay the ekaricity is fenfible at eight feet ; if it is not,
raife it as high as the arm can reach, and repeat the
fame operation j if any ekaricity is found, write down
ekaricity fenfible at nine feet; if not, mark o, or no
ekaricity relative to this inftrument, and this mode of
employing it ; for figns of ekaricity may ftill be ob¬
tained, by throwing a metallic ball 50 or 60 feet into
the air, which is at the fame time conneaed with the
ekarometer by a metallic thread.
One advantage of this inftrument is, that it will often
exhibit figns of ekaricity wdien none can be obtained
from a conduaor of loo feet in height, becaufe it can
more eafily be preferved from humidity, &c. which will
deftroy the infulation of the large conduaors.
This ekarometer may be ufed inftead of the con-
denfer of M. Volta, by only placing it on a piece of
oiled filk, fomewhat larger than the bafe of the inftru¬
ment ; but in this cafe, it is the bafe, and not the
top of the inftrument, which muft be brought in¬
to contaa with the fubftance whofe ekaricity is to be
explored.
It is eafy to difcover alfo by this inftrument, the elec¬
tricity of any fubftance, as of cloths, hair of different
animals, &c. For this purpofe, it muft be held by the
bafe, and the fubftance rubbed brifldy (only once) by
the ball of the ekarometer the kind of ekaricity
may be afcertained in the ufual manner. It is proper,
however, to obferve here, that as the top of the ekaro¬
meter adls in this cafe as an infulated rubber, the elec¬
tricity it acquires is always contrary to that of the rub¬
bed body.
III. Cadet"1 s Electrometer, is thus defcribed by
the author, as tranflated in Nicholfon’s Journal.
Fig. 6. In a glafs tube A, 1 8 or 20 inches long,
is inclofed another fhorter tube X, feakd at both ends.
This tube contains a graduated fcak : one of the ends
of thefe two tubes is cemented in a handle of turned
A 2 wood,
E L E [
Eleftrome wood, C, by which it is held in the hand; the other
, ter~ end is clofed by a brafs cap, D ; the diftance between
the extremities of the fmall tube and that of the large
one is filled with red wax, B, B 5 on the cap D is
fcrewed at pleafure, either a ring E, or a brafs hook
F. The ring is ufed for applying the inftrument to the
ball of a conductor, and the hook when it is hung
to a ring : on the cap D is a brafs Hem G, termi¬
nating by a knob. This Item is bended, and the
extremity of its knob muft be directly beneath the
line with which the graduated fcale of the fmall tube
commences.
Round the large tube is a brafs ring H, half of which
extends to the length of twelve or fifteen lines, in the
form of a half tube P, applied againft the fides of the
tube. This gutter ferves to mark the degrees, by Hid¬
ing along the graduated fcale by means of a button be¬
neath I. On the ring H is fixed one of the fmall
electrometers invented by Sauffiire, K, K, which is.fur-
mounted by a Item V, on which ftem is fixed at pleafure
either a point L, or a ball M, of the fame fize as that
which terminates the Item G, oppofite which it is
placed. The extremity of this point or ball muft be
placed immediately over the extremity of the half tube
or fcale P, and horizontally to the centre of the ball,
which terminates the ftem G.
At the top of Sauffure’s eleCtrometer is a fmall ring
N, wdiich ferves to conneCt it with the chain Z when
required.
To explain the ufe of this inftrument by a fingle ex¬
periment, charge a Leyden jar, till the fpontaneous
overflowing announces it to be faturated. Then place
the ring E on the knob of this bottle, and caufe the
eleClrometer of Sauffure, armed with its point, to Aide
towards it. Obferve the degree at w’hich the divergence
of the thread ftream commences, and at that inftant
fupprefs the point, and adapt in its place the ball M.
Continue to advance the eleClrometer of Sauflure till
the eleclric preflure of the atmofphere in the jar caufes
the threads to diverge ; again obferve the degrees, re¬
place the point L, and clofe the {butters of the room j
then continue to advance the electrometer till the lumi¬
nous point appears, which again affords new degrees.
Laftly, replace the ball M, and fix the chain Z to the
fmall ring N 5 caufe it to communicate with the exterior
coating of the jar, and advance the eledlrometer till the
explolion takes place. Then comparing the different de¬
grees, we may afcertain the comparative difference be¬
tween the refpedlive methods.
As foon as thefe relative proportions have been once
accurately afcertained by attentive obfervations, one of
thofe methods alone will be fufficient for meafuring the
intenfity of eleftricity; and, in faff, if the body intend¬
ed to be fubmitted to examination be little charged with
the eleftric fluid, the diverging of the threads, by means
of the point, will fix the limits of the eleftric atmo¬
fphere : if it be more, the preffure of the atmofphere on
the ball M, which is fubftituted for the point, will in¬
dicate this quantity. In fliort, if the body be loaded
with a confiderable mafs of eleclric matter, it will be
fhown by the luminous point. If a Leyden jar, inftead
of being pofitively, is negatively ele£trified, the point
indicates it at the fame time that it meafures the elec¬
tric atmofphere, for inftead of a luminous point, a ftar
4 ] E L £
will be obferved upon the ball of the jar, and another E'xcftrome-
at the end of the point. , ter‘
Let us now apply this electrometer to ufeful ob¬
fervations,
In order to conned the idea of a determinate quanti¬
ty of fluid to each degree of the eleftrometer, it is necef-
fary to compare thefe degrees with the known quanti¬
ties. Suppofe for inftance we have a jar, the coating
of which is fix inches fquare j eleCtrify it till a fpon¬
taneous difcharge takes place, and remark, by means
of Henly’s eleClrometer, at what degree this difcharge
is efteCled. Again, eledrify the jar, till it is nearly fa¬
turated, and meafuring with this eleClrometer, obferve,
that the luminous point appears for inftance at two de¬
grees , then fay, that wThen the electrometer, applied
to an eleClrified body, marks two degrees, the body
contains fix inches fquare of eleClricity. Repeat this
experiment wdth a plate of glafs, the coating of which is
feven, eight, ten, or twelve fquare inches, and we may
form a fcale of proportion, which is of the greateft uti¬
lity in accurate experiments.
“ In endeavouring to afcertain fome of thefe pro-
pofitions, (fays M. Cadet), I have made an obfervation
which has convinced me of the utility of my electrome¬
ter in difcovering the capacity of eleCtric apparatus.
Having taken a jar from an eleCtric battery, I eleCtri-
fied it, and meafured it with a point wdfich I pafled a-
long a firing of filk ; on obferving the diftance at which
the luminous point appeared, I joined this jar to another
of the fame fize, and imagined that by doubling the
quantity of matter, the meafure I had taken would alfo
be doubled on the contrary, horvever, the latter
meafure was not more than about one-third of the for¬
mer : I then added a third bottle j and ftill obtained
nearly the fame refult 5 whence the following propofi-
tion appears to be eftabliftied 5 namely, that the extent
of the eleCtric atmofphere is in an inverfe ratio to the
quantity of fluid accumulated. Another obfervation
wThich I have feveral times made, on meafuring the elec¬
tric atmofphere of a conductor, is, that the limits of this
atruofphere form an elliptic figure around the body,
nearly fimilar to that reprefented at fig. 7.
“ This doubtlefs arifes from the eleCtrified body
fufpended in a chamber, being nearer to the earth than
the ceiling ; but it would be a curious experiment tp
meafure it at an equal diftance from every attracting
body, in order to obferve whether the fluid has not
really a tendency to defcend towards the earth, rather
than in any other direction. It is my intention to re¬
peat this experiment, as I confider it of great impor¬
tance to afcertain whether eleCtricity gravitates towards
the globe.
“ From thefe firft attempts, I conceive my electrome¬
ter would be well adapted for meafuring the abfolute
capacity of Leyden jars, and alfo their capacity
with regard to their fize, or to the quality of the
glafs of which they are conftruCted 5 for the latter, by
its greater or lefs deniity, abforbs a greater or lefs quan¬
tity of fluid.”
IV. Lawfon's Electrometer. This is a Amplified
improvement on Brooke’s fteelyard electrometer, and
ftiould have been defcribed when that inftrument wTas
mentioned, inftead of Mr Adams’s j but it did not occur
to us till after that iheet was printed.
The
E L E [5
Elearome- The following account is given of this ele&rometer,
ter- in a letter from Mr Lawfon to the editor of the Philofo- .
phical Magazine.
“ Some time ago it ftruck me that fome additions to
Brooke’s ele&rometer might be made, fo as to fit it for
a good difcharging electrometer to meafure the repulfion
between twm balls (of a certain fize) in grains, and alfo
effect the difcharge of a battery at the fame time. The
inftrument known by the name of Cuthbertfon’s dif¬
charging electrometer, (See Electricity, N° 203.)
was at that time the beft, and indeed the only in-
ftrament for difcharging batteries or jars by its own
aftion, then made 5 but I think this wall be found, in
the effentials, and in the theory and ufe, a more per-
fect inftrument.
“ On the bafis (fig. 8.) is fixed the glafs pillar G,
fupporting the hollow brafs ball B. I is a light gra¬
duated brafs tube, divided (from the weight W towards
the ball B) into thirty parts, reprefenting grains. W
is a Aiding weight. L, a light brafs ball fere wed to
the end of the tube I. On the other end of which tube
adjufts the heavy counter-balance ball C, the tube I
and its two balls being fufpended at their common centre
of gravity by a filk line in the centre of the ball B, the
mechanifm of wdiich is fhewn in fig. 9. The brafs ball
F is ftationary, and of the fame fize as the ball L 5 and
is fixed by, and adjufts clofe to, the ball L, or at any
lower ftation between that and the ring r. The brafs
tube to which the ball A is fixed is divided into inches,
halves, and quarters : (a more minute divifion is unne-
ceiTary and improper). The divifions begin, or the line
o is marked on the faid tube at the ring r, when the
three balls A, L, F, are clofe together. The ring
r ferves as an index, as the divifions pafs in fucceftion
into the glafs tube P on lowering the ball A. The
hook H is ferewed into the bafe of P. The quadrant,
or Henly’s eleCfrometer, C^, is fupported in a long brafs
item, to keep it out of the atmofphere of the lower part
of the inftrument. Fig. 9. fhows the internal conftruc-
tion of the ball B, fig. 8. In the firft place the ball
ierews in half, horizontally. The light tube I pafl'es
through the ball, and is fufpended nearly in the centre
of it by fome filk twill, r, wdiich fmall filk twill is fixed
into the eye of the adjufting wire, a, part of which
wire is filed fquare and goes through the fquare hole h.
The nut n ferews on tf, and ferves to adjuft the light
tube I vertically. The light plates PP are of copper,
and move freely on the wire w w fomewhat like a hinge,
and reft on the copper wires CC, ferving to make the
direCl communication between the infide and out of the
battery or jar. NN are notches ferving to let the tube
I defeend wdien the difcharge is made. Into the tube Z
the glafs pillar is ground. Note, that at the bottom of
the notch N is a piece of brafs filled with a Y, and
fo placed as to keep the centres of the balls L and
F, fig. 8. under each other when they come clofe to¬
gether.
“When the inftrument is adjufted, which is done by
placing the weight W, fig 8. at o on the line of grains,
and then ferewing or unferewing the counterbalance
ball C, till the tube I rifes ilowly into its horizontal
pofition *, then fet the ball A at the diitance from the
ball L that you choofe, and the weight W placed at the
divifion or number of grains that you wilh the repuliive
power of the electricity to arrive at; before the difcharge
] E L E
is made ; this being done, eonne£l the battery or jar E!e(ftrom»»
writh the ball B, by means of the wire y, the end of, ter‘
which goes into B at the hole X, and fhould Hand at
right angles to B, the ball of y refting on the battery :
then conned the outfide of the battery or jar with the
hook FI. As the battery charges, the eledrometer
continues to rife 5 and when it is fo highly charged that
the repulfive pow7er between the balls L and F is equal
to the number of grains at which the weight W was
placed, the ball L wall defeend, and deliver the charge
of the battery to the ball A. The fubftance or thing
through which the Ihock is intended to be paffed, mull
form part of the communication between the hook H
and the outfide of the battery or jar.”
V. HaucJCs Electrometer. Fig. 1 o. contains a re-
prefentation of this eledrometer, and the different parts
of which itconfifts. OP is a board of dry mahogany,
twelve inches in length and four in breadth, which ferves
as a Hand for the inftrument. In this board are faften-
ed two maffy glafs pillars, M and N, which fupportthe
two brafs caps or rings GG, with the two forks of tem¬
pered fteel KK fcrewred into them. The two rings GG
are well covered with varnifh.
In the ring^is faftened a brafs rod, which terminates
in a ball E of the fame metal, and an inch in diameter.
The length of the rod and ball together is four inches
and a half.
A very delicate beam AB, the arms of which are of
unequal length, moves on a iharp triangular axis (a knife
edge) of well tempered fteel, on the fork K of the pillar
M. It is feventeen inches in length, and fo conftruded
that the Ihort arm forms a third, and the long one twro-
thirds of the whole beam. The fhort arm of brafs fur-
niflied with the ball B, exactly of the fame fize as the
ball E, is divided into forty five parts-equivalent to grains..'
The long arm A is of glafs covered with copal varnifh,
and ends in an ivory ball A, into wdiich is fitted an ivory
hook R, deftined to fupport the ivory fcale FI. In order
to render the infulation more complete, this fcale is fuf¬
pended by three hairs.
A very delicate beam CD, eleven inches in length,
moves on an axis like the former, on the pillar N,
though not here fhewn. This beam is proportioned in
the fame manner, one arm being a third and the other
two thirds of the whole length. The long arm of brafs
is furnilhed at the end with a ball D, and divided into
thirty parts correfponding to grains. The fhort arm of
glafs terminates in a long roundiih plate C, covered with
copal varnifh. The fteel forks are fhewn by the feflions
of the two brafs caps FF, as are alfo the two knife edges
L, L. By thefe caps the efcape of the eleflric matter
is partly prevented.
A brafs ring £), capable of being moved along the
fhort arm of the upper beam AB, fhews by means of
marks determined by trial and cut out on the beam,
the number of grains which muft be placed in the
fmall fcale to reftore the equilibrium of the beam,
at each' diftance of the ring £> from the point of
fufpenfion.
On the long arm CD of the lower beam there is al¬
fo a moveable ring S, wThlch, like the ring Q, fhews in
grains, by its diftance from the point of fafpenfion, the
powder requifite to overcome the preponderance of LD in
regard to LC.
The power neceflary for tins purpofe will be found, if
the
E L E [
Elc&rome-the fliell H, which wreighs exaftly fourteen grains, be
, ter- fuffered to link down on the glafs plate C, and the ring
^ s be puflied forwards till both the arms of the beam are
in equilibrium. The part of the beam on which the
ring s has moved, is divided into fourteen parts, fo that
o marks the place where the ring s mull Hand when the
beam, in its free ftate, is in equilibrium; and 14
Hands at the place where the ring s again reftores a per-
fect equilibrium when the (hell H is laid on the glafs
plate C. Each of thefe parts, which are divided into
quarters, indicates a grain. The lower divifions of the
fcale wall be found with more accuracy, if quarters of a
grain be put, in fucceflion, into the fliell H (after it has
been laid on the plate C), and the ring s be moved be¬
tween each quarter of a grain until the perfect equili¬
brium be reftored. This place on the beam is then to
be marked, and you may continue in this manner until
the 30th part of a grain be given. Both fcales, for the
fake of diftinttnefs, are divided only fo low as quarters
of a grain 5 though the inftrument is fo delicate, and mult
abfolutely be fo, that l-20th of a grain is fufficient to
deftroy the equilibrium.
The two glafs pillars M and N, together with the
fteel forks affixed to them, are fo fitted into the Hand
that both the beams lie parallel to each other as wxll as
to the rod GE. In this pofition of the beams AB, the
balls B and E are juft in contact. The fmalleft glafs
pillar N is of fuch a height that the ball of the beam
CD Hands at the diftance of exactly four lines from the
ring G, and cannot move without touching the latter.
T'he fmall ffiell H is fufpended in fuch a manner that
there is a diftance of exaftly twro lines between it and
the ffiell C. In each of the brafs rings GG is a fmall
hole, that the inftrument may be connected with the
two fides of an ele&ric jar. I is a brafs ware, with a
hollow bit of ivory, a, deftined to fupport the beam
CD, which is neceffarily preponderate at D, in order to
prevent ofcillation between the difcharges to be examin¬
ed by the inftrument.
It may be readily comprehended that, when the
beam AB has moved, A muft pafs over twice the fpace
that B does ; and that in the beam CD, the cafe is the
fame in regard to C and D. If AB be therefore con-
nected with the external, and CD with the internal fide
of a battery, but in fuch a manner that the inftrument is
at a fufficient diftance beyond the eleftric atmofphere ;
and if the battery be charged, the repulfive effedt of
the electric power will oblige the ball B to feparate
from the ball E ; the ffiell L muft therefore naturally
fink down with double velocity, fo that when the
ball B rifes a line, the fliell H mull fink two : when it
reaches this depth it will touch the ffiell C, and the lat¬
ter, by the powTer excited in it, will be obliged to fink,
by which D muft naturally again afcend in a double
proportion to the finking of C •, fo that when C has
fallen twro lines, D muft have afc ended four, and D
that moment touches the ring by which the two fides
of the battery are connected with each other, and dif¬
charges the battery.
But as the attractive electric power between unlike
atmofpheres, under like circumftances, is at leaft as
ftrong as its repulfive power between like atmofpheres,
it would thence follow, that the electric powrer, inftead
of repelling the ball B from the ball E, wTould rather
.^ttraft D, and by its contadt with G, promote the dif-
2
6 ] E L E
charging ; by which the inftrument wTould fail of its Eledlrome-
objeft, and be fubjected to the temperature of the at- ter‘
mofphere like all other electrometers 5 and, befides this,
the eledtric power could no longer be determined by
weight. To obviate this inconvenience, the inftrument,
in all eledlrical experiments, muft be applied in fuch a
manner that the power with which the ball D is attract¬
ed by AB may exceed in ftrength the power required
to repel the ball B from the ball E. For this purpofe
the ring r muft alwrays be removed twro divifions farther
on CD, towards D, than the ring £) is drifted on AB
towards B. If, for example, an eledtric force were re¬
quired equal to eight grains, according to this electro¬
meter, the ring muft be removed to the place where
8 ftands, and the ring r to the place marked 10. The
repulfive powrer will then naturally repel the balls B and
E before G is in a condition to attradt the ball D, as
a power of two grains would be neceflary for this pur¬
pofe, befides that of the eight already in adtion. The
fliell H with its weight of fourteen grains, will eafily
overcome the preponderance of LD or LC, as it amounts
only to ten grains, and therefore nothing exifts that can
impede the difcharging.
When the ring 1, according to the required power,
is removed fo far towards D, that the fliell H is not
able by its weight to deftroy the preponderance of LD
in regard to LC, the adtive power of the fliell H muft
be fo far increafed by the addition of weights, that it
can adl with a preponderance of four grains on the
plate C. If, for example, an eledtric power of 14
grains be required, the ring 1 muft be removed to 16,
by which LD refts upon a, with a preponderance of
16 grains in regard to LC. Now, to make H adt on
the plate C with a preponderance of four grains, it muft
be increafed to 20 grains, that is, fix grains weight
more muft be added, as it weighs only 14-, which fix
grains are again laid upon LB } and therefore the ring
£) is ffiifted to 20, as the ftrength of the repulfive power
is pointed out by 14 grains.
If an eledtric power of 25 grains be required, the
ring s muft be removed to 27, and the weight of 17
grains be put into the ffiell H, in order to produce a
preponderance of four grains in regard to s. Thefe 17
grains are added to the required power of 25 grains,
and the ring Q is puffied to 42, &c. In this manner
the repulfive power always adts before the attradtive
power can.
It may be readily perceived that the faults and in¬
conveniences common to all the eledtrometers hitherto
employed, and which have been already mentioned,
cannot take place here j becaufe the difcharging is per¬
formed by immediate connedtion between the pofitive
and negative eledlricity in the inftrument itfelf, without
any external means being employed.
One of the moft effential advantages of this inftru¬
ment is, the certainty with which the fame refult may
be expedled when the experiment is repeated. From
the fame degree of eledlric power, whatever be the
temperature of the atmofphere, it will always be neceflary
to commence the feparation of the two balls B and E
from each other, the quantity of coated glafs and the
diftance of the ring from the axis L being the
fame.
Another no lefs important advantage of this inftru-
ment is, that in an experiment where the fame eledlric
power,
E L E
Eleftrome- power, often repeated, is neceffary to afcertain the re-
ter* _ fult with accuracy } fuch, for example, as the charging
" * a battery through acids,- water, &c. j the fame degree
of precaution is not neceflary as is indifpenfibly fo in
any other eleftrometer, as the perfon who puts the ma¬
chine in motion has nothing to do but to count 'how
often the electrometer difcharges itfelf 5 and the inftru-
ment may be inclofed in a glafs cafe, or prevented in
any other manner from external contaft, or any other
circumitances which might render the experiment un¬
certain.
“ I flatter myfelf (fays M. Hauch), that the fimplicity
of the conftruction of this inltrument, the facility with
which it may be made at a very fmall expence, and the
certainty that tivo inftruments, prepared according to
the fame fcale, with a like quantity of coated glafs, muft
exaftly correfpond with each other , but above all, that
the certainty and accuracy by which experiments may
be made with it, and by thefe means be accurately de-
fcribed, are advantages which will not be lound united
in any of the electrometers hitherto invented*”.
* Phtl. We (hall clofe this account of electrometers with
Magaz. defcribing the conftruCtion and ufe of M. Coulomb’s
eleftrometer, or, as he calls it, E/eftrica/ Balance.
ABDC (fig. 11.) reprefents a glafs cylinder, twelve
inches in diameter and the fame in height, covered by a
glafs plate fitted to it by a projecting fillet on the under
furface. This cover is pierced with two round holes
one inch and three fourths in diameter. One of them
f is in the centre, and receives the lower end of the
glafs tube /*//, of twenty-four inches height, wdrich is
fixed in the hole with a cement made of fealing-wax,
or other eleCtric fubftance. The top of this tube re¬
ceives the brafs collar H, (fig. 1 2. N° 3.) bored truly
cylindrical with a fmall fhoulder, w’hich refhs on the
top of the tube. This collar is faftened with cement,
and receives the hollow cylinder <p (fig. 12. N° 2.),
to which is joined the circular plate a b, divided on the
edge into 360 degrees. It is alfo pierced with a round
hole G in the centre, which receives the cylindrical
pin i (fig. 1 2. N° 1.) having a milled head b, and fur-
nifhed with an index io, whofe point is bent down fo
as to mark the divifions on the circle a b. This pin
turns ftifly in the hole G, and the cylinder <p moves
fteadily in the collar H. To the lower end of the cen¬
tre pin is faftened a little pincer, y, formed like tire
end of a port-crayon, and tightened by the ring y, fo
as to hold fail the fufpenfion wire, the lower end of
• which is grafped by a fimilar pincer, Po (fig. 13.)
tightened by the ring <p. The lower end <p 0 is cylin¬
drical, and is of fuch a weight, as to draw the wire
perfedlly ftraight, but without any rilk of breaking it.
It may be made equal to half of the weight that will
juft break it.
This pincer is enlarged at C, and pierced with a
hole, which tightly receives the arm ^ C y of the elec¬
trometer. This arm is eight inches long j and confifts
of a dry filk thread, or a flender ftraw completely
dried, and dipped in melted lac or fine fealing wax,
and held perpendicularly*before a clear fire, till it be¬
come a flender^cylinder of about one tenth of an inch
m diameter. This occupies fix of the eight inches,
from to y : the remaining two inches confilt of a fine
thread of the lac or fealing-wax, as it drains off in
forming the arm. At a, is a ball of pith or fine cork,
E L E
one-fourth or one-half of an inch in diameter, made very Ekiflronje-
fmooth, and gilded. It is balanced by a vertical circle , ter'
of paper g, of large dimenfions, made ftiff with var-
niftx. The refiftance of the air to this plane foon checks
the ofcillations of the arm.
T he whole inftrument is feen jin its place in fig. 11.
where the arm hangs horizontally about the middle of
the height of the great cylinder. In its ofcillations
the ball a moves round in a circle, whofe centre is in
the axis of the whole inftrument. Its fituation is indi¬
cated by a graduated circle »oy, drawn on a Hip ot
paper, and made to adhere to the glafs by varniih.
The electrified body whofe a£tion is to be obferved, is
another fmall ball of cork t, alfo gilt, or a brafs ball
well polilhed. This is carried by a ftalk of lac m <p,
inclofing a dry filk thread. This ftalk is grafped by a
clamp of cleft deal, or any fimilar contrivance, which
is made to lie firm on the glafs cover. When this ball
is let down through the hole w, it Hands fo as to touch
the ball a on the arm, when that ball is oppofite to o
on the graduated circle.
In order to eleCtrify the ball /, we are to employ
the infulating handle, fig. 14. which is a {lender itick
of fealing-wax or lac, holding a metal wire that carries
a fmall polifhed metallic ball. This is to be touched
with fome eleCfrified body, fuch as the prime conductor
of a machine, the knob of a jar, &c. This eleCtrified
ball is to be introduced cautioully into the hole m, and
the ball t is to be touched with it. The ball a is im¬
mediately repelled to a diftance, twilling the fufpenfion
wire, till the force of twill exerted by the wire ba¬
lances the mutual repulfion of the balls t and a.
This is the procefs for examining the law of eleClric
adion. When it is defired to examine the aCtion of
different bodies in different Hates, another apparatus is
wanted. This is reprefented by the piece c Ad (fig.
15.) confifting of a plug of fealing-wax A, fitting
tightly into the hole m, and pierced by the wire c d,
hooked at c, to receive a wire to conneCt it occafional-
ly with an eleCtrified body, and having below a poiifti-
ed metal ball d.
The inftrument is fitted for obfervation in the fol¬
lowing manner : The milled button b is turned at top,
till the twift index i 0 is at the mark o of the twill circle.
Then the whole is turned in the collar H, till the ball
a Hand oppofite to the mark o of the paper circle 2 0 Q,
and at the fame time the ball t or d is touched. The
obfervation is thus made. The ball t is firft eleCtrified,
as juft defcribed, and thus a is repelled, and retiring
twills the wire, fettling, after a few ofcillations, at fuch a
diftance as is proportional to the repulfion. The twill-
index is now turned fo as to force a nearer to t. The
repulfion thus produced is eftimated by adding the mo¬
tion of the index to the angle at which the ball firft;
Hopped. Giving the index another, we have another
repulfion, which is eftimated in a fimilar way, and thus
we obtain as many meafures as required.
It is not neceffary to make this inftrument of very
large dimenfions; one 14 inches high, and five in dia¬
meter, of which the arm a g ftiould occupy two inches
and an half, will be fufticiently large for molt purpofes.
The diameter of the glafs cylinder muft always be
double the length of the arm a g, that the pofition of
this may not be difturbed by the aCtion of the glafs.
Dr Robifon confidered this eleClrometer as one of
the
[ 7 1
E L E [
'Eleftrome- tlie moft valuable inftrmnents that have been made, as
, ter' it is not only extremely delicate, but gives abfolute
meafures with the greateft accuracy. For all purpofes
in which only repuhions were to be meafured, he pre¬
ferred it to his own inftrument defcribed in Electricity,
N° 206.
He, however fuggefted feveral improvements in it,
which are deferving of attention.
The bottom Ihould be furnilhed with a round hole,
admitting the lower end of the cylinder C c belonging
to the lower pincer (when the wire is {trained at both
ends) to hang freely, by which means much tedious of-
cillation will be prevented. It is much more conveni¬
ent to have the fufpenlion wire {trained at both ends j
and it ihould extend as far below the arm as above it,
and the lower extremity Ihould be grafped by a pincer
that turns by a milled head in a hole at the end of a
{lender fpring. The inftrument may then be fpeedily
adjufted by placing the twift index at o, and gently
turning the lower button till the ball a point exactly at
o on the paper circle.
I he inftrument will be greatly improved, if, in place
■of the apparatus with the ball /, we fubftitute the piece
reprefented at fig. 1 j. making fome little changes in its
conftruftion. Thus, inftead of the wire c d, is ufed
the fmalleft glafs tube that will admit of being varniftied
on the infide, which is done by drawing through it a
filk thread dipped in varnilh, made of lac.
I he outfide of the tube muft alfo be varniflied, and
a brafs ball d fixed at its lower end, and a {lender wire,
furmounted by a ball, is to be inferted into the tube,
fo as to touch the ball below. The pofition of the ball
d will not be liable to alteration, when the hole m is
once flopped with the plug. In making delicate ex-
>periments, the upper ball c, muft be touched with the
charger, reprefented at fig. 14. by which means the ball
d is electrified. Then drawing out C by means of the
Forceps, the ball d is left completely infulated. In ex¬
amining the eleftricity of the atmofphere, to which
purpofe this inftrument is well adapted, the wire muft
be allowed to remain in the tube.
It was by means of this incomparable inftrument,
that M. Coulomb made the valuable experiments, to
which -we alluded in the article Electricity, when
-treating of the law of aCtion of the eleCtric fluid. By
means of this eleCtrometer, he alfo made his experi¬
ments on the diflipation of eleftricity into the air, and
along imperfect conductors. He afcertained the lawr of
diflipation into the air from bodies in contaCt, and the
relation -which this bore to the original repulfion, by
firft obferving the gradual approach of the ball a to¬
wards /, in proportion as the eleCtricity diffipated from
both, and then flackening the twift index till the ball a
refumed its original fituation.
The following was the general refult of Mr Cou¬
lomb’s experiments.
That the momentary diflipation of moderate degrees
of eleCiricity is proportional to the degree of eleClricity
at the moment. He found that the diflipation is not
fenfibly affeCted by the ftate of the barometer or ther¬
mometer ; nor is there any fenfible difference of bodies
•of different fizes or different fubftances, or even differ¬
ent figures, provided that the eleCiricity is very wreak.
)But he found that the diflipatiou was greatly affeCted
8 ] E L E
by the different ftates of humidity of the air. In the EleClrome-
fcale of Sauffure’s hygrometer, the relation to the quan- , tel~r
tity of water which a cubic foot of air is capable of
holding in folution is diftinCtly marked 3 the relation
of this folution to the diflipation of eleCiricity in Cou¬
lomb’s experiments may hence be feen in the following
table, the firft column of which marks the degrees of
Sauffure’s hygrometer, the fecond how many grains of
water are diffolved in a cubic foot of air at each degree,
and the third column {hews the correfponding diflipation
per minute.
69
75
80
87
6,197
7*295
8,045
9,221
T*
Hence it follows, that the diflipation is very nearly
in the triplicate ration of the moifture of the air. Thus
if we make
4 6,180
make
6,l80
9,240
m will be20:2,764. If wre
m will be = 2,76 j and if we
m will be ~ 3,61 3 or at a me-
make^76).8o
dium m will be = 3,40.
The immediate objeCt, that M. Coulomb had in view
in his experiments, was to afcertain the diminution of
repulfion. He found that this, in a given ftate of the
air, was a certain proportion of the whole repulfion
taken at the moment of diminution, which is double
the proportion of the denfity of the fluid 3 for the re-
pulfions by which we judge of the diflipation are reci¬
procal, being exerted by every particle of fluid in the
ball t of the eleClrometer, on every particle of fluid in
the ball a. 'The diminution of repulfion is therefore
proportional to the denfity of the eleCtric fluid in each
ball 3 and, as during the whole diflipation, the denfities
continue to have their original proportion, and as the
diminution of repulfion is direCtly proportional to the
diminution of the produCts of the denfities, it is con-
fequently direCtly proportional to the fquare of
either. If we put d for the denfity, the mutual
repulfion will be reprefented by </*, and its momen¬
tary diminution by the fluxion of d*, or 2 dd =z 2 dxd.
But 2dxd : d1 — 2d : d. The diminution of repul¬
fion obferved by experiment will be to the whole re¬
pulfion, in double the proportion that the diminution of
denfity, or the diflipation of fluid wall have to the
whole quantity of fluid at the moment of obfervation.
Let us, for inftance, fuppofe the obferved diminution of
repulfion to be 3 we may conclude, that the quanti¬
ty of fluid loft by diffipation is -g1^. M. Coulomb did
not examine the proportion of the diflipations from bo¬
dies of various fizes. But we know, that if two fpheres
communicate by a very long canal, their fuperficial
denfities, and the tendencies of fluid to efcape from
them, are inverfely as the diameters of the fpheres.
Now, in a body that has twice the diameter of another
body, the furface of the former is quadruple of that of
the latter 3 and though the tendency of fluid to efcape
from the former is only the half of its tendency to ef¬
cape from the latter, yet the greater furface of the
former may fo far make up for its fmaller denfity, that
the
E L E [ 9 ] E L E
s-the dilTipation of fluid from a large fphere may in fa£t
be greater than that from a fmall one in the fame given
time.
We have remarked above, that thefe experiment?
were made in a particular ftate of the air j and the law
of diflipation afcertained by them is of courfe adapted
only to that given ftate. In a different ftate of the air,
even if this fhould be impregnated with the fame pro¬
portion of moifture, the law of diflxpation may be dif¬
ferent. The inference which M. Coulomb expefted to
draw from his experiments was, that the ratio of difli-
pation would prove to be lefs than the cube of the
quantity of water held in folution, except when that
quantity of water was what the air was capable of
holding in folution at the given temperature.
This is agreeable to observation j for we know that
air which is confidered as dry, that is, when it is not
nearly faturated with moifture, is the moft favourable to
eledtrical phenomena.
Such is the general refult of Coulomb’s experiments
on the diflipation of eledlricity into the air.
The method in which M. Coulomb examined the
diflipation along imperfedl conductors, by means of this
inftrument, was, by completely infulating the ball t,
and then, after obferving the lot’s fuftained by a body in
contadt with it from the air, Aiding a metallic rod
down the infulating {talk, till the diflipation began to
exceed what took place only by the air.
From his experiments refpeCting the diflipation along
imperfect conductors, he found that this took place in a
different manner from that in which eleCtricity efcaped
by communication with the contiguous air. The elec¬
tricity feems to be diffufed chiefly along the furface of
the infulator, and appears principally to be produced
by the moifture that is more or lefs attached to it. M.
Coulomb illuftrates this in the following manner.
Water is found to adhere to the furface of all bodies,
from which it is prevented by adheflon from efcaping
when the bodies are eleCtrified, and is thus rendered
capable of receiving a greater degree of eleClric power.
Let us fuppofe that the particles of moifture are difpofed
uniformly over the furface, with intervals between them j
the eleftricity that is communicated to one particle,
muft acquire a certain degree of denfity, before it can
fly from this particle to the next, acrofs the intervening
infulating fpace. When an imperfeCt conductor of this
kind is eleCtrified at one extremity, the communicated
eleCtricity, in paffing to the other extremity, muft be
weakened every ftep in pafling from particle to particle.
Suppofe we have three adjacent particles, which we
may call £, and c; we infer from N° 374 of the ar¬
ticle Electricity, that the motion of b is fenlibly effect¬
ed, only by the difference of a and c; and therefore
the paffage of eleCtric fluid from b to c, requires that
this difference be fuperior, or at leaft equal to the force
neceffary for clearing this coercive interval. Let a par¬
ticle pafs over. The denfity of fluid of the particle b is
diminifhed, while the denfity of the particle on the
other fide of a remains as before. Therefore fome
fluid will pafs from a to b, and from the particle pre¬
ceding a to a; and fo on, till wre come to the eleftri-
fied end of this infulator. It is plain, from this con-
fxderation, that we muft at laft arrive at a particle be¬
yond c} where the whole repulfion of the preceding
Vol. VIII. Part I.
particle is juft lufficient to clear the coercive interval, electronic-
Some fluid will come over j and the repulfion of this, ter' ,
aCting now in the oppofite direction, wall prevent any
fluid from coming to fupply its place in the particle
which it has juft quitted; the transferrence of fluid will
therefore ftop here, and beyond this point the inhala¬
tion will be complete. Hence wre perceive that there
is a mathematical relation between the infulating power,
and the length of the canal; and this may be afcertain¬
ed by the theory which we adopted in the article E-
LECTRiciTY. We {hall here give an inftance of this
inveftigation; and, for the fake of fimplicity, we fhall
take a very probable cafe, viz. where the infulating
interval, or, as we may more properly call it, the
coercive interval, is equal in every part of the canal.
Let R reprefent the coercive powTer of the infulator,
or the degree of force required to clear the coercive
interval between two particles. Suppofe a ball C, fig.
16. fufpended by a filken thread AB •, and let us de¬
note the quantity of redundant fluid in the ball by C,
and let the denfities at the different points of the_canal be
denoted by AD, P/f, &c. ordinates to fome curve D ^ B,
cutting the axis in B, the point wThere the thread AB
begins to infulate completely. Let Py> be an element
of the axis; draw the ordinate />f, a tangent to the
curve d/T, the normal d E, and draw f e perpendicu¬
lar to P d. Suppofe ACrrr, AP~y, and P d~y.
Then we {hall have P p—X, and d e — —y. It was
{hewn in N° 374. of the article Electricity, that the
yy_
x »
only fenfible adlion of the fluid on a particle at P is —
when the action of the redundant fluid in the globe on
the particle at P, having the denfity y, is denoted by
Therefore — is —R, the coercive power of
V dy^d e
(r-J-A?)*'
the thread, which is fuppofed to be conftant,
is therefore equal to fome conftant line R. But P/>
(or yV) : d e — P : PE. The fubnormal PE, is
therefore a conftant line. But as this is the property
of a parabola, the curve of denfity D B muft be a
parabola, of wrhich 2 PE — 2 R, is the parameter.
Cor. 1.—The denfities at different points of an im-
perfeft infulator are in the fubduplicate ratio of their
diftances from the point of complete infulation : for
Vdx : AD* — BP : BA.
Cor. 2.—The lengths of canal requifite for infulating
different denfities of the eledtric fluid are in the dupli-
p D1
cate ratio of their denfities : for AB =r , and PE
? 2PE
is a conftant quantity.
Cor. 3.—The length of canal requifite for infulation
is inverfely as its coercive power, and may be repre-
r u u t- * -p, DA* D*
by —. For AB = _pE=
If we refledf on this theory, we (hall perceive, that
our formulae determine the diftribution of fluid along
the furface of an imperfeft condudlor, only in a cer¬
tain manner, fuppofing that the ball C has received a
certain determinate portion of fluid, for this portion dif-
fufing itfelf, particle by particle, through the conduc¬
ting matter, will extend to b in fuch a manner, as that
B the
E L £ , [ i
Eltftromc-the repulflon {hall be everywhere in equilibrio with the
i ter- coercive power of the infulating interval, taken at a
v maximum. We rauft here remark that this refiftance is
not aElive, but only coercive, and may be compared to
the refiftance afforded by vifcidity or fridlion. Any
repulfion of eledlric fluid, which falls ftiort of this,
will not difturb the {lability of the fluid that is fpread
along the canal, according to any law whatever. So
that if AD reprefent the eledlric denfity of the globe,
and remain conftant, any curve of denfity will anfwer,
provided that — be everywhere lefs than R. It is there-
x
fore an indeterminate problem, to affign in general the
difpofition of fluid in the canal. The denfity is as the
ordinates of a parabola on this fuppofition only that the
maximum of R is everywhere the fame. And, in this
cafe, the diftance AB is d minimum : for, in other
cafes of denfity we muft have ^ lefs than R. If, there-
x
fore, we vary a Angle element of the curve Dr/ B, in or¬
der that the {lability of the fluid may not be dilturbed,
having d conftant, we mult neceffarily have x larger,
.that — may ftill be lefs than R; that is, we muft
x
lengthen the axis.
The reafonings which have thus been deduced from
theory, were confirmed by M. Coulomb in a numerous
fet of experiments. Thefe are chiefly valuable for ha¬
ving ftated the relation that fubfifts between the elccfric
denfity, and the length of fupport neceffary for com¬
plete inhalation. But as M. Coulomb has not given
us the fcale of his electrometer, according to which
the abfolute meafures of the denfities were determined,
the experiments can be of but little ufe till this be
known.
We hinted, at the end of the theoretical part of
Electricity, that the theory of Volta’s condevfer
might be more fatisfadlorily explained after we had
confidered the above experiments of Coulomb. The
account which we gave of the condenfer in Chap. xiii.
of that article, (chiefly from Cavallo), was the only
one we could properly give in that early part of our
view of the fcience. We are nowr prepared for a more
fcientific account of the effedfs of that inftrument. The
following is nearly the manner in which Dr Robifon
confidered the fubjedf.
Let the cover of an cledtrophorus be fumifhed with
a graduated eledfrometer, fuch as may indicate the pro¬
portional degrees of electricity ; eledfrify it pofitively to
any degree, we fhall fuppofe fix, while it is held in the
hand, at a little diftance, diredfly over a metallic plate
lying on a wane glafs, or , fuch like infulating ftand,
but made to commomicate w'ith the ground by a wire.
Now bring St gradually down towards the plate. The-
ory teaches, and we fee it confirmed by experiment,
that the eledfrometer will gradually fubfide, and wall
perhaps fall to 2*, before the eledlricity is communicated
in a fpark r but let us flop it before this happens; the
attradfion of the lying plate produces a compenfation of
four degrees of the mutual repulfion of the parts of the
cover, bycondenfing the fluid on its inferior furface, and
forming a deficient ftratum above. This needs no farther
explanation, after what we faid under Electricity, on
o ] E L E
the charging of coated glafs plates. Notv we may fuppofe Eledrome-
that the efcape of the fluid from this body into the air, i ^
begins as foon as it is eledfrified to 6°, and that it will v *
fly to tire infulated plate with the degree 2, if it be
brought nearer. But if we can prevent this commu¬
nication to the infulated plate, by interpofing an elec¬
tive, wTe may eledtrify the cover again, while fo near
the metallic plate, to 6°, before it will pafs off into
the air. If now it be removed from the lying plate,
the fluid would caufe the eledfrometer to rife to io°, if
it did not immediately pafs off; and an eledfric excite¬
ment of any kind which could raife this body only to
6® by its intenfity, will, by means of this apparatus,
raife it to the degree io, if it be fufftciently copious in
extent. If we do the fame thing when the wire which
connedts the lying plate wfith the ground is taken awTay,
wre know that the fame diminution of the eledfricity of
the other plate cannot be produced by bringing it down
near the lying infulated plate.
The theory of Volta’s condenfer now becomes very
Ample. M. Volta leems to have obfeured his con¬
ceptions of it, by being intent on the eledtrophorus
which he had lately invented, and wras thus led into
fruitlefs attempts to explain the advantages of the im-
perfedf condudfor above the perfedl infulator. But the
condenfing apparatus is wholly different from an elec-
trophorus , its operations are more analogous to thofe
of a coated plate not charged, and infulated only on
one fide ; and fuch a coated plate lying on a table will
be a complete condenfer, if the upper coating be of the
fame dimenfions as the plate of the condenfer. All
the diredfions given by M. Volta for preparing the
the imperfedt condudtors prove, that the effedf pro¬
duced is to make them as perfedl condudfors as poflible
for any degree of eledlricity that exceeds a certain fmall
intenfity, but fuch as fhall not luffer this very weak e-
ledlricity to clear the firft ftep of the condudling fpace.
The marble muft be thoroughly dried, and even heat¬
ed in an oven, and either ufed in this warm ftate, or
muft be varniftied, fo as to prevent the reabforption of
moifture. We know that marble of {lender dimenfions,
fo as to be completely dried throughout, will not con-
dudt eledlricity till it has again become moift. A thick
piece of marble is rendered dry only fuperficially, and
ftill condudls internally. It is then in the beft pcflible
ftate for a condenfer. The fame is the cafe with dry
unbaked wood. Varniftung the upper furface of a
piece of marble or wrood is equivalent to covering it
with a thin glafs plate. Now by this method of cover¬
ing the top of the marble, a book, or even the table,
wfith a piece of clean dry filk, they all become moft
perfedl condenfators. This view of the matter has
great advantages. We learn from it how to form a
condenfing apparatus much more Ample and at the
fame time much more efficacious. We require only
the Ample moveable plate, which muft be covered on
the under fide with a very thin coating of the fineft coach-
painters vamiftn By connedling this, by a wire, with
the fubftance whofe w^eak eledlricity is to be examined,
this eledlricity will be raifed in the proportion of the
thicknefs of the varnifti to the fourth of the plate’s dia¬
meter. This condenfation will be produced by detach¬
ing the wire from the infulating handle of the condenfing
plate, and then lifting this from the table on which it wras
lying. It will then afford fparks, though the original
eledlricitv
ZEILIE c T 11 0^1 K TE n .
Plat e C C .
//rr/.\ /Zc&r.
*
/
.
>•
»>
l
'
4
E L E [
£’<;&ropho- eleclricity was not ftrong enough to affe£l: the moft de-
J’J!S licate electrometer.
Elements. ELECTROPHORUS. See Electricity Index.
*   > ELEC I RU VT, in Natural Hijlory. See Amber.
ELECTUARY, in Pharmacy, a form of medicine
compofed of powders and other ingredients, incorpo¬
rated with fotne conferve, honey, or fyrup ; to be di¬
vided into dofes, like bolufes, tvhen taken.
Voffius obferves, that all the remedies prefcribed for
the flck, as well as the confections taken by way of
regale, were called by the Greeks iuXuyy.etrx, and
iKteiKTit, of the verb “ I like j” whence, fays he,
was formed the Latin eletlarium, and afterwards elcc-
tuarium. This conjeCture he fupports from the laws of
Sicily, where it is ordained, that eleBuaries, fyrups,
and other remedies, be prepared after the legal manner.
The Bollandilts, who relate this etymology, feem to
confirm it. For the compofition and different forts of
electuaries. See Pharmacy.
ELEEMOSYNA Carucarum, or pro Aratris, or
Aratn, in our ancient cuftoms, a penny which King E-
thelred ordered to be paid for every plough in Eng¬
land towards the fupport of the poor. Sometimes it
is alfo called eleemofyna regis, becaufe firft appointed by
the king.
ELEEMOSYNARIES, in our old writers, is
ufed for the almoner or peculiar officer who received
the eleemofynary rents and gifts, and diftributed them
to pious and charitable ufes. There was fuch an offi¬
cer in all religious houfes. The biffiops alfo ufed to
have their almoners, as now the king has.
ELEGANCE, (from ehgo “ I choofe,”) denotes a
manner of doing or faying things politely, agreeably,
and with choice. With choice, fo as to rife above the
common manners; politely, fo as to flrike people of de¬
licate tafte; and agreeably, fo as to diffufe a relifh
which gratifies every body.
Elegance, in oratory and compofition, an ornament
of politenefs and agreeablenefs fhown in any difcourfe,
with fuch a choice of rich and happy expreffions, as to
rife politely above the common manners, fo as to ftrike
people of a delicate tafte.
It is obferved, that elegance, though irregular, is
preferable to regularity without elegance : that is, by
being fo fcrupulous of grammatical conftruftion, we
lofe certain licences wherein the elegance of language.
confifts.
ELEGIAC, in ancient poetry, any thing belong¬
ing to elegy. See Elegy.
E LEG IT, in Lazv, a writ of execution, which lies
for a perfon who has recovered debt or damages; or
upon a recognizance in any court, againft a defendant
that is not able to fatisfy the fame in his goods.
ELEGY, a mournful and plaintive kind of poem.
Bee the article Poetry.
ELEMENTS, in Pkyjtcs, the firft. principles of
which all bodies in the fyftem of nature are com¬
pofed.
Thefe are fuppofed to be few in number, unchange¬
able, and by their combinations to produce that ex-
tenfive variety of objefts to be met with in the works
of nature.
That there is in reality fome foundation for this doc¬
trine of elementary bodies is plain ; for there are fome
principles evidently exempted from every change or
ti ] E L E
decay, and which can be mixed or changed into different
forms of matter. A perfon who furveys the works of
nature in an inattentive manner, may perhaps form a
contrary opinion, when he confiders the numerous
tribes of foffils, plants, and animals, with the wonder¬
ful variety that appears among them in almoft every
inftance. He may from thence be induced to con-
dude, that nature employs a vaft variety of materials
in producing fuch prodigious diverfity. But let him
inquire into the origin of this apparent diverfity, and he
will find that thefe bodies which feem the moft* different
from each other are compofed nearly of the fame ele¬
ments. Thus the blood, chyle, milk, urine, &c. as well
as the various folid parts of animals, are all compofed of
one particular fubftance; grafs, for inftance, by the
affiftance of air and water, and even fometimes of very
infipid kinds of grafs. The fame fimplicity prefents
itfelf in the original compofition of the nouriffiment
of vegetables, notwithftanding the variety among them
with refpedl to hardnefs, foftnefs, elafticity, tarte,
odour, and medical qualities. They chiefly depend*
for thefe, upon water and the light of the fun ; and
the lame fimplicity mull take place in animals that
are fed on vegetables. The analyfis of animal fub-
ftances confirms this hypothefis; for they can all be re¬
duced into a few principles, which are the fame in all,
and only differ with regard to the proportions in wffiich
they are combined. With regard to animals, the cafe
appears to be the fame: and the more we are acquainted
with them, the more reafon wre have to believe that the
variety in their origin is very fmall.
Notwithftanding the infinite variety of natural pro¬
ductions, therefore, it appears, that the materials em¬
ployed in their formation are but few'; that thefe
are uniformly and certainly the fame, totally exempted
from any change or decay ; and that the conftant and
gradual change of one body into another is produced
by the various feparations and combinations of the
original and elementary parts, which is plain from the
regularity and uniformity of nature at all times. There
is a change of forms and combinations through wffiich
it paffes, and this has been the cafe from the earlieft
accounts of time ; the produ&ions of nature have al¬
ways been of the fame kind, and fucceeded one an¬
other in the fame order. If we examine an oak, for
inftance, we find it compofed of the fame matter with
that of any other that has exifted from the earliert ages.
This regularity and uniformity in the courfe of nature
ftiovvs that the elementary parts of bodies are perma¬
nent and unchangeable ; for if thefe elementary parti¬
cles which conftituted an oak fome thoufand years
ago, had been undergoing any gradual decay, the
oaks of the prefent times would have been found con-
fiderably different from thofe that exifted long ago ;
but as no difference has been obferved, it would feen*
that the ultimate elements of bodies have always con¬
tinued the fame.
Reflexions of this kind have fuggefted an idea of
feveral principal elements of which all other bodies
are compofed, which by their various combinations
furmflied alb the variety of natural bodies. Democri¬
tus, and other great philofophers of antiquity, fixed
the number to four, which have retained the name of
elements ever fince. Thefe are, fire, air, earth, and
water; each of which they imagined was naturally
B 2 difpofed
Elements*
i
E L E [ 12 ] E L E
Elements, ^ifpofed to liold its own place in the univerfe. Thus,
11 "v the earth, as heavieft, naturally tended towards the
centre, and occupied the lower parts j the water, as
approaching next to it in gravity, was fpread chiefly
on the outfide of the earth j the air, being more fubtile
and rare, occupied the middle place *, while the fire, be¬
ing ftill more fubtile and adtive, receded to the great-
eft diftance of all, and was fuppofed to compofe the
planets and ftars. This fyftem was extended to all the
produdtions of nature. Meteors were produced from
a combination of fire and air ; animals were confidered
as compofed of earth and water ; and thofe that were
warm had likewife a proportion of the element of fire.
Thus they went on, explaining fome of the moft ftrik-
ing qualities of the feveral produdfions of nature from
the different proportions of the four elements they con¬
tained.
But though this fyftem appears not at all deftitute of
beauty and propriety, and on this account has been
long received, we know from modern difeoveries that
thefe four fubftances are not really elementary bodies j
nor do they anfwer our purpofe in forming a fyftem, as
we know too little of the intimate ftrudlure and texture
of them to enable us to explain other bodies by them.
Any other attempts that have been made to aflign
the number of elementary bodies have been much lefs
fortunate. The older chemifts, with Paracelfus at their
head, pretend to fpeak of four elementary bodies, fait,
fulphur, earth, and mercury : but when we attempt to
form an idea of what they mean, we find it very per¬
plexed j and that the expreflions concerning them are
enveloped in fo much obfeurity, that they cannot be
Comprehended; and the theory is built entirely upon ex¬
periments made on metallic fubftances.
Attempts have been made by fome to Ihow that
the elements, whatever they are, muft necefl'arily be
invifible or imperceptible by any of our fenfes. An
inquiry into-their number or properties therefore muft
be attended with very little fuccefs j and all the know¬
ledge we can have upon the fubjedt muft be drawn from
a view of their combinations, and reafbning analogically
from the tranfmutations we obferve to take place in
nature. The modern difeoveries in aerology have ena¬
bled us to proceed farther in this way than what it was
poffible for the ancient philofophers to do. We now
find that all the different kinds of air are compofed of
that invifible and fubtile fluid named heat, united in a
certain way with fome other fubftance : by which union
the compound acquires the properties of gravitation,
expanfion, rarefaction, &c. for pure heat, unlefs when
united with fome terreftrial fubftance, neither gravi¬
tates nor expands. This is evident from the pheno¬
mena of the burning glafs, where the light concentrated
in the focus will neither heat the air nor water, unlefs
it meets with fomething with which it can form a per¬
manent union. Heat therefore is juftly to be confi¬
dered as one of the original elements j being always ca¬
pable of uniting with bodies, and of being extricated
from them unchanged } while the fame bodies are by
their union with it changed into various forms j wTater?
for inftance, into ice or vapour, both of which return in¬
to their original ftate by the abftradlion or addition of
heat in a certain degree. Hence it becomes almoft na¬
tural to conclude, that there are only two elements in
the univerfe ; and £his opiuionwe find adopted by fe¬
veral philofophers, particularly the count de Treffan in Elements.^'
his Effay on the Eledlric Fluid. According to this -v—
dodfrine, twro primitive material fubftances feem to exift
in nature ; one that inceffantly acts, and to which it
is effential to be in motion j the other abfolutely paf-
five, and whofe nature it is to be inert, and move en¬
tirely as diredted by the former. Should this dodtrine
be adopted, little difficulty would occur in determining
the active matter to be that univerfal fluid wftiich in its
various modifications of light, heat, and eledtricity^
has fuch a fhare in the operations of nature. But in
fixing on the paflive element we are greatly embar-
rafled 5 nor are the difeoveries in aerology or any other
fcience as yet able to remove the difficulty entirely.
According to the dodtrines which long prevailed among
chemical philofophers, there are three things that feem
to be unchangeable, viz. earth j phlogifton j and that
invifible, though terreftrial and gravitating principle,
called by .the antiphlogiftians the oxygenous or acidify¬
ing principle, and by the phlogiftians the bafis of de-
phiogifticated air. In our experiments, fay they*
on the firft, wre find that earth, though vitrified by
the moft intenfe fire, may be recovered in its proper
form : and fome very pure earths, particularly mag-
nefia alba, cannot be changed even in the focus of
the moft powerful mirror. In like manner wTe may
diflipate charcoal in vacuo by the folar rays, and
the compound is inflammable air : we may decompofe
this compound by a metallic calx, and we have our
charcoal again unchanged, for all metals contain char¬
coal in fubftance. Let us try to deftroy it by common
fire, and we have it then in the fixed air produced,
from wftiich it may be recovered unchanged by means
of the eleftric fpark. With the bafis of dephlogiftica-
ted air the cafe is ftill more difficult j for we cannot
by any means procure a fight of it by itfelf. We may
combine it wftth heat, and we have dephlogifticated air j
to the compound we may add charcoal, and we have
fixed air : by decompofing the former by burning iron
in it, we have the metal greatly increafed in weight by
fome unknown fubftance : and if w7e attempt to feparate
the latter, we have water, or fome kind of vapour which
ftill conceals it from our viewx
In fome experiments which were made by the in¬
genious Mr Watt, it was found that nitrous acid
might be phlogiiticated by the pureft earth or me¬
tallic calx j whence, according to this dodtrine, it
is not unreafonable to fuppofe that phlogifton may be
only a certain modification of earth, and not an element
diftindt from it: but wftth regard to the bafis of de¬
phlogifticated air, no experiment has ever fhown that
it can either be procured by itfelf, or changed into
any other fubftance j fo that it appears to have the na¬
ture of an element as much as light or heat. Though
we fhould therefore be inclined to divide the whole
matter of the univerfe into twTo claffes, the one adlive
and the other adted upon, we muft allow that the paf-
five matter even on this earth is not precifely of the
fame kind : much lefs are wye to extend our fpecula-
tions in this refpedl to the celeftial regions j for who
can determine whether the fubftance of the moon is
the fame wftth that of our earth, or that the elements
of Jupiter are the fame with thofe of Saturn ? There
is even a difficulty with regard to the divifion which
feems fo well eftablilhed? viz. of matter in general into
adtive
E L E
^Element active and paffive ; for no perfon can prove, that the
II matter which is aftive in one cafe may not be paflive
Elcphanta. jn anot-lier? ancl occafionally refume its aftivity. Some-
v '_ thing like this certainly happens in the cafe of the
eledtric fluid, which is modified into heat or light, ac¬
cording to different circumftances; and wTe cannot
know but it is the very fame fubftance that conftitutes
the molt folid bodies. This opinion at leaft did not
feem abfurd to Sir Ifaac Newton, who propofed it as
a query. Whether grofs bodies and light were not con¬
vertible into one another ? The end of our inquiries on
this fubjedl therefore muff be, That the univerfe may
be compofed of many elements, or of one element; and
of the nature of thefe elements, or of the Angle one,
wTe know nothing.
Element, in a figurative fenfe, is ufed for the prin¬
ciples and foundations of any art or fcience j as Euclid’s
Elements, &c.
Elements, in AJlronomy, are thofe principles de¬
duced from aftronomical obfervations and calculations,
and thofe fundamental numbers which are employed
in the conftruftion of tables of the planetary motions.
Thus, the elements of the theory of the fun, or ra¬
ther of the earth, are his mean motion and eccentri¬
city, and the motion of the aphelia. The elements
of the theory of the moon are its mean motion \ that
of its node and apogee, its eccentricity, the inclination
of its orbit to the plane of the ecliptic, &c.
ELEMI, or Elemy, in the Materia Medica. See
Amyris.
ELENCHUS, in antiquity, a kind of ear-rings fet
with large pearls.
Elenchus, in Logic, by the Latins called argumen-
tum and inquijitio, is a vicious or fallacious argument,
wffiich deceives under the appearance of a truth j the
fame with w'hat is otherwife called fophifm.
ELEPHANT. See Elephas, Mammalia Index.
American Elephant : An animal only known in a
foflil ftate, and that but partially, from the teeth, fome
of the jaw’-bones, the thigh-bones, and vertebrae, found
with many others five or fix feet beneath the furface on
the banks of the Ohio. But thefe bones differ in fe-
veral refpefts from thofe of the elephant; for which,
fee Fq/fi/ Bones. As yet the living animal has eva¬
ded our fearch. Mr Pennant thinks it “ more than
probable, that it ffill exifts in fome of thofe remote
parts of the vaft new continent unpenetrated yet by Eu¬
ropeans. Providence maintains and continues every
created fpecies ; and we have as much aflurance that no
race of animals will any more ceafe while the earth re¬
mains, than feed-time and harvef, cold aruj heat, fum-
mer and ’winter, day or nighty See Mammuth.
EiEPHANT-Beetle. See ScaraB/Eus.
Knights of the Elephant, an order of knighthood in
Denmark, conferred upon none but perfons of the firft
quality and merit. It is alfo called the order of St Mary.
Its inftitution is faid to have been owing to a gentle¬
man among the Danilh croifes having killed an ele¬
phant, in an expedition againft: the Saracens, in 1184;
in memory of which, King Canutus inrtituted this or¬
der, the badge of which is a towered elephant, with
an image of the holy virgin encircled with rays, and
hung on a watered Iky-coloured ribbon, like the George
in England.
ELEPHANT A, a fmall, but very remarkable
E L E
ifland, about five miles from the caftle of Bombay in Elephant^
the Eaft Indies. Of this we have the following de-
fcription in Mr Grofe’s Voyage to the Eaft Indies.
“ It can at moft be but about three miles in compafs,
and confifts of almoft all hill: at the foot of which, as
you land, you fee, juft above the fhore, on your right,
an elephant, coarfely cut out in ftone, of the natural
bignefs, and at fome little diftance not impoflible to be
taken for a real elephant, from the ftone being natu¬
rally of the colour of that beaft. It Hands on a plat¬
form of ftones of the fame colour. On the back of
this elephant wTas placed, Handing, another young one,
appearing to have been all of the fame ftone, but has
been long broken down. Of the meaning, or hiftory,
of this image, there is no tradition old enough to give
any account. Returning then to the foot of the hill,
you afcend an eafy flant, which about half way up the
hill brings you to the opening or portal of a large ca¬
vern hewn out of a folid rock into a magnificent
temple : for fuch furely it may be termed, confidering
the immenfe workmanlhip of fuch an excavation ; and
feems to me a far more bold attempt than that of the
pyramids of Egypt. There is a fair entrance into this
fubterraneous temple, which is an oblong fquare, in¬
length about 80 or 90 feet, by 40 broad. The roof
is nothing but the rock cut flat at top, and in which
I could not difcem any thing that did not fhow it to
be all of one piece. It is about 1 o feet high, and fup-
ported towards the middle, at equidiftance from the
fides and from one another, with twTo regular rows of
pillars of a Angular order. They are very maflive,
ftiort in proportion to their thicknefs, and their capi¬
tal bears fome refemblance to a round cuftiion preffed
by the fuperincumbent mountain, with which they are
alfo of one piece. At the further end of this temple
are three gigantic figures 5 the face of one of them is
at leaft five feet in length, and of a proportionable
breadth. But thefe reprefentations have no reference
or connexion either to any known hiftory or the
mythology of the Gentoos. They had continued in
a tolerable ftate of prefervation and wholenefs, confi¬
dering the remotenefs of their antiquity, until the ar¬
rival of the Portuguefe, who made themfelves mafters
of the place 5 and in the blind fury of their bigotry,
not fuffering any idols but their own, they muft have
even been at fome pains to maim and deface them, as
they now remain, confidering the hardnefs of the ftone.
It is faid they even brought field-pieces to the demoli¬
tion of images, which fo greatly deferved to be ipared
for the unequalled curiofity of them. Of this Queen
Catherine of Portugal was, it feems, fo fenfible, that
flie could not conceive that any traveller wrould return
from that fide of India without vifiting the wonders
of this cavern 5 of which too the fight appeared to me
to exceed all the defcriptions I had heard of them.
About twTo-thirds of the wray up this temple, on each
fide, and fronting each other, are two doors or out¬
lets into fmaller grots or excavations, and freely open
to the air. Near and about the door-way, on the
right hand, are feveral mutilated images, Angle and in
groups. In one of the laft, I remarked a kind of re¬
femblance to the ftory of Solomon dividing the child,
there Handing a figure with a drawm fword, holding in
one hand an infant with the head downwards, wrhich
it appears in a6t to cleave through the middle. The'
outlet
[ 13 1
E L E [
Elephant!- outlet of the other on the left hand is into an area of
about 20 feet in length and 12 in breadth ; at the up-
Eleive. Per enc^ which) as you ton to the right, prefents it-
i-/ fclf a colonnade covered at top, of 10 or 12 feet deep,
and in length anfwering to the breadth of the area;
this joins to an apartment of the moft regular architec¬
ture, an oblong fquare, with a door in perfect fymme-
try ; and the whole executed in quite a contrary tafte
and manner from any of the oldeft or belt Gentoo build¬
ings anywhere extant. I took particular notice of
fome paintings round the cornices, not for any thing
curious in the defign, but for the beauty and freflmefs
of the colouring, which muft have lafted fome thou-
fands of years, on fuppofmg it, as there is all reafon to
fuppofe it, cotemporary with the building itfelf. The
floor of the apartment is generally full of water, its
pavement or ground-work not permitting it to be
drarvn off or to be foaked up. For it is to be obfer-
ved, that even the cavern itfelf is not vilitable after the
rains until the ground of it has had time to dry into a
competent hardnefs.”
ELF-PHANFIASIS, called alfo the lepra of the
Arabians, in Medicine, a chronical difeafe, one of the
two fpecies of leprofy which affefls the whole body,
where even the bones as well as the Ikin are covered
with fpots and tumours, which being red at laft turn
black. See Medicine Index.
ELEPHANTINE, or Elephantis, in Ancient
Geography, an ifland in the Nile to the fouth of Syene;
with a cognominal town, where the navigation on the
Nile ends, becaufe juft below the lefs cataraft. And
here to the weft of the Nile itood the laft Roman gar-
rifon (Notitia Imperii).
Elephantine, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to the books wherein wTere regiftered the tranf-
acftions of the fenate and magiftrates of Rome, of the
emperors or generals of armies, and even of the provin¬
cial magiftrates ; the births and claffes of the people
and other things relating to the cenfus.
They are fuppofed to have been fo called, as being
made of leaves of ivory or elephants tulks.
ELEPHANTOMACHI. See Ethiopia.
ELEPHANTOPUS, a genus of plants belonging
to the fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Cotnpoftce. See Botany
Index.
ELEPHAS, the Elephant, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of bruta. See Mammalia
Index.
ELEVATION, the fame with Altitude or
height.
Elevation of the Hof, 'in the church of Rome, that
part of the mafs where the prieft raifes the hoft above
his head for the people to adore.
ELEVATOR, in Anatomy, the name of feveral
mufcles, fo called from their ferving to raife the parts of'
the body to which they belong.
ELEVATORY, in Surgery, an inftrument for rai¬
ling deprefled on fraftured parts of the Ikull, to be ap¬
plied after the integuments and periofteum are removed.
See Surgery.
ELEVE, a term purely French, though of late ufed
alfo in our language. Literally it lignifies a difciple or
fcholar bred up under any one, being formed from the
Italian allievo, an “ apprentice” or “ novice.”
3
[4 ] E L E
It was firft ufed by the French writers in fpeaking Eleventh,
of painters j fuch a painter was an eleve of Da Vinci, Eleufinia.
of Raphael, &c. From painting it came to be applied v " "
to fuch as ftudied or learned any other art under a ma¬
iler. In the Royal Academy of Sciences, there wrere
20 eleves : and in that of infcriptions, 10 eleves. The
eleves are to a£l in concert with the penfionaries. See
Academy.
I he denomination eleve, howrever, has been fince
fuppreffed, and that of adjoint fubftituted in its room ;
becaufe every body did not know the fenfe affixed to
it by the academy : and now the penftonary academifts
have not, as formerly, each of them an eleve j but the
eleves are become adjoints, or affociates of the acade¬
my.
ELEVENTH, or chord of the eleventh. See In¬
terval.
ELEUSINIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival kept
in honour of Ceres, every fourth year by fome ftates,
but by others every fifth. The Athenians celebrated it
at Eleufis, a town of Attica : wffience the name.
Ceres, fays an Athenian orator (Ifocrates), wran-
dering in quell of her daughter Proferpine, came into
Attica, wffiere fome good offices were done her, which
it is unlawfful for thofe wffio are not initiated to hear.
In return Ihe conferred tivo unparalleled benefits ; to
wit, the knowledge of agriculture, by which the hu¬
man race is raifed above the brute creation; and the
myfteries, from wffiich the partakers derive fweeter
hopes than other men enjoy, both as to the prefent life
and to eternity. It was the popular opinion, that
the Eleufinian goddeffes fuggefted prudent counfel to
their votaries, and influenced their condu£l; that
thefe were refpedled in the infernal regions, and had
precedence in the affemblies of the bleffed ; while the
unhallowed were in utter darknefs, wallowing in mire,
or labouring to fill a leaky veffel. The Athenians,
were felicitous to fecure thefe advantages to their
children, by having them initiated as foon as was al¬
lowed.
Ceres wras fuppofed to be particularly partial to Eleu¬
fis and its vicinity. There wrere the memorials of her
prefence and of her bounty j the well named Callicho-
rus, by which ffie had relied, in the reign of Erec-
theus ; the Hone on which ffie fat, named the forrow-
ful; the Rharian plain, where barley was firft fown;
and the threlhing-floor and altar of Triptolemus, a
herdfman whom Ihe inftrudled in the culture of that
grain, the ufe of which fucceeded to acorns. Her
myfteries continued to poffefs a pre-eminence in holi-
nefs, and to be accounted as much fuperior to all other
religious feftivals as the gods were to the heroes. Even
the garments worn at the folemnity were fuppofed to
partake of their efficacy, and to be endued with fignal
virtues. It was ufual to retain them until they wrere
perifhing 5 and then to dedicate them in the temple,
or to referve them for the purpofe of enwrapping new¬
born children.
The myftic temple, as it was called, provided by
Pericles for the folemnity, created fuch awe by its
fan&ity as could be equalled only by the effedl of its
beauty and magnitude, which excited aftonilhment in
every beholder. The profane or uninitiated were for¬
bidden to enter it on any pretence. Two young A-
camanians happened inadvertently to mix with the
crowd
E L E [ i
Eleufima. crowd at the feafon of the myfteries, and to go In ; but
' v ' the queftion fuggefted by their ignorance prefently be¬
trayed them, and their intrufion was puniibed with
death. The chief prieft, hierophant, or myftagogue,
vras taken from the Eumolpidae, a holy family flouriih-
ing at Athens, and defcended from Eumolpus, a Ihep-
herd and favourite of Ceres. He was enjoined celiba¬
cy, and wore a Hole or long garment, his hair, and a
wreath of myrtle. The grand requilite, in his cha-
rafter were ftrength and melody of voice, folemnity of
deportment, magnificence, and great decorum. Un¬
der him, befides many of inferior llation, was the
daduchus or torch-bearer, who had likewife his hair,
with a fillet 5 the prieft, who officiated at the altar ; and
the hiero-ceryx or facred herald ; all very important
perfonages. The latter was of a family which claim¬
ed the god Mercury and Aglauros the daughter of Ce-
crops for its anceftors.
The fecrecy in which the myfteries were enveloped,
ferved to enhance the idea of their confequence, and to
mcreafe the defire of participation. It was fo particu¬
lar, that no perfon was allowed even to name the hiero¬
phant by whom he had been initiated. Public abhor¬
rence and deteftation awaited the babbler, and the law
directed he ftiould die.
Che Athenians fuffered none to be initiated into
thefe myfteries but fuch as were members of their ci¬
ty. This regulation, which compelled Hercules, Caf-
tor, and Pollux, to become citizens of Athens, was
ftri£lly obferved in the firft ages of the inftitution, but
afterwards all perfons, barbarians excepted, were freely
initiated.
The feftivals were divided into great and lefs my¬
fteries. The lefs were inftituted from the following
circumftance. Hercules paffed near Eleufis while the
Athenians were celebrating the myfteries, and defired
to be initiated. As this could not be done, becaule he
was a ftranger, and as Eumolpus was unwilling to dif-
pleafe him on account of his great power, and the fer-
vices which he had done to "the Athenians, another
feftival was inftituted without violating the laws. It
was called ftix-z*, and Hercules was folemnly admitted
to the celebration and initiated. Thefe lefs myfteries
were obferved at Agrae near the Iliffus. The greater
were celebrated at Eleufis, from which place Ceres
has been called Eleujinia. In later times the fmaller
feftivals were preparatory to the greater, and no per¬
fon could be initiated at Eleufis without a previou? pu¬
rification at Agree. This purification they performed
by keeping themfelves pure, chafte, and unpolluted,
during nine days ; after which they came and offered
facrifices and prayers, wearing garlands of flowers, call¬
ed or and having under their feet A«>s
'Jupiter's Jhiny which was the {kin of a vi&im
offered to that god. The perfon who aflifted was call¬
ed vcigava; from waterr which was ufed at the pu-
rification, and they themfelves. were called the
initiated.
A year after the initiation at the lefs myfteries they
facrificed a fow to Ceres, and were admitted in the
greater, and the fecrets of the feftivals were folemnly
revealed to them, from which they were called
and «cr«TT#<, infpediators.
.This feftival was obferved in the month Boedro-
naion or September, and continued nine days from the.
:5 ] E L E
15th till the 23d. During that time it was unlawful Elcafirfis;
to arreft any man, or prefent any petition, on pain of *  
forfeiting a thoufand drachmas, or according to others
on pain of death. It was alfo unlawful for thofe jyho
were initiated to fit upon the cover of a well, to eat
beans, mullets, or weazels. If any woman rode to
Eleufis in a chariot, ihe wras obliged by an edidl of
Lycurgus to pay 6000 drachmas. The defign of this
law w'as to deftroy all diftindtion between the richer
and poorer fort of citizens. When the feafon ap¬
proached, the myftse or perfons wrho had been initiated
only in the leifer myfteries, repaired to Eleufis to be
inftrucled in the ceremonial. The fervice for the open¬
ing of the temple, with morning facrifice, wras per¬
formed. The ritual wras then produced from the fanc-
tuary. It was enveloped in fymbolical figures of ani¬
mals, which fuggefted wmrds compendioully, in letters
wfith ligatures, implicated, the tops huddled together,
or difpofed circularly like a wheel j the whole utterly
inexplicable to the profane. The cafe, w'hich was
called petrotna, confilted of two ftones exactly fitted..
The myfterious record wras replaced after the reading,
and clofed up until a future feftival. The principal
rite was nocfurnal, and confined to the temple and its-
environs. [The myftse waited without, with impati¬
ence and apprehenfion. Lamentations and ftrange
noifes were heard. It thundered. Flafties of light
and of fire rendered the deep fucceeding darknefs more
terrible. They wrere beaten, and perceived not the
hand. They beheld frightful apparitions, monfters,
and phantoms of a canine form. They were filled
wfith terror, became perplexed and unable to ftir.
The fcene then fuddenly changed to brilliant and
agreeable. The propylma or veftibules of the temple
were opened, the curtains withdrawn, the hidden
things difplayed. They were introduced by the hiero¬
phant and daduchus, and the former flrowed them the
myfteries. The fplendor of illumination, the glory
of the temple and of the images, the finging and dan¬
cing which accompanied the exhibition, all contributed
to foothe the mind after its late agitation, and to render
the wmndering devotee tranquil and felf-fatisfied. Af¬
ter this infpech’on, or, as it was called, the autopfia,
they retired, and others advanced. The fucceeding
days were employed in purification, in facrifice, in
pompous proceffions, and fpedtacles, at which they
affiiled, wearing myrtle crowns. The fecond day w^as
called ocAasih to the fea, you that are initiated; be-
caufe they were commanded to purify themfelves by
bathing in the fea. On the third day facrifices, and
chiefly a mullet, were offered ; as alfo barley from a
field of Eleufis. Thefe oblations were called and
held fo facred that the priefts themfelves were not, as in
other facrifices, permitted to partake of them. On the
fourth day they made a folemn proceflion, in which
the x.ctXoihtov, holy bajhet of Ceres, was carried about in a
confecrated cart, while on every fide the people fljcuted
Ajp^rgg, Hail, Ceres ! After thefe followed women,
called xtro<popoi, w ho carried bafketz, in which was fefa-
min, carded wool,,grains of fait, a ferpent, pomegra¬
nates, reeds, ivy boughs, certain cakes, &c. The fifth
was called H rm the torch day ; becaule
on the following night the people ran about with
torches in their hands. It was ulua! to dedicate
torches to Ceres, and contend which Ihould offer the
kiggeft,.
£ L E [
Eleufinia. biggeft, in commemoration of tbe travels of the god-
■»—y 1 defs, and of her lighting a torch in the flames of Mount
./Etna. The fixth day was called Ixk^o?, from lacchus,
the fon of Jupiter and Ceres, who accompanied his
mother in her fearch after Proferpine with a torch in
his hand. From that circumftance his ftatue had a
torch in his hand, and was carried in folemn proeeflion
from the Ceramicus to Eleufls. J. he llatue with
thofe that accompanied it, called laeK^ywy#*, was
crowned with myrtle. In the way nothing was heard
but fin gin g and the noife of brazen kettles as the vo¬
taries danced along. The way through which they
ifl'ued from the city was called 'h(>x the facred way,
the refling place ‘U^x pvkvi, from jig-tree which grew in
the neighbourhood. They alfo flopped on a bridge
over the Cephifus, where they derided thofe that paffed
by. After they had paffed this bridge, they entered
.Eleufis by a place called [tvo-vty the myjiical en¬
trance. On the feventh day wrere fports, in which the
vidlors were rewarded with a meafure of barley, as that
grain had been firft fown in Eleufis. The eighth day
was called ETri^xv^aiy iifct^x, becaufe once /Elculapius at
his return from Epidaurus to Athens was initiated by
the repetition of the lefs myfteries. It became cuftom-
ary therefore to celebrate them a fecond time upon
this, that fuch as had not hitherto been initiated might
be lawfully admitted. The ninth and laft day of the
feftival was called UXvi/xi^/oxi, earthen veffels, becaule it
was ufual to fill two fuch veffels with wine j one of
them being placed towards the eaft, and the other to¬
wards the wTeft } which, after the repetition of fome
myftical words, were both thrown down, and the wine
being fpilt on the ground, was offered as a libation.
The ftory of Ceres and Proferpine, the foundation of
the Eleufinian myrteries, was partly local. It was both
verbally delivered, and reprefented in allegorical ftiow.
Proferpine was gathering flowers when fhe wTas ffolen by
Pluto. Hence the proceffion of the holy bafket, which
was placed on a car dragged along by oxen, and follow¬
ed by a train of females, fome carrying the myftic chefts,
ftiouting, Hail, Ceres ! At night a proceflion was made
with lighted torches, to commemorate the goddefs
fearching for her daughter. A meafure of barley, the
grain which, it was believed, Ihe had given, was the re¬
ward of the victors in the gymnic exercifes •, and the
tranfadlictn at the temple had a reference to the le¬
gend. A knowledge of thefe things and places, from
which the profane were excluded, was the amount of
initiation j and the mode of it, which had been devifed
by craft, was Ikilfully adapted to the reigning fuper-
ftitions. The operation was forcible, and the effect
in proportion. The priefthood flourifhed as piety in-
creafed. The difpenfation was corrupt, but its ten¬
dency not malignant. It produced fanflity of man¬
ners and an attention to the focial duties ; defire to
be as diftinguiflied by what was deemed virtue as by
filence.
Some have fuppofed the principal rites at this fefti¬
val to have been obfcene and abominable, and that
from thence proceeded all the myfterious fecrecy. They
were carried from Eleufis to Rome in the reign of
Adrian, where they were obferved with the fame ce¬
remonies as before, though perhaps with more free¬
dom and licentioufnefs. They lafted about iBop
16 ] E L E
years, and were at laft aboliflied by Theodofius the i Eleufin:a^
Great.
ELEUSIS, in Ancient Geography, a town in Atti¬
ca, between Megara and the Piraeus, celebrated for the
feftivals of Ceres. See the preceding article.—Thofe
rites were finally extinguiflred in Greece upon the inva-
fion of Alaric the Goth. Eleufis, on the overthrow
of its goddefs and the ceffation of its gainful traffic,
probably became foon an obfcure place, without cha-
rafter or riches. For fome ages, however, it was not
entirely forfaken, as is evident from the vaft confump-
tion of the ancient materials, and from the prefent re¬
mains, of which the following account is given by Dr
Chandler*. “The port was fmall and of a circular * Travel?
form. The ftones of one pier are feen above water
and the correfponding fide may be traced. About half
a mile from the ftiore is a long hill, which divides the
plain. In the fide next the fea are traces of a theatre,
and on the top are cifterns cut in the rock. In the way
to it, fome maffes of wall and rubbiffi, partly ancient,
are Handing ; with ruined churches ; and beyond, a
long broken aqueduct croffes to the mountains. Ihe
Chriftian pirates had infefted the place fo much, that in
1676 it was abandoned. It is now a fmall village at
the eaftern extremity of the rocky brow, on which wTas
once a caftle j and is inhabited by a few Albanian fa¬
milies, employed in the culture of the plain, and fuper-
intended by a Turk, who refides in an old fquare tower.
The proprietor was Achmet Aga, the primate or prin¬
cipal perfon of Athens.
“ The myftic temple at Eleufis was planned by
Idlinus, the architect of the Parthenon. Pericles was
overfeer of the building. It was of the Doric order $
the cell fo large as to admit the company of a theatre.
The columns on the pavement within, and their capi¬
tals, were raifed by Coraebus. Mentagenes of Xypete
added the architraves and the pillars above them, which
fuftained the roof. Another completed the edifice.
This wras a temple in antis, or without exterior columns,
which would have occupied the room required for the
viftims. The afpeft w’as changed to Projhy/os under
Demetrius the Phalerean 5 Philo, a famous architeft,
eredling a portico, wffiich gave dignity to the fabric,
and rendered the entrance more commodious. The
fite was beneath the brow, at the eaft end, and encom-
paffed by the fortrefs. Some marbles, which are un¬
commonly maffive, and fome pieces of the columns,
remain on the fpot. The breadth of the cell is about
150 feet 5 the length, including the pronaos and por¬
tico, is 216 feet •, the diameter of the columns, which
are fluted, 6 inches from the bottom of the ffiafts, is 6
feet and more than 6 inches. The temple wras a de-
caftyle, or had 10 columns in the front, wffiich was to
the eaft. The peribolus or inclofure, which furround-
ed it on the north-eaft and on the fouth fide, meafures
387 feet in length from north to fouth, and 328 feet
in breadth from eaft to weft. On the wTeft fide it join¬
ed the angles of the weft end of the temple in a ftraight
line. Between the wreft wall of the inclofure and temple
and the wTall of the citadel w7as a paffage of 42 feet 6
inches wide, which led to the fummit of a high rock
at the north-weft angle of the inclofure, on which are
vilible the traces of a temple in antis, in length 74 feet
6 inches frpm north to fouth, and in breadth from the
E L E [ i? ] E L G
Eleutheria. eafl to the wall of the citadel, to which it joined on
the weft, 54 feet. It was perhaps that facred to Trip-
tolemus. This fpot commands a very extenftve view
of the plain and bay. About three-fourths of the cot¬
tages are within the precindts of the myftic temple,
and the fquare tower ftands on the ruined wrall of the
inclofure.
“ At a fmall diftance from the north fend of the in-
clofure is a heap of marble, confifting of fragments of
the Doric and Ionic orders; remains, it is likely, of
the temples of Diana Propylea and of Neptune, and
of the Propyleum or gateway. Wheler faw fome large
ftones carved with wheat-ears and bundles of poppy.
Near it is the buft of a coloffal ftatue of excellent
workmanftiip, maimed, and the face disfigured $ the
breadth at the fhoulders, as meafured by Pococke, five
feet and an half j and the balket on the head above two
feet deep. It probably reprefented Proferpine. In
the heap are two or three infcribed pedeftals $ and on
one are a couple of torches, crofted. We faW another
fixed in the fame ftairs, which lead up the fquare tower
on the outlide. It belonged to the ftatue of a lady,
who was hierophant or prieftefs of Proferpine, and had
covered the altar of the goddefs with filver. A well
in the village was perhaps that called Callichorus, where
the women of Eleufis were accuftomed to dance in ho*
nour of Ceres. A tradition prevails, that if the broken
ftatue be removed, the fertility of the land will ceafe.
Achmet Aga WTas fully poftefled with this fuperftition,
and declined permitting us to dig or meafure there,
until I had overcome his fcruples by a prefent of a
handfome fnuff box containing feveral zechins or pieces
of gold.”
ELEUTHERIA, a feftival celebrated at Plataea
in honour of Jupiter E/euthenus, or “ the aflertor of
liberty,” by delegates from almoft all the cities of
Greece. Its inftitution originated in this : After the
victory obtained by the Grecians under Paufanias over
Mardonius the Perfian general, in the country of Pla-
taea, an altar and ftatue were eredled to Jupiter Eleu-
therius, who had freed the Greeks from the tyranny
of the barbarians. It was further agreed upon in a
general aflembly, by the advice of Ariftides the Athe¬
nian, that deputies Ihould be fent every fifth year,
from the different cities of Greece, to celebrate Eleu¬
theria, feftivals of liberty. The Plataeans celebrated
alfo an anniverfary feftival in memory of thole who had
loft their lives in that famous battle. The celebration
was thus : At break of day a proceflion was made with
a trumpeter at the head, founding a fignal for battle.
After him followed chariots loaded with myrrh, gar¬
lands, and a black bull, and certain free young men,
as no figns of fervility were to appear during the fo-
lemnity, becaule they in whofe honour the feftival was
rnftjtuted had died in the defence of their country.
They carried libations of wine and milk in large-eared
veliels, with jars of oil, and precious ointments. Laft
of all appeared the chief magiftrate, who, though not
permitted at other times to touch iron, or wear gar¬
ments of any colour but white, yet appeared clad in
purple, and taking a wTater-pot out of the city-cham¬
ber, proceeded through the middle of the town, with
a fword in his hand, towards the lepulchres. There
he drew w-ater from a neighbouring fpring, and waftied
a/nd anointed the monuments, after which he facrificed
Vol. VIII. Part I.
a bull upon a pile of wood, invoking Jupiter and infer- Elf
nal Mercury, and inviting to the entertainment the H .
fouls of thofe happy heroes who had periftied in the E'1g|n‘hirir;
defence of their country. After this he filled a bowl
with wine, faying, I drink to thofe who loft their lives
in the defence of the liberties of Greece. There was
alfo a feftival of the fame name obferved by the Samians
in honour of the god of love. Slaves alfo, when they
obtained their liberty, kept a holiday, which they call¬
ed Eleutheria.
ELF, a term now almoft obfolete, formerly ufed to
denote a fairy or hobgoblin j an imaginary being,
the creature of ignorance, fuperftition, and craft. See
Fairy.
Eli-Arrows, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given to the
flints anciently faftiioned into arrow-heads, and ftill
found foflil in Scotland, America, and feveral other
parts of the world : they are believed by the vulgar to
be ftiot by fairies, and that cattle are fometrimes killed
by them.
ELGIN, the capital of the county of Moray in
Scotland, and formerly a bifliop’s fee, is fituated on
the river Loffie, about fix miles north from the Spey,
in W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 57. 40. Mr Pennant
fays, it is a good town, and has many of the houfes
built over piazzas 5 but, excepting its great cattle-
fairs, has little trade. It is principally remarkable
for its ecclefiaftical antiquities. The cathedral, now
in ruins, has been formerly a very magnificent pile.
The weft door is very elegant and richly ornamented.
The choir is very beautiful, and has a fine and light
gallery running round it; and at the eaft end are
two rows of narrow windows in an excellent Go¬
thic tafte. The chapter-houfe is an odtagon j the
roof fupported by a fine fingle column with neat car¬
vings of coats of arms round the capital. There is
ftill a great tower on each fide of this cathedral j but
that in the centre, with the fpire and wrhole roof, are
fallen in ; and form moil awful fragments, mixed
with the battered monuments of knights and prelates.
Boethius fays, that Duncan, who wras killed by Mac¬
beth at Invernefs, lies buried here. The place is alfo
crowded with a number of modern tomb-ftones.—
The cathedral was founded by Andrew de Moray, in
1224, on a piece of land granted by Alexander II. j
and his remains were depofited in the choir, under a
tomb of blue marble, in 1244. The great tower w^as
built principally by John Innes bifhop^ of this fee, as
appears by the infeription cut on one of the great pil¬
lars : “ Hie Jacet in Xto, pater et dominus, Dominus
Johannes de Innes, hujus ecclefiae Epifcopus;—qui hoc
notabile opus incepit et per feptennium aedificavit.”
Elgin is a royal borough ; and gives title of earl to the
family of Bruce.
ELGINSHIRE, is the middle diftriift: of the an¬
cient county of Moray. It is bounded on the north by
that branch of the German ocean called the Moray
Frith } on the eaftjand fouth-eaft by Banff-fhire j on
the fouth-weft, by Invernefs-ftiire ; and on the weft by
the counties of Invernefs and Nairn. It extends about
42 miles in length, and its average breadth is about 20.
The fouthern part is rocky and mountainous, called
the diftridl of Braemoray, which is occupied with ex-
tenfive forefts. The low^r*parts, towards the north,/
are rich and fertile $ but might eafily be rendered more
C jModuflive.
E L G
[
JEigfafhire, produ^Hve. The principal rivers are, the Find-
, *• home, and Foflie; all of which abound with ialmon.
-y contains two royal boroughs, viz. Elgin, the county
town, and Forres \ and feveral conliderable towns, as
Grantown, Gar mouth, LoJJiemouth, &c. The principal
feats are, Gordon-cajlle, the feat of the duke of Gordon}
Caflle Grant, the feat of Sir James Grant; Altijre, the
feat of Colonel Gumming, &c. Morayihire abounds
with many remains of antiquity ; the principal of which
are the magnificent cathedral of Elgin, the priory of
Plufcardine near the town of Elgin, the bifhop’s palace
at Spynie, the caftles of Lochindorb, Dunphai/, and the
dun of Relugas, in the qearidi of Edenkeillie. The
ancient Scotthh hiitorians, particularly Fordun and
Buchanan, give accounts of the Danes landing in
Moray, about 1008, when Malcolm II. marched agamfl
them, and was defeated near Forres : after this they
brought over their wives and children, and were in
poffeflion of the country for fome time 5 until they were
finally expelled by that monarch, after the vidlones
gained over them at Luncarty near Perth, at Barrie in
the county of Angus, and at Mortlach in the county
of Banff. There are many monuments of that nation j
the moft remarkable of which is Sweno's Jlone ox pillar,
on the road from Nairn and Forres, in the parilh of
Rafford. Except freeftone, limeftone, and marl, no
piineral fubflance of value has been difcovered.
Parijhes.
1 Alves
Birnie
Dallas
D rainy
5 Duffus
Duthil
Dyke and Moy
Edenkeillie
Elgin
to Forres
Kinlofs
Knockandow
Rafford
Rothes
15 St Andrews
Speymouth
Spynie
1-8 Urquhart
Decreafe,
Population
'n 17S5-
1691
525
700
IJ74
1679
*7 8-5
1826
1443
6306
*993
1191
1 267
13*3
194Q
1132
994
865
mo
28,934
26,080
2854
Population in
179c—1798.
IIII
40 2
888
1040
1800
1110
1529
1800
4534
2987
1031
1500
1072
1500
777
1347
602
1050
26,080
ELI, high prieft of the Ifraelites, and judge over
them for forty years, was defcended from Ithamar, a
junior branch of the houfe of Aaron, and feemstohave
blended the prieftly with the judicial character in the
year 1156 before the commencement of the Chriftian
sera. It appears that the Jews were in a Hate of fub-
jeftion or valfalage to the Philiflines during the greater
part of Eli’s adminiflration, and, what may at firll ap¬
pear lingular, he contributed to the degeneracy of his
countrymen, although his owrn piety and goodnefs were
8 3 ELI
unqueftionably great. He did not exert his magiflerlal
authority in the exemplary punilhment of vice, and
even permitted his own fons wuth impunity to perpe¬
trate the moft atrocious a61s of impiety and debauchery.
This w7ant of firmnefs, to give it no wTorfe a name, was
very reprehenlible in one who filled fuch an important
office, and peculiarly fo in a man who was himfelf a
faint.
The celebrated Samfon made his appearance during
the adminiftration of Eli, taking part in the manage¬
ment of public affairs for about twenty years, by whofe
aftonifhing deeds the independant fpirit of that people
was in fome meafure revived. The circumftances at¬
tending the death of Samfon, which prove 10 calami¬
tous to°the nobility of the Philiftines, might have in¬
duced the Jews to throw off the yoke j but they did
not poffefs a fufficient degree of virtue and public ipirit
for fuch an exertion. Eli at this period was very far
advanced in years, and, if poflible, Hill more negligent
in the difcharge of his duty as a chief magiftrate, al¬
lowing his two fons, Hophni and Phineas, to proceed
to the moft extravagant height of impiety and debauch¬
ery, whofe example had a. moft powerful influence on
the manners of the people. He was far from being un¬
acquainted wit a their condu<61, but he reproved them
with fuch gentlenefs as was highly reprehenfible, and
but ill calculated to produce any change on the beha-
vioar of his fons.
The deity vras fo juftly offended wuth this deportment
of Eli, that a facred leer was commiflionsd to upbraid
him for his ingratitude and want of refolution. Young
Samuel likewufe wTas favoured with a vifion of the ap¬
proaching ruin of Eli’s family, which he related to the
otherwife venerable old man, on being folemnly adr
jured not to conceal a Angle circumftance. When
Eli heard the declaration of the young prophet, being
fully convinced that his condu<6l had been highly re-
prehenfible, he exclaimed, “ It is the Lord •, let him
do what feemeth him good.” Soon after this the If¬
raelites fuftained a confiderable lofs in attempting to
procure their emancipation, carrying the ark of God
into their camp to animate the people, and intimidate
their enemies ; but the ark was captured by the Philif¬
tines, and Hophni and Phineas were flain. Phis in¬
telligence having been brought to Eli, he no fooner
heard that the ark of God w7as taken, than he fell back •
wrards from his feat, broke his neck, and died in the
98 th year of his age.
ELIAS, the prophet, memorable for having efcaped
the common cataftrophe of mankind j being taken up
alive into heaven, in a fiery chariot, about 895 B. C.
See the Bible,
ELIJAH, who is fometimes denominated Elias, was
one of the moft diftinguilhed of the Jewiflj prophets^
and furnamed the Tijhbite, probably from the diftridt
in which he was born. He began his prophetic office
about 920 years before Chrift, in the reign of wicked
Ahab, by whom the Sidonian idolatry was introduced
among the Ifraelxtes. The prophet was commiffioned
to appear before this impious prince, and threaten the
country with a long drought as a punithment for his
crimes. The indignation of Ahab was fo great againft
the prophet for this predidlion, that he refolved to
punifh him in a fignal manner j but Elijah withdrew7 to
E L 1 [
ijah. a fecrct place from his fury, at the divine command,
Y——' where he was fuftained in a miraculous manner. He
was afterwards ordered to go to Sarepta, in the terri¬
tory of Sidon, where a miraculous interpofition of hea¬
ven, in the houfe of an indigent widow, fuftained him
for fome time, whofe fon the prophet reftored to
life.
When the three years of famine, occafioned by the
drought, were expired, the prophet was ordered to ap¬
pear before the king, and exhort him to that genuine
repentance which an interpofttion of the deity fo very
rema-kable unqueftionably demanded. He had an in¬
terview with Obadiah, the governor of the king’s houfe,
who was a religious man, and had frequently fcreened
many from the vengeance of Jezebel the queen, at the
hazard of his own life. Fired with undaunted forti¬
tude, the prophet laid to Obadiah, “ Go, tell thy lord,
behold Elijah is here.” The good man’s regard for
the prophet was fo great, that he wTas afraid to deliver
this meffage, lince he knew that Ahab had ufed every
effort to difcover the prophet’s retreat. The king was
informed of his coming •, and the firft interview was dif-
tmguilhed by invedtives on the part of the intrepid pro¬
phet and the proud fovereign, the former giving a pro-
mife of rain on the following terms. The priefts of
the Sidonian gods, and an affembly of the people of If-
rael, were to meet on Mount Carmel, where the prophet
Elijah intended to give an inconteftable proof of the al¬
mighty power of the God of Ifrael, and the total in-
fignificance of the Sidonian divinities. For a detailed
account of this memorable experiment, we muft refer
our readers to the book of Kings, as an abridgement of
fuch a beautiful narration would do it manifeft injury.
It produced the fulleft convidlion in the minds of the
Ifraelites, that Jehovah alone was entitled to adoration;
and the priefts of Baal were inftantaneoully put to
death, as the moft abominable perverters of the divine
law.
This was followed W abundance of rain, in anfwer
to the devout prayers of the prophet; but his glorious
triumph over idolatry fo exafperated Jezebel, that Ihe
refolved to murder the prophet, to avoid whofe rage he
fiad into the wildernefs, till the deity again employed
him in the honourable, but often hazardous, duties of a
prophet. He afterwards foretold that Hazael Ihould
be king of Syria, Jehu king over Ifrael ; and he ap¬
pointed Elifha the fon of Shaphat to be his own fuccef-
Ibr. He denounced dreadful judgepients againft Ahab
and his wicked queen Jezebel; but thofe wFich refpecl-
ed the king were not executed during his life, on ac¬
count of the genuine repentance which he difcovered.
The fucceffor of Ahab having been confined to bed in
confequence of an accident, the god of Ekron was con-
fulted relative to his recovery, which induced the pro¬
phet to declare that he ftiould affuredly die. The king-
being informed that it wTas Elijah who dared to fend
fuch a meffage, he difpatched a captain and 50 men
to force him into the royal prefence ; but they were
deftroyed by fire from heaven, and a fecond company
fliared the fame fate. A third company confeffed the
vifible interference of heaven in the prophet’s behalf,
and the captain throwing himfelf on the mercy of Eli¬
jah, went with him to the king. In the royal prefence
he undauntedly repeated the fame denunciation againft
the idolatrous monarch, which was very foon accom-
9 ] ELI
plilhed ; and not long after this the holy prophet, at Efiqvtation
the divine command, divided afunder the waves of Jor- II,
dan, dropped his prophetic mantle to the aftoniihed. £'1S‘ .
Eliiha, took the flaming chariot commiflioned for hit y-"-1*
reception, and rode in majefty to heaven.
ELIQUATION, in ChemiJIry, an operation by
which a more fufible fubftance is feparated from one-
that is lefs fo, by means of a heat futficiently intenfe to
melt the former, but not the latter. Thus an alloy of
copper and lead may be feparated by a heat capable of
melting the latter, but not the former.
ELIS. See Elea.
_ Elis, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the dip
tri6I of that name in Peloponnefus, fituated on the Pe-
neus, which ran through it. It was the country of
Pluedo the philofopher, fcholar of Socrates, and friend
of Plato ; who infcribes with his name the dialogue on
the immortality of the fouL Pyrrho alfo was of this
city, at the head of the feci called after him Pyr-
rhonijis.
The city of Elis owed its origin to an union of fmall
towns after the Perfian war. It was not encompaffed
immediately with a wall; for it had the care of the
temple at Olympia, and its territory was folemnly con-
fecrated to Jupiter. To invade or not protedl it W’as
deemed impiety ; and armies, if marching through,
delivered up their weapons, which, on their quitting it,
were reftored. Amid warring ftates the city enjoyed
repofe, was reforted to by ftrangers, and flouriflied.
The region round about it was called cuA’ or hollow, from
the inequalities. The country was reckoned fertile,
and particularly fit for the raifing of flax. This, which
grew nowhere elfe in Greece, equalled the produce of
Judsa in finenefs, but wras not fo yellow. Elis was a
fchool, as it were, for Olympia, which was diftant ^7
miles. The athletic exerciles were performed there,
before the more folemn trial, in a gymnafium, by
which the Peneus ran. The hellanodics or prsefe&s of
the games paired the rival combatants by lot, in an a-
rea called Plethrium or The Acre. Within the wall grew
lofty plane-trees; and in the court, which was called
the Xyfius, were feparate courfes made for the foot¬
races. A fmaller court was called the Quadrangle. The
prsefeCts, when chofen, refided for ten months in a
building eresfted for their ufe, to be inftru&ed in the
duties of their office. They attended before funrife
to prefide at the races; and again at noon, the time
appointed for the pentathlum or five fports. The horfes
were trained in the agora or market-place, which was
calied the Hippodrome. In,the gymnafium were altars
and a cenotaph of Achilles. The women, befides other
rites, beat their bofoms in honour of this hero, on a
fixed day toward funfet. There alfo was the town-
hall, in which extemporary harangues were fpoken and
compofitions recited. It was hung round with buck¬
lers for ornaments. A way led from it to the baths
through the Street of Silence ; and another to the mar¬
ket-place, which was planned with ftreets between por¬
ticoes of the Doric order adorned with altars and imao-es.
Among the temples, one had a circular periftyle or^co-
lonnade; but the image bad been removed and the roof
v as fallen in the time of Paufamas. X he theatre was
ancient, as was alfo a temple of Bacchus, one of the
deities principally adored at Elis. Minerva had a temple
in the citadel, with an image of ivory and gold, made
C 2 (it
rSti’M
ELI [ 2«
(it was faid) by Phidias. At the gate leading to Olym¬
pia was the monument of a perfon, who was buried, as
an oracle had commanded, neither within nor without
the city. The ftruaures of Elis, Dr Chandler ob-
ferves, feem to have been raifed with materials hr lefs
elegant and durable than the produce of the Ionian and
Attic quarries. The ruins are of brick, and not con-
fiderable, conlifting of pieces of ordinary wall, and an
oftagon building with niches, which, it is fuppofed, was
the temple with a circular periftyle. Thefe Hand de¬
tached from each, other, ranging in a vale fouthward
from the wide bed of the river Peneus 5 wdiich, by the
margin, has feveral large ftones, perhaps relicks of the
gymnafium. The citadel was on a hill, which has on
the top fome remnants of a wTall.
ELISHA the prophet, famous for the miracles he
performed, died about 830 B. C. See t/ie Bib/e.
ELISION, in Grammar, the cutting^ off or fup-
preffmg a vowel at the end of a word, for the fake
of found or meafure, the next word beginning with a
vowel. .
Elifions are pretty frequently met with in Englilh
poetry, but more frequently in the Latin, French,
&c. They chiefly confift in fuppreflions of the a, c,
and /, though an elifion fuppreffes any of the other
vowels.
ELIXATION, in Pharmacy, the extracting the
virtues of ingredients by boiling or ftewing. .
ELIXIR, in Medicine, a compound timfture ex-
tracted from many efficacious ingredients. Hence the
difference between a tincture and an elixir feems to be
this, that a tinfture is drawn from one ingredient,
fometimes w7ith an addition of another to open it and
to difpofe it to yield to the menltruum j whereas an
elixir is a tlnfture extracted from feveral ingredients at
the fame time.
ELIZABETH, queen of England, daughter of
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was born at Green¬
wich, September 7. 1553. According to the humour
of the times, the was early inffrufted in the learned
languages, firft by Grindal, who died when ffie was
about 17* mid afterwards by the celebrated Rogei A.-
fcham. She acquired likewife confiderable knowledge of
the Italian, Spaniffi, and French languages. Dr Grin¬
dal was alfo her preceptor in divinity, which ftie is faid
to have ftudied wdth uncommon application and indu-
ftry. That Elizabeth became a Proteftant, and her
lifter Mary a Papift,' was the efteft of that caufe which
determines the religion of all mankind , namely, the
opinion of thofe by whom they were educated : and
this difference of opinion, in their tutors, is not at all
furpriling, when we recoiled, that their father Harry
was of both religions, or of neither.
But the ftudies of Elizabeth w7ere not confined
merely to languages and theology : ffie w7as alfo in-
ftruded in the political hiftory of the ancients ; and
was fo well Ikilled in mufic, as to ling and play “ art¬
fully and fweetly.”
After the ffiort reign of her brother Edward, our
heroine being then about 20 years of age, her/re-
brand After acceding to the crown, Elizabeth experien¬
ced a confiderable degree of perfecution, fo as to be
not a little apprehenfive of a violent death. She was
accufed of nobody knows what •, imprifoned •, and, we
are told, inhumanly treated. At laft, by the intercef-
5 ] ELI
fion of King Philip of Spain, flie wras fet at liberty ; Enzabftln
which flie continued to enjoy, till, on the death of her v
pious After, ffie, on the 17th of November 1558, af-
cended the throne of England. Her political hiftory ■
as a queen, is univerfally known and admired * : but*See(Hi-
her attention to the government of her kingdom did
not totally fufpend her purfuit of learning. Afcham, ^
in his Schoolmq/ier, tells us, that, about the year i
five years after her acceffion, ffie being then at Vv'ind-
for, befides her perfedl readinefs in Latin, Italian,
French, and Spaniffi, (lie read more Greek in one day
than fome prebendaries of that church did read Latin
in a whole week, (p. 21.)—She employed Sir John
Fortefcue to read to her Thucydides, Xenophon, Po¬
lybius, Euripides, /Efchines, and Sophocles. [Ballard,
p. 219.)—-That the Latin language was familiar to her,
is evident from her fpeech to the univerfity of Oxfora,
wffien ffie was near fixty j alfo from her fpirited anfwer
to the Polifti ambaffador in the year 1598. And that flie
wras alfo Ikilled in the art of poetry, appears not only
from the feveral fcraps wffiich have been preferved, but
likewife from the teftimony of a contemporary writer,
Puttenham, in his Art of Engl. Poetry (a very fcarce
book.) Thefe are his words :—“ But, laft in recital,
“ and firft in degree, is the queen, whole learned, de-
“ licate, noble mufe, eafily furmounteth all the reft,
“ for fenfe, fweetnefs, or fubtility, be it in ode, elegy,
“ epigram, or any other kind of poem,” &c. In this
author are to be found only a fpecimen of 16 verfes of
her Englifti poetry. “ But,” fays Mr Walpole, “ a
“ greater inftance of her genius, and that too in La-
‘ tin, was her extempore reply to an infolent prohibi-
‘ tion delivered to her from Philip II. by his ambaffa-
4 dor, in this tetraftic.
Te veto ne pergas bello defendere Belgas :
Quce Dracus eripuit, nunc reftituantur oportet :
Quas pater evertit, jubeo te condere cellas :
Religio papae fac reftituatur ad unguem.
“ She inftantly anfwered him, with as much fpirit
as ftie ufed to return his invafions ;
Ad Grcecas, bone rex, fient mandata kalendas.”
Being earneftly preffed by a Romiffi prieft, during
his perfecution, to declare her opinion concerning the
real prefence of Chrift’s body in the wafer, flie an¬
fwered,
Chrift was the word that fpake it;
He took the bread, and brake it :
And what that word did make it,
That I believe, and take it. Fuller's Holy State.
She gave the characters of four knights of Notting-
hamffiire in the following diftich :
Gervafe the gentle, Stanhope the ftout,
Markham the lion, and Sutton the lout. Walp. Cat.
Coming into a grammar-fchool, flie charaflerized
three claffic authors in his hexameter :
Perfius a crab-ftaff; bawdy Martial; Ovid a fine wag.
Full. Worth. ofWarw. 126.
Sir
ELL [21
Elizabeth. Sir Walter Raleigh having wrote on a window,
Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall j
She immediately wrote under it,
If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all.
Worth, of Devonjh. 261.
Doubtlefs, Hie was a woman of lingular capacity
and extraordiary acquirements : and, if we could for¬
get the ftory of the Scottilh Mary, and of her favour¬
ite Effex, together with the burning of a few Anabap-
tifts j in Ihort, could we forbear to contemplate her
charafter through the medium of religion and morali¬
ty, we might pronounce her the moft illultrious of il¬
lustrious women. See further the articles England,
Mary, and Scotland. She died in her palace at
Richmond, the 24th of March 1602, aged 70, having
reigned 44 years •, and was interred in the chapel of
Henry VII. in Weftminlter Abbey. Her fucceffor
James erected a magnificent monument to her memory.
—She wrote, 1. The Mirror, or Glafs of the Sinful
Soul. This was tranflated out of French verfe into
Englilh profe, when Ihe was eleven years old. It was
dedicated to Queen Catharine Parr. Probably it was
never printed j but the dedication and preface are pre-
ferved in the Si/lloge epiflolarum, in Hearne’s edition of
Livii Foro-JulienJis, p. 161. 2. Prayers and Medi¬
tations, &c. Dedicated to her father, dated at Hat¬
field, 1545. Manufcript, in the royal library. 3. A
Dialogue out of Xenophon, in Greek, between Hiero
a King, yet fome time a private perfon, and Simonides
a Poet, as touching the life of the Prince and Private
. Man. Firft printed, from a manufcript in her maje-
lly’s own hand-writing, in the Gentleman’s Magazine
for 1743. 4. Two Orations of Ifocrates, tranllated
into Latin. 5. Latin Oration at Cambridge. Prefer-
ved in the king’s library : alfo in Hollinlhed’s Chron.
p. 1206 •, and in Fuller’s Hift. of Cambr. p. 138.
6. Latin Oration at Oxford. See Wood’s Hill, and
Antiq. ofOxf. lib. i. p. 289. alfo in Dr Jebb’s Append,
to his Life of Mary Queen of Scots. 7. A comment
on Plato. 8. Boethius de confolatione philofophice, tranf¬
lated into Engliih anno 1593- 9* Sallujl de hello Ju~
gurthino, tranfiated into Englilh anno 1590. 10. A
play of Euripides, tranflated into Latin, (Cat. of Royal
Auth.). 11. A Prayer for the ufe of her fleet in the
great expedition in 1596. 12. Part of Horace’s Art
of Poetry, tranflated into Englifti anno 1598. 13. Plu¬
tarch de curiojitate, tranflated into Englifh. 14. Letters
on various occafions to different perfons: feveral Speeches
to her parliament j and a number of other pieces.
Elliot.
] ELL'
Elizabeth Petrowna, (daughter of Peter the ELzabetk
Great), the laft emprefs of Ruflia, diftinguilhed her-
felf by her fignal clemency. She made a vow, that no ^
perfon fhould be put to death in her reign, and flie
ftrictly obferved it. The example was followed, and
confirmed by law, under the auguft fovereign of Ruflia,
Catharine II. Elizabeth died in 1762, in the 21ft
year of her reign and 5 2d of her age.
ELK, in Zoloogy. See Cervus, Mammalia Index.
ELL, (ulna,) a meafure, which obtains, under dif¬
ferent denominations, in molt countries, whereby cloths,
fluffs, linens, filks, Sec. are ufually meafured) aniwer-
ing nearly to the yard of England, the canna of Italy,
the vara of Spain, the palm of Sicily, Sec.
Servius will have the ell to be the fpace contained
between the two hands when ftretched forth j but Sue¬
tonius makes it only the cubit.
The ells moft frequently ufed with us are the Englifli
and Flemifh ; the former containing three feet nine
inches, or one yard and a quarter j the latter only
27 inches, or three quarters of a yard 5 fo that the
ell Englifli is to the Flemifli ell as five to three. In
Scotland, the ell contains 37-1^- Englifti inches.
M. Ricard, in his Treatife of Commerce, reduces the
ells thus : 100 ells of Amfterdam are equal to 98^ of
Brabant, Antwerp, and Bruffels ; to 58^ of England
and France ; to 1 20 of Hamburgh, Francfort, Leipfic,
and Cologne j 125 of Breflaw 5 HO of Bergen and
Drontheim j and 117 of Stockholm.
ELLIOT, the Right Honourable George Anguf-
tus, Lord Heathfield, was the youngeft fon of the late
Sir Gilbert Elliot, Baronet, of Stobbs (a) in Roxburgh-
ftiire j and was born about the year 1718. He recei¬
ved the firft rudiments of his education under a private
tutor: and at an early time of life was fent to the
univerfity of Leyden, where he made confiderable pro-
grefs in claflical learning, and fpoke with fluency and
elegance the German and French languages. Being
defigned for a military life, he was fent from thence to
the celebrated Eco/e Royale du Genie Militaire, conduc¬
ted by the great Vauban, at La Fere in Picardy ; where
he laid the foundation of what he fo confpicuoufly ex¬
hibited at the defence of Gibraltar. He completed
his military courfe on the continent by a tour, for the
purpofe of feeing in practice what he had ftudied in
theory. Pruflia was the model for difcipline, and he
continued fome time as a volunteer in that fervice.
Mr Elliot returned in the 17th year of his age to
his native country, Scotland \ and was the fame year,
1:735, introduced by his father Sir Gilbert to Lieu¬
tenant-Colonel Peers of the 23d regiment of foot, then
lying at Edinburgh, as a youth anxious to bear arms
for
(a) The ancient and honourable family of Elliot of Stobbs, as well as the collateral branch of Elliot of Minto
in the fame county, and of Elliot of Port-Elliot in Cornwall, are originally from Normandy. Their an-
ceftor, Mr Aliott, came over with William the Conqueror, and held a diftinguilhed rank in his army. There
is a traditionary anecdote in the family relating to an honourable diftinftion in their coat, which, as it corre-
fponds with hiftcry, bears the probability of truth. When William fet foot on Englifti land, he flipped and
fell on the earth. He fprung up, and exclaimed that it was a happy omen—he had embraced the country of
which he was to become the lord. Upon this Aliott drew his fword, and fwore by the honour of a foldier,
that he would maintain, at the hazard of his blood, the right of his lord to the fovereignty of the earth which
he had embraced. On the event of the conqueft, King William added to the arms of Aliott, which was a baton
or, on a field azure, an arm and fword as a creft, with the motto, Per faxa, per ignes, for titer et refit.
E L L
t 22 I
E L L'
Elliot.
for Ms king and countiy. He was accordingly entered
as a volunteer in that regiment, where he continued for
a year or more. From the '23d regiment he went into
the engineer corps at Woolwich, and made great pro-
grefs in that iludy, until his uncle Colonel Elliot*
brought him in his adjutant of the fecond troop of
horfe grenadiers. With thefe troops he went upon
fervice to Germany, and was with them in a variety of
afiions. At the battle of Dettingen he was wounded.
In this regiment he bought the rank of captain and
major, and afterwards purchafed the lieutenant-colonel¬
cy from Colonel Brewerton, who fucceeded to his
uncle. On arriving at this rank, he refigned his com-
rnilTion as an engineer, wdiich he had enjoyed along
with his other rank, and in which fervice he had been
acbively employed very much to the advantage of his
country. He received the inliruclions of the famous
engineer Bellidor, and made himfelf completely mafter
ol the fcience of gunnery. Had he not fo dilintereft-
edly refigned his rank in the engineer department, he
would long before his death, by regular progreflion,
have been at the head of that corps. Soon after this
he was appointed aid-de camp to George II. and was
diftinguifhed for his military fldll and difcipline. In
the year 1759, he quitted the fecond troop of horfe
grenadier guards, being felecled to raife, form, and
clifclpline, the firft regiment of light horfe, called af¬
ter him EZ/iot's. As foon as they were raifed and
formed, he wras appointed to the command of the ca¬
valry in the expedition on the coaits of France, with
the rank of brigadier general. After this he paffed
into Germany, where he was employed on the ftaif,
and greatly diftinguifhed himfelf in a variety of move¬
ments ) where his regiment difplayed a ftrictrefs of dif¬
cipline, an activity and enterprife, which gained them
fignal honour : and indeed they have been the pattern
regiment, both in regard to difcipline and appointment,
to the many light dragoon troops that have been fince
raifed in our fervice. From Germany he wras recalled
for the purpofe of being employed as fecond in com¬
mand in the memorable expedition againft the Ha-
vannah 5 the circumftances of which conqueft are well
known.
On the peace, his gallant regiment was reviewed by
the king, when they prefented to his majefty the ftand-
ards which they had taken from the enemy. Gratified
with their fine difcipline and high charafter, the king
alked General Elliot wBat mark of his favour he could
beftow on his regiment equal to their merit ? He an-
fwered, that his regiment would be proud if his majefty
Mould think, that, by their fervices, they were entitled
to the diftindtion of Royals. It w as accordingly made
a royal regiment, with this flattering title, “ The 15th,
or King's Royal Regiment of Light Dragoons.” At
the fame time the king exprefied a defire to confer feme
honour on the general himfelf j but the latter declared,
that the honour and fatisfaftion of his majefty’-s ap¬
probation of his fervices wTas his belt reward.
During the peace he was not idle. His great ta¬
lents in the various branches of the military art gave
him ample employment. In the year 1775, he w’as
appointed to fucceed General A’Court as comman¬
der in chief of the forces in Ireland •, but did not con¬
tinue long in this ftation, not even long enough to un¬
pack all his trunks j for finding that interferences were
made by petty authority derogatory of his oww, he re¬
filled the pradlice with becoming fpirit j and not choof-
ing to difturb the government of the fifter kingdom
on a matter perfonal to himfelf, he folicited to be re¬
called. He accordingly was fo, and appointed to the
command of Gibraltar in a fortunate hour for the fafety
of that important fortrefs. The fyftem of his life, as
well as his education, peculiarly qualified him for this
trull. He w7as perhaps the molt abftemious man of the
age; neither indulging himfelf in animal food nor wine.
He never flept more than four hours at a time j fo that
he was up later and earlier than molt other men. He fo
inured himfelf to habits of hardinefs, that the things
which are difficult and painful to other men, wYere to
him his daily practice, and rendered pleafant by ufe.
It could not be eafy to llarve fuch a man into a lur-
render, nor poflible to furprife him. Tire example of
the commander in chief in a befleged garrifon had a
moll perfuafive efficacy in forming the manners of the
foldiery. Like him his brave followers came to regu¬
late their lives by the moll itrift rules of difcipline be¬
fore there arofe a neceffity for fo doing ; and fevere ex-
ercife, w ith ffiort diet, became habitual to them by their
own choice. The military fyftem of difcipline which
he introduced, and the preparations which he made for
his defence, wTere contrived with fo much judgment,
and executed with fo much addrefs, that he was able
with a handful of men to preferve his poll againft an
attack, the conitancy of wffiich, even without the vi¬
gour, had been fufficient to exhaull any common fet
of men. Collefled within himfelf, he in no inilance
deftroyed, by premature attacks, the labours which
would coll the enemy time, patience, and expence to
complete 5 he deliberately obferved their approaches,
and feized on the proper moment, with the keeneft
perfpedlion, in which to make his attack with fuc-
cefs. He never fpent his ammunition in ulelefs pa¬
rade or in unimportant attacks. He never relaxed
from his difcipline by the appearance of fecurity, nor
hazarded the lives of his garrifon by wild experiments.
By a cool and temperate demeanour, he maintained
his ftation lor three years of conftant inveftmenc, in
which all the powers of Spain were employed. All
the eyes of Europe were on this garrifon ; and is
conduct has juffly exalted him to the moil elevated rank
m the military annals of the day. On his return to
England, the gratitude of the Britiffi fenate wras as
forward as the public voice in giving him that diftin-
guiihed mark his merit deferved. Both houfes of par¬
liament voted an unanimous addrefs of thanks to the
general. The king conferred on him the honou of
Knight of the Bath, with a penfion during his own
and a fecond life of his own appointment ; and on
June 14. 1787, his majefty advanced him to the peer¬
age, by the title of Lord HeathfieZd, Baron Gibraltary
permitting him to take, in addition to his family arms,
the arms of the fortrefs he had fo bravely defended, to
perpetuate to futurity his noble conduft.
His lordftiip died on the 6th of July 1790, at his
chateau at Aix-la-Chapelle, of a fecond ftroke of the
palfy, after having for fome wreeks preceding enjoy¬
ed tolerable good health and an unufual flow of fpi-
rits. His death happened two days before he WTas to
have fet out for Leghorn in his way to Gibraltar 5 of
which place he w!as once more appointed to the de¬
fence.
Elliot.
ELO [23} ELP
E!!Ipoma- fence, m the view of an approaching war.— He mar-
c a y a r]eci Anne, daughter of Sir Francis Drake of Devon-
7[na;'iru ihire ; and had by her (who died in 1769) Francis-
 v—— Auguftus, now Lord Heathlield, lieutenant-colonel of
the 6th regiment of horle.
E L LI POM A CROSTY LA, an old term, in Natu¬
re}/ Hijiory, from the Greek, imperfetl, [tccr-^as
long, and a,column ; which expreffes an imperfect
cryilal with a long column, one end of the column be¬
ing affixed to fome folid body, and compofed of thin
and flender hexangular columns, terminated by hexan-
gular pyramids.
ELLIPOPACHYSTYLA, an old term, in Natu¬
ral Hijlory, derived from the Greek, eAPuttijs imperfeN,
rrciyyjq thick, and a column, and expreffes a cryftal
of the imperfect kind with a thick column.
ELLIPSIS, in Geometry, a curve line returning
into itfelf, and produced from the fection of a cone by
a plane cutting both its fides, but not parallel to the
bafe. See Conic SeBions.
Ellipsis, in Grammar, a figure of fyntax, where¬
in one or more words are not expreffed ; and from this
deficiency it has got the name eliipjis.
ELLIPTIC, or Elliptical, fomething belong¬
ing to an ellipfis.
ELLISIA, a genus of plants belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 28 Ji order, L ;ric.hr. See Botany Index.
ELLYS, Da Anthony, who was born in 1693,
and educated at Clarehall, Cambridge, after riling
through many inferior degrees of dignity in the church
of England, was, in 1752, promoted to the fee of St
David’s. He died at Gloucefter in 1761, and is men¬
tioned here only for the fake of his works, which are
lefs known than they fhould in the prefent time of no¬
vel opinions. They are, befides occafional fermons,
I. A Plea for the Sacramental Ted, as a juft fecurity
to the Church eftablifhed, and very conducive to the
welfare of the State. 2. Remarks on Hume’s Elfay
on Miracles. 3. Tra£ts on the Liberty fpiritual and
temporal of Protedants in England, addreded to J. N.
Efgj at Aix-la Chapelie j the fird part of which was
printed in 1763, the fecond in 1765. In thefe trails,
as the editors of them truly obferve, he “ difeovers not
only fine parts, extenfive knowledge, and found judge¬
ment, but a heart overflowing with benevolence and can¬
dour, and a mod Chridian temper: for he always thought
a perfon, though on the right fide of the quedion, with
principles of perfecution, to be a worfe man than he that
was on the wmong.” This amiable and refpeftable wri¬
ter affords in his own condufl a proof that a man may
be deadily attached to a party, without wnfhing to en¬
croach upon the rights of others.
ELM. See Ulmus, Botany Index.
ELMACINUS, George, author of a Hiflory of
the Saracens, was bom in Egypt towards the middle of
the 13th century. His hillory comes down from Ma¬
homet to the year of the Hegira 512, anfw^ering to
the year of our Lord 1134 j in which he fets dowm
year by year, in a very concife manner, whatever re¬
gards the Saracen empire, intermixed with fome paf-
fages relating to the eadern Chridians. His abilities
mud have been confiderable 5 fince, though he profef-
fed Chridianity, he held an office of trud near the per-
fons of the Mahometan princes. He was fon to Yafer
A1 Amid, fecretary to the council of wTar under the Elocution
fultans of Egypt for 45 years •, and in 1238, when his Jl
father died, fucceeded him in his place. His hidory -" P on-
of the Saracens was tranflated from Arabic into Latin
by Erpinius : and printed in thefe two languages in
folio, at Leyden, in 1625. Erpinius died before the
publication j but Golius took care of it, and added a
preface. Ic was dedicated by Erpinius’s wudow to Dr
Andrews, bidioo of Wincheder.
ELOCUTION. See Oratory, Part III.
ELOGY, a praife or panegyric bedowed on any
perfon or thing, in confideration of its merit. The
beauty of elogy confifts in an expredive brevity. Eu-
lo giums fhould not have fo much as one epithet, pro¬
perly I’o called, nor two words fynonymous : they ihould
drid.ly adhere to truth : for extravagant and improbable
elogies rather leffen the character ol the perfon or thing
they would extol.
ELOHI, Eloi, or Elohim, in feripture, one of the
names of God. But it is to be obferved, that angels,,
princes, great men, judges, and even falie gods, are
fometimes called by this name. The fequel of the dif-
courfe is what adids us in judging rightly concerning
the true meaning of this wrord. It is the lame as Eloha.
One is the lingular, the other the plural. Neverthe-
lefs Elohim is often conitrued in the Angular number,
particularly when the true God is fpoken of : but when
falie gods are Ipoken of, it is conitrued rather in the
plural.
ELOINED, in Law, fignifies redrained or hindered
from doing fomething : thus it is laid, that if thofe
within age be eloined, fo that they cannot fue perion-
ally, their next friend lhall lue for them.
ELONGATION, in Ajlronomy, the digredion or
recefs of a planet from the fun, with refpeT to an
eye placed on our earth. The term is chielly uied in
Ipeaking of Venus or Mercury, the arch of a great
circle intercepted between either of thefe planets and
the lun being called the elongation of that planet from
the fun.
Elongation, in Surgery, is an irnperfebl luxation,
occalioned by the dretching or lengthening of the liga¬
ments of any part.
ELOPEMENT, in Law, is where a married wToman
departs from her huiband, and cohabits with an adul¬
terer j in wdiich cafe the huiband is not obliged to al¬
low her any alimony out of her edate, nor is he charge¬
able for neceffaries for her of any kind. However, the
bare advertiling a wdfe in the gazette, or other public
paper, is not a legal notice to perfons in general not
to trud her; though a perfonal notice given by the
hufband to particular perfons is faid to be good.—An
action lies, and large damages may be recovered, a-
gaind a perfon for carrying away and detaining another
man’s wife.
ELOQUENCE, the art of fpeaking well, fo as to
affefl and perfuade. See Oratory.
ELPHINSTON, William, a Scotch prelate and
datelman of confiderable eminence, who flouridied in the
end of the 15th and commencement of the 16th cen¬
tury, was born at Glafgow in the year 1431. At the
univerlity of this city he received his education, and in
the learning which didinguilhed that period he made
extraordinary proficiency. His dudies being cbm-
pleted, he went over to France, to make himfelf mailer
of
ELS [
teplnnfton of the civil and canon law in the univerlity of Paris,
II where he afterwards became a profeffor, and for the
r-Himburg. j*pace Q£ years acquired conliderable reputation in the
difcharge of his duty. On his return to Scotland, he
entered into holy orders, was foon appointed official of
Glafgow, and afterwards of St Andrews. He was ad¬
mitted a member of the king’s council j and on a mii-
underilanding taking place between James III. of Scot¬
land and Louis XI. of France, his powerful mediation
at the latter court, in conjunction with the bilhop of
Dunkeld and the earl of Buchan, effected an amicable
reconciliation. As Elphinfton on this occahon difplay-
ed fuch prudence and eloquence, the king was fo grate¬
ful for his meritorious fervices, that he rewarded him
with the fee of Rofs, from which he was tranilated to
the diocefe of Aberdeen about the year 1484, and alfo
appointed to the high office of chancellor of the king¬
dom, which he managed with fo much moderation and
equity, that all parties efteemed and admired him.
When the civil wars broke out between James and the
difcontented nobility, Biffiop Elphinfton appears to have
declined all interference with public affairs of a political
nature, and confined himfelf to the difcharge of his
minifterial duties. But when James IV. afcended the
throne, his abilities as a ftatefman were again called
forth, and he was chofen ambaffador to the emperor
Maximilian, in order to bring about a marriage alliance
between his royal mafter and the emperor’s daughter 5
but ffie had been previoufly prcmifed to another. Yet
the biihop’s miffion was not without its falutary effefts,
as he was the mean of terminating an enmity which
had long exifted between the Dutch and Scots. 'Ihis
he conducted in fuch a mafterly manner, that James
never undertook any thing of importance, without firft
procuring the fanftion of his approbation. He wTas
equally the zealous patron of learning-, and it is general¬
ly believed that the eftablifhment of a univerfity at
Aberdeen was entirely owing to his influence with the
Pope, from wffiom he obtained a bull for that purpofe *,
and by his exertions was King’s college undertaken and
completed. He bequeathed, at the time of his deceafe,
large fums of money for its fupport. He terminated his
mortal career in 1514, about 83 years of age, at which
advanced period his conftitutional vigour was very little
impaired, and all the faculties of his mind Were in full
force ; but the ferious Ioffes at the memorable battle of
Flowden had broken his heart. He wrote a hiflory of
his native country, which is among the manufcripts of
Sir Thomas Fairfax, in the Bodleian library at Ox¬
ford.
EDSHEMIER, Adam, a celebrated painter, born
at Francfort on the Maine, in 1574- He was a
difciple of Philip Uffenbach, a German ) but his defire
of improvement carrying him to Rome, he foon became
a moft excellent artift in landfcapes, hiftory, and night-
pieces, writh fmall figures. His works are but few j
and the great pains he beftoWed in finilhing them rai-
fed their prices fo high, that they are hardly anywhere
to be found but in the cabinets of princes. He was
of a melancholy turn, and funk under the embarafs-
ments of his circumftances in 1610. James Erneft
Thomas of Landau w-as his difciple \ and imitated his
ftyle fo nicely, that their performances are not eafily
diftinguiffied.
ELSIMBURG, a port town of Sweden, in the
3
/
24] ELY
province of Gothland, and territory of Schonen, feated EHinoiej
on the fide of the Sound, over againft Eifinore. It was . Elva3‘
formerly a fortrefs belonging to the Danes j but all the
fortifications were demoliffied in 1679* nnd there is
only one tower of a caftle which remains undemoliffied.
It now’ belongs to Sweden. E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat.
56. 2.
ELSINORE, or Elsinoor, a port town of Den¬
mark, feated on the Sound, in the ifle of Zealand. E.
Long. 13. 23. N. Lat. 56. o.—It was a fmall village,
containing affew fiffiermen’s huts, until 1445, when it
was made a ftaple town by Eric of Pomerania j who
conferred upon the new fett’ers conftdcrable immuni¬
ties, and built a caftle for their defence. From that
period it gradually increafed in fize and wealth, and
is now the moft commercial place in Denmark next to
Copenhagen. It contains about 5000 inhabitants, a-
mongft wffiom are a confiderable number of foreign
merchants, and the conluls of the principal nations
trading to the Baltic. The paffage of the Sound is
guarded by the fortrefs ol Cronborg, which is lituated
upon the edge of a peninfular promontory, the neareft;
point of land from the oppolite coaft of Sweden. It
is ftrongly fortified towards the ffiore by ditches, ba-
ftions, and regular entrenchments 5 and tow ards the
fea by feveral batteries, mounted with 60 cannon, the
largeft wffiereof are 48 pounders. Every veliel, as it
palfes, lowers her top-fails, and pays a toll at Eifinore.
It is generally afferted, that this fortrefs guards the
Sound"; and that all the flaps muft, on account of the
ffioal waters and currents, fleer fo near the batteries
as to be expofed to their fire in cafe of refufal. T. his,
however, is a miftaken notion. On account indeed of
the numerous and op 'oiicc currents in the Sound, the
fafeft paffage lies near the fortrefs ; but the water in
any part is of fufficient depth for veffels to keep at a
diftance fsom the batteries, and the largeft fliips can
even lail clofe to the coaft of Sw-eden. The conftant
difcharge, however, of the toll, is not fo much owing
to the ftrength of the fortrefs as to a compliance with
the public law of Europe. Many difputes have arifen
concerning the right by which the crown of Denmark
impofes fuch a duty. The kings of Sweden, in parti¬
cular, claiming an equal title to the free paffage of
the Strait, were for lome time exempted by treaty
from paying it ; but in 1720, Frederic I. agreed that
all Swedifti veffels iffiould for the future be fubjecl to
the ufual impofts. All veffels, befide a fmall duty, are
rated at per cent, of their cargoes, except the Eng-
liffi, French, Dutch, and Swedilh, which pay only-
one per cent and in return the crown takes the charge
of conftrufting light-houfes, and eredting fignals to
mark the flioals and rocks, from the Categate to the
entrance into the Baltic. The tolls of the Sound, and
ef the two Belts, fupply an annual revenue of above
loo,oool.
ELY AS, a large towm, and one of the beft and
moft important in Portugal, feated in the province of
Alentejo, a few miles from the frontiers of Eftrema-
dura in Spain. It is built on a mountain, and is
ftiongly fortified with works of free-ftone. The ftreets
of the towm are handfome, and the houfes neat; and
there is a ciftern fo large, that it will hold water
enough to fupply the whole town fix mouths. The
water is conveyed to it by a magnificent aqueducl,
three
ELY t 25 ] ELY
•Eluding three miles in length, fuftained in fome places by Four
II or five high arches, one upon another. It was bom-
E1^ barded by the French and Spaniards in 1706, but
without efFeft. It has generally a garrifon of 1000
men. The king founded an academy here, in 1733,
for young gentlemen. W. Long. 7. 28. N. Lat.
38- 39- .
ELUDING, the aft of evading or rendering a
thing vain and of no effeft ; a dexterous getting clear,
or elcaping out of an affair, difficulty, embarraffinent,
or the like. We fay, to elude a propofition, &c. The
defign of chicanery is, to elude the force of the laws :
This doftor has not refolved the difficulty, but eluded it.
Alexander, fays the hiftorian, in cutting the Gordian
knot, either eluded the oracle or fulfilled it : Ills nequic-
qua?n luBatus cum latentibus nodisy Nihil, inquit, interejl,
quomodo folvatur ; gladwque ruptis omnibus lor is, oracuh
Jbrtem vel eludit, vel implevit.
ELVELA, a genus of plants belonging to the
cryptogamia clafs, and order of fungi. The fungus is
turbinated, or like an inverted cone. See Botany
Index.
ELUL, in ancient chronology, the 1 2th month of
the Jewiffi civil year, and the fixth of the ecclefiafti-
cal: it confifted of only 29 days, and anfwered pretty
nearly to our Auguft.
ELUTRIATION, in Chemi/lry, an operation per¬
formed by waffiing folid fubftances with water, flirring
them well together, and haflily pouring off the liquid,
while the lighter part remains fufpended in it, that it
may thereby be feparated from the heavier part. By
this operation metallic ores are feparated from earth,
Hones, and other unmetallic particles adhering to
them.
ELY, a city and bifhop’s fee of Cambridgeffiire,
fituated about 12 miles north of Cambridge. E. Long,
o. 51. N. Lat. 52. 24. It is a county of itfelf, in¬
cluding the territory around j and has a judge who de¬
termines all caufes civil and criminal within its limits.
The church hath undergone various alterations fince it
was fir ft eltabliffied by Etheldra, the wife of Egfride,
king of Northumberland, who founded a religious
houfe here, and planted it with virgins, and became
the firft abbefs of it herfelf. The Danes entirely
ruined this eftabliffiment j then Ethelwald, the 27th
bifhop of Winchefter, rebuilt the monaftery, and fill¬
ed it with monks j to whom King Edgar, and many
fucceeding monarchs, beftowed many privileges, and
great grants of land *, fo that this abbey became in
procefs of time the belt of any in England. Richard,
the nth abbot, wifhing to free himfelf of the biffiop
of Lincoln, within whofe diocefe his monaftery was
fituated, and not liking fo powerful a fuperior, he made
great intereft with King Henry I. to get Ely erefted
into a biffioprick ; and fpared neither purfe nor prayers
to bring this about. He even brought the biffiop of
Lincoln to confent to it, by giving him and his fuccef-
fors the manors of Bugden, Bigglefwade, and Spald-
ing, which belonged to the abbey, in lieu of his ju-
rifdiftion 5 but he lived not to tafte the fweets of his
induftry and ambition, he dying before his abbey was
erefted into a fee. His fucceffor was the firft biffiop
of Ely : but the great privileges the biffiop enjoyed
were almoft wholly taken away, or much reftrifted, by
the aft of parliament, 27th Henry VIII. regarding
You VIII. Part I.
the reftoring to the crown the ancient royalties: So, Elymai*
inftead of being palatine of the ifle of Ely, the biffiop jj^
and his temporal fteward were by that aft declared to . ^ .'
be from thenceforth juftices of the peace in the faid
ifland. This diocefe contains all Cambridgelhire, and
the ille of Ely, excepting Ifelham, which belongs to
the fee of Rochefter, and 15 other pariffies, that are
in the diocefe of Norwich j but it has a pariffi in Nor¬
folk, viz. Emneth. The number of pariffies in this
diocefe are 141, whereof 75 are impropriate. It hath
but one archdeacon, viz. of Ely. It is valued in
the king’s books at 2134I. 18s 5d. The clergy’s
tenth amounting to the fum of 384I. 14s. 9^d. The
biffiopric is computed to be worth annually 4000I.
The church is dedicated to St Ethelred. The build¬
ing, as it now appears, has been the work of feveral
of its biffiops. The weft parts were rebuilt by Biffiop
Ridal j the choir and lanthern were begun by Biffiop
Norwold, and finiffied by Biffiop Frodffiam. This fee
hath given two faints and two cardinals to the church
of Rome j and to the Engliih nation nine lord chan¬
cellors, feven lord treafurers, one lord privy feal, one
chancellor of the exchequer, one chancellor to the uni-
verfity of Oxford, two mafters of the rolls, and three
almoners. To this cathedral belong a biffiop, a dean,
an archdeacon, eight prebendaries, with vicars, lay-
clerks, chorifters, a fchoolmafter, uflier, and 28 king’s
fcholars.
ELYMAIS, the capital city of the land of Elam,
or the ancient Perfia. We are told (1 Mac. vi. 1.)
that Antiochus Epiphanes, having underftood that
there were very great treafures lodged in a temple at
Elymais, determined to go and plunder it: but the ci¬
tizens getting intelligence of his defign, made an in-
furreftion, forced him out of the city, and obliged him
to fly. The author of the fecond book of Maccabees
(ix. 2.) calls this city Perfepolis, in all probability be-
caufe formerly it was the capital of Perfia; for it is
known from other accounts, that Perfepolis and
Elymais were two very different cities, the latter
fituated upon the Eulseus, the former upon the A-
raxis.
ELYMUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
triandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the fourth order, Gramina. See Botany
Index.
ELYOT, Sir Thomas, a gentleman of eminent
learning in the 16th century, was educated at Oxford,
travelled into foreign countries, and upon his return
was introduced to court. His learning recommended
him to Henry VIII. who conferred the honour of
knighthood on him, and employed him in leveral em-
baflxes : particularly in 1532, to Rome, about the di¬
vorce of Queen Catharine, and afterwards to Charles V.
about 1536. He wrote, The Cajlle of Health, the Go¬
vernor, Banquet of Sapience, Of the Education of Chil¬
dren, De rebus memorabilibus Anglice, and other books j
and was highly efteemed by all his learned contempo¬
raries.
ELYSIUM in the ancient theology, or
rather mythology, a place in the wferi or lower world,
furniffied with fields, meads, agreeable woods, groves,
ffiades, rivers, &c. whither the fquls of good people
were fuppofed to go after this life.
Orpheus, Hercules, and tineas, were fuppofed to
D havo
E L Z [26
Elyfium, have defcended into Elyfium in tlieir life time, and to
Elzevirs, returned again 5 (Virg. Kb. vi. ver. 638, &c.) Ti-
v bullus (lib. i. eleg. 3.) gives us fine defcriptions of the
Elyfian fields.
Virgil oppofes Elyfium to Tartarus; which was
the place where the wicked underwent their puniih-
ment.
Hie locus ejl, partes ubi fe via Jindit in ambas:
Dexter a, quee Ditis magnifub mania tendit:
Hac iter Elyfium nobis : at Iceva malorum
Exercet panes, et ad impia Tartara nnttit.
He affigns Elyfium to thofe who died for their country,
to thofe of pure lives, to truly infpired poets, to the
inventors of arts, and to all who have done good to
mankind.
Some authors take the fable of Elyfium to have been
borrowed from the Phoenicians } as imagining the name
Ely Hum formed from the Phoenician iby a/ax, or yby n-
lats, or oby alas, “ to rejoice,” or “ to be in joy j” the
letter a being only changed into e, as we find done in
many other names ; as in Enakim for Anakim, &c. On
which footing, Elyfian fields Ihould fignify the fame
thing as a place of pleafure j or,
. — Locos Lcetos, et amana vireta
Fortunatorum ne7norum,fedefque beatas. Virg.
Others derive the word from the Greek Xvm folvo, “ I
deliver, I let loofe or difengage becaufe here men’s
fouls are freed or difencumbered from the fetters of
the body. Beroaldus, and Hornius (Hift. Philofoph.
lib. iii. cap. 2.) take the place to have derived its name
from Eliza, one of the firft perfons who came into
Greece after the deluge, and the author and father of
the /Etolians.
The Elyfian fields were, according to fome, in the
Fortunate Illands on the coaft of Africa, in the Atlan¬
tic. Others place them in the ifiand of Leuce \ and, ac¬
cording to the authority of Virgil, they were fituated
in Italy. According to Lucian, they were near the
moon } or in the centre of the earth, if we believe Plu¬
tarch. Olaus Wormius contends that it was in Swe¬
den the Elyfian fields were placed.
ELZEVIRS, celebrated printers at Amfterdam
and Leyden, who greatly adorned the republic of let¬
ters with many beautiful editions of the bell authors of
antiquity. They fell fomewhat below the Stephenfes
in point of learning, as well as in their editions of Greek
and Hebrew authors ; but as to the choice of good
books, they feem to have equalled, and in the neatnefs
and elegance of their {mall characters, greatly to have
exceeded them. Their Virgil, Terence, and Greek
Teftament, have been reckoned their mafterpieces ; and
are indeed fo very fine, that they jufily gained them
the reputation of being the belt printers in Europe.
There wrere five of thefe Elzevirs, namely, Lewis, Bo-
Jiaventure, Abraham, Lewis, and Daniel. Lewus began
to be famous at Leyden in 1595, and was remarkable
for being the firft w’ho obferved the diftintlion between
the v confonant and u vowel, which had been recom¬
mended by Ramus and other writers long before, but
never regarded. Daniel died in 1680 or 1681 ; and
though he left children who carried on the buiinefs,
pafles neverthelefs for the laft of his family wrho excel¬
led in it. The Elzevirs have printed feveral catalogues
] E M B
of their editions ; but the laft, pubKfhed by Daniel, Emanation
is confiderably enlarged, and abounds wTith new books. !!
It wras printed at Amfterdam, 1674, in 12mo, and ir:® m"
divided into feven volumes. ■  y -- »
EMANATION, the aft of flowing or proceeding
from fome fource or origin. Such is the emanation of
light from the fun *, or that of effluvia from odorous,
&c. bodies j of wifdom from God, &c.—The word is
formed of the Latin e “ out of,” and manure “ to
flow or ftream.”
Emanation is alfo ufed for the thing that pro¬
ceeds, as w7ell as the aft of proceeding. The power
given a judge is an emanation from the regal power $
the reafonable foul is an emanation from the Divinity.
EMANCIPATION, in the Roman law, the fet-
ting free a fon from the fubjeftion of his father j fo
that whatever moveables he acquires belong in pro¬
perty to him, and not to his father, as before eman¬
cipation.
Emancipation puts the fon in a capacity of mana¬
ging his owTn affairs, and of marrying without his fa¬
ther’s confent, though a minor. Emancipation differs
from manumiflion, as the latter was the aft of a mafter
in favour of a Have, wLereas the former wTas that of a
father in favour of his fon.
There ■ were two kinds of emancipation : the one
tacit, which wras by the fon’s being promoted to fome
dignity, by his coming of age, or by his marrying ; in
all wdiich cafes he became his own mafter of courfe.
The other, exprefs j wdiere the father declared before
a judge, that he emancipated his fon. In performing
this, the father was firft to fell his fon imaginarily to
another, whom they called pater jiduciarius, father in
truft \ of whom being bought back again by the natu¬
ral father, he manumitted him before the judge by a
verbal declaration.
Emancipation formerly obtained in France with regard
to minors or pupils, who were hereby fet at liberty to
manage their own effefts, without the advice or direftion
of their parents or tutors.
EMARGINATED, among botanifts. See Bo¬
tany Index.
EMASCULATION, the aft of caftrating or de¬
priving a male of thofe parts which charafterize his fex.
See Castration and Eunuch.
EMAUS, Emmaus, or Ammaus, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a village, 60 ftadia to the north weft of Jeru-
falem, or about feven miles : it afterwards became a
town, and a Roman colony, Nicopolis, (Jerome). Re¬
land has another Emmaus towards Lydda, 22 miles
from Jerufalem, (Itinerary) ; a third, near Tiberias.
EMBALMING, is the opening a dead body, ta¬
king out the inteftines, and filling the place with odo¬
riferous and deficcative drugs and fpices, to prevent
its putrefying. The Egyptians excelled all other na¬
tions in the art of preferving bodies from corruption \
for fome that they have embalmed upwards of 2000
years ago, remain whole to this day, and are often
brought into other countries as great curiofities. Their
manner of embalming wras thus : they fcooped the
brains with an iron fcoop out at the noitrils, and threw
in medicaments to fill up the vacuum : they aifo took
out the entrails, and having filled the body with myrrh,
caflia, and other fpices, except frankincenfe, proper to
dry up the humours, they pickled it in nitre, where it
E M B [ 27 ] E M B
Embalming lay foaking for 70 days. The body was then wrapped
11 up in bandages of fine linen and gums, to make it flick
,]Em1 ai£°‘ like glue ; and fb was delivered to the kindred of the
deceafed, entire in all its features, the very hairs of
the eye-lids being preferved. They ufed to keep the
bodies of their anceftors, thus embalmed, in little houfes
magnificently adorned, and took great pleafure in be¬
holding them, alive as it were, without any change in
their fize, features, or complexion. The Egyptians
alfo embalmed birds, &c. The prices for embalming
were dift'erent j the highefl was a talent, the next 20
min;®, and fo decreafing to a very fmall matter: but
they who had not wherewithal to anfwer this expence,
contented themfelves with infufing, by means of a
fyringe, through the fundament, a certain liquor ex¬
tradited from the cedar; and, leaving it there, wrap¬
ped up the body in fait of nitre : the oil thus preyed
upon the inteftines, fo that when they took it out, the
inteftines came away with it, dried, and not in the
leaft putrified : the body being enclofed in nitre, grew
dry, and nothing remained beiides the fkin glued upon
the bones.
The method of embalming ufed by the modem E-
gyptians, according to Maillet, is to wafh the body fe-
veral times with rofe-water, which, he elfewhere ob-
ferves, is more fragrant in that country than with us ;
they afterwards perfume it with incenfe, aloes, and a
quantity of other odours, of which they are by no
means fparing j and then they bury the body in a
winding Iheet, made partly of filk and partly of cot¬
ton, and moiflened, as is fuppofed, with fome fweet-
fcented water or liquid perfume, though Maillet ufes
only the term moiftened; this they cover with another
cloth of unmixed cotton, to which they add one of the
richeft fuits of clothes of the deceafed. The expence,
he fays, on thefe occafions, is very great, though no¬
thing like what the genuine embalming coft in former
times.
EMBARCADERO, in commerce, a Spanilh term,
much ufed along the coafts of America, particularly
thofe on the fide of the South fea. It fignifies a place
which ferves fome other confiderable city farther with¬
in land, for a port or place of Ihipping, i. e. of em¬
barking and difembarking commodities. Thus Calao
is the embarcadero of Lima, the capital of Peru j and
Arica the embarcadero of Potofi. There are fome em-
barcaderos 40, 50, and even 60 leagues off the city
which they ferve in that capacity.
EMBARGO, in commerce, an arreft on fhips or
merchandife, by public authority j or a prohibition of
ftate, commonly on foreign fhips, in time of war, to
prevent their going out of port, fometimes to prevent
their coming in, and fometimes both, for a limited
time.
The king may lay embargoes on fhips, or employ
thofe of his fubjedts, in time of danger, for the fervice
and defence of the nation ; but they mult not be for
the private advantage of a particular trader or com¬
pany ; and therefore a warrant to flay a Angle fhip is
no legal embargo. No inference can be made from
embargoes which are only in war-time 5 and are a pro¬
hibition by advice of council, and not at profecution of
parties. If goods be laden on board, and after an em¬
bargo or reftraint from the prince or ftate comes forth,
and then the mailer of the fhip breaks ground, or en¬
deavours to fail, if any damage accrues, he muft beEmbarrafi
refponfible for the fame j the reafon is, becaufe his II
freight is due, and muft be paid, even though the goods,
be feized as contraband. v
EMBARRASS, (Embarrajfmcnt), a French term,
though now naturalized 5 denoting a difficulty or ob-
Itacle which perplexes or confounds a perfon, &c.
EMBASSADOR. See Ambassador.
EMBASSY, the office or funftion of an Ambas¬
sador.
EMBDEN, a port-town and city of Germany, ca¬
pital of a county of the fame name, now in pofleffion
of the king of Pruffia $ it is fituated at the mouth of
the river Ens. E. Long. 6. 45. N. Lat. 53. 50.
EMBER-weeks, are thofe wherein the ember or
embring days fall.
In the laws of King Alfred, and thofe of Canute,
thofe days are called ymbren, that is, circular days,
from whence the word was probably corrupted into
ember- days: by the canonifls they are called quatuor
anm tempora, the four cardinal feafons, on which the
circle of the year turns : and hence Henfhaw takes the
word to have been formed, viz. by corruption from
temper of tempara.
The ember-days are, the Wednefday, Friday, and
Saturday, after Quadragefima Sunday, after Whit-
funday, after Holy-rood day in September, and after
St Lucia’s day in December : which four times anfwer
well enough to the four quarters of the year, Spring,
Summer, Autumn, and Winter.
Mr Somner thinks they were originally falls, infti-
tuted to beg God’s blelfing on the fruits of the earth.
Agreeable to which, Skinner fuppofes the word ember
taken from the affies, embers, then ilrewed on the head.
Thefe ember-weeks are now chiefly taken notice of,
on account of the ordination of priells and deacons j
becaufe the canon appoints the Sundays next fucceeding
the ember-weeks, for the folemn times of ordination :
Though the biffiops, if they pleafe, may ordain on any
Sunday or holiday.
EMBERIZA, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of pafieres. See Ornithology Index.
EMBLEM, a kind of painted aenigma, which, re-
prefenting fome obvious hillory, with reflexions under¬
neath, inftruXs us in fome moral truth or other matter
of knowledge. See Devise, ZEnigma, &c.
Such is that very fignificant image of Scaevola hold¬
ing his hand in the fire j with the words, sfgere et pad
farther Romanum ejl, “ To do and fuffer courageoufly
is Roman.”
The word is pure Greek, formed of the verb
Ae/v, “ to caft|j in, to infert.” Suetonius relates, that
Tiberius made the word be erafed out of the decree of
the Roman fenate, becaufe borrowed from another lan¬
guage.
The emblem is fomewhat plainer and more obvious
than the mnigma.—Gale defines emblem an ingenious
piXure, reprefenting one thing to the eye, and another
to the underltanding.
The Greeks alfo gave the name Emblems,
to inlayed or mofaic works, and even to all kinds of
ornaments of vafes, moveables, garments, &c. And
the Latins ufed emblema in the fame fenfe. Accordingly,
Cicero reproaching Verres with the ftatues and fine
wrought works he had plundered from the Sicilians,
D 2 calls
/
Embroi¬
dery.
E M B [28
Emboiifirtus calls the ornaments fixed thereto (and which on occa-
fion might be feparated from them) emblemata. Add,
that Latin authors frequently compare the figures and
1 ornaments of difcourfe to thefe emblemata. Lhus, an
ancient Latin poet praifing an orator, fays, that all his
words were ranged like the pieces in mofaic :
S^uam lepide *e|«? compojfcc, ut tejjerulce omnes.
At te pavimenti^ atque emblemate vermiculato.
With us emblem ordinarily fignifies no more than a
painting, baffo-relievo, or other reprefentation, intend¬
ed to hold forth fome moral or political inftrudUon.
What diftinguilhes an emblem from a devife is, that
the words of an emblem have a full complete fenfe of
themfelves ; nay, all the fenfe and fignification which
they have, together with the figure. But there is a yet
further difference between emblem and devife : for a de¬
vife is a fymbol appropriated to fome perfon, or that
expreffes fomething which concerns him particularly 5
whereas an emblem is a fymbol that regards all the
World alike.
Thefe differences will be more apparent, from com¬
paring the emblem above quoted, with the devile of a
candle lighted, and the words Juvando confumor, “ I
wafle myfelf in doing good.” See Devise.
EMBOLISMUS, in Chronology, figni¬
fies “ intercalation.” The word is formed of
** to infert.” .
As the Greeks made ufe of the lunar year, which is
only 354 days } in order to bring it to the folar, which
is years, they had every two or three years an em-
bolifm, i. e. they added a 13th lunar month every two
or three years, which additional month they called em-'
bolunceus, iy.Zohipotio<;, becaufe inferted, or intercalated.
EMBOSSING, or Imbossing, in ArchiteBure^ and
Sculpture, the forming or fafhioning works in relievo,
whether cut with a chifel or otherwife.
Embofling is a kind of fculpture, wherein the figures
ftick out from the plane whereon it is cut: and ac¬
cording as the figures are more or lefs prominent, they
are faid to be in alto, mezzo, or baffo, relievo 5 or high,
mean, or low relief. See Enchasing.
EMBOTHRIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the tetrandria clafs. See Botany Index.
EMBRASURE, in Architecture, the enlargement
made of the aperture of a door or window on the in-
fide of the wall j its ufe being to give the greater play
for the opening of the door or^ cafement, or to admit
the more light.
EMBROCATION, in Surgery and Pharmacy, an
external kind of remedy, which confilts in an irrigation
of the part affefled, with fome proper liquor, as oils,
fpirits, &c. by means of a woollen or linen cloth, or a
fponge, dipped in the fame.
EMBROIDERY, a work in gold, or filver, or filk
thread, *wrought by the needle upon cloth, fluffs, or
muffin, into various figures. In embroidering fluffs,
the work is performed in a kind of loom \ becaufe the
more the piece is flretched, the eafier it is worked.
As to muffin, they fpread it upon a pattern ready de-
figned ; and fometimes, before it is flretched upon the
pattern, it is ilarched, to make it more eafy to handle.
Embroidery on the loom is lefs tedious than the other,
in which, while they work floweis, all the threads of
the muffin, both lengthwife and breadthwife, muff be
]
E M E
Emerald.
continually counted j but, on the other hand, this laft Embroider
is much richer in points, and fufceptible of greater va¬
riety. Cloths too much milled are fcarce fufceptible
of this ornament, and in effect we feldom fee them em¬
broidered. The thinneft muflins are left for this pur-
pofe } and they are embroidered to the greateil per-
fe£lion in Saxony } in other parts of Europe, how¬
ever, they embroider very prettily, and efpecially irr
France.
There are feveral kinds of embroidery: as, 1. Em¬
broidery on the flamp 5 where the figures are raifed and
rounded, having cotton or parchment put under them
to fupport them. 2. Low embroidery \ where the gold
and filver lie kw upon the fketch, and are Hitched with
filk of the fame colour. 3. Guimped embroidery : this
is performed either in gold or filver 5 they firfl make
a fketch upon the cloth, then put on cut vellum, and
afterwards few on the gold and filver with filk thread :
in this kind of embroidery they often put gold and fil¬
ver cord, tinfel, and fpangles. 4. Embroidery on both
fides \ that which appears on both fides of the fluff.
5. Plain embroidery j wdiere the figures are flat and
even, without cords, fpangles, or other ornaments..
By flat. 22, Geo. II. c. 36. no foreign embroidery,
or gold and filver brocade, fliall be imported, upon
pain of being forfeited and burnt, and penalty of look
for each piece. No perfon fhall fell, or expofe to fale,
any foreign embroidery, gold or filver thread, lace,
fringe, brocade, or make up the fame into any garment,
on pain of having it forfeited and burnt, and penalty
of 1 ool. All fuch embroidery, &c. may be feized
and burnt 5 and the mercer, &x. in whofe cuflody it
wras found, fhall forfeit look
EMBRUN, or Ambrun, a city of Dauphiny, in
France, near the confines of Piedmont. E. Long. 6. 6.
N. Lat. 44. 35.
EMBR YO, in Phyjiology, the firfl rudiments of an
animal in the womb, before the feveral members are di-
flin&ly formed; after which period it is denominated
z. fetus. See Generation and Fetus.
EMERALD, a genus of precious flones belonging
to the order of filiceous earths. The wTord is derived,
according to fome, from the French efmaraude, and that
from the Latin fmaragdus, fignifying the fame, thing j
by others it is faid to be derived from the Italian fme*
raldo, or the Arabian ‘zomorrad. According to Cron-
fledt the emerald is the fofteil of all the precious Hones,
though other naturaliHs place it the next after the dia¬
mond in this refpeft. It is perhaps the moH beautiful
of all the gems, and, according to Wallerius, when
heated in the fire, changes its colour to a deep blue,
and becomes phofphorefcent •, but recovers its . green
colour when cold. When pulverized it has a white ap¬
pearance, and, wuth borax, melts to a very thin and
colourlefs glafs. It becomes ele&ric by being rubbed,
and fome have the property of the tourmalin, viz., of
being eleftnfied by heat, and in that Hate attrafting
allies or other light fubflances; though the emeralds
are lefs powerful "than the tourmalin, and .after having
attracted the afhes, they retain them without any figns
of repulfion.
Pliny mentions twelve different kinds of thefe pre¬
cious flones ; though it appears, from the vafl fize of
fome of them, that they muff have been only certain
kinds of green fpar, or other green Hone, which at that
time
E IV1 E
[ 29 ] E M E
Emerald, time went under the name of emerald among the an-
-“““v ’ cients. The true emerald is found only in very fmall
cryftals, from the fize of ^th of an inch in diameter
to that of a walnut. Theophraftus, however, men¬
tions one four cubits long and three broad 5 likewife
an obelilk compofed of only four emeralds, the whole
length being 40 cubits, and the breadth from four to two.
Engeftroom informs us, that the emeralds, in their
rough or native Hate, confiit of hexagonal columns
moftly truncated at both ends } and that he had lome
in his poffellion, which in a gentle heat became
colourlefs j but in a ftrong heat white and opaque,
without any mark of fulion. Brunick diftinguilhes
them into two claffes. 1. The pale green emerald,
which comes from the eaft and from Peru, the figure
being that of an hexagonal truncated prifm, and the bafis
a vein of white quartz. 2. The dark green eme¬
rald, which is alfo columnar, but very dark coloured,
ftriped longitudinally, and has little tranfparency. The
points are generally broken off longitudinally, though
Davila mentions one refembling a blunt triangular
pyramid ; and in the Imperial cabinet at Vienna there
is one with a five-fided pyramid. Thefe are the emeralds
t which become electrical by heat; though all of them
do not •, and thofe which do fo cannot be known but
by actual experiment. The fineft fpecimen of the
former kind of emeralds is to be feen in the treafury of
the holy chapel of Loretto, containing upwards of
IOO of thefe precious Hones great and fmall. A fel¬
low to this was made by art, and both were prefents to
the king of Sicily, defigned to reprefent two Mount
Calvaries.
Emeralds are diftinguiflied by the jewellers into two
kinds, the oriental and occidental. The true oriental
emerald is very fcarce, and at prefent only found in the
kingdom of Cambay. So great indeed is the fcarcity
of them, that an opinion prevailed that there are n»
oriental emeralds. This opinion is adopted, among
others, by Mr Bruce ; who informs us, that he made an
cxcurfion to the ifland of emeralds in the Red fea, and
endeavours to fhow that there never were any emeralds
but what came from America, and that thofe faid to
have been found in the Eaft Indies were imported from
that continent. It is probable indeed, that in former
times any kind of cryftal tinged of a green colour might
be called an emerald, and hence the green cockle fpar
brought from Egypt may have obtained the name of
mother of emeralds ; but of late fome emeralds have been
brought from Cambay into Italy which greatly excel¬
led thofe of America. The beft emeralds of the weftern
continent come from Peru, and are called oriental by
the jewellers : fome are found in Europe, principally
in the duchy of Silefia in Germany.
Rough Emeralds.—Thofe of the firft and coarfeft
fort, called plafnes, for grinding, are worth 27 {hillings
fterling the marc, or 8 ounces. The demi-morillons, 81.
fterling per marc. Good morillons, which are only lit¬
tle pieces, but of fine colour, from 13I. to 1 $1. per marc.
Emeralds, larger than morillons, and called of the third
colour or fort, are valued at from 50I. to 60I. the marc.
Emeralds, called of the fecond fort, which are in larger
and finer pieces than the preceding, are worth from
65I. to 75I. per marc. Laftly, thofe of the firft co¬
lour, otherwife called negres cartes, are W’orth from IT ol.
to 115I.
Emeralds ready cut, or polifhed and not cut,
good Jlone, and a fine colour, are worth—
Thofe weighing one carat, or four grains
Thofe of twro carats    ——
Thofe of three carats   ——
Thofe of four carats    
Thofe of five carats    
Thofe of fix carats • - —   
Thofe of feven carats   ——
Thofe of eight carats ——  
Thofe of nine carats — -   
Thofe of ten carats ———  
being of Emeralds
ZEmerfon.
• S.   ^^
O IO
i 7
2 5
3 ^
4 10
7 10
*5 o
19 o
23 o
33 o
To counterfeit Emeralds : Take of natural cryftal,
four ounces 5 of red lead, four ounces 5 verdegris,
forty-eight grains j crocus martis, prepared with vi¬
negar, eight grains : let the whole be finely pulverized
and fifted j put this into a crucible, leaving one inch
empty : lute it well, and put it into a potter’s furnace,
and let it ftand there as long as they do their pots.
When cold, break the crucible •, and you will find a
matter of a fine emerald colour, which, after it is cut*
and fet in gold, will furpafs in beauty an oriental eme¬
rald.
EMERSION, in Phy/ics, the rifing of any folid
above the furface of a fluid fpecifically heavier than
itfelf, into which it had been violently immerged or
thruft.
It is one of the known law7s of hydroftatics, that a
lighter folid being forced down into a heavier fluid,
immediately endeavours to emerge j and that with a
force or moment equal to the excefs of weight of a
quantity of the fluid above that of an equal bulk of
the folid. Thus, if a folid be immerged in a fluid of
double its fpecific gravity, it wall emerge again till half
its bulk or body be above the furface of the fluid.
Emersion, in Jlfironomy, is when the fun, moon, or
other planet, begins to re-appear, after its having been
eclipfed, or hid by the interpofition of the moon, earth,
or other body.
The difference of longitude is fometimes found bv
obferving the immerfions and emerfions of the firft of
Jupiter’s fatellites. The immerfions are obferved from
the time of Jupiter’s being in conjunftion with the fun
to his oppofition ; and the emerfions, from the oppofi-
tion to the conjunction; which twro intervals are ufually
fix months a-piece, and divide the year between them.
But when Jupiter is in conjundlion with the fun, and
15 days before and afterw'ards, there is nothing to
be obferved the planet, with his fatellites, being then
loft in the light of the fun.
Emersion is alfo ufed when a ftar, before hid by
the fun, as being too near him, begins to re-appear and
to get out of his rays.
EMERSON, William, an eminent mathemati¬
cian, was born in June 1701, at Humorth, a village
about three miles fouth of Darlington ; at leaft it is
certain that he refided here from his childhood. His
father Dudley Emerfon was a tolerable proficient in
mathematics ; and without his books and inftru&ions,
perhaps his own genius (moft eminently fitted from ma¬
thematical difquifitions) would have never been un¬
folded. He was inftructed in the learned languages
by a young clergyman, then curate of Hurworth,. who
was
E M E [ 30 ] E M E
Emerfon. was boarded at his father’s houfe. In the earlier part
"""■"V of his life he attempted to teach a few fcholars : but
whether from his concife method (for he was not hap¬
py in explaining his ideas), or the warmth of his natu¬
ral temper, he made no progrefs in his fchool : he
therefore foon left it off j and fatisfied with a moderate
competence left him by his parents, he devoted himfelf
to a itudious retirement. Towards the clofe of the year
1781 (being fenfible of his approaching diflblution),
he difpofed of the whole of his mathematical library to
a bookfeller at York ; and on May 20th 1782, he died
of a lingering and painful diforder at his native village,
aged near 81 years.
Mr Emerfon in his perfon was rather fliort, but
ftrong and well-made, with an open countenance and
ruddy complexion. He was exceedingly lingular in
his drefs. He had but one coat, which he always
wrore open before, except the lower button j no wailt-
coat $ his Ihirt quite the reverfe of one in common ufe,
no opening before, but buttoned clofe at the collar be¬
hind j a kind of flaxen wig which had not a crooked
hair in it, and probably had never been tortured with
a comb from the time of its being made. He always
■walked up to London wdien he had any thing to pub-
lilh, reviling Iheet by Iheet himfelf:—Trufting no eyes
but his own, was always a favourite maxim with him.
He never advanced any mathematical propolition that
he had not firft tried in practice, conftantly making all
the different parts himfelf on a fmall fcale, fo that his
houfe was filled wdth all kinds of mechanical inftru-
ments together or disjointed. He would frequently
Hand up to his middle in water while filhing, a diver-
lion he was remarkably fond of. He ufed to ftudy
inceffantly for feme time, and then for relaxation take
a ramble to any pot-alehoufe where he could get any
body to drink with and talk to. The duke of Manchef-
ter was highly pleafed with his company, and ufed of¬
ten to come to him in the fields and accompany him
home, but could never perfuade him to get into a car¬
riage. On thefe occalions he would fometimes exclaim,
Damn your whim-wbam ! I had rather walk.” He
was a married man *, and his wife ufed to fpin on an
old-falhioned wheel, whereof a very accurate drawing
is given in his mechanics. He was deeply Ikilled in the
fcience of mufic, the theory of founds, and the various
Icales both ancient and modern, but was a very poor
performer.
The following is a lift of Mr Emerfon’s works.
I. The Doftrine of Fluxions. 2. The Projection of
the Sphere, orthographic, ftereographic, and gnomo-
nical. 3. The Elements of Trigonometry. 4. The
Principles of Mechanics. 5. A Treatife of Naviga¬
tion on the Sea. 6. A Treatife of Algebra, in two
books. 7. The Arithmetic of Infinites, and the difte-
rential Method, illuftrated by Examples. 8. Mecha¬
nics *, or the DoCtrine of Motion. 9. The Elements of
Optics, in four books. 10. A Syftem of Aftronomy.
II. The Laws of Centripetal and Centrifugal Force.
12. The Mathematical Principles of Geography. 13.
TraCts, 8vo. 14. Cyclomathefis ; or an eafy Introduc¬
tion to the feveral branches of the Mathematics. 15.
A fhort comment on Sir Ifaac Newton’s Principia j to
which is added, A Defence of Sir Ifaac againft the ob¬
jections that have been made to feveral Parts of his
Works. 16. A Mifcellaneous Treatife, containing fe- Emery,
veral Mathematical SubjeCts, 8vo. 1776.
EMERY, in Natural Hi/lory, a rich iron-ore found
in large maffes of no determinate ftiape or fize, extreme¬
ly hard, and very heavy. It is ufually of a duiky brown-
iih red on the furface j but when broken, is of a fine
bright ii on-gray, but not without fome tinge of rednefsj
and is fpangled all over with ftiining fpecks, rvhich are
fmall flakes of a foliaceous ftalk, highly impregnated
with iron. It is alfo fometimes very red, and then
ufually contains veins of gold. It makes no eflervef-
cence with any of the acid menftruums ) and is found
in the ifland of Guernfey, in Tufcany, and many parts
of Germany.
Dr Lewis is of opinion, that fome kinds of emery
may contain the metal called p/atina, and on this fub-
jeCt has the following curious obfcrvations. “ Alonfo
Barba mentions a fubftance called chutnpi; which is a
hard ftone of the emery kind, participating of iron, of
a gray colour ftiining a little, very hard to work, be-
caufe it refills the fire much, found in Potofi, Chocaya,
and other places, along with blackilh and reddilh ores
that yield gold. If platina is really found in large
maffes, either generally or only now and then, one might
reafonably expeCt thofe maffes to be fuch as are here
defcribed.
“ Of the fame kind perhaps alfo is the mineral men¬
tioned by feveral authors under the name of Spanilh
emery,yWr/r Hifpanicus, which Ihould feem, from the
accounts given of it, to be no other than platina or its
matrix. The fmiris is faid to be found in the gold
mines, and its exportation prohibited 5 to contain films
or veins of native gold 5 to be in great requeft among
the alchemifts j to have been fometimes ufed for the
adulteration of gold ; to Hand, equally with the noble
metal, cupellation, quartation, antimony, and the regal
cement; and to be feparable from it by amalgamation
with mercury, which throws out the fmiris and retains
the gold} properties ftrongly charaCteriftie of platina,
and which do not belong to any known fiibftance be-
fides. This debafement of gold per extra&um fmiridis
Hifpanici is mentioned by Becher in his Minera urena-
ria, and feveral times hinted at in his Phy/ica fubterra ■
nea. Both Becher and Stahl indeed call the fubftance
which the gold receives from the emery an earth,
whereas platina is undoubtedly a metal} but this does
not at all invalidate our fuppofition, for they give the
name of earth alfo to the fubftance which copper re¬
ceives from calamine in being made into brafs, which
is now known to be metallic.
“ From thefe obfervations I have been led to fuf-
peft, that the European emeries likewife might pof-
fibly participate of platina. If this was certain, it
would account fatisfaflorily for the ufe which fome of
the alchemifts are faid to have made of emeries and
other ferruginous ores; and we fhould no longer
doubt, or winder, that by treating gold with thefe
kinds of minerals, they obtained a permanent augmen¬
tation } that this augmentation, though it refilled lead,
antimony, aquafortis, and the regal cement, was fepa¬
rable, as Becher owns it w7as, by quickfilver} and that,
udien it exceeded certain limits, it rendered the gold
pale and brittle.
“ If emery contains platina, I imagined it might
be
2
EMI [ ^
Emery be difcoverable by boiling the powdered mineral in
melted lead, and afterwards working off the lead upon
" i a tell or cupel. The experiment was made with eight
ounces of the fineft powder of common emery, and the
fame quantity of lead ; which were covered w ith black
flux to prevent the fcorification of the lead, and urged
with a llrong fire for two or three hours. The lead
became hard, rigid, of a dark colour, and a granulated
texture, as if it had really imbibed fome platina from
the emery; but in cupellation it worked almoft entirely
off, leaving only a head about the fize of a fmall pin’s
head, which was probably no other than filver contain¬
ed in the lead.
“ I repeated the experiment with fome variation,
thinking to obtain a more perfect refolution of the
emery by vitrifying it with the lead. Two ounces of
fine emery and fix ounces of minium were wrell mixed
together, and urged with a ftrong fire, in a clofe cru¬
cible, for an hour: they melted into an uniform dark
browmiih glafs. The glafs wTas powdered, mixed with
four ounces of fixt alkaline fait and fome powdered
charcoal, and put into a frefh crucible, with fome com¬
mon fait on the furface : The fire wTas pretty ftrongly
excited *, but the fufion was not fo perfect as could be
W'ilhed, and only about two ounces of lead were found
■revived. This lead had fuffered nearly the fame change
as that in the foregoing experiment •, and like it, gave
no appearance of platina on being cupelled.
“ It feems to follow from thefe experiments, that
the emery employed in them contained no platina; but
as it is not to be fuppofed that all emeries are of one
compofition, other forts may deferve to be fubmitted
to the fame trials. As gold is contained in fome par¬
cels of common minerals, and by no means in all the
individuals of any one fpecies 5 platina may polfibly in
like manner be found in fome European ores, though
there is not the le'aft footftep of it in other parcels of
the fame kind of ore.”
EMETICS, medicines that induce vomiting. See
Materia Medica Index.
EMIMS, ancient inhabitants of the land of Canaan
beyond Jordan, who were defeated by Chedorlaomer
and his allies, Gen. xiv. 5. Mofes tells us, that they
were beaten in Shaveh Kirjathaim, which was in the
country of Sihon conquered from the Moabites, Jolh.
xiii. 19.—-21. The Emims were a warlike people, of
a gigantic ftature, great and many, and tall as the A-
nakims.
EMINENCE, in Geography, a little hillock or af-
cent above the level of the adjoining champaign.
Eminence is alfo a title of honour given to cardi¬
nals. The decree of the Pope, whereby it was appoint¬
ed that the cardinals fhould be addreffed under the qua¬
lity of eminence, bears date the 10th of January 1630.
T. hey then laid afide the titles of illujlrijjhni and reve-
renditfimi, which they had borne before.
The grand mafter of Malta is likewife addreffed un¬
der the quality of eminence. The popes John VIII.
and Gregory VII. gave the fame title to the kings of
France. The emperors have likewife borne it.
jc. minentijjimus, the fuperlative of eminent, has of late
been attributed to the cardinals.
EMIR, a title of dignity among the Turks, figni-
fying a prince.
i ] EMM
This title was firfl given to the caliphsbut when Emiffary
they affumed the title of Sultans, that of emir remain- II.
ed to their children ; as that of Caefar among the Ro- iKrnn-iUS-
mans. At length the title came to be attributed to
all wbo w-ere judged to defcend from Mahomet by his
daughter Fatimah, and who wear the green turban in-
ftead of the white. The Turks make an obfervation,
that the emirs, before their fortieth year, are men of
the greateft gravity, learning, and wifdom j but after
this, if they are not great fools, they difcover fome
figns of levity and llupidity. This is interpreted by
the Turks as a fort of divine impulfe in token of their
birth and fanftity. The Turks alfo call the vizirs, ba
fhaws, or governors of provinces, by this name.
EMISSARY, in a political fenfe. a perfon employ¬
ed by another to found the opinions of people, fpread
certain reports, or aft as a fpy over other people’s ac¬
tions.
Emissary Vejfels, in Anatomy, the fame with thofe
more commonly called Excretory.
EMISSION, in Medicine, a term ufed chiefly to
denote the ejaculation of the femen or feed in the aft
of coition. See Coition and Generation.
EMMANUEL, or Immanuel, a Hebrew word
wrhich fignifies ‘ God with us.’ Ifaiah (viii. 14.), in
that celebrated prophecy, wdrerein he declares to Ahaz
the birth of the Mefliah, who was to be bom of a vir¬
gin, fays, 1 his child (hall be called, and really be, Em¬
manuel, that is, God with us. The fame prophet (viii.
8.) repeats the fame thing, w'hile he is fpeaking of the
enemy’s army, which, like a torrent, was to overflow
Judea. ‘ The ftretching out of his wings fhall fill the
breadth of thy land, O Emmanuel.’ The evangelift
Matthew (i. 23.) informs us, that this prophecy was
accompliflied in the birth of Chrill, born of the virgin
Mary, in whom the two natures divine and human
were united, and fo in this fenfe he was really Emma¬
nuel, or ‘ God with us.’
EMMERICK, a rich fortified town of Germany,
in the circle of Weflphalia, and duchy of Cleves. It
carries on a good trade with the Dutch, and both
Proteflants and Catholics have the free exercife of their
religion. The ftreets are neat and regular, and the
houfes tolerably built. It was taken by the French in
1672, and delivered to the eleftor of Brandenburg in
1673, under whofe jurifdiftion it now is. It is feated
near the Rhine. E. Long. 5. 29. N. Lat. 52. 5.
EMMIUS, Ubbo, born at Gretha in Eafl Friefh
land in 1547, was a very learned profeffor, and chofen
reftor of the college of Norden in 1579. This femi-
nary flourilhed exceedingly under his care •, and de¬
clined as vifibly after he was ejefted, in 1587, for re-
fufing to fubfcribe the Confeffion of Augfburg. The
year after, he was made reftor of the college of Leer ■
and when the city of Groningen confederated with the
United Provinces, the magillrates appointed him rec¬
tor of that college : which employment he filled with the
higheft repute near 20 years; until, the college being
erefted into an univerfity, he was the firft reftor, and
one of the chief ornaments of it by his leftures, till
his infirmities prevented his public appearance. His
wifdom was equal to his learning j fo that the gover¬
nor of Frielland and Groningen often confulted him,,
and feldom failed to follow7 his advice. He wrote
Vetus
j£ nmena.
gogues
I!
Emouy.
* Elm. of
Criticifm,
YOl. i. p.45
E M O [
Vetus Gro’da illujirata, 3 vols; Decades Rerum Freji-
carum j and many other valuable works. He died in
1625.
EMMENAGOGUES, in Medicine,
fiich remedies as promote the menltrual difcharge.
They are thus called from it “ in,” “ month,” xyai
duco, “ I lead,” becaufe their natural periods of flowing
are once a-month.
EMOLLIENTS, in Medicine and Pharmacy, are
fuch remedies as Iheath and foften the afperity of the
humours, and relax and fupple the folids at the fame
time.
EMOLUMENT, is properly applied to the profits
-arifing daily from an office or employ. I he word is
formed of the Latin emolumentam, which, according to
fome, primarily fignifies the profits redounding to the
miller from his mill; of molo, molere, “ to grind.”-—I he
patent, or other inftrument, whereby a perfon is pre¬
ferred to an office, gives him a right to enjoy all the
duties, honours, profits, and emoluments belonging
thereto.—Emolument is alfoufed, in a fomewhat greater
latitude, for profit or advantage in the general..
EMOTION and Passion, in the human mind, are
thus diflinguiffied by a celebrated writer *. An inter¬
nal motion or agitation of the mind, when it paffeth
away without defire, is denominated an emotion : when
<3efire follow’s, the motion or agitation is denominated
a pajjion. A fine face, for example, raifeth in me a
pleafant feeling : if that feeling vaniffi without produ¬
cing any effect, it is in proper language an emotion ;
but if the feeling, by reiterated views of the object, be¬
comes fufficiently ftrong to occafion defire, it lofes its
name of emotion, and acquires that of pajjion. The
fame holds in all the other paffions. Ihe painful feel¬
ing railed in a fpeftator by a flight injury done to a
,ltranger, being accompanied with no defire of revenge,
is termed an emotion} but that injury raifeth in the
ftranger a ftronger emotion, which being accompanied
with defire pf revenge, is a paffion. External expref-
lions of diftrefs produce in the fpeftator a painful feel¬
ing, which being fometimes fo flight as to pafs aw ay
without any effeft, is an emotion^ but if the feeling
be fo ftrong as to prompt defire of affording relief, it
is a paffion, and is termed pity. Envy is emulation in
excefs: if the exaltation of a competitor be barely
difagreeable, the painful feeling is an emotion j if it
produce defire to deprefs him, it is a paffion. See
Passion.
EMOUY, or Hia-men, an ifland and port of
China, under the jurifdiaion of the province of Fo-
KIEN.
The port is properly but an anchoring-place for
fliips, inclofed on one fide by the ifland from which it
takes its name, and on the other by the main-land .
but it is fo extenfive, that it can contain feveral thou-
fands of veffels} and the depth of its water is fo great,
that the largeft (hips may lie clofe to the ffiore with¬
out danger.
In the beginning of the prefent century it was
much frequented by European veffels *, but few' viiit
it at prefent, as all the trade is carried on at Canton.
The emperor keeps here a garrifon of 6 or 7000 men,
commanded by a Chinefe general. In entering this
road, a large rock muft be doubled which ftands at the
jpoufh pf it, and divides it almoft as the Mingant di-
32 ] E M O
vides the harbour of Breft. This rock is vifible, and Emonyy
rifes feveral feet above the furface of the water.
The ifland of Emouy is particularly celebrated on
account of the magnificence of its principal pagod,
confecrated to the deity Fo. 1 his temple is fituated
in a plain, terminated on one fide by the fea, and on
the other by a lofty mountain. Before it the fea,
flowing through different channels, forms a large fheet
of water which is bordered with turf of the moil beau¬
tiful verdure. The front of this edifice is 180 feet to
length, and its gate is adorned with figures in relief,
which are the ufual ornaments of the Chinefe archi-
tedlure. On entering, you find a vaft portico, with
an altar in the middle, on which is placed a gigantic
ftatue of gilt brafs, reprefenting the god Fo, fitting
crofs-legged. Four other ftatues are placed at the
corners of this portico, winch are 18 feet high, al¬
though they reprefent people fitting. Each of thefe
ftatues is formed from a fingle block of ftone. They
bear in their hands different fymbols wThich mark their
attributes, as formerly in Athens and Rome the trident
and caduceus diftinguiflied Neptune and. Mercury.
One holds a ferpent in his arms, which is twifted round
its body in feveral folds j the fecond has a bent bow
and a quiver} the twTo others prefent, one a kind of
battle-axe, and the other a guitar, or fome inftrument
of the fame kind.
After croffing this portico, you enter a fquare
outer court, paved with large gray ftones, the lead
of which is ten feet in length and four in breadth.
At the four fides of this court arife four pavilions,
which terminate in domes, and have a communica¬
tion with one another by means of a gallery which runs
quite round it. One of thefe contains a bell ten feet
in diameter} the wrooden-work which fupports this
heavy mafs cannot be fufficiently admired. In the other
is kept a drum of an enormous fize, which the bon¬
zes ufe to proclaim the days of new and full moon.
It muft be obferved, that the clappers of the Chinefe
bells are on the outfide, and made of wood in the form
of a mallet. The two other pavilions contain the or¬
naments of the temple, and often ferve to lodge travel¬
lers, whom the bonzes are obliged to receive. In the
middle of this court is a large tower, wrhich ftands by
itfelf, and terminates alfo in a dome, to which you af-
cend by a beautiful ftone ftair-cafe that winds round
it. This dome contains a temple remarkably neat j
the ceiling is ornamented with mofaic work, and the
walls are covered with ftone figures in relief, reprefent¬
ing animals and monfters. Ihe pillars which fupport
the roof of this edifice are of wood vamiffied } and on
feftivals are ornamented with fmall flags of different, co¬
lours. The pavement of the temple is formed of little
ftiells, and its different compartments prefent birds, but¬
terflies, flowers, &c.
The bonzes continually burn incenfe upon the altar,
and keep the lamps lighted, which hang from the
ceiling of the temple. At one extremity of the altar
ftands a brazen urn, which when ftruck fends foith a
mournful found : on the oppofite fide is a hollow ma¬
chine of wood, of an oval form, ufed for the fame pur-
pofe, which is to accompany with its found their voices
when they fing in praife of the tutelary idol of the pagod.
The god Pouffa is placed on the middle of this altar,
on a flower of gilt brafs, which ferves as a bafe, and
holds
E M P [ 33 ] E M P
Kmouy, holds a young child in his arms } feveral idols, which
Empale- are n0 Joubt fubaltern deities, are ranged around him,
nient‘ , and lliow by their attitudes their refpedt and venera¬
tion.
The bonzes have traced out on the walls of this
temple feveral hieroglyphical characters in praife of
Pouffa 5 there is alfo to be feen an hiftorical or allegori¬
cal painting in frefco, which reprefents a burning lake,
in which feveral men appear to be fwimming, fome car¬
ried by monfters* others furrounded by dragons and
winged ferpents. In the middle of the gulf rifes a
fteep rock, on the top of which the god is feated, hold¬
ing in his arms a child, who feems to call out to thofe
who are in the flames of the lake j but an old man,
with hanging ears and horns on his head, prevents them
from climbing to the fummit of the rock, and threatens
to drive them back with a large club. The bonzes are
at a lofs what anfwer to give, when any queftions are
alked them concerning this painting. Behind the al¬
tar is a kind of library, containing books which treat
of the worflup of idols.
On defcending from this dome you crofs the court,
and enter a kind of gallery, the walls of which are
•lined with boards } it contains 24 ftatues of gilt brafs,
reprefenting the fame number of philofophers, ancient
difciples of Confucius. At the end of this gallery
you find a large hall, which is the refectory of the
bonzes ; and after having traverfed a fpacious apart-
Inent, you at length enter the temple of Fo, to which
there is an afcent by a large ftone itaircafe. It is or¬
namented wuth vafes full of artificial flowers (a work
in which the Chinefe excel) j and here alfo are found
the fame kind of mufical inftruments as thofe mention¬
ed before. The ftatue of the god is not to be feen
but through a piece of black gauze, which forms a
kind of veil or curtain before the altar. The reft of the
pagod confifts of feveral large chambers, exceedingly
seat, but badly difpofed •, the gardens and pleafure
grounds are on the declivity of the mountain ; and a
number of delightful grottoes are cut out in the rock,
which afford an agreeable fhelter from the exceflive heat
of the fun.
There are feveral other pagods in the ifle of Emouy $
among which is one called The Pagod of the Ten Thou-
fund Stones, becaufe it is built on the brow of a moun¬
tain where there is a like number of little rocks, under
which the bonzes have formed grottoes and very plea-
fant covered feats. A certain rural fimplicity reigns
here, which captivates and delights.
Strangers are received by thefe bonzes with great
politenefs, and may freely enter their temples j but
they muft not attempt to gratify their curiofity fully,
nor to enter thofe apartments into which they are not
introduced, efpecially if they are accompanied by fuf-
picious perfons ; for the bonzes, who are forbid under
pain of fevere punifhment to have any intercourfe with
women, and who often keep them in private, might,
from fear of being difcovered, revenge themfelves for
too impertinent a curiofity.
EMPALEMENT, an ancient kind of puniftiment,
which confifted in thrufting a flake up the fundament.
The word comes from the French empaler, or the Ita¬
lian impalare; or rather, they are all alike derived
from the Latin pa/us, “ a flake,” and the prepofition
it), “ in or into.” We find mention of empaling in Ju-
Vol, VIIL Part L
venal. It was frequently pra&ifed in the time of Ne¬
ro, and continues to be fo in Turkey.
Empalemrnt of a flower, the fame with Calyx.
EMPANELLING. See Impanelling-.
EMPARLANCE. See Imparlance.
EMPEDOCLES, a celebrated philofopher and poet*
was born at Agrigentum, a city in Sicily. He followed
the Pythagorean philofophy, and admitted the metemp-
fychofis. He conftantly appeared with a crown of gold
on his head 5 to maintain* by this outward pomp, the
reputation he had acquired of being a very extraordi¬
nary man. Yet Ariftotle fays, that he was a great lover
of liberty, extremely averfe to ftate and command, and
that he even refufed a kingdom that wras offered him.
His principal work was a Treatife in verfe on the Na¬
ture and Principles of Things. Ariftotle, Lucretius,
and all the ancients, make the moft magnificent elogh
ums on his poetry and eloquence.
He taught rhetoric 5 and often alleviated the anxie¬
ties of his mind, as well as the pains of his body, with
mufic. It is reported, that his curiofity to vifit the
flames of the crater of /Etna proved fatal to him.
Some maintain that he wilhed it to be believed that
he was a god $ and that his death might be unknown, he
threw himfelf into the crater and perifhed in the fl"mes»
His expectations, however, were fruftrated 5 ana the
volcano, by throwing up one of his fandals, difcovered
to the world that Empedocles had perilhed by fire.
Others report that he lived to an extreme old age :
and that he was drowned in the fea about 440 years
before the Chriftian era.
EMPEROR, (Imperator), among the ancient Ro¬
mans, fignified a general of an army, who, for fome ex¬
traordinary fuccefs, had been complimented with this
appellation. Tims Auguftus, having obtained no lefs
than twenty famous victories, wTas as often fainted wnth
the title emperor ; and Titus Was denominated emperor
by his atmy after the reduCHon of Jerufalem.
Afterwards it came to denominate an abfolute mo¬
narch or fupreme commander of an empire. In this
fenfe Julius Ccefar was called emperor: the fame title
defcended with the dignity to OClavius Auguftus,
Tiberius, and Caligula 5 and afterwards it became
eleCtive.
In ftri&nefs, the title emperor does not, and cannot,
add any thing to the rights of fovereignty : its effeCf
is only to give precedence and pre-eminence above
other fovereigns and as fuch, it raifi.s thofe invefted
with it to the fummit of all human greatnefs.
It is difputed, whether or not emperors have the
power of difpofing of the regal title-. It is true, they
have fometimes taken upon them to ereCt kingdoms j
and thus it is that Bohemia and Poland are faid to
have been raifed to the dignity : thus alfo, the empe¬
ror Charles the Bald, in the year 877, gave Provence
to Bofon, putting the diadem on his head, and decree¬
ing him to be called “ king,” ut moreprifcornm imperato-
rum regibus videretur dominari. Add, that the emperor
Leopold ereCted the ducal Pruflia into a kingdom in
favour of the eleCtor of Brandenburg 5 and though fe¬
veral of the kings of Europe refufed for fome time to
acknowledge him in that capacity, yet by the treaty
of Utrecht in 1712 they all came in.
In the eaft, the title and quality of emperor are
more frequent than they are among us j thus, the fo-
E vereign
i
Ernpale
rcent
Emperor
E M P C 34 1 E M P
Emperor, rereign princes of China, Japan-, Mogul, Perfia, &c. are
a|^ ernperors of China, Japan, &c. In the year 1723,
the czar of Mufcovy affumed the title of emperor of all
Rufia, and procured himfelf to be recognized as inch
by molt of the princes and dates of Europe.
In the Weft, the title has been a long time reftrain-
ed to the emperors of Germany. The firft who bore
it was Charlemagne, who had the title of emperor con¬
ferred on him by Pope Leo III. though he had all the
power before. The imperial prerogatives were for¬
merly much more extenfive than they are at prefent.
At the clofe of the Saxon race, A. D. 1024, they ex-
ercifed the right of conferring all the eccleiiaftical be¬
nefices in Germany ; of receiving the revenues of them
during a vacancy j of lucceeding to the eftefls ol in-
teftate ecclefiaftics; of confirming or annulling the
eleftions of the popes’, of aftembling councils, and of
appointing them to decide concerning the affairs of
the church ; of conferring the title of king on their
vaifals ; of granting vacant fiefs j of receiving the re¬
venues of the empire ; of governing Italy as its. pro¬
per fovereigns $ of erecfting free cities, and eftabliihSng
fairs in them ; of affembling the diets of the empire,
and fixing the time of their duration •, of coining mo¬
ney, and conferring the fame privilege on the dates
of the empire 5 and of adminiftering both high and low
juftice ■within the territories of the different dates :
but in the year 1437, they were reduced to the right
of conferring all dignities and titles, except the privi¬
lege of being a date of the empire •, of preces primarice,
or of appointing once during their reign a dignitary
in each chapter or religious houfe $ of granting dif-
penfations with refpedl to the age of majority j of
erefting cities, and conferring the privilege of coining
money ; of calling the meetings of the diet, and pre-
fiding in them.
To which fome have added, 1. That all the princes
and dates of Germany are obliged to do them homage,
and fwear fidelity to them. 2. That they, or their
generals, have a right to command the forces of all
the princes of the empire, when united together. 3.
That they receive a kind of tribute from ail the prin¬
ces and dates of the empire, for carrying on a war
which concerns the whole empire, which is called the
Roman month. For the reft, there is not a foot of
land or territory annexed to his title : but ever fince
the reign of Charles IV. the. emperors have depended
entirely on their hereditary dominions as the only
fource of their power, and even of their fubfiftence.
See Diet and Exectors.
The kings of France ■were anciently alfo called em¬
perors, at the time when they reigned with their fons,
whom they affociated to the crown. Thus Hugh Ca¬
pet, having affociated his fon Robert, took the title
of emperor,, and Robert that of king ; under which
titles they are mentioned in the Hiftory of the Coun¬
cil of Rheims, by Gerbert, &c. King Robert is alfo
called emperor of the French by Helgau of Fleury.
Louis le Gros, upon affociating his fon, did the fame.
In the Firft Regifter of the King’s Charters, fob 166,
are found letters of Louis le, Gros, dated in 1116, in
favour of Raymond bifhop of Maguelonne,, wherein he
ftyles himfelf, Ludovicus, Dei ordinante providentia,
Francorutn imperator augufus. The kings of England
gad Ukewife anciently the title of emperors, as ap¬
pears from a charter of King Edgar: Ego Edgarus An- Empetrum
gior 'in bafleus, omniumque regum tnfularum oceam qua; tl.
Rritanniam cireum, acenl, itfe. imperator et dominus. Empire. ^
EMPETRUM, BERRY-BEARING HEATH, a genus
of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs. In the na¬
tural method this genus is ranked by Linnaeus under
the <;4th order, Mifcellanecc. See Botany Index,
EMPHASIS, in Rhetoric, a particular ftrefs cf
the voice and aftion, laid on fuch parts or words of the
oration as the orator wants to inforce upon his au¬
dience. See Declamation ; Oratory, Part IV. 5
and Reading.
EMPHYSEMA, in Surgery, a windy tumor, ge¬
nerally occadoned by a fradlure of the ribs, and form¬
ed by the air infinuating itfelf, by a fmall wound, be¬
tween the fkin and rnufcles, into the fubftance of the
cellular or adipofe membrane, fpreading itfelf after¬
wards up to the neck, head, belly, and other parts,
much after the manner in which butchers blow up their
veal.
EMPIRE (imperiumf in political geography, a
large extent of land, under the jurifdihtion or govern¬
ment of an emperor. See Emperor.
In ancient hiftory we read of four great monarchies
or empires, viz. that of the Babylonians, Chaldeans,
and Affyrians ; that of the Medes and Pernans j that
of the Greeks j and that of the Romans. The firfti
fubfifted from the time of Nimrod, who founded it in
the year of the world 1800, according to the compu¬
tation of Uther, to Sardanapalus their laft king in 3257,
and confequently lafted above 1450 years. The empire
of the Medes commenced under Arbaces, in the year of
the world 3257, and was united to that of the Baby¬
lonians and Perfians under Cyrus, in 3468, and it
clofed with the death of Darius Codomannus in 3674.
The Grecian empire lafted only during the reign of
Alexander the Great, beginning in the year of the world
3674, and terminating with the death of this conque¬
ror in 3681, his conquefts being divided among his
captains. The Roman empire commenced with Julius
Caefar, when he was made perpetual diftator, in the
year of the city 708, and of the world 3956, 48 years
before Chrift. The feat of the empire was removed to
Byzantium by Conftantine, in the year of our Lord
334^ the eaft and weft were then united under the title
of the Roman empire, till the Romans proclaimed Char¬
lemagne emperor, A. D. 800. From this epocha the
eaft and weft formed two feparate empires; that of the
eaft, governed by Greek emperors, commenced A. D.
302 : and being gradually weakened, terminated under
Conftantine Palseologus in 1453. The weftern empire
was afterwards known by the appellation of the empire,
or German empire.
Antiquaries diftinguifh between the medals of the
upper, and lower or bar, empire.—The curious only-
value thofe of the upper empire, which commences
with Csefar or Auguftus, and ends in the year of
Chrift 260. The lower empire comprehends near
1200 years, reckoning down to the deftrudlion of Con-
ftantinople in 1453.—They ufually diftinguifti two
ages, or periods, of the lower empire : the firft begin¬
ning where the upper ends, viz. with Aurelian, and
ending with Anaftalius, including 200 years 5: the fe-
cond beginning with Anaftafius, and ending with the
Palaeologi, which includes icoo years.,.
Empire,
E M P t 35 1 ENA
Empire EMPIRE, or T/ie empire, ufed abfolutely and with-
II out any addition, iignifies the empire of Germany :
Emp'jimm. ca^ecj jn juridical a&s and laws, The holy Roman
empire. It had its beginning with the ninth cen¬
tury j Charlemagne being created firft emperor by
Pope Leo III. who put the crown on his head in St
Peter’s church on Chriitmas-day in the year 800.
Authors are at a lols under what form of govern¬
ment to range the empire. Some of them maintain it
to be a monarchical if ate, becaufe all the members
thereof are obliged to alk the inveftiture of their Hates
of the emperor, and to take an oath of fidelity to him.
Others confidlr it as a republic, or ariilocratic ifate, be¬
caufe the emperor cannot refolve or determine any thing
without the concurring fuffrages of the princes. It is
added, that if they require inveftiture from, and fwear
fealty to him, it is only as head of the republic, and in
the name of the republic, and not in his own; juft as at
Venice every thing is tranfadled in name of the doge.
Others will have the empire to be a monarcho-arifto-
cratic ftate, i. e. a mixture of monarchy and ariftocra-
cy ; becaufe, though the emperor in many cafes feems
to aft fovereignly, yet his decrees and refolves have no
force, in cafe the ftate refufe to confirm them. Laftly,
it has been called an arifto-democratic ftate, becaufe the
diet, wherein the fovereignty is lodged, is compofed of
princes and the deputies of the cities; and is divided
into three orders or bodies, called colleges, viz. the col¬
lege of eleftors, the college of princes, and the college
of cities.
We fay, diet of the empire, circles of the empire,
fiefs of the empire, princes of the empire, eftates of the
empire, members of the empire, capitulations of the
empire. See Diet, Circle, Prince, Capitula¬
tion, &c.
The ftates or eftates of the empire are of two kinds,
mediate and immediate. The immediate ftates are thofe
who hold immediately of the empire: Whereof, again,
there are two kinds; the firft, fuch as have feats and
voices in the imperial diet 5 the fecond, fuch as have
none. The mediate ftates are thofe who hold of the
immediate.
The ftates which now compofe the empire are, The
princes of the empire, the counts of the empire, the
free barons of the empire, the prelates of the empire,
the princeftes or abbeffes of the empire, the nobles of
the empire, and the imperial cities.
EMPIRIC, an appellation given to thofe phyfi-
cians who conduft themfelves wholly by their owm ex¬
perience, without ftudying phyfic in a regular way.
Some even ufe the term, in a ftill worfe fenfe, for a
quack who prefcribes at random, without being at all
acquainted wdth the principles of the art.
EM PIS, a genus of infefts belonging to the order
Diptera. See Entomology Index.
EMPL ASTER. See Plaster.
EMPORIaE, a double city of the Hither Spain,
near the Pyrenees 5 feparated by a wall; one part oc¬
cupied by the Greeks of Phocsea, whence originally
are the Maflilienfes; the other, by native Spaniards, to
whom wras added by Auguftus a Roman colonv. Now
Ampurias, in Catalonia. E. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 42.
15-
EMPORIUM, in Medicine, is often ufed for the
common fenfory in the brain. See Brain.
Emporium, in Ancient Geography, twTo cities near Emporium
Placentia j one wTell fortified, and guarded by a ftrong H
garrifon, at which Hannibal met a repulfe : the other,. ^•naniv' *,
Hannibal took and plundered. Now thought to be
Pont-Nura, in the duchy of Placentia.
EMPRESS, the fpoufe of an emperor, or a woman
wrho governs an empire. See Emperor.
EMPROSTHOTONOS, a fpecies of convulfion,
wherein the head bends forward.
EMPYiEMA, in Medicine, a diforder wherein pu¬
rulent matter is contained in the thorax or bre iftj after
an inflammation and fuppuration of the lungs and pleu¬
ra. See Medicine Index.
EMPYREAL air. So Dr Higgins denominates
that which Dr Prieftley calls dspIdogijlicated air, and
other philofophers vital or pure air.
EMPYREUM, a term ufed by divines for thd
higheft heaven, where the blefied enjoy the beatific vi-
fion. I he word is formed of tv and Trv*Jire^ becaufe
of its fplendour.
EM PYREUMA, in Chemijlry, fignifies 3 very dif-
agreeable fmell produced from burnt oils. It is of¬
ten perceived in diftillations of animal as well as ve¬
getable fubftances, when they are expofed to a quick
fire.
EMRODS. See Hemorrhoids.
EMULATION, a generous ardour kindled by the
praife-worthy examples of others, which impels us to
imitate, to rival, and, if poflible, to excel them. This
paflion involves in it efteem of the perfon whofe attain¬
ments or conduft we emulate, of the qualities and ac¬
tions in wrhich we emulate him, and a defire of refem-
blance, together with a joy fpringing from the hope of
fuccefs. The word comes originally from the Greek
ufuXXx, dijpute, contejl • whence the Latin, ccmulus, and
thence our emulation.
Plato obferves of emulation, that it is the daughter
of envy 5 if fo, there is a great difference betwTeen the
mother and the offspring ; the one is a virtue and the
other a vice. Emulation admires great aftions, and
ftrives to imitate them ; envy refufes them the praifes
that are their due •, emulation is generous, and only
thinks of furpaflmg a rival; envy is low, and only feeks
to leffen him. Perhaps, therefore, it would be more
juft to fuppofe emulation the daughter of admiration :
admiration, however, is a principal ingredient in the
compofition of it.
EMULGENT, or renal, arteries, thofe which
fiipply the kidneys with blood; being fometimes Angle,
fometimes double, on each fide. See Anatomy Index.
EMULSION, a foft liquid remedy,, of a colour and
confiftence refembling milk. See Pharmacy.
EMUNCIORY, in Anatomy, a general term for
all thofe parts which ferve to carry off the excrementi-
tious parts of the blood and other humours of the bo¬
dy. Such more efpecially are the kidneys, bladder,
and moft of the glands.
ENALLAGE, in Grammar, is when one word is
fubftituted for another of the fame part of fpeech i A
fubftantive for an adjeftive ; as exercitus viSlor, for
viEloriofus ; fceltis, for, fcelejlus: A primitive for a de¬
rivative ; as Dardana anna, for Dardania: An aftive
for a paffive 5 as nox humida cedo preecipitat, for prceci~
pitatur, &e.
ENAMEL, in general, is a vitrified matter betwixt
E 2 the
ffnameT,
Er-ime]-
mfr.
ENA [ 36 ] ENA
tlie part3 of which is difperfed fome unvitrified matter :
hence enamel ought to have all the properties of glafs
except tranfparency.
Enamels have for their balls a pure cryltal glafs or
frit, ground up with a fine calx of lead and tin pre¬
pared for the purpofe, with the addition ufually of
white fait of tartar. Thefe ingredients baked toge¬
ther are the matter of all enamels, which are made by
adding colours of this or that kind in pow7der to this
matter, and melting or incorporating them together in
a furnace.
For white enamel, Neri (De Arte Vitriar.') di¬
rects only manganefe to be added to the matter which
conllitutes the balls. For azure, zafter mixed with
calx of brafs. For green, calx of brafs with fcales of
iron, or with crocus martis. For black, zaffer with
manganefe or with crocus martis j or manganefe with
tartar. For red, manganefe, or calx of copper and
red tartar. For purple, manganefe with calx of brafs.
For yellow7, tartar and raanganefe. And for violet-co¬
loured enamel, manganefe with thrice-calcined brafs.
In making thefe enamels, the following general cau¬
tions are neceffary to be obferved. I. That the pots
mull be glazed with white glafs, and mult be fuch as
will bear the fire. 2. That the matter of enamels mult
be very nicely mixed with the colours. 3. When the
enamel is good, and the colour well incorporated, it
mult be taken from the fire with a pair of tongs. 4. The
general wray of making the coloured enamel is this:
Pow7der, fift, and grind, all the colours very nicely,
and firlt mix them with one another, and then with the
common matter of enamels : then fet them in pots In a
furnace 5 and when they are wTell mixed and incorpo¬
rated, call them into w-ater $ and when dry, fet them
in a furnace again to melt 5 and when melted, take a
proof of it. If too deep-coloured, add more of the
common matter of enamels j and if too pale, add more
of the colours.
Enamels are ufed either in counterfeiting or imita¬
ting precious Hones, in painting in enamel j or by en-
amellers, jew7ellers, and goldfmiths, in gold, filver,
and other metals. The twro firlt kinds are ufually pre¬
pared by the workmen themfelves, w7ho are employed
in thefe arts. That ufed by jewellers, &c. is brought
to us chiefly from Venice or Holland, in little cakes of
different fizes, commonly about four inches diameter,
having the mark of the maker ftruck upon it with a
puncheon. It pays is. 7i%Iod- the pound ch impor¬
tation, and draws back is. 5-ry^d. at the rate of 4s.
per pound.
ENAMELLING, the art of laying enamel upon
metals, as gold, filver, copper, &c. and of melting it at
the fire, or of making divers curious works in it at a
lamp. It fignifies alfo to paint in enamel.
The method of painting in Enamel. This is per¬
formed on plates of gold or filver, and moll common¬
ly of copper, enamelled with the white enamel j wdiere-
en they paint with colours which are melted in the fire,
where they take a brightnefs and luftre like that of
glafs. This painting is the mofl: prized of all for its
peculiar brightnefs and vivacity, which is very per¬
manent, the force of its colours not being effaced or
fullied with time as in other painting, and continuing
always as frefh as when it came out of the workmen’s
hands. It is ufual in miniature j it being the more
difficult the larger it is, by reafon of certain accidents Enamel-
it is liable to in the operation. Enamelling fliould on- llng-
ly be praftifed on plates of gold, the other metals being v ‘
lefs pure : copper, for inftance, fcaks with the appli¬
cation, and yields fumes ; and filver turns the yellow
white. Nor mult the plate be made flat; for in fuch
cafe, the enamel cracks; to avoid which, they ufually
forge them a little round or oval, and not too thick.
The plate being well and evenly forged, they ufually
begin the operation by laying on a couch of white en¬
amel (as we obferved above) on both fides, which pre¬
vents the metal from fwelling and bliftering j and this
firlt layer ferves for the ground of all the other colours.
The plate being thus prepared, they begin at firlt by
drawing out exactly the fubje£t to be painted with red
vitriol, mixed with oil of fpike, marking all parts of
the defign very lightly with a fmall pencil. After this,
the colours (which are to be before ground with water
in a mortar of agate extremely fine, and mixed with
oil of fpike fomewhat thick) are to be laid on, obfer-
ving the mixtures and colours that agree to the diffe¬
rent parts of the fubjeft ; for which it is neceffary to
underfland painting in miniature. But here the work¬
man muft be very cautious of the good or bad qualities
of the oil of fpike he employs to mix his colours with,
for it is very fubjeft to adulterations.
Great care mull likewife be taken, that the leall dull
imaginable come not to your colours while you are ei¬
ther painting or grinding them 5 for the leaft fpeck,
when it is worked up with it, and when the wrork comes
to be put into the reverberatory to be made red hot, will
leave a hole, and fo deface the wrork.
When the colours are all laid, the painting mull be
gently dried over a flow fire to evaporate the oil, and
the colours afterwards melted to incorporate them with
the enamel, making the plate red-hot in a fire like what
the enamellers ufe. Afterwards that part of the paint¬
ing muft be palfed ever again which the fire hath any
thing effaced, ftrengthening the fliades and colours,
and committing it again to the fire, obferving the fame
method as before, which is to be repeated till the work
be finilhed.
Method of Enamelling by the Lamp. Moll enamel¬
led w7orks are wrought at the fire of a lamp, in which,
inflead of oil, they put melted horfe-greafe, which
theyfcalled caballine oil. The lamp, which is of copper,
or w7hite iron, confifts of tw7o pieces 5 in one of which
is a kind of oval plate, fix inches long, and two high,
in which-- they put the oil and the cotton. The other
part, called the box, in which the lamp is inclofed,
ferves only to receive the oil which boils over by the
force of the fire. This lamp, or, where feveral artifts
work together, two or three more lamps are placed on
a table of proper height. Under the table, about the
middle of its height, is a double pair, of organ-bellows,
which one of the workmen moves up and dowm with
his foot to quicken the flame of the lamps, wdiich are
by this means excited to an incredible degree of vehe¬
mence. Grooves made w7ith a gauge in the upper part of
the table, and covered with parchment, convey the wind
of the bellows to a pipe of glafs before each lamp j and.
that the enamellers may not be incommoded with the
heat of the lamp, every pipe is covered at fix inches di-
flance with a little tin plate, fixed into the table by a
wooden handle. When the w7orks do not require a long
blaftj.
E N C
Eoarne!- blaft, they only ufe a glafs pipe, into which they blow
1*’'? with their mouth.
Fncauftic ^ increclible to wThat a degree of finenefs and dc-
Painting. licacy the threads of enamel may be drawn at the
v~~y——1 lamp. Thofe which are ufed in making falfe tufts of
feathers are fo fine, that they may be wound on the
reel like filk or thread. The fiflitious jets of all co¬
lours, ufed in embroideries, are alfo made of enamel ■,
and that with fo much art, that every fmall piece hath
its hole to pafs the thread through wherewith it is
fewed. Thefe holes are made by blowing them in¬
to long pieces; which they afterwards cut with a pro¬
per tool.
It is feldom that the Venetian or Dutch enamels are
ufed alone : they commonly melt them in an iron ladle,
with an equal part of glafs or cryfial; and when the two
matters are in perfect fufion, they draw it out into
threads of different fizes, according to the nature of
the wrork. They take it out of the ladle while liquid,
with two pieces of broken tobacco-pipes, which they
extend from each other at arm’s length. If the thread
is required Hill longer, then another workman holds
one end, and continues to draw it out, while the firft
holds the enamel to the flame. Thofe threads, when
cold, are cut into what lengths the workman thinks
fit, but commonly from 10 to 12 inches : and as they
are all round, if they are required to be flat, they mutt
be drawn through a pair of pinchers wdiile yet hot.
They have alfo another iron inftrument in form of
pinchers, to draw out the enamel by the lamp when it
is to be worked and difpofed in figures. Lattly, they
have glafs tubes of various fizes, ferving to blow the
enamel into various figures, and preferve the neceffary
vacancies therein as alfo to fpare the fluff, and form
the contours. When the cnameller is at work, he fits
before the lamp with his foot on the ftep that moves on
the bellows 5 and holding in his left hand the work to
be enamelled, or the brafs or iron wires the figures are
to be formed on, he diredls with his right the enamel
thread, which he holds to the flame w ith a management
and patience equally furprifing. There are few things
they cannot make or reprefent with enamel : and fome
figures are as well finilhed, as if done by the moft Ikil-
ful carvers.
ENARTHROSIS, in Anatomy, a fpecies of Diar-
THROSIS.
ENCAiNIA, the name of three feveral fettivals ce¬
lebrated by the JewTs in memory of the dedication, or
rather purification, of the temple, by Judas Maccabae-
us, Solomon, and Zorobbabel. This term is likewife
ufed in church hittory for. the dedication of Chriftian
churches.
ENCAMPMENT, the pitching of a Camp.
ENCAN THIS, in Surgery, a tubercle arifing either*
from the caruncula lachrymalis, or from the adjacent
red Ikin j fometimes fo large, as to obftruft not only
the punfta lachrymalia,.but alfo part of the fight or pu¬
pil itfelf. See Surgery.
ENCAUSTIC and Encaustum, the fame with
enamelling and enamel. See Enamelling and Ena¬
mel.
Encaustic Fainting, a method of painting made ufe
of by the ancients, in w'hich wax wras employed to give
a glofs to their colours, and to preferve them from the
injuries of the air.
3 *
l ?7 } E N c
This ancient art, after having been long loft, was Encauftie
rcftored by Count Caylus, a member of the Academy ^ Painting..^
of Infcriptions in France 5 and the method of painting v
in wax w^as announced to the Academy of Painting
and Belles Lettres in the year 1753 ; though M*,
Bachelier, the author of a treatife De FHiJioire et du
Secret de la Peinture en Cire, had actually painted a
pifture in wax in 1749 *, and he was the firft wdio
communicated to the public the method of performing
the operation of inuftion, wdiich is the principal cha-
racleriftic of the encauftic painting. The Count kept
his method a fecret for fome time, contenting himfelf
with exhibiting a pifture at the Louvre in 1754, re-
prelenting the head of Minerva, painted in the man¬
ner of the ancients, which excited the curiofity of the
public, and was very much admired. In the interval of
fufpenfe, feveral attempts were made to recover the an¬
cient method of painting. The firft fcheme adopted
vras that of melting wax and oil of turpentine toge¬
ther, and ufing this compofition as a vehicle for mix¬
ing and laying on the colours. But this method did
not explain Pliny’s meaning, as the wax is not burnt in
this way of managing it. In another attempt, wdiich
was much more agreeable to the hiftorian’s defcription
of encauftic painting, the wax was melted with ftrong
lixivium of fait of tartar, and with this the colours,
were ground. When the pi (Sure was finiftied, it was
gradually prefented to the fire, fo as to melt the wax;
which was thus diffufed through all the particles of
the colours, fo that they wrere fixed to the ground,
and fecured from the accefs of air or moifture. But
the method of Count Caylus is much more Ample : the
cloth or wood wdiich he defigned for the bafis of his
picture, is waxed over, by only rubbing it Amply with
a piece of bees-wax 5 the wood or cloth, ftretched on
a frame, being held horizontally over, or perpendicu¬
larly before a fire, at fuch a diftance, that the wax
might gradually melt, whilft it is rubbed on, diffufe
itfelf, penetrate the body, and fill the interftices of the
texture of the cloth, which, when cool, is fit to
paint upon j but as water-colours, or thofe that are
mixed up with common water, wdll not adhere to the
wax, the whole pidlure is to be firft rubbed over
with Spanifti chalk or white, and then the colours are
applied to it 5 when the pifture is dry, it is put near
the fire, whereby the wax melts, and abforbs all the
colours.
Mr. J. H. Muntz, in a treatife on this fubjeef, has
propofed feveral improvements in the art of encauftic
painting. When the painting is on cloth, he direfts
it to be prepared by ftretching it on a frame, and rub¬
bing one fide feveral times over with a piece of bees¬
wax, or virgin wax, till it is covered with a coat of
wax of confiderable thickncfs. In fine linen, this is
the only operation neceffary previous to painting $
but coarfe cloth mutt be rubbed gently on the unwax¬
ed fide with a pumice-ftone, to take off all thofe knots
which would prevent the free and accurate working
of the pencil. Then the fubjeft is to be painted on the
umvaxed fide with colours prepared and tempered with
wrater •, and when the piflure is finilhed, it muft be
brought near the fire, that the wax may melt and fix
the colours. I his method, howrever, can only be ap¬
plied to cloth or paper, through the fubftance of
w7hich the wrax may pals j but in wrood, ftone, metals,
or
E N C t 38 ] E N C
•Encauftic or plainer, the fornier method of Count Caylus muft be
( Painting. 0bferved.
]YIr Muntz has aifo difcovered a method of forming
grounds for painting with crayons, and fixing thefe, as
well as water-colours employed with the pencil. On
the unwaxed fide of a linen cloth, ftretched and waxed
as before, lav an even and thick coat of the colour pro¬
per for the ground •, having prepared this colour by
mixing fome proper pigment with an equal quantity
•of chalk, and tempering them with water. When the
colour is dry, bring the pidlure to the fire, that the
wrax may melt, pafs through the cloth, and fix the
ground. An additional quantity of wax may be ap¬
plied to the back of the picture, if that which was
firft rubbed on fhould not be fufficient for the body of
colour j but as this muft be laid on without heat, the
W'ax Ihould be diffolved in oil of turpentine, and ap¬
plied with a brulh, and the canvas be again expofed to
the fire, that the frelh fupply of wax may pafs through
the cloth, and be abforbed by the colour *, and thus a
firm and good body ivill be formed for working on
with the crayons. If cloth and paper are joined to¬
gether, the cloth muft be firft fixed to the draining
frame, and then the paper muft be palled to it with
a compofition of pafte made with wheaten flour, or
ftarch and water, and about a twelfth part of its weight
of common turpentine. The turpentine muft be add¬
ed to the pafte when it is almoft fufficiently boiled,
and the compofition well ftirred, and left to fimmer
over the fire for five or fix minutes : let wax be diffbl-
ved in oil of turpentine to the confidence of a thin
pafte : and when the cloth and paper are dry, let them
be held near a fire ) and with a brufh lay a coat of the
■wax and turpentine on both fides the joined cloth and
paper, in fuch a degree of thicknefs, that both furfa- es
may fliine throughout without any appearance of dull
fpots. Then expofe the cloth to the fire, or to the
fun } by which means the oil will evaporate, and the
wax become folid, and be fit to receive any com¬
pofition of colour for a ground, which is to be laid
on as above direfled in the cafe of cloth without
paper.
Almoft all the colours that are ufed in oil-painting
may be alfo applied in the encauftic method. Mr
Muntz objecls, indeed, to brown, light pink, and un¬
burnt terra di Sienna; becaufe thefe, on account of
their gummy or ftony texture, will not admit fuch a
cohefion with the wax as will properly fix them 5 but
other colours which cannot be admitted in oil painting,
as red lead, red orpiment, cryftals of verdegris, and
red precipitate of mercury, may be ufed here. The
crayons ufed in encauftic painting are the fame with
thofe ufed in the common way of crayon painting, ex¬
cepting thofe that in their compofition are too tena¬
cious j and the method of ufing them is the fame in
both cafes.
The encauftic painting has many peculiar advan¬
tages : though the colours have not the natural varnifh
or Ihining which they acquire with oil, they have all
the ftrength of paintings in oil, and all the airinefs of Encauftic
water-colours, without partaking of the apparent Eamt ng.^
character or defers of either : they may be looked at
in any light and in any fituation, without any falfe
glare : the colours are firm, and will bear walking j and
a pidlure, after having been finoked, and then expoled
to the dew, becomes as clean as if it had been but juft
painted. It may alfo be retouched at pleafure with¬
out any detriment to the colours *, for the new colours
will unite with the old ones, without fpots, as is the
cafe in common fize painting j nor is it neceffary to
rub the places to be touched with oil as in oil pidlures j
it is not liable to crack, and eafily repaired, if it Ihould
chance to fuffer any injury. The duration of this
painting is alfo a very material advantage j the colours
are not liable to fade and change j no damp can affefit
them, nor any corrofive fubftance injure them j nor
can the colour fall off in Ihivers from the canvas.
However notwithftanding all thele and other advan¬
tages enumerated by the Abbe Mazeas and Mr Muntz,
this art has not yet been much pradliled. Many of
thefe properties belong to a much higher fpecies of en¬
cauftic painting afterwards difcovered in England, the
colours of which are fixed by a very intenie heat j nor
are the colours or grounds on which they are laid
liable to be diffolved or corroded by any chemical men-
ftruum, nor, like the glaffy colours of enamel, to run
out of the drawing on the fire. What this method
confifts in will appear from the following account com¬
municated in a letter from Jofiah Colebrooke to the
earl of Macclesfield, prefident of the Royal Society ia
1759.
“ The art of painting with burnt wTax (fays he)
has long been loft to the warrld. The ufe of it to paint¬
ers in the infancy of the art of painting rvas of the
utmoft confequence. Drying oil being unknown, they
had nothing to preferve their colours entire from the
injury of damps and the heat of the fun : a varnilh of
fome fort was therefore neceffary j but they being un¬
acquainted wdth diftilled fpirits, could not, as wTe now
do, diffolve gums to make a tranfparent coat for their
pictures : this invention therefore of burnt wax fupplied
that defedl to them •, and with this manner of painting
the chambers and other rooms in their houfes were
furnilhed : this Pliny calls cncanjhim, and wTe encaujiic
painting.
“ The following experiments which I have the ho¬
nour to lay before your Lordfliip and the Society,
were occafioned by the extraft of a letter from the
Abbe Mazeas, tranflated by Dr Parfons, and publiflied
in the fecond part of the 49th volume of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadfiions, N° 100. concerning the ancient
method of painting with burnt wax, revived by Count
Caylus.
“ The count’s method was, 1. To rub the cloth or
board defigned for the pidlure fimply over with bees¬
wax. 2. To lay on the colours mixed w ith common
water : but as the colours will not adhere to the wax,
the whole picture wTas firft rubbed over with (a) Spa-
nifh
(a) “ Spanilh chalk is called by Dr Parfons, in a note, Spanifl) white. This is a better kind of whitening
than the common, and wras the only w hite that had the name of Spanijh annexed to it that I could procure, though
I inquired for it at moft if not all the colour (hops in town.
f “My
E N C, [ 39 1 E N C
EncaufUc nilli chalk, and then the colours are ufed. 3. When
Painting, pi(£tur£ is dry, it is put near the fire, whereby the
v wax melts, and abforbs all the colours.
“ Exp. 1. A piece of oak board was rubbed over
with bees-wax, firfi: again it the grain of the wood, and
then with the grain, to fill up all the pores that re¬
mained after it had been planed, and afterwards was
rubbed over with as much dry Span!fit white as could
be made to flick on it. This, on being painted (the co¬
lours mixed with water only), fo clogged the pencil,
and mixed fo unequally with the ground, than it was
impofiible to make even an outline, but what was fo
much thicker in one part than another, that it would
not bear fo much as the name of painting j neither
had it any appearance of a pifture. However, to pur-
fue the experiment, this was put at a diftance from the
fire, on the hearth, and the wax melted by flow de¬
grees : but the Spanifh white (though laid as fmooth
as fo foft' a body would admit, before the colour was
laid on), on melting the wax into it, was not futficient
to hide the grain of the wood, nor (how the colours by
a proper whitenefs of the ground ; the wax, in rubbing
on the board, was unavoidably thicker in fome parts
than in others, and the Spaniflr white the fame : on
this I lufpefled there rnuft be fome miflake in the Spa-
nilh white, and made the inquiry mentioned in the
note (a).
“ To obviate the inequality of the ground in the
firfl: experiment.
‘ Exp. 2. A piece of old wainfcot (oak-board) -)th
of an inch thick 5 which, having been part of an old
drawer, was not likely to fiirink on being brought near
the fire : this was fmoothed with a fifli-fldn; made quite
warm before the fire *, and then, with a brulh dipoed
in white wax, melted in an earthen pipkin, fmeared all
over, and applied to the fire again. That the wax might
be equally thick in all parts of the board, a ground
was laid (on the waxed board) wdth levigated chalk
mixed with gum-water (viz. gum-arabic diffolved in
water) : When it was dry, I painted it with a kind of
landfcape ; and purfuing the method laid down by Count
Caylus, brought it gradually to the fire. I fixed the
pi&ure on a fire-fcreen, which would preferve the heat,
and communicate it to the back part of the board. This
was placed firfl: at the diftance of three feet from the
fire, and brought forwards by flow degrees, till it came
w ithin one foot of the fire, which made the wax fwell
and bloat up the pi&ure ; but as the chalk did not ab-
forb the wax, the pi&ure fell from the board and left
k quite bare.
“ Exp., 3. I mixed three parts white wax, and one
part white refin, hoping the tenacity of the refin might
preferve the piclure. This was laid on a board heated
wdth a brulh as in the former j and the ground was
chalk prepared as before. This w'as placed horizontal¬
ly on an iron box, charged with a hot heater, ihift-
mg it from time to time, that the wax and refin might
penetrate the chalk ; and hoping from this pofition,
that the ground, bloated by melting the wax, would
fubfide into its proper placoj but this, like the other, Encauftfc
came from the board, and would not at all adhere. Painting.
“ Exp. 4. Prepared chalk four drams, white wax, v
white refin, of each a dram, burnt alabafter half a dram,
were all powdered together and fifted, mixed with fpi-
rit of moiaffes inftead of water, and put for a ground
on a board fmeared with w7ax and refin, as in Exp. 3,
This was alfo placed horizontally on a box-iron as the
former: the picture bliftered, and was cracked all
over; and though removed from the box-iron to an
oven moderately heated (in the fame horizontal pofi-
tion), it wmuld not fubfide, nor become fmooth.
When it w’as cold, I took an iron fpatula made warm,
and moved it gently over the furface of the picture,
as if I w7ere to fpread a plafter. (This thought oc¬
curred, from the board being prepared wdth wax and
refin, and the ground having the fame materials in its
compofition, the force of the fpatula might make them
unite). This fucceeded fo well, as to reduce the fur-
face to a tolerable degree of fmoothnefs 5 but as the
ground was broke off in many places, I repaired it
with flake white, mixed up with the yoke of an egg
and milk, and repainted it wdth molafles fpirit (inflead
of water), and then put it into an oven with a mode¬
rate degree of heat. In this I found the colours fixed,
but darker than when it was at firfl: painted ; and it
would bear being walhed with water, not rubbed with
a Avet cloth.
“ Exp. 5. A board (that had been ufed in a former
experiment) was fmeared with w^ax and refin, of each
equal parts ; was wetted with moiaffes fpirit, to make
whitening (or Spanilh white) mixed with gum water
adhere. This, when dry, was fcraped wdth a knife,
to make it equally thick in all places. It was put into
a warm oven, to make the varnifti incorporate partly
with the whitening before it was painted ; and it had
only a fmall degree of heat : water was only ufed to-
mix the colours. This was again put into an oven'
with a greater degree of heat; but it flaked off from
the board : whether it might be owing to the board’s
having had a fecond coat of varnifti (the firfl: having
been fcraped and melted off), and that the unctuous
parts of the wax had fo entered its pores, that it would
not retain a fecond vamifh, I cannot tell-
“ Exp. 6. Having mifcarried in thefe trials, I took
a new7 board, planed fmooth, but not polifhed either
with a filh fkin or rufhes : I warmed it, and fmeared it
with w7ax only ; then took cimolia (tobacco-pipe clay)”
divefted of its fand, by being diffolved in water and
poured off, leaving the coarfe heavy parts behind. Af¬
ter this was dried and powdered, I mixed it with a
fmall quantity of the yolk of an egg and cow’s milk
and made a ground with this on the waxed board: this
I was induced to try, by knowing that the yolk of an*
egg will diffolve almolt all unctuous fubftances, and
make them incorporate with water j and I apprehended,
that a ground thus prepared, would adhere fo much
the more firmly to the board than the former had done,
as to pxevent its flaking off. The milk, I thought’
might
“ My frremiM.d0 Coda (bowed me a piece of Spanifli chalk in his colleflion, which feemed more like* CIMOLIA •
{tobacco-pipe clajl), and was the teafon of my ufing that in one of the experiments. '
E N
'Encauftic Knight anfwer two purpofes \ y ^
iHiinting. w;t’a tlie wax • an(l fecondiy, by anfwering the end of
fize or gum-water, and prevent the colours from link¬
ing too deep into the ground, or running one into an¬
other. When the ground was near dry, I fmoothed
it with a pallet knife, and walhed with milk and egg
where I had occafion to make it fmooth and even :
when dry I painted it, mixing the colours with com¬
mon water ; this, on being placed horizontally in an
oven only warm enough to melt the wax, flaked from
the board 5 but held fo much better together than any
of the former, that I palled part of it on paper.
“ Ex/>. 7. Flake-white (or the pureft fort of white-
lead) mixed with egg and milk, crumbled to pieces in
the oven, put on the waxed board, as in the laft expe¬
riment.
“ The bad fuccefs which had attended all the former
experiments, led me to conlider of wrhat uie the wax was
in this kind of painting ; and it occurred to me, that
it was only as a varnifh to preferve the colours from
fading.
“ In order to try this :
“ Exp. 8. I took what the brick-layers call yfw
/fuff, or put/ij, (b) : to this I added a fmall quantity of
burnt alabafler, to make it dry : this it foon did in the
open air; but before I put on any colours, I dried it
gently by the fire, left the colours fhould run. When
it was painted, I warmed it gradually by the fire (to
prevent the ground from cracking) till it was very hot.
I then took white wax three parts, white refin one
part j melted them in an earthen pipkin, and with a
brufh fpread them all over the painted board, and kept
it clofe to the fire in a perpendicular fituation, that
what wax and refin the plafter would not abforb might
drop off. When it was cold, I found the colours were
not altered, either from the heat of the fire, or pafling
the brufh over them. I then rubbed it with a foft li¬
nen cloth, and thereby procured a kind of glofs, which
I afterwards increafed by rubbing it with a hard
brufh ; which was fo far from fcratching or leaving any
marks on the pidure, that it became more fmooth and
poliihed by it.
“ After I had made all the foregoing experiments, in
converfation with my honoured and learned friend Dr
Kidby, a fellow of this fociety, I faid I had been try¬
ing to find out what the encauftic painting of the an¬
cients was. Upon which he told me, that there was a
paffage in Vitruvius e/e j/rcluteclura relative to that
kind of painting : and was fo good as to tranfcribe it
for me from the 7th book, chap. 9. Dc tninu tempe-
r a turn. Vitruvius’s words are : At Ji quis fubtilior
fuerit, et valuer it expolitionem mininceeim fuum color em
retinere, cum panes expohtus et aridus fuerit, tunc ceratn
C t 4* 1 ENG
firft, by uniting tlie ground Pumccun hquef&fclciTn igni^ pciulo oleo temper a! cmi, Jet ci in- Encauftic
■ ’ ’ ■ ’ ducat, delude pojlea carbonibus in ferreo vafe compoftis, fainting.
earn ceram apprimc cum panete, calefaciendo fudore cogat^
fiatque ut percequetur, delude cum candela hnteifquepurls
fubigat, utifgna marmorea nuda curantur. Here autem
xxvrts Greece dicilur. Ita objlans teree Punicce lorica non
patitur, nec lunce fplendorem, nee foils radios lambend»
eripere ex his politionibus colorem.
“ Which I thus tranflate : ‘ But if any one is more
wrary, and wrould have the polilhing [painting] with
vermilion hold its colour, wdien the wall is painted and
dry, let him take Carthaginian [Barbary] wax, melt¬
ed’ with a little oil, and rub it on the wall with a hair-
pencil ; and afterwards let him put live coals into an
iron veflel [chafing-difh], and hold it clofe to the wrax,
when the wall, by being heated, begins to fweat \ then
let it be made fmooth : afterwards let him rub it with
a (c) candle and (d) clean linen rags, in the fame man¬
ner as they do the naked marble ftatues. This the Greeks
call The coat of Carthaginian wTax (thus
put on) is fo ftrong, that it neither fuffers the moon
by night, nor the fun-beams by day, to deftroy the
colour.’
“ Being fatisfied, from this paffage in Vitruvius, that
the manner of ufing wax in Exp. 8. was right, I was
now to find if the wax-varnilh, thus burnt into the pic¬
ture, would bear waftiing. But here I was a little. dif-
appointed 5 for rubbing one corner with a wet linen
cloth, fome of the colour came off; but waftiing it
with a foft hair-pencil dipped in w-ater, and letting it
dry without wiping, the colour flood very well.
“ A board painted, as in Exp. 8. was hung in the
moft fmoky part of a chimney for a day, and expofed
to the open air in a very foggy night. In the morning
the board was feemingly wet through, and the w^ater
ran off the pidhire. This was fuffered to dry without
wiping : and the pidlure had not fuffered at all from
the fmcke or the dew, either in the ground or the co¬
lours ; but when dry, by rubbing it, firft with. a foft
cloth, and afterwards with a brulh, it recovered its for¬
mer glofs.
“ Sufpefling that fome tallow might have been mix¬
ed with the white u-ax I had ufed, which might caufe
the colours to come off on being rubbed wTith a wet-
cloth, I took yellow wax which had been melted from
the honeycomb in a private family, and confequently
not at all adulterated : to three parts of this I added
one part refin, and melted them together.
“ Exp. 9. Spanifti-white, mixed with fifti-glue, was
put for a ground on a board, and painted with water¬
colours only. The board was made w^arm ; and then
the wax and refin were put on with a brufh, and kept
clofe to the fire till the pi&ure had imbibed all the
varnifh.
(b) <£ Putty is lime flaked, and while warm, diffolved in water, and ftrained through a fieve. 4
(c) “ The account of the method of polilhing [painting] walls coloured with vermilion, gave me great ati»-
faftion, as it proved the method I had taken in experiment 8. (which I had tried before I law or knew o us
paffage in Vitruvius) was right. The ufe of the candle, as I apprehend, was to melt the wax on the walls where
by accident the brufh had put on too much, or afford wTax where the brufh had not put on enoug , or 1a t
an^d)r«The rubbing the wall with a linen cloth, while warm, will do very well where there is only one colour to
be preferved ; but where there are many, as in a landfcape, it wall be apt to take off fome, or render t e co .curing,
-father faint; which I found by wiping the wax off from a painting while it was hot.
\
E N C [
Eftcauftic. varniili, and looked dry. When it was cold, I rub-
^ v bed it firft with a linen cloth, and then polifhed it with
a hard brufh.
“ In thefe experiments I found great difficulties with
regard to colours. Many water colours being made
from the juices of plants, have fome degree of an acid
in them ; and thefe, when painted on an alkaline
ground, as chalk, whitening, cimolia, and plafter, are
totally changed in their colours, and from green be¬
come brown •, which contributes much to make the
experiments tedious. I would therefore advife the ufe
of mineral or metallic colours for this fort of painting,
■as moil; likely to preferve their colour : for although I
neutralized Spaniih white, by fermenting it with vine¬
gar, and afterwards waihed it very well with water, it
did not fucceed to my wiih.
. “ Thefe experiments, and this paffage from Vitru¬
vius, will in fome meafure explain the obfcurity of part
of that paffage in Pliny which Dr Parfons, in his learn¬
ed comment on the encauftic painting with wax, feems
to defpair of.
“ Ceris pingere, was one fpecies of encauftic paint¬
ing. Ev*«wov, inujlum, may be tranflated, “ forced in
by the means of fire j burnt in for whatever is forced
in by the help of fire can be rendered into Latin by no
other fignificant word that I known of but inujlum. If
this is allowed me, and I think I have the authority of
Vitruvius (a writer in the Auguftan age) for it, who
feems to have wrote from his own knowledge, and not
like Pliny, who copied from others much more than
he knew himfelf, the difficulty with regard to this
kind of painting is folved, and the encauftic with burnt
wax recovered to the public.
“ What he means by the next kind he mentions,
in ebore cejlro idejl viricu/o, I will not attempt to explain
at prefent.
“ The ftiip-painting is more eafily accounted for, the
praflice being in part continued to this time •, and is
what is corruptly called breaming, for brenning or
burning.
“ This is done by reeds fet on fire, and held under
the fide of a (hip till it is quite hot j then refin, tallow,
tar, and brimftone, melted together, and put on with
a hair brulh while the planks remain hot, make fuch
a kind of paint as Pliny defcribes : which, he fays, nec
foie, nec fale ventifque corrumpitur. As they were ig¬
norant of the ufe of oil-painting, they mixed that co¬
lour with the wTax, &c. which they intended for each
particular part of the ihip, and put it on in the manner
above defcribed.
“ In the pictures painted for thefe experiments, and
now laid before your lordlhip and the fociety, I hope
neither the defign of the landfcape, nor the execution
t>f it, will be fo much taken into confideration as the
varniffi (which was the thing wanted in this inquiry) :
and I think that will evince, that the encauftic paint¬
ing with burnt wax is fully reftored by thefe experi¬
ments 5 and though not a new invention, yet having
been loft for fo many ages, and now applied further,
and to other purpofes, than it was by Vitruvius (who
confined it to vermilion only), may alfio amount to a new
difcovery, the ule of which may be a means of pre-
ferving many curious -drawings to pofterity } for this
kind of painting, may be on paper, cloth, or any other
fubftance that will admit a ground to be laid on it. The
Vox. VIII. Part L
4* ] EMC
procefs is very fimple, and is not attended with the dif- Eucauftie.
agreeable fmell unavoidable in oil-painting, nor with * '
fome inconveniences infeparable from that art j and as
there is no fubftance we know more durable than wax,
it hath the greateft probability of being lafting.”
Still, however, there feem to have been fome defe6ts
or inconveniences attending thefe and other fiibfequent
attempts : for wTe find the ancient or fome fimilar me¬
thod of painting in wax remaining a defideratum up¬
wards of years after the publication of the preceding-
experiments j when in 1787 a method was communi¬
cated to the Society of Arts by Mifs Greenland, for
which Ihe was rewarded with a prize. The ground
of her information Ihe received at Florence, through
the acquaintance of an amateur of painting, who pro¬
cured her the fatisfaclion of feeing fome paintings in
the ancient Grecian ftyle, executed by Signora Pa¬
rent!, a profelfor at that place, who had been inftrtufted
by a Jefuit at Pavia, the perfon who made the fartheft
difcoveries in that art. Mifs Greenland’s friend know¬
ing Ihe was fond of painting, informed her what were
the materials the paintrefs ufed, but could not tell her
the proportions of the compolition j however, fr«m her
anxiety to fucceed in fuch an acquifition, ftie made va¬
rious experiments, and at laft obtained fuch a fufficient
knowledge of the quantities of the different ingredients
as to begin and finilh a pifture, which flie afterwards
prefented to the Society for their infpedtion.
Her method is as follows : “ Take an ounce of white
wax, and the fame weight of gum maftich powdered.
Put the wax in a glazed earthen veffel over a very flow
fire j and when it is quite diffolved, ftrew in the maftich,'
a little at a time, ftirring the wax continually until the
whole quantity of gum is perfeftly melted and incor¬
porated then throw the pafte into cold water j and
when it is hard, take it out of the water, wipe it dry,
and beat it in one of Mr Wedgwood’s mortars, obfer-
ving to pound it at firft in a linen cloth to abforb fome
drops of water that will remain in the pafte, and would
prevent the poffibility of reducing it to a powder, which
muft be fo fine as to pafs through a thick gauze. It
ftiould be pounded in a cold place and but a little while
at a time, as after long beating the fritlion will in a
degree foften the wax and gum, and inftead of their
becoming a powder they will return to a pafte.
“ Make fome ftrong gum-arabic water 5 and when
you paint, take a little of the powder, fome colour, and
mix them together with the gum-water. Light co¬
lours require but a fmall quantity of the powder, but
more of it muft be put in proportion to the body and
darknefs of the colours j and to black there Ihould be
almoft as much of the powder as colour.
“ Having mixed the colours, and no more than can
be ufed. before they grow dry, paint with fair water, as
is praclifed in painting with water-colours, a ground on
the wood being firft painted of fome proper colour pre¬
pared in the fame manner as is defcribed for the pic¬
ture ; walnut-tree and oak are the forts of wood com¬
monly made ufe of in Italy for this purpofe. The paint¬
ing Ihould be very highly finilhed ; otherwife, when
varnilhed, the tints will not appear united.
“ When the painting is quite dry, with rather a
hard bruffi, palling it one way, varniili it with white
wax, which is put into an earthen veffel, and kept melt¬
ed over a very flow fire till the pifture is vaxnilhed, ta-
F king
E N C
[ 42 ]
Afterwards kind will
JEnteinte kins great care tire wax does not boil.
hold the pidure before a fire, near enough to melt tne
Wax, but not make it run j and when the varmfh is en-
^ tirely cold and hard, rub it gently with a linen cloth.
Should the varnilh blitter, warm the pidure again very
liowly, and the bubbles will fubfide. When the pidure
is dirty, it need only be waftved with cold water.” _
The opinion given by the Society upon the above is :
The method made ufe of by Mifs Greenland provides
againft all inconveniences 5 and the brilliancy of the
colours in the pidure painted by her, and exhibited to
the Society, fully juftifies the opinion, that tne art 01
painting in wax, as above defcribed, highly merited
the reward of a gold pallet voted to her on this occa-
fion. ,
ENCEINTE, in Fortification, is_ the wall or ram¬
part wdiich furrounds a place, fometimes compoled of
baftions or curtains, either faced or lined with brick or
ftone, or only made of earth. The enceinte is lome-
times only flanked by round or fquare towers, which
is called a Roman wall. .
ENCEPHALI, in Medicine, worms generated in
the head, where they caufe fo great a pain as fome¬
times to occafion diftradion.
The encephali are very rare 5 but there are iome dii-
cafes wherein they fwarm : from whence we are told
peftilential fevers have wholly arifen. Upon the dn-
fedion of one who died of this fever, a little, fhort,
red worm was found in the head, which malmfey wine,
wherein horfe-radith had been boiled, could alone de¬
ft roy. This medicine wras afterwards tried on tne lick,
moft of whom it cured.
The like worms have alfo been taken out by tre¬
panning, and the patient cured. Thofe worms that
generate in the nofe, ears, and teeth, are al»o called en-
cephah. _.r
ENCHANTER, a perfon fuppofed to pradiie en¬
chantment or fafcination. See Fascination, Witch¬
craft, &c. ^
Enchanter's Nightjhade. See Circ^ea, Botany
Index.
ENCHASING, Inchasing, or Chafing, the art
of enriching and beautifying gold, filver, and other
metal-work, by fome defign or figures reprefented
thereon in low relievo. .
Enchafing is pradifed only on hollow thm works,
as watch-cafes, cane-heads, tweezer-cafes, or the like.
It is performed by punching or driving out the metal,
to form a figure, from withinfide, fo as to Hand out
prominent from the plane or furface of the metal. In
order to this, they provide a number of fine fteel blocks
or puncheons of divers fixes} and the defign being
drawn on the furface of the metal, they apply the m-
fide upon the heads or tops of thefe blocks, diredly
under the lines or parts of the figures *, then, with a
fine hammer, ftriking on the metal, fuflained by the
block, the metal yields, and the block makes an in¬
denture or cavity on the infide, correfponding to which
there is a prominence on the outfide, which is to ftand
for that part of the figure. ......
Thus the workman proceeds to chale and hmih all
the parts by the fucceflive application of the block and
hammer to the feveral parts of the defign. Awd it is
wonderful to confider with what beauty and juftnefs,
by this Ample piece of mechanifm, the artitts in this
animals, hi- Endltlca
END
reprefent foliages, grotefques,
ftories, &c. . . . r Endymion.
ENCLITICA, in Grammar, particles which are lo 
clofely united with other words as to ieem part of them,
as in virumque, &c.-—There are three enclitic paiticies
in Latin, viz. que, ne, ve. _ ...
ENCRATITES, in church-hiftory, heretics who
appeared towards the end of the fecond centuiy . they
-were called Encratites, or Continentes, becaufe they glo¬
ried in abftaining from marriage and the ufe of wine
and animal food.
ENCURECK, in Natural Hifiory, a venomous m-
fed found in Perfia, and faid to be a kind of tarantu¬
la. According to Ofearius, as quoted by Mr Boyle, it
neither flings nor bites-, but lets fall its venom like a
drop of water,.which caufes infufferable pam in the
part for a time, and afterwards fo profound a fleep,
that, as report fays, nothing can awake the patient ex¬
cept crufhing one of the creatures on the part affeded.
It is neverthelefs faid, that the fheep eat thefe mlects
wdthout damage.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA, a tenn nearly iynonymous
with Cyclopedia ; but adopted in preference to k in
denominating the prefent work, as being more definite
and of better authority. According to an obfervation
of the late learned printer Mr Bower, the prepofition
F.N makes the meaning of the word more precile.
For Cyclopedia may denote “ the inftrudion OF a
circle,” as Cyropeedin is “ the inftru&ion OF Cyrus,
whereas in ENcyclopcedia the prepoiition deteimines the
word to be from the dative of cyc/us, “ inflruaion in
a circle.” And Voflius, in his book De vitas fennoms,
has obferved, “ That Cyclopedia is ufed by fome au¬
thors, but Encyclopedia by the beft.”
ENDEMIC, or Endfmical, Diseases, thofe to
which the inhabitants of particular countries are fub-
jea more than others, on. account of the air, water,
fituation, and manner of living.
ENDIVE. See Cichorium, Botany and (jAR-
DENING Index. _
ENDLESS, fomething without an end : thus au¬
thors mention endlefs rolls, the endlefs fcrew, &c.
ENDOR, in Ancient Geography, a town ot Galilee,
four miles to the fouth of Mount tabor, in the tribe of
Manaffeh, where the Pythonefs was confulted by Saul:
at this day, fays Jerome, a large vil age. _ _
ENDORSE, in Heraldry, an ordinary, containing
the eighth part of a pale, which Leigh fays is only
ufed When a pale is between two of them.
ENDORSED, in Heraldry, is faid ot things borne
back to back, more ufually called Adosse.
F.NDORSEMENT, in Law and Commerce. See
Indorsement.
ENDOWMENT, in Law, denotes the lettimg a
dower on a woman though fometimes it is med figu¬
ratively, for fettling a provifion upon a parfon, on the
building of a church 5 or the fevering a lufhcient por¬
tion of tithes for a vicar, when the benefice is appro-
^ ENDYMION, in fabulous hiflory, a fhepherd, fon of
yEthlius and Calyce. It is faid that he required of
Jupiter to grant to him to be always young, and to
fleep as much as he would 5 whence came the proverb
of Endymionis fomnum dormire, to exprels a long deep.
Diana law him naked as he flept on Mount Latmos
anfl
E N F [ 43 ] E N F
Enemy and was fo ftiuck with his beauty, that ihe came down
jl from heaven every night to enjoy his company. En-
Enfietc'‘ dymion married Chromia daughter of Itonus 5 by whom
he had three fons Paeon, Epeus, and ^Eolus, and a
daughter called Eurydice. The fable of Endymion’s
amours with Diana, or the moon, arofe from his know¬
ledge of aftronomy •, and as he paffed the night on fome
high mountain to obferve the heavenly bodies, it came
to be reported that he was courted by the moon. Some
fuppofe that there were two of that name } the fon
of a king of Elis, and the fhepherd or aftronomer
of Caria. The people of Heraclea maintained that
Endymion died on Mount Latmos j and the Eleans
pretended to {how his tomb at Olympia in Pelopon-
nefus.
ENEMY, in Law, an alien or foreigner, who pub¬
licly invades the kingdom.
ENERGUMENS, in church-hiftory, perfons fup¬
pofe d to be poffefled by the devil, concerning whom
there were many regulations among the primitive Chri-
llians. They were denied baptifin and the eucharift j
at leaft, this was the pra&ice of fome churches : and
though they were under the care of exorcifts, yet it was
thought a becoming act of charity to let them have
the public prayers ot the church, at which they were
permitted to be prefent. See Exorcism.
ENERGY, a term of Greek origin, fignifying the
power, virtue, or efficacy of a thing. It is alfo ufed,
figuratively, to denote emphafis of fpeech.
ENERVATING, the a<3: of deftioying the force,
ufe, or office, of the nerves, either by cutting them,
by weakening them with debauchery, or by fome other-
violence.
Excefs of wine, and other flrong, hot, fpirituous
liquors, enervate or weaken the nerves. When they
•would render a horfe ufelefs, they enervate him, or cut
his nerves.
ENFANS perdus, the fame with forlorn hope.
See Forlorn.
ENFIELD, William, LL. D. an elegant and
very juitly admired writer, was born in the year 1741,
at Sudbury. His original deftination was for the fa-
ered office of the miniitry, and he was educated among
the proteilant diffenters at Daventry, where the high
poliffi which he gave to his compofitions, diftinguiffied
him from many of his cotemporarics. The congrega¬
tion of Benn’s-garden of Liverpool made choice of him
for their miniller in the year 1763, wffien he was not
more than 2 2 years of age ; and in this fituation he
was foon taken notice of as an amiable member of fo-
ciety, and an engaging preacher. While he refided in
Liverpool, he publithed two volumes of fermons, 1 2mo,
as well as a collection of hymns and family prayers,
which met with a very favourable reception. In the
year 1770, he was appointed tutor and lefturer in the
belles lettres at Warrington academy, which he filled
for fome years with general approbation and unwearied
diligence. He was the compiler of many ufeful books,
among the moft popular of which we may rank his
“ Speaker,” compofed of pieces of recitation from the
heft and moft approved Engliih authors. At the be¬
ginning of this colledlion there is an excellent efiay on
elocution. The Preacher’s Diredlory; the Englifh
Preacher, a colleclion of fevmons in 9 vols 1 imo, from
the moft celebrated authors ; Biographical Sermons on
the principal chara&ers in the Old and New Teftament, Enfield
with a number of fingle fermons on particular occa-
fions, wTere alfo the jJrodudlions of his pen. The con-,
troverfy relative to literary property alfo engaged his
attention, and on this he wrote a quarto pamphlet. He
likewife publiftied in one volume qto, Inftitutes of Na¬
tural Philofophy, theoretical and experimental j and
during the time of his refidence at Warrington, as
teacher in the academy, the univerfity of Edinburgh
conferred on him the degree of LL. D. When that
academy was diffolved in 1783, Dr Enfield continued
for twro years at Warrington in the capacity of a pri¬
vate tutor, after which he wTas chofen paftor of the Oc¬
tagon meeting-houie at Norwich, in the year 1785.
He at length gave up his private tuition, and entirely
devoted his time to literary labours, and the peculiar
duties of his paftoral charge. About this time he loft
his eldeft fon, who had been appointed to the office of
town-clerk of Nottingham. This event rvould have
been productive of very ferious effects on his health and
fpirits, had it not been for the confolation of religion
and philofophy, which are fufficient to fupport the
human mind under the preflure of the fevereft calami¬
ties. He undertook and executed the laborious talk of
abridging Brucker’s Hiftory of Philofophy, which in
1791 he publilhed in 2 vols qto. It has been allowed
that the tenets of the different lefts of philofophers were
never before exhibited to the world writh fuch perfpieui-
ty and elegance j qualifications for which Dr Enfield
wras undoubtedly eminent. He contributed largely to
the Biographical Dictionary, publiftied under the in-
fpeftion o'f Dr Aiken and others.
An unfufpefted diftemper haftened the termination
of his ufeful life, and on the 3d of November 1797, he
expired in the 57th year of his age. The general love
of mankind which Dr Enfield poffefled, falls to the lot
of few j nor does it often happen, that an individual dies
fo univerfally lamented. It was effential to him to be
amiable in every ftation and condition of life. His
poithumous fermons in 3 vols 8vo, had a very numer¬
ous lift of fubferibers, a ftrong proof of the ertimation
in w hich he was held by all w-ho knew him, either per ■
fonally or by report. In thefe difeourfes he treats
chiefly on moral topics, wffiich he difeuffes with the
niceft diferimination, and in a train of the moft pleafing
and manly eloquence.
ENFILADE, in the art of war, is ufed in fpeak-
ing of trenches, or other places, which may be fcoured
by the enemy’s ffiot along their whole length. In con¬
ducting the approaches at a fiege, care muft be taken
that the trenches be not enfiladed from any work of
the place.
ENFINE', formerly Antinoe, a city of Egypt,
built by Adrian in honour of his favourite Antinous.
It is fituated towards the middle of the Said, or Up¬
per Egypt, and ftill contains feveral ftately monuments
of antiquity. In ancient times this city was very magni¬
ficent. It w'as about half a league in circumference, ha¬
ving two principal ftreets 45 feet wide, interfefting
each other at right angles, and running through its
whole length. The others were more narrow, but
equally ftraight ; the two largeft having gates at each
end, part of which ftill remain. According to the Nu¬
bian geographer, it was called the city of the Magi,
becaufe Pharaoh is faid to have caufed the magicians
F 2 come
ENG [ 44 ] ENG
Enfine come from thence to his court. Near it were the ruins
H of Abydus, where there was an oracle of the god Befa,
denn"' one tlle moft ancient in Egypt, and which was Hill
—-■ famous in the time of Conftantius j and hence fome
have derived the appellation juft mentioned, the neigh¬
bouring people coming in crowds to cymfult the oracle.
The ruins of the gates are the moil beautiful pieces
of architedlure to be met with in this place. The
handfomeft has three vaulted entries } the middle one
being 40 feet in height, 22 wide, and 20 thick j the
other two fmaller. Each of the facades of this edifice
is ornamented with four pilafters in bas relief, with
Corinthian capitals, the acanthus leaves of which have
a confiderable projection. It was furrounded by eight
Corinthian columns, of which only one now remains,
but the pedeftals of the reft are ftill entire. Befides
thefe, there are heaps of rubbifh in different parts of
the town, apparently the remains of ancient temples
or palaces. All thefe feem to have been bordered by
a colonnade, forming a portico on each fide, where the
inhabitants might walk fecure from the heat of the
fun. One of the fquares was ornamented with four
large Corinthian pillars, three of which are deftroyed
all but the bafes. The fourth is quite entire, about
feet high, and the ftiaft compofed of feveral ftones.
The pedeftal has a Greek infcription, pretty much de¬
faced, dedicating it to the emperor Alexander Severus,
to whom the fenate of Alexandria had already dedi¬
cated the famous column mentioned under that article.
Thefe four other columns were therefore probably rai¬
led in honour of that emperor after his vidlories over
the Perfians ; for the foliage of the oak, with which
the fir ft ftone of the ftiaft is decorated, was a fign of
\u6lory among the Romans. Towards the end of the
fourth century the city was peopled by Chriftians ; and
Palladius affures us, that there were at that place 12
convents of virgins, and feveral others inhabited by
monks. In the convents there are ftill feveral Coptic
monafteries poffeffed by monks equally miferable and
ignorant. The Nubian geographer informs us, that
the city was furrounded by a well cultivated country,
abounding in fruits and harvefts; but thefe have now
given place to fands and barren deferts. The ruins of
Abydus above mentioned are ftill to be feen near this
place.
ENFRANCHISEMENT, in Law, the incorpora¬
ting a perfon into any fociety or body-politic.
ENGASTRIMYTHI, in Pagan theology, the
v Pythians, or priefteffes of Apollo, who delivered ora¬
cles from within, without any action of the mouth or
lips.
The ancient philofophers, &c. are divided upon the
fubjedl of the engaftrimythi. Hippocrates mentions
it as a difeafe. Others will have it a kind of divina¬
tion. Others attribute it to the operation or poffef-
lion of an evil fpirit. And others to art and mecha-
nifm. M. Scottus maintains that the engaftrimythi of
the ancients were poets, who, when the priefts could
not fpeak, fupplied the deleft by explaining in verfe
what Apollo diftated in the cavity of the bafon on the
facred tripod.
ENGENDERING, a term fometimes ufed for the
aft of producing or forming any thing : thus meteors
are faid to be engendered in the middle region of the
atmofphere, and worms in the belly.
ENGINE, in Mechanics, is a compound machine, Engine
made of one or more mechanical powers, as levers, 11
pulleys, fcrews, &c. in order to raife, call, or fuftain ns aR
any weight, or produce any effeft which could not be
eaiily eftefted otherwife. The word is formed of the
French engin, from the Latin ingenium, “ wit j” by rea-
fon of the ingenuity required in the contrivance of en¬
gines to augment the effeft of moving powers.
Engine for Extinguijhing Fires. See Hydrosta¬
tics Index.
PUc-Engine, one contrived for driving piles. See
P ILE-Engine.
Steam-ENGiNE, a machine to raife water by fire, or
rather by the force of water turned into fteam. See
SrEAM-Engine.
ENGINEER, in the military art, an able expert
man, who, by a perfeft knowledge in mathematics,
delineates upon paper, or marks upon the ground, all
forts of forts, and other works proper for offence and
defence. He ftiould underftand the art of fortifica¬
tion, fo as to be able, not only to difcover the defefts
of a place, but to find a remedy proper for them j as
alfo how to make an attack upon, as well as to defend,
the place. Engineers are extremely neceffary for thefe
purpofes : wherefore it is requifite, that befides being
ingenious, they fliould be brave in proportion. When
at a fiege, the engineers have narrowly furveyed the
place, they are to make their report to the general, by
acquainting him which part they judge the wTeakeft,
and where approaches may be made with moft fuccefs.
Their bufinefs is alfo to delineate the lines of circum-
vallation and contravallation, taking all the advantages
of the ground ; to mark out the trenches, places of
arms, batteries, and lodgments, taking care that none
of their works be flanked or difcovered from the place.
After making a faithful report to the general of what
is a-doing, the engineers are to demand a fufficient *
number of workmen and utenfils, and whatever elfe is
neceffary.
ENGLAND, the fouthern divifion of the ifland of
Great Britain. Including Wales, it is of a triangular
form, and lies between the 50th and 55th degrees of
north latitude, extending about 400 miles in length
from fouth to north, and in fome places it is 300
miles in breadth. It is bounded by Scotland on the
north *, by the Englilh Channel on the fouth, di¬
viding it from France; by the German fea on the
eaft 5 and on the weft by St George’s, or the Irilh
Channel. _ t
At what time the ifland of Britain was peopled is Whence
uncertain 5 nor do w e know whether the fouthern or peopled*
northern parts were firft inhabited. We have no ac¬
counts that can be depended upon before the arrival of
Julius Caefar, and it is certain he found the fouthem
parts full of people of a very wTarlike difpofition.
Thefe people, according to Caefar, were a colony of
the Gauls j and this opinion is embraced by moft of
the ancient as well as modern writers. It is chiefly
founded on the agreement obferved by the Romans
between the two nations in their cuftoms, manners,
language, religion, government, way of fighting, &c.
The more northern inhabitants, according to. Taci¬
tus, came from Germany. This he infers from the
make of their limbs 5 but Ceefar Amply calls them jf-
borigenes.
England,
ENG
England.
Inhabited
by 17 dif¬
ferent na¬
tions.
. 3
Julius Cae-
far under-
tal^ an ex'
pedition in.
to Britain.
England, including the principality of Wales, when
firit invaded by the Romans, wras divided into 17 petty
flates. 1. The Danmonii, called alfo Dunmonii and
Donfnonuy inhabiting the counties of Cornwall and De-
vonlhire. 2. The Durotriges, who inhabited the tra£l
now called Dorfetjhire. 3. The Belgse pofleffed Somer-
letfhire, Wiltlhire, and Hampfhire. 4. The Attre-
batii, or inhabitants of Berklhire. 5. The Regni, whofe
country bordered on that of the Attrebatii, and com¬
prehended Surrey, Suffex, and part of the fea-coaft of
Hamplhire. 6. The Cantii, inhabiting the county
nowr called Kent. 7. The Dobuni are placed by Pto¬
lemy on the north fide of the Thames, near its head,
in the counties of Gloucefterlhire and Oxfordfhire.
8. The Cattieuchlani, Cahjeuchiani, Cattidudani, or Ca-
thicludam, inhabited Buckinghamfhire, Bedfordihire,
and Hertfordlhire. 9. The Trinobantes, w’ho poffef-
fed the counties of Effex and Middlefex. 10. The
Iceni, whofe country comprehended Suffolk, Norfolk,
Cambridge, and Huntingdonfhire. Thefe are by
Ptolemy called Simeni, and by others Tigeni. Camden
is of opinion, that they were the fame wdiom Caefar
calls Cenomagni. 11. The Coritani, whofe country
comprehended Northamptonlhire, Leicefterlhire, Rut-
landihire, Lincolnlhire, Nottinghamlhire, and Derby-
Ihire. 12.. The Cornavii poffeffed Warwicklhire,
Worcefterlhire, Staffordfhire, Shropfhire, and Chelhire.
13. The Silures inhabited the counties of Radnorlhire,
Brecknockfliire, Glamorgandiire, with Herefordlhire
and Monmouthlhire. 14. The Demetae inhabited part
of Caermarthenfhire, Pembrokefhire, and Cardiganlhire.
15. The country of the Ordovices comprehended Mont-
gomerylhire, Merionethffiire, Caernarvonfhire, Den-
bighlhire, and Flintfhire. 16. The Brigantes poffeffed
the counties of Yorkfhire, the bifhopric of Durham,
Eancafhire, Weftmorland, and Cumberland. 17. The
county of Northumberland was held by the Ottadi-
ni, Ottadeni, or Ottalini. Their country, according to
fome, reached from the Tyne to the river Forth 3 though
the moft common opinion is, that it reached only to
the Tweed.
The above-mentioned names of thefe nations are
plainly Roman, but the etymology of them ismot ea-
fily afcertained. Some attempt to derive them from
words in the old Britilh language j but as this fubjeft
at beft muff be very obfcure and uncertain, we lhall
not enter into it.
Before the time of Julius Caefar, the Romans had:
fcarcely any knowledge of Britain 3 but that conqueror
having fubdued moft of the Gallic nations on the oppo-
lite fide of the channel, began to think of extending
his conquefts by the reduction of Britain. The motive
for this expedition, afcribed to him by Suetonius, was
a defire of enriching himfelf with the Britilh pearls,
which were then very much efteemed. The pretence,
however, which he made ufe of in order to juftify his
invafion was, that the Britons had fent afliftance to the
Gauls during his wars with them.
Caefar undertook his firft expedition againft Britain
when the fummer wTas already far fpent, and therefore
he did not expecft to finifh the conqueft of the country
that campaign. He thought, however, that it would
be a confiderable advantage to view the ifiand, and
learn fomething of the manners and cuftoms of the na¬
tives 3 after wrhich he could more ealily take fuch mea»
t 45 ]
ENG
fures as would enfure a permanent conqueft on his re- England,
turn. Having marched all his forces into the countryv—-v—J
of the Morini, now the province of Picardy, from
whence was the ftiorteft paffage into Britain 3 he or¬
dered at the fame time all the veffels that lay in the
neighbouring ports, and a fleet which he had built the
year before for an expedition againft the Morini, to
attend him. The Britons, alarmed at his preparations,
fent ambafladors with offers of fubmiflion 3 but Caefar,
though he received them with great kindnefs, did not
abandon his intended fcheme of an invafion. He
waited till the arrival of C. Volufenus, whom he had
fent out with a Angle galley to make difcoveries on
the coaft. Volufenus did not think proper to land 3
but, having made what obfervations he could, returned
after five days abfence, and Caefar immediately fet fail
for Britain. His force confifted of two legions, em¬
barked on board 80 tranfports ; and he appointed 18
more which lay wind-bound about eight miles off, to
convey over the cavalry 3 but thefe laft orders were too
flowly executed, which occafioned fome difficulty in his
landing.
The Britons at this time, according to Caefar and Manners
other Roman hiftorians, were very numerous, and hadcuftoms,
their country w'ell flocked with cattle. Their houfes •-of the
refembled thofe of the Gauls 3 and they ufed copperant0nS
or iron plates weighed by a certain ftandard inftead of
money. Their towns were a confufed parcel of huts
placed at a fmall diftance from one another, generally
in the middle of a wood, to which all the avenues were,
flightly guarded with ramparts of earth, or with trees.
All the nations were in a ftate of the moft wretched
barbarifm, even when compared with the barbarous
Gauls on the continent. The ufe of clothes was fcarcely
known in the ifland. Only the inhabitants of the
fouthern coaft covered their nakednefs with the fkins
of wild beafts 5 and this rather to avoid giving offence
to the ftrangers who came to trade with them, thair'
out of any principle of decency. It was a general
cuftom among the Britons to paint their bodies with
the juice of woad : but whether this was defigned as
ornament, or for any other purpofe, is not known.
I hey ffiaved their beards all except their upper lip,
and wore long hair. They alfo had their wives in com¬
mon, a cuftom which made them deteftable to all other
nations.
The arms of the Britons were a fword, a ffiort
lance, and a ffiield. Breaft-plates and helmets they
looked upon rather to be incumbrances, and therefore
made no ufe of therm They ufually fought in chariots,
fome of which were armed with fcythes at the wheels 3
they were fierce and cruel, and exceedingly blood-
thirfty. When driven to diftrefs, they could fubfift
themfelves even on the bark and roots of trees 3 and
Dio Caffius tells us, that they had ready, on all occa-
fions, a certain kind of food, of which, if they took
but the quantity of a bean, they were not troubled with
hunger or thirft for a confiderable time after. The
fouthern nations, however, were fomewhat more civili¬
zed 3 and the Cantii, or inhabitants of Kent, more fo
than any of the reft.
All the Britifli nations at this time were very brave
and refolute, owing to the continual diffenfions among
themfelves. They proved therefore very formidable
enemies to the Romans 3 but the fame diffeafions which
had
ENG
[ 46
They op-
pofe Css-
iar’s land¬
ing.
6
They are
defeated
and fue for
peace.
Tngland. had taught them the art of war, alfo prevented them
from uniting in the defence of their country. As foon
as they perceived Caefar’s fleet approaching, a number
of cavalry and chariots were difpatched to oppofe his
landing, while a conflderable body of infantry haften-
ed after. What chiefly embarraffed the Romans in
their attempt to land, was the largenefs of their (hips,
which required a conflderable depth of water. The
foldiers, therefore, were obliged to leap into the fea
while loaded with their armour 5 and at the fame time
to encounter the enemy, who were quite difengaged,
as they either flood on dry ground, or waded but
a little way into the water. Caefar perceiving this
difadvantage, ordered his galleys to advance, with their
broadfides towards the fhore, in order to drive the
Britons from the water-fide with their flings and ar¬
rows. On this the Britons, furprifed at the galleys, a
fort of fhipping they had never before feen, began to
give ground. Xhe fight, however, continued for fome
time, greatly to the difadvantage of the Romans 5 till
at laft Caefar, obferving the diftrefs of his men, caufed
feveral boats to be manned, and fent them to the afl
fiftance of thofe who were moft expofed to the enemy’s
affault. The Romans then foon got the better of the
undifciplined barbarians, however brave, and made
good their landing 5 but they were unable to purfue
the enemy for want of cavalry, which had not yet ar¬
rived.
The Britons were fo difiieartened with this bad fuc-
cefs, that they immediately fent ambafladors to fue for
peace } which was granted, on condition of their deli¬
vering a certain number of hoftages for their fidelity.
Part of thefe they brought immediately 5 and promifed
to return in a few days with the reft, who, they faid,
lived at fome diftance. But, in the mean time, the
18 tranfports which carried Csefar’s cavalry, being
driven back by a violent florin, and the fleet which
lay in the road being greatly damaged by the fame,
the Britons thought proper to break their engage¬
ments. Having therefore privately affembled their
forces, they fell unexpectedly on the feventh legion
while at a diflance from the reft and bufied in fora¬
ging. Caefar being apprifed of their danger, haften-
ed to their affifl&nce with two cohorts, and at laft re-
pulfed the enemy.—This, however, proved only a
temporary deliverance } for the Britons, thinking it
would be poflible for them to cut off all the Romans
at once, difpatched meffengers to inform feveral of the
neighbouring nations of the weaknefs of the enemy s
forces, and the happy opportunity that oftered itfelf
of deftroying all thefe invaders at one blow.—On this,
they drew together a great body of horfe and foot,
which boldly advanced to the Roman intrenchments.
But Coefar came out to meet them 5 and the undifci¬
plined Britons being by no means able to cope with
the Romans, were put to flight wdth great (laughter.
Having burnt feveral towms and villages, the vidtors
returned to their camp, where they were foon folkrw-
ed by new deputies from the Britons. Caefar being
in w’ant of horfe, and afraid left another florm ftiould
deftroy the remainder of his fleet, granted them peace
on condition of their fending him double the number
of hoftages into Gaul which they had before promifed.
The fame night he fet fail, and foon arrived fafe in
Gaul.
2
1
Their
-treachery*
] ENG
The Britons no fooner perceived the Romans gone, England-
than, as before, they broke through their engage- v ‘
ments. Of all the ftates who had promifed to fend
hoftages, only two performed their promifes ^ and this
negledt fo provoked Csefar, that he determined to re- s
turn the year following with a far greater force. Ha- Csefar re- ;
ving, therefore, caufed his old veffels to be refitted, turns,
and a great many newr one* to be built, he arrived off
the coaft of Britain with a fleet of 600 (hips and 2'8
galleys. The Britons made no oppofition to his land¬
ing ; but Caefar, getting intelligence that an army was
affembled at no great diftance, marched in queft of
them. He found them encamped on the banks of a
river, fuppofed to be the Stour, about 12 miles diitant
from the place where he had landed. They attempted
to oppofe his paffage ; but being briikly attacked by
the Roman cavalry, they were obliged to retire into a
wood, all the avenues of wdiich were blocked up by
trees cut down for that purpofe. This fortification, 9
however, proved infufficient to protect them. The fe- Defeats the
venth legion having call themfelves into a teftudo, and Britons,
thrown up a mount againft their works, drove them from
their afylum ; but as the day was far fpent, a purfuit
was not thought advifable.
Next morning Caefar, with the greateft part of his
army, which he divided into three bodies, marched
out in queft of the enemy. But when he was already
come in fight of their rear, he was overtaken by mef¬
fengers, who informed him, that his fleet w^as greatly
damaged by a violent ftorm which had happened the
preceding night. This put an end to the purfuit for
that time ; but Caefar having employed all the carpen¬
ters he had wdth him, and fent for others from Gaul, in
order to repair the damage, refolved to prevent misfor¬
tunes of this kind for the future. He therefore drew
all his ihips afliore, and enclofed them within the forti¬
fications of his camp. This arduous undertaking em¬
ployed his whole army for 10 days ; after which he
again fet out in queft of the enemy.
The Britons had made the beft ufe they could of
the refpite afforded them by the ftorm. They were
headed by Caflibelaunus king of the Trinobantes. He
had formerly made w-ar upon his neighbours 5 and ha¬
ving rendered himfelf terrible to them, was looked up¬
on to be the moft proper perfon for leading them on
againft the common enemy •, and as feveral ftates had
now joined their forces, the Britifti army w^as very nu¬
merous. Their cavalry and chariots attacked the Ro¬
man army while on their march; but were repulfed with
lofs, and driven into the woods. The Romans purfued
them too eagerly, and thus loft fome of their own men j
w’hich encouraged the Britons to make another fierce
attack •, but in this alfo they were finally unfuccefsful,
and obliged to retire, though their lofs feems not to
have been great.
Next day the Britons fuddenly attacked the Roman
legions as they were foraging j but meeting with a vi¬
gorous refiftance, they foon betook themfelves to flight.
The Romans purfued them fo clofely, that having nei¬
ther time to rally nor get down from their chariots ac¬
cording to cuftom, great numbers of them w'ere cut in
pieces : and this overthrow had fuch an effeft upon the
auxiliaries of Caffibelaunus, that all of them abandon¬
ed him } nor did the Britons ever afterwards engage
Caefar with united forces. Caefar, purfuing his viftory,
marched
ENG
[ 47 ]
ENG
(4Ei tr c ruf¬
fes the
Thames.
II
Gives the
throws.
England- marched towards the Thames, with a defign to crofs
——v——^ that river, and enter the territories of the 1 rinobantes.
The river was fordable only at one place, and that not
without great difficulty *, but when he came to it, he
found the enemy’s forces drawn up in a confideraole
body on the oppofite bank, which was fortified with
fharp flakes. They had likewife driven many flakes
of the fame kind into the bottom of the river, the tops
of which were covered with water. Thefe flakes are
vifible to this day as a place called Walton in Surry.
They are made of oak} and though they have been fo
long in the water, are as hard as Brazil, and as black
as jet} and have fometimes been pulled out in order to
make knife handles of them.
Caefar was not at all difmayed at thefe difficulties,
Britons fre-which he had intelligence of by prifoners and defert-
guent over-ers> i-je ordered the cavalry 'to enter firfl, and the
foot to follow. His orders were obeyed, and the fol-
diers advanced with fuch refolution, that though the
infantry were up to the chin in water, the enemy, un¬
able to fuflain their affault, abandoned the bank and
fled. After this defeat, Caflibelaunus himfelf defpair-
ed of fuccefs, and therefore difmiffed all his forces ex¬
cept about 4000 chariots, with which he obferved the
motions of the Romans, haraffing them by cutting off
draggling parties, &c. This, however, was not fuffi-
cient to keep up the fpirits of his countrymen. On
the contrary, they depofed him from the kingdom, and
chofe Mandubratius, whofe father had been murdered
by Caffibelaunus, who thereupon ufurped the kingdom.
The young prince had fled to Caffiar, who gave him
protection ; and the Trinobantes now offered to fubmit
to the conqueror, provided he would give them Man¬
dubratius for their king.
Caefar readily complied with the requefl of the Tri¬
nobantes upon their fending him 40 hoflages *, and the
fubmiffion of the Trinobantes was foon followed by
that of other Hates and tribes 5 for each of the 17 na¬
tions already mentioned were cornpofed of feveral diffe¬
rent tribes, of which no particular account can be given.
—Caefar next marched to Verulamium, or Canterbury,
which was Caffibelaunus’s capital, and which he Hill
kept poffeffion of j but though the place was ftrongly
fortified both by nature and art, the Britons were un¬
able to bear the affault of the Romans, and therefore
foon fled out at one of the avenues. Many were taken
as they attempted to make their efcape, and many more
cut in pieces.
After this lofs, Caffibelaunus, as his laft refource,
found means to draw into confederacy with him four
kings of the Cantii. But though Caefar gives them
the title of kings, it is probable that they were only
petty princes, tributary to the king of that nation.
Their names were Cingetorix, Corvilius, Taximagu-
lus, and Segonax. Thefe, having raifed what forces
they could, attacked the camp where the fhips were
laid up : but the Romans having made a fally, repul-
fed them with great daughter, and then returned to
their trenches without any lofs after which, Caffibe¬
launus thought proper to fubmit to the conqueror. As
the fummer was already far fpent, Caefar hearkened to
his propofals. A peace Was concluded on the follow¬
ing terms, viz. that the Britons fhould pay an annual
tribute to the Romans, that Caffibelaunus fhould leave
Maudubratius in peaceable pofleffion of his dominions, England,
that he fhould not moleil the Trinobantes, and that he v ”“J
fhould deliver a certain number of hoflages. Thefe jje 1(I?VfS
terms being agreed to, Caefar fet fail with his whole the Aland
fleet from Britain, to which he never returned. altogether.
Such is the account given by Caefar himfelf of his
two expeditions into Britain ; but other authors have
fpoken very doubtfully of his victories in this ifland.
Dio Caffius tells us, that the Britons utterly defeated
the Roman infantry, but were at lafl put in diforder by
their cavalry. Horace and Tibullus, in many parts of
their works, fpeak of the Britons as a people not yet
conquered. Tacitus fays, that Caefar rather fhowed
the Romans the way to Britain, than put them in pof¬
feffion of it 5 and Lucan tells us plainly, that Caefar
turned his back to the Britons and fled. This lafl,
however, confidering the confummate military genius
of Caefar, is by no means probable. That he left
Britain, during the winter, was, in all probability, to
prevent infurreftions among the Gauls, which might
very readily have happened: and that he did not return
to finifh his conqueft can be no wonder, feeing his am¬
bition would certainly be more gratified by being call¬
ed emperor of Rome, than conqueror of Britain.
The departure of Julius Caefar, which happened
about 53 years before Chrifl, left the Britons without
any fear of a foreign enemy. We are not, therefore,
to imagine, that they would regard their promifes of
paying tribute •, nor was it probably demanded for a
good number of years afterwards. Auguftus, however,
when he had got himfelf fully eftablifhed on the throne,
had twice a defign of invading Britain and forcing the
inhabitants to pay the tribute promifed to Julius Caefar.
Both times, however, he was prevented by revolts in
different provinces in the empire, fo that the Britons
ftill continued to enjoy their liberty. They thought
proper, however, to court the favour of the Romans as
much as they could by pretended fubmiffions 5 but, in
the reign of Claudius, the Romans fet about reducing
them to fubjeflion in good earnefl. The occafion of
this war is related by Dio Caffius as follows. “ Cu- Why the
nobelinus, the third in fucceffion from Caffibelaunus, war
being dead, his two fons, Togodumnus and Carac-
tacus, fucceeded to the throne 5 but whether they ecp
reigned jointly or feparately, is not known. In their
reign one Bercius, of whom we alfo know very little,
being driven out of the ifland for attempting to raife a
fedition, fled with fome of his partifans to Rome, and
perfuaded Claudius to make war on his countrymen.
The Britons, on the other hand, refented the beha¬
viour of Claudius in receiving thefe vagabonds, and
therefore prohibited all intercourfe with the Romans.
A much fmaller offence than this would have been fuf-
ficient at any time to provoke that haughty nation to
declare war. An army was therefore immediately or¬
dered into Britain, under the command of Plautius prre-
tor in Gaul. The foldiers at firfl: refufed to embark,
from a fuperflitious notion, that they were going to be
fent without the compafs of the world ; and this mu¬
tiny being related to the Britons, they did not make
the neceffary preparations for their own defence. The
Roman foldiers Were foon brought to a fenfe of their
duty j and fet out from three different ports, in order
to land in three different places of Britain at once.
Being
ENG [48
England. Being driven back by contrary winds, tbeir fears
“~v began to return j but they refumed their courage on
the appearance of a meteor (hooting from the eaft,
which they imagined was fent from heaven to dire£t
their courfe. They landed without oppofition j and
the Britons, not having drawn together a fufficient
army, kept in fmall bodies behind their marfhes, and
in woods, in order to fpin out the war till winter j
which they thought Plautius, as Caefar had done, would
14 pafs in Gaul.
The Bri- The Roman general marched fir ft in quell of the
tons defeat-two kjngS Togodumnus and Caraclacus j both of whom
he found out, and defeated one after another. He then
reduced part of the Dobuni, at that time fubjeft to the
Catt'ieuchlani *, and leaving a garrifon to keep them
in awe, he advanced to a river where the Britons lay
carelefsly encamped, fuppoling that the Romans could
not pafs it without a bridge. But the Germans in the
Roman army had been acculiomed to fwim acrofs the
llrongell currents with their heavy armour. They there-
fore palTed the river firlt j and having, according to
their orders, fallen only upon the enemy’s horfes which
drew their chariots, thefe formidable machines were
rendered entirely ufelefs ; and the Britons were put to
flight as foon as another part of the forces could pafs
the river.
The Britons were not dilheartened with this defeat,
but engaged the Romans next day with great bravery.
Victory continued long doubtful} but at length the
Romans prevailed, and the Britons w?ere forced to be¬
take themfelves to flight. This battle is thought to
have been fought on the banks of the Severn. From
thence the Britons fled to the mouth of the Thames.
They were clofely purfued by the Romans j but the
latter being unacquainted with the flats and lhallowTs
of the river, were often in great danger. The Ger¬
mans, however, crofled by fwimming as before, and
the reft on a bridge fomewhat farther up the river ; fo
that the Britons were in a Ihort time furrounded on all
fides, and great numbers of them cut in pieces. Many
of the Romans, alfo, purfuing the fugitives with too
great eagernefs, were loft in the marlhes.—In one of
thefe battles Togodumnus wras killed •, but the Britons
were fo far from being dilheartened, that they Ihowed
more eagernefs than ever to oppofe the Romans, in
order to revenge his death. Plautius, therefore, did not
think proper to penetrate farther into the country, but
contented himfelf with putting garrifons in the places
he had already conquered. He then wrote to the em¬
peror himfelf j who no fooner received an account of
his fuccefs, than he fet out for Britain ; wdiere, having
landed after a Ihort voyage, he joined Plautius on the
banks of the Thames.
Soon after the arrival of Claudius, the Romans
paffed the Thames, attacked the Britilh army, and to¬
tally defeated it. The confequence of this was the
taking of Cunobelinus’s capital, and the fubmiflion of
feveral of the neighbouring ftates. The emperor,
however, did not make a long ftay in the ifland, but
left Plautius to purfue his conquefts. This he did with
fuch fuccefs, that, on his return to Rome, he was met
without the gates by the emperor himfelf, who, at his
.folemn entry, gave him the right hand.—The Bri¬
tons feem to have made a very obftinate refiftance to
the Roman arms about this time. Vefpaflan, who was
1
ENG
*5
Claudius
arrives in
Britain.
afterwards emperor, is faid to have fought 30 battles England,
with them 5 and the exploits of Titus his fon are alfo'—-v—^
much celebrated by the Roman hiftorians.
In the ninth year of Claudius, P. Oftorius Scapula
was fent into Britain. By far the greater part of the
17 nations formerly mentioned were at this time un¬
conquered. Some of thefe had broken into the Ro¬
man territories j but Oftorius falling unexpeftedly up¬
on them, put great numbers to the fword, and difperfed
the reft. To prevent them for the future from making
inroads into the territories of the Romans or their al¬
lies, he built feveral forts on the Severn, the Avon,
and the Nen, reducing the country fouth of thefe ri¬
vers to a Roman province. This fo highly offended
the Iceni, that, being joined by the neighbouring na¬
tions, they raifed a confiderable army, and encamped
in an advantageous fituation, in order to prevent the
Romans from penetrating farther into the ifland. O-
ftorius, however, foon advanced againft them. The
Romans, as ufual, got the victory, and the enemy were
purfued with great daughter. The Roman general
then, having quelled an infurreftion among the Bri-
gantes, led his army againft the Silures. They wereCaradtacus
headed by their king Caradlacus, a moft renowned^efeate<^
warrior. He ftrowed his military talents by choofingan.^ ta!cen
a very advantageous place for engaging the enemy. Ta¬
citus tells us, “ it was on the ridge of an exceeding fteep
mountain •, and where the ftdes of it were inclining
and acceffible, he reared walls of ftone for a rampart.
At the foot of the mountain flowed a river dangerous
to be forded, and an army of men guarded his en¬
trenchments.” This hill is thought to be one called
Caer-Caradoc in Shroplhire, fituated near the conflux
of the rivers Colun and Teme, and where the remains
of ancient entrenchments are ftill vifible.—On the ap¬
proach of the enemy, Caraftacus drew up his troops in
order of battle, animating them with the following
fpeech, according to Tacitus. “ That from this day,
and this battle, they muft date their liberty refcued,
or their flavery for ever eftabliflied. He then invoked
the (hades of thofe heroes who had expelled Caefar the
diftator; thofe brave men by whofe valour they ftill
enjoyed freedom from Roman tribute and taxes, and
by which their wives and children were -as yet pre¬
ferred from proftitution.” The whole army then took
a folemn oath either to conquer or die, and prepared
for the charge with the moft terrible (houts. Oftorius
was fomewhat difmayed when he confidered the un¬
common fiercenefs of the enemy, and the other diffi¬
culties which he had to encounter. He led on his
men, however, to the charge *, and the Romans were
attended with their ufual good fortune. The Britons
were put to flight. Vaft numbers fell on the field of
battle and in the purfuit, and many more were taken
prifoners. Among the latter were the wife, the daugh¬
ter, and the brothers, of Caradlacus. The unfortunate
prince himfelf fled to Cartifmundua queen of the Bri-
gantes, by whom he was delivered up to the Roman
general, who fent him in chains to Rome. Caradlacus
bore his misfortunes with magnanimity ; and when he
came beforb the emperor, addreffed him in the follow- .
ing terms. “ If my moderation in profperity, O His fpeech
Claudius ! had been as confpicuous as my birth and to the Ro-
fortune, I (hould now have entered this city as a friend,man einPe-
and not as prifoner; nor would you have difdainedror’
the
ENG
jBritons.
England, tlie friendfliip cf a priftce defccnded froni fucK illuftri-
oug anceflorS) and governing fo many nations. My
{nefent condition, I own, is to yoti honourable, to me
lumiliating. I was lately pofleffed of fubjedts, horfesj
arms, and riches. Can yoii be furprifed that I endea¬
voured to preferve them ? If you Romans have a de¬
fire to arrive at univerfal monarchy, muft all nations,
to gratify you, tamely fubmit to fervitude ? If I had
fubmitted without a ftruggle, how much would it have
diminilhed the luftre cf my fall, and of your victory ?
And now, if you refdlve to put me to death, my Itory
will foon be buried in oblivion 5 but if you think pro¬
per to preferve my life, I fhall remain a lading monu¬
ment of your clemencyi”—This fpeecli had fuch an
effect upon Claudius* that he immediately pardoned
Caraftacus and his whole family, and commanded them
to be fet at liberty.
The Silures, notwithftandiiig this terrible blow, con¬
tinued the war with great vigour, and gained confi-
derable advantages over the Romans 5 which fo much
affefted Oitorius, that he died of grief. He was fuc-
ceeded by A. Didius, who reftrained the incuffiohs of
the Silures* but was not able to rettore Cartifmundua
queen of the B'rigantes, who had been depofed by her
fubjedts. Didius was fucceeded by Veranius* and he by
sg Suetonius Paulinus, who reduced the illand of Angle-
trencral re- SEY, as related under that article. But while Paulinus
Volt of :h was employed in the conqueit of this illand, he was
alarmed by the news of an almoft univerfal revolt among
thofe nation's which had fubmitted to the Romans.
The Britons* though conquered* had Hill a delire of
returning to their former Hate of independence j and
the Roman yoke became every day more unfupportable
to them, through the infolence and oppreflions of the
Roman foldiers. The Britons had befen lOng difcon-
tented, and were already in a very proper difpofition
For a revolt, when an event happened which kindled
thefe difcontents into an open flame. Prafutagus king
bf the Iceni, a prince renowned For opulence and gran¬
deur, had, by his lalt will, left the Roman emperor,
joint-heir with his two daughters, in hopes of obtain¬
ing his favour and proteftion by fo grteat an obligation.
But the event turned out very different. No fooner
was he dead, than his hOufes and polfeflions were all
plundered by the Roman foldiers. The queen Boadi-
cea remonltrated againft this injuftice •, but, inftead of
Obtaining any redrefs, Ihe herfelf was publicly whipped,
Her daughters ravilhed, and all the relations of the late
king reduced to flavery. The whole country alfo was
plundered, and all the chiefs of the Iceni deprived of
their poffeflions.
Boadicea was a woman of too haughty a fpirit tame¬
ly to bear fuch indignities. She therefore perfuaded
the Iceni to take up arms, which they very readily did.
Then, being joined by the Trinobantes, and fome other
nations, they poured like a torrent on the Roman Co-
lonieSi Every thing was deftroyed with fire and fwofd.
I he ninth legion, which had been left for the defence
of the country under Petilius Cerealis, was defeated,
the infanti-y totally cut in pieces, and the commander
himfelf with the cavalry efcaped with the utmoft diffi¬
culty. Suetonius, alarmed at this news, immediately
left Anglefey, and marched with the greateft expedi¬
tion to London. The inhabitants were overjoyed at
His arrival, and ufed their utmoft endeavours to detain
Yol, VIIL Part I.
[ 45 1
ENG
him for their defencei But he refufed to flay, and in England,
a ihort time left the place, notwithftanding the intrea- v—
ties of the inhabitants. The whole city lamented his l9
departure $ and they had reafon. Suetonius was fcarce They de-
gone, when Boadicea with her Britons entered* andftroy
put all they found in it to the fword. None were ta -?0*000 R-0*’
ken prifoners* nor was any fex or age fpared, andmaus’
many were tortured in the moft cruel manner. Seventy
thoufand perfons are faid to have perilhed on tnis occa-
fion at London and other Roman Colonies.
The Britons, now elated with fuccefs, affembled
from all quarters in great numbers* fo that Boadicea’s Tjie ?°dn,
army foon amounted to 230,000 men. They defpifedua ,[> de-
the Romans 5 and became fo confident of victory* that feated.
they brought their wives and children along with them
in waggons to be fpeftators of the deftruftion of their
enemies-. The event was what might naturally have
been expedltd from fuch ill-judged confidence. The
Britons were overthrown with moft terrible flaughter,
no fewer than 8o,o0o being killed in the battle and
purfuit * while the Romans had not above 400 killed*
and not many more wounded. Boadicea, not able to
furvive fo great a calamity, put an end to her life by
poifon;
By this overthrow the Britons* who had once beeA
fubdued* were thoroughly prevented from railing any
more infurreclions, and even thofe who had not yet
fubmitted to the Roman yoke feemed to be intimida¬
ted from making incurfions into their dominions. No¬
thing remarkable therefore happened for fome time.
In the time of Vefpafian, Petilius Cerealis being ap¬
pointed governor of Britain, attacked the Brigantes*
defeated them in feveral battles, and rediiced great part
of their country. He was fucceeded by Julius Fronti-
nus * who not only maintained the conquefts of his pre-
deceffor* but reduced entirely the warlike nation of
the Silures. Frontinus was fucceeded by the celebrated
Cneius Julius Agricola, who completed the conqueft of
all the fouthem Britorts. 2I
Juft before the arrival of Agricola, the Ordovices Britain cor.a
had cut in pieces a band of horfe ftationed on their<luered hy
confines, after which the whole nation had taken arms. ASacotas
The fummer was pretty far fpent, and the Roman ar¬
my was quite feparated and difperfed* the foldiers ha¬
ving affured themfelves of reft for the remaining part of
the year. . Agricola, however* was no fooner landed,
than, having drawn together his legions, he marched
againft the enemy without delay. The Britons kept
upon the ridgds of the mountains 5 but Agricola led
them irt perfon up the afcents. The Romans were
victorious j and fuch a terrible daughter was made of
the Britons* that almoft the whole nation of Ordo-
vices was cut off. Without giving the enemy time to
recovOi from the terror which this overthrow had oc-
cafioned, Agricola refolved upon the immediate reduc¬
tion of Anglefey, which had been loft by the revolt of
Boadicea. Being deftitute of fhips* he detached a
chofen body of auxiliaries who knew the fords, and
were abcuftomed to manage their arms and horfes in
the water. The Britons* who had expefted a fleet and
tranfpons, were fo terrified by the appearance of the
Roman forces on their ifland, that they immediately
fubmitted, and Anglefey was once more reftored to the
Romans.
With the conqueft of Anglefey ended the firft cam-
paign
England.
-* See A-
drian.
f See Anto¬
ninus's
wall.
22
Expedition
of Severus
into Bri¬
tain.
ENG [5
paign of Agricola *, and he employed the winter in re¬
conciling the Britons to the Roman yoke. In this he
met with fuch fuccefs, through his wife and equitable
conduit, that the Britons, barbarous as they were, be¬
gan to prefer a life of fecurity and peace, to that inde¬
pendency which they had formerly enjoyed, and which
continually expofed them to the tumults and calamities
of war. The fucceeding campaigns of Agricola were
attended with equal fuccefs ; he not only fubdued the
17 nations inhabiting England, but carried the Roman
arms almoft to the extremity of Scotland. He alfo
caufed his fleet to fail round the ifland, and difcovered
the Orcades, or Orkney iilands, which had before been
unknown to the reft of the world. His expedition took
him up about fix years, and was completed in the year
of Chrift 84.
Had this commander been continued in Britain, it
is probable that both Scotland and England would
have been permanently fubdued j but he was recalled
by Domitian in the year 85, and we are then almoft
totally in the dark about the Britiih affairs till the
reign of the emperor Adrian. During this interval
the Caledonians had taken arms, and not only refu-
fed fubjeftion to the Roman power themfelves, but
ravaged the territories of the Britons who continued
faithful to them. Adrian, for what reafon is not
well known, abandoned to them the whole tratl lying
between the Tyne and the Forth. At the fame time,
in order to reftrain them from making incurfions into
the Roman territories, he built a wall 80 miles in
length from the river Eden in Cumberland to the
Tyne in Northumberland *. He was facceeded by
Antoninus Pius, in whofe reign the Briga des re¬
volted ; and the Caledonians, having in feveral places
broken down the wall built by Adrian, began anew
to ravage the Roman territories. Againft them the
emperor fent Lollius Urbicus, who reduced the Bri-
gantes j and having defeated the northern nations,
confined them within narrower bounds by a new
wall f, extending probably between the friths of
Forth and Clyde. From the time of Antoninus to
that of Severus, the Roman dominions in Britain
continued to be much infefted by the inroads of the
northern nations. That emperor divided Britain into
two governments, the fouthern and northern; but
the governor of the northern divificn was fo haraffed
by continual incurfions of the Caledonians, that he was
at length obliged to purchafe a peace with money.
The Caledonians kept the treaty for 15 years •, after
which, breaking into the Roman territories anew, they
committed terrible ravages. Virius Lupus the gover¬
nor, not being in a condition to withftand them, ac¬
quainted the emperor with his diftrefs, intreating him
to fend powerful and fpeedy fupplies. Upon this Se¬
verus refolved to put an end to the perpetual incurfions
of the enemy, by making a complete conqueft of their
country ) for which purpofe he fet out for Britain, to¬
gether with his two fons Caracalla and Geta, at the
head of a numerous army. The Caledonians no fooner
heard of his arrival, than they fent ambaffadors offer¬
ing to conclude a peace upon honourable terms. But
thefe the emperor detained till he was ready to take the
field, and then dilmiffed them without granting their
requeft.
As foon as the feafon was fit for action, Severus
o ] . ENG
marched into the territories of the Caledonians, where Erg’and.
he put all to fire and (word. He advanced even to the v
molt northerly parts of the illand ) and though no
battle was fought in this expedition, yet through the
continual ambufcades of the enemy, and the inhofpi-
table nature of the country, he is faid to have loft
50,000 men. At laft the Caledonians were obliged to
fue for peace $ which was granted them on condition
of their yielding part of their country, and delivering
up their arms. After this the emperor returned to
York, leaving his fon Caracalla to command the army,
and finilh the new wall which had been begun between
the friths of Forth and Clyde. But the emperor be¬
ing taken ill at York, the Caledonians no fooner heard
of his indifpofition, than they again took up arms.
This provoked Severus to fuch a degree, that he com¬
manded his fon Caracalla to enter their country anew
with the whole army, and to put all he met to the
fword without diftin&ion of fex or age. Before thefe-
orders, however, could be put in execution, his two
fons, having concluded a lhameful peace with the Ca¬
ledonians, returned to Rome.
A long chafm now takes place in the hiftory of the
Roman dominions in Britain. In the beginning ot
Dioclefian’s reign, Caraufius a native of Gaul, palling
over into Britain, took upon him the title of emperor,
and was acknowledged by all the troops quartered here.
He was, however, killed in a battle with one of Con-
ftantius’s officers, after he had enjoyed the fovereignty
for fix or feven years. Conftantine the Great began
his reign in this illand ; and returned foon after he had
left it, probably with a defign to put a flop to the daily
incurfions of the Caledonians. He altered the divifion
of that part of Britain fubjecl to the Romans. Severus
had divided it only into two provinces •, but Conftan¬
tine increafed the number to three, viz. Britannia Pri-
ma, Britannia Secunda, and Maxima Ctefarienfis •, and
this laft was afterwards divided into two, viz. Maxima
Csefarienfis and Flavia Caefarienfis. The removal of the
imperial feat from Rome to Conftantinople, which
happened in the reign of Conftantine, gave the northern
nations an opportunity of making frequent incurfions
into the Roman provinces j the emperor having carried
with him, firft into Gaul, and then into the Eaft, not
only moft of the Roman troops, but likewife the fiower
of the Britiih youth.
About the latter end of the reign of Conftantius fon
to Conftantine the Great, the government of the pro¬
vince of Britain, and other weftern parts of the em¬
pire, was committed to Julian, afterwards called the
apojlate. While he was in his winter quarters at Paris,
he was informed that the Scots and Piets, about this
time firft diftinguilhed by thefe names, had broken in¬
to the Roman territories and committed everywhere
dreadful ravages. Againft them Julian difpatched a
body of troops under the command of Lupicinius. He
embarked from Boulogne in the depth of winter, but was
no fooner arrived at London than he was recalled j.
the enemy having probably found means to appeafe
Julian by their fubmiffions. Till the reign of Valen-
tinian I. thefe nations ftill continued to infeft the R.o-
man territories in Britain, and had now reduced the
country to a moft deplorable condition by their conti¬
nual ravages. Valentinian fent againft them Theodo-
fius, father to the emperor of that name. That gene¬
ral
ENG [ s
England, tal having divided his forces into feveral bodies, advan-
—v 1 ced agahift the enemy, who w'ere roving up and down
the country. The Scots and Pi&s w'ere obliged to
yield to the fuperior valour and difcipline of the Ro¬
mans. Great numbers were cut in pieces j they were
forced to abandon all the booty and prifoners they had
taken, and to retire beyond the friths of Forth and
Clyde. Theodolius then entered London in triumph,
and reltored that city to its former fplendor, wdiich
had luffered greatly by the former incurfions of the
northern Britons. To reftrain them from breaking
anew into the provinces, Theodohus built feveral forts
or caftles between the two friths $ and having thus re¬
covered all the country between Adrian’s wall and the
friths of Forth and Clyde, he formed of it a fifth pro¬
vince, which he called Valentin.
Though Britain was now reduced to a flate of tem¬
porary tranquillity, yet as the Roman empire was daily
declining, it is not to be fuppofed that futheient care
could be taken to fecure fuch a dillant province. In
the reign of the emperor Honorius, the provincial
Britons found themfelves annoyed not only by the
Scots and Pidts, but alfo by the depredations of the
Saxons, who began to commit ravages on the fea-coafts.
By the care, however, of Stilicho, prime minilter to
Honorius, matters w7ere once more fettled, and a par¬
ticular officer was appointed to guard the coaft againft
the attempts of the Saxons, with the title of Comes li-
mitis Saxonici. But, not long after, the empire being
overrun by barbarians, molt of the Roman troops
quartered in Britain w^ere recalled, and the country
2 ^ kft quite open to the attacks of the Scots and Pidts.
The Bri- Upon this the provincials expedting no more affiftance
tons choofe from Honorius, refolved to fet up an emperor of their
ho emperor own> Accordingly they inverted with the imperial
dignity one Mark, an officer of great credit among
them. Him they murdered in a few days, and placed
on the throne one Gratian a native of Britain. After
a reign of four months, Gratian underwent the fate
of his predeceffor 5 and was fucceeded by Con/lon¬
line, a common foldier, wffio was chofen merely for the
fake of his name. He feems, however, to have been
a man of feme know ledge and experience in war. He
drove the Scots and Pidls beyond the limits of the
Roman territories ; but being elated with this fuccefs,
he would now be fatisfied with nothing lefs than the
conqueft of the wffiole Roman empire. He therefore
parted over into Gaul; and took with him not only
the few Roman forces that had been left, but fuch of
the provincial Britons as were mort accuftomed to
arms. that unhappy people, being now left entirely
defencelefs, wrere haraffed in the moft cruel manner by
their enemies; wTho broke into the country, and de-
ftroyed all writh fire and fword. In this milerable fitu-
ation they continued from the year 407, when the
ulurper Conftantine parted over into Gaul, till the year
410. Having during the laft three years frequently
implored affillance from Rome without receiving any,
they now refolved to withdraw their allegiance from
an empire which wras no longer able to proteft them.
Honorius himfelf applauded their conduct ; and ad-
vifed them by letters to provide for their own fafety,
which was in effedt an implicit refignation of the fo-
Vereignty of the ifland.
1 he provincial Britons now regained their liberty;
]
ENG
of their
awn.
but they had loft the martial fpint which had at firif England,
tendered them fo formidable to the Romans. Thev v
feem, however, to have met with fome fuccefs in their
firrt enterpriles; for Zofimus tells us, that they deli-
veied their cities from the infults of an haughty ene-
my; But being at laft overpowered, they were again implo?e the
obliged to have recourfe to the Roman emperor, toafliftance
whom they promifed a moft perfedl fubmiffion, pro-°f ^ R-®-
vided they wTere delivered from the hands of theirmans*
mercilefs and implacable enemies. Honorius, touched
with compaffion, fent a legion to their relief. The
Roman forces landed in Britain-unexpedtedly ; and ha¬
ving deftroyed great numbers of the Scots and Fids,
they drove them beyond the friths of Forth and Hun-
britton. After this they advifed the natives to build
a w'all on the ifthmus from fea to fea, and to reaflume
their courage, and defend themfelves from their ene¬
mies by their own valour. The Romans then quitted
the country; being obliged to return, in order to re-
pulfe thofe barbarians wffio had broken into the em¬
pire from all quarters.
-The Britons immediately fet about building the wall,
as they had been defired, with great alacrity. But as
it was conftructed only of turf' the Scots and Picfts
loon broke it down in feveral places ; and, pouring in
upon the defencelefs and effeminate provincials, com¬
mitted more cruel ravages than ever. At laft, after Sen/am-
very many and grievous calamities, the latter fent am-baffadors a
bafladors once more to Rome. Thefe appeared withfecond time
their garments rent and dull on their herds ; and att0 RoKie-
laft prevailed on the emperor, by their earneft intrea-
ties, to lend another legion to their relief. The troops
arrived in Britain before the enemy had the leaft know¬
ledge of their having fet fail. They were therefore
quite unprepared for an attack, and roving up and
down the country in the utmoft diforder. The Ro¬
mans made a terrible havock among them, and drove
the remainder into their own country. As Honorius
had fent them not with any ambitious view of retain¬
ing the iiland in lubjeffion, but merely out of com¬
paffion to the unhappy provincials, the Romans told
tnem, they had now no farther affiftance to expeT
from them.^ They informed them, that the legion
muft immediately return to the continent, to proteft
the. empire from the barbarians, who had extended
their ravages almoft to every part of it; and therefore^
that they muft now take their laft farewH of Britain
and totally abandon the ifland. After this declaration
Gallio, the commander of the Roman troops, exhort¬
ed the provincials to defend themfelves, by fighting
bravely for their country, wives, and children, and
wffiat ought to be dearer than life itfelf, their liberty ;
telling them, at the fame time, that their enemies w-ere
no ftronger than themfelves, provided they would but
lay afide their fears, and exert their ancient courage
and refolution. That they might the better wdthftand
the attacks of the enemy, he advifed them tb build a
wall, not of turf, but of ftone ; offering to affift them
with his foldiers, and to direft them' himfelf in the
execution. Upon this the Britons immediately fell to
work ; and with the affiftance of the Romans, finifhed
it in a fhort time, though it W'as no lefs than eight
feet thick, and tw’elve feet in height. It is thought
to have been built on the fame place where Severus’s
wall formerly ftoed. 'Anvers were alfo built at con-
U 2, Venient
the Ro
mans
27
railed by
the Scots
and Piets.
E N 0 [ 52
England, venient diiWces on tlie eaft coaft, to prevent the de-
—-'v——' feents of the Saxons and other barbarians that came
from Germany. Gallio employed the reft of his time
Pvitain fi- in teaching the provincials the art of war. He left
naily aban. them patterns of the Roman weapons, which he alfo
doned by taught them to make j and after many encouraging
exhortations, he took his laft farewTel of Rritam, to
which the Romans never returned. There is a great
difagreement among chronologers as to the year in
which the Romans finally abandoned Britain y fome
placing it in 422 j others in 423, or 426 j and fome
in 43G 435* or 437- . ^ ^ ,
The final departure or the Romans was no iooner
known to the Scots and Pifts, than they poured in
upon the provincial Britons from all quarters, like hun¬
gry wolves breaking into a fheep-fold. When the Scots
approached the new built-wall, they found it complete¬
ly finifhed, and guarded by great numbers of armed
men. But fo little had the provincial Britons profited
by the military inftrudtions of the Romans, that in-
ftead of placing proper guards and centinels, and re¬
lieving one another by turns, their whole number had
ftaid feveral days and nights upon the ramparts with¬
out intermiflion. Being therefore quite benumbed and
wearied out, they were able to make but very little
Britons mi- refiftance. Many were pulled down with hooks from
ferably ha- tj-ie battlements, and dallied in pieces. The reft were
driven from their ftations with Ihowers of darts and
arrows. They betook themfelves to flight ; but that
could not lave them. The Scots and Pi&s purfued
them clofe, made a dreadful havock among the fugi¬
tives, and took polleflion of the frontier towns, which
they found deferted by the inhabitants, iks they now
met with no more oppofition, they overran the whole
country, putting every thing to fire and fword. Their
ravages foon occafioned a famine } and this was follow¬
ed by a kind of civil war. The provincials, unable to
fupport themfelves, were obliged to plunder each other
of the little the common enemy had left them. The
whole country at laft became fo incapable of fupport-
ing thofe who were left in it, that many fled into the
S8 woods, in order to fubfift themfelves there by hunting.
Imploiethejn this extremity of diftrefs they had once more re-
affiliance ot courfe t0 the Romans j and wrote in the moft mourn-
the Ro- ful ftyle tbat can poflibly be imagined to Aetius, who
n5anS' was then conful the third time. Their letter they di-
re£led thus : “ The groans of the Britons to the con¬
ful Aetius.” The contents of this letter were anfwer-
able to the direftion. “ The barbarians (fay they)
drive us to the fea j the fea drives us back to the bar¬
barians y between wdiich we have only the choice of
two deaths, either to be fwallowTed up by the waves,
or to be cruelly maffacred by the enemy.”
To this letter the Roman general gave no fatisfac-
torv anfwer, and the provincials wrere thereupon redu-
• ced to defpair. Great numbers of them fled over to Ar¬
morica, wThere they fettled along with others who had
formerly gone over with an ufurper called Maximus ;
while others fubmitted to the Scots and Pi61s. Some,
however, more refolute than the reft, had once more
recourfe to arms. They fallied out in parties from the
T1 29tP ft woods and caves where they had been obliged to hide
re puli e themfelves, and, falling unexpeftedly on the. enemy,
their ene- cut great numbers of them in pieces, and obliged the
mies. re£ to retire. Having thys obtained fome refpite,
1
ENG
they began again to cultivate their lands j which, ha- England-
ving lain fallow for a long time, now produced all v
forts of corn in the greateft plenty. This plenty, ac¬
cording to the hiftorian Gildas, occafioned the moft
confummate wickednefs and corruption of manners
among all ranks of men. The clergy, fays he, who
Ihould have reclaimed the laity by their example,
proved the ringleaders in every vice 5 being addidbed to
drunkennefs, contention, envy, &c.—It is poflible,
however, that this defeription might be exaggerated by
Gildas, who wTas himfelf a monk. But how'ever this
was, the Britons had not long enjoyed peace, when
they were alarmed by a report, that the Scots and
Pidls were about to return with a far greater force
than before, utterly to extirpate the name of their
fouthern neighbours, and feize upon the country for \re again
themfelves. This report threw them into a terrible thre atened
confternation ; and to add to the reft of their misfor- "’'^an in*
tunes, they wrere now vifited by a dreadful plague,
which raged with fuch violence, that the living were
fcarce fuflicient to bury the dead. The contagion no
fooner ceafed, than they found their country invaded
by the Scots and Pidls, who deftroyed every thing with
fire and fword} fo that the provincials were foon re¬
duced to the fame miferable ftate they had formerly
been in.
At this time the chief, if not the only, king of the
fouthern divifion of Britain, was one Vortigern. He
is find to have been a cruel, debauched tyrant, regard-
lefs of the public welfare, and totally incapable of pro-* /
moting it. Being now roufed from his infenfibility,
however, by a fenfe of his own danger, he fummoned
a council of the chief men of the nation, in order to
deliberate about the proper means for delivering the
country from thofe calamities under which it groaned.
In this council the moft pernicious meafure was adop- 31
ted that could poflibly have been refolved on •, namely, They re-^
to invite to their afliftance the SaxoriSy a people famous the Sax-
for their piracies and cruelty, and juftly dreaded by ons.
the Britons themfelves *. This fatal expedient be- *. gee ggx_
ing agreed upon, ambafladors were immediately dit-ons.
patched into Germany with advantagous propofals to
the Saxons in cafe they would come over to their af-
fiftance.
The Britifh ambaffadors foon arrived in Germany,
and, according to Witichind, a Saxon hiftorian of the
ninth century, made the following fpeech before an af-
fembly of the Saxons.—“ Illuftrious Saxons, the fame
of your vi&ories having reached our ears, the diftref-
fed Britons, haraffed by the continual inroads of a
neighbouring enemy, fend us to implore your aflift-
ance. We have a fertile and fpacious country, which
we are commanded to fubmit to you. We have hi¬
therto lived under the protection of the Roman em¬
pire ’y but our ancient mailers having abandoned us,
we know no nation more powerful than you, and bet¬
ter able to proteCl us. We therefore recur to your
valour. Forfake us not in our diftrefs, and we flrall
readily fubmit to what terms you yourfelves {hall think
fit to preferibe to us.”—If this abjeCl and Ihameful
fpeech was really made, it muft give us a very ftrange
idea of the national fpirit of the provincial Britons at
that time. It is, however probable that the whole is
a fiClion, defigned only to excufe the perfidious treat¬
ment which thefe Britons afterwards received from the
E N -G
[ S3 ]
defeat the
Scots and
Fi&s.
England. Saxons. The moft refpectable even of the Saxon hx-
ftorians make no mention of fuch a fpeech j and it is
certain, that when the Saxons themfelves wanted to
quarrel with the Britons, they never infilled upon the
promife made by the Britilh ambaffadors j which they
moft certainly would have done, had any fuch promife
ever been made.
The Britilh ambaffadors were very favourably recei¬
ved by the Saxons. The latter embraced their propo-
lal with joy $ and the rather, becaufe their foothfayers
foretold that they ihould plunder their Britilh allies for
150 years, and reign over them for twice that time.
Three long Ihips, in the Saxon language called cMules,
were therefore fitted out, under the conduct of Hen-
gift and Horfa. Thefe were two brothers much cele¬
brated both for their valour .and nobility. They were
fons of Witigifil, faid to be great-grandfon to the
Saxon god Woden j a circumftance which added much
to their authority. Having embarked about 1600
men on board their three veffels, the two brothers ar-
rived in the ille of Thanet, in the year 449 or 450.
The SaxonsThey were received by the inhabitants with the great-
arrive in eft demonftrations of joy: the ille in which they had
®1jta^n>|an^ landed was immediately appointed for their habitation 5
and a league was concluded, in virtue of which the
Saxons were to defend the provincial Britons againft
all foreign enemies ; and the provincials were to allow
the Saxons pay and maintenance, befides the place al¬
lotted them for their abode. Soon after their arrival,
King Vortigern led them againft the northern nations,
who had lately broke into the kingdom, and advanced
as far as Stanford in the county of Lincolnlhire.
Here a battle was fought, in which the Scots and
Piets were utterly defeated, and obliged to relinquilh
their booty.
Vortigern was fo highly pleafed with the behaviour
of his new allies, that he beftowed large poffeftions in
the country they had newly delivered, upon the two
commanders Hengift and Horfa. It is faid, that, even
at this time, Hengift was taken with the wealth and
fertility of the country j and at the fame time obfer-
ving the inhabitants to be quite enervated with luxury,
began to entertain hopes of conquering part of it.
He therefore, with Vortigern’s confent, invited over
fome more of his countrymen j giving them notice at
the fame time of the fruitfulnefs of the country, the
effeminacy of the inhabitants, and how ealily a con-
queft might be effefted.
The Saxons readily complied with the invitation j
and, in 452, as many more arrived in 17 veffels, as,
with thofe already in Britain, made up an army of
5000 men. Along with thefe, according to Nennius,
came over Rowena the daughter of Hengift. Vorti¬
gern fell in love with this lady ; and in order to obtain
her in marriage, divorced his lawful wife. Hengift
pretended to be averfe to the match j but Vortigern
obtained his confent by invefting him with the fove-
reignty of Kent. The Saxon hiftorians, indeed, make
no mention of Rowena; but rather infinuate, that
their countrymen made tlxemfelves mafters of Kent by
force of arms. It feems moft probable, however, that
Vortigern had as yet continued in friendlhip with the
Saxons, and even put more confidence in them than in
his own fubiecis. Por, not long after the arrival of
this firft reinforcement, Hengift obtained leave to fend
33
New (ap¬
plies of
Saxons ar¬
rive.
ENG
for a fecond, in order, as was pretended, to defend England,
the king from the attempts of his rebellious fubjetts, as "v
well as of the Scots and Pi&s. Thefe embarked in 40
ftxips, under the command of O&a and Ebufa, the fon
and nephew, or, according to fome, the brother and
nephew of Hengift. They landed at the Orkney
iflands $ and having ravaged them, as well as all the
northern coafts of Scotland, they conquered feveral
places beyond the Frith, and at laft obtained leave to
fettle in Northumberland.
The pretence made for this fettlement was, that the
Saxons under 0£la and Ebufa might defend the nor¬
thern frontiers of the kingdom, as thofe under Hengift
and Horfa did the fouthern parts. Many more Saxons
were, under various pretences, invited over ; till at laft
the countries from which they came wrere in a manner
depopulated. And now their numbers being greatly
increafed, the Saxons began to quarrel with the natives. ^
They demanded larger allowances of corn, and other They quar-
provifions ; threatening to lay wafte the whole country rel with the
if their demands were not complied with. The Bri- Britons,
tons, inftead of complying with thefe demands, delired
them to return home, fince their numbers exceeded
what they were able to maintain. Upon this, the Sa¬
xons concluded a peace with the Scots and Piifts ; and,
turning their arms againft the unhappy provincials,
overran the whole country. The Saxons committed
everywhere the greateft cruelties. All buildings, whe¬
ther public or private, they levelled with the ground.
The cities were pillaged and burnt} and the people
maffacred without diftinftion of fex or age, and that
in fuch numbers, that the living fcarce fufticed to bury
the dead. Some of thofe who efcaped the general t
flaughter, took refuge among macceflible rocks and
mountains j but there great numbers perilhed with
hunger, or were forced to furrender themfelves as Haves
to their enemies. Some croffed the fea and fettled ei¬
ther in Holland or in Armorica, now the province of
Britanny in France.
Vortigern, we are told by Nennius, was fo far from
being reclaimed by thefe calamities, that he added in-
ceft to his other crimes, and married his own daugh¬
ter. At laft, his own fubje&s, proveked at his enor¬
mous wickednefs, and the partiality he fhowed to the
Saxons, depofed him, and raifed his fon Vortimer to
the throne. He was a young man of great valour, They are
and willingly undertook the defence of his diftreffed defeated
country. He firft fell upon the Saxons with what ani driven
troops he could affemble, and drove them into the ifle ^or~
of Thanet. Here they were befieged, till, being rein¬
forced by frefti fupplies from Germany, they opened
themfelves a way through the Britilh troops. Vorti¬
mer, however, was not yet diflieartened. He enga¬
ged the Saxons on the banks of the Derwent in Kent,
where he obtained a complete victory, and cut in pie¬
ces great numbers of the enemy. Another battle was
fought at Aylesford in Kent. Some aferibe the victo¬
ry at this time to the Saxons, and fome to the Bri¬
tons. It is certain, however, that Horfa the brother
of Hengift was killed in this engagement. He is faid
to have been buried at a place in the neighbourhood,
which from him obtained the name of Hor/ied.—A
thxrd battle was fought, in which the viftory was un¬
certain, as is alfo the place where it happened. The
fourth battle, however, according to Nennius proved
decifive
England.
They re¬
turn and
defeat the
Britons,
and eredl a
kingdom
in Kent.
E N G
decifive in favour of the Britons
his enemies, according to fotne, at Folkftone , accord
ing to others, at a place called Stonar, in the ille of
Thanet. The Saxons were defeated with great {laugh¬
ter, and driven back to their (hips. So complete is
the vi&ory faid to have been, that the Saxons quitted
the iiiand, without making any attempt upon it for
five years afterwards. Thefe battles, however, reft
entirely upon the credit of Nennius, and the hiitorians
who have folknved him. They are taken notice of
neither by Gildas nor Bede. The former only ac¬
quaints us, that the Saxons retired. This, by mod
hiftorians, is underftood of their returning home; though
it is poflible he might mean no more, than that, after
they had laid wafte the country, they retired into the
territories allotted them by Vortigern, in Kent and
Northumberland.
Vortimer is faid to have died after a reign of fix
years. On his death-bed, he defired his fervants to
bury him near the place where the Saxons ufed to
land 5 being perfuaded, that the virtue of his bones
would effeclually prevent them from ever touching the
Britilh ihore. This command, however, was neglect¬
ed ; and Vortimer was buried at Lincoln, according
to i'ome, or London, according to others. Hengilt
w'as no fooner informed of his death, than he invaded
Britain anew with a numerous body of Saxons. He
was oppofed by Vortigern, wdro had been reltored to
the throne after the death of his fon Vortimer. Seve¬
ral battles were fought on this occafion j but at lalt the
provincials being overthrown at a place calked Crecan-
ford, with the lofs of 40co men, were obliged to aban¬
don Kent to their enemies, and retire to London. This
happened about the year 458 or 459 ; and from this
time molt hiftorians date the ereCtion of the firft Saxon
kingdom in Britain, viz. that of Kent. Hengift af¬
firmed the title oi king, and chofe Elk his Ion for his
colleague. ‘
The Britons under Vortigern ftill continued the war.
Hengift finding himfelf unable to gain a decifive ad-
vantage over them in the field, had recourfe to treach-
Treachery ery. Lie pretended to be defirous of concluding a
or the Sax- peace with the Britilh monarch, and of renewing his
c::s‘ ancient friendlhip with him ; and therefore required an
intervhv. To this Vortigern readily confented, and
accepted of an entertainment prepared for him by Hen¬
gift. The king was attended by 300 nobility all un¬
armed ; but the Saxons had concealed daggers below
their garments. The Britilh nobility were all treach-
eroully malfacred in the height of their mirth 5 Vorti¬
gern himfelf wTas taken and put in fetters ; nor could
his liberty be procured, but by ceding to the Saxons
thofe provinces nowT called Ejjex, Su/J'ex, and Middlefex.
Thus the Saxons got fitch a footing in Britain, that
they could never afterwards be expelled. Vortigern,
after being fet at liberty, is faid to have retired to a
vaft wildernefs near the fall of the Wye in Radnorlhire,
wThere he wTas feme time after confirmed by lightning,
together with a city called Kaer Gourtigern which he
had built in that place.
On the retreat of Vortigern, the command of the
Britilh forces devolved upon Aurelius Ambrofius, or
as Gildas calls him, Ambrofius Aurelianus. He was a
Roman, and perhaps the laft that remained in the illand.
He is faid to have gained feveral victories over the
4
t 54 1 ENG
Vortimer engaged Saxons. Notwithftanding this, howrever, they ftill con- England.
tinned to gain ground 5 and in the year 491, the foun-
dation of a fecond Saxon kingdom w as laid in Britain. „
This at firft comprehended only the county of Suffex,^^^ ax'
but foon after extended over molt of the counties lying dorn.
fouth of the Humber. It was called the kingdom of the
South Saxons.
The German nations being now informed of the
good fuccefs which had attended the Saxons in Bri¬
tain, new adventurers daily flocked over to Inare the
good fortune of the others. They were chie ;y com-
pofed of three nations, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes.
All thefe palled under the common appellation fome-
times of Saxons, fometimes of Angles. They fpoke the
fame language, and agreed very much in their culloms
and inftitutions, fo that all of them were naturally led
to combine againft the natives. The moft adtive of
thefe adventurers was Cerdic a Saxon, laid to be the
tenth in defeent from Woden. He landed with his
fon Cenric, and as many men as he could convey
in five Ihips, at Yarmouth in Norfolk. The pro¬
vincials immediately attacked him with great vigour j
but after a Ihort engagement, they were totally de¬
feated. Many other battles were fought, the event of
which was always favourable to the Saxons, fo that
the Britons wrere forced to abandon their fea-coalts to
them.
In 497, Porta, another Saxon, with his tvTo fons Bleda
and Mag/a, arrived at Portfmouth, fo called, as lome
imagine, from this chieftain. The provincials, under
the command of a young prince a native of the coun¬
try, attempted to oppofe the landing of the Saxons ;
but his army wTas defeated with great {laughter, and
he himfelf killed in the engagement •, after which Porta
made himlelf mailer of all the neighbouring country.
The progrefs of Cerdic, however, alarmed the Britons
more than that of all the other Saxon princes. About N zakod
the year 508, therefore, Naxaleod, ifyled, by Henry of*1^ ^ 0' ^
Huntingdon, the grcatejl of all the Britijh kings, affem-^tt“^nai ^
bled almoft the whole ftrength of the provincial Britons
in order to drive him out of the illand. Cerdic, on the
other hand, took care to ftrengthen himfelf by procu¬
ring alfiftance from all the Saxons already in the illand.
Lie then advanced againft the Britons, commanding
the right wing himfelf, and his fon Cenric the left.
As the two armies drewr near each other, Nazaleod
perceived the enemy’s right wing to be much ftrong-
er than the left. He therefore attacked it with the
flower of his army *, and after an obftinate refiftance,
obliged Cerdic to fave himfelf by flight. Being tocr
eager in the purfiut, however, Cenric fell upon his rear,
and the battle was renewed with great vigour. The’
Britilh army was at laft entirely defeated *, and 5000
men, among whom w7as Nazaleod himfelf, were left
dead on the fpot.
Vv'ho fucceeded Nazaleod in the kingdom of Britain,
is not known. The Wellh annals leave an interreg¬
num of about fix years , after which they place the be¬
ginning of the reign of Arthur, the moft renowned ^
Britilh prince mentioned in hiftory. The hiftory dfwhether
King Arthur is fo much obfeured by fables, and manyr, ch a per-
abfurd, romantic, and ridiculous ftories, that fome have bn a- k.ng
fuppofed that no fuch perfon ever exifted. On this hib-^fil|^ever
jeCt Milton gives the following reafons againft the ex-
iftence of King Arthur : 1. He is not mentioned by
Gildas,
ENG r 55 ] ENG
f England. Gildas, or any Britifh hiftorian except Nennius, who
v is allowed on all hands to have been a very credulous
waiter, and to have publifhed a great many fables.
2. Though William of Malmefbury and Henry of
Huntingdon have both related his exploits, yet the lat¬
ter took all he wrote from Nennius ; and the former,
either from the fame fabulous writer, or fome monkiih
legends in the abbey of Glaftenbury ; for both thefe
writers flourilhed feveral centuries after King Arthur.
3. In the pretended hiitory of Geoflfroy of Monmouth,
fuch contradiflions occur concerning this monarch’s
victories in France, Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Italy,
&c. as muft caufe us to look upon him as a hero alto¬
gether fabulous and romantic.
In anfwer to this it has been faid, 1. That his not
being mentioned by Gildas cannot feem ftrange to us,
feeing it was not that author’s delign to write an exact
hiitory of his country, but only to give a ihort account
of the caufes of its ruin by the Scots, Pidts, and Saxons.
He had alfo a particular fyltem to fupport, namely,
That the ruin of the Britons was Giving to the judge¬
ments of God upon them for their wackednefs. He
lies therefore under a great temptation to conceal the
fucceffes of the Britons, and to relate only their mif-
fortunes. 2. Though Nennius was a credulous writer,
it is unreafonable to think that the whole hi dory of
King Arthur was an invention of his. It is more pro¬
bable that he copied it from other more ancient au¬
thors, or took it from the common tradition of his
countiymen. That the Saxon annals make no mention
of this king is not to be wondered at, feeing it is natural
to think that they would wiih to conceal the many de¬
feats he gave their nation. 3. The mod convincing
proof of the exidence of King Arthur is, that his tomb
wras difcovered at Gladenbury in Somerfetdiire, and
his coffin dug up, in the reign of Henry II. with the
following infcription upon it in Gothic charadters :
Hie jacet fepultus inclytus rex Arturius in infula
Avalonia.” We are told that on his body were plain¬
ly to be feen the marks of 1 o wounds, only one of which
^ feemed to be mortal.
His ex- This renewed prince is faid to have defeated the
ploits. Saxons under Cerdic in 12 pitched battles. The lad
of thefe was fought on Badon-hill, fuppofed. to be
Banfdovn near Bath ; in which the Saxons received
inch a terrible overthrow, that for many years they
gave the Britons no further moledation. As new fup-
plies of Saxons, however, were continually docking
over, a third and fourth kingdom of them were foon
formed. The third kingdom comprehended the coun-
Twootlier t’es -^evon5 Dorfet, Somerfet, Wiltfhire, Hampdure,
Saxon king-aT1d Berkdiire *, to which was afterwards added Corn-
domserec- wall. This was called the kingdom of the IVeJi Saxons.
h'd. The other kingdom, which was called the kingdom of
the Eaf Saxons, comprehended Eifex, Middlefex, and
part of Hertfordlhire.
In the year 54 2, happened the death of the great
King Arthur, faid to have been killed in battle with a
treacherous kinfman of his own. Five years after¬
wards was erefted the Saxon kingdom of Northum¬
berland. It extended, however, much farther than the
prefent bounds of that county j for it comprehended
all Yorkffiire, Lancaffiire, Durham, Cumberland, Welt-
morland, and Northumberland, with part of Scotland,
as far as the frith of Forth. Between the Saxon
kings frequent contentions now arofe; by which England,
means the Britons enjoyed an uninterrupted tranquil-
hty for at lead 44 years. This interval, however, ac¬
cording to Gildas, they employed only in corrupting
their manners more and more, till at lad they were
roufed from their fecurity by the letting up of a fixth
Saxon kingdom, called the kingdom of the Eaf Angles.
It was founded in 575, and comprehended the coun¬
ties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeihire, and the lile
of Ely. The Saxons once more attacked the Britons,
and overthrew them in many battles. The war was
continued for ten years \ after which, another Saxon
kingdom called Mercia rvas let up. It comprehended
17 counties j viz. Glouceder, tlereford, Worceder,
Warwick, Leiceder, Rutland, Northampton, Lincoln,
Huntingdon, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford,
Nottingham, Derby, Shropdrire, Chedure, and part of
Hertforddiire.
The provincial Britons were now confined within very Trie tin tons
narrow bounds. However, before they entirely gave up defeat the
the bell part of their country to their enemies, they once Saxons, but
more refolved to try the event of a battle. At this
time they were affilled by the Angles, who were jea- ^ Wales!U~
lous of the overgrown power of the Well Saxons.
The battle was fought in Wiltffiire, at Woden’s Bearth,
a place near the ditch called Wanfdike or Wodenfdike;
which runs through the middle of the county. The
battle was very obllinate and bloody ; but at lad the
Saxons were entirely defeated, and aimed their whole
army cut off. The vidlory, however, proved of little
fervice to the Britons : for being greatly inferior in
number to the Saxons, and haraffed by them on the
one fide, and by the Scots and Pidls on the other, they
were daily more and more confined; and at lad obliged
to take refuge among the craggy and mountainous
places in the wed of the bland, where their ene¬
mies could not purfue them, At fird they poffeffed all
the country beyond the rivers Dee and Severn, which
anciently divided Cambria, or Wales, from England; '
the towns which dand on the eadern banks of thefe
rivers having modly been built in order to redrain the
incurfions of the Welffi. But the Engliffi, having
paffed the Severn, by degrees feized on the country
lying between that river and the Wye. Nay, in for¬
mer times, fome parts of Flintffiire and Denbighffiire
were fubjecl to the kings of Mercia : for Uffa, the
mod powerful king of that country, caufed a deep
ditch to be drawn, and a high wall built, as a barrier
between his dominions and the territories of the Welffi,
from the mouth of the Dee, a little above Flint-cadle,,
to the mouth of the Wye. This ditch is dill to
be feen in feveral places *, and is called by the Weldi
C/audh Ufa, or the Ditch of Uffa. The inhabi¬
tants of the towms on the ead fide of this ditch are
called by the fame Gmjr ij Mers; that is, the'
men of Mercia.
Thus, after a violent conted of near 150 years, the 4CC0tllf,;
Saxons entirely fubdued the Britons whom they had the heptat-
come to defend, and had creeled feven independently-
kingdoms in England, now commonly denominated the
Saxon Heptarchy. By thefe conquerors the country
was now. reduced to a degree of barbarity almod as
great as it had been in when fird invaded by the Ro¬
mans. The provincial Britons, during their fubjedlion
to that people, had made confiderable advances in ci¬
vilization.
ENG [ S6
England, vllization. They had built 28 confiderkble cities, be-
l' ^ l'Icjes a number of villages and country-feats •, bvit now
thefe were all levelled with the ground, the native inha¬
bitants who remained in England were reduced to the
mod abjeft flavery, and every art and fcience totally
extinguiihed among them;
Before thefe fierce conquerors could be civilized in
any degree, it was neceffary that all the feven king¬
doms ihould be reduced under one head \ for as long
as they remained independent, their continual wars with
each other dill kept them in the fame date of barbari¬
ty and ignorance;
The hiftory of thefe feven kingdoms affords no event
that can be in the lead intereding; It confids only of
a detail of their quarrels for the fovereignty. This
Was at lad obtained by Egbert king of the Well
Saxons, or Weffex, in 8 27; Before this time, Chri-
ffianity had been introduced into almod all the king¬
doms of the heptarchy 5 and however much corrupted
it might be by coming through the impure channel of
the church of Rome, and miiunderdood through the
ignorance of thofe who received it, it had confider-
ably foftened the barbarous manners of the Saxons;
It had alfo opened a communication between Bri¬
tain and the more polite parts of Europe, fo that
there was now fome hope of the introdu6fion of arts
and fciences into this country. Another effeft was,
that, by the ridiculous notions bf preferving inviolable
chadity even between married people, the royal famB
lies of mod of the kingdoms were totally extimd j
and the people, being in a date of anarchy, were ready
to fubmit to the fird who affumed any authority over
theiti.
All thefe things contributed to the fuccefs of Eg¬
bert in uniting the heptarchy under his own dominion.
He was of the royal family of Weffex ; and a nearer
heir than Brithric, who had been raifed to the king¬
dom in 784. As Egbert was a prince of great ac-
complifhments, Brithric, knowing that he had a better
title to the crown than hitnfelf, began to look Upon
him with a very jealous eye. Young Egbert, fenfible
of his danger, privately withdrew to 1 ranee j ■where he
was well received by Charlemagne, the reigning mo¬
narch. The French were reckoned at this period the
mod valiant and polite people in Europe j fo that this
exile proved of great fervice to Egbert.
He continued at the court of France till he was re¬
called by the nobility to take poffeffion of the king¬
dom of Weffex. This recal was occafioned by the
following accident. Brithric the king of Weffex had
married Eadburga, natural daughter of Offa king of
Mercia; a woman infamous for cruelty and inconti¬
nence. Having great influence over her hufband, fhe
often perfuaded him to dedroy fuch of the nobility as
were obnoxious to her 5 and where this expedient failed,
die herfelf had not fcrupled to become their execu¬
tioner. She had mixed a cup of poifon for a young
nobleman, who had acquired a great fhare of her huf-
band’s friendlhip : but, unfortunately, the king drank
of the fatal potion along with hh favourite, and foon
after expired. By this and other crimes Eadburga
became fo odious to the people, that die was forced to
fly into France, while Egbert was at the fame time
recalled, as above-mentioned.
Egbert afeended the throne of Weffex in the year
ENG
799. He was the foie defcendarlt of thofe Conquerors Englafuk
who fird invaded Britain, and who derived their pedigree 
from the god Woden. But though this circumitance
might have given him great advantages in attempting
to fubdue the neighbouring kingdoms, Egbert for
fome time gave them no diflurbance 1 but turned his
arms againft the Britons, who had retired into Corn¬
wall, whom he defeated in feveral battles. He Was
recalled from his conquefts in that country, by hearing
that Beniulf king of Mercia had invaded his domi¬
nions. Egbert quickly led his army againft the inva¬
ders, whom he totally defeated at Eilendun in Wilt-
{hire. He then entered their kingdom on the fide of
Oxfordfliire with an army, and at the fame time fent
his eldeft fon Ethelwolf with another into Kent; The
young prince expelled Baldred the tributary king of
Kent, and foon made himfelf mailer of the country.
The kingdom of Effex was conquered with equal eafe ;
and the Eaft Angles, who had been reduced under
fubjeftion by the Mercians, joyfully put themleives
uncler the proteftion of Egbert* Beruulf himielf
marched againft them, but was defeated and killed £
and Ludecan his fucceffor met with the fame fate two
years after*
Thefe misfortunes greatly facilitated the reduction
of Mercia. Egbert foon penetrated into the very heart
of the Mercian territories, and gained an eafy vittory
over a difpirited and divided people $ but in order to
engage them to fubmit with the lefs rehuftance, he al¬
lowed Wiglef, their countryman, to retain the title of
king, whilft he himfelf exercifed the real power of a
fovereign. Northumberland was at prefent in a ftate
of anarchy : and this tempted Egbert to carry his vic¬
torious arms into that kingdom alfo. The inhabi¬
tants, being defirous of living under a fettled form of
government, readily fubmitted, and owned him for
their fovereign. To them, however, he likewife al¬
lowed the power of electing a king j who paid him a
tribute, and was dependent on him. ^
Egbert became foie matter of England about the Egbert th£
year 827. A favourite opportunity w7as now offered f'll king of
to the Anglo-Saxons of becoming a civilized people,EnSlandj ■
as they were at peace among themfelves, and ieemed
free from any danger of a foreign invafion. But this
flattering profpeft was foon overcaft. Five years after
Egbert had eftabliihed his new monarchy, the Danes
landed in the ifle of Shepey, plundered it, and then
made their efcape with fafety. Encouraged by this Danifli in#
fuccefs, next year they landed from a fleet of 35 ihips.valion.
They were encountered by Egbert at Charmouth in
Dorfetihire. The battle was obftinate and bloody.
Great numbers of the Danes were killed, but the reft
made good their retreat to their {hips, ihey next en¬
tered into an alliance with the Britons of Cornwall j and
landing two years after in that country, they made an
irruption into Devonihire. Egbert met them at Hen-
gefdown, and totally defeated them j but before he
had time to form any regular plan for the defence of
the kingdom, he died, and left the government to his
fon Ethelwolf.
The new king was weak and fuperftitious.
gan with dividing the kingdom, which had fo lately
been united, with his fon Athelftan. To the young
prince he gave the counties of Effex, Kent, and Suiiex.
But though this divifion might have been productive
of
He be-Etheiwolife
i
ENG
.England, of bad confequences at another time, the fear of the
^ Danes kept every thing quiet for the prefent. Thefe
barbarians had fome how or other conceived fuch hopes
of enriching themfelves by the plunder of England,
that they fcarce ever failed of paying it an annual vifit.
-The Englilh hiftorians tell us, that they met with
many fevere repulfes and defeats 5 but on the whole it
appears that they had gained ground : for in 851 a
body of them took up their winter-quarters in Eng¬
land. Next year they received a Itrong reinforcement
of their countrymen in 350 veflels; and advancing from
the ille of Thanet, where they had llationed them¬
felves, they burnt the cities of London and Canter¬
bury. Having next put to fight Brichtric the go¬
vernor of Mercia, they marched into the heart of Sur-
ry, laying wafte the whole country through which
they paiTed.
Ethelwolf, though naturally little fitted for military
enterprifes, was now obliged to take the field. He
marched agamil the Danes at the head of the Weft
Saxons, and gained an indecifive and bloody victory
over his enemies. The Danes ftill maintained their
fettlement in the ifle of Thanet. They were attacked
by Ealher and Huda, governors of Kent and’ Surry :
both of whom they defeated and killed. Afterwards
they removed to the ifle of Shepey, where they took
up their winter-quarters, with a defign to extend their
ravages the next year.
1 he deplorable ftate of the kingdom did not hinder
Ethelwolf from making a pilgrimage to Rome, whi¬
ther he carried his fourth and favourite fon Alfred,
then only fix years of age. He pafled a twelvemonth
in that city; made prefents to the principal ecclefiaftics
there j and made a grant of 300 mancufes (a filver
coin about the weight of our half-crown) annually to
the fee of Rome. One-third of this was to fupport
the lamps of St Peter’s, another thofe of St Paul’s,
and the third was for the Pope himfelf. In his return
to England, Ethelwolf married Judith, daughter of the
emperor Charles the Bald \ but when he landed, he
found himfelf deprived of his kingdom by his fon E-
thelbald. I hat prince alfumed the government of A-
thelftan’s dominions, who was lately dead 5 and, with
many of Ethelwolf’s nobles, formed a defign of ex¬
cluding him from the throne altogether, on account of
his weaknefles and fuperftitions. Ethelwolf, however,
delivered the people from the calamities of a civil war,
by dividing the kingdom with his fon. He gave to
Ethelbald the government of the weftern, and referved
to himfelf that of the eaftern, part of the kingdom. Im¬
mediately after this, he fummoned the ftates of the
whole kingdom, and conferred on the clergy a per¬
petual donation of tythes, for which they had long
contended, and which had been the fubject of their
fermons for feveral centuries.
Phis conceflion rvas deemed fo meritorious by the
Englilh, that they now thought themfelves fure of the
favour of heaven •, and therefore neglected to ufe the
natural means for their fafety which they might have
done. They even agreed, that, notwithftanding the
defperate fituation of affairs at prefent, the revenues
of the church ftiould be exempted from all burdens,
though impoled for the immediate fecurity and defence
of the nation. Ethelwolf died two years after he
had made the above-mentioned grant, and left the
Vox. VIII. Part I.
ENG
kingdom to his two eldeft fons Ethelbald and Ethel- England.
bert. Both thefe princes died in a few years, and left v 
the kingdom to Ethered their brother, in the year
866. ^
The .whole courfe of Ethered’s reign was difturbed Ethered.
by the irruptions of the Danes. The king defended
himlelf againft them with great bravery, being fecond-
ed in all his military enterprifes by his younger bro¬
ther Alfred, who afterwards afeended the throne. In
this reign, the Danes firft landed among the Eaft
Angles. That people treacheroufly entered into an
alliance with the common enemy ; and furnjihed them
with horfes, which enabled them to make an irruption
into Northumberland. 'There they feized upon the
city of York. Ofbricht and ./Ella, two Northumbrian
princes who attempted to refeue the city, were defeated
and killed. Encouraged by this fuccefs, the Danes pe*
netrated into the kingdom of Mercia, took up their
winter-quarters at Nottingham, and thus threatened
the kingdom with a final lubje&ion. From .this poll,
however, they were diflodged by Ethered and Alfred,
who forced them to retire into Northumberland. Their
reftlefs and favage difpofition, however, did not fuffer
them to continue long in one place. They broke into
Eaft Anglia ; defeated and took prifoner Edmund the
tributary king of that country, whom they afterwards
murdered j and committed everywhere the moll bar¬
barous ravages. In 871, they advanced to Readings
from whence they inferted the neighbouring • country
by their incurfions. The Mercians, defirous of reco¬
vering their independency, refufed to join Ethered wdth
their forces j fo that he was obliged to march againft
the Danes, attended only by the Weft Saxons, who
were his hereditary fubjedts. Several actions enfued,
m which the Danes are faid to have been unfuccefsful \
but being continually reinforced from their own coun¬
try, they became every day more and more formidable
to the Englilh. During the confufion and diftrefs in
which the nation was now neceffarily involved, King
Efehered died of a wound he had received in an adtion
with the Danes j and left to his brother Alfred the
kingdom almoft totally lubdued by a foreign power,
AJfred., wTho may properly be called the founder of Alfred the
tie Englilh monarchy, alcended the throne in the year Great.
871, being then only 22 years of age. His great vir¬
tues and ihining talents laved his country from ruin,
w hich leemed almoft unavoidable. His exploits againft
the Danes, his dangers and diftreffes, are related under
the article Alfred. Having fettled the nation in a
much better manner than could have been expeded, he
died in 901, leaving the kingdom to his fecond fon
Edward the Elder.
I he beginning of this monarch’s reign w'as difturbed Edward the
by thole inteftine commotions from which the wife and elder,
politic Alfred had taken fo much pains to free the na¬
tion. Etbelwald, fon to King Ethelbert, Alfred’s el¬
der brother, claimed a right to the throne. Having
armed his partjfans, he took poffeflion of.Winburne,
where he feemed determined to hold out to the laft
extremity. On the approach of Edward, however,
with a powerful army, he firft fled into Normandy, and
afterwards into Northumberland. He hoped to find
t ie Northumbrians ready to join him, as molt of them
iv ere Danes, lately fubdued by Alfred, and very im¬
patient of peace. The event did not difappoint his ex'¬
ll pedlations.
C 57 1
ENG [58] ENG
The Northumbrians declared for him 5 and pronounced, than he fell into convullions, of which he England.
England, pe&ations.
'“"'■V'"" 1 Ethelwald having thus connected himfelf with the Da-
niflr tribes, went beyond fea, whence he returned with
a great body of thefe banditti. On his return, he was
joined by the Danes of Eaft Anglia and Mercia. E-
thelwald, at the head of the rebels, made an irruption
into the counties of Gloucefter, Oxford, and Wilts j
and having ravaged the country, retired with his booty
before the king could approach him. Edward, how¬
ever, took care to revenge himfelf, by conducting his
forces into Eaft Anglia, and ravaging it in like man¬
ner. He then gave orders to retire j but the Kent-
ifh men, greedy of more plunder, ftaid behind, and
took up their quarters at Bury. Here they were af-
faulted by the Danes j but the Kentifhmen made fuch
an obftinate defence, that though their enemies gained
the victory, it was bought by the lofs of their braveft
men, and, among the reft, of the ufurper Ethelwald
himfelf.
The king, now freed from the attempts of fo dan¬
gerous a rival, concluded an advantageous peace with
the Ealt Angles. He next fet about reducing the
Northumbrians j and for this purpofe equipped a fleet,
hoping that thus they would be induced to remain at
home to defend their own country, without attempting
to invade his territories. He was difappointed in his
rxpeclations. The Northumbrians wrere more eager -
to plunder their neighbours than to fecure themfelves.
Imagining that the whole of Edward’s forces were em¬
barked on board his fleet, they entered his territories
w'ith all the troops they could raife. The king, how¬
ever, was better prepared for them than they had ex¬
pelled. He attacked them on their return at Tetenhall
in the county of Stafford, put them to flight, recovered
all the booty, and purfued them with great flaughter
into their own country.
The reft of Edward’s reign was a fcene of continued
and fuccefsful adlion againft the Northumbrians, Eaft
Angles, the Danes of Mercia, and thofe who came
from their native country in order to invade England.
He put his kingdom in a good pofture of defence, by
fortifying the towns of Chefter, Eddefbury, Warwick,
Cherbury, Buckingham, Towcefter, Maldon, Hun¬
tingdon, and Colchefter. He vanquifhed Thurketill
a Danilh chieftain, and obliged him to retire with his
followers into France. He fubdued the Eaft Angli-
ans, Northumbrians, and feveral tribes of the Britons ;
and even obliged the Scots to make fubmiflions. He
died in 925, and wasfucceeded by Athelftan his natural
fon.
This prince, notwithftanding his illegitimate birth,
amended the throne without much oppolitibn, as the
legitimate children of Edward were too young to rule
a nation fo much liable both to foreign invafions and
domeftic troubles as England at prefent was. One Al¬
fred, howrever, a nobleman of conftderable power, en¬
tered into a confpiracy againft him. It is faid, that this
nobleman was feized upon ftrong fufpicions, but with¬
out any certain proof. He offered to fwear to his
innocence before the pope 5 and in thofe ages it was
fuppofed that none could take a falfe oath in prefence
of fuch a facred perfon, without being viflted by an
immediate judgment from God. Alfred was accord¬
ingly conduced to Rome, and took the oath required
of him before Pope John. The words were no fooner
51
Athelftan.
52
expired in three days. The king, fully convinced of ^
his guilt, confifcated his eftate, and made a prefent of
it to the monaftery of Malmefbury.
This accident proved the means of eftablifhing the
authority of Athelftan in England. But finding the
Northumbrians bore the Engliftr yoke with impatience,
he gave Sithric, a Danifti nobleman, the title of king
of Northumberland j and in order to fecure his friend-
ftiip, gave him his own lifter Editha in marriage. This
was productive of bad confequences. Sithric died the
year after his marriage with Editha j upon which An-
laf and Godfrid, Sithric’s fons by a former marriage,
affumed the fovereignty without waiting for Athel-
ftan’s confent. They were, however, foon obliged to
yield to the fuperior power of that monarch. The
fonner fled to Ireland $ and the latter to Scotland,
where he was protected by Conftantine king of that
country. The Scottilh monarch was continually im¬
portuned by Athelftan to deliver up his gueft, and even
threatened with an invafion in cafe he did not comply.
Conftantine, detefting this treachery, advifed Godfrid
to make his efcape. He did fo, turned pirate, and
died foon after. Athelftan, however, refenting this
condudl of Conftantine, invaded his kingdom, and re¬
duced him, it is faid, fo low, that he was obliged to
make the moft humble fubmiflions. This, however, is
denied by all the Scottilh hiftorians.
Conftantine, after the departure of Athelftan, enter¬
ed into a confederacy with Anlaf, who fubfifted by his
piracies, and with fome of the Wellh princes who were
alarmed at the increafe of Athenian’s power. All thefe
confederates made an irruption into England at once j
but Athelftan meeting them at Brumlbury in Nor-Defeats his
thumberland, gave them a total overthrow. Anlaf enemies,
and Conftantine made their efcape with difficulty, lea¬
ving the greateft part of their men dead on the field
of battle. After this period, Athelftan enjoyed his
crown in tranquillity. He died in 941, after a reign
of 16 years. He paffed a remarkable law, for the en¬
couragement of commerce : viz. that a merchant, wffio
had made three long fea voyages on his own account,
Ihould be admitted to the rank of a thane or gentle-
man. _ 53
Athelftan was fucceeded by his brother Edmund. Edmunds
On his acceffion, he found the kingdom difturbed by
the retllefs Northumbrians, who watched for every op¬
portunity of riling in rebellion. They were, however,
foon reduced ; and Edmund took care to enfure the
peace of the kingdom, by removing the Danes from
the towns of Mercia where they had been allowed to
fettle, becaufe it was found that they took every op¬
portunity to introduce foreign Danes into the kingdom.
He alfo conquered Cumberland from the Britons, This
country, however, he bellowed upon Malcolm king of
Scotland, upon condition that he Ihould do homage for
it, and proteft the north of England from all future
incurfions of the Danes. ^
Edmund was unfortunately murdered in Gloucefter, Muruered
by one Leolf a notorious robber. This man had beenby Leolf.
formerly fentenced to banilhment j yet had the bold-
nefs to enter the hall where the king himfelf dined, and
to fit at table with his attendants. Edmund imme¬
diately ordered him to leave the room. The villain
refufed to obey; upon which the king leaped upon
him.
ENG
England, him, and feized him by the hair.
v ' a dagger, and gave the king a wound, of which he
_ 55
Edred.
5«
inftantly died, A. D. 946, being the fixth year of his
reign.
As the children of Edmund were too young at the
time of his deceafe, his brother Edred fucceeded to the
throne. Thd beginning of his reign, as well as thofe
of his predeceflbrs, was difturbed by the rebellions and
incurfions of the Northumbrian Danes, who looked
upon the fucceffion of every new king to be a favour¬
able opportunity for fhaking off the Englifh yoke. On
the appearance of Edred with an army, however, they
immediately fubmitted : but before the king withdrew
his forces, he laid wafte their territories as a punifli-
ment for their offence. He was no fooner gone, than
•Subdues the they rofe in rebellion a fecond time. They were again
Northum. fubdued j and the king took effeftual precautions
nanS’ againft their future revolts, by placing Englilh garri-
fons in all their towns, and appointing an Englilh go-
57 vernor to watch their motions, and fupprefs their in-
Celibacy of furreftions on the firft appearance. In the reign of
introduced. Ec*rec1’ celIbacy of the clergy began to be preached
‘ up under the patronage of St Dunstan. This man
had obtained fuch an afcendant over Edred, who was
naturally fuperftitious, that he not only directed him
in affairs of confcience, but in the molt important mat¬
ters of Hate. He was placed at the head of the trea-
fury j and being thus poffeffed of great power at court,
he was enabled to accompnlh the molt arduous under¬
takings. He profeffed himfelf a partifan of the rigid
monaltic rules} and having introduced celibacy among
the monks of Glaltenbury and Abingdon, he endea¬
voured to render it univerfal among the clergy through¬
out the kingdom. The monks in a Ihort time gene¬
rally embraced the pretended reformation *, after which
they inveighed bitterly againlt the vices and luxury of
the age. When other topics of defamation were want¬
ing, the marriages of clergymen became a fure objedt
of inventive. Their wives received the appellation of
concubines or fome other more opprobrious name. The
fecular clergy, on the other hand, who were nume¬
rous and rich, defended themfelves with vigour, and
endeavoured to retaliate upon their adverfaries. > The
people were thrown into the moll violent ferments •
but the monks, being patronifed by King Edred, gain¬
ed ground greatly upon their opponents. Their pro-
grefs, however, was fomewhat retarded by the king’s
death, which happened in 955, after a reign of nine
years. He left children 5 but as they were infants,
his nephew Edwy, fon to Edmund, was placed on the
throne.
58
Edwy. The new king was not above 16 or 17 years of age
at the time of his acceffion. His reign is only re¬
markable for the tragical ftory of his queen Elgiva.
She was a princefs of the royal blood, with whom
Edwy was deeply enamoured. She was his fecond or
third coufin, and therefore within the degrees of affinity
prohibited by the canon law. Edwy, however, heark¬
ening only to the diflates of his paffion, married her,
contrary to the advice of the more dignified ec^lehaftics.
Khe monks on this occafion were particularly violent •
and therefore Edwy determined not to fecond their
ambitious projedls. He foon found reafon to repent
his having provoked fuch dangerous enemies. On his
coronation day, while his nobility were indulging them-
t 59 1 ENG
Leolf then drew felves in riotous mirth in a great hall where they had Enjlami.
affembled, Edwy withdrew to another apartment to v !
enjoy the company of his beloved queen and her mo¬
ther. Dunftan gueffed the reafon of his abfence. With
unparalleled impudence, he burfl into the queen’s apart¬
ment j and upbraiding Edwy with his lafeivioufnefs, as
he termed it, puffied him back to the hall where the
nobles were affembled. The king determined to re-
fent fuch a daring infult. He required from Dunilau
an account of his adminiftration of the treafury during
the late reign. The monk, probably unable to give
a juft account, refufed to give any •, upon which Edwy
accufed him of malverfation in his office, and baniffied
him the kingdom.
This proved the worft ftep that could poflibly have
been taken. Dunftan was no looner gone than the
whole nation was in an uproar about his fan&ity and
the king’s impiety. Thefe clamours, as they had been
begun by the clergy, fo they were kept up and in-
creafed by them, till at laft they proceeded to the moll
outrageous violence. Archbilhop Odo fent a party of C9
foldiers to the palace. They feized the queen, and Tragical
burned her face with a red-hot iron, in order to de-death of 11x2
ftroy her beauty by which ffie had enticed her hulband ^ueen‘
after which they carried her by force into Ireland,
there to remain in perpetual exile. The king, finding
it in vain to refill, was obliged to confent to a divorce
from her, which was pronounced by Archbilhop Odo.
A cataftrophe Hill more difmal awaited Elgiva. She
had been cured of her wounds, and had even found
means to efface the fears with which her perfecutors
had hoped to deftroy her beauty. She then came to
England, with a defign to return to the king, whom
Ihe Hill confidered as her hulband. Unfortunately,
however, Ihe was intercepted by a party of foldiers
fent for that purpofe by the primate. Nothing but
her molt cruel death could now fatisfy that wretch and
his accomplices. She was hamftringed at Gloucefter
and expired in a few days.
The minds of the Englilh were at this time fo much
funk in fuperftition, that the monftrous inhumanity
above mentioned was called a judgment from God
upon Edwy and his fpoufe for their diffolute life, i. e.
their love to each other. They even proceeded to re¬
bellion againft their fovereign; and having raifed to the
throne Edgar, the younger brother of Edwy, at that
time only 13 years of age, they foon put him in pof,
feffion of Mercia, Northumberland, and Eaft Anglia.
Edwy being thus confined to the fouthern counties,
Dunftan returned, and took upon him the government
of Edgar and his party ; but the death of Edwy foon
removed all difficulties, and gave Edgar peaceable pof-
feflion of the government. ^
The reign of Edgar proved one of the moll fortu-Edgar,
nate mentioned in the ancient Englilh hillory. He
took the moll effe6lual methods both for preventing
tumults at home and invafions from abroad. He
quartered a body of difeiplined troops in the north,
m order to repel the incurfions of the Scots, and to*
keep the Northumbrians in awe. He built a power¬
ful navy j and that he might keep the feamen in the
practice of their duty, as well as prefent a formi¬
dable armament to his enemies, he commanded the
fleet from time to time to make the circuit of his
dominions.
H 2
The
ENG [ 60 ] ENG
England. Tlie greatnefs of King Edgar, ’ivhich is very much
v—~v ' celebrated by the Englilh hiilorians, was owing to the
harmony which reigned between him and his fubjefts j
and the reafon of this good agreement was, that the
king fided with Dunftan and the monks, who had ac¬
quired a great afcendant over the people. He enabled
them to accomplilh their favourite fcheme of difpoffef-
fing the fecular canons of all the monafteries \ and he
confulted them not only in eeclefiaftical but alfo in
civil affairs. On thefe accounts, he is celebrated by
the monkiih writers with the higheft praifes 5 though
it is plain, from fome of his aftions, that he was a
than who could be bound neither by the ties of re¬
ligion nor humanity. He broke into a convent, and
61 carried off by force, and raviihed, a nun called Edi-
His licenti- tfia. His fpiritual inftrudlor, Hunftan, for this of-
cus amours. fence? obliged the king, not to feparate from Ins mif-
trefs, but to abllain from wearing his crown for feven
years!
Edgar, however, was not to be fatisfied with one
miffrefs. He happened once to lodge at the houfe of
a nobleman who had a very beautiful daughter. Ed¬
gar inflamed with defire at the fight of the young la¬
dy, without ceremony aiked her mother to allow her
to pafs a night with him. She promifed compliance j
but fecretly ordered a waiting-maid, named Eljleda, to
fleal into the king’s bed when the company were gone,
and to retire before day-break. Edgar, however, de¬
tained her by force, till day-light difcovered the de¬
ceit. His love was now transferred to the waiting-
maid j who became his favourite miftrefs, and main¬
tained a great afcendant over him till his marriage with
Elfrida.
His mar- The circumftances of this marriage were ftill more
ffngular and criminal than thofe above mentioned. El¬
frida was daughter and heirefs to Olgar earl of De-
vonfhire. She was a perfon of Inch exquifite beauty,
that her fame was fpread all over England, though fhe
had never been at court. Edgar’s curiofity was ex¬
cited by the accounts he had heard of her, and there¬
fore formed a defign of marrying her. He communi¬
cated his intention to Earl Athelwold his favourite ;
and ordered him, on fome pretence or other, to vifit
the earl of Devonfhire, and bring him a certain ac¬
count concerning Elfrida. Athelwold went as he was
deflred ; but fell fo deeply in love with the lady him-
1'elf, that he refolved to facrifice his fidelity to his paf-
fion. He returned to Edgar, and told him, that El-
frida’s charms were by no means extraordinary, and
would have been totally overlooked in a woman of in¬
ferior ftation. After fome time, however, turning the
converfation again upon Elfrida, he told the king that
he thought her parentage and fortune made her a very
advantageous match ; and therefore, if the king gave
his confent, he would make propofals to the earl of
Devonfliire on his own behalf. Edgar confented, and
Athelwold was married to Elfrida.—After, his mar¬
riage, he ufed his utmoft endeavours to keep his wife
from court, that Edgar might have no opportunity of
obfervmg her beauty. The king, however, was foon
informed of the truth ; and told Athelwold, that he in¬
tended to pay him a vifit in his caftle, and be made
acquainted with his new-married wife. The earl could
make no objeftions-, only he defiled a few hours to
prepare for the vifit. He then confeffed the whole
to Elfrida, and begged of her to appear before the England,
king as much to the disadvantage as poflible. In-
Head of this, fhe dreffed herfelf to the greateft ad¬
vantage. Edgar immediately conceived a violent paflion
for her 5 and, in order to gratify it, feduced Athelwold
into a wood under pretence of hunting, where he flab-
bed him with his own hand, and afterwards married
his widow".
The reign of Edgar is remarkable among hiflorians
for the encouragement he gave to foreigners to refide
at his court and throughout the kingdom. Thefe fo¬
reigners, it is faid, corrupted the former fimple man¬
ners of the nation. Of this fimplicity, however, there
feems to be no great reafon to boallfeeing it could
not preferve them from treachery and cruelty, the
greatefl of all vices : fo that their acquaintance with
foreigners wras certainly an advantage to the people, as
it tended to enlarge their views, and cure them of
thofe illiberal prejudices and ruflic manners to wdiich
iflanders are often fubjedl.—Another remarkable inci-^^^ ^
dent, is the extirpation of wolves from England. ^le tirpatc-d
king took great pleafure in hunting and deflroyingfrom £ng_
thefe animals himfelf. At laft he found that they had land,
all taken fhelter in the mountains and forefts of Wales.
Upon this he changed the tribute impofed upon the
Welih princes by Athelflan, into an annual tribute of
300 wrolves heads 5 and thus produced fuch diligence in
hunting them, that the animal has never fince appeared
in England. ^4
Edgar died in 957, after a reign of 16 years. He Edward the
left a fon named Edward, whom he had by his firftrnart}r'
wfife the daughter of Earl Ordmer •, and another, na¬
med Ethelred, by Elfrida. The mental qualifications of
this lady wTere by no means anfwerable to the beauty
of her perfon. She w'as ambitious, haughty, treache¬
rous, and cruel. The principal nobility, therefore,
were greatly averfe from the fucceflion of her fon E-
thelred, which would unavoidably throw too much
powrer into the hands of his mother, as he himfelx wras
only feven years of age. Edward, afterwards furnamed
the Martyr, was therefore pitched upon : and was
certainly the moft proper perfon, as he w7as 15 years of
age, and might foon be able to take the government
into his own hands. Elfrida oppofed his advancement
with all her might : but Dunilan overcame every ob-
ftacle, by anointing and crowning the young prince at
Kingilon 5 upon which the whole kingdom fubmitted
without farther oppofition.
The only remarkable occurrence in this reign was
the complete viflory gained by the monks over the fe¬
cular clergy, who were now totally expelled from the
convents. Though this had been pretty nearly ac-
complifhed by Edgar, the fecular clergy Hill had par-
tifans in England who made confiderable oppofition :
but thefe wrere all filenced by the following miracles.
In one fynod, Dunilan, finding the majority of votes Miracles of
againll him, rofe up, and declared that he had that St DunltaU.
inftant received from heaven a revelation in favour of
the monks. The wdiole affembly was fo much overaw¬
ed by this intelligence, that they proceeded no farther
in their deliberations. In another fynod, a voice iffued
from the crucifix, acquainting the members, that the
eftablilhment of the monks wras founded on the will of
heaven, and could not be oppofed without impiety-
But the third miracle was Hill more alarming. In an¬
other
ENG [
England, other fynod the floor of the hall funk, and great num-
bers of the members were killed or bruifed by their fall.
It was remarked that Dunftan had that day prevented
the king from attending the fynod, and that the beam
on which his own chair flood was the only one which
did not fink. Thefe circumftances, inftead of making
him fufpetfled as the author of the miracle, were regard¬
ed as proofs of the interpofition of Providence in his
favour.
Edward lived four years after he was railed to the
throne, in perfefl innocence and fimplicity. Being in¬
capable of any treacherous intention himfelf, he fuf-
fpesfled none in others. Though his ftepmother had op-
pofed his lucceflion, he had always behaved towards
her with the greateft refpeifl 5 and exprefled on all oc-
cafions the mofl tender affeftion for his brother Ethel-
red. Being one day hunting in the neighbourhood of
the caflle where Elfrida refided, he paid her a vifit un¬
attended by any of his retinue. After mounting his
66 horfe with a defign to return, he defired fome liquor
The king to be brought him. But while he was holding the cup
murdered, to his head, a fervant of Elfrida ftabbed him behind.
The king, finding himfelf wounded, clapped fpurs to
his horfe *, but foon becoming faint by the lofs of
blood, he fell from the faddle, and his foot being en¬
tangled in the ftirrup, he was dragged along till he
expired. His body was found and privately interred
at Wereham by his fervants. The Englifh had fitoh
compaflion for this amiable prince, that they beftow-
ed on him the appellation of Martyr, and even fan¬
cied that miracles were wrought at his tomb. Elfrida
built monafleries, and fubmitted to many penances, in
order to atone for her guilt ; but, even in that barba¬
rous age, Hie could never regain the good opinion of the
public.
After the murder of Edward, his brother Ethelred
fucceeded to the throne without oppofition. As he
was a minor when he was raifed to the throne, and,
even when he came to man’s eftate, never difcovered
any vigour or capacity of defending the kingdom againft
invaders, the Danes began to renew7 their incurfions.
Before they durfl attempt any thing of importance,
how'ever, they firft made a fmall incurfion by way of
. - trial. In the year 981, they landed in Southampton
rulned^t}311 ^rom ^even velfels 5 and having ravaged the country,
the Danes. t^iey retired with impunity, carrying a great booty
along with them. In 987, they made a fimilar at¬
tempt on the weft coaft, and were attended with the
like fuccefs. Finding that matters were now in a fa¬
vourable fituation for their enterprifes, they landed in
Eflex under the command of twm chieftains 5 and, ha¬
ving defeated and killed Brithnot duke of that coun¬
ty, laid wTafte all the neighbouring provinces. In this
extremity, Ethelred, furnamed, on account of his pre-
pofterous condudl, the Unready, bribed the enemy with
io,oool. to depart the kingdom. This advice was
given by Siricius archbiihop of Canterbury, and fome
of the degenerate nobility ; and was attended with the
fuccefs that might have been expefled. The Danes
appeared next year off the eaftcrn coaft. But, in the
mean time, the Englilh had determined to affemble at
London a fleet capable of repulfing the enemy. This
failed of fuccefs through the treachery of Alfric duke
of Mercia. Having been formerly baniihed the king¬
dom, and found great difficulty in getting himfelf re-
ftored to his former dignity, he trufted thenceforth,
67
'Ethelred.
68
England
61 ] ENG
not to his fervices or the affections of his countrymenr, England'
but to the influence he had over his vaffals, and to the '—
public calamities. Thefe laft he determined always
to promote as far as he could : becaufe in every revo¬
lution his afliftance wTould be neceffary, and confe-
quently he muft received a continual acceflion of power.
1 he Engiifti had formed a plan for furrounding and
deftroying the Danifti fleet in the harbour •, but Alfric
not only gave the enemy notice of this defign, but alfo
deferted with his fquadron the night before the en¬
gagement. 1 he Englilh by this means proved un-
luccefsful; and Ethelred, in revenge, took Alfgar, Al-
fric’s fon, and ordered his eyes to be put out. This
piece of cruelty could be productive of no good effect,
Alfric had become fo powerful, that, notwithftanding
his treachery, it was found impoflible to deprive him
of the government of Mercia.
^.n 993 > t^le Danes under the command of Sweyn
their king, and the Norwegians condudted by Olave
king of that country, failed up the Humber, and de-
Itroyed all around them. A powerful army wras affem-
bled to oppofe thefe invaders ; but through the treach¬
ery of the three leaders, all men of Danilh extraction,
the Englilh were totally defeated. Encouraged by
this fuccefs, the Danes entered the Thames in 94 vef-
fels, and laid fiege to London. The inhabitants,
howrever, made fuch a brave defence, that the befie-
gers were finally obliged to give over the attempt.
Out of revenge for this difappointment, they laid wTafte
Effex, Suffex, and Hamplhire. In thefe counties they
procured horfes ; by which means they were enabled
to penetrate into the more inland parts, and threaten¬
ed the kingdom with total fubjeftion. Ethelred and
his nobles had now recourfe to their former expedient.
1 hey fent ambaffadors to the two northern kings, to
whom they promifed fubfiftence and tribute, provided
they w7ould, for the prefent, put an end to their ravages,
and foon after depart the kingdom. They agreed to
the terms, and peaceably took up their quarters at
Southampton. Olave even paid a vifit to Ethelred,
and received the rite of confirmation from the Englilh
bilhops. I he king alfo made him many prefents ; and
Olave promifed never more to infeft the Englifli terri¬
tories ; which promife it is faid he afterw'ards religi-
oully obferved.
After the departure of Olave with his Norwegians,
Swreyn, though lefs fcrupulous than the king of Nor¬
way, wras obliged to leave the kingdom alfo. But this
fhameful compofition procured only a Ihort relief to the
nation. I he Danes foon after appeared in the Severn ;
and having ravaged Wales as well as Cornwall and De¬
von, they failed round, and, entering the mouth of
the Tamar, completed the ruin of thefe two counties.
Then, returning to the Briftol channel, and penetra¬
ting into the country by the Avon, they overran all
that country, and carried fire and fword even into
Dorfetlhire. In 998, they changed the feat of war 5
and, after ravaging the ille ol Wight, they entered the
Thames and Medway, where they laid fiege to Ro-
chefter and defeated the Kentilh men in a great battle.
After this victory, the whole province of Kent was
made a fcene of daughter and devaftation. The ex¬
tremity of thefe miferies forced the Englilh into coun-
fels for common defence both by fea and land : but the -
weaknefs of the king, the divifions among the nobi¬
lity, the treachery of fome, the cowardice of others,
the.1-
E N G
1 62 ]
ENG
England, the want of concert in all, fruftrated every endeavour ;
! v and their fleets and armies either came too late to at¬
tack the enemy, or were repulfed with difhonour. The
Englilh, therefore, devoid both of prudence and una¬
nimity in council, had recourfe to the expedient which
by experience they had found to be ineffe&uaL They
offered the Danes a large fum if they would conclude
a peace and depart the kingdom. Thefe ravagers con¬
tinually rofe in their demands j and now required the
payment of 24,000!. which the Englilh fubmitted to
give. The departure of the Danes procured them
a temporary relief; which they enjoyed as if it vras to
be perpetual, without making any effectual prepara¬
tions for giving them a more vigorous reception upon
their next return.
Belides the receiving this fum, the Danes were at
prefent engaged by another motive to depart from
England. They were invited over by their country¬
men in Normandy, who at this time were hard prefled
by Robert king of France, and who found it difficult
to defend their fettlements againfl: him. It is probable
alfo, that Ethelred, obferving the clofe connection of
all the Danes wffth one another, however they might
^ be divided in government or lituation, was defirous of
Marriage procuring an alliance with that formidable people. For
of the king ..this purpofe, being at prefent a widow7er, he made his
with the addrelfes to Emma, lifter to Richard II. duke of Nor-
Norm S d mandy- FIe foon fucceeded in his negotiations 5 the
' princefs came over to England, and was married to the
king in the year 1001.
Though the Danes had been for a long time efta-
blilhed in England, and though the limilarity of their
language with the Saxon had invited them to an early
coalition with the natives ^ thay had as yet found fo
little example of civilized manners among the Englilh,
that they retained all their ancient ferocity, and valued
themfelves only on their national charaCler of military
bravery. The Englifh princes had been fo well ac¬
quainted with their fuperiority in this refpeft, that A-
, thelftan and Edgar had been accuftomed to keep in
pay large bodies of Danilh troops, who were quarter¬
ed about the country, and committed many violences
upon the inhabitants. Thefe mercenaries had attained
to fuch a height in luxury, according to the old Eng¬
lilh writers, that they combed their hair once a-day,
bathed themfelves once a-wreek, changed their clothes
frequently ; and by all thefe arts of effeminacy, as well
as by their military character, had rendered them-
ielves fo agreeable to the fair fex, that they debauched
the wives and daughters of the Englilh, and had difl
honoured many families. But wffiat moft provoked
the inhabitants was, that, inftead of defending them
againft invaders, they were always ready to betray
them to the foreign Danes, and to affociate themfelves England,
with every ftraggling party which came from that na- v
tion. 70
The animoflties between the native Englilh and the Danes maf-
Danes who inhabited among them, had from thefe ^acre^*
caufes rifen to a great height j when Ethelred, from
a policy commonly adopted by wreak princes, took the
cruel refolution of maffacring the Danes throughout
the kingdom. On the 13th of November too2, fecret
orders were difpatched to commence the execution
everywhere on the fame day 5 and the feftival of St
Brice, which fell on a Sunday, the day on which the
Danes ufually bathed themfelves, was chofen for this
purpofe. Thefe cruel orders wrere executed with the
utmoft exaftnefs. No diftimftion was made betwixt the
innocent and the guilty j neither fex nor age was fpa-
red ; nor were the cruel executioners fatisfied whhout
the tortures, as well as death, of the unhappy vitftims.
Even Gunilda, filler to the king of Denmark, who had
married Earl Paling, and had embraced Chriftianity,
was, by the advice of Edric earl of Wilts, feized and
condemned to death by Ethelred, after feeing her huf-
band and children butchered before her face. This
unhappy princels foretold, in the agonies of defpair,
that her murder wrould foon be avenged by the total
ruin of the Englilh nation (a).
The prophecy of Gunilda was exaftly fulfilled. In New inva-
1003, Sweyn and his Danes, wffio wanted only a pre-fionby
tence to renew their invafions, appeared off the weftern Sw«yn.
coaft, and threatened revenge for the daughter of their
countrymen. The Englilh took meafures for repulfing
the enemy ; but thefe were defeated through the treach¬
ery firft of Alfric, and then of Edric, a ftill greater
traitor, wffio had married the king’s daughter, and fuc¬
ceeded Alfric in the command of the Britifti armies.
The Danes therefore ravaged the whole country. A-
griculture wTas neglected, a famine enfued, and the king¬
dom was reduced to the utmoft degree of mifery. At
laft the infamous expedient of buying a peace was re¬
curred to 5 and the departure of the Danes was pur-
chafed, in 1007, at the expence of 30,000!.
The Englilh endeavoured to employ this interval in
making preparations againft the return of the Daqes,
which they had reafon foon to expeft. A law w’as
made, ordering the proprietors of eight hides of land
to provide themfelves of a horfeman and a complete
fuit of armour 5 and thofe of 31 o hides to equip a Ihip
for the defence of the kingdom. By this means a
formidable armament was raifed. There were 243,600
hides in England j confequently the Ihips equipped
mull be 785. The cavalry was 30,450 men. All
hopes of fuccefs from this equipment, howTever, were
difappointed by the factions, animofities, and diffen-
fions
(a) On the fubje£t of this maffacre, Mr Hume has the following obfervations : “ Almoft all the ancient
hiftorians fpeak of this maffacre of the Danes as if it had been univerfal, and as if every individual of that na¬
tion throughout England had been put to death. But the Danes wTere almoft the foie inhabitants in the king¬
doms of Northumberland and Eaft Anglia, and were very numerous in Mercia. This reprefentation of the
matter wfas abfolutely impoflible. Great refiftance muft have been made, and violent wrars enfued : which was
not the cafe. This account given by Wallingford, though he Hands Angle, muft be admitted as the only true
one. We are told that the name of lurdane, lord Dane, for an idle lazy fellow who lives at other people’s ex¬
pence, came from the conduft of the Danes wffio were put to death. But the Englifti princes had been entire¬
ly mafters for feveral generations; and only fupported a military corps of that nation. It feems probable,
therefore, that thefe Danes only were put to death,”
againft
ENG
England, tions of the nobility. Edric had
Brightric to advance an accufation of treafon
Woifnoth governor of SufTex, the father of the famous
Earl Godwin ; and that nobleman, knowing the power
and malice of his enemy, confulted his own fafety by
deferting with 20 fhips to the Danes. Brightric pur-
fued him w ith a fleet of 80 fail $ but his fhips being
fhattered in a tempeft, and ftranded on the coaft, he
was fuddenly attacked by Woifnoth, and all his veffels
were burnt or otherwife deftroyed. The treachery of
Edric fruflrated every plan of future defence ; and the
whole navy was at lall; fcattered into the feveral harbours.
By thefe fatal mifcarriages, the enemy had leifure
to overrun the wdrole kingdom. They had now got
fuch a footing, indeed, that they could hardly have
been expelled though the nation had been ever fo una¬
nimous. But fo far did mutual diffidence and diffen-
iion prevail, that the governors of one province refu-
fed to march to the afliffance of another j and were at
lafl terrified from affembling their forces for the defence
of their own. At lafl; the ufual expedient was tried.
A peace was bought wdth 48,000k j but this did not
procure even the ufual temporary relief. The Danes,
knowing that they were now mailers of the kingdom,
took the money, and continued their devaflations.
They levied a new contribution of 8000I. on the
county of Kent alone j murdered the archbifhop of
Canterbury, wrho had refufed to countenance this exac¬
tion ; and the Englifh nobility fubmitted everywhere
72 to the Danifh monarch, fwearing allegiance to him, and
Ethelred giving hoflages for their good behaviour. At lall, E-
^'’thelred himfelf, dreading equally the violence of the
enemy and the treachery of his own fubjedls, fled into
Normandy, whither he had already fent Queen Emma
and her twro fons Alfred and Edward. The duke re¬
ceived his unhappy guefls with a generolity which does
honour to his memory.
The flight of King Ethelred happened in the end of
the year 1013. He had not been above fix weeks in
Normandy, when he heard of the death of Sweyn,
which happened at Gainfborough before he had time
to eflablifh himfelf in his new dominions. At the fame
time he received an invitation from the prelates and
nobility to refume the kingdom 5 exprefling alfo their
hopes, that, being now better taught by experience,
he would avoid thofe errors wffiich had been fo fatal to
himfelf and his people. But the mifcondu6l of Ethel-
and, on his refuming the govern¬
ment, he behaved in the very fame manner that he had
done before. His fon-in-law Edric, notw'ithflanding
his repeated treafons, retained fuch influence at court,
that he inflilled into the king jealoufles of Sigefert and
Morcar, twro of the chief nobles of Mercia. Edric en¬
ticed them into his houfe, where he murdered them ;
while Ethelred partook of the infamy of this aftion,
by confifcating their eftates, and confining the widow of
Sigefert in a convent. She wTas a woman of lingular
beauty and merit; and in a vifit which wTas paid her,
during her confinement, by Prince Edmund the king’s
eldefl fbn, flie infpired him with fo violent an affeftion,
that he releafed her from the convent, and foon after
married her without his father’s confent.
In the mean time, Canute, the fon and fucceffor of
Sweyn, proved an enemy no lefs terrible to the Englifh
[ 63 ] E
caufed his brother than his father had been.
N G
He ravaged the eaflem cogft England.
73
Returns,
but behaves red was incurable
as ill as
ever.
with mercilefs fury ; and put afhore all the Englifh
hoftages at Sandwich, after having cut off their hands
and nofes. He was at lafl obliged, by the neceflity of
his affairs, to return to Denmark. In a fhort time,
however, he returned, and continued his depredations
along the fouthern coafl. He then broke into the
counties of Dorfet, Wilts, and Somerfet j where an
army was affembled againfl him under the command of
Prince Edmund and Duke Edric. The latter flill con¬
tinued his perfidious machinations j and after endea¬
vouring in vain to get the prince into his power, found
means to diflipate the army, and then deferted to Ca¬
nute wuth 40 velfels.
Edmund was not diflieartened by this treachery. He
again affembled his forces, and was in a condition to
give the enemy battle. Ethelred, howrever, had now
luch frequent experience of the treachery of his fub-
jedts, that he had loft all confidence in them. He re¬
mained in London, pretending ficknefs, but in reality
from an apprehenfion that they intended to buy their
peace by delivering him into the hands of his enemies.
The army called aloud for their fovereign to march at
their head againft the Danes } and on his refufal to
take the field, they were fo difcouraged, that all the
preparations wdffch had been made became ineffedlual
for the defence of the kingdom. Edmund, deprived
of all regular refources for the maintenance of the fol—
diers, wras obliged to commit fimilar ravages to thofe
pradlifed by the Danes 5 and after making fome fruit-
lefs expeditions into the north, which had fubmitted
entirely to Canute’s powTer, he returned to London,
where he found every thing in confufion by the death
of the king. 74
Ethelred died in 1016, after an unhappy reign of Edmund
35 years 5 and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon EJ. Ir°nfide di«
mund, furnamed Ironjide on account of his great ftrength j^in' S(jon^
and valour. He poffeffed abilities fufficient to have with the
faved his country from ruin, had he come fooner to Danes,
the throne ; but it was now too late. He bravely op-
pofed the Danes, however, notwdthftanding every dif-
advantage ; till at laft the nobility of both nations ob¬
liged their kings to come to a compromife, and divide
the kingdom between them by treaty. Canute re-
ferved to himfelf Mercia, Eaft Anglia, and Northum¬
berland, which he had entirely fubdued. The fouthern
parts w^ere left to Edmund. This prince furvived the
treaty only about a month ^ being murdered at Oxford
by two of his chamberlain?, accomplices of Edric.
After the death of Edmund, nothing was left forCanute^
the Englifh but fubmiflion to Canute. The leaft fcru-
pulous of mankind, however, dare not at all times
openly commit injuilice. Canute therefore, before he
feized the dominions of Edwin and Edward, the two
fons of Edmund, fuborned fome of the nobility to de-
pofe, that, in the laft treaty with Edmund, it had
been verbally agreed, that, in cafe of Edmund’s death,
Canute fhould either be fucceffor to his dominions, or
tutor to his children 5 for hiftorians differ with regard
to this particular. This evidence, fupported by the
great powxr of Canute, was fufficient to get him eled-
ed king of England. Immediately after his acceflion
to the throne, he fent the two fons of Edmund to the
courUof Sweden, on pretence of being there educated j
but
3
ENG
[ 64 ]
ENG
16
Marries
Ethelred’s
widow.
'England, but charged the king to put them to death as foon as
——v they arrived. The Swediih monarch did not comply
with this requeft 5 but fent them to Solomon king of
Hungary, to be educated in his court. The elder,
Edwin, was afterwards married to Solomon’s filler:
but he dying without iffue, that prince gave his fifler-
in-law, Agatha, daughter of the emperor Henry II.
in marriage to Edward, the younger brother and
fhe bore him Edgar Atheling •, Margaret, afterwards
queen of Scotland 5 and Chriflina, who retired into a
convent.
Canute was obliged at firfl to make great conceflions
to the nobility : but he afterwards put to death many
of thofe in whom he could not put confidence 5 and,
among the reft, the traitor Edric himfelf, who was pub¬
licly executed, and his body thrown into the Thames.
In order to prevent any danger from the Normans,
who had threatened him writh an invafion, he married
Emma the widow of Ethelred, and who now came
over from Normandy; promifing that he would leave
the children he fhould have by that marriage heirs to
the crown after his deceafe. The Englifh were at firfl
difpleafed with Emma for marrying the mortal enemy
of her former hufband •, but at the fame time wTere glad
to find at court a fovereign to whom they were accuf-
tomed, and who had already formed connexions with
them: and thus Canute, befides fecuring by his mar¬
riage the alliance with Normandy, gradually acqui¬
red by the fame means the confidence of his own
people.
The moft remarkable tranfaXion in this prince’s
reign, befides thofe mentioned under the article Ca¬
nute, is his expedition to Scotland againlt Malcolm
king of that country, -whom he forced to do homage
for the county of Cumberland, which the Scots at that
time poffeffed. After this enterprife, Canute pafled
four years in peace, and died at Shaftfbury j leaving
threeTons, Sweyn, Harold, and Hardicanute. Sweyn,
whom he had by his firft marriage with Alfwen,
daughter of the earl of Hampfhire, was crowned in
Norway •, Hardicanute, -whom Emma had born, was
in poffeflion of Denmark 5 and Harold, who was of
the fame marriage with Sweyn, was at that time in
77 England.
"Harold. Harold fucceeded to the crown of England ; though
it had been flipulated that Emma’s fon, Hardicanute,
fhould be heir to that kingdom. This advantage Ha¬
rold obtained by being on the fpot, and getting pof-
feffion of his father’s treafures, while Hardicanute wras
at a diflance. As Hardicanute, however, was fup-
ported by Earl Godwin, a civil war was likely to en-
fue, when a compromife wras made j by which it was
agreed, that Harold fhould enjoy London, and all the
provinces north of the Thames, while the pafleflion of
the fouth fhould remain to Hardicanute : and till that
prince fhould appear and take pcjffeflion of his domi¬
nions, Emma fixed her refidence at Winchefter, and
ruled her fun’s part. Harold reigned four years 5 du-
78 rhg which time, the only memorable aXion he per-
Histreach-formed wras a moll infamous piece of treachery.— Al-
■ery and
cruelty.
fred and Edward, the two fons of Emma by Ethelred,
paid a vifit to their mother in England. But, in the
mean time, jEmd Godwin being gained over by Harold,
a plan was laid for the deflruXion of the two princes.
Alfred w as accordingly invited to London by Harold,
with many profefliolis of friendfhip j but when lie had England,
reached Guildford, he wras fet upon by Godwin’s vaf- v
fals : about 600 of his train wTere murdered in the moll
cruel manner 5 he himfelf wTas taken prifoner, his eyes
were put out, and he was conduXed to the monaflery
of Ely, where he died foon after. Edward and Em¬
ma, apprifed of the fate which awaited them, fled be¬
yond fea, the former into Normandy, the latter into
Flanders } while Harold took poffeflion of all his bro¬
ther’s dominions without oppolition.—He died in April
i°39.
Hardicanute fucceeded his brother Harold without
oppofition. His government was extremely violent
and tyrannical. However, it was but of fhort dura¬
tion. He died, in 1041, of a debauch at the mar¬
riage of a Danifli lord. After his death, a favourable
opportunity was offered to the Englifh for fhaking oft
the Daniih yoke. Sweyn, king of Norw-ay, the el-
deft fon of Canute, w7as abfent j and as the two lafl
kings had died without iffue, there appeared none of
that race whom the Danes could fupport as fucceffor
to the throne. For this reafon, the eyes of the nation
were naturally drawn towards Prince Edwrard, who
happened to be at court when the king died. I here
w'ere fome reafons, howTever, to fear, that Edwrard’s fuc-
ceflion wTould be oppofed by Earl Godwin, who was by
far the molt powerful nobleman in the kingdom. A
declared animolity fubfifled betw’een Edward and God¬
win, on account of the hand which the latter had in
the murder of his brother Alfred j and this was thought
to be an offence of fo grievous a nature, that Edward
could never forgive it. But here their common friends
interpofed •, and reprefenting the neceflity of their good
correfpondence, obliged them to lay afide their animo-
fities, and to concur in reflorin g liberty to their native
country. Godwin only flipulated, that Edward, as a
pledge of his fincere reconciliation, fhould promife to ^
marry his daughter Editha. 1 his propofal w7as agreed Edward the
to j EdwTard was crowned king of England, and married Ccnfeffor.
Editha as he had promifed. The marriage, however,
proved rather a fource of difcord than otherwife be¬
tween the king and Godwin. Editha, though a very
amiable woman, could never obtain the confidence and
affeXion of her hufband. It is even faid that during the
wdiole courfe of her life he abflained from all matrimonial
converfe w7ith her 5 and this ridiculous behaviour was
highly celebrated by the monkifh waiters of the age, and
contributed to the king’s acquiring the title of Saint and
Confeffor.
Though the negleX of his daughter could not fail
to awaken Godwin’s former enmity again!! King Ed¬
ward, it was neceffary to choofe a more popular ground
before he could vent his complaints againft the king 8o
in a public manner. He therefore ehofe for his theme Variance of
the influence w7hich the Normans had on the affairs ofthe king
government j and declared oppofition took place be-
tween him and thefe favourites. In a fhort time, this
animofity openly broke out with great violence. Eu-
flace count of Boulogne having paid a vifit to the king,
paffed by Dover on his return. One of his train be¬
ing refufed accefs to a lodging which had been ap¬
pointed for him, attempted to make his way by force,
and wounded the mailer of the houfe in the contefl.
The townfmen revenged this infult by the death of
the flranger j the count and his train took arms, and
murdered
ENG [ 65 1 ENG
England.' murdered the townfman in his own houfe. A tumult
enfued ; near 20 perfons were killed on each fide 5 and
Eultace being overpowered with numbers, was at lafl:
obliged to fly. He complained to the king 5 who gave
orders to Earl Godwin, in whofe government Dover
lay, to punifh the inhabitants. But this nobleman re-
fufed to obey the command, and endeavoured to throw
the whole blame on Count Euftace and his followers.
The king was difpleafed 5 and threatened to make him
feel the utmoft effe&s of his refentment, in cafe he
finally refufed to comply. Upon this, Godwin af-
fembled a powerful army, on pretence of reprefling
fome diforders on the frontiers of Wales ; but, inftead
of this, marched dire&ly to Gloucefter, where the king
at that time was without any military force, as fufpec-
ting no danger.
Edward, perceiving his danger, applied to Siward
duke of Northumberland, and Leofric duke of Mercia,
two very powerful noblemen. They haftened to him
with fuch followers as they could aflemble, ifluing or¬
ders at the fame time for all the forces under their refpec-
tiye governments to march without delay to the defence
of the king. Godwin, in the mean time, fuffered him-
felf to be deceived by negociations, till the king’s army
81 became fo powerful, that he was not able to cope with
Godwin it. He was therefore obliged to fly with his family
uks.10 an-t0 jrianders. Here he was protedfed by Baldwin earl
of that country, together with his three fons, Gurth,
Sweyn, and "I oib } the lafl; of whom had married Bald¬
win’s daughter. Harold and Leofwin, two other fons
el Godwin, took fhelter in Ireland.
After the flight of Earl Godwin, he was proceeded
againft as a traitor by King Edward. His eftates,
and thofe of his fons, were confifcated ; his govern¬
ments given to others ; Queen Editha was confined in
a monaftery; and the great power of this family,
which had become formidable to the crown itfelf, feem-
ed to be totally overthrown. Godwin, however, foon
found means to retrieve his affairs. Having hired
fome fliips, and manned them with his followers, he
attempted to make a defcent at Sandwich. The king,
informed of his preparations, equipped a fleet which
Godwin could not refill, and he therefore retreated into
the Flemilh harbours. On his departure, the Englilh
diimiffed their armament. This Godwin had expe&ed,
and therefore kept himfelf in readinefs for the favour¬
able opportunity. He immediately put to fea, and
failed to the ille of Wight, where he was joined by
Harold with a fquadron which he had collefled in Ire-
Returns land* BeJng mafter of the fea, Godwin entered
and re- t^e harbours on the fouthem coall; feized all the fliips ;
conciled and being joined by great numbers of his former vaf-
withthe fals, he failed up the Thames, and appeared before
kmS- London.
The approach of fuch a formidable enemy threw
every thing into confufion. The king alone feemed re-
folute to defend himfelf to the laft extremity j but the
interpofition of many of the nobility, together with the
fubmittions of Godwin him'elf, at lafl: produced an ac¬
commodation. ^ It was ftipulated, that Godwin Ihould
give hoflages for his good behaviour, and that all the
foreigners Ihould be banilhed the kingdom •, after
which, Edward, fenfible that he had not power fuf-
Hcient to detain the earl’s hoftages in England, fent
Vol. VIIL Part I.
them over to his kinfman the young duke of Nor- England,
mandy. v—
Soon after this reconciliation, Godwin died as hern
was fitting at table with the king. He was fucceed-rold afpires
ed in the government of Weffex, Suffex, Kent, and to the
Effex, and the office of fleward of the houfehold, acrown’
place of great power, by his fon Harold. The fon
was no lefs ambitious than his father had been ; and as
he was a man of much greater abilities, he became a
more dangerous enemy to Edward than even Godwin
had been. Edward knew no better expedient to pre¬
vent the increafe of Harold’s power, than by giving
him a rival. This was Algar fon of Leofric duke of
Mercia, whom he invefted with the government of Eaft
Anglia, which had formerly belonged to Harold. The
latter however, after fome broils, finally got the bet¬
ter of his rival, and banhhed him the kingdom. Al¬
gar returned foon after with an army of Norwegians,
with whom he invaded Eaft Anglia ; but his death in a
ftiort time freed Harold from all further apprehenfions
from that quarter. His powder was ftill further increafed
in a ftiort time after by the acceflion of his brother Tofti
to the government of Northumberland ; and Edward
now declining in years, and apprehenfive that Harold
would attempt to ufurp the crown after his death, re-
folved to appoint a fucceffor. He therefore fent a de¬
putation into Hungary, to invite over his nephew,
Edward, fon to his elder brother, who was the only
remaining heir of the Saxon line. That prince ac¬
cordingly came over with his children, Edgar Athe-
hng, Margaret, and Chriftina ; but died a few days
after his arrival. His death threw the king into greater
perplexity than ever. Being refolved to exclude
Harold if poflible, he fecretly caft his eye on his kinf¬
man William duke of Normandy ; a perfon of whofe
power, chara&er, and capacity, he had juftly a very
high opinion. This advice had formerly been given
him by Robert archbiffiop of Canterbury, who was
himfelf a Norman, and had been haniftied along with
the reft upon the return of Earl Godwin. But Edward
finding that the Englifti would more cafily acquiefce in
the reftoration of the Saxon line, had in the mean
time invited his brother’s defcendants from Hungary,
as already mentioned. The death of his nephew,' and
the inexperience and unpromifing qualities of young
Edgar, made him refume his former intentions in fa¬
vour of the duke of Normandy, thou, h his averfion to
hazardous enterprifes engaged him to poftpone the
execution, and even to keep his purpofe concealed
from all his minifters.
Harold in the mean time increafed his popularity
by all poffible means, in order to prepare his way for
being advanced to the throne after the death of Ed¬
ward, which now feemed to be faft approaching. He
had no fufpicion of the duke of Normandy as a rival •
but as he knew that a fon and grandfon of the Earl
Godwin were in the hands of that prince as hoftages,
he feared that they might be made ufe of as checks
upon his ambition, in cafe he attempted afterwards
to afcend the throne. He therefore prevailed upon
Edward to releafe thefe hoftages unconditionally; and
having obtained his confent, he fet out for Norman¬
dy himfelf, attended by a numerous retinue. He was
driven by a tepapeft on the territory of Guy count of
I Ponthieu,
ENG
England. PontLieu, "who detained him prhoner,
an exorbitant fum for his ranfom. Haroid found means
to acquaint William with his fituation. I'he duke cf
Normandy, defirous of gaining Harold over to his
party, commanded Guy to reltore his priioner to his
liberty. Upon this Harold was immediately put into
the hands of the Norman ambaffador, who conduced
him to Rouen. William received him with great de-
monifrations of refpeft and friendihip ; but foon took
an opportunity of acquainting him with his pretenfions
to the crown of England, and alked his affiftance in
the execution of his.fcheme. Harold was furprifed with
this declaration of the duke ; but being entirely in his
power, he feigned a compliance with his defires, and
promifed to fecond to the utmoft of his ability the will
of King Edward. William, to fecure him as much as
poffible to his intereft, promifed him his daughter in
marriage, and required him to take an oath that he
would fulfil his promifes. Harold readily complied}
but to make the oath more binding, William privately
conveyed under the altar where the oath was taken re¬
licks of fome of the moft revered martyrs 5 and when
Harold had taken the oath, he {howled him the relicks,
and admonhhed him to obferve religioufiy fuch a fo-
lemn engagement.
Harold was no fooner fet at liberty, than he found
himfelf mailer of cafuillry fufficient to excufe the
breaking of his oath, which had been extorted from
him, and which, if kept, might be attended with
the fubjedlion of his country to a foreign power.
He continued to praftife every art to increafe his po¬
pularity •, and about this time, two accidents enabled
him to add much to that character which he had al¬
ready fo well eltablilhed. The Wellh had for fome
time made incurfions into the Englilh territories, and
had lately become fo troublefome, that Harold thought
he could not do a more acceptable piece of fervice to
the public, than undertake an expedition againft thefe
invaders. Having therefore prepared fome light-armed
foot to purfue the natives into their fortrefies, fome ca¬
valry to fecure the open country, and a fquadron of
{hips to attack the fea-coafts, he employed all thefe
forces againll the enemy at once j and thus reduced
them to fuch dillrefs, that they were obliged to pur-
chafe peace by fending their prince’s head to Harold,
and fubmitting to the government of two Wellh noble¬
men appointed by Edward.
The other incident was no lefs honourable to Ha¬
rold. Tofti his brother had been created duke of
Northumberland j but being of a violent tyrannical
temper, had treated the inhabitants with fuch cruel¬
ty, that they rofe in rebellion againll him, and drove
him from his government. Morcar and Edwin, two
brothers, grandfons of the great Duke Leofric, join¬
ed in the infurredlion 5 and the former being elec¬
ted duke, advanced with an army to oppofe Harold,
who had been commiffioned by the king to reduce and
punilh the Northumbrians. Before the armies enga¬
ged, Morcar endeavoured to juftify his conducl, and
reprefented to Harold, that Tolti had behaved in fuch
a manner,' that no one, not even a brother, could de¬
fend him without participating of the infamy of his
sondudl : that the Northumbrians were willing to fub-
mit to the king, but required a governor that would
fay fome attention to their privileges 5 and they trull'
[ 66 ] ENG
;„d demanded ed that Harold would not defend in another that vio- Eajtmd.
lent conduct from which his own government had al- "v
ways kept at fo great a dillance. ibis fpeech was
accompanied by fuch a detail of well fupported fa els,
that Harold abandoned his brother’s caufe 5 and return¬
ing to Edward, perfuaded him to pardon the Nor¬
thumbrians, and confirm Morcar in his government.
He even married the filler of that nobleman •, and by
his interell procured Edwin the younger brother to be
chofen governor of Mercia, loili, in a rage, depart¬
ed the kingdom, and took Ihelter in Flanders with
Baldwin his father in-law; while William of Nor¬
mandy faw that nowr he had nothing to expedl from
Harold, who plainly intended to fecure the crown for
himfelf. S4
Edward died in 1067, and was fucceeded by Ha-jj(!lt) j tue-
rold with as little oppoiition as though he had been reeds Ed-
the lawful heir. The very day after Edwaru’s death, wind Gk.
he was anointed and crowned by the archbilhop ofL0Tltt 0 *
York. The whole nation feemed joyfully to fwear alle¬
giance to him. But he did not long enjoy the crown,
to obtain which he had taken fo much pains, and
which he feemed to have fuch capacity for wearing*.
His brother Tolli, provoked at his fuccefs, ftirred up
againll him every enemy he could have any influence
with. The duke of Normandy alfo was enraged to
the laft degree at the perfidy of Harold } but before he
commenced hollilities, he lent an embally to England,
upbraiding the king wath his breach of faith, and fum-
moning him to relign the kingdom immediately. Ha¬
rold replied, that the oath, writh which he wTas re¬
proached, had been extorted by the well grounded
fear of violence, and for that reafon could never be re¬
garded as obligatory: that he never had any commiflion
either from the late king or the Hates of England, who
alone could difpofe of the crown, to make any tender
of the fucceflion to the duke of Normandy $ and if he,
a private perfon, had affumed fo much authority, and
had even voluntarily fwom to fupport the duke’s pre-
tenlions, the oath was unlawful, and it was his duty to
take the firlt opportunity of breaking it: that he had
obtained the crown by the unanimous fuffrages of the
people ; and Ihould Ihow himfelf totally unworthy of
their favour, did he not Itrenuoully maintain thofe li¬
berties with which they had entrulled him } and that
the duke, if he made any attempt by force of arms,
Ihould experience the power of an united nation, con¬
duced by a prince, who, fenfible of the obligations im-
pofed on him by his royal dignity, was determined, that
the fame moment Ihould put a period to his life and td
his government.
This anfwer was according to William’s expecta¬
tions ‘y and therefore he had already made preparations
for invading England. He was encouraged and aflill-
ed in this enterprife by Howel count of Britanny, Bald¬
win earl of Flanders, the emperor Henry IV. and Pope
Alexander II. The latter declared Harold a pequred
ufurper; denounced excommunication againll him and
his adherents 5 and the more to encourage William in
his enterprifes, fent him a confecrated banner, and a
ring with one of St Peter’s hairs in it. Thus he was
enabled to affemble a fleet of 3000 veffels, on board of
which were embarked 60,000 men, chofen from among
thofe numerous fupplies which were fent him from all
quarters.. Many eminent perfonages were enlilled urn
\ der.
eng [ 67 ] eng
The moft celebrated were Euftace that he would proteft and defend the church, oblerve Englanf!.
England. Jer banners
v ~ count of Boulogne, Almeri de Thouars, Hugh d’E-
ftaples, William d’Evreux, Geoffrey de Rotrou, Ro¬
ger de Beaumont, William de Warenne, Roger de
Montgomeri, Hugh de Grantmefnil, Charles Martel,
and Geoffrey Gifford.
In order to embarrafs the affairs of Harold the more
effectually, William alfo excited Tofti, in concert with
Halfager king of Norway, to infeit the Englifh coafts.
Thefe two having collected a fleet of 350 fhips, failed up
the Humber, and difembarked their troops, who began
to commit great depredations. They were oppofed by
85 Morcar earl or duke (b) of Northumberland, and Ed-
Defeats the win earl of Mercia, who were defeated. Harold, on
Danes. nevvs 0f invaflon> affembled a confiderable ar-
my, engaged the enemy at Standford, and after a
bloody battle entirely defeated them. Tofti and Hal¬
fager were killed in the aCtion, and all the fleet fell into
the hands of the viCtors ; but Harold generoufly allowed
Olave the fon of Halfager to depart with 20 veffels.
1 he king of England had fcarce time to rejoice on
account of his victory, when news were brought him
that the Normans were landed in Suffex. Harold’s
victory had confxderably weakened his army. He loft
many of his bravelt officers and foldiers in the aCtion ;
and he difgufted the reft, by re fuff ng to diftribute the
Danifh fpoils among them. He haftened, however,
by quick marches, to repel this new invader; but
though he was reinforced at London and other places
with frefh troops, he found himfelf weakened by the
defertion of his old foldiers, who, from fatigue and dif-
content, fecretly withdrew from their colours. Gurth,
the brother of Harold, a man of great conduCt as well
as bravery, became apprehenfive of the event j and en¬
treated the king to avoid a general engagement for
fome time, or at leaft not to hazard his perfon. But
though this advice was in itfelf evidently proper, and
enforced by all the arguments which Gurth could fug-
geft, Harold continued deaf to every thing that could
be faid. Accordingly, on the 14th of OCiober 1066,
the two armies engaged near Haftings, a town of Suf¬
fex. . After a moft obftinate and bloody battle f, the
Englifh were entirely defeated, Harold and his two
brothers killed, and William left mafter of the kingdom
of England.
Nothing could exceed the terror of the Englifh up¬
on the news of the defeat and death of Harold. As
foon as William palled the Thames at Wallingford,
Stigand, the primate, made fubmiffions to him in the
name of the clergy j and before he came within fight
of London, all the chief nobility, and even Edgar A-
theling himfelf, who, being the rightful heir to the
w/ throne, had juft before been declared king, came and
William the fubmitted to the conqueror. William very readily ac-
Conqueror. cepted of the crown upon the terms that were offered
him j which were, that he fhould govern according to
the eftablifhed cuftoms of the country. He could in¬
deed have made what terms he pleafed } but, though
really a conqueror, he chofe rather to be thought an
elefted king. For this reafon he was crowned at Weft-
tninfter by the archbifhop of York, and took the oath
adminiftered to the former kings of England j namely,
S6
Is defeated
and killed
by William
of Norman¬
dy.
t See Ha-
Jlings.
8?
the laws of the realm, and govern the kingdom with
impartiality. gg
The Englifh hiftorians complain of the moft grie-The Enrrlifit
vous oppieiTion by William and his Normans. Whe-griev ufly
ther by his conduct the conqueror willingly gave the°'lVre^e(h
Englifh opportunities 01 rebelling againft him, in or¬
der to have a pretence for opprefling them afterwards,
is not ealy to fay j but it is certain that the beginning
of his reign cannot juftly be blamed. The firit difguft
againft his government was excited among the clergy,
William could not avoid tne rewarding of thofe nume¬
rous adventurers wTho had accompanied him in his ex¬
pedition. He firft divided the lands of the Englifh
barons wftio had oppofed him, among his Norman ba¬
rons \ but as thefe u’ere found infufficient, he quarter¬
ed the reft on the rich abbeys, of which there were
many in the kingdom, until fome other opportunity of
providing for them offered itfelf.
Though this laft ftep was highly refented by the
clergy, it gave very little offence to the laity. The
whole nat on, however, wras foon after difgufted, by
feeing all the real power of the kingdom placed in the
hands of the Normans. He difarmed the city of Lon¬
don, and other places which appeared moft warlike and
populous, and quartered Norman foldiers wherever h«
dreaded an infurrecHon. This w^as indeed afting as a
conqueror, and not as an defied king 5 but the event
fhowed the neceflity of fuch precautions. The king ha¬
ving thus fecured, as he imagined, England from any
danger of a revolt, determined to pay a vifit to his
Norman dominions. He appointed his brother Odo,
biihop of Bayeux, and William Fitz-Oiborne, regents
in his abfence 5 and to fecure himfelf yet farther, he
refolved to carry along with him fuch of the Englilh
nobility as he put the leaft confidence in.
Having taken all thefe methods to enfure the tran¬
quillity of his new kingdom, William fet fail for Nor¬
mandy in March 1067 ; but his abfence produced the
moft fatal confequences. Difcontents and murmurings
were multiplied everywhere 3 fecret confpiracies were
entered into againft the government 3 hoftilities were
commenced in many places 3 and every thing leemed
to threaten a fpeedy revolution. William of Poictiers,
a Norman hiftorian, throws the blame entirely on the
Englilh. He calls them a fickle and mutinous race,
while he celebrates with the higheft encomiums the
juftice and lenity of Odo’s and Fitz-Olborne’s admini-
llration. On the other hand, the Englilh hiftorians
tell us, that thele governors took all opportunities of
opprefling the people, either with a view to provoke
them to rebellion, or in cafe they tamely fubmitted to
their impolitions, to grow rich by plundering them.
Be this as it will, however, a fecret conspiracy was
formed among the Engliih for a general maffacre of
the Normans, like what had formerly been made of the
Hanes. This was profecuted w ith fo much animofity,
that the vaffals of the earl Coxo put him to death
becaufe he refufed to head them in the enterprife. I he
confpirators had already taken the relolution, and fix¬
ed the day for their intended maffacre, winch was to
be on Aflr-Wednefday, during the time of divine fer-
I 2 vice,
(b) Anciently thefe two titles were fynonymous.
ENG [68
England, vice, when all the Normans would be unarmed as pe-
• nitents, according to the difcipline of the times. But
the prefence of William difconcerted all their fchemes.
Having got intelligence of their bloody purpofe, he
haftened over to England. Such of the confpirators as
had been more open in their rebellion, confulted their
fafety by flight 5 and this ferved to confirm the proofs
of an accufation againft thofe who remained. From
this time the king not only loft all confidence in his
Englifti fubjefls, but regarded them as inveterate and
irreconcileable enemies. He had already rafted luch a
number of fortreffes in the country, that he no long¬
er dreaded the tumultuous or tranfient efforts of a
difcontented multitude. He determined therefore to
treat them as a conquered nation. Fhe firft inftance
of this treatment was his revival of the tax of Dane-
gelt, which had been impofed by the Danilh con¬
querors, and was very odious to the people. I nis
produced great difcontents, and even infurredlions.
The inhabitants of Exeter and Cornwall revolted ; but
wTere foon reduced, and obliged to implore the mercy
of the conqueror. A more dangerous rebellion hap¬
pened in the north } but this wras alfo foon quafhed,
and the Englifti became fenfible that their deftru&ion
was intended. Their eafy fubmiflion after the battle
of Haftings had infpired the Normans with contempt ;
their commotions afterwards had rendered them ob-
jefls of hatred ; and they were now deprived of every
expedient which could make them either regarded . or
beloved by their fovereign. Many fled into foreign
countries } and among the reft Edgar Atheling him-
felf, wdio made his efcape to Scotland, and carried
thither his twm fillers Margaret and Chriftina. They
were well received by Malcolm, who foon after mar¬
ried Margaret the elder lifter, and alfo received great
numbers of other exiles wfith the utmoft kindnefs.
The Englilh, though unable to make any refiftance
openly, did not fail to gratify their refentment againft
the Normans in a private manner. Seldom a day paf-
fed, but the bodies of affaflinated Normans were found
in the woods and highways, without any poflibility of
bringing the perpetrators to juftice. Thus, at length,
the conquerors themfelves began again to wilh for tran¬
quillity and fecurity ; and feveral of them, though
entrufted with great commands, defired to be difmif-
fed the fervice. In order to prevent thefe defertions,
which William highly refented, he was obliged to
allure others to flay by the largenefs of his bounties..
The confequences were, freflr exadfions from the
Englilh, and new infurredlions on their part againft
their cruel mafters. The Norman powder, however,
was too well founded to be now removed, and every
attempt of the Englilh to regain their liberty ferved
only to rivet their chains the more firmly. The county
of Northumberland, wEich had been moft adlive in thefe
infurreftions, now fuffered moft feverely. The whole
of it was laid w7afte, the houfes were burned, the in-
flruments of agriculture deftroyed, and the inhabitants
forced to feek new places of abode. On this occafion
it is faid that above 100,000 perfons perilhed either by
the fword or famine 5 and the country is fuppofed, even
to this day, to retain the marks of its ancient depopu¬
lation. The eftates of all the Englilh gentry wrere next
confifcated, and bellowed on the Normans. By this
means all the ancient and honourable families were re-
1
E N G
duced to beggary; and the Englilh found themfelves EngEncf.
trvVilv excluded from everv road that led either to ho-' ~v """
nour or preferment.
By proceeding in this manner, William at laft broke
the fpirit of the Englilh nation, and received no far-
ther trouble from them. In 1070* however, he foundDiffenfions
that the latter part of his life was likely to be unhap-in William’s,
py through diffenfions in his own family. He had four 'annly.
Tons, Robert, Richard, William, and Henry, befides
feveral daughters. Robert, his eldeft fon, furnamed
Cur thofe, from the Ihortnefs of his legs, wras a prince
who inherited all the bravery and ambition of his fa¬
mily. He had formerly been promifed by his father
the government of the province of Maine in France,
and was alfo declared fucceffor to the dukedom of Nor¬
mandy. He demanded from his father the fulfilment
of thefe promifes j but William gave him a flat denial,
obferving, that “ it wras not his cuftom to throw oft
his clothes till he went to bed.” Robert declared his
refentment} and openly expreffed his jealoufy of his
two brothers William and Henry, (for Ricnard was
killed, in hunting, by a flag). An open rupture was
foon commenced. The two young princes one day
took it into their heads to throw7 wrater on their elder
brother as he paffed through the court after leaving
their apartment. Robert conftrued this frolic into a
ftudied indignity } and having thefe jealoufies ftill far¬
ther inflamed by one of his favourites, he drew his
fword, and ran up flairs with an intent to take re¬
venge. The wdiole caftle was quickly filled with tu¬
mult,. and it was not without fome difficulty that the
king himfelf was able to appeafe it. But he could not
allay the animofity which from that moment prevail¬
ed in his family. Robert, attended by feveral of his
confederates, wuthdrew to Rouen that very night, ho¬
ping to furprife the caftle •, but his defign was defeat¬
ed by the governor. The popular character of the
prince, howrever, engaged all the young nobility c£
Normandy, as well as of Anjou and Britanny, toelpoufe
his quarrel} even his mother is fuppofed to have fup-
ported him in his rebellion by fecret remittances.
The unnatural conteft continued for feveral years ; and
William was at laft obliged to have recourfe to Eng¬
land for fupport againft his own fon. Accordingly,
he drew an army of Engliffimen together j he led them
over to Normandy, where he foon compelled Robert
and his adherents to quit the field, and was quickly re-
inftated in all his dominions. Robert then took ffiel-
ter in the caftle of Gerberoy, which the king of France
had provided for him, where he was fhortly after be-
fieged by his father. As the garrifon was ftrong, and
confcious of their treafon, they made a gallant defence ;
and many fkirmilhes and duels were fought under its
walls. In one of thefe the king and his fon happen¬
ed to meet \ but being both concealed by their hel¬
mets, they attacked each other with mutual fury. The
young prince wounded his father in the arm, and threw
him from his horfe. The next blow would probably,
have put an end to his life, had he not called for af-
fiftance. Robert inftantly recollected his father’s voice,
leaped from his horfe, and railed him from the ground.
He proftrated himfelf in his prefence, alked pardon lor
his offences, and promifed for the future a Uriel ad¬
herence to his duty. The king was not fo eafily ap¬
pealed j and perhaps his refentment was heightened
by
E N G [
England, by the difgrace of being overcome. He therefore gave
his maledi&ion to his fon ; and returned to nis own
camp on Robert’s horfe, which he had adifted him to
mount. After fome recollection, however, he was re¬
conciled to Robert, and carried him with him into Eng¬
land.
William returned in 1081; and being now freed from
his enemies both at home and abroad, began to have
more leifure to attend to his own domeftic affairs. For
this purpofe the DooMSDAr-Book was compofed by his
order, of which an account is given under that article.
He referved a very ample revenue for the crown ; and
in the general diitribution of land among his follow¬
ers, kept poffeffion of no fewer than 1400 manors in
difterent parts of the country. No king of England
was ever fo opulent 5 none was able to fupport the
fplendor and magnificence of a court to fuch a degree ;
none had fo many places of truft and profit to bellow j
and confequently none ever had fuch implicit obedience
paid to his commands. He delighted greatly in hunt¬
ing j and to indulge himfelf in this with the greater
freedom, he depopulated the county of Hamplhire
for 30 miles, turning out the inhabitants, deftroying
all the villages, and making the wretched outcafts no
compenfation for fuch an injury. In the time of the
Saxon kings, all noblemen without dillindlion had a
right to hunt in the royal forefts 5 but William appro¬
priated all thefe to himfelf, and publifhed very fevere
laws to prohibit his fubje£ts from encroaching on this
part of his prerogative. The killing of a boar, a deer,
or even a hare, was puniihed with the lofs of the de¬
linquent’s eyes ; at the time when the killing of a man
might be atoned for by paying a moderate fine or com-
pofition.
As the king’s wealth and power were fo great, it
may reafonably be fuppofed that the riches of his mi-
nifters were in proportion. Odo, bilhop of Bayeux,
William’s brother, was become fo rich, that he refol-
ved to purchafe the papacy. For this purpofe, taking
the opportunity of the king’s abfence, he equipped a
vefiel in the ille of Wight, on board of which he fent
immenfe treafures, and prepared for his.embarkation.
He was detained, however, by contrary winds 5 and.
in the mean time, William, being informed of his de-
figns, refolved to prevent the exportation of fo much
wealth from his dominions. Returning therefore from
Normandy, where he was at that time, he came to Eng^
land the very inflant his brother was ftepping on board.
He immediately ordered him to be made prifoner : but
his attendants, refpefting the bithop’s ecclefiaitical cha*
racier, fcrupled to execute his commands ; fo that the
king was obliged to feize him with his own hand. Odo
appealed to the Pope : but the king replied, that he
did not feize him as bifhop of Bayeux, but as earl of
Kent-, and, in that capacity, he expelled, and would
have, an account of his adminiftration. He was there¬
fore fent prifoner to Normandy ; and, notwithftand-
ing all the remonftrances and threats of Pope Gregory,
was detained in cuftody during the remainder of Wil-
90 Ham’s reign.
Death of . soon afrer this, William felt a fevere blow in the
tiUecn ’ death of Matilda his queen 5 and, almoft at the fame
time, received information of a general infurre&ion in
Maine, the nobility of which had always been averfe to
his government. Upon his arrival on the continent, he
69 ] ENG
found that the infurgents had been fecretly alTuled and England,
excited by the king of France, who took all opportu-
nities of lelfening the Norman power, by creating dif-
feniions among the nooles. His difpleafure on this
account was very much increafed, by notice* he re¬
ceived of fome railleries thrown out againil him by
the French monarch. It feems that William, who
was become corpulent, had been detained in bed fome
time by ficknefs ; and PhiHp was heard to fay, that
he only lay in of a big belly. This fo provoked the
Englilh monarch, that he fent him word, he would
foon be up, and would, at his churching, prefent fuch
a numoer of tapers as would fet the kingdom of France
in a flame.
To perform this promife, he levied a powerful army j
and, entering the lile of France, deftroyed every thing
with fire and fword. He took the town of Mante, and
reduced it to aihes. But a period was foon put to the
conqueits and to the life of this great warrior by an ^
accident. His horfe happening to put his fore feet jj-
on fome hot allies, plunged fo violently, that the rider 0
was thrown forward, and bruifed his belly on the pom-
'mel of the faddle. Being now in a bad habit of body,
as well as fomewhat advanced in years, he began to be
appreheniive of the conlequences, and ordered himfelf
to be carried in a litter to the monaftery of St Ger-
vaife. Finding his illnefs increafe, and being fenfible
of the approach of death, he difcovered at lall the va¬
nity of all human grandeur 5 and was flruck with re-
morfe for thofe many cruelties and violences of which
he had been guilty. He endeavoured to make com¬
penfation by prefents to churches and monafleries, and
gave orders for the liberation of feveral Englilh noble¬
men. Fie was even prevailed upon, though not with¬
out reludlance, to releafe his brother Odo, againlt
whom he was very much incenfed. He left Norman¬
dy and Maine to his eldeit fon Robert. He wrote
to Lanfranc the primate of England, defiring him to
crown William king of England.. To Henry he be¬
queathed nothing but the polfeflions of his mother Ma¬
tilda ; but foretold, that one day he would furpafs both
his brothers in power and opulence. He expired on
the 9th September 1087, in the 63d year of his age,
in the 2ill of his reign over England, and 54th of that
over Normandy., 93
William, furnamed Rufus, from his red hair, w^as in William
Normandy at the time of his father’s illnefs. He no K-Ufas=
fooner received the letter for Lanfranc, than, leaving
his father in the agonies of death, he fet out for Eng¬
land 5 where he arrived before intelligence of the de-
ceafe of the Conqueror had reached that kingdom.
Being fenfible that his brother Robert, as being the
eldell fon, had a preferable title to himfelf, he ufed the
utmoll difpatch in getting himfelf firmly eilabiilhed on
the throne. The Englilh were fo efiedtually fubdued,
that they made no oppolition ; but the Norman barons
were attached to Robert. This prince was brave,
open, fincere, and generous 5 and even his predominant
fault of indolence uTas not difagreeable to thofe haughty
barons, wrho atfedled an almoil total independence of
their fovereign. The king, on the • other hand, was
violent, haughty, and tyrannical. A powerful con-
fniracy w as therefore carried on again it William •, and
Odo, bilhop of Bayeux, undertook to conduct it. Ma¬
ny of the molt powerful nobility were concerned 3 and
93
Proves a
tyrant.
94
Attempts
the con-
que ft of
ENG t 7° ]
•England, as the confpirators expecled to be in a fliort time fup- feveral counties,
ported by powerful fuccours from Normandy, they re¬
tired to their c allies, and put themfelves in an offenlive
pofture.
William, fenfible of his danger, engaged the English
on bis fide, by promifing fome mitigation of their hard-
Ihips, and liberty to hunt in the royal forefts. Robert,
in the mean time, through his natural indolence, ne¬
glected to give his allies proper affiltance. The con¬
fpirators were obliged to fubmit. Some of them were
pardoned ; but moll of them confifcated, and their
ellates bellowed on the barons who had continued
faithful to the king.
William., freed from this danger, thought no more of
his promifes to the Englifiu He proved a greater ty¬
rant than his father *, and, after the death of Lanfranc,
who had been his preceptor, and kept him within fome
bounds, he gave full fcope to his violent and rapacious
difpofition. Not content with oppreffing the laity, he
invaded the privileges of the church j which, in thofe
days, were held moll facred. He feized the tempora¬
lities of all the vacant bilhoprics and abbeys, and open¬
ly put to fale thofe fees and abbeys which he thought
proper to difpofe of.
Thefe proceedings occafioned great murmurs among
the ecclefiallics, which were quickly fpread through the
Normandy, nation, but the terror of William’s authority preserved
the public tranquillity. In 1090, the king thought
himfelf llrong enough to attempt the ccnquelt of Nor¬
mandy, which at that time was in the greatelf confufion
through the indolent and negligent adminillration of
Robert. Several of the barons had revolted, and thefe
revolts were encouraged by the king of France. Ro¬
bert alfo imagined he had reafon to fear the intrigues
of his other brother Henry, whom for 3000 merks he
had put in poffeffion of Cottcntin, near a third part of
the duchy of Normandy. He therefore threw him into
prifon 5 but finding himfelf threatened with an invafion
from the king of England, he gave Henry his liberty,
and even made ufe of his afihlance in fupprefiing the in-
furreftions of his rebellious fubjefts. William, how¬
ever, vTas no fccner landed in Normandy, than the nobi¬
lity on both fides interpcfed, and a treaty of peace was
concluded. In this treaty Henry finding his interefts
entirely neglefted, retired to St Michael’s Mount, a
ftrong fortrefs on the coaft of Normandy, and infefted
the neighbourhood with his incurfions. He was be-
lieged by his twm brothers, and obliged to capitulate in
a fliort time j after which, being deprived of all his
dominions, he w andered about for fome time wuth ve¬
ry fqw attendants, and often in great poverty.
The peace with Robert wras of no long duration. In
the interval fome hoftilities wfith Scotland fucceeded,
and thefe terminated in the death of Malcolm king of
that country 5 after which new broils enfued with Nor¬
mandy. The rapacious temper of William prompted him
to encroach upon his brother’s territories, and the fame
rapacity prompted him to ufe a very extraordinary ex¬
pedient in order to accomplifli his defigns. Having
gone over to Normandy to fupport his partifans, he or¬
dered an army of 20,000 men to be raifed in England,
and condu&ed to the fea-coaft as if they were to be im¬
mediately embarked : but when they came there, inflead
of embarking, they were forced to pay the king ten (hil¬
lings a man j after which they were difmiifed to their
4
ENG
With this money William engaged England,
the king of France to depart from the protection of^
Robert 5 and alfo bribed many of the Norman barons
to revolt. He was called from Normandy, however,
by an irruption of the Welfti; and having repulfed
them, he was prevented from attempting other enter-
prifes by a confpiracy of his barons. ^5
In 1096, however, the fuperftition of Robert putHnchafes
the king of England in poffeflion of thofe dominions^6 duchr
which he had not been able to conquer by force
arms. The cruiades were now commenced, and Ro¬
bert was defirous of undertaking an expedition into the
Holy Land, money for this purpofe was wanting,
he mortgaged his dominions to his brother for 10,000
merks. The king raifed the money by violent extor¬
tions on his fubjebts 5 forcing even the convents to melt
their plate, in order to furnifh the quota demanded of
them. He was then put in poffeffion of Normandy and
Maine and Robert with a magnificent train let out for
the Holy Land.
After the death of Lanfranc, the king had retained
in his own hands the revenues of Canterbury, as he had
done thefe of many other bifhoprics j but falling into
a dangerous illnefs, he was feized with remorfe ; and
the clergy reprefented to him that he was in danger of
eternal perdition if he did not make atonement for thofe
impieties and facrileges of which he had been guilty.
He therefore inftantly refolved to fupply the vacancy
of Canterbury : he fent for Anfelm, a Piedmontefe by
birth, abbot of Bee in Normandy, wdio was much cele¬
brated for his piety and devotion. The abbot refufed
the dignity with great eameltnefs j fell on his knees,
wept, and intreated the king to change his purpofe 5
and when he found him obitinate in forcing the pafto-
ral rtaff upon him, he kept his fill fo hard clenched,
that it required the utmoft violence of the byftanders
to open it, and force him to receive that enfign of his
fpiritual dignity. William foon after recovered his
health, and with it his violence and rapacity. As he Hi* quarrel
now fpared the church no more chan before, a quarrel with the
with Anfelm foon enfued ; and this was the more dan-Pnmate*
gerous to the king, on account of the great character
for piety which the primate had acquired by his zeal
againfi: abufes of all kinds, particularly thofe of diefs
and ornament.
At this time there was a mode which prevailed not
only in England, but throughout Europe, both among
men and women, of giving an enormous length to their
(hoes, drawing the toe to a (harp point, and affixing
to it the figure of a bird’s bill, or fome fuch ornament,
which was turned upwards, and which was often fuf-
tained by gold or filver chains tied to the knee. The
ecclefiaftics took exception at this ornament, which
they faid was an attempt to belie the Scripture, where
it is affirmed, that no man can add a cubit to his fta-
ture 5 and they not only declaimed againit it with ve¬
hemence, but affembled fome fynods, in which the fa-
(hion was abfolutely condemned. Such, however, are-
the contradiftions in human nature, that all the influ¬
ence of the clergy, which at that time was fufficient
to fend vaft multitudes of people into Afia to butcher
one another, was not able to prevail againft thofe long-
pointed (hoes. The fafliion, contrary to what hath
happened to almoft all others, maintained its ground
for feveral centuries j and even Anfelm found his en¬
deavours
* See An-
felm.
97
dom.
ENG [
England, deavours againft it ineffectual. He was more fuccefs-
v"**— lal in decrying the long hair and curled locks then
worn oy the courtiers. He refufed the alhes on Afh-
Wednefday to fuch as w’ere fo accoutred ; and his au¬
thority and eloquence had fuch influence, that the
young men univerfally abandoned that ornament, and
appeared in the cropt hair recommended to them by the
fermons of the primate. For this reformation Amelin
is highly celebrated by his iullorian Eadmer, who was
alfo his companion and fecretary.
When William’s profanenefs returned with his health,
he was engaged in almoff perpetual contefts with this
auftere prelate *. Thefe were pretty wTell fettled,
■when the king, who had undertaken an expedition into
Wales, required Anfelm to furnidi him with a certain
number of foldiers. The primate regarded this as an in-
valion of the rights of the church} and therefore, though
he durff not refufe compliance, fent the men fo mife-
rably accoutred, that the king was exceedingly difplea-
fed, and threatened him with a profecution. Anfelm
demanded reftitution of all his revenues which the
king had feized, and appealed to the pope. The quar-
y, rel> however, ran fo high, that the primate found it
Who leaves dangerous to remain, in England. He defired and ob-
the King- tained the king’s permiffion to retire beyond fea. Elis
temporalities' were confifcated immediately on his de¬
parture j but Pope Urban received him as a martyr in
the caufe of religion, and even threatened the king
with fentence of excommunication. William, however,
proceeded in his projefts of ambition and violence,
without regarding the threats of the pope ; who he
knew was at that time too much engaged with the cru-
fades to mind any other bufinefs. Though his ac-
quifition of Maine and Normandy had brought him in¬
to perpetual conteffs with the haughty and turbulent
barons who inhabited thofe countries, and raifed end-
lefs tumults and infurreCtions } yet William feemed ftill
intent on extending his dominions either by pure hale or
conqueft. William earl of Poiciiers and duke of Gui-
enne had refolved upon an expedition to the Holy I.and;
and, for this purpofe, had put himfelf at the head of a
vaft multitude, confifting, according to fome hifforians,
of 60,000 horfe, and a much greater number of foot.
Like Robert of Normandy, he offered to mortgage
his dominions for money fufficient to conduct this mul¬
titude into Alia. The king accepted his offer ; and
had prepared a fleet and army to take poffeflion of
thefe dominions, when an unfortunate accident put an
end to his projefts and his life. He was engaged in
hunting, the foie amufement, and indeed the principal
occupation, of princes in thofe rude times. Walter
Tyrrel, a French gentleman remarkable for his A ill
in archery, attended him in this recreation, of which
the new forefl: was the feene. William had difmount-
ed after a chace j and Tyrrel, impatient to Ihow his
dexterity, let fly an arrow at a flag which fuddenly
ftarted before him. The arrow glanced from a tree,
and ft ruck the king to the heart. He inftantly fell
down dead; and Tyrrel, terrified at the accident,
clapt fpurs to his horfe, haftened to the fea-lhore, and
embarked for France, where he joined the crufade that
was fetting out from that country. This happened on
the 2d of Auguff 1100, after the king had reigned
13 years, and lived about 40. His body was found-in
In gland",
9Sf
Death of
the king.
97
71 ] E N G
the woods by the country-people, and buried without
ceremony at Winchefter.
Alter tne death of William, the crown of right de¬
volved to Robert his eldcft: brother ; for William had
. no legitimate- children. But what Robert had for¬
merly loft by his indolence, he was again deprived of
by his abfence at the holy war. Prince Henry was in
the foreft with William Rufus at the time the latter
was killed. He no fooner heard the important news, Prince
than he hurried to Winchefter, and fecured the royal “enr-v u“
treafure. W illiam de Breteuil, keeper of the treafure, t^e
arrived almoft the fame inftant, and oppofed his pre-
tenfions j telling him, that the treafure belonged to his
elder brother, who was now his fovereign, and for whom
he was determined to keep it. Rut Henry, drawing
his fword, threatened him with inftant death if he da¬
red to difobey him ; and others of the late king’s re¬
tinue, who came every moment to Winchefter, joining
the prince’s party, he was obliged to deflft. Henry
loft no time in fully accomplilhing his purpofe. In leis
than three days he got himfelf crowned king of Eng¬
land by Maurice biftiop of London. Prefent pofleffion
fupplied every deficiency of title 5 and no one dared to
appear in defence of the abfent piince. loo
The beginning of King Henry’s reign promifed to His charter
be favourable to the Englifh liberty $ owing chiefly to ‘n favour of
his fear of his brother. To conciliate the affections of
his fubjeCts, he paffed a charter calculated to remove
many of the grievous oppreflions which had been com¬
plained of during the reigns of his father and brother.
He promifed, that at the death of any abbot or bi¬
ftiop, he never would feize the revenues of the fee or
abbey during the vacancy, but would leave the whole
to be reaped by the fucceflbr y and that he would ne¬
ver let to farm any ecclefiaftical benefice, or difpofe of
it for money. To the laity he promifed, that, upon
the death of any earl, baron, or military tenant, his
heir Ihould be admitted to the poffeflion. of his eftate,
on paying a juft and lawful relief; without being ex-
pofed to thofe enormous exadions which had been for¬
merly required. He remitted the wardihip of mi¬
nors ; and allowed guardians to be appointed, who
fliould be anfwerable for the truft. He promifed not
to difpofe of any heirefs in marriage but by advice of
all the barons 5 and if any baron intended to give his
daughter. After, niece, or kinfwoman in marriage, it
fliould only be neceffary for him to confult the king,
who promifed to take no money for his confent, nor
ever to refufe permiflion, unlefs the perfon to whom it
was propofed to marry her fhould happen to be his
enemy. He granted his barons and military tenants
the power of bequeathing by will their money or per-
fonal eftates y and if they negledled to make a will,
he promiied that their heirs fhould fucceed to them.
He renounced the right of impofing moneyage, and
of levying taxes at pleafure, on the farms which the
barons kept in their own hands. He made fome ge¬
neral profeflions of moderating fines y he offered a par¬
don for all offences ; and remitted all debts due to the
crown. He alfo required, that the vaffals of the ba¬
rons fhould enjoy the fame privileges which he granted
to his own barons 5 and he promifed a general con¬
firmation and obfervance of the lavjs of King Edward *. * ^ee FecJal
To give greater authenticity to thefe conceflions, aSylteni*
copy
E
N G
t ]
ENG
loi
"Quarrels
With the
primate.
f See Feo-
eopy of tlie charter was lodged in fonre abbey of each
county.
King Henry, farther to increafe his popularity, de¬
graded and committed to prifon Ralph Mambard bi-
Ihop of Durham, who had been the chief inftrument
of opprellion under his brother. He fent for Anfelm
who was then at Lyons, inviting him to return and
take poffeffion of his dignities. Anfelm returned ; but
when Henry 'propofed to him to do the fame homage
to him which he had done to his brother, the king met
with an abfolute refufal. During his exile, Anfelm
had aflifted at the council of Bari ; where* befides fix^
ing the controverfy between the Greek and Latin
churches concerning the proceffion of the Holy Ghoft,
the right of election to church-preferments was decla¬
red to belong to the clergy alone, and fpiritual cen-
fures were denounced againit all eccleliaftics who did
homage to laymen for their fees and benefices, and on
all laymen wdio fexafted it. The rite of homage -f- by
dal 'Tenure, the feudal cuftoms was, that the vallal Ihould throw
himfelf on his knees, put his joined hands between
thofe of his fuperior, and Ihould in that pofture fwear
fealty to him. But the council declared it execrable,
that pure hands, which could create God, and ofler
him up for the falvation of mankind, fhould be put, af¬
ter this humiliating manner, between profane hands,
Which, befides being inured to rapine and bloodlhed,
were employed day and night in impure purpofes and
oblcene contacts. To this deefee therefore Anfelm
appealed \ and declared, that fo far from doing ho¬
mage for his fpiritual dignity, he would not even com¬
municate with any ecclefiaftic who paid that fubmif-
lion, or who accepted of inveftitures from laymen. Hen¬
ry durft not infilt ^ and therefore deiired that the con¬
troverfy might be fufpended, and that meffengers
might be fent to Rome to accommodate matters with
the Pope, and to obtain his confirmation of the laws
and cuftoms of England.
Henry now took another ftep wLich feemed capable
©f confirming his claims to the crown without any dam
ger of a rival. The Englilh remembered with regret
their Saxon monarchs, when they compared the liber*
ty they enjoyed under them wuth the tyranny of the
Normans. Some defendants of that favourite line
ftill remained j and among the reft, Matilda, the niece
of Edgar Atheling. Upon her the king fixed his eyes
as a proper confort, by whofe means the breach be¬
tween the Saxons and Normans might be cemented.'
A difficulty, however, occurred, becaufe Ihe had been
• educated in a nunnery, The affair wTas examined by
Anfelm in a council of prelates and nobles fummoned
at Lambeth. Matilda there proved, that (he had put
on the veil, not with a defign of entering into a reli¬
gious life, but merely in imitation of a cu * om familiar
*o tne Engliih ladies, who prote fted their chaftity from
the brutal violence of the Normans by taking Ihelter
under that habit, which amid the horrid licentioufnefs
-loi °f th6 times was yet generally revered. The council,
He marries fenfible that even a princefs had otherwife no fecurity
'Matilda. for her honour, admitted this reafon as valid. They
pronounced that Matilda was ftill free to marry and
her nuptials with Henry w^ere celebrated by Anfelm
with great folemnity and pomp.
While Henry wras thus rendering himfelf popular at
jsonui, his brother Robert, who had loitered away a
3
twelvemonth in Laly, where he married Sibylla daugh- Englaftcf.
ter of the count of Converfana, arrived in England, in f
iioi, in order to put in his late and ineffeftual claim
to the crown. His fame, however, on account of the England
exploits he had performed in Paleiline, w^as fo great, claimed by
that even yet he was joined by many noblemen of the Robert*
fir ft rank, and the whole nation feemed prepoifeffed in
his favour, But Henry, having paid his court to An¬
felm, by his means retained the army in his interefts,
and marched wfith them to Portfmouth, where Robert
had landed his forces a few days before. The armies
lay for fome time in fight of each other j when an ac¬
commodation was effefted through the mediation of
Anfelm and other great men. By this treaty it wa&
agreed, that Robert ftiould refign his pretenfions to
England, and receive in lieu of them an annual pen-
fion of 3000 marks •, that if either of the princes died
without ifiue, the other ftiould fucceed to his domi¬
nions ; that the adherents of each Ihould be pardoned,
and reftored to all their pofieflions either in Normandy
or England 5 and that neither Robert nor Henry
ftiould thenceforth encourage, receive, or proteift the
enemies of each other.
The two princes feparated with mutual marks of
friendihip •, but next year, Henry, under various pre¬
tences, confifcated the eftates of almoft all the noble¬
men who had favoured his brother’s pretenfions. Ro¬
bert, enraged at the fate of his friends, ventured to
come to England in order to remonftrate with his
brother in perfon. But he met with fuch a bad re¬
ception, that, apprehending his liberty to be in dan¬
ger, he was glad to make his efcape by refigning his
penfion. 104
This infringement of the treaty was followed theNoimandy
enfuing year by an invafion of Normandy, at the defire VP'" 'e<1 b7
of Robert’s own fubjefts, whom he wus totally inca- enr^‘
pable of governing *. The event of this war wasthe*Se iW-
defeat and captivity of Robert, wdio was henceforth mandy.
deprived not only of all his dominions, but of his per-
fonal liberty. He lived 28 years a prifoner, and died
in the caftle of Cardiff in Glamorganftiire. It is even
faid by fome, that he ■was deprived of his fight by a
red-hot copper bafon applied to his eyes, and that King
Henry appeafed his confcience by founding the mona-
ftery of Reading,
The conquelt of Normandy was completed in 1106;'
and next year the controverfy between the king and pri¬
mate, concerning the inveftitures of clergymen and
their doing homage to princes, was refumed. The king
was very fenfible that it was not his intereft to quarrel
w'ith fuch a powerful body as the clergy were at that
time ; and on the other hand, he fully underftood the
neceflity of guarding the prerogatives of the crowm I0(,
from their encroachments. While, therefore, he avoid- Qna r‘els
ed an open rupture with Anfelm, he obftinately refu-\\ ah tne
fed to give up the privileges which had been enjoyed PruIiate°
by his predecefibrs. On the firft arrival of Anfelm,
the king had avoided the difpute in the manner already
mentioned. A meffenger was difpatched to Rome, in
order to compromife matters with the pope. The mef¬
fenger returned with an abfolute refufal of the king’s
demands. One of the reafons given by the pope on
this occafion was expreffed in the following words :
“ It is monftrous that a fon fhould pretend to beget
his father, or a man to create his God : priefts are
called
ENG [
England, called gods in fcripture, as being the vicars of God .
v and will you, by your abominable pretenfions to grant
them their invelliture, affume the right of creating
them ?” Henry was not yet convinced $ but as he was
determined to avoid, or at leaft to delay, the coming
to any dangerous extremity with the church, he per-
fuaded Anfelm, that by farther negotiation he diould
be able to compound matters with the pope. Mef-
fengers were therefore difpatched to Rome a fecond
time from the king ; and alfo from Anfelm, who want¬
ed to be fully affured of the pope’s intentions. They
returned with letters wrote in the rood arrogant and
politive manner, both to the king and primate. The
king fuppreffed the letter fent to himfelf; and perfua-
ded the three bifhops, by whom it was fent, to affert,
upon their epifcopal faith, that the pope had affured
them of his private good intentions towards King
Henry, and of his refolution not to refent any future
exertion of his prerogative in granting inveititures j
though he himfelf fcrupled to give this affurance under
his hand, left other princes ihould copy the example
and affume a like privilege. Anfelm’s two meffen-
gers, who wrere monks, affirmed that it was impoffible
this ftory could have any foundation ; but their word
was not deemed equivalent to that of three biffiops ;
and the king, as if he had finally gained his caufe, pro¬
ceeded to fill the fees of Hereford and Salifbury, and
to inveft the new biffiops in the ufual manner. Anfelm,
■however, gave no credit to the affertions of the king’s
meffengers; and therefore refufed not only to confe-
crate them, but even to communicate wdth them; and
the biffiops themfelves, finding they were become uni-
verfally odious, returned the enfigns of their fpiritual
dignity.
The quarrel continued between the king and pri¬
mate, till the latter, fenfible of his dangerous fituation,
defired leave to make a journey to Rome, in order to
lay the cafe before the pope. This permiffion was
eafily obtained ; but no fooner was the primate gone,
than Henry confifcated all his revenues, and fent ano¬
ther meffenger to negociate with the pope. The new-
meffenger told his holinefs, that his mailer wx>uld foon¬
er part with his crown than the right of granting in-
veftitures. “ And I (replied the pope) would ra¬
ther lofe my head than allow him to retain it.” This
quarrel now became very dangerous to the king j as he
was threatened by the pope with excommunication,
which would have been attended with terrible confe-
quences. At laft, however, a compromife was made
in the following manner. Before bilhops took poffef-
fion of their dignities, they had formerly been accuf-
tomed to pafs through two ceremonials : They recei¬
ved, from the hands of the fovereign, a ring and cro-
fier as the fymbols of their office, and this was called
their invejiiture: they alfo made thofe fubmiffions to
the prince, which were required of the vaffals by the
rites of the feudal law, and which received the name
of homage. The pope, therefore, was for the prefent
contented with Henry’s refigning his right of granting
inveftitures, by which the fpiritual dignity was fuppo-
fed to be conferred 5 and he allowed the biffiops to do
homage for their temporal properties and privileges.
After this, the pope allowed Anfelm to communicate
with the prelates who had already received inveftitures
from the crown j and he only required of them fome
Vgl. VIII. Part I.
73 1 _ E N G
fubmiffions for their paft condu<ft. He alfo granted to England.
Anfelm a plenary power of remedying every diforder, '   1
which he faid might arife from the barbaroufnefs of
the country. About the fame time the marriage of
priefts was prohibited 5 and even laymen were not al¬
lowed ^ to marry within the feventh degree of affinity.
By this contrivance the pope augmented the profits
which he reaped from granting difpenfations, and like-
wife thofe from divorces. For as the art of writing
was then rare, and pariffi-regifters were not regularly
kept, it was not eafy to afcertain the degrees of affi¬
nity even among people of rank ; and any man who
had money to pay for it, might obtain a divorce,
on pretence that his wife was more nearly related to
him than was permitted by the canons. A decree
was alfo publilhed, prohibiting the clergy to wear long
hail j and the king, though he would not refign his pre¬
rogatives to the church, very willingly out his hair ia.
the form wffiich was required of him, obliging all the
courtiers at the fame time to follow7 his example.
From the time of this compromife, which happened
in 1107, to the year 1120, nothing remarkable hap¬
pened except fome flight commotions in Normandy:
but this year, Prince William, the king’s only fon,
was unfortunately drowned off the coaft of Normandy 5 pril^f
and Henry rvas fo much affe&ed, that he is faid never William
afterwards to have fmiled or recovered his wonted drowned,
cheerfulnefs. It is very doubtful, however, whether
the death of this prince w7as not an advantage to the
Britiffi nation, fince he wras often heard to exprefs
the utmoft hatred to the natives j infomuch that he had
threatened, that when he came to the throne, he
would make them draw the plough, and would turn
them into beafts of burden. ’Ihefe prepoffeffions he
inherited from his father j who, though he was wont,
when it might ferve his purpofes, to value himfelf on
his birth as a native of England, ftiowed, in the courfe
of his government, an extreme prejudice againft that
people. . All hopes of preferment to ecclefiaftical as
well as civil dignities were denied to the Engliffi during
this whole reign; and any foreigner, however igno¬
rant or worthlefs, wras lure to have the preference in
every competition. The charter formerly mentioned,
which the king granted at the beginning of his reign’
was no more thought of; and the whole fell fo much
into negleft and oblivion, that in the following cen¬
tury, when the barons, wffio had heard an obfcure tra¬
dition of it, defired to make it the model of the great
charter which they exafted from King John, they could
only find one copy of it in the whole kingdom 5 while
the grievances, propofed to be redreffed by it, conti¬
nued ftill in their full extent.
As Henry had now no legitimate children except
Matilda, whom in mo he had betrothed, though
only eight years of age, to the emperor of Germany,
he was induced to marry a fecond time in hopes of ha¬
ving fons. He made his addreffes accordingly to A-
delais the daughter of Godfrey duke of Lovaine, and
niece to Pope Calixtus 5 a young princefs of an ami¬
able perfon. But Adelais brought him no children:
and in 1135, the king died in Normandy, from eating
too plentifully of lampreys j having lived 67 years, and King Hen*’
reigned 35. _ . N J ry.
By the null of King Henry, his daughter Matilda
became heirefs of all his dominions. She had been
K aiqrned^
/
ENG
[ 7+ 1
ENG
England.
108
Stephen u-
furps the
throne.
married, after her firfl hufband’s death, to Geoffrey
Pfantagenet, eldeft fon of the count of Anjou, by whom
fire had a fon named Henry ; but as Geoftrey had gi*
ven umbrage to the king of England in feveral xnftan-
ces, no notice was taken of him in the will, ihe no¬
bility had already fworn fealty to her} and the fore-
moll to fhow this mark of fubmiffion to the king’s will
had been Stephen, fon of the count of Blois (who had
married Adela the daughter of William the Conque¬
ror). He had been married to Matilda, daughter and
heirefs of Euilace count of Boulogne j who brought
him, befides that feudal fovereignty of France, a vaft pro¬
perty in England, which in the diftribution of lands
had been conferred by the Conqueror on the family of
Boulogne. By this marriage Stephen acquired a new
connexion with the royal family of England : for Ma¬
ry, his wife’s mother, \vas fifter to David the prefent
king of Scotland, and to Matilda the firit wife of Henry
and mother of the emprefs. The king alfo, imagining
that by the aggrandizement of Stephen he ftrengthen-
ed the intereft of his own family, had enriched him with
many poffeffions 5 but inilead of this, it appeared by
the event that he had only put it more and more in
his power to ufurp the throne.
No .fooner was Henry dead, than Stephen haftened
from Normandy into England. The citizens of Do¬
ver and Canterbury, apprifed of his purpofe, fhut their
gates againll him ; but when he arrived at London,
feme of the lower clafs of people, iniligated by his e-
miflaries, immediately proclaimed him king. Ihe
archbithop of Canterbury refufed to give him the royal
unflion ; but this difficulty was got over by Stephen’s
brother, the bilhop of Winchefter. Hugh Bigod, ftew-
ard of the houfehold, made oath before the primate,
that the late king, on his death-bed, had difeovered a
diffatisfadlion with his daughter Matilda, and had ex-
preffed his intention of leaving the count of Boulogne
heir to all his dominions; and the biffiop either belie¬
ving, or pretending to believe, this tellimony, gave
Stephen the royal unCtion. Very few of the nobility
attended his coronation; but none oppofed his ufurpa-
tion, however unjuft or flagrant.
Stephen, in order to eftablifh himfelf on the throne
as firmly as poffible, pafled a charter, in which he
made liberal promifes to all ranks of men. 7 o the
clergy he promifed, that he Avould fpeedily fill all the
vacant benefices, and never would levy any of the rents
during the vacancy. To the nobility he gave liberty
to hunt in their own forefts; and to the people he pro¬
mifed to remit the tax of danegelt, and to reftore the
laws of Edward the Confeffor. He feized the king’s
treafure at Winchefter, amounting to ioo,oool, ; with
part of which money he hired mercenary foldiers
from the continent} and with another part procured a
bull from the pope, confirming his title to the Englifh
throne.
Matilda, in the mean time, endeavoured to recover
her juft rights, of which Stephen had deprived her *, but
for fome time fhe met with no fuccefs either in Eng¬
land or Normandy. Her hufband Geoffrey himfelf was
obliged to conclude a peace with Stephen, on condi¬
tion of the king’s paying him during that time an an¬
nual penficn of 5000I.
Robert earl of Gloucefter was the firft who ffiock the
power of Stephen. He was natural fon to the late
king; a man of great honour and ability, and was Very Eng’and.
much attached to the interefts of Matilda. When
Stephen ufurped the throne, he offered to do him ho¬
mage, and take the oath of fealty } but with an ex-
prefs condition, that the king fhould maintain all his
ftipulations, and never invade any of Robert’s rights
cr dignities. Wfth this condition Stephen was obliged
to comply, on account of the great power of that
nobleman, though he knew that it was meant only to
afford him a favourable opportunity of revolting w hen
occafion ferved. The clergy imitated Robert’s ex¬
ample 5 and annexed to their oath of allegiance the
following condition, namely ; that they w'ere only
bound as long as the king defended the eccleliaftical
liberties, and fupported the difeipline of the church. 109
The barons, in return for their fubmiffion, exa£led |Plftra<^e^
terms of ftill more pernicious tendency. Many of them e
required to have the right of fortifying their caftles,
and putting themfelves in a pofture of defence; and
with this exorbitant demand the king was forced to
comply. All England wras immediately filled with
thefe fortreffes •, which the noblemen garrifoned either
with their vaffals, or with licentious foldiers, who
flocked to them from all quarters. The whole king¬
dom now became a feene of rapine and devaftation.
Wars were carried on by the nobles in every quar¬
ter ; the barons even affumed the right of coining mo¬
ney, and of exercifing, without appeal, every act of
jurifdi&ion j and the inferior gentry, as well as the
people, finding no defence from the laws, during this
total diffolution of fovereign authority, were obliged, .
for their immediate fafety, to pay court to fome neigh¬
bouring chieftain, and to purchafe his proteftion, both
by fubmitting to his exactions, and by affifting him in
his rapine upon others.
In 1137, the earl of Gloucefter having projected an
infurredlion, retired beyond fea, fent the king a de¬
fiance, and folemnly renounced his allegiance. 1 he next
year David king of Scotland appeared with an army
in defence of his niece’s title ; and penetrating into
Yorkffiire, committed the greateft devaftations. He
was defeated, however, with great flaughter, at North¬
allerton, by fome of the northern barons, who had rai-
fed a powerful army ) and this fuccefs fo much over¬
awed the malecontents in England, that Stephen’s
power might have received fome liability, had he not
unfortunately engaged himfelf in a conteft with the
clergy. He had already feen the mifehief arifing from
the liberty he had granted of fortifying fo many
caftles in different parts of the kingdom. He there¬
fore determined to abridge this liberty as much as pof¬
fible ; and for that purpofe he began with the caftles
eredled by the clergy, who feemed to have lefs right
to thefe military fecurities than the barons. Faking
advantage therefore of a fray which had arifen at court
between the retinue of the biftiop of Salifbury and the
earl of Britanny, he feized the bilhops both of Salii-
bury and Lincoln, threwr them into prifon, and obli¬
ged them to deliver up the ctiftles which they had late¬
ly eredled. This produced fuch a violent commotion,
that the opportunity feemed favourable to the preten- IIO
lions of Matilda. On the 2ld of September 1139, Ihe Matilda
landed in England with Robert earl of Gloucefter, at-lands in
tended only by 140 knights j but her pmtizans daily Eng^nd.
increafed, and Ihe was foon in a condition to face
Stephen
'ENG
taken pri-
foner.
England. Stephen tvith equal forces in the field. Numberlefs en
counters happened, the detail of which could afford
very little entertainment to the reader. War was
fpread through every quarter j and the turbulent ba¬
rons having, in a great meafure, fhaken off all reftraint
of government, and now obtained the fanflion of
fighting in the caufe of their country, redoubled their
oppreffions, tyrannies, and devaifations. The caftles
of the nobility became receptacles of licenfed robbers ;
who, fallying forth day and night, fpoiled the open
country, plundered the villages, and even cities. They
tortured the captives to make them reveal their trea-
fures, fold their perfons to flavery 5 and fet fire to the
houfes, after they had pillaged them of every thing
valuable. In confequence of this deftru&ion, the land
was left untilled ; the inftruments of hufbandry were
abandoned j and a grievous famine reduced the nation
in to the moft deplorable ftate that can be imagined.
Stephen de- After a multitude of indecifive conflidls, a battle
feated and enfued which feemed likely to enfure the public peace
for fome time. Stephen had marched his forces to re¬
lieve the city of Lincoln •, the earl of Gloucefter led a
body of troops to aflift thofe of Matilda’s party, who
were befieging that place. The two armies engaged
on the 2d of February within fight of the city, and a
defperate battle enfued. At laft Stephen’s army was
defeated. He himfelf was for fome time left without
attendants ; and fought on foot in the rriidft of his
enemies, aflaulted by multitudes, and refilling all their
efforts with allonilhing intrepidity. Being hemmed in
on every fide, he forced a way for fome time with his
battle-axe } but that breaking, he drew his fword, and
with it fiirioully affailed his antagonills for fome time
longer. But at length the fword alfo flying in pieces,
he was obliged to lurrender himfelf a prifoner. He was
conduced to Glouceller ; and though at firlt treated
with refpehl, he was in a Ihort time, upon fome fufpi-
cions, thrown into irons.
About a month after, Matilda was crowned at Win-
chefter with great folemnity $ but foon Ihowed herfelf
totally incapable of governing fuch a turbulent nation.
She determined to reprefs the power of the nobles, who
had now left only the lhadow of authority to their fo-
vereign. But being deftitute of policy or prudence fuffi-
cient to accomplilh fo difficult an undertaking, a con¬
spiracy w’as loon formed again!! her, and the biihop of
Winchelter detached a party of his friends and vaffals to
biOck up the city of London where the queen refided.
At the fame time meafures wTere taken to inlligate the
Londoners to a revolt, and to feize the queen’s per-
fon. Matilda, having timely notice of this confpi-
racy, fled to Wincheller. Here fhe was foon after
befieged by the bifliop : but the town being dillrefs-
.ed by famine, Ihe with difficulty made her efcape;
while her brother the earl of Gloucefter, endeavour¬
ing to follow, was taken prifoner, and exchanged for
Stephen.
Matilda was now obliged to take ffielter in Oxford,
while Stephen realcended the throne. The civil war
broke out with redoubled fury. Many battles were
rought, and both parties were involved in many di-
ftreffes. IVIatilda elcaped from Oxford at a time wffien
the fields w^ere covered with fnow, by being dreffed all
in white, with four knights her attendants dreffed in
the fame colour. Another time Stephen was furprifed
1 75 1
ENG
England,
111
Matilda
crowned
114
Ir3
Stephen
reftored.
by the earl of Gloucefter at Wilton, and made his
eicape with the utmoft difficulty. At laft Matilda was
obliged to quit the kingdom; and the death of the earl
of Gloucefter foon after feemed to give a fatal blow to
ber interefts. In 1153, however, Prince Henry, Ma¬
tilda’s fon by. her lecond hulband Geoffrey, came
over to England, in order once more to dilpute Ste¬
phen’s pretenlions to the crown. After forne fuccefs
on his firft landing, he was oppofed by Stephen with
a powerful army, and matters feemed likely to come
to the decifion of a general engagement. But while
the twTo armies continued within a quarter of a mile of
each other, a treaty was fet on foot by the interpolition
of William earl of Arundel, for terminating the difpute
in an amicable manner. The death of Euftace, Ste¬
phen s Ion, whom he had defigned for the throne, which
happened during the courfe of the treaty, facilitated
its conclufion. It was agreed, that Stephen Ihould
reign during his life, and that juftice ffiould be admi-
niftered in his name ; that Henry, on Stephen’s death,
ihould fucceed to the kingdom ; and that William,
Stephen’s fon, Ihould inherit Boulogne and his pa¬
trimonial eftate. This treaty filled all Europe with
joy ; and after the barons had fworn to it, Henry left
England, and Stephen returned to the peaceable enjoy¬
ment of his throne. His reign, however, was but
of ffiort continuance } his death happening" on the 25th Bb death
of Odfober 1154.
Henry was on the continent belieging a caftie of one
of the mutinous barons, when news was brought him
of Stephen’s death. But, as he was fenfible° of the
goodnefs of his title, he did not abandon his enterprife
till the place was reduced. He then fet out on his
journey, and was received in England with the utmort n,
joy. Ihe firft a£is of his reign feemed to promife a Henry II.
™PPy and profperous adminiftration. He inftantly
difmiiled the mercenary foldiers who had committed
the greateft diforders throughout the nation. He or¬
dered all the caftles which had been eredled lince the
death of Henry I. to be demolilhed, except a few
which he retained in his own hands for the protedlion
of the kingdom. The adulterated coin which had been
ftruck during the reign of Stephen was cried down,
and new money ftruck of the right value and ftandard!
He refumed many of thofe benefadlions which had
been made to churches and monafteries in the for¬
mer reigns. He. gave charters to feveral towns,
by .which the citizens claimed their freedom and
privileges independent of any fuperior but himfelf.
I hele charters were the ground-work of the Engliffi
liberty ; for thus a new order, namely, the more opu¬
lent. of the people, began to claim a lhare in the ad¬
miniftration, as well as the nobility and clergy. Thus
the feudal government was at firft impaired ; and liber¬
ty began to be more equally diffuled throughout the
Henry II. on his acceffion to the Engliffi throne,
round himfelf poffeffed of very extenfive dominions on
the continent. In the right of his father, he poffeffed
Anjou, Touraine, and Maine ; in that of his mother,
Normandy j in that of his wife, Guienne, Poiftou,
amtonge, Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and
the Limoufin. Soon after, he annexed Britanny to
his other Hates, by marrying his fon, who was yet
a child, to the heirefs of Britanny, who was a child
K 2 alfo.
B N G [
England, alio, and was already in ^>offe!lion. of the fuperiority
•w—j"— 1 over that province. Thefe territories compofed above
a third of the French monarchy, and were by far the
moft opulent part of it •, fo that Henry, though vaf-
fal to the king of France, was greatly fuperior to him
in power 3 and when England was added to all thefe,
the French king had great reafon to apprehend fome
difafter to himfelf and family. The king of England,
however, refided at too great a diftance to be able to
employ this formidable power with fuccefs again!! the
French monarch. He foon became a kind of ftranger
in his continental dominions 3 and his fubjefls there
confidered their allegiance as more naturally due to
their fuperior lord, who lived in their neighbourhood,
and who was acknowledged to be the fupreme head of
their nation. Their immediate lord was often at too
great a diftance to prote£f them 3 and a commotion
in any part of Henry’s extenftve dominions gave
great advantages again!! him. X he wife and vigo¬
rous adminiftration of Henry, however, counterbalan¬
ced in a great meafure thefe difadvantages 3 and he
maintained a furprifing tranquillity throughout his ex¬
tenftve dominions during the greateft part of his reign.
Xlenry found no great difficulty in circumfcribing
the power of the barons 3 but when he attempted to do
the fame thing with the clergy, he met with the moft
violent oppofttion. X'hat body had carried their inde¬
pendence on the civil power fo far, that now they
feemed to aim at nothing lefs than a liberty to commit
all manner of crimes with impunity. During the
reign of Stephen, they had extorted an immunity from
all but ecclefiaftical penalties* 3 and that grant they
were refolved to maintain for the future. It may ea-
fily be fuppofed, that a law which thus fcreened their
jvj urin uu*> wickednefs, contributed to increafe it 3 and we accord-
wickednefs ingly find upon record, not lefs than 100 murders
of the committed by men in holy orders, in the ftrort period
clergy. fince the king’s acceftion, not one of which was pu-
niftred even with degradation, while the biihops them-
felves feemed to glory in this horrid indulgence. Ihe
king did not make any attempts again!! them during
the life of Theobald archbifliop of Canterbury, who
was a man of a mild charafter, and befides had great
merit 3 becaufe, during the former reign, he had refu-
fed to put the crown on the head of Euftace, Stephen’s
fon. He died in 11623 an(I ^ king, after his death,
advanced to the fee of Canterbury Thomas a Becket,
his chancellor, on whofe compliance he thought he
might entirely depend.
Contefts The new archbilhop was the fir!! man of Englifti
of the king pedigree, who, fince the Norman conqueft, had rifen
with rho- to any. conf1(lerable ftation. Before his inftalment in
mas a Bee- ^ fee ^ Canterbury, Becket had been exceedingly
complaifant, good-humoured, and agreeable to his
mafter 3 and had alfo been accuftomed to live very
freely. But no fooner was he invefted with this high
dignity, than he totally altered his conduct, and put
on all thofe airs of affefted and oftentatious humility
which could recommend him to the fuperftitious and
ignorant multitude in that age. The fir!! ilep taken
by this hypocrite aftei; his advancement, was to refign
the office of chancellor. This he did without con-
fulting the king : the reafon he gave was, that hence¬
forth he muft detach himfelf from fecular affairs, and
be folely employed in the. duties of his. facred function 3
*■ See (Be¬
nefit of)
Clergy.
I l6
Monftrous
^6 i £ N Cx
but in reality, that he might break off all connexion England. ^
with Henry. As he knew that the king intended to
abridge the ecclefiaftical power, he thought the be!!
method would be to become himfelf the aggreffor.
He therefore fummoned the earl of Clare to furrender
the barony of Tunbridge 3 which, ever fince the Con¬
queft, had remained in the family of that nobleman 3
but which, as it had formerly belonged to the fee of
Canterbury, the primate pretended that his predecef-
fors were prohibited by the canons from alienating.—
William de Eynsford, a military tenant of the crown,
was patron of a living which belonged to a manor that
held of the archbifhop of Canterbury; and Becket,
without regard to William’s right, prefented, on a
new and illegal pretence, one Laurence to that living,
who rvas violently expelled by Eynsford. Upon this
Eynsford was excommunicated. He complained to
the king, that he, who held in capite of the crown,
Ihould, contrary to the practice eftablilhed by the Con¬
queror and maintained ever fince by his fucceffors, be
lubjeffied to that terrible fentence, without the previ¬
ous confent of the fovereign. Henry, by a meffenger,
commanded Becket to abiblve Eynsford. The haughty
primate anfwered, that it belonged not to the king to
inform him whom he Ihould abfolve, and whom ex¬
communicate 3 but, after all, he was obliged to com¬
ply with the king’s orders, though with the worft
grace imaginable.
As Xlenry perceived that the crown was now in dan¬
ger, through the fuperftition of the people, of falling
totally under the power of the clergy, he refolved to
exert himfelf to the utmoft again!! their fcandalous
ufurpations. Among their other inventions to obtain
money, they had now inculcated the neceffity of pe-
kst.
nance as an atonement for fin 3 and having again in¬
troduced the praftice of paying them large firms as an
equivalent for thefe penances, the fins of the people had
thus become a revenue to the priefts 3 and the king
computed, that, by this invention alone, they levied
more money from his fubjedls than what flowed by all
the funds and taxes into the royal exchequer. To eafe
the people of fo heavy and arbitrary an impofition, the
king required, that a civil officer of his appointment
ftiould be prefent in all ecclefiaftical courts, and Ihould
for the future give his confent to every compoiition
made for fpiritual offences. About this time alfo the
king had an opportunity of proceeding again!! the
clergy on another footing. A clerk in Worcefter-
ffiire, having debauched a gentleman’s daughter, mur¬
dered her father. The king required that the clerk
fliould be delivered up to the magiftrate. Becket
pleaded the privileges of the church 3 confined the cri¬
minal in the biffiop’s prifon, left he ihould be feized by
the king’s officers 3 and maintained that no greater
puniflrment could be inflicied on him than degradation.
The king then required, that, immediately after he
was degraded, he Ihould be tried by the civil powers 3
but the primate afferted, that it was iniquitous to try
a man twice upon the fame accufation, and for the fame
crime. Upon this, Henry fummoned an affembly of
all the prelates in England 3 and put to them this de-
cifive queftion, Whether or not they were willing to
fubmit to the ancient laws and cuitoms of the king¬
dom ? The bidrops unanimoufly replied, that they
were willing, faving their own order. The king was-
provoked
ENG ^ [ 77 ] ENG
provoked to the lait degree at this equivocal anfvver.
He left the affembly with evident marks of difpleafure ;
and required the primate inftantly to furrender the
cattles of Eye and Berkham. The other prelates were
terrified j but Becket continued inflexible: however,
he was at lafi: prevailed upon, by the interpofition of
Philip the pope’s legate and almoner, to retraft the
faving claufe, and promife without any referve to ob-
ferve the ancient cufloms.
The king was not now to be fatisfied wnth general
promifes from the clergy : he was determined that
the ancient laws and cuftoms fliould be defined, as
well as the privileges of the clergy. He therefore
fummoned another great council of the clergy and no¬
bility at Clarendon, to whom he fubmitted this im¬
portant affair. A number of regulations was there
drawn up, which were afterwards well known by the
title of the Conjlitutions of Clarendon. By thefe it was
enafted, that clergymen accufed of any crime fliould
be tried in the civil courts j that laymen fliould not be
tried in fpiritual courts, except by legal and reputable
witneffes ; that the king fliould ultimately judge in ec-
clefiaftical and fpiritual appeals 5 that the archbifliops
and bifliops ftiould be regarded as barons, and obliged
to contribute to the public expences like other perfons
of their rank \ that the goods forfeited to the king
fliould not be protected in churches or church-yards by
the clergy 5 and that the fons of villeins fliould not
take orders without the confent of their lord. Thefe,
with fume others of lefs confequence, to the number of
16, were fubfcribed by all the bifliops prefent, and
even by Becket himfelf j who, however, at firft, fliowed
fome reluftance.
Nothing now remained but to get the conftitutions
ratified by the pope j but in this the king was difap-
pointed. The pope rejefted them with the utmoft in¬
dignation ; and, out of 1 6, admitted only fix, which
he thought were not important enough to deferve cen-
fure.—Becket was now mortified to the higheft de¬
gree. He retraced his confent to the conftitutions,
redoubled his aufterities, and even refufed to execute
any part of his facerdotal funftion till he had obtained
abfolution from his holinefs. Henry, confidering thefe
humilities as infults offered to himfelf, defired the pope
to fend him a legate. He did fo 5 but annexed a claufe
to his commiflion, by which he was prohibited from
acting againft the archbiftiop of Canterbury. The king
fent back the commiflion to the pope j and being now
exafperated beyond all patience, commenced furious
profecutions againft Becket. He firft fued him for
fome lands belonging to his primacy ; and Becket be¬
ing detained by ficknefs from coming into court, his
non-attendance was eonftrued into difrefpeft. The
primate afterwards defended his caufe in perfon ; but
all his goods and chattels were confifcated,. and the bi-
fliop of Winchefter was obliged to pronounce the fen-
tence. Another fuit was commenced againft him
for 300k which he had levied on the honours of
Eye and Berkham, and the primate agreed-to give fe~
curities for the payment of the fum. The next day a'
tlnrd fuit was commenced againft him for 1000 marks,
which the king had lent him upon fome former oc-
cafion: and immediately following thefe, a ftill greater
demand was made; namely, that Becket ftiould
give an account of the money he had received and
expended during the time he was chancellor. The England
money was computed at no lefs than 40,000 marks ;1 v J
and the primate, unable either to give an account, or
find fecurities, took the following extraordinary me¬
thod of evading the king’s defigns. He arrayed him¬
felf in his epiicopal veftments ; and with the crofs in
his hand, went forward to the palace. Having en¬
tered the royal apartments, he fat down, holding up
the crofs as his banner and protedtion. The king^
who fat in an inner apartment, ordered by proclama¬
tion all the prelates and nobility to attend him ; to
whom he loudly complained of Becket’s infolence.
The whole council joined in condemning this inftance
of his unaccountable pride ; and determined to expo-
ftulate with him about his inconfiftency concerning
the conftitutions of Clarendon. But all their mef-
fages, threats, and arguments, were in vain. Becket
put himfelf, in the moft folemn manner, under the
proteftion of the fupreme pontiff, and appealed to
him againft any penalty which his iniquitous judges 118
might think proper to inflidl. Then leaving the pa- Becket flies
lace, he alked the king’s immediate permiflion to quitt? t^ie con"'
Northampton ; but being refufed, he fecretly withdrewtment*
in difguife, and at laft found means to crofs over to the
continent.
Becket was received with the greateft marks of e-
fteem, firft by the king of France (who hated Henry
on account of his great power), and then by the pope,
whofe caufe he had fo ftrenuoufly defended in England^
Henry at the fame time fent ambaffadors to the pope,
who were treated with coolnefs and contempt, while
Becket was honoured with the greateft marks of di-
ftinftion. Thefe favours beftowed upon an exile and
a perjured traitor (for fuch had been Becket’s fen-
tence of condemnation in England), irritated the king
to fuch a degree, that he refolved to throw off at once
all dependence upon the pope. He accordingly iffued
out orders to his jufticiaries; inhibiting, under fevers'
penalties, all appeals to the pope or the archbifliop ;
and forbidding any of them to receive mandates from
them, or to apply to their authority. He declared it
treafonable to bring over from either of them any in-
terdift upon the kingdom. This he made punilhable
in fecular clergymen by the lofs of their livings, and
by caftration; in regulars, by the amputation of their
feet; and in laymen, by death. On the other hand;
the pope and the archbilhop did not fail to iffue forth \
their fulminations in fuch a manner as to fhake the '
very foundation of the king’s authority. Becket ex¬
communicated by name all the king’s chief minifters
who had been concerned in fequeftrating the revenues
of his fee, and all who obeyed or favoured the confti¬
tutions of Clarendon. He even threatened to excom-*
municate the king if he did^ not fpeedily repent ; and
had not the pope himfelf been threatened every day
with the machinations of an antipope, whofe pretenfions ;
he was afraid the king of England might fupport, the
fentence of excommunication would certainly have been
denounced.
At firft, Henry paid little regard to thefe fulmina¬
tions ; but afterwards, when he found that his author-
rity over his fubje6ts began to decline on that account,,
and that his rivals on the continent were endeavouring
to difturb the tranquillity of his dominions, he began1
finceiely to defire a reconciliation. This the pope and
Bechet
E' N G
up
Is reftored,
and behaves
with his
former in-
•folence.
England. Becket alfo became defirous of, becaufe tbey faw that
their utmoft endeavours were infufficient to draw Hen¬
ry’s fubjects into a revolt againft him. 1 he treaty of
accommodation, however, was often broken off, through
the extreme jealoufy of each of the parties j but at
length, by the mediation of the pope’s legate, .all dif¬
ferences were adjufted, and Becket was reinftated in
the fee of Canterbury.
On the recovery of his dignity, the primate behaved
all his ufual arrogance. Inftead of retiring
quietly to his diocefe when he landed in England, he
made a progrefs through Kent with all the fplendor
and magnificence of a fovereign pontiff. As he ap¬
proached Southwark, the clergy, the laity, and all
ranks of people, come forth to meet him, and celebra¬
ted his triumphal entry with hymns of joy. Being
thus confident of the fupport of the people, he refol-
ved to make his enemies feel the fevereft effects of his
vengeance. He fufpended the archbifhop of York,
who had crowned Henry’s eldeft fon in his abfence.
He excommunicated the bilhops of London and Salii-
bury, with fome of the principal nobility and pre¬
lates who had affifted at the coronation. One man
he excommunicated for having fpoken again!! him, and
another for having cut off the tail of one of his horfes.
The excommunicated and degraded prelates immedi¬
ately made their complaints to the king ; and he
having dropped fome paffionate expreffions, intimating
a defire to have Becket’s life taken away, the fuppo-
fed will of the king was inflantly accomplifhed 5 nor
could the king’s exprefs orders to the contrary arrive
time enough to hinder the execution of this fatal pur-
120 pofe. See Becket.
Grief of the The king was thrown into the utmoft conflernation
king for his on fieaj-Jng 0f Becket’s murder. He knew that the
primate’s death would accomplifh what his moft vio¬
lent oppofition during his life could never have done,
and therefore he gave himfelf up to forrow : for three
days he even refufed all nourifhment 5 till at laft his
courtiers were obliged to break in upon his folitude,
and induce him to acquiefce in an event which could
not pofhbly be recalled. The pope was with fome
difficulty made fenfible of the king’s innocence ; but
refufed to grant him a pardon, except on condition
that he fliould make every future fubmiflion and per¬
form every in]un£lion the holy fee thought proper to
demand. When things were thus adjufled, the affaf-
fins who had murdered Becket were allowed to retire
in fafety to the enjoyment of their former dignities •,
and the king, with a view to divert the minds of the
people to a different objeft, undertook an expedition
into Ireland, and totally reduced that ifland. See Ire-
rai LAND.
Difl'enfions The king was fcarcely freed from the war with Ire-
in Henry's land, and the dangerous controverfy in which he had
family. engaged with the church of Rome, when he found
himfelf involved in the moil unnatural contefls with his
children, to whom he had always behaved in the moft
tender and affedtionate manner. He had ordered
Henry his eldei! fon to be anointed king j and had
deftined him for his fucceffor in the kingdom of Eng¬
land, the duchy of Normandy, and the counties of
Anjou, Maine, and Touraine ; territories which lay
contiguous, and which might thus eafily lend their
aiTiibince to one another. Richard his fecond fon
[ 78 1
ENG
was invefted in the duchy of Guienne and county of England.
Poidlou : Geoffrey, his third fon, inherited, in right J
of his wife, the duchy of Britanny : and the new con-
quefl of Ireland was deflined for the appendage of
John his fourth fon, for whom he had negociated a
marriage with Adelais the only daughter of Humbert
count of Savoy and Maurienne *, and with whom he
was to receive as a dowry very confiderable demefnes
in Piedmont, Savoy, Breffe, and Dauphiny. This
greatnefs of Henry’s family alarmed the king of
France j and he therefore excited young Prince Henry
to demand of his father, either the immediate refigna-
tion of the crown of England, or the duchy of Nor¬
mandy. The king refufed to comply with fuch an ex¬
travagant demand *, upon which the prince made his
efcape to Paris, where he was protefted by the French
king. This happened in 1173 } and the fame year,
Queen Eleanor, finding that ihe was now grown very
difagreeable to the king, communicated her difeontent
to her two younger children Geoffrey and Richard,
whom fhe engaged alfo to demand the territories af-
figned them, and then fly to the court of France. The I2a
queen herfelf was meditating an efcape to the fame Queen E-
court, and had put on man’s apparel for that purpofe,leaner con™
when fire was feized and confined by Henry’s order. fineck
The licentious barons in the mean time wifhed for a
change of government •, hoping to have liberty, under
young and inexperienced princes, to commit thofe ra¬
pines and violences which they could not do with fafety
when governed by fuch a prudent and vigilant king
as Henry. In the midi! of this univerfal defeftion,
however, the Englifh monarch ffill retained his ufual
intrepidity, and prepared with as much vigour as pof-
fible for the contell. As he could depend on the fi¬
delity of very few of his nobility, he was obliged to
enlift in his fervice a number of defperate ruffians call¬
ed Brabenfons, and fometimes Routiers or Cottereaux,
though for what reafon is not mentioned in hilfory.
Thefe banditti were very numerous during the times
of the feudal government, when many private wars
were carried on between the nobles ; and 20,000 of
thefe, with a few forces furnifhed by his faithful ba¬
rons, compofed the whole of Henry’s army on this oc-
cafion.
With this force the king of England totally over¬
threw the fchemes of his enemies on the continent;
but being very defirous of putting an end to the war,
he this very year (1173) agreed to a conference with
the king of France. At this interview, Henry offer¬
ed his children the moil advantageous terms. He in-
fifted only on retaining the fovereign authority in all
his dominions. To Henry he offered half the revenues
of the crown of England, with fome places of furety
in that kingdom 5 or if he chofe rather to refide in Nor¬
mandy, half the revenues of that duchy, with all thofe
of Anjou. He made a like offer to Richard in Gui¬
enne 5 he promifed to refign all Britanny to Geoffrey j
and if thefe conceffions were not deemed fufficient, he
agreed to add to them whatever the pope’s legates, who
were prefent, fhould require of him. The conference,
however, was broken off by the violence of the earl of
Leiceller j who not only reproached Henry in the moft
indecent manner, but even put his hand to his fword,
as if he intended to attempt fome violence againft
him.
In
ENG
123
King of
Scotland
defeated
and taken
pnfoner.
England. In the mean time, the moil of the Englifh nobility
^ united in oppolition againft their fovereign j and an ir¬
ruption at this time by the king of Scotland afiiiled
tbeir rebellious fchemes. The earl of Leicelter Toon
after invaded Suffolk at the head of a body of Fle¬
mings ; but they were repulfed with great daughter
and the earl himfelf was taken prifoner. Soon after,
William king of Scotland, who had been repulfed,
and agreed to a ceffation of arms, broke the truce,
and invaded England with an army of 80,000 men,
committing the moft terrible devaftations. Henry in
the mean time, to reconcile himfelf thoroughly to the
church, performed the penances at the tomb of Tho¬
mas a JBecket which he had formerly promifed to do.
As foon as he came within light of the church of Can¬
terbury, he alighted from his horfe, wnlked barefoot
towards the town, and proftrated himfelf before the
Ihrine of the faint. He remained a whole day in prayer
and falling, watched the holy relics all night, made a
grant of 50I. a-year to the convent for a conftant fup-
pty of tapers to illuminate the Ihrine ; and not fatis-
fied with thefe lubmiflions, he affembled a chapter of
monks, difrobed himfelf before them, put a fcourge
into each of their hands, and prefented his bare {boul¬
ders to their ftrokes. Next day he received abfolu-
tion ; and, departing for London, had the agreeable
news of the defeat and captivity of William king of
Scotland, wdiich happened on the very day of his ab-
folution.
1 his viflory proved decilive in Henry’s favour. The
Engdlh barons who had revolted, or were preparing
for a revolt, inllantly delivered up their caftles to the
victor, and the kingdom was in a few weeks reftored
to perfect tranquillity. Prince Plenry, who was ready
to embark with a great array to join the Englifh rebels,
abandoned all thoughts of the enterprife. Soon after
a treaty was concluded with the king of France 5 in
which Plenry granted his children much lefs advan¬
tageous terms than he had offered them before. The
principal were, fome penlions for their fupport, caftles
for their relidence, and an indemnity to all their ad-
124 herents. P'he greateft fufferer by this war was Wil-
Owns him- i;am king of Scotland. He was compelled to fign a
vafiaJ.enr^ S *reaty» by which he obliged himfelf to do homage to
Pienry for the kingdom of Scotland. It was agreed,
that his barons and bifhops Ihould do the fame*; and
that the fortreffes of Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick,
Roxburgh, and Jedburgh, Ihould be delivered into
the hands of the conqueror till the articles wTere per¬
formed. Phis treaty wras executed moft punbiually
and rigoroufly on the 10th of Auguft 1175. The
king, barons, and prelates of Scotland, did homage
to Henry in the cathedral of York *, the greateft hu¬
miliation to which the Sccttilh nation had ever been
T2- fubjefled.
New diffen- Henry was now freed from all troubles, either at
Hen U’ k°me or abroad, for live years j during w'hich time he
xnily*/ S ' taade feveral falutary laws for the good of his king¬
dom. But, in 1180, the ambitious fpirits of his chil¬
dren involved him in frelh calamities. Richard, who
had been in veiled by his father with the fovereignty of
Guienne, refufed to do homage to his elder brother,
as King Henry had required him to do. Young Henry
and Geoffrey, uniting their arms, invaded their bro¬
ther’s dominions j and while the king was endeavour-
1 79 J
ENG
mg to compofe their differences, he found himfelf cbn-
fpired againft by them all. The confpiracy, howTever,
was defeated by the death of Prince Henry in 1183.
Pie had retired to Martel, a caftle near Turenne, where
he was feized with a fever ; and perceiving the ap¬
proaches of death, he was at laft ftruck with remorfe
for his undutiful behaviour towards his father. He
fent a meflenger to the king, who was not far diftant j
expieffed his contrition for his faults ; and intreated
the favour of a viiit, that he might at lead die with the
fatisrachon of having received his forgivenefs. The
king, who had fo often experienced his foil’s ingrati¬
tude and violence, apprehended that his licknefs wras
entirely a feint, and dared not trull himfelf in the
prince’s hands. But foon after, receiving certain in¬
telligence of his death, and proofs of hfs lincere re¬
pentance, the good old king wras affedled with the
deepeft forrown He thrice fainted away 5 he accufed
his own hard-heartednefs in refuling the dying requeft.
of his fon 5 and he lamented that he had deprived the
prince of the laft opportunity of making atonement for
his offences.
Prince Henry, who died in the 28th year of his age,
left no porterity. His brother Richard fucceeded^to
his dominions, and foon difcovered as turbulent a fpirit
as that which had abluated his brother. He refufed
to give up Guienne, which Henry had defigned for his
fourth fon John; and even made preparations for car¬
rying on war againft his father, and brother Geoffrey.
Henry fent for Eleanor his queen, the heirefs of Gui-
enne ; to whom Richard, either dreading an infurrec-
tion in her favour, or out of a fenfe of duty, willingly
yielded up the territory, and retired peaceably to his
father’s court. I his breach, however, wras no fooner
made up, than Geoffrey demanded Anjou to be added
to his dominions in"Britanny. This the king refufed ;
upon which he fled to the court of France, and pre¬
pared to levy an army againll his father, Henry, how¬
ever, wras freed from the danger which threatened him
from that quarter, by Jiis Ion’s death, who was killed
in a tournament at Paris. The lofs of this prince gave
few, except the king himfelf, any uneafinefs ; for he
was univerfally hated, and wrent among the people by
the name of the CAM of Perdition. ° The widow of
Geoffrey, foon after his deceafe, was delivered of a
fon, wdio received the name of Arthur, and was inveft-
ed in the duchy of Britanny, under the guardianfhip of
his grandfather, wTho, as duke of Normandy, was alfo
fuperior lord of that territory. Philip, as lord para¬
mount, difputed for fome time his title to this ward-
ftiip ; but was obliged to yield to the inclinations of
the Bretons, who preferred the government of Henry.
Some other caufes inflamed the diffenffon between thefe
two monarchs, and Philip once more feduced Richard
from his duty. He infilled, that his marriage with ■
Adelais, Philip’s lifter, Ihould be immediately com¬
pleted, and threatened to enforce his pretenlions with
a formidable army. This occalioned another confe¬
rence between Gifors and Trie, the ufual place of
meeting, under a vaft elm that is faid to have lhadeci
moie than an acre. In the midft of this conference
the archbilhop of lyre appeared before the affembly
in the moft miferable habit, and begged afliftance a-
gainft the infidels, who, under Saladin, had almoft to¬
tally expelled the Cluiftians from Alia, His intelli¬
gence
ENG
England, gcnce appeared fo very difmal, that the kings of France
1 — v and England laid alxde their animofity. Both of them
immediately took the crofs ; but Richard, who had
long wilhed to have all the glory of fuch an expedition
to himfelf, could not bear to have even his father for
a partner in his victories. He therefore entered into
a confederacy with the king of France j fo that Henry
found himfelf at laft obliged to give up all thoughts of
the crufade, in order to defend himfelf againft this un¬
natural combination. The event of the war proved
very unfortunate for Henry, wrho loft feveral towns, and
narrowly efcaped falling into the hands of the enemy
himfelf. At laft a treaty was concluded at the inter-
ceffion of the duke of Burgundy, the count of Flan¬
ders, and the archbilhop of Rheims ; but upon terms
very humiliating to the king of England. It was
agreed that Richard Ihould marry the princefs Adelais,
and be crowned king of England during the lifetime
of his father $ that Henry, ftiould pay 20,000 marks to
the king of France, as a compenfation for the charges
of the war $ that his own barons Ihould engage to
make him obferve this treaty, and in cafe of violating
it, to join Philip and Richard againft him *, and that
126 all his vaflals who had efpoufed the caufe of Richard
His ex- ftiould receive an indemnity for their offence. Thefe
anoUl terms, mortifying as they were, Henry bore with pa¬
tience j but when, upon receiving a lift of the barons
that were to be pardoned, he found his own fon John,
who was his favourite, among them, he could no longer
fupport his grief. He broke out into the moft la¬
mentable expreffions of defpair j curfed the day in
which he received his miferable being ; and beftowed
on his ungrateful children a malediction which he
could never afterwards be prevailed upon to retraft.
Soon after, he fell into a lingering fever occaftoned by
his grief ^ and of this he died on the 6th of July 1189,
in the 5$th year of his age and 35th of his reign. His
natural fon Geoffrey, who alone had behaved dutifully
towards him, attended his corpfe to the nunnery of
Fontevrault, where it lay in ftate in the abbey-church.
Next day Richard, who came to vilit the dead body of
his father, was ftruck with horror at the fight. At his
approach, the blood was feen to gufh out at the mouth
and noftrils of the corpfe 5 and this accident was, by
the fuperftition of the times, interpreted as the moft
dreadful rebuke. Richard could not endure the fight.
He exclaimed that he was his father’s murderer •, and
expreffed a ftrong, though too late, fenfe of his unduti-
,127 tiful conduft.
Richar I. Richard fucceeded to the throne without oppofi-
tion immediately after his father’s death •, and, on his
acceffion, fet his mother Eleanor (who had been again
confined) at liberty. A romantic defire for ftrange
adventures, and an immoderate zeal for the external
rites of religion, were the ruling paflions of the times.
By the firft of thefe Richard wTas inflamed to the
higheft degree, and therefore behaved as if the whole
delign of his government had been to attempt the
recovery of the Holy Land from the Infidels. The
fuperftition of the people Ihowed itfelf in a moft vio-
I2$ lent and tragical manner on the very day of the king’s
Maffacre of coronation. The Jews were the objects of universal
the Jews, hatred, fo that Richard had iffued out orders forbid¬
ding any of them from appearing at his coronation.
But fonje of them bringing him large prefents from
ENG
their nation, prefumed, notwithftanding thefe orders, England,
to approach the hall in which the king dined. Being —v~-—
difcovered, they wTere expofed to the infults and inju¬
ries of the byftanders 5 in confequence of wdiich they
fled, and wTere purfued by the people. A report was
fpread, that the king had given orders to maflacre all
the Jews. This fuppofed command was executed in
the moft cruel manner. Multitudes were flaughtered
in the city of London •, and this example was followed
in moft of the cities in England. Five hundred Jews
had retired into York caftle for fafety : but finding
themfelyes unable to defend the place, they murdered
their wives and children ; threw the dead bodies over
the wall againft their enemies wTho attempted to fcale
it •, and then, fetting fire to the houfes, periihed in the
flames. The gentry in the neighbourhood, who were
all indebted to the Jews, ran to the cathedral where
their bonds were kept, and made a folemn bonfire of
them before the altar. 12g
Richard immediately began to take meafures for his Richard’s
expedition into Paleftine. His father had left himprepar*-
100,000 marks j and this fum he augmented by all ex-!lons ior k18
pedients he could think of, however pernicious to the^1^^^
public, or dangerous to the royal authority. He fet
up to fale the revenues and manors of the crown, and
feveral offices of the greateft truft and power. Liber¬
ties, charters, caftles, were given to the beft bidders.
His friends warned him of the danger attending this
venality 5 but he told them he would fell the city of
London itfelf, if he could find a purchafer. Nume¬
rous exactions were alfo pratftifed upon all ranks and
ftations j menaces, promifes, and expoftulations, were
ufed to fright the timid, and allure the avaricious. A
zealous preacher of thofe times was emboldened to re-
monftrate againft the king’s conduct; and advifed him
to part with his three daughters, which were pride,
avarice, and fenfuality. To this Richard readily re¬
plied, “ You counfel right, my friend •, and I have al¬
ready provided hufhands for them all. I will difpofe of
my pride to the templars j my avarice to the monks £
and as for my fenfuality, the clergy Ihall lhare that
among them.” At length the king having got toge¬
ther a fufticient fupply for his undertaking, and
even fold his fuperiority over Scotland for a mode¬
rate fum, let out for the Holy Land; wdiither he
wras impelled by repeated meffages from the king of
France, who was ready to embark in the fame enter-
prife.
An account of Richard’s exploits in this expedition
is given under the articles Egypt, Sicily, Cyprus,
&c.—Having at laft concluded a truce with Saladin,
he fet out on his return for England. He w7as, howT-
ever, at a lofs how to proceed. He durft not return
by the way he came, as this would put him in the
power of the king of France, between whom and the
king of England an irreconcilable enmity had taken
place. No way therefore was left but by going more
to the north j for which reafon he took (hipping for
Italy, but was wrecked near Aquileia, From thence
he travelled towards Ragufa, and refolved to make his
wTay through Germany in the habit of a pilgrim. But
his expences|and liberalities having betrayed him, not- foner on hi£
withftanding this difguife, he was arrefted by Leopold return.
duke of Auftria, wdio commanded him to be loaded
with (hackles. This prince had ferved under Richard
at
[ 80 1
ENG [ S
Kfigknd. itt tlie fiege of Acre (the ancieht Ptoleittais), where
l'L'' v having received fome difguft, he took this bafe me¬
thod of revenging himfelf. Henry VL emperor of
Germany, was then equally an enemy to Richard on
account of his having married Berengaria the daughter
iflf Tancred king of Sicily. He therefore required the
royal captive to be delivered up to him, and ftipulated
a large fum of money to the duke as a reward for his
fervice.
The kingdom of England in the mean time was in
great confufion. Richard had left it under the direc¬
tion of Hugh biihop of Durham, and Longchamp bi-
fliop of Ely. The tempers of thefe prelates being
very different, an animofity between them foon took
place. Longchamp at lalt arrefted his colleague, and
obliged him to refign his power in order to obtain his
liberty. The king, by many letters, commanded
Longchamp to replace his coadjutor, but to no pur-
pofe. When the lituation of the king became uncer¬
tain, Longchamp tyrannized to fuch a degree, that
John the king’s brother thought propef to oppofe
him. He then left the kingdom and upon this the
archbifhop of Rouen was made judiciary in his room.
The king of France being informed of thefe diffenfions,
drove to increafe them as much as podible; and had even
almod prevailed upon John to throw off his allegiance,
by promifing to put him in polfedion of all Richard’s
531 continental dominionsi.
Treachery When the Englifh fird received the news of Ri-
ki/^sbro^ chard’s captivity, a general indignation was excited
5her.5 ° through the whole nation* The greated, and almod
the only traitor in the kingdom, was the king’s own
brother John. On the very fird invitation from the
court of France, he went abroad, and held a conful-
tation with Philip, the objeft of which was the perpe¬
tual ruin and captivity of his unhappy brother. He
promiled to deliver into Philip’s hands a great part of
Normandy •, and, in return, he received the invedi-
ture of all Richard’s tranfmarine dominions : it is even
faid, that he did homage to the French king for the
erown of England.
In confequence of this treaty, Philip invaded Nor¬
mandy, and made condderable progrefs in the conqued
of it. He was, however, at lad repulfed by the earl
of Leiceder, who wras now7 returned from the Holy
Land ; and a truce w7as concluded, on condition of pay¬
ing the French king 20,000 merks, and putting four
eadies into his hands by way of fecurity for the pay-
ment.<—John, who had come over to England, met
with dill lefs fuccefs in his enterprifes. He was only
able to make himfelf mader of the cadles of Windlor
and Wallingford ; but when he came to London, and
demanded the kingdom as heir to this brother, of whofe
death he pretended to have received certain intelli¬
gence, he was rejefted by all the barons, and meafures
Vrere taken to oppofe and fubdue him. The defence
of the kingdom wras fo wTell provided for, that John
after fome fruitlefs efforts, was obliged to conclude a
trace with his opponents; and, before the expiration
of it, he thought proper to retire to France, where he
openly acknowledged his alliance with Philip.
All the efforts of Richard’s enemies proved ineffec¬
tual to detain him in captivity. He w7as brought be¬
fore the diet of the empire at Worms, where the em¬
peror Henry brought againlt him a charge of many
^OL. VIIL Part I.
1 ] ENG
crimes and mifd^meanours : but to this the king replied England,
with fo much fpirit and eloquence, that the German "» ~ *
princes exclaimed loudly againft the conduft of the
emperor j the pope threatened him wdth excommuni¬
cation $ and Henry, who had hearkened to the propo-
fals of the king of France and Prince John, found that
it would be impoflible for him to execute his and thefr
bafe purpofes, and detain the king of England any
longer in captivity. He therefore concluded a treaty
with him for his ranfom j and agreed to rel tore him to
his liberty for 150,000 merks, about 100,00ol. of
our money, of which 100,000 merks wxre to be paid
immediately, and 67 hoitages delivered for the re¬
mainder.
The money for the king’s ranfom w7as moft cheer- Richard re-
folly railed by the Englilh. The churches and mona-*eafe<* .Iron^
fteries melted down their plate to the amount 0fcaPuvlty*
30,000 merks 5 the bilhops, abbots, and monks, paid,
a fourth part of their yearly rent $ the parochial clergy
contributed a tenth part of their tythes •, and the requi-
fite fum being thus collected, Queen Eleanor and Wal¬
ter archbilhop of Rouen fet out with it for Germa¬
ny, paid the money to the emperor and duke of Au«
Itria at Mentz, delivered them hollages for the re¬
mainder, and freed Richard from his captivity. His
efoape wras very critical. Henry had been dete&ed in
the affaffination of the bilhop of Liege, and in an at¬
tempt of the like nature on the duke of Louvaine $
and finding himfelf extremely obnoxious to the Ger¬
man princes on account of thefe odious pradHces, he
had determined to feek fupport from an alliance wdth
the French king, and to detain Richard in perpetual
captivity, notwithftanding the fum he had already re¬
ceived for his ranfom. He therefore gave orders that
Richard fhould be purfued and arrelted ; but the
king making all imaginable halle, had already em¬
barked at the mouth of the Scheldt, and was out of
fight of land when the emperor’s meffengers reached
Antwerp, The king of France no fooner heard of
Richard’s deliverance, than he wrote to John his con¬
federate in thefe terms t “ Take care of yourfelf: the
devil is broke loofe.”
The king of England returned from captivity on Returns
the 20th of March 1194, and was received with the England.
utmoil joy by his fubjetls. He had been but one day
landed, when his treacherous brother John came to
make his fubmiflion. At the interceflion of Queen E-
leanor he was received into favour. “ I forgive him
(faid the king), and hope I fhall as eafily forget his
offences as he will my pardon.” Richard was impa¬
tient to revenge himfelf on the king of France, and
therefore inflantly made w7ar upon him. But though
both kings were inflamed with the moft violent refent-
ment againft each other, they found it impoflible to
engage their powerful barons heartily in their caufe.
The war, therefore, produced no remarkable event j
and, in H95, was concluded by a truce for five years.
On fome flight occalion it was ready to break out a-
new, when the pope’s legate interpofed, and a treaty
was about to be concluded. King Richard in the
mean time was wounded by an arrow at the liege of
Chalus, a caftle of Limoges. The wound was not i* His deatfc,
itfelf dangerous j but being unfkilfully treated, a mor¬
tification enfued, and the king expired on the 6th of
April 1199, in the 10th year of his reign and 42d of
L his
1^6
His bad
qualities.
ENG [ S
England, his age. By his will he left the kingdom to his bro-
v ther John, but diftributed a fourth part oi his treafure
135 among his fervants.
John luc- John fucceeded to the crown of England without
ceeds to the 0pp0fiti0n, but foon found his affairs embarraffed on
the continent. The king of France, who, during the
life of King Richard, had always lupported the pre-
tenlions of Johm, now gave a like fupport to the claims
of Prince Arthur the Ion ol Geoffrey, "who, though
only 12 years of age, promifed to be deferving of the
kingdom. But in this matter the king of France fhow-
ed fo much regard to his own interdi, that Conitantia,
the mother of the young prince, thinking that her
ally designed to keep for himfelf the provinces which
'he pretended to conquer for Arthur, fubmitted herfelf
and her fon to John, who detained them in Mans ;
and thus became undifputed mafter of the whole em¬
pire.
The new king was weak., tyrannical, cruel, and
treacherous. In Ihort, he feemed to be endowed with
almoft every bad quality that can fall to the (hare of
man. His condud, therefore, foon rendered him uni-
verfally odious. Imagining himfelf now fecure on the
lide of France, he indulged his paffion for Ifabella,
the daughter and heirefs of the count of Angouleme,
with whom he was much enamoured. His queen, the
heirefs of the family of Gloucefter, was Hill alive ; and
Ifabella was married to the count dela Marche, though,
by reafon of her youth, the marriage had not been con-
fummated. John perxiiaded the count de Angouleme
to carry off his daughter from her hufband 5 at the
lame time that he procured, under fome pretence or
ether, a divorce from the queen. Thus he incurred
the difpleafure of the pope, and alfo of the count de
la Marche, and a powerful confederacy was formed a-
gainft him.
As John had neither courage nor policy fufficient to
keep his barons in awe, he took a method for that
purpofe equally bafe and cruel. This was by hiring
a fet of ruffians, whom he called his champions, to fight
duels with them, in cafes where they required to clear
themfelves from any charge by fighting a duel, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of thofe times. Thus he propo-
fed to get rid of his refradlory barons ; but they, de-
fpifing opponents who were fo far below their rank,
refufed to fight with them, and a dangerous combination
wras formed among the barons again!! him.
The murder of Prince Arthur rendered John ftill
more generally detefted. The young prince wdth his
mother had fled to the court of France, where they were
received with the greateft kindnefs, and found their in-
terefts m me vigoroufly fupported than before. Their
enterprifes w’ere attended with confiderable fuccefs,
when Arthur himfelf had the misfortune to be taken
prifoner. All the other captives were fent to England j
but the prince was ffiut up in the caftle of Falaiie, and
from that time was never heard of. It wras univerfally
believed that John had murdered him with his own
hand y and this inflamed the general refentment again!!
him to fuch a degree, that he foon after loll all his
French provinces. In 1 205, the duchy of Normandy
itfelf wms alfo conquered by Philip, and John wTas for¬
ced to fly with difgrace to England.
The king wTas refolved to wreak his vengeance upon
ihe barons, who, he pretended, had deferted his ftand-
H7 .
Murders his
nephew.
2 ] ENG
ard in Normandy. For this reafon, he levied large England,
fums on their ellates ; in order, as he laid, to under- ——v—
take an expedition to the continent. This expedition,
however, he feveral times capricioufly deferred 5 and
once having ventured out to fea, returned again with¬
out making the fmallelf attempt. At lall, he landed
at Rochelle, and burnt the city of Angiers *, but hear¬
ing that the enemy were preparing to oppofe him, he
returned wdthout attempting any thing el!e.
This irrefolute and cowardly behaviour of John made
him contemptible in the eyes of his liibjefts ; but the
Norman princes had fo far extended the prerogatives
of the Englifli crown, that the barons, however difeon-
tented, durft not yet attempt to change the form of go- j-g
vernment. John, by entering into a controverfy with H:s conteft
the church, completed his ruin. The clergy, who for w‘ffi the
fome time had adled as a community totally indepen-P0^*
dent of the civil power, had their eleftions of each
other generally confirmed by the pope, to whom alone
they owned fubjedlion. The election of aichfriffiops,
however, had been a fubjedl of continual difpute be¬
tween the fuffragan bilhops and the Auguffine monks.
In the mean time the archbifliop of Canterbury died 5
and the Auguftine monks, in a very private manner,
eledled Reginald, their fuperior, in his place. The
bifhops exclaimed again!! this election, as a manifell
innovation of their privileges ; and a furious theologi¬
cal conteft w’as likely to enfue. John very imprudently
took a fide in this controverfy, and efpoufed the caule
of the fuffragan biffiops; in confequence of which,
John de Grey biflrop of Norwich was chofen. The
caufe was appealed to Rome ; and Pope Innocent III.
feizing with avidity an opportunity of extending his
power, commanded the monks to choofe Cardinal
Stephen Langton, an Engliffiman, then at the court of
Rome. The power of nominating an archbiffiop of
Canterbury (a perfon of almoft equal authority with
the king), was an acquilition that would effectually
give the court offRome an unlimited authority over
England. John therefore was refolved not to fubmit
to this impofition j but he had not judgment fufficient
to conduC! him. He violently expelled the monks from
their conyent, and feized upon their revenues. The
pope perceiving, from this abfurd conduCt, that John
wTas unequal to the talk he had undertaken, after fome
intreaties, threatened to put the whole kingdom under
an interdiCf. The prelates threw themfelves on their
knees before the king, and in the moft earneft manner
intreated him to avoid the refentment of the holy tri¬
bunal, by receiving the primate, and reftoring the
monks to their convent. John, however, broke out
into the moft violent inveclives. He fwore by God's
teeth (his ufual oath), that if the kingdom was put un¬
der an interdid, he would baniffi the whole body of
the clergy, and confifcate all their pofleffions. The
pope at laft, finding he might do it with fafety, iffued
forth this terrible fentence, fo much dreaded by the
whole nation. A ftop was immediately put to divine
fervice, and the adminiftration of all the facraments The kmrr.
except baptifm. The church-doors were ftiut, and dom laid
the images of the faints laid on the ground. The under an
dead were refufed Chriftian burial j and were thrown’nterc*^
into ditches and on the highways, without any fune¬
ral folemnity. Marriage was celebrated in the church¬
yards, and the people prohibited the ufe of meat as
in
140
The king
excommu
ENG [
England.^ m times o£ public penance. They were debarred from
all pleafure j even from (having their beards, faluting
each other, or paying any regard to their apparel. The
clergy deplored the unhappy Hate of the nation in the
molt lamentable manner ^ while John, in revenge, im-
prifoned all their concubines, and treated the adherents
of Langton with the utmolt rigour.
The furious and imprudent efforts of John proved
i totally ineffectual. He had fcarce a friend left in the
seated, and whole nation; and therefore, in 1209, the pope de-
dom given ^U.ncec* ^ ^entence of excommunication againft him.
to Philip of This was foon followed by another ftill more terrible ;
France. namely, the abfolving all the fubjeCts of the king of
England from their allegiance, and declaring every one
to be excommunicated who had any commerce with
him at his table, council, or even in private converfa-
tion. I he king, rendered quite furious by thefe re¬
peated indignities, wreaked his vengeance on his un-
happy fubjefts, whofe affeClions he ought rather to have
attempted to conciliate. The pope, therefore, pro¬
ceeded to execute the full meafure of his wrath on this
devoted prince, by giving away his kingdom to Philip
of France. He publilhed a crufade all over Europe
againft King John ; exhorting the nobility, the knights
and men of every condition, to take up arms againft
him, and enlift under the French banner. Philip was
not lefs adlive on his part. He fnmmoned all the vaf-
fals of the crown to attend him at Rouen; and having
pollethed a fleet of 1700 veffels, wTas ready, in 1213, to
invade England.
Ihe pope had now overftretched his power; and
iad the Englifh nation been governed by a prince of
any degree of prudence or refolution, the powTer of the
clergy would in all probability have been totally bro-
•.en. . ft he people, however fuperftitious and ready to
obey in matters of religion, could not tamely fubmit
8S ] ENG
expiate my fins, from my own free will, and the advice England;
of my barons, give to the church of Rome, to Pope In- ' v 
nocent and his fucceffors, the kingdom of England,
and all other prerogatives of my crown. I will here-
after hold them as the pope’s vaifal. I will be faithful
to God, to the church of Rome, to the pope my majler,
and his fucceffbrs legitimately elefted. I promife to
pay him a tribute of 1000 merks; to wit, 700 for the
kingdom of England, and 300 for the kingdom of
Ireland.”
This oath w'as taken by the king before all the peo¬
ple, kneeling, and with his hands held up between
thofe of the legate. Having then agreed to reinftate
Eangton in the primacy, he received the crown which
he had been fuppofed to have forfeited ; while the le¬
gate, to add to his former infolence, trampled under his
feet the tribute which John had confented to pay.—
ft he king of France was enraged at this behaviour of
the pope ; and refolved to execute his projedl of con¬
quering England, in fpite of him and alt his cenfures.
His fleet, however, was attacked in their harbours by
the Englifh, who took ^300 veflels, and deftroyed about
100 more; while Philip, finding it impoftible to pre¬
vent the reft from falling into the hands of the enemy,
fet fire to them himfelf, and thus was obliged to give
up all hopes of fuccefs. r
f J°^n thus freed from all danger, continued to The "barons
loiiow. the fame cruel and tyrannical meafures which attemPt to
had hitherto rendered him odious to his fubje&s. EIisreduce the
“°US fubJeftiori t.0 the clergy now gave the ba-^ofthe
rons an opportunity of exerting themfelves, in order to crown
reduce the enormous prerogatives of the crown. Their
defigns were greatly facilitated by the concurrence of
Eangton the primate, who on all occafions fhowed a
imeere regard for the interefts of the kingdom. At a
noShfandln™!! ^
ft the head of an amy of 60,000 naen. Bn, ,he pope then, a copy of hly .hV M-fchS;
on!y one m the kingdom, and which had been buried in
the rubbifk of an obfeure monaftery). Langton exhorted
the barons to mfift on a renewal of it; and this they
iolemnly fwore to perform. The fame agreement was
afterwards renewed at a more numerous meeting of ba-
was too great a politician to fuffer matters to be ear¬
ned to extremities. He promifed himfelf many mor-
advantages from the fubmiilion of John than from an
alliance with Philip; and therefore came over in per-
ion, or, according to fome, fent over his legate, to
England, under pretence of conferring with the ba¬
rons, but in reality to hold a conference with John.
He there reprefented to this forlorn prince, the num¬
bers of the enemy, the hatred of his own fubjedfs, and
the fee ret confederacy there was againft him in Eng-
(.an ’ frfr frtimated, that there was but one way to
iecure him from the impending danger; namely to put
himfelf under the protoaion of the pope, who was a
meiciful father, and flill willing to receive a repenting
nnner. J he abjed and irrefolute fpirit of John fub-
mitted to this laft piece of arrogance, and he took an
oath to obey whatever the pope fhould command. In
confequence of this oath, he took another, the moft ex-
traordmary mentioned in the records of hiftory; ‘ and
Tr-knEV h r aS lt: WaS ta^en wbile he commanded an army
h,iffion to ^ 6°:,0:00 mrT’ Covers a meannefs of fpirit almoft
incredible. 1 he terms impofed by it were expreffed
m the following words. “ I John, by the grace of
God king of England and lord of Ireland, in order to
141
the pope.
rons fummoned by Langton at St Edmonfhury. Here
it was refolved, that at Chriftmas they fhould prefer
their common petition in a body, and in the mean time
they feparated with a defign to put themfelves in a po-
hure of defence, enlift men, and fortify their caftles.
In the beginning of January 1215, they repaired to
-London, accoutred in their military garb and e-u:-
page and prefented their petition to the king, allegin',-
that he had promifed to grant a confirmation of the
:;n™ Gt. Edward the Confeffor, at the time he was
abloived from his excommunication. John refented
t eir prefumption; and required a promife under their
hands and feals, that they would never demand, or at¬
tempt to extort, fuch privileges for the future.’ This
they refufed with fuch unanimity and refolution, that
the king defired time to confider of their demands.
He promifed, that, at the feftival of Eafter, he would
give a pofitive anfwer to their petition; and offered
them the'* archbifhop of Canterbury, the biftiop of
I- 2 Ely,
England.
fiNG E *+ l E N G,
Ely, and tire earl marefchal, as fureties for fulfilling his to excommunicate a fingle baron. The king, being England,.
engao-ements. * now quite defencelefs, was obliged at laft to comply v "
The barons accepted of his fecurities, and departed with the demands of his fubjects. A conference was
peaceably ; but John had no defign of complying with accordingly appointed, and all things were adjuiled for
their defires. He had recourfe to the clergy, whofe this moft important treaty. *43
power he had feen and felt in fo many inftances. He The king’s commifiioners met the barons at a place
aourted their favour, by granting them a charter efta- called Runimede, between Staines and Windfor j and ‘&l%
blilhino- all thofe rights of which they were already in which is yet held in reverence as the fpot where the chaita.
♦he poffeffion, and which he now pretended to confirm flandard of freedom was firft erecled in England. Here
when he not the liberty to refnfe. To ingratiate the king figned the charter called Magna. Charta :
himfelf ftill farther with this body, he took the crofs, which continues in force to this day, and is if ill re-
and appealed to the pope againft the ufurpation of the gnrded as the great bulwark of Britifh liberty. See
barons. The pope v/rote letters to England, reproach- AUgva Charta. 144
ing the primate and bifhops with favouring thefe diffen- This charter, however, at the time that it was made, Poncipal
lions; and commanded them to promote peace between fecured liberty to the clergy, barons, and gentlemen, r*tlc ^ 0
the two parties. He exhorted the barons to conciliate much more than to the bulk of the people, who did
the king, not with menaces, but with humble intreaties; not for a long time obtain any privileges of import-
and promifed, upon their obedience, to interpofe his ance. Freedom of eleftions was fecured to the clergy *r
own authority in favour of fuch of their petitions as he and it was determined, that fines on them for any of-
Ihould find to be juft. At the fame time, he annulled fence ftiould be laid on in proportion to their eftates,
their affociation, and forbade them to enter into any and not the value of their benefices. Ihe privileges-
confederacy for the future. fecured to the barons were, either abatements in the
The barons paid no regard to the pope’s remon- rigour of the feudal laws, or relief from arbitrary and
ftrances; knowing that the fulminations of the court ambiguous decifions before the courts. It was alio
of Rome would be of little avail, unlefs they were fe- decreed, that barons fliould recover the lanas of their
eonded by the clergy of England. After waiting till vaffals, even though forfeited by felony, after having
Eaiter, when the king promifed to return them an been in the poffeflion of the crown for a year and a
anfwer, they met by agreement at Stamford. There day ; and no tax was to be impofed without confent
they alfembled a force of above 2000 knights, and a of the great council of the nation, excepting in cafe
prodigious number of foot. Thence they marched to of the captivity of the king, the knighting of his el-
Brackley, about 15 miles from Oxford, the place where deft fon, or marrying his eldeft daughter. No land
the court then relided. John, ' hearing of their ap- belonging to any baron was to be feized for a crown.
proach, fent the archbiftiop of Canterbury, the earl of debt, unlefs the poffeffor had not perfonal property
Pembroke, and others of his council, to know the par- enough to pay it; neither was any vaffal to be allowed
ticulars of their requeft, and what thofe liberties were to fell fo much of his land as to incapacitate him from
which they fo much importuned him to grant. The performing the neceffary fervice to his lord. It vvas
barons delivered a fchedule containing the chief articles- alf© determined, that when the great council of the
of their demands, founded on the charters of Henry and nation was called, the prelates, earls, and barons, ftiouid
Edward; but which were in the higheft degree difplea- be fummoned by a particular writ, and the leifer ba¬
ling to the king. He burft into a furious paflion, alk- rons Ihould receive a fummons from the flieriff. In
ed the barons why they did not alfo demand his king- favour of the people it was ftipulated, that they fhould
dom • and fwore that he would never comply with fuch have from the barons all the immunities and privileges
exorbitant demands. The confederates then chofe Ro- granted by the king to the former. Merchants were
bert Fitzwalter for their general; whom they dignified to be allowed to carry on their bufinefs without any
with the title of “ Marefchal of the army of God and arbitrary tolls or impofitions, and to go out of the
of the holy church.” They laid fiege to Northamp- kingdom and return at pleafure. The goods of every
ton took Bedford, and were joyfully received into freeman were to be difpofed of according to his will;
London. They wrote letters to all the nobility and or if he died inteftate, the neareft heir ftiould fucceed
gentry who had not yet declared in their favour, threat- him. No carts, horfes, or wood, were to be taken by
ening their eftates with devaftation in cafe of refufal the crown officers without the- confent of the owner,
or delay. The king’s courts were to be ftationary,. and no delay
In the mean time the king was left at a place called to be made in doing juftice to every one ; no freeman
0diham in Surrey, attended only by feven knights, ftiould be taken or impnfoned, difpoffeffed_of his free te-
He vainly endeavoured to avert the ftorm by the me- nement, outlawed or baniihed, unlefs by the legal judg-
diation of his bilhops and minifters. He appealed to ment of his peers, &c. _ It was likewile ftipulated, that
Langton againft the barons, not fufpecting that he London ftiould remain in the hands of the barons, and
was engaged in the confederacy; and defired him to the tqwer be eonfigned to the primate, till the 15th
fulminate the church cenfures againft thofe who had of Auguft following ; or till the articles of the charter
made war upon their lawful prince. Langton declared ftiould be fulfilled. To give the more fecunty for this,
that he would pafs no cenfure where he found no de- the king allowed them to ehoofe 25 of their own num-
linnuent; but faid, that much might be done if the ber, to whofe authority no limits were fet either m
king would difmifs fome foreign auxiliaries which he extent or duration. If any complaint were made of a
had ' lately brought over. Upon this John dilbanded violation of the charter, either by the king or ms of-
a great body -of Germans and Flemings whom he had ficers, any four of the barons might admonifti the king
hitherto retained in his fervice. and Langton refufed to redrels the grievance; and if fatisfaCtion were not
obtained.
ENG r
England, obtained, they might affemble the whole council of 25 j
* and they, in conjunction with the great council, were
empowered to compel him to fulfil the charter. In
cafe of his refinance, they had liberty to levy war againft
him, attack his caftles, and ufe every kind of violence,
except againit his perfon, or thofe of the queen or chil¬
dren. All men throughout the kingdom were bound,
under the penalty of confifcation, to fwear obedience
to the 25 barons 5 and the freeholders of each county
were to choofe 12 knights, whofe bufinefs it was to
report fuch evil cuftoms as ought to be redrefled in
tierms of Magna Charta.
But although John had thus obliged himfelf, by wri¬
ting, to allow liberty to his fubjefts, he had no mind that
they fhould enjoy it in reality. The fenfe of his fubjeftion
to his own vallals funk deep in his mind. He became
fallen, filent, and referved. He Ihunned the fociety of
his former friends ; and retired into the ifle of Wight,
145 as if to hide his difgrace in folitude 5 but, in reality, to
The king meditate revenge againft the barons. He fent to the
laifes an ar-contjnent; t0 en]jf|- a iarge body of mercenary troops, and-
fcis barons. ma^e complaints to the pope of the infurreCtions of the
barons againft him. The pontiff very warmly efpoufed
his caufe ; a bull was fent over, annulling the whole
charter •, and at the fame time the foreign troops ar¬
riving, the king once more found himfelf in a condition
to demand his own terms from his fubjefts.
Ihe barons had made no preparations for war, not
fafpeCling the introduction of a foreign army. The
king, therefore, was for fome time undifputed mafter
of the field, and the moft horrid cruelties were com¬
mitted by his army. The nobility wdm had been moft
aftive in procuring the great charter filed with their fa-
J46 milies to Scotland, where- they obtained the protection
They offer of King Alexander by doing homage to him. The
the king- barons being totally unable to raife an army capable of
Lows'the GOntenc^ng with that of John, applied to their old ene-
F; n. h my Philip of France, offering to acknowledge his eldelt
king’s fon. fon Louis for their fovereign, on condition of his pro¬
tecting them from the fury of John and his mercena¬
ries. The French king accepted their propofal with
joy; and twenty-five holtages which he demanded be¬
ing fent over, began to make the moft diligent prepa¬
rations for this: expedition, regardlefs of the menaces of
the pope, who threatened him with excommunication,
and aCtually excommunicated his fon Louis fome time
after.
The firft troops who came to the afliftance of the
barons, were only a body of 7000 men; but, foon
after, Louis with a powerful army landed at Sand¬
wich. The firft effeCt of this invafion was, that moft
of John’s foreign troops deferted, refufing to ferve
againft the heir of their monarchy.. Many confiderable
noblemen alfo deferted his caufe, and Louis daily gain¬
ed ground. This prince advanced to London, where
the barons and- burghers did him homage, and took
the oath of allegiance, after he had fworn to confirm
the liberties and privileges of the people. His impru¬
dence, however, in preferring on all occafions his French
iubje&s to the Englifh, foon excited' a jealoufy againft
him, which proved very prejudicial to his caufe. This
jealoufy was greatly increased by the death-bed con-
feflion of the Count de Melun, one of his courtiers, w ho
declared to thofe about him, that it was Louis’s de-
%n to exterminate the Englilh barons as traitors,:
S5 ] ENG"'
and to beftow their dignities and eftates upon his England.
French fubjects, on whole fidelity he could more fafe- v
ly rely. This caufed a confiderable defertion among
Louis’s party : fo that John once more found hirofelf
in a condition to make an effort for his crown. He
refolved to penetrate into the heart of the kingdom •,
and, for this purpofe, he departed from Lynn, and
took the road towards Lincolnfhire at the head of a
great body of troops. His road lay along the fhore,
which was overflowed at high water ; but the king,
not being apprifed of this, or being ignorant of the
tides of the place, loft all his carriages, treafure, and
baggage by their influx. He himfelf efcaped with the
utmoft difficulty, and arrived at the abbey ofSwinfteady
where his grief for the lofs he had fuftained, and the
diftra<fted ftate of his affairs, threwr him into a fever,
which foon appeared to be attended wdth fatal fymp-
toms. He died at Newark in the year 1216, the 51ft Death of
of his age, and' 18th of his reign. He left two legiti- King Johi*
mate fons: Henry, wffio fucceeded him on the throne,
and was about nine years of age 5 and Richard, wffio
was about feven., lie left alfo three daughters $ Jane,
married to Alexander king of Scotland j Eleanor, mar¬
ried to the earl of Pembroke } and Ifabella, married to
the emperor Frederic II.
When John died, the earl of Pembroke was mare-
fehal of England. By this office he was at the head
of the army, and of confequence, in times of fuch tur¬
bulence, at the head of the ftate. He was a noble¬
man of great honour and fidelity, and had continued
faithful to John in his greateft reverfes of fortune. He
now determined to fupport the authority of the infant
Prince Henry 5 and therefore carried him immediately
to Gloucefter, where the ceremony of coronation was
performed, in the prefence of Gualo the legate and a
w ry few noblemen, by the biffiops of Winchefter and
Bath. The young prince was obliged to fwear fealty Henry Ilf.
to the pope, and renew the homage which his father
had done for the kingdom ; after which the earl of
Pembroke wTas chofen protestor,.
Till the king arrived at the years of maturity, the
tranfaclions of his reign can only be confidered as the 149
confequences of the difpofition of his tutors. Pem-HeSrants
broke caufed him grant a new charter of liberties, "^ cliar-
confifting of the conceffions extorted from John, with
fome alterations ; and the next year it was renewed,
with the addition of fome other articles. Thus thefe
famous charters wrere brought very nearly to the ffiape
in which they have ever fince flood; and they wrere,
during many generations, efteemed the moft facred
rampart to national liberty and independence. As.
they fecured the rights of all orders of men, they were
anxioufly defended by all, and became in a manner the
balls of the Englilh monarchy, and a kind of original
contraft, which both limited the, authority of the king,,
and enfured the conditional allegiance of his fubjefts..
Though often violated, they were ftill claimed and re¬
called by the nobility and people j and as no prece--
dents wrere fuppofed valid that infringed them, they
rather acquired, than loft, authority, from the frequent
attempts made againft them, in feveral ages,, by regal!
and arbitrary pow'er.
Thefe charters wrere made ufe of by Pembroke as ar¬
guments to draw off the malecontent barons from their
allegiance to Louis. He reprefented to them, that,.
whatever
*5°
l^ecime of
Prince
ty
ENG [86
England, whatever jealoufy they might have entertained againffc
the late king, a young prince, the lineal heir of their
ancient monarchs, had now fucceeded to the throne,
without fucceeding either to the refentments or prin¬
ciples of his predeceffor": That the defperate expedi¬
ent, which they had employed, of calling in a foreign
potentate, had, happily for them', as well as for the na¬
tion, failed of entire fuccefs; and it was Itill in their
power, by a quick return to their duty, to reilore the
independence of the kingdom, and to fecure that li¬
berty for which they fo zealoully contended : That, as
all pail offences of the barons were now buried in obli¬
vion, they ought, on their part, to forget their com¬
plaints againft their late 1’overeign who, if he had
been anywife blameable in his conduT, had left to his
fon the falutary warning to avoid his paths, which had
led to fuch fatal extremities: And that, having now
obtained a charter for their liberties, it was their in-
tereft to fhow, by their conduft, that the acquifition
was not incompatible with their allegiance *, and that
the rights of the king and people, fo far from being
hoftile and oppofite, might mutually fupport and fuftain
each other.
J hefe eonfiderations, enforced by Pembroke’s known
I ouis’s ^ c^arai^er conftancy and fidelity, had a very great
' 5 ^“r influence on the barons. Moft of them began to ne-
fotiate with him, and many a finally returned to their
uty. At the fame time Louis continued to difgull
thofe of his own party by the preference which he vi-
fibly gave to the French. Though he went over to
France, therefore, and brought frefh fuccours from
thence, he found that his party was greatly weaker
than before, by the defertion of his Englifh confede¬
rates ; and that the death of King John had, contrary
to his expeflations, occafioned the total ruin of his af¬
fairs. In a fhort time Pembroke was fo much ftrength*
ened by deferters from Louis’s party, that he ventu¬
red to inveft Mount Sorel •, though upon the approach
of the count de Perche with the French army, he de-
fifted from that enterprife. The French general im¬
mediately marched to Lincoln 5 and, being admitted
into the town, laid fiege to the caftle, and foon redu¬
ced it to extremity. Pembroke fummoned his forces
from every quarter, in order to relieve this important
place •, and he appeared fo much fuperior to the
French, that they fhut themfelves up within the city,
refolving to take fhelter there. But the garrifon oLthc
caftle, having received a ftrong reinforcement, made a
vigorous fally upon the befiegers, wdnle the Englifh
army affaulted them from without. The French army
was totally routed 5 the count de Perche with only
two perfons more were killed 5 but many of the chief
commanders, and about 400 knights, were made pri-
foners. On the new1* of this fatal event, Louis raifed
the fiege of Dover, and retired to London *, where he
received intelligence of a new difafter, which put an
end to all his hopes. A French fleet, which carried
a ftrong reinforcement, had appeared on the coaft of
Kent •, where they wTere attacked and repulfed with
ccnfiderable lofs by Philip d’Albiney. Fie is faid to
have gained the viclory by the following ftratagem.
Having got the wind of the French, he came down
upon them with violence •, and throwing on their faces
a great quantity of quicklime, which he purpofely car¬
ried on board, they were fo blinded that they were
4
England*
r5r
] ENG
difabled from defending themfelves. This misfortune
fo difcouraged the barons who yet adhered to Louis,
that they came from every quarter to make their fub-
miftion to Pembroke : and Louis himfelf, finding his
affairs totally defperate, was glad to make his eicape
from a country where every thing was become hoftile to
him. He therefore concluded a peace with the pro-He leave-
tedlor *, promifed to evacuate the kingdom ; and only the king-
ftipulated, in return, an indemnity to his adherents, andc‘om'
a reftitution of their honours and fortunes, together
with the free and equal enjoyments of thofe liberties
wdiich had been granted to the reft of the nation.
When the king grew up, he wTas found to be very
unfit for the government of fuch a turbulent people as
the Englifti at that time were. Though his temper
wras mild and humane, he was alfo very weak, fickle,
and irrefolute. He difgufted the people by the carel-
fes he beftowred on foreigners 5 and this difguft rofe
once to fuch a height, that the barons refuied to ai*
femble in the general council of the nation, or parlia¬
ment, at his defire. When commanded to do fo, they
fent a meffage to Henry, defiring him to diftnifs his fo¬
reigners 5 otherwife they would drive both him and
them out of the kingdom, and put the crown on the
head of one wTho was more worthy to wear it. The
facility of Henry’s temper alfo induced him to heap
riches upon his foreign favourites in a manner which
he could by no means afford : this often brought him
into very great ftraits; and to relieve himfelf, he
was obliged to have recourfe to many arbitrary mea-
fures, which he could not otherwife have chofen. No¬
thing, howrever, of very great moment happened till
the year 1255, when the pope found means to embarkTlie15^
Flenry in a fcheme for the conqueft of Naples, or Si- undertakes
cily on this fide the Fare, as it was called j an enterprife the con-
which not only brought much diftionour on the king,^16.^ °*
but involved him for fome years in very great expence for
and trouble. The court of Rome fome time before^ '
had reduced the kingdom of Sicily to the fame ftate
of feudal vaffalage which he pretended to exercife
over England 3 but Mainfroy, an ufurper, under pre¬
tence of governing the kingdom for the lawful heir,
had feized the crown, and wras refelved to rejeft the
pope’s authority. As the pope found that his owm
force alone wras not fufficient to gain his point, he had
recourfe to Richard the king of England’s brother,
who had been created earl of Cornwall, and had fuch
talents for amafting money, that he was reckoned, the
richeft prince in Chriftendom. To him the pope of¬
fered the kingdom of Sicily, upon the fingle condition
of his conquering it from the ufurper. Richard wTas too
wife to accept this offer •, upon which the pope applied
to Henry, and offered him the crowm of Sicily for his
fecond fon Edmund. Henry, dazzled by this propo-
fal, without reflecting on the confequences, or with¬
out confulting his brother or the parliament, gave the
pope unlimited credit to expend whatever fums he
thought neceffary for completing the conqueft of Sici- 1-3
ly. In confequence of this unlimited grant, his holinefs Intolerable
determined to exert his apoftolical authority to the ut- extortions
moft, in extorting money from the Englith. A cru-j^jjl^
fade uTas publifhed, requiring every one who had taken
the crofs againft the infidels, or even vowed to advance
money for that purpofe, to fupport the war againft
Mainfroy, whom he accufed as being a more terrible
enemy
ENG [ By ]
E-gland, enemy to tlie Chriftian faith than any Saracen. A and ambitious temper
E N G
Henry fo-
iemnly re¬
news Mag.
»a Cliarta.
154
He breaks
kis engaare.
nients,
which oc-
cafions a
Evolution.
v- icllLll llidli OdldCCa. xx
tenth on all the ecclefiaftical benefices in England was
levied for three years j and orders were given to ex¬
communicate the bifhops who did not make punctual
payment. A grant was made to the king of the goods
of inteftate clergymen, as well as of the revenues of
vacant benefices and thofe of non-reiidents. Thefe
taxations, however grievous, were fubmitted to with
little murmuring 5 but another fuggefted by the bifliop
of Hereford excited the moft violent clamours. This
prelate, who at that time refided at the court of Rome,
drew bills on all the abbots and bilhops of the king¬
dom, to the amount- of no lefs than 150,540 marks,
which he granted to Italian merchants in confideration
c-f the money they had advanced or pretended to ad¬
vance for the fupport of the Sicilian wTar. As it wras
apprehended that the Engliih clergy -would not eafily
fubmit to fuch an extraordinary demand, a commiilion
was given to Ruftand, the’pope’s legate, to ufe his autho¬
rity. An affembly of the prelates and abbots was accor¬
dingly fummoned •, who, on hearing the propofal lan6H-
tied with, the names both of the pope and king, were
it ruck with the utmolt furprife and indignation. A
violent altercation took place 5 during which the legate
told them, that all ecclefiaitical benefices were the pro¬
perty of the pope, and that he might difpofe of them
as. he pleafed. The aifair ended, however, in the lub-
mnhon of the clergy: but the barons itill continued re-
fraclory, and for fome time anfiwered the king’s de¬
mands of fupplies with expoftulations ; urging the
king’s partiality to foreigners, and the various injuries
the nation had fuftained from the fervants of the crown.
'The great council of the nation, which had lately ob¬
tained the name of parliament, was therefore diffolved,
m:tl another called, but with as little fuccefs as before!
I he king, however, had involved himfelf in fo much
debt, that a large fupply w^as become abfolutely necef-
Jary.j and as that could by no means be obtained from
parliament, he was now reduced to the humiliating ex¬
pedient of going about among fuch of his fubjefts as he
thought moft attached to him, and begging aftiftance
trom them at their, own houfes. At length his barons
perceiving the exigences to which he w'as reduced*
leemed willing to afford him aid ; and, upon his promi-
ling to grant them a plenary redrefs of grievances, a very
liberal fupply was obtained, for which he renewed their
charter with more than ufual folemnity. All the pre¬
lates and abbots were affembled with burning tapers in
their hands j the magna charta was read in their pre-
ence $ r*nd they denounced fentence of excommunica¬
tion upon all wEo ftiould infringe upon its decifions.
They then put out their tapers on the ground, and ex¬
claimed, “ May every foul that proves falfe to this a-
greement fo ftink and corrupt in hell.” The kino-
lubjoined, .“ So help me God, I will inviolably keep
all thefe things, as I am a man, as I am a Chriftian,
as I am a knight, and as I am a king crowned and
anointed.”
No fooner had the king received the fupplies of
which he ftood fo much in need, than he forgot all his
engagements, put his confidence entirely in foreign
counfellors, and evaded or broke through in number-
lefs inftances the charters he had given. This conduct
rendered him fo obnoxious to the barons, that Simon
Mountfort earl of Leicefter, a man of a very ^violent
i l 7 determined to attempt an inno- England.
vation m the government. He formed a powerful con- ' v  
tederacy againft the king, and the defigns of the con-
ipirators were effeiftually put in execution in the year
1258. Henry had fummoned a parliament in expec¬
tation of receiving fupplies for his Sicilian oroieft 1
when the barons, appeared in the hall, clad in com¬
plete armour, with their fwords by their fides. The
king, ftruck with this unufaal appearance, atked them
what was their purpofe, and whether they pretended
to make him their prifoner ? Roger Bigod, earl ma-
reichal, anfwered fn name of the reft, that he was not
their pnforter 5 that they even intended to grant him
large fupplies, m order to fix his fon on the throne of
bicily; that they only expelled fome return for this
expence and fervice 5 and that as the king had fre¬
quently made fubmiffions to the parliament, had ac¬
knowledged his paft errors, and had ftill allowed him-
left to be carried into the fame path, which gave them
uch reafon of complaint, he muft now yield to more
luid regulations, and confer authority on thofe who
were able and willing to redrefs the public grievances.
Henry inftantly affured them of his intentions to grant
them all poflible fatisfadion ; and for that purpofe
iummoned another parliament at Oxford, to digeft the
new plan of government, and to cleft proper perforis
who were to be entrufted with the chief authority.
1 his affembly, afterwards called the mad parliament
went very expeditioufly to work on the bufinefs of re-’
ormation. Iwenty-four barons w^ere appointed, with
lupreme authority, tp reform the abufes of the ftate -
and Leicefter was placed at their head. Their firft fteir
was to order four knights to be chofen out of each
county, who ftiould examine into the ftate of their
reipeftive conftituents, and fliould attend at the en-
iumg parliament to give information of their com¬
plaints They ordained that three feffions of parlia¬
ment Ihould be regularly held every year; that a new
high flienft fhould be elefted annually ; that no wards
nor caftles fticuld be entrufted to foreigners, no new
loreft8 made, nor the revenues of any counties let to
farm.
Thefe conftitutions were fo juft, that fome of them Bad con-
remain to this day.. But the parliament having onceof t}ie
obtained the fovereign power, took care not to partnevv
with it again. They not only protrafted the time 'of
them fittmg under various pretences ; but at laft had
the effrontery to impofe an oath upon every individual
01 the nation, declaring an implicit obedience to all
the ftatutes executed or to be yet executed by the
barons who were thus appointed as rulers. They not
only abridged tire authority of the king, but the effi¬
cacy of parliament alfo ; giving up to 12 perfons the
whole parliamentary power between each feffion—
Iheir.ufurpations were firft oppofed by the knights'of
the Ihire, whom they themfelves had appointed. Thefe
had for fome time begun to be regularly affembled in
a leparate houfe, to confider of the national grievan¬
ces ; the firft of which was the conduft of the 24 ru¬
lers They reprefented, that though the king had
performed all that was required of him, the barons
had hitherto done nothing on their part that ffiowed
an equal regaid for the people; that their own intereft
and power feemed the only aim of all their decrees •
and they even called upon the king’s eldeft fon Prince
Edward,.
ENG [88
England. Edward to interpofe his authority, and fave the finking
nation. _ .
I5C> The prince was at this time about 22 years ot age,
?riSceeEdbyand by his aftive and refolute conduct had infpired the
ward. “ nation with great hopes. He told thofe who made the
application to him, that he had fworn to the late co*-
ititutions} and, On that account, though they were
contrary to his own private opinions, he was relolved
not to infringe them. At the fame time, however, he
fent a meffage to the barons, requiring them to bring
their undertaking to an end, or otherwife to expect
the molt vigorous refittance to their ufurpations. On
this the barons were obliged to publifh a new code of
laws, which, though it contained fcarce any thing
material, yet, it was fuppofed, would for a while
dazzle the eyes of the people, until they could take
meafures to eftablilh their authority -upon hirer foun¬
dations. In this manner, under various pretences,
they continued their power for three years ; while the
whole nation loudly condemned their treachery, and
the pope himfelf aUaft abfolved the king and his fub-
je&s from the oath they had taken to obey their in
junaions. Soon after this, a parliament was Called,
and the king reinftated in his former authority. The
barons were obliged to fubmit for a time ) but the earl
of Leicefter having joined the Welfh, who at this time
made an irruption into England, the kingdom was re*
duced to the moft deplorable fituation. I he pufillani*
mity of the king prevented any proper or judicious
method from being purfued for extricating the people
from their diitreffesj and at laft a treaty was concluded
With the barons on the moft difadvantageous terms that
can be imagined. They were reftored to the fovereign-
ty of the kingdom, took poffeffion of all the royal ca*
files and fortreffes, and even named the officers of the
king’s houfehold. They fummoned a parliament to
ixieet at Oxford, iti order more fully to fettle the plan
of government j and by this affembly it was .enacted
that the authority of the 24 barons ffiould continue not
only during the life of King Henry, but alfo during that
of Prince Edward.
*57 Thefe fcandalous conditions would have been eafily
Sedand complied with by King Henry •, but they were utterly
taken pri- reje&ed by Prince Edward, and a civil war immediate*
foner, with w. Ihe prince wTas at firft luccelsful , but,
Uino- through his impetuofity, occafioned the lofs of a great
battle, in which his father and uncle were taken pn-
foners, and he himfelf was obliged foon after to furren-
der to the earl of Leicefter. The king was now redu¬
ced to the m@ft deplorable fituation. His partifans
were totally difarmed, while thofe of the earl of
Leicefter fti'll kept themfelves in an offenfive pofture.
Leicefter feized the cftates of no fewer than 18 barons}
engroffed to himfelf the ranfom of all the prifoners
monopolized the fale of wood to foreign markets j and
at laft ordained that all power ffiould be exercifed by
nine perfons, who were to be chofen by three others,
or the majority of them } and thefe three were the earl
of Leicefter himfelf, the earl of Gloucefter, and the bi-
ffiop of Chichefter.
The miferable fttuation to which the kingdom was
now reduced, proved at laft the means of fettling the
government on a more proper foundation. Leicefter,
in order to fecure himfelf, was obliged to have recourfe
to an aid, till now entirely unknown in England,
•^Ettnely, that of the body of the people. He called a
the king
nnd his
brother.
»S8
•JTirft Houfe
of Com¬
mons.
] ENG
parliament, Vvhere, befides the barons of his own pat- Englahl*
ty, and feveral ecclefiaftics who were not proper te* ' i
nants of the crown, he ordered returns to be made
of two knights from every ffiire j and alio deputies
from the boroughs, which had been hitherto coniider-
ed as too inconftderable to be allowed any lhare in
the legiflation. This parliament was called on the
29th of January 1265 : and here we find the firft outJ
line of an Englilh Ploufe of Commons j an inftitution
which has ever fince been confidered as the bulwark of
Britiffi liberty.
The new parliament was far from being fo compliant
to Leicefter as he had deiired or expected. Many of
the barons who had hitherto ftedfaftly adhered to his
party were difgufted with his boundlefs ambition j
and the people, who found that a change of mafters was
not a change from milery to happinefs, began to with
for the re-eftablifhment of royal authority. Leicefter.
at laft, to make a merit of what he could not pre¬
vent, releafed Prince Edward from his confinement,
and had him introduced at Weftminfter-ffiall, where his
freedom was confirmed by the unanimous voice1 of the
barons. But though Leicefter had all the popularity
of reftoring the prince, he was yet politic enough to
keep him guarded by his emiffaries, who watched all
his aftions. At laft, however, he found means to
make his efcape in the following manner. The duke
of Gloucefter, being difgufted with Leicefter, retired
from court, and went to his eftates on the borders of
Wales. His afitagonift purfued him thither; and. to
give the greater authority to his arms, carried the king
and prince of Wales along with him. This furniffied
young Edward with the opportunity he had fo long
defired. Being furniffied by the earl of Gloucefter
with a horfe of extraordinary fwiftnefs, he took leave
of his attendants, who were in fact his guards, but
were not able to come up with him. They purfued
him, however, for fome time j but the appearance of a
body of troops belonging to Gloueefter foon put an
end to their purfuit. _
The prince no fooner recovered his liberty, than the Pnnre Ed-
toyalifts joined him from all quarters, and an army was ward reco*
foon procured which Leicefter could not withftand. jerj his h-
This nobleman now found himfelf in a remote quarter taer y*
of the kingdom; ffirrounded by his enemies j and de¬
barred from all communication with his friends by the
river Severn, wffiofe bridges Edward had broken down.
In this extrerhity, he wrote to his fon to haften to his
affiftance from London, with a confiderable body which
he had under his command. With this view his fon
advanced to Kenilworth *, but here he was furprifed,
and his army entirely difperfed by Prince Edward.
T he young prince, immediately after this victory, ad¬
vanced againft Leicefter himfelf j who, ignorant of
the fate of his foil’s army, had paffed the Severn in
boats. He was by no means able to cope with the
royalifts j his men being inferior both in numbers and
refolution to their antagonifts. His army was defeat- j6&
ed with great daughter. Leicefter himfelf was llain, Earl of "Lei-
though he called out for quarter, together with his el-ceiterde-
deft fon Henry, and about 160 knights and other Jeated an*
gentlemen. The old king had been purpofely placed u e
by the rebels in the front of the battle, where he was
wounded, and in great danger of being killed •, but, cry¬
ing out, “ I am Henry of Winchelter your king,” be
was faved and put in a place of fecurity by his fon,
wh«
England.
161
Sheath of
Henry III.
Ida
Edward I.
163
Conquers
Wales.
*Stt Wales,
ENG [i
vvKo had flown to his afliftance. The body of Leicefter
1 being found among the dead, was barbaroufly mang¬
led by one Roger Mortimer j and then fent to his wi¬
dow, as a teftimony of the royal party’s barbarity and
fuccefs.
This victory, gained at Evefliam, proved decifive in
favour of the royal party. Almolt all the cattles,
garrifoned by the barons, battened to make their fub-
miflions, and opened their gates to the king. The
Ifle of Axholme alone, and that of Ely, trufting to
the ftrength of their fltuation, ventured to make re-
fiftance ; but were at laft reduced, as well as the cattle
of Dover, by the valour and activity of Prince Ed¬
ward. Adam de Gourdon, a courageous baron, main¬
tained himfeif fome time in the forefts of Hampfliire,
committing depredations in the neighbourhood j and
obliged the prince to lead a body of troops into that
country againft him. Edward attacked the camp of
the rebels ; and being tranfported by the ardour of
aittion, leaped over the trench with a few followers,
and encountered Gourdon himielf in Angle combat.
T he viclory was long difputed between thefe two va¬
liant combatants } but ended at laft in the prince’^ fa¬
vour, who wounded his antagonift, threw him from his
horfe, and took him prifoner. He not only granted
him his life 5 but introduced him that very night to
the queen at Guildford, procured his pardon, and was
ever after faithfully ferved by him.
In 1271, Prince Edward, having fettled the affairs
of the kingdom, undertook an expedition to the Holy
Land, where he ttgnalized himfeif by many a&s of va¬
lour. The king’s health declined vifibly after the de¬
parture of his fon } and at laft, worn out with cares
and the infirmities of age, he expired at St Edmonftmry
on the 16th of November I 272, in the 64th year of
his age and the 56th of his reign.
Prince Edward had reached Sicily in his return from
the Holy Land, when he received an account of his
father s death j at which he expreffed much concern.
As he knew that England was at that time in a ftate
of perfedl tranquillity, he was in no hafte to return,
but fpent near a year in France before he made his ap¬
pearance in England. He was received by his fub-
jedfs with the utmoft joy, and crowned at Weftmin-
fler by Robert archbifhop of Canterbury on the ipth
of Auguft i 274. He immediately applied himfelt to
the correfting of thofe diforders which the civil com¬
motions, and weak adminiftration of his father, had
introduced. A fyftem of ftri<5t juftice, bordering on
feverity, was introduced and kept up through the whole
of this reign. The Jews were the only part of his
fubjects whom Edward oppreffed. JMany arbitrary
taxes were levied upon them 5 280 of them were hang¬
ed at once for adulterating the coin ; the goods of the
reft were confifcated, and all of them banifhed the
kingdom.
In 1276, the king undertook an expedition againft
Lewellyn prince of Wales, who had refufed to do ho¬
mage for his crown. The conqueft of that country
was not fully accomplifhed till the year 1283 } after
which the principality, of Wales was annexed to the
crown of England, and thenceforth gave a title to the
king’s eldeft fon In 1 286, the fettlement of Wales
appeared fo complete, that the king went abroad in
order to make peace between Alfonfo king of Arra-
VOL. VIII. Part I. *
9 ] ENG
gon and Philip le Bel king of France, who had a dif- England,
ference about the kingdom of Sicily. He fucceeded v*—
in his negotiations; but, ftaying abroad three years,
he found that many diforders had been introduced in
his abfence. Many inftances of robbery and violence
had broke out in all parts of England ; but the cor¬
ruption of the judges, by which the fountains of juftice
Were poifoned, was of ftill more dangerous confequence.
Edward, in order to remedy this prevailing abufe,
fummoned a parliament, and brought the judges to a
trial 5 where all of them except tw'o, who were clergy¬
men, were convifted of this flagrant iniquity, were
fined, and depofed from their office. The amount of
the fines levied upon them is of itfelf a fufficient proof
of their guilt, being above 100,000 marks ; an immenfe
fum in thofe days, fufficient to defray the expences of
a war betwixt two great nations; The king afterwards
made all the new judges fwear that they would take no
bribes j but the depofing and fining the old ones was
the more effectual remedy. 164
In 1291, King Edwrard began to meditate the con-Attempfs
queft of Scotland, which employed him during thet}ie <jonT
reft of his life ; but which, though that kingdom was
by him reduced to the greateft diftrefs, he was never
able to accomplifh f. At the fame time, he wras en-1 See Seaf-
gaged in expeniive contefts wath France j and thefe
multiplied wrars and preparations for war, by obliging
him to have frequent recourfe to parliamentary fup-
plies, became the remote caufes of great and impor- r(j-
tant changes in the government. The parliament was New-mo-
modelled into the form wdiich has continued ever fmee* <lels tl*6
As a great part of the property of the kingdom, byPaiFai:nent-
the introduction of commerce and improvements in
agriculture, was transferred from the barons to the
lower clafs of people, fo their confent was thought
neceflary for raifing the fupplies. For this reafon, the
king iffued writs to the fheriffs, enjoining them to fend
to parliament, along with two knights of the fhire, two
deputies from each borough within their county 5 and
thefe provided writh fufficient powers from their con-
ftituehts to grant fuch demands as they fliould think
reafonable for the fafety of the ftate. The charges of
thefe deputies were to be borne by the boroughs which
fent them j and fo far were they from confidering this
deputation as an honour, that nothing could be more
difpleafing to any borough than to be thus obliged to
fend a deputy, or to any individual than to be thus
chofen. The authority of thefe commoners, however,
increafed through time. Their union gave them weight j
and it became cuftomary among them, in return for
the fupplies wffiich they granted, to prefer petitions to
the crown for the redrefs of thofe grievances under
which the nation wras fuppofed to labour. The more
the king’s neceflities tncreafed, the more he found it
neceflary to give them an early redrefs j till, from re¬
queuing, the commons proceeded to requiring j and
having all the property of the nation, they by degrees
began alfo to be poflefled of the power.
Edward I. died of a dyfentery at Carlifle on the pies and is
7th of July 1307, as he was leading a great army into a,ccfecled
Scotland, againft the inhabitants of which he had^^w'^*
vowed the moft dreadful vengeance. He was fucceed¬
ed by his fon Edw ard II. wdiom he had charged with
his dying breath to profecute the war againft Scot¬
land, and never to defift till he had finally fubdued the
M kingdom.
167
Difcontents
of his fub-
iccls.
ENG [
Epglani!. kingdcm. But the new king was of a very diffe-
v w rent difpofition from his father. The Scots gra¬
dually recovered their power j and in 1314 gave the
Engihh fuch a terrible defeat at Bannockburn, that
for many years no fuperiority of numbers could en¬
courage them to look the Scots in the face. See
Scotland.
The reign of Edward II. affords no particulars of
great moment. Being a prince of a weak underftand-
ing, though endued with no remarkable bad qualities,
his reign was one continued feries of quarrels with his
turbulent fubjedts. His favourites were the molt ge¬
neral caufes of difcontent. The firlt of thefe was one
Piers Gavefton, the fon of a Gafcon knight of fome
dilfincfion, who had honourably ferved the late king,
and who, in reward for his fervices, had obtained an
eftablifhment for his fon in the family of the prince of
Wales.—To be the favourite of any king whatever, is
no doubt in itfelf a fufficient offence to the reft of the
courtiers. Numberlefs faults were therefore found
with Gavefton by the Englifti barons. When the king
went over to France to efpoufe the princefs Ifabella,
to whom he had been long contradled, Gavefton was
left guardian of the realm, with more ample powers
than had ufually been conferred in fuch a cafe. But
when the queen, who was of an imperious and in¬
triguing fpirit, arrived, Gavefton had the misfortune
to fall under her difpleafure alfo, on account of the
afcendency he had acquired over the king. A con-
fpiracy Vvras therefore foon formed againft the favour¬
ite ; at the head of which were the queen, and the
earl of Lancafter, coufin-german to the king, and the
molt opulent and powerful nobleman in England. The
king, unable to refill fuch a combination, was at laft
obliged to banilh Gavefton •, but recalled him fome
time after. This was fufffcient to fpread an alarm over
the whole kingdom : a civil war enfued 5 and the nobi¬
lity having got Gavefton into their hands, foon freed
themfelves of any farther apprehenfions from him, by
putting him to death.
After the unfortunate defeat at Bannockburn, King
Edward chofe a new favourite named Hugh le Deffienfer.
He ivas a young man of a noble Englilh family, fome
merit, and very engaging accompliftiments. His fa¬
ther was a perfon of a much more refpedftable charac-
ter than the fon 5 but the being admitted to a ftiare of
King Edward’s favour was a fufficient crime. The king
imprudently difpoffeffed fome lords of their eftates, in
®rder to beftow them upon this favourite p and this
was a fufficient pretence for openly attacking both the
father and fon. The earls of Lancafter and Here¬
ford flew to arms. Sentence was procured from par¬
liament of perpetual exile againft the two Spenfers,
with a forfeiture of all their eftates. At laft the king
took the field at the head of 30,000 men, and preffed
the earl of Lancaffor fo clofely, that he had not time
to colleift: his forces together j and, flying from one
place to another, he was at laft flopped in his way to¬
wards Scotland, and made prifoner. He was imme¬
diately condemned by a court-martial j and executed
on an eminence near Pomfret, with circumftances of
the greateft indignity.
Spenfer now triumphed for fome time over his ene-
Jnies; 100ft of the forfeitures were feized for his ufe,
go ] ENG
and he is faid to have been guilty of many a els of ra- Englaw!.
pine and injuftice. But he was foon oppofed by a more ~ 1
formidable enemy, (fueen Ifabella fled to France, and
refufed to return to England till Spenfer was removedhwn againfl
from the royal prefence, and baniihed the kingdom, him by she
Thus ffie made herielf popular in England, wherefuefc11-
Spenfer was univerfally diffiked *, and fhe had the plea-
fore of enjoying the company of a young nobleman
named Mortimer, upon whom ffie had lately placed her
afteefions. The queen’s court, therefore, became a
famftuary for all the malecontents who were banifhed
their own country, or who chofe to come over. When
ftie thought matters were ripe for her purpofe, fhe fet
fail from Dort harbour, accompanied by 3000 armed
men. She landed without oppofition on the coaft of
Suffolk, on the 24th of September 13 26 •, and ihe no
fooner appeared, than there feemed to be a general re¬
volt in her favour. The unfortunate king found the
fpirit of duloyaity fpread over the whole kingdom.
He had placed fome dependence on the garrifon of
Briftol, which was under the command of the elder
Spenfer; but they mutinied againft their governor j
and that unfortunate favourite was delivered up, and
condemned by the tumultuous barons to the moft igno¬
minious death. He was hanged on a gibbet in his ar¬
mour 5 his body was cut in pieces and thrown to the
dogs j and his head was font to Winchefter, where it
was fet on a pole, and expofed to the infults of the
populace. Young Spenfer did not long furvive bis fa¬
ther. Tie was taken, with fome others who had fol¬
lowed the fortunes of the wretched king, in an ob-
feure convent in Wales. The queen had not patience
to wait the formality of a trial ; but ordered him to
be immediately led forth before the infulting populace,
and feemed to take a favage pleafure in beholding his
diftrefs. He was executed on a gibbet 50 feet high ; his
head was font to London, where it was received by the
citizens with brutal triumph, and fixed on the bridge.
In the mean time the king, who hoped to find re¬
fuge in Wales, was quickly difeovered, and delivered
up to his adverfaries, who infulted him in the grofieft
manner. He was conduced to the capital amidft the
infvdts and reproaches of the people, and confined in
the tower. A charge was foon exhibited againft him 5
in which no other crimes but his incapacity to govern,
his indolence, his love of pleafure, and his being
fwayed by evil counfellors, were objefted againft him. 1(^
His depolition, however, was quickly voted by parlia- Edward de¬
ment j he was affigned a penfion for his fupport j hispufed;
fon Edward, a youth of 14, was chofen to fucceed
him, and the queen was appointed regent during the
minority. The depofed monarch did not long furvive
the lofs of his crown. He was at firft configned to the
cuftody of the earl of Lancafter •, but this noblemaa
fliowing fome marks of refpeft and pity, he was taken
out of his hands, and delivered over to the lords Berke¬
ley, Mautravers, and Gournay, who were entrufted
alternately, each for a month, with the charge of
guarding him. While he was in Berkeley’s cuftody,
he was itill ufed with fome degree of humanity 5 but
when the turn of Mautravers and Gournay came, every
fpecies of indignity was pra&ifed upon him, as if they
had deiigned to accelerate his death by the bittemefs
of his fufferings. It is reported, that one day when
Edward
ENG [ 91 I
England. Edward was to be fhaved, they ordered cold and dirty wherein the
'r ’ water to be brought from a ditch for that purpofe ;
and when he defired it to be changed, and was ftill de¬
nied his requeft, he burft into tears and exclaimed,
That in fpite of their infolence he would be lhaved
with clean and warm water. As his perfecutors, how¬
ever, faw that his death might not arrive, even under
every cruelty they could praftife, and w^ere daily afraid
of a revolution in his favour, they determined to rid
themfelves of their fears by deftroying him at once.
, Mortimer, therefore, fecretly gave orders to the two
keepers, who were at his devotion, inftantly to dif-
ENG
Englifli renounced all title to the fove- England.
170
And duel
ly muider.
ed.
171
Sovereign
power af-
iiimed by
the queen
and Morti¬
mer.
patch the king ; and thefe ruffians contrived to make
the manner of his death as cruel and barbarous as pof-
fible. Taking advantage of Berkeley’s ficknefs, in
whofe cuftody he then wras, and wdio was thereby in¬
capacitated from attending his charge, they came to
Berkeley-caftle, and put themfelves in poffeiTion of the
king’s perfon. They threw him on a bed, and held
hin down with a table which they had placed over
him. They then ran a horn pipe up his body, through
which they conveyed a red-hot iron ; and thus burnt
his bow-els without disfiguring his body. By this in¬
fernal contrivance they expefted to have their crime
Concealed : but the horrid Ihrieks of the king, which
were heard at a didance from the caille, gave a fufpi-
cioh of the murder; and the whole was foon after di¬
vulged by the confedion of one of the accomplices.
Goumay and Mautravers w^ere held in deteltation by
all mankind ; and when the enfuing revolution depri¬
ved their protectors of power, they found it neceflary
to Hy the kingdom. Gournay w^as afterwards feized
at Marfeilles, delivered over to the fenefchal of Guienne,
and put on board a (hip with a view of carrying him
over to England 5 but he was beheaded at fea, by fe-
cret orders, as was fuppofed, of fome nobles and pre¬
lates in England, anxious to prevent any dilcovery
which he might make of his accomplices. Mautra¬
vers concealed himfelf for fome years in Germany 5
but having found means of rendering fome fervices to
Edward lit. he ventured to approach his perfon,
threw himfelf on his knees before him, and received
a pardon.
By the death of Edward II. the government fell
entirely into the hands of the queen and her paramour
Mortimer. The parliament, which raifed young Ed¬
ward to the throne, had indeed appointed I2perfens
as his privy-council, to direft the operations of govern¬
ment. Mortimer excluded himfelf, under a fiiow of
moderation ; but at the fame time fecretly influenced
all the meafures that came under their deliberation.
As this influence began very foon to be perceived, and
the queen’s criminal attachment to Mortimer was uni-
verfally known, thefe governors fcon became very ob¬
noxious to the people. The firft ftroke given to Mor¬
timer’s power was during an irruption of the Scots,
when the favourite prevented the young king from at¬
tacking the enemy. Though it is very probable that
the Englifli army would have been deftroyed by ma¬
king an attack on an army fituated in fuch an advan¬
tageous poll: as the Scots at that time occupied, Mor¬
timer incurred great blame on that account. Ble was
accufed of having allowed the Scots to make their
elcane ; and die general difguft on this account w-as in-
creafed by his concluding a peace with that kingdom,
172
reignty of Scotland for the fu;n of 30,000 marks. Soon
after Mortimer feized and executed the earl of Kent,
brodier to the late king j who, fuppoftng Edward II.
to be ftill alive, had formed a defign of reinftating him
in his kingdom. The execution was fo fudden, that
the young king had not time even toduterpofe in his
behalf5 and Mortimer foon after feized this nobleman’s
eftate for his own ufe, as he did alfo the immenfe for¬
tunes of the Spenfers.
Edward, finding the power of Mortimer a continual
reftraint upon himfelf, refolved to lhake off an autho¬
rity that was likewife grown odious to the whole na¬
tion. The queen and Mortimer had for fome time
chofen the raftle of Nottingham for their refidence. It
was ftridtly guarded, the gates were locked every night,
and the keys carried to the queen. It wras therefore
agreed between the king and fome of the barons, wffio
fecretly entered into his defigns, to feize upon them in
this fortrefs. Sir W illiam Eland the governor wras in¬
duced to admit them through a fubterraneous paffage,
wdiich had been formerly contrived for an outlet, but
was now choked up with rubbiih, and known only to
one or two. Through this paffage the noblemen in the
king’s intereft entered the caftle in the night-time j
and Mortimer, without having it in his power to make
any refiftance, was leized in an apartment adjoining to
that of the queen. The parliament, wdiich was then
fitting, condemned him, wdthout either permitting him
to make his defence, or examining a Angle wdtnefs
againft him. He was hanged on a gibbet at a place Mortimer
called Elmos, about a mile from London. A fimilar
fentence was palled againft fome of his adherents, par¬
ticularly Gournay and Mautravers, who found an op¬
portunity of efcaping as above mentioned. The queen,
who was perhaps the moft culpable of the whole, was
lereened by the dignity of her ftation. She was, how¬
ever, depofed from all (hare of power ; and confined
for life to the caftle of Rifings, wdth a penfion of 3000
pounds a-year. From this confinement fhe was never
let free, though the king paid her an annual vifit of
ceremony. She lived 25 years after her depofition.
Edward III. proved the greateft warrior that ever
fat on the Engliih throne. He find attempted to raile
Edward Baliol to the fovereignty of Scotland ; but this r-^
he found impoffible fully to accomplilh. Edward Edward
next formed a project of invading and conquering Evades
France, to the fovereignty of which he pretended a iVcefsluL*1*
right. His firft expectations were attended with foiy.
little fuccefs, that on his return to England he found
the nation very much difeontented, and himfelf haraf-
fed by his numerous creditors, without any fufficient
refource for paying them. Being determined, how¬
ever, not to bear any blame himfelf if he could throw
it anywhere elfe, he took the firrt opportunity of r„
wreaking his vengeance upon his fubjecls. Finding ,iis Zli-
therefore the tower of London negligently guarded on^rary belia-
his arrival, he imprifoned the conftable and all his in. viour on lus
ferior officers, treating them with the greateft feverity.reUim‘
He then fell upon the ftieriffs and collectors of the re¬
venue, whom he difmiffed from their employments, and
appointed an inquiry into their conduct to be made by
perfons who, knowing the king’s humour, were fure to
find every one guilty who came before them. The keeper
of the privy-feal, the chief-juftice, the mayor of London,
M 2 the
ENG [92
England, the bilhops of Chichefter and Litchfield, with the
‘ 1 ^ chancellor and treafurer, were depofed and imprifoned.
T 1 In this career of refentment and cruelty, however, he
by The0 ^ found himfelf oppofed by the archbilhop of Canter-
archbifliop bury, whom he had appointed to colledt the taxes laid
of Canter. ou for the fupport of the French war. That prelate
kuT 5 happening to be abfent at the tinje of the king’s ar¬
rival, did not immediately feel the effefts of his refent¬
ment. Being informed, however, of the humour in
which his fovereign was, he ilfued a fentence of excom¬
munication againit all who, on any pretence whatever,
ftiould exercife violence againft the perfons or eltates
of clergymen, or who infringed thofe privileges fecu-
red by the great charter, or who accufed a prelate of
treafon, or any other crime, in order to bring him
under the king’s difpleafure. A regular combination
was formed againit the king by the clergy, with the
primate at their head} who, to excite the indigna¬
tion of the people as much as poflible, reported, that
the king intended to recal the general pardon and the
remillion to old debts which had been granted, and to
impofe new and arbitrary taxes without confent of par¬
liament. The archbilhop alfo, in a letter to the king,
informed him, that there were two powTers by which
the world was governed, viz. the holy pontifical apo-
ftolical dignity and the regal authority } of which the
clerical power was evidently the fupreme, as the priefts
were to anfwrer even for the condudf of kings at the
laft judgment; and were belides the fpiritual fathers
of all the faithful, kings and princes not excepted j
having, belides, a heavenly charter, entitling them to
direct their wills and aftion^, and to cenfure their
tranfgrelfions. On this the king refolved to mortify
him, by fending no fummons to him wdien the parlia¬
ment wras called : but the prelate, undaunted by this
mark of refentment, appeared before the gates of the
parliament-houfe with his crolier in his hand, de¬
manding admittance as the firlt peer of the realm.
This application was reje&ed for two days, but at laft
complied with •, and the parliament now feemed in-
.,.(5 dined to abridge the king’s authority conliderably.
.And obli- They began with obferving, that as the great charter
ged at laft had been violated in many points, particularly by the
to fubmit: megal imprifonment of many freemen and the feizure
of their goods, it was neceflary to confirm it anew,
and to oblige all the chief officers of the law and
others to fwear to the obfervance of it. It was alfo
required, that whenever any of the great offices be¬
came vacant, the king ffiould fill them up by the ad¬
vice of his council and the confent of fuch barons as
Ihould at the time be found to refide in the neigh¬
bourhood of the court. They ena&ed alfo, that on
the third day of every feffion the king ffiould refume
all fuch offices into his own hand, excepting thofe of
the juftices of the two benches and the barons of ex¬
chequer } that the minifters Ihould for the time be re¬
duced to private perfons j that they ffiould in that
condition anfwer before parliament to any accufation
preferred againft them j and that, if they were found
in any refpeft guilty, they Ihould be finally deprived
of their offices, and others appointed in their Head.
I11 return for fuch ample conceffions, the king vras of¬
fered a grant of 20,000 facks of wool j and fuch was
his urgent neceffity, that he was compelled to accept
of it even upon thefe terms. Still, however, he deter-
1
ENG
mined to adhere to his engagements no longer than till England.
this neceffity was removed. Though the agreement,-v—- '
therefore, was ratified in full parliament, he fecretly
entered a proteft, that, as foon as his convenience per¬
mitted, he would from his own authority revoke what
had been extorted from him. This proteft was after¬
wards confirmed by a public edi<?t; in which he afiert-
ed, that that ftatute had been made contrary to law j
that it was prejudicial to the prerogatives of the crown,
which he had only dilfembled when he feemed to ra¬
tify it j and that in his own breaft he had never alfent-
ed to it : and declared, that from thenceforth it had
no force or authority. This exertion of arbitrary But regains
power, wffiich it might have been imagined wrould have his Power.
occafioned a prodigious clamour, was not taken notice
of by any of the fubfequent parliaments •, fo that in
the courfe of twTo years Edward had entirely regained
his authority, and obtained a repeal of the obnoxious 1^3
ftatute juft mentioned. Having thus fettled matters Performs
to his fatisfadlion, the king refumed his expedition gre,at ?x-
againft France, where he gained great advantages. In France*
his abfence the Scols invaded England j but were en¬
tirely defeated at Durham, and their king himlelf taken
prifoner. The Engliffi king in the mean time continued
his viftories on the continent •, in which he was great¬
ly affifted by Edward furnamed the Black Prince, the
greateft hero recorded in the Englilh annals. But for
the wars of Edward III. and the exploits of this fa¬
mous prince, fee the articles Scotland and France.
The Black Prince died on the 8th of June 1376, and
the king furvived only about a year. He expired on 179
the 21 ft of June 1377, and was fucceeded by his fe-Rkhardll
cond fon Richard.
As the new king wras only eleven years old when he
afcended the throne, the government w’as veiled in the
hands of his three uncles, the dukes of Lancafter, York,
and Gloucefter. The different difpofitions of thefe no¬
blemen, it was thought, would caufe them check the
defigns of each other. Lancafter was neither popular
nor enterpriiing ; York was indolent an^ w7eak ; and
Gloucefter turbulent, popular, and ambitious. Dif-
contents firft arofe among the common people. They
had now acquired a ffiare of liberty Sufficient to infpire
them with a defire for more, and this defire was greatly
increafed by the difcourfes of one John Ball a feditious
preacher. He went about the country, and inculcated
on his audience, that mankind were all derived from
one common flock ; and that all of them had equal
right to liberty and the goods of nature, of which they
had been deprived by the ambition of a few infoknt
rulers.
Thefe doftrines were greedily fwallowed by the po¬
pulace, who were farther inflamed by a new impofition
of three groats a-head upon every per fon in the king¬
dom above 15 years of age. This had been granted
as a fupply by parliament, and was no doubt neceffary
on account of the many expenfive wars in which the
kingdom was engaged ; but its apparent injuftice, in
laying no more burden upon the rich than the poor,
excited the utmoft refentment of the people. The
manner, too, of collecling this tax, foon furniffied them
with an occafion of revolt. It began in Efl'ex, where a
report was induftrioufly fpread that the peafants were
to be deftroyed, their houfes burned, and their farms
plundered. A blackfmith, well known by the name
of
England.
180
tion by-
Wat Ty-
lej;.
ENG [93
of JVat Tyler, was the firft that excited them to arms.
The tax-gatherers coming to this man’s houfe while
Dangerous !ie ?vas at work’ demanded payment for his daughter,
infurrec- This he refufed, alleging that die was under the age
mentioned in the aft. One of thefe fellows offered to
produce a very indecent proof to the contrary, and at
the fame time laid hold of the maid. This the father
refenting, immediately knocked out the ruffian’s brains
with his hammer. The byftanders applauded the ac¬
tion ; and exclaimed that it was high time for the peo¬
ple to take vengeance on their tyrants, and to vindi¬
cate their native liberty. The whole country imme¬
diately took arms, and the infurgents foon amounted
to about 100,000 men. They advanced to Blackheath,
■where they lent a meflage to the king, who had taken
flicker in the tower, deliring a conference with him.
Hie king was defirous of complying with their de¬
mands, but was intimidated by their fierce behaviour.
In the mean time, they entered the city, burning and
plundering the houles of fuch as were obnoxious for
their powrer or riches. Their animofity was particu¬
larly levelled againft the lawyers, to ■whom they ffiow-
ed no mercy. The king at laft, knowing that the
tower wTas not aole to refill their alfaults, went out
among them, and defired to know their demands. To
this they made a very humble remonflrance ; requiring
a general pardon, the abolition of llavery, freedom of
commeice in the market-towns, and a fixed rent in-
ftead of thofe fervices required by the tenure of vil-
lenage. I he king granted all thefe requefts j and
charters were made out by which the grant wras rati-
lied. In the mean time, however, another body of
thele inlurgents had broke into the tower, and mur¬
dered the chancellor, the primate, and the treafurer,
wdth fome other officers of diflinction. They then di¬
vided themfelves into bodies, and took up their quar¬
ters in different parts of the city. At the head of one
of thefe was Wat 1 yler, who led his men into Smith-
field, where he wras met by the king, wffio invited him
to a conference under pretence of hearing and redrefs-
ing his grievances. Tyler ordered his companions to
retire till he Ihould give them a fignal, and boldly ven¬
tured to begin a conference with the king in the midff
of his retinue. His demands were, That all Haves
Ihould be let free ; that all commonages fliould be open
to the poor as well as to the rich ; and that a general-
pardon fliould be palled for the late outrages. ' "Whilfl
he made theie demands, he now and then lifted up his
fword in a menacing manner : which infolence fo rai¬
led the indignation of William ^Valw’orth lord mayor
of London, that, without confiderjng the danger to'
which he expofed his majefty, he fluniied Tyler with
a blow of his mace j while one of the king’s knights
riding up, difpatched him with his fword.. The mu¬
tineers, feeing their leader fall, prepared themfelves to
take revenge. I heir bows were already bent for exe¬
cution ; wffien Richard, though not yet 16 years of
rode up to the rebels, and wdth admirable prefence
of mind cried out: “ What, my people, will you kill
your king > Be not concerned for the lofs of your lea¬
der. I myfelf wall now be your general. Follow me
into the field, and you fiiall have whatever you defire.”
The multitude immediately defifted, and followed the
king into the fields, where he granted them the fame
charters that he had before granted to their compa-
1
nions.
1S1
He is kill-
od.
ENG
rihefe charters, however, were foon after revo- England,
ked, and the common people reduced to the fame fitu- ' 1 v™-1
ation in which they had formerly been.
I he courage, addrefs, and prefence of mind, which
the king had difcovered in quelling fuch a dangerous
tumult, gave great hopes to the nation : but, in pro¬
portion as Richard advanced in years, thefe hopes wrere
blaited j and his wrant of capacity, or at lead of folid
judgment, appeared in every enterprife he attempted.
.the king had unluckily loll the favour of the com- xs2
mon people after the infurreftion juft mentioned. He The king
allowed the parliament to revoke the charters of en-Iofes the,
franchi'ement and pardon which had been granted ^av ur
fome of the ringleaders in the late diforders had beentn6 pe°P e'
feverely puniflied, and fome even put to death wdth-
out any form of procefs or trial. Thus the popular
leaders wrere greatly exafperated by this cruelty, though
probably the king did not follow the diftates of ftis
owm mind fo much in it as the advice of his counlel-
lors. . But having thus loft the favour of one party,
he quickly after iell under the difpleafure of the other
alfo. Suppofing himfelf to be in too great fubjeftion
to his uncles, particularly the duke of Gloucefter,
he attempted to fliake off the yoke, by raifing o-
thers to fuch a degree of powder as might enable 1S3
them to rival them. His firft favourite w’as Robert His excef-
de Vere earl of Oxford, a young man of an agree-flve tav°ur
able perfon, but diffolute in his behaviour, who foon e^ri
acquired an abfolute afcendant over him. So much° X °r
was he determined to ftiow his attachment to this
nobleman, that he firft created him marquis of Dub¬
lin, a title never known in England before ; then duke
of Ireland; transferring to him the entire fovereign-
ty of that ifiand by patent for life. He gave him in-
marriage his coufin-german, the daughter, of the earl
of Bedford ; but loon after permitted him to divorce 184
her for another lady with wffionj he had fallen in love. ^ confpfra*
this nobleman foon became the difpenfer of all thecv a£.a‘n^:
king’s favours to fuch a degree, that a confpiracy wrastlie
formed againrt him ; at the head of which w^ere,
Mowbray earl of Nottingham, Fitz Alan earl of
Arundel, Piercy earl of Northumberland, Montacute
earl of Salilbury, and Beauchamp earl of War¬
wick. Vere was impeached in parliament; and though
nothing of moment was even alleged againft him, he
was condemned and deprived of his office. They next
proceeded to attack the royal authority itfelf. Under
pretence that the king was yet unable to govern the
kingdom, though at that time 21 years of age, they
appointed a commiffion of 14 perfons to whom the
fovereignty was to be transferred for a year. This
meafure wras driven forward by the duke of Gloucefter,
and none but his. own faftion -were admitted as mem¬
bers of the committee. The king could not without
regret perceive himfelf thus totally deprived of autho¬
rity. He firft endeavoured to gain over, the parlia¬
ment to his interefts, by influencing the ftierifts of each
county, who were then the only returning officers.
I his meafure failing, he next applied to the judges.
They declared, that the commiffion which had depri¬
ved the king of his authority was unlawful, and that-
thofe who procured or advifed it wTere punifhable with
death. Iheir fentence wTas quickly oppofed by decla¬
rations from the lords. The duke of Gloucefter arm¬
ed his partifans, and appeared at Haringay park near
Highgate,
E N G
[ 94 ]
ENG
England. Highgate, at the head of a body of men fufficient to
—'v ' intimidate the king and all his adherents. Ihefe in-
furgents, feniible of their own power, began by de¬
manding of the king the names ot thofe who had ad-
vifed him to his late rafh meafures. A few days after¬
wards they appeared armed in his prefence, and accu-
fed by name the archbifhop of ork, the duke of
Ireland, the earl of Suffolk, and Sir Robert Trefilian,
one of the fudges who had declared in his favour, to¬
gether with Sir Nicholas Bember, as public and dan¬
gerous enemies to the date. I he duke of Ireland fled
into Chefhire, where he attempted to raife a body of
forces; but was quickly obliged to fly into Handers,
on the arrival of the duke of Gloucefter with a fuperior
army. Soon after, the king was obliged to fummon
a parliament, where an accufation was drawn up a-
gainfl five of his counfellors. Of thefe only Sir Ni¬
cholas Bember was prefent; and he was quickly found
guilty, condemned, and executed, together rvith Sir
Robert Trefilian, who had been difeovered and taken
during the interval. Lord Beauchamp of Holt rvas loon
after condemned and executed ; and Sir Simon Bur¬
ley, who had been appointed the king’s governor, flra-
red the fame fate, though the queen continued for three
hours on her knees before the duke of Gloucefler, im¬
ploring his pardon.
Such unparalleled infolence and barbarity in a fub-
ie£l could not go unpunilhed. In 1389? ^le at
an extraordinary council of the nobility affembled after
Eafter, to the aftonifhment of all prefent, defxred to
know his age. Being told that he was turned of two
and twenty, he alleged that it was then time for him
to govern without help ; and that there was no reafon
why he fliould be deprived of thofe rights which the
meaneft of his fubje6!s enjoyed. The lords anfwered
in fome confufion, that he had certainly an undifputed
right to take upon himfelf the government of the king¬
dom. “ Yes (replied the king), I have long been
under the government of tutors ; and I will now firft
fhow my right to power by their removal.” He then
ordered Thomas Arundel, whom the commifhoners
had lately appointed chancellor, to give up the feals ;
which he next day delivered to William W7ickham bi-
fhop of Winchefter. He next removed the duke of
Gluucefter, the earl of Warwick, and otoer lords of the
oppofition, from the council; and all the great offi¬
cers of the houlehold, as well as the judges, were
changed.
The king being thus left at liberty to govern as he
thought proper, for fome time behaved in luch a man¬
ner as to gain the affections of the people. It does
not appear indeed that he ever gave much caufe of
complaint; but it was impoffible for any prince in thofe
days to keep himfelf fecure on the throne but by a very
fevere and vigorous adminiftration. rlhe duke of Glou¬
cefter, perceiving that Richard was not of a warlike
difpofition, frequently fpoke with contempt of his per-
fon and government, and deliberated concerning the
lawfulnefs of throwing off all allegiance to him. The
king being informed of his conduft by fpies appointed
for that purpofe, at laft formed a refolution of ridding
himfelf of Gloucefter and his faftion at once. He there¬
fore ordered that nobleman to be immediately arrefted
and fent over to Calais, where there was no danger of
his being refeued by his numerous adherents. The
4
- l8S
ihe king
taK.es the
power into
his own
hands.
earls of Arundel and Warwick were feized at the fame England,
time ; and a new parliament, which the king knew v—
would be perfectly obedient to his will, was fummoned
to Weftminfter. Here the commiflion of 14, who had
ufurped on the royal authority, was annulled for ever ;
all thofe aCts which had condemned his former minifters
were repealed; and the general pardon which the king
had formerly given when he affumed the government jgg
into his own hands, was revoked. Several of Gloucef- Duke of
ter’s party were condemned and executed, and at laft Gloucefter
that nobleman himfelf was called for to take his trialmurc trLCi'
as well as the reft ; but he had before been privately
difpatched in prifon.
After the deltruCfion of the duke of Gloucefter and
the heads of his party, a mifunderftanding arofe among
the noblemen who had joined in the profecution. The
duke of Hereford appeared in parliament, and accufed
the duke of Norfolk of having fpoken feditious words
againft his majefty in a private converfation. Norfolk
denied the charge, gave Hereford the lie, and offered
to prove his innocence by fingle combat. The chal¬
lenge was accepted ; but on the day appointed for the
duel, the king would not fuffer the combatants to en¬
gage, but commanded both of them to leave the king- jgy
dom. The duke of Norfolk he banifhed for life, but Dukes of
the duke of Hereford only for ten years. The former
retired to Venice, where in a fhort time he died of a ^ik
broken heart. Hereford behaved in a refigned anded.
fubmiffive manner ; which fo pleafed the king, that he
confented to ftiorten the time of his banifhment four
years: he alfo granted him letters patent, enfuring
him of the enjoyment of any inheritance which ftiould
fall to him during his abfence ; but upon the death of
his father the duke of Lancafter, which happened
fhortly after, Richard revoked thofe letters, and kept
the eftate to himfelf. 1S8
This laft injury inflamed the refentment of Here-Hereioic!
ford to fuch a degree, that he formed a defign of
throning the king. He was a great favourite both aethronh)g
with the army and people ; he was immeniely rich, the king,
and connedled by blood or alliance with all the great
families of the nation. The king at the fame time, it
is faid, gave himfelf up to an idle, effeminate life ; and
his minifters following his example, the national honour
was loft. The number of malecontents daily increafed,
and only waited for the abfence of the king, in order
to put their fchemes in execution ; and this opportu¬
nity foon offered.
The earl of March, prefumptive heir to the crown,
having been appointed the king’s lieutenant in Ireland,
was flain in a Ikirmiflr with the natives of that country;
which fo ineenfed Richard, that, unmindful of his
precarious fttuaticn at home, he went over to Ireland
with a confiderable army, in order to revenge his death
in perfon. The duke of Lancafter (for that was the
title which Hereford affumed on the death of his father)
hearing of the king’s abfence, inftantly embarked at
Nantz; and with a retinue only of 6a perfons in three
fmall veffels, landed at Ravenfpur in Yorkihire. The
earl of Nortl umberland, who had long been a male-
content, together with Henry Piercy his for, who from
his ardent valour was furnamed Hotfpur, immediately
joined him with their forces ; and the people flocked
to him in fuch numbers, that in a few days his ariny ^
amounted to 60,000 men.
Richard,
murdered.
ENG [
, England. Richard, in the mean time, continued in pcrfeft fe-
cunty in Ireland for lome time. Contrary winds for
three weeks together prevented his receiving any news
of the rebellion which was begun in his native domi¬
nions. He landed therefore at Milford Haven without
fufpicion, attended by a body of 2c,ooo men *, but im¬
mediately found himlelr oppofed by a power which he
could by no means refill. His army gradually defert-
ed him, till at la if he was obliged to acquaint the duke,
tSp that he would fubrait to whatever terms he pleafed to
Richard de-prefcribe. The duke did not think proper to enter
poled and ^ny treaty with the king; but carried him to
London, where he was confined clofe prifoner in
tae lower, formally depofed by parliament, or rather
by the duke of Lancafter, and at laft put to death.
1 he manner of his death Is varioufly related. Accord¬
ing to fome, eight or nine ruffians were lent to the
calfle of Pomfret, whither the unhappy prince had
been removed, in order to difpatch him. They rufh-
ed unexpectedly into his apartment; but Richard
knowing their defign, refolved to fell his life as dear as
pothble. . He vrrefted a pole-axe from one of the mur¬
derers, with which * killed four of them ; but was at
mgtn overpowered and killed. Others relate that lie
was ftarved in prifon ; and that, after he was denied all
™u™™.eRti> her prolonged his life 14 days, by feeding
190
Duke of
crown.
.Gn tlocks of his bed. He died in the year 1500
m the 34th year of his age, and 23d of his reign.—It
was during the reign of Richard II. that Wicklifi' the
noted reformer, publiflied his dodrines in England ’ See
WlCKLIFF.
_ - After fentence of depofition had been pronounced
claim to the u" rd botl1 houfes of parliament, the throne
  being then vacant, the duke of Lancafter ftepped
ioitn; and having crofted himfelf on the forehead and
on tae breaft, and called on the name of Chrift, gave
-Ws claim to the throne in the following words
which we fhail give in the original language. “ In
the name of Fadher, Son, and Holy Ghoft,°I Henry
o. Lancafter, challenge this rewme of Ynglonde, and
tae croun, with all the membres and the appurtenan¬
ces ; als I that am defeendit by right line of the blode
coming fro the gude King Henry therde, and throge,
that right that God of his grace hath fent me, with
help ot kyn, and of my frendes to recover it ; the which
rewme was in poynt to be ondone by defaut of govern¬
ance, and ondoying of the gude laws.”
I he right which the duke here claimed by defeent
irom Henry III. proceeded on a falfe ftory, that Ed¬
mund earl ox Lancafter, ion of Henry HI. was really
the elder brother of Edward I.; but that, by reafon of
tome deformity in his perfon, he had been poftponed
m the luccedion, and Edward the younger brother im-
pofed on the nation in his ftead. The prefent duke
or Lancafter inherited from Edmund, by his mother
tbe "gbt which he now pretended to the crown; though
the falfehood of the ftory was fo generally known, that
leGiought proper to mention it only in general terms.
--No oppofition, however, was made to the validity
cf this title in parliament ; and thus commenced the
differences between the houfes of York and Lancafter,
which were not terminated but by many bloody and
ruinous wars. y
. Tbe feign of Henry IV. was little elfe than a con¬
tinued fenes of mfurreftions. In the very firft parlia-
95 ] ENG
ment he called, ao fewer than 40 challenges were given England;
and accepted by different barons ; and though Henry —V~~~
had ability and addrefs enough to prevent thefe duels
from being fought, it was not in his power to prevent
continual imurrections and combinations againit him-
Jeu- 1 he molt formidable one was conducted by the
earl of Northumberland, and commenced A. D. 1402
ihe occafion of it was, that Henry denied the earl li¬
berty to ranfom fome Scots prifoners which had been
taken m a Ikirmifh with that nation. The king was
e.irous of detaining them in order to increafe his de-
mands upon Scotland in making peace; but as the
rantom of pntoners was in that age looked upon as a
nght belonging to thofe who had taken them, the earl
t.iought lumtell grievouily injured. The injury appear¬
ed flill the greater, becaufe Northumberland confider-
cd the king as indebted to him both for his life and
crown. He refolved therefore to dethrone Henry ■ r r*92
a.,d to raile to the throne young Mortimer, who ™ t^of'L
the true heir to the crown, as being the ton of Roger earl of
Mortimer earl of March, whom Richard II. had de- -°rthum-
clared his lucceffor. For this purpofe, he entered intoberlancL
an alliance with the Scots and Welfh, who were to
inake an irruption into England at the fame time that
he himfelf was to raife what forces he could in order to
join tiiern. But when all things were prepared for this
niiurrefhon, the earl found himfelf unable to lead om
tue troops, by a ludden fit of iilnefs with which he
was ierzed at Berwick. On this, young Piercy (fur-
mimed Hot/pur) took the command; and marched to¬
wards Snrewibury, in order to join the Wellh. But
the king had happily a fmall army with which he in¬
tended to have aefed againft the Scots ; and knowing
tne imnnrfnnr-p- nt • /-i , .
Ipt
Henry IV.
. o t ^ 7 ^liowinp*
. ^portance of celerity m civil wars, inftantly hur¬
ried down that he might give battle to the rebels. He
approached Shrewftmry before a junaion with the
V elfti could be elfeaed ; and the impatience of Piercy
urged him to an engagement, which at that time he
ought to have declined. The evening before the battle
he fent a mamfefto to Henry ; in which he renounced
his allegiance, let the king at defiance, and enumera¬
ted all the grievances of which he imagined the nation
might juftly complain. He reproached him (and very
juftly) with his perjury ; for Henry, on his firft land¬
ing in England, had fworn upon the gofpels, before
the earl of Northumberland, that he had no other in¬
tention but to recover poffeffion of the duchy of Lan¬
cafter, and that he would ever remain a faithful fubieft
to King Richard He aggravated his guilt, in firft:
detaining and then murdering that prince; and in
murpmg on the title of the houfe of Mortimer; to
whom, both by lineal fucceffion and by declarations of
parliament, the throne, then vacant by Richard’s death
did of right belong. Several other heavy charges were
brought againft him ; which, at that time, could be
productive of mo other effeH than to irritate the king
and Ins adherents to thg, utmoft. 6
I he armies on each fide were in number about ,
12,000; fo that they were not unmanageable by their am
commanders; and as both leaders were men of known killed at"
mavery, an obftmate engagement was expected. The Stoewto
battle was fought on the 20th of July 1403 ; and we burjr*
can fcarce find in thofe ages any other in which the
nock was fo terrible and conftant. At laft Piercy being
kuled by an unknown hand, the victory was decided
England.
E N
m favour of the royalifts.
*94
Archbilhop
of York ex¬
ecuted.
195 r
Burning of
heretics in¬
troduced.
G
      There are
fallen on that day near 2300 gentlemen, and 6000
private men, of whom near two thirds were of Piercy’s
army. . .
The earl of Northumberland having recovered from
his licknefs, and levied an army, was on his march to
loin his fon j but being oppofed by the earl of Welb
morland, and hearing of the defeat at Shrewlbury, he
difmiffed his forces, and came with a fmall retinue to
the king at York. He pretended that his foie inten¬
tion was to mediate between the contending parties j
and the king thought proper to accept of his apology,
and grant him a pardon for his offence. T he other re¬
bels were treated with equal lenity •, and none of them,
except the earl of Worceifer and Sir Richard \ ernon,
who were regarded as the chief authors of the mfurrec-
tion, perilhed by the hands of the executioner. This
lenity, however, was not fufficient to keep the king¬
dom quiet j one infurreftion folknved another almoll
during the whole of this reign j but either thiough
Henry’s vigilance, or the bad management of the con-
fpirators, they never could unite their forces in fuch a
manner as wras necellary for bringing their projefts to
bear.
This reign is remarkable for the firft capital pumih-
ment infliefed on a clergyman of high rank. The arch-
bilhop of York having been concerned in an infurrec-
tion againft the king, and happening_ to. be taken pri¬
soner, w-as beheaded without either indiftment, trial,
or defence } nor was any difturbance occafioned by
this fummary execution. But the molt remarkable
tranfaftion of this reign was, the introdudion of that
abfurd and cruel pradice of burning people on account
of their religion, Henry, while a iubjecl, wras thought
to have been very favourable to the doclrines of \\ ick-
liff j but when he came to the throne, finding his pof-
fefiion of it very infecure, he thought fuperftition a
necelfary implement of his authority, and therefore
determined by all means to pay court to the clergy.
There were hitherto no penal law's againft herefy •, not
indeed through the toleration of the court of Rome,
but through the ftupidity of the people, who could not
perceive the abfurdities of the eftablilhed religion. But
when the learning and genius of Wickliff had once
broken the fetters of prejudice., the ecclefiaftics called
aloud for the puniftiment of his difciples; and Henry,
who was very little fcrupulous in his condud, refolved
to gratify them. He engaged parliament to pafs a
law for this purpofe ; it was enaded, that . when , any
"heretic, w'ho relapfed, or refufed to abjure his opinions,
was delivered over to the fecular arm by the bifhop or
his commiffaries, he fhould be committed, to the flames
before the whole people, d his weapon did not remain
long unemployed in the hands of the clergy. W illiam
Sautre, redor of St Ofithes in London, had been con¬
demned by the convocation of Canterbury j his fen-
tence was ratified by the houfc of peers j the king if-
fued his writ for the execution •, and the unhappy man
was burnt alive in the yeaf 1401. The dodrines of
Wickliff, however, feem to have already gained ground
very confiderably in England. In 1405, the commons,
who had been required to grant fupplies, propofed in
plain terms to the king to feize all the temporalities of
the church, and employ them as a perpetual fund to
fejve the exigencies of the ftate. They infilled that
3
[ 96 ] ENG
faid to have the clergy poffeffed a third of the lands of the king- England,,
dom ) and they contributed nothing to the public bur-
dens ; and that their exorbitant riches tended only to
difqualify them from performing their minifterial func¬
tions writh proper zeal and attention. When this ad-
drefs was prefented, the archbilhop of Canterbury, wftio
then attended the king, objeaed that the clergy, though
they went not in perfon to the wars, lent their vaffals
and tenants in all cafes of neceflity } while at the lame
time, they themfelves who ftaid at home w ere employ¬
ed night and day in offering up their prayers for the
happinefs and profperity of the ftate. The fpeaker an-
fwered with a fmile, that he thought the prayers of the
church but a very llender fupply. The archbilhop,
howrever, prevailed in the difpute j the king difeoura-
ged the application of the commons j and the lords re-
jeaed the bill which the lower houfe had framed for
defpoiling the church of her revenues. The commons
were not difeouraged by this repulie. In 1410, they
returned to the charge with more zeal than before.
They made a calculation of all the ecclefiaftical reve¬
nues, which, by their account, amounted to 4855000
marks a-year, and included 18,400 ploughs of land.
They propofed to divide this property among i 5. new
earls, 1500 knights, 6000 efquires, and loo.hofpitals j
belides 20,000!. a-year, which the king might keep
for his own ufe : and they infilled that the clerical
funaions would be better performed than at pre-
fent, by 15,000 parifh priefts, at the rate of 7 marks
a-piece of yearly ftipend. This application was ac¬
companied with an addrefs for mitigating the ftatutes
enaaed againft the Wickliffites or Lollards, fo that the
king knew very well from what fource it came. He
gave the commons, however, a fevere reply , and fur¬
ther to fatisfy the church that he was in earneft, or¬
dered a Lollard to be burnt before the diffolution of
parliament.
The king had been for fome time fubjea to fits,
which continued to increafe, and gradually brought
him to his end. He expired at Weftminfter in 14x3,
in the 46th year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. 196
He was fucceeded by his fon Henry V. whofe martial HeniT
talents and charafter had at firft occafioned unreafon-
able jealoufies in the mind of his father, fo that he
thouglrt proper to exclude him from all (hare of public
bufinefs. The aftive fpirit of Henry being thus re-
ftrained from its proper exercile, broke out in every
kind of extravagance and diflipation. It is even re¬
ported, that, when heated with liquor, he fcrupled not
to accompany his riotous affociates in attacking the
paffengers on the ftreets and highways, and robbing
them of their goods. No fooner, however, did he
afeend the throne, than he called together his former
companions, acquainted them with his intended refor¬
mation, exhorted them to imitate his example 5 but
ftriaiy prohibited them, till they had given proofs of
their fincerity in this particular, to appear any more in
his prefence : after which, he difmiffed them with li¬
beral prefents. His father’s wife minifters, who had
checked his riots, found that they had, unknown to
themfelves, been paying the higheft court to their fo-
vereign, and were received w'ith all the marks of fa¬
vour and confidence. The chief juftice, who had for¬
merly imprifoned the prince himfelf, and therefore
trembled to approach the royal prefence, met with
praifes
England
ENG
I97
Enforces
the laws
againft
heretics.
pratfes mftead of reproaches for his part conduft, and
was exhorted to perfevere in the fame rigorous and im¬
partial execution of the laws. The king was not only-
anxious to repair his own mifeondua, but alfo to make
amends for thofe iniquities into which policy or necef-
fity of affairs had betrayed his father. He expreffed
the deepeff forrow for the fate of the unhappy King
Richard, and even performed his funeral obfequies
with pomp and Solemnity, and heaped favours upon
all thofe who had diown themfelves attached to him.
He took into favour the young earl of March, though
hu competitor for the throne j and gained fo far on
ms gentle and unambitious nature, that he remained
ever after fmcerely attached to him. The family of
Piercy was redored to its fortune and honours: and the
king leemed defireus to bury all didindions in obli-
vion. Men of merit were preferred, whatever party
ley iad been of j all men were unanimous in their at¬
tachment to Henry; and the defefts of his title were
forgotten amidd the perfonal regard which was univer-
ially paid him.
i he only party which Henry was not able to over¬
come was the new fed of Lollards, or reformers of re-
ngion 1 hole were now gaining fuch ground in Eng¬
land, that the Romilh clergy were greatly alarmed, and
Henry was determined to execute the laws upon them.
J he head of that party at prefent was Sir John Old-
P-nidSrl 1?°^^5 a nobleman who had didin-
g hed himfelf by his valour and military talents on
many occafions, and acquired the edeem both of the
!he nnd ?rofent.kinf\ .His hi£h charadter and zeal for
the new feft pointed him out to Arundel archbilhop of
Canterbury as a proper objedl of ecclefiadical fury, and
lerefoie he applied to Henry for permiffion to indift
; Th,e kl"S defired him fird to try gentle me-
_ods and undertook to converfe with Lord Cobham
iumfelf upon religious fubjefts. He did fo, but could
prevail, and therefore abandoned Cobham to his
enemies. He was immediately condemned to the
names ; but having found means to make his efcape
he raifed an mfurredHon 5 which was foon fiippreffed’
vithout any other confequence than that of bringing
a dam on the feft to which he belonged. Cobham
'vaT^l maCe,his efcaP^ but four years afterwards
5 ken ^ executed as a traitor. Immediately af-
.er tne mod fevere laws were paffed againd the Lol-
iaras. It was enafted, that whoever was convided of
Eollardy befides differing capital punifliment accord-
mg to the laws formerly edablilhed, diould alfo for-
eit his lands and goods to the king 5 and that the
chancellor, treafurer, judices of the two benches, die¬
nds judices of the peace, and all the chief magi-
J rS ^ e.very Clty and borough, diould take an oath
Lerefy thCir Utmort endeavours for the extirpation of
Notwithdanding thefe terrible laws, the very parlia-
TOent which enafted them, namely that of 1414, when
the king demanded a fupply, renewed the offer for¬
merly preffed upon Henry IV. and intreated the king
to feize all the ecclefiadical revenues, and convert them
to the ufe of tjie crown. The clergy were greatly a-
la med They could ^ the king nothing of equal
value. They agreed, however, to confer on him all the
priories alien, which depended on capital abbeys in
Vol vfil ParthTh Uad b““ be<lueathe<1 ‘hem
i 97 1
E N G
England..
when that province was united to England. The
mol effeblual method, however, of warding off the
blow at prefent was by perfuading the king to under¬
take a war with France, in order fo recover the pro-
vmces m that kingdom which had formerly belonged
to England. This was agreeable to the dying injunc¬
tion of Henry IV. He advifed his fon never fo lei tTe
Rnglidi remain long in peace, which was apt to breed
mtedine commotions; but to employ them in foreign
expeditions, by which the prince might acquire ho-
ta^ch’th er1Joblllty ju dianng his dangers might at-
•. r tbemfelves to his perfon, and ad the relllefs foi-
nts find occupation for their inquietude. The natural
difpofition of Henry fufficiently inclined him to follow
tins advice, and the civil diforders of France gave him
the faireft profpeft of fuccefs. Accordingly, fo 141 r Fr 198 -
Ae king lnvaded France at the head ofg3jj000
1 he great progrefs he made there is related at length
under the article France. He had efpoufed the king’s
daughter, and conquered the greateft part of the king-
w ,- f <lueen was delivered of a fon named Henry
vhofe birth was celebrated by the greateft rejoicing
both a, London and Paris; and the iSfent princi S
ea to be umverfally regarded as heir to both monarchies.
-but Henry s glory, when it feemed to be approach-
ng be fummit, foas blafted at once by death, and all
h,s mighty projects vaniilied. He was feized with a
not ffill f WhlCh at that time the Phyhcians had r99
enough to cure ; and he expired on the 3ift Death of
lOthThisVei^n.111 ' 34th °f hiS age> and theHenry V*
Henry VI. fucceeded to the throne before he was HenrvVT
quite a year old, and his reign affords only the moft
difmal accounts of misfortunes and civil wars! His
relations very foon began to difpute about the admi
mftration during the minority. The duke of Bed-
ord, one of the moft accompliftied princes of the age
was appointed by parliament proteftor of Englaifd’
defender of the church, and firft counfellor tf the
king. His brother the duke of Gloucefter, was fixed
upon to govern 111 his abfence, while he conduced the
uar m France; and 111 order to limit the power of both
brothers, a council was named, without whofe advice
cutionPPr0batl0n n° meakire COuld be carried into exe-
I he kingdom of France was now in the moft defpe-
rate fit nation. The Englifl, were mafters of almoft
the whole of it. Henry VI. though but an infant, was
folemnly invefteci wnh regal power by legates from Pa¬
ns ; fo that Charles VII. of France fucceeded only to
a nominal kingdom. With all thefe great advantages
however, the Enghlh daily loft ground; and in die
year 1450 were totally expelled from France*. l!*See
may eafily be imagined, that fuch a train of bad fuccefUSl
The dukrofTl dlfTtentS am?ng the rtders at borne. '
1 he duke of Gloucefter was envied by many on account
ofhisfoghft^on Among thefe was Hewy Beaufort
ifliop of Wmchefter, great uncle to the king, and the’
egitimate fon of John of Gaunt brother to llichard II
t’ 6 tQ wb°m the care of the king’s educa*
tion had been committed, was a man of great capaci
ZCL'TTX Mof an!nt-iguinsmd^gLuS
ofri a kad frequent difputes with the duke
«“™eofTr ' m he gail,ei1 feveral *i™«*g<*
on account of his ppen temper. The duke of Bed-
^ ford
ENG
[ 98 ]
ENG
‘England.
SOI
Mamed to
Margaret
of Anjou.
202
Duke of
Gloucefter
murdered.
ford employed botli his own authority and that of par
liament to reconcile them, but in vain; their mutual,
animofities ferved for feveral years to embarrafs go¬
vernment, and to give its enemies every advantage.
The fentiments of the two leaders were particularly di¬
vided with regard to France. _ The bifliop laid hold of
every profpeft of accommodation with that country 5
and the duke of Gloucefter was for maintaining the
honour of the Englifti arms, and regaining whatever
had been loft by defeats or delay. Both^ parties call¬
ed in all the auxiliaries they could. The biftiop re¬
vived to ftrengthen himfelf by procuring a proper
match for Henry, at that time 23 years old *, and then
bringing over the queen to his interefts. Accordingly,
the earl of Suffolk, a nobleman whom he knew to be
ftedfaft in his attachments, was fent over to France,
apparently to fettle the terms of a truce which had then
been begun, but in reality to procure a fuitable match
for the king.
The biftiop and his friends had caft their eyes on
Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Regnier, titular king
of Sicily, Naples, and Jerufalem ; but without either
real pow’er or poffeffions. She w7as conftdered as the
moft accompliftied princefs of the age, both in mind
and perfon 5 and it was thought would, by her own
abilities, be able to fupply the defeas of her hufband,
wha appeared wTeak, timid, and fuperftitious. 1 ie
treaty wTas therefore haftened on by Suffolk, and loon
after ratified in England. The queen came immedi¬
ately into the bifliop’s meafures : Gloucefter was depri¬
ved of all real power, and every method taken to ren-
der him odious to the public. One ftep taken for this
purpofe was to accufe his duchefs of witchciaft. She
was charged with converfing with one Roger Bolmg-
broke, a prieft and reputed necromancer; and alfo with
one Mary Gourdemain, who wras faid to be a witch.
It was afferted that thefe three in conjunaion had made
an image of the king in wax, which was placed before
a gentle fire: and as the wax diffolved, the king’s
ftrength was expeaed to wafte j and upon its total ail-
elution, his life was to be at an end. This accufation
Was jeadily believed in that fuperftitious age. The pri-
foners were pronounced guilty j the duchefs was con¬
demned to do penance and fuffer perpetual impnfon-
mentj Bolingbroke the prieft was hanged, ana the wo¬
man burnt in Smith field.
The biftiop, called alfo the Cardinal, of Winchefter,
was refolved to carry his refentment againft Gloucefter
to the utmoft. He procured a parliament to be fum-
moned, not at London, which was too well affected
to the duke, but at St Edmundlbury, where his adhe¬
rents were fufficiently numerous to overawe every op¬
ponent. As foon as Gloucefter appeared, he was accu-
fed of treafon and throwm into prifon \ and on the day
on which he was to make his defence, he was found
dead in his bed, though without any figns of violence
upon his body.
The death of the duke of Gloucefter was umverfally
afcribed to the cardinal of Winchefter, who himfelf
died fix weeks after, teftifying the utmoft remorfe for
the bloody fcene he had aaed. What (hare the queen
had in this tranfa6fion, is uncertain : but moft people
believed that without her knowledge the duke’s ene¬
mies durft not have ventured to take away his life.
The king himfelf {hared in the general ill-will, and he
never had the art to remove the fufpicion. His inca- , England, ^
pacity alfo began every day to appear more clearly,
and a pretender to the throne foon made his appear-
anCe> 203
In the vear 14 CO, Richard duke of York began to Duke of
think of preferring his claims to the crown. All the York’s title
males of the houfe of Mortimer were extinct 5 but crown>
Anne, the fifter of the laft earl of March, having efpou-
fed the earl of Cambridge, who had been beheaded lor
treafon in the reign of Henry V. had tranfmitted her
latent, but not yet forgotten claim, to her fon Bich¬
ard. This prince, defcended by his mother from Phi¬
lippa, only daughter of the duke of Clarence, fecond
fon of Edward III. flood plainly in order of lucceflion
before the king*, who derived his defcent from the
duke of Lancafter, third fon of that monarch. The
duke was a man of valour and abilities, as well as of
fome ambition \ and he thought the weaknefs and un¬
popularity of the prefent reign afforded a favourable
opportunity to affert his title. The enfign of Richaid
was a white rofe, that of Henry a red one 5 and this
gave names to the two faaions, who were now about
to drench the kingdom in blood. 2°4
After the cardinal of Winchefter’s death, the duke Duke of
of Suffolk, who alfo had been concerned in the affaffi-^fi¬
liation of Gloucefter, governed every thing with uncon¬
trollable fway. His condud foon excited the jealoufy of
the other nobility, and every odious or unfuccefsful mea-
fure was attributed to him. I he duke, however, ima-
gining that his crimes were of fuch a nature as could
not be proved, boldly called upon his enemies to ftiow
an inftance of his guilt. The houfe of commons im¬
mediately opened againft him a charge of corruption,
tyranny, and treafon. He was acculed of being the
caufe of the lofs of France ; of perfuading the French
king, with an armed force, to invade England ; and of
betraying the fecrets of ftate. The popular refentment
againft him was fo ftrong, that Henry, in order to le-
cure him as much as poflible, fentenced him to five
years baniflnnent. This was confidered by his enemies
as an efcape from juftice. The captain of a Ihip was
therefore employed to intercept him in his paffage to And murw
France. He was feized near Dover, his head ftruckdered.
off on the fide of a long-boat, and his body thrown in¬
to the fea. 206
The complaints againft Henry’s government were infurrec-
heightened by an mfurreftion headed by one John tion of John
Cade, a native of Ireland. He had been obliged to fly Cade,
over into France for his crimes : but, on his return,
feeing the people prepared for violent meafures, he af-
fumed the name of Mortimer; and, at the head of
20,000 Kentifh men, advanced towards Blackheath.
The king fent a meffage to demand the caufe of their
riling in arms. Cade in the name of the community
anfwered, That their only aim was to puniftr evil mi-
nifters, and procure a redrefs of grievances for the peo¬
ple. On this a body of 15,000 troops was levied j
and Henry marched with them in perfon againft Cade,
who retired on his approach, as if he had been afraid
of coming to an engagement. He lay m ambufti, how¬
ever in a wood •, not doubting but he fliould be pur-
fued, by the king’s whole army : but Henry was con¬
tent with fending a detachment after the fugitives, and
returned to London himfelf', upon which Cade iffued
Lorn his ambufcade, and cut the detachment in pieces.
Soon
ENG £ 99 ] ENG
Engfand. Soon after, the citizens of London opened their gates
' 1 v - t;0 ^]ie yiftor j and Cade, for fome time, maintained
great order and regularity among his followers. He
always led them out into the fields in the night-time,
and publilhed feveral edidls againfl plunder and violence
of any kind. He was not, however, long able to keep
his people in fubjedfion. He beheaded the treafurer
Lord Say, without any trial ; and foon after, his troops
committing fome irregularities, the citizens refolved to
fhut their gates againlf him. Cade endeavouring to
force his way, a battle enfued, which lalted all day, and
was ended only by the approach of night. The arch-
bifliop of Canterbury, and the chancellor, who had ta¬
ken refuge in the towTer, being informed of the fitua-
txon of affairs, drew up, during the night, an a61 of
amnefly, which wras privately difperfed among the re¬
bels. This had fuch an effedl, that in tile morning
Cade found himfelf abandoned by his followers; and
retreating to Rochefter, was obliged to fly alone into
the woods. A price being fet on his head by procla¬
mation, he was difcovered and flain by one Alexander
Eden •, who, in recompenfe for this fervice, was made
207 governor of Dover caftle.
Duke of The court now began to entertain fufpicions that
,fl!f" the infurredlion of John Cade had not happened mere-
the court. *7 confequence of his owm machinations and ambi¬
tion, but that he had been inftigated thereto by the
duke of York, who, as w7e have already feen, pretended
a right to the crown. As he was about this time ex-
pedled to return from Ireland, and a report took place
that he was now to aflert his fuppofed right by force
of arms, orders were iflued in the king’s name to deny
him entrance into England. This was prevented
by his appearing with no more than his ordinary at¬
tendants j but though he thus efcaped the danger for
the prefent, he inftantly faw the neceflity of proceed¬
ing in fupport of his claim. His partizans were in-
2cg ftrucled to diftinguifh between his right by fucceflion
Arguments and by the lawrs of the kingdom. The adherents of
foi and a- Lancafter maintained, that though the advancement of
houfes of6 Hcnry 1V- might be looked upon as irregular, yet it
York and was f°un<ied upon general confent ; or, even allowing
Lancafter. it to have been at firfl invalid, it had now been for a
long time eflabliflied, and acquired folidity of confe¬
quence ; nor could the right of fucceflion at any rate
be pleaded for the purpofe of overthrowing the gene¬
ral peace and tranquillity of the kingdom. The prin¬
ciples of liberty as well as the maxims of true policy
had been injured by the houfe of York 5 while the pub¬
lic wrere bound to thofe of Lancafter, no lefs by politi¬
cal than moral duty, in confequence of the oaths of
fealty that had been fo often {worn to them; the
duke of York himfelf having repeatedly fwTorn alle¬
giance to them, and thus indiredlly renounced thofe
claims wrhich he now brought forward to difturb the
public tranquillity. On the part of the duke of
York, it wTas replied, that the good of the people re¬
quired the maintenance of order in the fucceflion of
princes; that, by adhering conftantly to this rule,
a number of inconveniences wrould be prevented
w-hich muft otherwife enfue ; and though that or¬
der had been broken through in the cafe of Hen¬
ry IV. it wras never too late to remedy any pernicious
precedent. It would indeed be a great encourage¬
ment to ufurpers, if the immediate pofleflion of power, England.
or their continuance in it for a few years, could con-   
vert them into legal princes ; and the people muft be
in a very miferable fttuation, if all reftraints on vio¬
lence and ambition were taken off, and full liberty
given to every innovator to make what attempts he
pleafed. They did not indeed deny that time might
confer folidity on a government originally founded' in
ufurpation j but a very long courfe of years wras not
only required for this purpofe, but a total extindion
of thofe who had any juft title. The depofttion of
Richard II. and advancement of Henry IV. were not
legal adls, but the effecls of mere levity in the people j
in which the houfe of York had acquiefced from ne¬
ceflity, and not from any belief of the juftice of their
caufe ; nor could this be ever interpreted into any re¬
nunciation of their pretenftons j neither could the re-
Iteration of the true order of fucceflion be conftdered
as an encouragement to rebellion and turbulence, but
the corredtion of a former abufe by which rebellion
had been encouraged. Befides, the original title of
Henry IV. was founded entirely on prelent conveni¬
ence j and even this was now entirely fhifted to the
houfe of York. The prefent prince was evidently in¬
capable of governing the kingdom by reafon of his
imbecility ; fo that every thing was governed either
by corrupt minifters or an imperious queen, who en¬
gaged the nation in foreign connedtions entirely con¬
trary to its interefts ; while, on the other hand, the true
heir of the crown was a prince of approved judgment
and experience, and a native of England, who, by hfs re-
ftoration, would undoubtedly corredt all thofe abufes of
which there was now fuch juft reafon to complain.
In this difpute it was evident that the houfe of
York had the better in point of argument : neverthe-
lefs, as a prince of the houfe of Lancafter w-as in imme¬
diate poffeflion of the throne, and could by no means
be charged with any crime, the caufe of the former was
lefs generally interefting ; efpecially as it muft always
have been uncertain, a priori, whether the duke of York
wmuld have governed any better than King Henry. 20*
After his return from Ireland, however, the former LHe duke
ufed all his powder and influence to foment the difeon-”fYork:
tents wdnch had for fome time prevailed in the king-
dom ; and the condudt of the next parliament mani-between113
felled the fuccefs of his intrigues. A violent attack the king
vras made upon fuch noblemen as were known to beanf* P21111'*-
moft in favour with the king. The houfe of com-ment*
mons prefented a petition againft the duke of Somer-
fet, the duchefs of Suffolk, the bilhop of Chefter,
Lord Dudley, and feveral others of inferior rank *
praying not only that the king would remove them
from his council, but that he would prohibit them
from coming within twelve miles of the court. Hen¬
ry, not daring to refofe this petition altogether, con-
fented to banifli all thofe of inferior rank, whom the
commons had fpecified, but only for a year j and this
too on condition that he had no ufe for their afliftance
in quelling any rebellion. But he rejedted a bill for
attainting the late duke of Suffolk, and propofed fome
other meafures which feemed to militate againft the
court, though it had paffed both the houfe of lords
and the houfe of commons. '
Encouraged by this difagreement between Henry
N 2 and
ENG t i°o ] ENG
England.
an
But is obli¬
ged to re¬
tire.
ta
s ap-
213
Is depofed
and levies
an army.
214
Hiitory of
the civil
war be¬
tween Hem
ry and the
duke of
York.
and his parliament, the duke of York railed an ar¬
my of 10,000 men, with whom he marched towards
London, demanding a reformation in matters of go¬
vernment, and the removal of the duke of Somerfet.
This firft enterprife, however, proved unfuccefsful 5
the gates of the city were ftmt againft him, and he was
purfued by the king at the head of a fuperior army.
On this he retired into Kent j and as there was a
number of his own friends in the army of the king, a
conference took place, in which Richard ftill infilled
upon the removal of the duke of Somerfet, and his
fubmitting to be tried in parliament. This requeft,
was in appearance complied with, and Somerfet ar-
relted ; the duke of York was then perfuaded to wait
upon the king in his royal pavilion •, but, on repeat¬
ing his charge againft the duke, he was furprifed to
fee the latter come out from behind the curtain, and
offer to maintain his innocence. Richard perceiving
that he had not fufficient intereft to ruin his adverfary,
pretended to be fatisfied, and retired to his feat at Wig-
more in Wales j and during the time he relided there,
a better opportunity was given him of accomplifhing
his deligns than he could have hoped for. The
king fell into a kind of lethargic diforder, which in-
creafed his natural imbecility to fuch a degree, that
he could no longer retain a ftiadow of royalty. Rich¬
ard now had intereft enough to get himlelf appointed
protestor, with power to hold parliaments at pleafure 5
with wrhich high office he wTas no fooner invefted, than
he turned out all the Lancaftrian party from their
offices, and fent the duke of Somerfet to the tower j
but on the recovery of the king, which happened in
no long time after, he himfelf was diimiffed from his
employment, the duke of Somerfet releafed, and the
adminiftration once more put into his hands. On
this the duke of York levied an army, merely as he
pretended, to enforce the reformation of government
and the removal of the duke of Somerfet. Thus
Henry, though fore againft his will, wras obliged to
face him in the field. A battle enfued at St Al¬
ban’s ; in which the royalifts were defeated,. and the
duke of Somerfet, the chief partifan of their caufe,
killed in the aftion. The king himfelf was wounded,
and took ffielter in a cottage near the field of battle j
where he was taken prifoner, but was afterwards treat¬
ed with great refpecl and kindnefs by the duke of
York.
Henry, though he wTas now only a prifoner treated
w ith the forms of royalty, was neverthelefs pleafed with
his fituation j but his queen, a wroman of a bold and
mafculine fpirit, could not bear to have only the ap¬
pearance of authority, while others enjoyed all the real
powder. She therefore excited the king once more to
affert his right by force of arms j and after feveral ma¬
noeuvres, the duke of York was obliged to retire from
court. A negotiation for peace wras at firft fet on foot,
but the mutual diftrufts of both parties foon broke it off.
The armies met at Bloreheath on the borders of Stafford-
ihire, on the 23d of September 1459 5 and the Yorkifts at
firft gained fome advantages. But wffien a more general
engagement was about to enfue, a body of veterans wffio
ferved under the duke of York deferted to the king j
and this fo intimidated the duke’s party, that they Se¬
parated the next day without itriking a blow7. The
duke of York fled to Ireland; and the earl of War- England,
wick, one of his ableft and beft fupporters, efcaped to'——J
Calais, with the government of which he had been en-
trufted during the late proteftorfhip.
The York party, though thus in appearance fup-
preffed, only waited a favourable opportunity of re¬
trieving their affairs. Nor was this opportunity long
wanting. Warwick having met with fome fuccefles
at fea, landed in Kent ; and being there joined by
other barons, marched up to London amidft the ac¬
clamations of the people. The city immediately open¬
ed its gates to him, and he foon found himfelf in a
condition to face the royal army. An engagement en¬
fued at Northampton on the lothof July 1460; in
wffiich the royalifts were entirely defeated, and the
king again taken prifoner. The duke of York then
openly laid claim to the crown ; and on this occa-
fion the firft inftance of a fpirit of national liberty is
faid to have appeared in the houfe of lords. The
caufe of Henry and the duke of York wras folemnly
debated ; and the latter, though a conqueror, did not
abfolutely gain his caufe. It was determined that
Henry fliould poffefs the throne during his life ; and
that the duke of York Ihould be appointed his fuccef-
for, to the utter exclufion of the prince of Wales, who
was then a child.
Though the royal party now feemed deftitute of
every refource, the queen ftill retained her intrepidity.
She fled into Wales, wffiere ffie endeavoured to raife
another army. The northern barons, provoked at the
fouthern ones for fettling the government and fuccef-
fion to the crown without their confent, foon furnifil¬
ed her with an army of 20,000 men. Another battle
was fought near Wakefield Green, on the 24th of De- t
cember 1460. The Yorkifts were defeated, and the Duke of
duke himfelf was killed in the adlion. His head was York kills
afterwards cut off by the queen’s orders, and fixed onecb
one of the gates of York, wdth a paper-crown, in de-
rifion of his pretended title. His fon the earl of Rut¬
land, a youth of 17, was taken prifoner, and killed
in cold blood by Lord Clifford, in revenge for his fa¬
ther’s death, who had fallen in the battle of St Alban’s.
After this victory, Margaret marched towards Lon¬
don, in order to fet the king at liberty ; but the earl
of Warwuck, wffio now put himfelf at the head of the
Yorkifts, led about the captive king, in order to give
a fanftion to his proceedings. He engaged the queen’s
forces at St Alban’s; but through the treachery of
Lord Lovelace, wffio deferted during the heat of the
engagement with a confiderable body of forces, War¬
wick w?as defeated, and the king fell once more into
the hands of his own party.
The fubmiffion of the city of London feemed now
to be the only thing wanting to complete the queen’s
fuccefs ; but Warwick had fecured it in his interefts,
and the citizens refufed to open their gates to the
queen. In the mean time, young Edward, eldeft fon
of the late duke of York, put himfelf at the head of
his father’s party. He was now in the bloom of youth,
remarkable for the beauty of his perfon and his bra¬
very, and was a great favourite of the people. He de¬
feated Jafper Tudor earl of Pembroke, at Mortimer’s
crofs in Herefordfhire. The earl himlelf was taken
prifoner, and immediately beheaded by Edward’s or¬
ders.
ENG [ i
England. Jers. After this, he advanced to London ; and being
joined by the remainder of Warwick’s army, he foon
217 ,
Affairs of
the queen
totally
ruined.
EdwardIV. °b%ed Margaret to retire, entered the city amidit the
acclamations of the people, and was crowned king on
the 5th of March 1461.
Nothwithftanding all her misfortunes, however, Mar¬
garet Hill continued undaunted. She retired to the
north, where die was foon joined by fuch numbers,
that her army amounted to 60,000 men. She was
oppofed by young Edward and Warwick at the head
of 40,000 5 and both armies met near Teuton in the
county of York,^ on the 29th of March 1461. A
bloody battle enfued, in which the queen’s army was
totally defeated ; and as Edward, prompted by his na¬
tural cruelty, had ordered no quarter to be given,
40,000 of the Lancadrians were flain in the field or in
the purfuit. Edward is faid to have gained this vic¬
tory by means of a violent dorm of fnow, which blew
full in the face of the queen’s army, and fo blinded
them that they could fcarcely make any ufe of their
arms. After this difader the queen fled to Scotland
with her hufliand and fon ; and notwithdanding all the
misfortunes die had already met with, refolved once
more to enter England at the head of 5000 men
granted her by the king of France. But even here fne
was attended by her ufual bad fortune. Her little
fleet was difperfed by a temped, and flie herfelf efca-
ped with tile utmod ditficulty by entering the mouth
of the Tweed. Soon after, a defeat, which her few
forces ludained at Hexham, leemed to render her
caufe entirely defperate 5 and the cruelties pra&ifed
upon all her adherents rendered it very dangerous to
befriend her.
  By thefe repeated misfortunes the houfe of Lancaf-
of the king ter was fo effeaually ruined, that Margaret was obliged
and queen, to. feparate from her hufliand, and both of them to
drift for themfelves the bed way they could. The king
was dill protedled by fome of his friends, who convey¬
ed him to Lancafhire, where he remained in fafety for
a twelvemonth ; but being at lad difeovered, he was
thrown into the Tower and kept clofe prifoner. The
queen fled with her fon to a fored, where die was fet
upon by robbers, who dripped her of her rings and
jewels, treating her otherwife with the utmod indigni¬
ty. . A quarrel wdiich happened among them about the
divifion of the fpoil afforded her an opportunity of efca-
ping from their hands into another part of the fored
where die wandered for fome time without knowing
what to do. At lad, when quite fpent with hunger and
fatigue, flie faw a robber coming up to her with a drawn
fwmrd in his hand. I hiding it altogether impoflible to
efcape, die luddenly took the refolution of putting her¬
felf under his protection. Advancing towards him,
therefore, and prefenting the young prince, “ 116^
(fays die), my friend, I commit to your care the fafety
of your king’s fon.” This addrefs fo much furprifed
the robber, that, inflead of offering her any injury, he
profeffed himfelf entirely devoted to her fervice. After
219 living for fome time concealed in the forefl, die was at
laft conduced to the fea-fide, where die found a diip
which conveyed her to Flanders. On her arrival there,
die wTent to her father’s houfe, who, though very poor,
gave her fuch entertainment as he could afford 5 and in
this retreat die daid fome years in expectation of find¬
ing an opportunity of retrieving her affairs.
218
Adventures
retires to
Flanders.
01 ] ENG
Edward, in the mean time, thinking himfelf fe- Englanch-
curely fixed on the throne, gave a loofe to his fa-'   r
vourite paffions j one of which was an immoderate love
of women. To divert him from this, the earl of 22Q
Warwick, to whom he was indebted for his crown, ad-Warwick
viled him to marry. Edward confented, and fent himdffgnftcd by
over to the continent to negotiate a match with the Edwarth
princefs of Savoy. The negotiation proved fuccefsful 5
but, in the mean time, the king had privately efpoufed
Elizabeth Wood vide, daughter to Sir Philip Wood-
ville, who had married the duchefs of Bedford after th«
death of her fir A hufband. Edward had employed his
aits of feduCtion againd this lady in vain before he
married her 5 but unfortunately the match was conclud-
ed juft at the time that the earl of Warwick had pro-
1 ed iuccefsful in his negotiation with the princels of
Savoy. I he minider therefore returned full of indig¬
nation againd his fovereign ; and Edward, forgetting
how great caufe he had to be offended, determined to re¬
move him entirely from his councils. Warwick was like-
wife difgufted by the favour fliown to the queen’s par¬
ty ; which, though certainly a piece of very commend¬
able, policy in Edwrard, was entirely difagreeable to the
ambitious difpofition of that nobleman. A plan of re¬
venge. was therefore thought of; and a mod powerful
combination was formed againft Edward : to accomplifh
which, Warwick not only employed his own influence,
which was very extenfive, but likewife that of the duke The kingT
of Clarence, Edward’s brother, to whom the earl had al-brother ^
lied himfelf by giving him his daughter in marriage: afteriains in the
which he perfuaded him to embrace his caufe. Some cir- C0I^P'‘:*C/
cumftances which took place about this time alfo favour-3^1™
ed the fcheme. The inhabitants about St Leonard’s in 22C,
Yorklhire complained, that the duties levied for that in- An infur-
di tut ion, and which had been originally appointed for re<d,on m
pious purpofes, were fecreted by the managers, who Yo,kfllU'e*
refilled to contribute their part. As the clergy were
concerned in this affair, they attempted to filence their
antagonids by ecclefiaftical fulminations againft them ;
upon which the latter took up arms, fell upon the offi¬
cers of the hofpital, and having maffacred them, pro¬
ceeded towards York, to the number of 15,000. In
the. firft fkirmifli, they had the misfortune to lofe
their leader, who was inflantly executed. The rebels
however, dill continued in arms,, and in a fliort time,
appeared in fuch numbers as to become formidable
to government. Henry earl of Pembroke was fent
againft them with a body of 5000 men ; and having
taken Sir. Henry Nevil, one of the leaders of the infur-
gents, prifoner, inftantly put him to death 5 but this
was foon revenged by a fimilar execution on himfelf
who happened to be defeated and taken prifoner a ftiort
time after. I his defeat had been occafioned by a dif-
agreement betwixt the earls of Pembroke and Devon-
fliirej in confequence of which the latter had gone off
with his troops, leaving Pembroke to ffiift for himfelf
the bed way he could. The king, enraged at this,
caufed Devonffiire to be executed in a like fummary
manner : but this was of no fervice to his caufe 5 a new
body of infurgents appeared under Sir Robert Welles,
Ion to a nobleman of that name. The latter, in order
to fecure himfelf from all fufpicions of dilloyalty, fled
to a monaftery; but he was foon enticed from thence
and put to death by the infidious promifes of King Ed¬
ward, whole treachery was equal to his cruelty. His
^ fon*
England.
2 23
V/arwick
and Cla¬
rence join
the infur-
gents.
224
Reconcilia¬
tion be¬
twixt War
wick and
•the queen.
225
He lands
in Eng¬
land.
ENG [ 102 ]
fon foon after flxared the fame fate, being defeated and tainders
taken prifoner by Edward, who inftantly ordered him
to be beheaded, along with Sir I homas Launde and
other perfons of diftinftion.
Notwithftanding fuch an appearance of a general
infurreftion, the king had fo little fufpicion of the loy¬
alty of Warwick and Clarence, that he employed them
in raifing troops to quell the infurgents. Inftead of
executing their commiflion with fidelity, however, they
joined the malecontents with all the forces they could
raife ; but being quite difconcerted liy the defeat and
death of Sir Robert Welles, they retired to Lancaflure,
in hopes of being joined by Lord Stanley, who had
married the earl of Warwick’s fifter. Being difap-
pointed in this, they were obliged to difhand their ar¬
my, and fly into Devonlhire, whence they fet fail for
Calais. Upon their arrival on the continent, matters
feemed not to be much mended : the deputy-governor,
whom Warwick had left, refufed him admittance; nor
would he even allow the duchefs of Clarence to land,
though flie had been delivered of a fon on board on¬
ly a very few days before, and was at that time ex¬
tremely ill. Being well acquainted, however, with the
uncertainty of the affairs of England at that time, he
afterwards made an apology to Warwick for this beha¬
viour. The latter pretended to be eafily reconciled j
but immediately left the place, having feized fome Fle-
mifli veffels which he found lying in the neighbourhood.
As a very clofe alliance fubfifted between Warwick
and the duke of Burgundy, the king of France be¬
came uneafy and therefore, as foon as the earl landed
in his dominions, received him with the greateft marks
of efteem. The reconciliation betwixt him and the
unfortunate Queen Margaret now feemed to be natu¬
ral, though, confidering all circumftances, this muft have
formerly appeared in a manner impoflible. The earl’s
father had been put to death by the orders of Margaret 5
and Warwick, in return, had twice taken prifoner
King Henry, baniflied the queen, and put to death
almoft all their faithful adherents. By the mediation
of the French monarch, however, all differences were
accommodated. A fleet was prepared to recondiidt
them to England j and feizing a proper opportunity,
they landed at Dartmouth wuth a fmall body of troops,
while Edward was in the north fuppreffmg an infurrec-
tion which had lately appeared there. Warwick was
attended with aftoniftiing fuccefs on his arrival in Eng¬
land, and in lefs than fix days faw himfelf at the head
of 60,000 men. Edwrard was now obliged in his turn
to fly’the kingdom. Having jnarrowly efcaped an at ¬
tempt made upon his perfon by the marquis of Mon¬
tague, he embarked on board a fmall fleet which lay
off Lynn in Norfolk. While at fea, he was chafed by
lome (hips belonging to the Hans 1 owns that wrere
then at w;ar both with France and England ; but at
length, having efcaped all dangers, Edward landed
fafely in Holland, where he met with but an indiffe¬
rent reception from the duke of Burgundy, with whom
he had lately entered into an alliance.
Warwick in the mean time advanced to London, and
once more releafed and placed on the throne the mi-
ferable king Henry VI. A parliament was called,
which very folemnly confirmed Henry s title to the
throne, and Warwick himfelf was dignified by the
•people with the title of the king-maker. All the at-
2
ENG
of the Lancaftrians were reverfed 5 and every England,
one was reftored who had loll either honours or for-' v
tune by his former adherence to Henry’s caufe. All
the adherents of Edward fled to the continent, or
took fhelter in monafteries, where they were pro-
tefted by the ecclefialiical privileges. But Edward’s
party was not yet deftroyed. After an abfence of nine
months, being feconded by a fmall body of troops
granted him by the duke of Burgundy, he made a de-
fcent at Ravenfpur in Yorkflrire. At firff he met wTith
little fuccefs j but his army increafing on his march,
he was foon in a condition to appear before the ca¬
pital, which immediately opened hs gates.
The unfortunate Henry was thus again plucked from
the throne ; and the hopes of Warwick were almofi:
totally blafted by the defe&ion of Clarence, Edward’s
brother. Nothing now remained but to come to an
engagement as foon as poffible. Warwick knew his
forces to be inferior to thofe of Edward, but placed
great dependence on his own generahhip. He there¬
fore advanced to Barnet, within ten miles 01 London,
where he refolved to wait the coming of Edward. Fhe
latter foon came up with him, and on the 14th of
April 1471 a moft obftinate and bloody battle was
fought. Edwrard, according to cuftom, had ordered no
quarter to be given j and obtained the victory through
a miftake of a body of Warwick’s forces, wdio fell wdth
fury on their own party inffead of the enemy. I. he earl
himfelf was flain, together with his brother, and 10,000
of his braveft followers.
The queen was juft then returned with her fon from
France, where fhe had been foliciting fupplies. She
had fcarce time to refrefh herfelf from the fatigues of
the voyage, when fhe received the fatal news of the
death of Warwick, and the total deftru&ion of her
party. All her relolution was not able to fupport her
under fuch a terrible difafter. Her grief now for the
firft time, it is faid, manifefted itfelf by her tears ;
and fhe immediately took fanftuary in the abbey of
Beaulieu in Hampfhire. Here fhe ftill found foirfe
friends willing to aflift her. Tudor earl of Pembroke,
Courtney earl of Devonfhire, the lords W enlock and
St John, with fome other men of rank, encouraged her
yet to hope for fuccefs, and promifed to ftand by her
to the laft. On this affurance, fire refumed her courage 4
and advancing through the counties of Devon, Somer-
fet, and Gloucefter, increafed her army every day. At
laft, however, fhe was overtaken by Edward with his
viftorious army at TLewkefbury, on the banks of the
Severn. The queen’s army was totally defeated ^ the
earl of Devonfhire and Lord Wenlock were killed in the
field •, the duke of Somerfet, and about 20 other per¬
fons of diftiniftion, who had taken fhelter in a church,
wTere furrounded, dragged out, and immediately be¬
headed ; about 3000 of their party fell in battle, and
the army was entirely difperfed. Queen Margaret and
her fon were taken prifoners, and brought to the king,,r0ta] de.
who afked the prince in an infulting manner, how he ftrudion of
dared to invade his dominions ? The young prince re" thaert^een 3
plied, that he came thither to claim his juft inheritance j ^
upon which Edward ftruck him on the face with his
gauntlet. The dukes of Clarence and Gloucefter, Lord
Haftings, and Sir Thomas Gray, taking this blow as
a fignal for farther violence, hurried the prince into
the next apartment, and there difpatched him with
their
ENG [ i
England, their daggers. Margaret was thrown into the tower
along with her hufband Henry, who expired in that
confinement a few days after. It was univerfally be¬
lieved that he was murdered by the duke of Gloucefler,
though of this there was no direct evidence. Marga¬
ret was ranfomed by the king of France for 50,000
crowns, and died a few years after in a moft miferable
lituation.
Edward being now freed from all his enemies, began
to inHi<51 punifhment on thofe who had formerly ap¬
peared againft him. Among the cruelties he commit¬
ted, that on his brother the duke of Clarence was the
moil remarkable. Fhe king happening to be one day
hunting in the park of Thomas Burdet, a fervant of
the duke, killed a white buck which was a great favou¬
rite of the owner. Burdet, vexed at the lofs, broke
out into a paflion, and wdfhed the horns of the deer in
the belly of the perfon who advifed the king to that
infult. For this exclamation Burdet was tried for his
life, and executed at Tyburn. The duke of Clarence
exclaimed againft the iniquity of this fentence 3 upon
which he was arraigned before the houfe of peers, found
guilty, and condemned to death. The only favour
granted him was to have the choice of his death 3 and
Ins choice wras a very lingular one, namely, to be drown¬
ed in a butt of Malmfey wane 3 which wras according¬
ly done.—The reft of this reign affords little elfe than
a . hiftory of the king’s amours. Among his many
miftreffes, Jane Shore wras the moft remarkable 3 (fee
Shore). The king died on the 9th of April 1482,
in the 42ft year of his age, and 21ft of his reign, count¬
ing from his firft affuming the crown. Befides five
daughters, he left two fons 3 Edward prince of Wales,
his fucceffor, then in his 13 th year 3 and Richard duke
of York in his 9th.
On the death of Edward IV. the kingdom wras di¬
vided into new factions. The queen’s family, which,
during the laft reign, had come into power, was become
obnoxious to the old nobility, who confidered them as
their inferiors. The king had endeavoured to prevent
thefe animofities from coming to a height, by defiring
on his death-bed that his brother Richard duke of Glou-
cefter fhould be entrufted with the regency 3 and re¬
commended peace and unanimity during the minority
of his fon. But the king w^as no fooner dead than the
former refentment between thefe parties broke out with
violence 3 and the duke of Gloucefter, who wras endued
with almoft every bad quality, refolved to profit by
their contentions. His firft ftep was to get himfelf de-
Gloucefter dared proteftor of the realm 3 and having arrefted the
dedartd earl of Rivers, the king’s uncle and guardian, he met
young Edward in his way from Ludlow caftle, where
the late king had refided during the latter part of his
reign, and refpedlfully offered to condudt him to Lon¬
don. Having thus fecured the perfon of the king, he
next got poffeflion of his brother’s perfon alfo. The
queen had retired with this child into Weftminfter ab¬
bey 3 and it was not without extreme regret that fhe
delivered him up at the interceftion of the primate and
archbifhop of York.
In a few days after Gloucefter had made himfelf ma-
fter of the perfons of the two princes, he had them
confined in the tower, under pretence of guarding them
froin danger 3 and foon after fpread reports of their
illegitimacy, and by pretended gbftacles put off the
’'228
Edward V.
>229
Duke of
protestor.
03 ] ENG
young king’s coronation. Lord Stanley firft began’to- England,
fufpeft his defigns 3 and communicated his fufpicions
to Lord Haftings, who had long been firmly attached
to the king’s family. Lord Haftings would not at firft
give credit to this furmife 3 but he very foon had a fa¬
tal proof of the truth of what had been communicated
to him. On the 13th of June 1483, he wras hurried
out of the council-room in the tower by Gloucefter’s
order, and beheaded on a log of timber. The foldiers
who carried him off made a buftle as though an attempt
had been made to refcue him, and one of them dif-
charged a blow at Lord Stanley’s head with a pole¬
axe 3 but he happily efcaped by fhrinking under the ta¬
ble. The fame day were executed the Earl Rivers,
and fome others, wdio had committed no other crime
than being faithful to the young king.
The protestor now thought he might with fafety
lay claim to the throne. He had previoufly gained
over the duke of Buckingham, a nobleman of great
influence among the people. He ufed his utmoft en¬
deavours to infpire the people with a notion of the il¬
legitimate birth of the late king, and confequently of
his children. Dr Shaw, a popular preacher, was alfo
hired to harangue the people to the fame purpofe from
St Paul’s crofs. Having expatiated on the inconti¬
nence of the queen, and the illegality of the young
king’s title, he then made a panegyric on the virtues
of the protestor. “ It is the protedtor (continued he)
who carries in his face the image of virtue, and the
marks of a true defcent. He alone can reftore the loft
glory and honour of the nation.” It wTas hoped that
upon this occafion fome of the populace would have
cried out, “ Long live King Richard !” but the audi¬
ence remaining filent, the duke of Buckingham under¬
took in his turn to perfuade them. Flaving expatiated
on the calamities of the laft reign and the illegitimacy
of the prefent race, he told the people, that he law on¬
ly one method of warding off the miferies which threa¬
tened the ftate, which w7as by eledling the protedlor 3
but he feemed apprehenfive that he would never be pre-,
vailed upon to accept a crowm accompanied with fuch
difficulty and danger. He next afked his auditors,
whether they w7ould have the protedlor for their king ?
but was mortified to find that a total filence enfued^
The mayor, who w7as in the fecret, walling to relieve
him in this embarraffed fituation, obferved, that the ci¬
tizens wrere not accuftomed to be harangued by a man
of his quality, and w7ould only give an anfwer to their
recorder. This officer, therefore, repeated the dukeV
fpeech 3 but the people continuing ftill filent, “ This
is ftrange obftinacy (cried the duke) : w7e only require
of you, in plain terms, to declare, whether or not you
will have the duke of Gloucefter for your king 3 as the
lords and commons have fufficient power without your
concurrence ? At this, fome of the meaneft appren¬
tices, incited by the fervants of the protedlor and
Buckingham, railed a feeble cry of “ God fave King
Richard !” The mob at the door repeated the cry 3 and
throwing up their caps into the air, cried out, “ A
Richard ! A Richard!” After this farce wras adled,
Buckingham, on the 24th of June 1483, waited on
Richard with offers of the crowm : but the protedtor,
with hypocritical modefty, at firft declined the offer y
till being told, that the people, in cafe of his refufal,
muft look out for one- that would be more compliant,.
 —he
-230
Richard III.
231
Edward V.
and his
brother
murdered.
£ N G [ 1
England, he accepted the government of England and France,
vwith a refolution, as he faid, to defend the one and fub-
due the other.
T he firft ftep taken by the new king was to fend or¬
ders to Sir Robert Brackenbury governor of the tower,
to put the young princes to death. But this he re-
fufed j and fubmiilively anfwered that he knew not how
to embrue his hands in innocent blood. A fit inftru-
ment for this purpofe, however, was not long wanting.
Sir James Tyrrel readily undertook the office ; and
Brackenbury was ordered to refign the keys to him for
one night. Tyrrel choofmg three affoeiates, Slater,
Deighton, and Foreft, came in the night-time to the
door of the chamber where the princes were lodged ;
and fending in the affaffins, bid them execute their com-
miffion, while he himfelf (laid without. They found
the young princes in bed, and fallen into a found deep.
I he affaffins fmothered them with the bolder and pil¬
lows } after which they ffiowed their naked bodies to
Tyrrel, who ordered them to be buried at the Hair-foot
under a heap of ftones (c).
Richard having thus fecured himfelf on the throne
by the moft iniquitous methods, attempted to ftrength>
en his interefl by foreign alliances, and procuring the
favour of the clergy at home by great indulgences ;
but he found his power threatened from a quarter where
Be leaf! expe&ed an attack. The duke of Bucking¬
ham, who had been fo inffrumental in railing him to the
throne, did not think himfelf properly rewarded. He
made a demand of fome confifcated lands in Hereford,
to which his family had an ancient claim. Richard
either reluctantly complied with his requeft, or only
granted it in part •, fo that a coolnefs foon enfued be¬
tween them, and in a little time Buckingham came to
a refolution of dethroning the monarch whom he had
juft raifed. For fome time he remained in doubt, whe¬
ther he fhould affume the crown himfelf or fet up ano-
t^er- At length he determined on the latter ; and re-
;ham deter- folved to declare for Henry earl of Richmond, who
mines to was at that time an exile in Britanny, and was confi-
claimo/thedered aS t^e onl>T furviving branch of the houfe of
Lancafter. He was one of thofe who had the good
fortune to efcape the numerous maffacres of the for¬
mer reigns; but as he was a defcendant of John of
Gaunt by the female line, he was for that reafon ob¬
noxious to thofe in power. He had long lived in
exile, and was once delivered over to the ambaffadors
of Edward IV. who were preparing to carry him to
England ; when the duke of Britanny, who delivered
him, repented of what he had done, and took him from
the ambaffadors juft as they were carrying him on fhip-
board. His right to the crown by fucceffion was very
doubtful : but the cruel behaviour of Richard inclined
the people in general greatly to favour him ; and, to
give an additional ftrength to his title, a match was
projefted betwixt him and the princefs Elizabeth, the
eldeft daughter of Edward IV. which, by uniting the
two rival families, would put an end to thofe diffen-
04 j
ENG
Bucking-
claim of the
earl of
Richmond
£0 the
throne.
fions which had fo long filled the kingdom with blood- England*
flied and confulion. Richard, in the mean time,' v—
from fome reafons which have not been particulari¬
zed by hiftorians, began to entertain doubts of the
fidelity of Buckingham, and determined to cut him
off. For this purpofe he fent for him to court: but 23 ^
Buckingham, inftead of obeying the fummons, fled in-He takes
to Wales, where he raifed a confiderable army, and uPanns>biit
forthwith fet out to the eaftward with a defign to ed b ^his°n*
vade England. Richard haftened to meet him with army and
wffiat forces he could raife; but the march of Buck-put to .
ingham being retarded by a moft uncommon inunda- death-
tion of the Severn which lafted 10 days, his troops
were fo diftieartened at this event, that they almoft all
deferted him. The duke was therefore obliged to fly
in diftrefs, and Richard inftantly fet a price upon his
head. Buckingham was now obliged to truft his life
in the hands of an old fervant of his own, named Ba-
niftei-; but this man, tempted by the greatnefs of
the reward, betrayed him to the Iheriff of Shrop-
fhire, by whom he was feized and conduCled to Ri¬
chard at Salifbury, who caufed him to be executed
without delay. The earl of Richmond, in the mean Richmond
time, had fet fail from St Maloes with a body of lands in
5000 men : but after his arrival in England, receiving Engjanffi
the difagreeable news of Buckingham’s misfortune, he !-ut f 0,)"
fet fail again for Bretagne 5 while Richard, embolden-t0 re*
ed by the bad fuccefs of his enemies, determined to
confirm his title to the throne by calling a parliament,
which till this time he had not ventured to do. At
prefent matters were fo circumftanced, that the par¬
liament had no other refource than to comply with his
defires, and acknowledge his right to the crown. An
aft wras palled confirming the illegitimacy of Edward’s Richard’s
children ; and an attainder was alfo confirmed againft title con-
the earl of Richmond j the duties of tonnage and firmed by-
poundage were granted to the king for life *, and his parliament,
only fon Edward, then about 12 years of age, was
created prince of Wales. In return for thefe concef-
fions, Richard paffed feveral popular laws, particular¬
ly againft the extorting of money by benevolences, and
fome others calculated to gain the good will of the op-
pofite party. He paid his court alfo to the queen-
dowager with fuch affiduity and fuccefs, that fhe left
her fancluary, and put herfelf and her daughters into
his hands. The ambition and cruelty of this man in¬
deed are faid to have extinguifhed every fentiment of
natural affeflion as well as humanity. He had married
Anne, the fecond daughter of the earl of Warwick,
and widow of Edward prince of Wales, whom he him¬
felf had murdered 5 but having born him but one fon,
who died about this time, he confidered her as an in¬
vincible obftacle to the accompliffiment of his defires j
for which reafon it was thought he put an end to her
life by poifon : and as he knew that the projected match
between the earl of Richmond and the princefs Eliza¬
beth could only make the rivalfhip of the former any
way formidable, he refolved to obtain a difpenfa-
tion
(c) Theie circumftances are faid to have been confeffed in the fucceeding reign, though the perpetrators efcaped
puniftiment. I he bodies of the two princes were fought for without any fuccefs under the reign of Henry VII.
nut in the time of Charles II. the bones of two perfons anfwering to their age were found in the fpot where they
were faid to have been buried j which, being fuppofed to be the remains of thefe two unfortunate youths, they
were buried under a marble monument in Weftminfter abbey.
ENG
fecond
time
Richard de
^Englind. tlon from the pope for marrying her himfelf* The
¥ queen-dowager i-s even faid to have come into this
fcheme, with a view to recover her power ; but the
princefs herfelf always rejefred his addreffes with ab¬
horrence, The refufal of the princefs occafioned no
fmall perplexity in Richard j and before he Could de¬
termine on any proper method of accomplifhing his
336 purpofe, he received news of Richmond’s preparations
Richmond for landing in England. Thefe being foon accoinpliih-
Enefand a ed’ Heni7 fet fail from Harfleur in Normandy, and
- 5 - landed without oppofition* on the 17th of Auguft
1485* at Mil hard haven in Wales, Richard, in the
mean time^ not knowing where the invafion was to
take place, had potted himfelf at Nottingham j which
being almolt in the centre of the kingdom, was there¬
fore proper for refitting any invader. Sir Rice ap
Thomas and Sir Walter Herbert were commiffioned
by Richard to oppofe his rival in Wales ; but the for¬
mer immediately deferted to him, and the latter made
but a very feeble refiftance. Richard inftantly refol¬
ded to meet his antagonift, and to ritk every thing on
the event of a battle. Richmond, though he had not
above 60 OS men, and the king near double that num¬
ber, did not decline the combat j being chiefly encou¬
raged by the promifes of Lord Stanley to join him
with a body of 7000 men, and with whom he hovered
at a little diilance from the intended field of battle,
feemingly indetermined to join either fide.
Feated and r ^Th^ king havi"g commanded his army to form them-
killed. ' lei^eTs "? order of battle-, intrufted the v‘an to the duke
of Norfolk, while he himfelf, with the crown on his
head, took the command of the main body. Lord
Stanley in the mean time ported himfelf on one flank
between the two armies, while his brother Sir William
took his . ftation dire&ly oppofite. As his intention of
either joining the enemy or keeping neutral during the
time of the engagement was now far from being doubt¬
ful, Richard lent him orders to join the main body 5
which not being complied with, the tyrant determined
to put to death Stanley’s fon, who had been left with
him as a pledge of his father’s fidelity. He was per-
fuaded, however, to defer the execution till after the
engagement, that Stanley might thereby be induced
to delay his purpofe in joining the enemy. This, how¬
ever did not anfwer the expe&ation. Soon after the
engagement was begun, Stanley deferted Richard’s
party, and joining Richmond, entirely decided the for¬
tune of the day. The tyrant perceiving his fituation
to be quite defperate, and feeing his rival at no great
diftance from him, drove up againft him with fury,
in hopes that either Henry’s death or his own would
decide the victory between them. He killed Sir Wil-
liam Brandon the earl’s rtandard-bearer j he demount¬
ed Sir John Cheyney 5 and was within reach of Rich¬
mond, when. Sir William Stanley breaking in with
his troops, Richard was furrounded and overwhelmed
a nV™bers* body was found in the field, cover¬
ed with dead enemies, and befmeared with blood. It
was thrown carelefsly acrofs a horfe, carried to Lei-
cefter, amidft the fliouts of infulting fpe&ators, and in¬
terred m the Gray-Friars church of that place.
The ufurper’s crown being found on the field of
oatt.e, was placed on the head of the conqueror, while
the whole army cried out, “ Long live King Henry !”
Evvo days after the battle, Henry gave orders to con-
VOL» VIII, Part I.
r 105 ]
ENG
fine Edward Plantagenet earl of Warwick, and fon of England,
the unfortunate duke of Clarence j and to releafe the * J
princefs Elizabeth, who had been confined in the Tower.
He then advanced by flow and gradual marches to the
city of London, where he was received with the great- 338
eft demonftrations of joy. He was crowned king of Henry Vtt,
England on the 30th of O&ober 1485 j and to heigh¬
ts1 tke fplendor on that occafion, he bellowed the ra°nk
of knights-banneret on 1 2 perfons, and conferred peer¬
ages on three. Jafper earl of Pembroke, his uncle, he
created duke of Bedford j Thomas Lord Stanley his
father-in-law, earl of Derby j and Edward Courteney,
earl of Devonlhire. At the coronation likewife ap¬
peared a new inftitution, which the king had eftablilh-
ed for perfonal fecurity as well as pomp j a band of 50
archers, who were denominated Yeomen of the Guard.
-~u} the people ftiould take umbrage at this rtep, as
if it implied a diffidence of his fubjeas, he declared the
mrtitution to be perpetual. The ceremony of the co¬
ronation was performed by Cardinal Bourchier arch-
bilhop of Canterbury.—On the 18th of January i486*
he was married to the princefs Elizabeth 5 and his
marriage was celebrated at London with greater an-
pea.ranca of joy than either his firft entry or his coro¬
nation had been. Henry remarked, with much dif-
pleafure, this general favour borne to the houfe of
York ; and the fufpicions ariling from it, not only dif-
turhed his tranquillity during the whole of his reign,
but bred difguft towards his confort herfelf, and poi-
foned all his domeftic enjoyments.
The reign of Henry VII. was for feveral years dif-Hi^rdgrt
urbed by plots and infurreftions. The people, by a difturbed
long courfe of civil war, had become fo turbulent and hy fre5u6nt
factious, that no governor could rule, nor Could anyrebeill0ns:'
king pleafe them. The violent animofity expreffed by
this monarch, however, again!! the houfe of York, may
jurt y be confidered as one of the caufes of the extreme
pronenefs to rebellion manifefted by his fubjefts. In-
rtead of endeavouring to conciliate the affedtion of the
oppofite party, he always ftrove to quell them by ab¬
solute iorce and violence. For this purpofe he took a
journey, foon after his acceflion, to the north of Eng¬
land, where the forkifts were very numerous : hoping
to get the better of them by his prefence. In his
journey thither, he received intelligence of an infurrec- 240
tion againft him by Vifcount Lovel, with Sir Henry Lovel anS
Stafford and Thomas his brother, who had raifed an ^taff°rcl’s
army, and were marching to befiege the city of Wor-inlurre‘fHon
certer, while Lovel approached to aflift them with afupPreflefk
body of three or four thoufand men. They were dif-
perfed, however, by the offer of a general pardon ;
v Inch induced Lovel to withdraw from his troops
who were thereupon obliged to fubmit to the king’s
r Staffords took fandluary in the church
of Colnham near Abingdon ; but as it was found that
this church had not the privilege of protefting rebels,
they were taken from thence : the elder was executed
at lyburnj but the younger, pleading that he had
by bls brother, received a pardon. 24£
This fuccefs was foon after followed by the birth of Prince Ar- '
a prince j whom Henry named in honour of the cele-thur born-
brated King Arthur, who is faid to have been the diredl
ancertor of the houfe of Tudor. All this fuccefs,
however, as well as the general fatisfadfion which the
birth of a prince defcended from the houfes both of
O York
E N G [ 106 ]
England. York and Lancafter neceffarily occafioned, were not
'—"v " ' fufficient to reconcile the hearts of the Engliih to their
tv,.24z ^ fovereign. His extreme feverity towards the houfe
n°enper of York {till continued 5 and unfortunately this was
pie. much more beloved by the generality of the. nation
than that of Lancafter. Many of the Yorkilts had
been treated with great cruelty, and deprived of their
fortunes under pretence of treafon 5 a general refump-
tion had likewife been made of the grants made by the
princes of the houfe of Eork. It was likewife univer-
fally believed that the queen herfelf met with harih
treatment, on account of her being one of that unfor¬
tunate houfe } and from all thefe circum(lances it was
not unreafonably imagined that his enmity was inve¬
terate and invincible. Hence, riotwithftanding his
politic and vigorous adminiftration, people made no
fcruple of openly expreffing their difapprobation of his
conduft and government j and one rebellion feemed.to
Iropofture be extinguished only to give birth to another. I he
-of Lambert had, at the commencement of his reign, confined
ijinmeL ^ duke of Clarence’s fon, as has already been men¬
tioned. This unfortunate youth, who had obtained
the title of the earl of Warwick, was, through , long
confinement, entirely unacquainted with the aftairs of
the world. Simple as he was, however, he. was now
made ufe of to difturb the public tranquillity. I he
queen-dowager was with great reafon lufpe£ted to be
at the bottom of this confpiracy ; but not choofing to
interfere openly in the matter herlelf, (he employed
one Simon a pried of Oxford to execute her puipofes.
This man cad his eyes upon one Lambert Simnel, a ba¬
ker’s fon in the fame place, a youth of only 15 years
of age} but who, from his graceful appearance and
accomplKhments, feemed proper for perfonating a man
of quality. A report had been fpread among the people,
that Richard duke of York, fecond fon of Edward IV.
had fecretly made his efcape from the cruelty of his
uncle, and lay fomewhere concealed in England. Si¬
mon had at fad indrudted his pupil to affume that
name, which he found to be much the object of public
affeftion •, but hearing afterwards a new report, that
Warwick had efcaped from the Tower, and obferving
that this news was attended with no lefs general fatis-
faftion, he changed the plan of his impodure, and made
Simnel perfonate that unfortunate prince. The pliant
youth was therefore dire6led by his indruftor to talk
upon many occurrences, as happening to him in the
court of Edward. But as the impodor was not cal¬
culated to bear clofe examination, he was removed to
Ireland : and fo well had he profited by the leffons
given him, that he no fooner prefented himfelf to the
earl of Kildare the -deputy, claiming his proteftion as
the unfortunate earl of Warwick, than he began, to
confult with feveral other noblemen with regard to him.
Thefe expreffed even a dronger belief in Simnel’s dory
than the deputy himfelf had done ; and in proportion
as the dory was fpread abroad, the more credit it ob¬
tained. The impodor was lodged in the cadle of
Dublin $ the inhabitants univerfally took an oath of al¬
legiance to him, as the true defeendant of the Plan-
tagenets ; he wTas crowned with a diadem taken from
the datue of the bleffed virgin, and proclaimed king
by the title of Edward VI. } and the whole kingdom
followed the example of the capital.
Buch an unexpeded event alarmed Henry fo much,
ENG
that he would have gone over to Ireland on purpofe to' England..
quell the rebellion in perfon, had he not been afraid of
the machinations of the queen-dowager in his abience. (jaeen_
To prevent any thing of this kind, it was refolved to dowager
confine her for life in a monadery ; under pretence, how- confined.
ever, that it was done on account of her having lor-
merly delivered up the princefs her daughter to King
Richard. The queen murmured againd the. feverity
of her treatment 5 but tbe king perdded in his refolu-
tion, and Ihe remained in confinement till the time of
her death, which happened lome years after.
The next meafare was to diow Warwick to the ,
people. He was taken from the Tower, and led through
the principal dreets of London j after which he was ,
condufted in folemn procellion to St Paul’s, where
great numbers were affembled to fee him. Still, how¬
ever, they proceeded in Dublin to honour their pre¬
tended monarch ; and he was crowned with great lb-
lemnity in tbe prefence of tbe earl of Kildare, the chan¬
cellor, and tbe other officers of date. At lad being
furnithed by the duchefs of Burgundy with a body of
2000 veteran Germans under tbe command of Martin
Swart, a brave and experienced officer, he refolved to in¬
vade England. He landed in Lancaffiire, from whence
he marched to York, expefting tnat the country people
would rife and join him on his march. But in tuis he
was deceived : the people were unwilling to join a bodv
of foreigners j and were beddes kept in awe by the
great reputation of Henry. Lord Lincoln, therefore,
who commanded the rebel army, determined to bring
the matter to a fpeedy iflue. Accordingly he met the
royal army at Stoke in the county of Nottingham.
An obdinate engagement enfued, but at length King
Henry obtained a complete victory. Lord Lincoln,
with 4000 private men, perilhed in the battle j and
Simnel with his tutor Simon were taken prifoners.
Simon being a pried, could not be tried by the civil
power, and was only committed to clofe confinement.
Simnel was pardoned, and made a fcullion in the king s
kitchen, whence he was afterwards advanced to the
rank of falconer, in which employment he died. 2^-
Henry being now freed from all danger from that Henry pU.
quarter, determined to take ample vengeance on his niflies his
enemies. For this purpofe he took a journey into the enemies,
north ; but though he found many delinquents, his
natural avarice prompted him to exaft heavy fines fiom
them rather than to put them to death. His proceed¬
ings, however, were extremely arbitrapr; the crimi¬
nals being tried, not by the ordinary judges, but ei¬
ther by commidioners appointed for the occadon, or
differing punidiment by lentence of a court-martial.
Having thus fully edabliffied his authority as far as it
could be done by fuppreffing and puniihing domedic
enemies, he next determined to recommend himfelf to Pretends a
his fubjefts by a report of his military difpofition 5 ho-defire - f a-
ping, that by undertaking, or pretending to undertake,
fome martial enterprifes, he would, thus gain the favour pj0-ts
of a people naturally turbulent, and unaccudomed to
live long at peace with their neighbours. He certainly
had not, however, the lead intention of profecuting
foreign conqueds 5 though, to pleale the people, he
frequently gave out that he defigned to invade France,
and lay wade the whole country, rather than not re¬
cover his continental poffeffions. Under thefe preten¬
ces, particularly that of adiding the Bretons, whom the
kin?
ENG [i
, kmg of France had lately fubdued, and who had ap-
2, plied to him for relief, he perfuaded his parliament to
Obtais a grant him a confiderable fupplyj but this involved him
fubfidy on in fome difficulties. The counties of Durham and
pretence of York, who had always been difcontented with Henry’s
inhabitants^ Sovernrnent> and fti11 farther provoked by the oppref-
oftfretagm. ^ons und.er which they had laboured after the extinc-
'tion of Simnel’s rebellion, oppofed the commiflxoners
fent by the king to levy the tax. The latter applied
to the earl of Northumberland, rerjuelfing his advice
and afliftance in the execution of their office j but in-
ftead of being able to enforce the levying of the tax,
he himfelf was attacked and put to death by the infur-
gents. This aft of violence committed by themielves,
leemed to render the infurgents defperate, lo that
without more ado they prepared to refill the royal
power, under the condudl of one Sir John Egremond ;
but in this ill-condudled and precipitate fcheme they
met with no fuccefs. Henry inftantly levied a confi¬
derable force, which he committed to the charge of
the earl of Surrey; by whom the rebels were quickly
defeated, and one of their leaders taken prifoner. Sir
John Egremond fled to the duchefs of Burgundy, who
afforded him protection.
_ Thus Henry obtained the fubfidy which he had fo-
licited under pretence of invading France, though
he w^ould willingly have avoided any expence in pre-
parations for that purpofe in order to keep the mo¬
ney in his poffeflion 5 but as the Bretons had applied
to him for afliitance, and their diitreffes became every
day more urgent, he found himfelf obliged to attempt
fomething. With this view he fet fail for Calais with an
feismed in- T”7 foot and 1600 horfe, of which he gave
vafion of ^command to the duke of Bedford and the earl of
248
An infur-
redtion
fupprelTed.
249
Kerry
makes a
France.
250
Obtains a
fum of mo¬
ney and an¬
nual pen-
£on.
Impofture
of Perkin
Warbeck.
Oxford: but notwithftanding this apparent hoftile
difpofition, negotiations for peace had been fecretly be¬
gun, and commiffioners eyen appointed to conlider of
the terms, three months before King Henry fet out for
the continent. As the love of money was the prevail¬
ing palfion of the Engliih monarch, and the poffeffion
of Bretagne was a great objed to France, an accom¬
modation foon took place betwixt the contending par¬
ties. The king of France engaged to pay Henry near
200,000!.. as a reimburfement for the expences of
his expedition, and ilipulated at the fame time to pay
him and his heirs an annual penfion of 25,000 crowns
more.
Thus the authority of Henry feemed to be fo firm¬
ly eftabliffied, as to leave no reafon to dread any rival
in time to come j but ffill he found himfelf miilaken.
I ne duchefs of Burgundy, refenting the depreffion
of her family, and exafperated by her frequent mif-
carriages in the attempts already made, refolved to
make a final effort again!! Henry, whom fhe greatly
hated. For this purpofe flie propagated a report that
her nephew Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, had
efcaped from the tow^er where his elder brother was
murdered,^ and that he Hill lay fomewffiere concealed,
binding this report eagerly received, Ihe foon found a
young man who affumed both his name and charafter.
The perfon chofen to a& this part was the fon of one
Olheck, or Warbeck, a converted jew, who had been
in England during the reign of Edward IV. His name
was Peter; but it had been corrupted after the Fle-
miffi manner into Peterkin^ or Perkin. It was by fome
07 1 E N G
be ieved, that Edward, among his other amorous ad- England-
ventures,, had a fecret correfpondence with Warbeck’s —V—J
wife, which might account for the great fimilarity of
features between Perkin and that monarch. The
ducnefs of Burgundy found this youth entirely fifited
to her purpofes. xhe leffons flie gave him were eafily
learned and itrongly retained. His graceful air, his
courtly addrefs, his eafy manners, and elegant conver-
lation, were capable of impofing upon all but thofe
who were privy to the impofture. The kingdom
of Ireland was pitched upon for Perkin’s firft appear¬
ance, as it had been before for that of Simnel. He
landed at Cork ; and immediately alfuming the name
of Richard P/antagenet^ was followed by great num-
beis or credulous people. He wTrote letters to the
earls of Demnond and Kildare, inviting them to join
his party ; he difperfed everywhere the ftrange intel¬
ligence of his efcape from his uncle Richard’s cruelty ;
and his ftory meeting with general credit, he foon be¬
came an objed of the public favour. All thofe who
were difgufted with the king, prepared to join Per¬
kin } but particularly thole who formerly were Hen¬
ry’s favourites, and had contributed to place him on
the throne. Thefe, thinking their fervices had not been
fufficiently repaid, now became heads of the confpi-
racy.. Their attempts, however, were all fruftrated by
the vigilance of the king, and moft of the confpirators
of any note were publicly executed.
. Perkin finding it w7as in vain to attempt any thing
in England, went to the court of James IV. of Scot¬
land. Here he was received with great cordiality, and
James carried his confidence in him fo far, that he even
gave him in marriage Lady Catherine Gordon, daugh¬
ter to the earl of Huntley, and a near kinlwoman of
his own. But when he attempted to fet him on the
throne of England, he found himfelf totally difappoint-
ed 5 and on the conclufion of peace between the two
kingdoms, Perkin was obliged to leave Scotland. From
thence he went to Flanders •, and meeting with but a
cool reception there, he refolved to try the affections
of tne people of Cornwall, who had lately rifen againft
the king on account of a new tax which had been le¬
vied upon them. On his firft appearance, Perkin was
joined by about 3000 of thefe people, with which
force he laid liege to Exeter. Henry, however, having
marched againft him with a confiderable army, Per¬
kin s heart failed him, though his followers now a-
mounted to 7000; and he took fhelter in a monaftery.
H;s wife fell into the conqueror’s hands ; wffio placed
her in a refpedlable fituation near the queen’s perfon,
with a fuitable penfion, which flie enjoyed till her
death.. Perkin being perfuaded to deliver himfelf into
the king’s hand, was compelled to fign a confeffion of
his former life and conduCl •, but this was fo defective
and contradictory, that very little regard was paid to
it.. His life was granted him 5 though he was ftill de¬
tained in cuftody, and keepers w7ere appointed to watch
his conducl. From thefe, however, he broke loofe; and
flying to the fanftuary of Shyne, put himfelf into the
prior s^hands. He was once more prevailed upon to trull
himfelr in the king’s hands, and was committed to the
tower j but having here entered into a correfpondence
wfitn the earl of Warwick in order to make their efcape,
both of them were condemned and executed.
Io Henry VII. in a great meafure, is owing the
2 prefent
England.
[251]
Englifh na¬
tion civi¬
lized by
Henry.
252
Death of
Henry VII
253
HetryVHI
ENG [ 108 ]
present civilized date of the Englifli nation. He had
all along two points principally in view j the one to de-
prefs the nobility and clergy, and the other to exalt
and humanize the populace. In the feudal times every
nobleman was poffeffed of a certain number of ^ vaffals,
over whom he had, by various methods, acquired an
almoft abfolute power*, and, therefore, upon every
flight difguft, he was able to influence them to join
him in his revolt or difobedience. Henry confldered,
that the giving of his barons a power to fell their
eftates, which were before unalienable, mull greatly
weaken their intereft. This liberty therefore he gave
them j and it proved highly pleafing to the commons,
nor was it difagreeable to the nobles themfelves. His
next fcheme was to prevent their giving liveries to many
hundreds of their dependents, who were thus kept like
the foldiers of a Handing army to be ready at the com¬
mand of their lord. By an aft paffed in this reign,
none but menial fervants were allowed to wear a livery j
and this law was enforced under fevere penalties.
With the clergy, Henry was not fo fuccefsful. The
number of criminals of all kinds who found proteftion
in monafteries and other places appointed for religious
worthip, feemed to indicate little lefs than an abfolute
toleration of all kinds of vice. Henry ufed all his in-
tereft with the pope to get thefe fanftuaries abolilhed,
but to no purpofe. AH that he could procure %vas,
that if thieves, murderers, or robbers, regiftered as
fanftuary men, fhould fally out and commit frefh of¬
fences, and retreat again, in fuch cafes they might
be taken out of the fanftuary and delivered up to ju-
ffice. —
In 1500, the king’s eldeft fon Arthur was married
to the Infanta Catharine of Spain, which marriage had
been projefted and negotiated feven years. But the
prince dying in a few months after marriage, the prin-
cefs was obliged to marry his younger brother Henry,
who was created prince of Wales in his room. Henry
himfelf made all the oppofition which a youth of 12
years of age is capable of: but as the king perfifted
in his refolution, the marriage was by the pope’s dif-
penfation fhortly after folemnized.—In the latter part
of this king’s reign, his economy, which had always
been exaft, degenerated into avarice, and he oppref-
fed the people in a very arbitrary manner. He had
two minifters, Empfon and Dudley, perfeftly quali¬
fied to fecond his avaricious intentions. They were
both lawyers, and ufually committed to prifon by in-
diftment fuch perfons as they intended to opprefs y
from whence they feldom got free but by paying heavy
fines, which were called mitigations and compolitions :
but by degrees the very forms of lawT were omitted y and
they determined in a fummary way upon the proper¬
ties of the fubjefts, and confifcated their effefts to the
royal treafury.—Henry VII. died of the gout in his
flomach, in the year 1509, having lived 5 2 years, and
reigned 23 ; and was fucceeded by his fon Henry VIII.
In Henry VII.’s reign was built a large fliip of war
called the Great Harry, which coif 14,000!. This
was, properly fpeaking, the firft fhip in the Englilh
navy. Before this period, when the king wanted a
fleet, he had no other expedient than to hire (hips from
the merchants.
. Henry VIII. afcended the throne when he was a-
E N G
bout 18 years of age, and had almoft: every advantage England,
which a prince can have on his acceflion. He had a »
well-ftored treafury, and indifputed title, and was at
peace with all the powers in Europe. Commerce and
arts had been fome time introduced into England,
where they met with a favourable reception. The
young prince himfelf was beautiful in his perfon, ex¬
pert in all polite exercifes, open and liberal in his air,
and loved by all his fubjefts. The old king, who was
himfelf a fcholar, had inftrufted him in all the learning
of the times, fo that he w as an adept in fchool-divinity
before the age of 18.
All thefe advantages, howrever, feemed to have been
loft upon the new king. Being deftitute of a good
heart and folid underftanding, he proved a tyrant.
Being always aftuated, not by reafon, but the paflion
which happened to be uppermoft in his mind, he be¬
haved in the moft abfurd and contradiftory manner y
and however fortunate fome of his meafures proved at
laft, it is impoflible that either his motives, or the means
he took for the accompliftiment of his purpofes, can be
approved of by any good man.
One of Henry’s firft: aftions in his royal capacity
was to punifli Empfon and Dudley, wrho were obnoxi¬
ous to the populace on account of their having bee»
the inftruments of the late king’s rapacity. As they
could not be impeached merely on account of their
having ftriftly executed the will of the king, they
were accufed of having entered into a treafonable con-
fpiracy, and of having defigned to feize by force the
adminiftration of government y and though nothing
could be more improbable than fuch a charge, the ge¬
neral prejudice againft them was fo great, that they
were both condemned and executed.
In 1510, the king entered into a league with Pope
Julius II. and Ferdinand king of Spain, againft
Louis XII. of France. In this alliance Henry was
the only difinterefted perfon. He expefted nothing
befides the glory which he hoped would attend his
arms, and the title of Mq/l Chrijlian King, which the
pope affured him would foon be taken from the king
of France to be conferred upon him. The pope was
defirous of wrefting from Louis fome valuable pro¬
vinces which he poffeffed in Italy, and Ferdinand was
defirous of (haring in the fpoil. Henry fummoned his
parliament *, who very readily granted him fupplies, as
he gave out that his defign was to conquer the king¬
dom of France, and annex it to the crown of England.
It was in vain that one of his old prudent counfellors
objefted, that conquefts on the continent would only
drain the kingdom without enriching it *, and that Eng¬
land, from its fituation, was not fitted to enjoy exten-
five empire. The young king, deaf to all remon-
ftrances, and hurried away by his military ardour, re-
folved immediately to begin the war. But after feveral at¬
tempts, which were rendered unfuccefsful only by the
mifmanagement of thofe who condufted them, a peace
was concluded with France on the 7th of Auguft 1514.
Henry’s arms were attended with more fuccefs in
Scotland*, where King James IV. with the greateft part
of the Scots nobility, and 10,000 of the common
people, were cut off in the battle of Flowdenf. Henry fSee £w*i.
in the mean time, puffed up with his imaginary fuc- land.
cjeffes againft France, and his real ones againft Scot¬
land,
*54
Cardinal
Wolfcy
minifter.
4 See Wol
fey.
*55
Arbitrary
Eng [ i
England, land, continued to lavifh his treafures by expenfive
'■ pleafures, and no lefs expenfive preparations for war.
The old minifters who had been appointed by his fa¬
ther to direft him, were now difregarded $ and the king’s
confidence was entirely placed in-Thomas afterwards
Cardinal Wolley, who feconded him in all his favourite
purfuits, and who, being the fon of a private gentle¬
man at Ipfwich, had gradually raifed himfelf to the
firfi: employments of the ftate *. He doth not feem
to have had many bad qualities befides his exceffive
pride, which difgufted all the nobility ; but the great
fliare he poffefled in the favour of fuch an abfolute
prince as Henry VIII. put him quite out of the reach
of his enemies.
_ The king having foon exhaufted all the treafures left
behaviour him by his father, as well as the fupplies which he
• tie ing-could by fair means obtain from his parliament, applied
to Wolley for new methods of replenilhing his coffers.
The minilter’s firft fcheme was to get a large fum from
the people under the title of benevolence; though no
title could be more improperly applied, as it was not
granted without the greateft murmurings and com¬
plaints. Wolfey even met with oppolition in the levy¬
ing of it. In the firft place, having exadted a confi-
derable fum from the clergy, he next applied himfelf
to the houfe of commons; but they only granted him
half the fum he demanded. The minifter at firft was
highly offended, and defired to be heard in the houfe j
but they replied, that none could be permitted to fit
and argue there except fuch as were members. Soon
after, the king having occafion for new fupplies, by
Wolfey’s advice attempted to procure them by his pre¬
rogative alone, without confulting his parliament. He
iffued out commiflions to all the counties of England
for levying four flullings in the pound from the clergy,
and three Ihillings and fourpence from the laity. This
ftretch of royal power was foon oppofed by the people,
and a general infurredtion feemed ready to enfue.
Henry endeavoured to pacify them by circular letters j
in which he declared, that what he demanded was on¬
ly by way of benevolence. The city of London,, how¬
ever, ftill hefitated on the demand ; and in fome parts
of the country infurreftions were actually, begun.
Thefe were happily fuppreffed by the duke of Suffolk j
But the cardinal loft fomewhat of the king’s favour on
account of the improper advice he had given him. To
reinftate himfelf in his good graces, Wolfey made the
king a prefent of a noble palace called TCork-place, at
Weftminfter, affuring him that from the firft he had
intended it for the king’s ufe. Ih order to have a pre¬
tence for amafiing more wealth, Wolfey next under¬
took to found two new colleges at Oxford j and for
this purpofe he received every day freih grants from
the pope and the king. The former imprudently gave
him liberty to fupprefs fome monafteries, and make ufe
of their revenues for the erection of his new colleges j
but this was a fatal precedent for the pontiff’s interefts,
and it taught the king to feize on the monaftic revenues
whenever he flood in need of money.
lor a confiderable time Wolfey continued to enjoy
the king’s favour in an extreme degree •, and as no
monarch was ever more defpotic than Henry VIII.
no minifter was more powerful than Wolfey. This
extraordinary elevation ferved only to render his fall
the mere confpicuous, and himfelf the more miferable*
09 ] ENG
wnen it took place : and what was worle, he had long England,
forefeen, from what he knew of the king’s capricious v-1
and obftinate temper, that it certainly would happen Caufe6(Jf
one time or other. The caufe of his final overthrow Wolffey’s
was the defire King Henry began to entertain of ha- difgrace
ving his queen Catharine divorced. The doctrines of
the reformation, propagated by Luther in 1517, had
gained conliderable ground in England, and many pro-
feffed a belief in them, notwithftanding the fevere per-
fecution which had been carried on againft heretics
during fome of the preceding reigns. The clergy had
become fo exceedingly corrupt, and were immerfed in
fuch monftrous ignorance, that they were univerfally
hated even by their own party j while no regard at all
was paid to their decifions, or rather they were looked
upon with the utmoft abhorrence, by the reformers.
Even the papal authority, though ftill very great, had,
in no greater a fpace of time than ten years (viz. from
I5I7> when Luther firft began to attack it, to the 257
prefent year 1527), declined very fenfibly. The mar-ScruPle?
riage of King Henry, therefore, being looked upon conc]ern‘n§'
by all parties as in itfelf illegal, and only fanai-ofHenry’l*
fied by a difpenfation from the pope, had been fre-marriage,
quently objeaed to on different occafions. We are in¬
formed by fome authors, that when Henry VII. be¬
trothed his fon, at that time only 12 years of age, he evi¬
dently Ihowed an intention of taking afterwards a pro¬
per opportunity to annul the contraa $ and that he or¬
dered Prince Henry, as foon as he Ihould come of age,
to enter a proteftation againft the marriage $ charging
him on his death-bed not to finifti an alliance fo un-
ufual, and liable to fuch infuperable objections. Some
members of the privy council, particularly Warham
the primate, afterwards declared againft the comple¬
tion of the marriage j and even after it was completed,
fome. incidents which in a Ihort time took place were
fufficient to make him fenfible of the general fentiments
of the public on that fubjeCt. The ftates of Caftile
had oppofed a marriage betwixt the emperor Charles
and the Englifti princefs Mary, Henry’s daughter, m>
ging among other things the illegitimacy of her birth. .
The fame objeClion afterwards occurred on opening a
negotiation with France for a marriage with the duke
of Orleans. a^8
It thefe accounts are tO'be depended upon as au-Other rea-
thentic, we can fcarce conceive it poflible but Henry f°ns for
himfelf mart have been fomewhat ftaggered by them 3 ffenry’s de-
though it is by no means probable that they were his ^
only motives. The queen was fix years older than
the king, her perfonal charms were decayed, and his
affection leffened in proportion. All her .children had
died in infancy except one daughter, the princefs Mary
above mentioned 3 and Henry was, or pretended to be,
greatly ftruck with this, as it feemed fomething like
the curfe of being childlefs, pronounced in the Mo-
faic law againft fome evil doers.. Another point of
the utmoft importance was the fucceflion to the crown,
which any queftion concerning the legitimacy of the
king’s marriage would involve in confufion. It was
alfo fuppofed, with great reafon, that Ihould any ob-
ftacles of this kind occur, the king of Scotland
would ftep in as the next heir, and advance his pre-
tenfions to the crown of England. But above all, it Hislove for r
is probable that he was influenced by the love he had Anne Bo-
now contracted for Anne Boleyn, who had lately kyn.
been
vorce.
261
Ex,:reme
pope.
ENG [11
England, been appointed maid of honour to the queen. In this
*     ftation Henry had frequent opportunities of feeing
her, and foon became deeply enamoured ; and finding
that his pafiion could not be gratified but by a mar*
260 riage, it is not to be doubted that he was thus oblti-
Sends ro nately fet upon the divorce 5 for which purpofe he
obtain a°di ^cnt fecretary to Rome to obtain from Clement a
bull for diffolving his marriage with Catharine. That
he might not feem to entertain any doubt of the pope’s
prerogative, he infilled only on fame grounds of nul¬
lity in the bull granted by his predecefibr Julius for
the accompliihment of the marriage. In the preamble
to this bull, it had been faid, that it was granted only
upon the folicitation of Henry himfelf; though it was
known that he was then a youth under 1 2 years of age :
it was likewife averted, that the bull was neceffary for
maintaining the peace between the two crowns j though
otherwife it is certain that there was no appearance of
a quarrel betwixt them. Thefe falfe oremifes feemed
to afford a very good pretence for diffolving it j but,
as matters then ttood, the pope wras involved in the ut-
moft perplexity. Queen Catharine wras aunt to the
otThe* ^ emPeror> who had lately made Clement himfelf a pri-
foner, and whofe refentment he ftill dreaded : and be-
fides, he could not with any degree of prudence declare
the bull of the former pope illicit, as this wrould give
a mortal blow to the doctrine of papal infallibility.
On the other hand, Henry was his proteftor and friend j
the dominions of England were the chief refource from
whence his finances were fupplied •, and the king of
France, fome time before, had got a bull of divorce
in circumitances nearly fimilar. In this exigence he
thought the wifeft method would be to fpin out the
affair by negotiation •, and in the mean time he fent
over a commiilion to Wolfey, in conjunction with the
archbifliop of Canterbury or any other Englifh pre¬
late, to examine the validity of the king’s marriage and
of the former difpenfation j granting them alfo a pro¬
visional difpenfation for the king’s marriage with any
other perfon.
The pope’s meffage was laid before the council in
England: but they confidered, that an advice given by
the pope in this fecret manner might very eafily be
difavowed in public ; and that a clandeltine marriage
would totally invalidate the legitimacy of any iffue the
king might have by Inch a match. In confequence of
this, frefh meffengers were difpatched to Rome, and
evafive anfwers returned •, the pope never imagining
that Henry’s paffion would hold out during the tedious
262 courfe of an ecclefiaftical controverfy. But in this he
Henry’s was millaken. The king of England had been taught
—fy to difpute as well as the pope, and valued himfelf not
” 111 uin’ a little on his knowdedge in theology : and to his ar¬
guments he added threats •, telling him, that the Eng-
lilh wTere but too well difpofed to withdraw from the
holy fee ; and that if he continued uncomplying, the
whole country would readily followT the example of
their monarch, who fhould always deny obedience to a
pontiff that had treated him with fuch falfehood and
duplicity. The king even propofed to his holinefs
whether, if he were not permitted to divorce his pre-
fent queen, he might not have a difpenfation for having
two wives at once ?
The pope, perceiving the king’s eagernefs, at lalt
fent Cardinal Campegio his legate to London *? who
4
o ] ENG
wnth Wolfey, opened a court for trying the legitimacy England,
of the king’s marriage with Catharine, and cited the ' -*1
king and queen to appear before them. The trial com- -priaf of the
menced the 31ft of May 1529 } and both parties pre-ki,UT and*
fented themfelves. The king anfwered to his name when queen t>e-
called : but the queen, inltead of anfw'ering to hers,torejfie
rofe from her feat, and, throwing herfelf at the king’spo e s ^e*
feet, made a very pathetic harangue $ which her dig-Sdte'
nityr her virtue, and misfortunes, rendered ftill more
affeCting. She told her hufband, “ That flie was a ftran-
ger in his dominions, without protection, without
counfel, and without affittance j expofed to all the in-
juitice which her enemies were pleafed to impofe upon
her : That Ihe had quitted her native country, without
any other refource than her connections with him and
his family ; and that, inftead of fuifering thence any
violence or iniquity, fhe had been aflured of having in
them a fafeguard againft every misfortune : That fhe
had been his wife during 20 years} and would here ap¬
peal to himfelf, whether her affeCtionate fubmiffion to
his will had not merited other treatment than to be
thus, after fo long a time, thrown from him with in¬
dignity : That Are was confcious,—he himfelf was af-
fured,—that her virgin honour was yet unftained when
he received her into his bed j and that her connections
with his brother had been carried no farther than the
mere ceremony of marriage : That their parents, the
kings of England and Spain, were eiteemed the wifeft
princes of their time, and diad undouotedly aCted by
the belt advice when they formed the agreement for that
marriage, wdiich wras now reprefented as io criminal and
unnatural : And that Ihe acquiefced in their judgment,
and would <iot fubmit her caufe to be tried by a court
whofe dependance on her enemies w as too vilible ever
to allow her any hopes of obtaining from them an
equitable or impartial decifion.” Having fpoken thefe
words, the queen rofe, and, unking the king a low
reverence, left the court *, nor would fhe ever again ap¬
pear in it. The legate having again fummoned the
queen to appear before them, on her refufal, declared
her contumacious, and the trial proceeded in her ab-
fence. But wdien the bufinefs feemed to be nearly de¬
cided, Campegio, on fome very frivolous pretences,
prorogued the court, and at laft transferred the caufe
before the fee of Rome. 264
All this time Cardinal Wolfey feemed to be in theE nb;i'raft*
fame dilemma with the pope, and indeed much worfe 1 j
as he could not boaft of the fame independence which woifey.
his holinefs pofieffed. On the one hand, he was very
felicitous to gratify the king his mailer, who had dif-
tinguifhed him by fo many and extraordinary marks of
favour •, on the other, he feared to offend the pope,
whofe fervant he more immediately was, and wEo like¬
wife had power to puniih his difobedience. He had
long known that this affair was certainly to end in his
ruin *, and by attempting to pleafe all parties, he fell
under the difpleafure of every one •, fo that he was at
laft left without a fingle friend in the world. The king
was difpleafed on account of his not entering into his
caufe with the warmth he thought he had reafon to ex-
peft 5 Anne Boleyn imputed to him the diiappointrnent
of her hopes •, wrhile even Queen Catharine and her
friends expreffed the greateft indignation againft him
on account of the part he had openly taken in the af¬
fair of her divorce. In this miferable fituation the
king
tuted-
25«
ENG f
< ^ing fent him a meffage by the dukes of Norfolk and
' ~^fr. Suffolk, demanding the great feal: the cardinal refu-
Is dif,Taced ^ LO deliver it without a more exprefs warranty upon
and t>erfe- which Henry wrote him a letter, and on receipt of this
it was initantly given up. The feal was bellowed on
Sir Thomas More ; a man who, belides elegant literary
talents, was poffelfed of the highell capacity, integrity,
and virtue. Wolfey was next commanded to depart
from York-place palace which he had built in London j
and which, though it belonged to the fee of York, was
now feized by the king, and afterwards became the re-
lidence of the Britilh fovereigns, under the name of
Whitehall. All his furniture and plate, the richnefs.of
which feemed rather proper for a monarch than a fub-
je£l, was feized for the king’s ufe. He was then com¬
manded to retire to Eiher, a country-feat which he pof-
fefled near Hampton court, and there to wait the king’s
pleafure. One difgrace followed another j and his fall
was at length completed by a fummons to London to
anfwer a charge of high treafon. This fummons he at
firll refufed to anfwer, as being a cardinal. However,
being at length perfuaded, he fet out on his journey $
but was taken ill, and died by the way. See the ar¬
ticle WOLSEY.
verfides^of" r ^ftei ^ deat^ of Wolfey, the king, by the advice
Europe . ffranmer *, had the legality of his marriage debated
confuited the univerlities of Europe j and the votes of thefe
about the were obtained in his favour by dint of money. The de-
thSi? -s' burfements made on the occalion have even been prefer-
marriTJe* Ved t0 thls cia-v- To a fubdeacon he gave a crown, to
* See Cran-3’ deacon two crowns, and fo to the reft in proportion
to the importance of their ftation or opinion. Be¬
ing thus fortified by the opinions of the univerlities
267 and even of the Jewilh rabbies (for them alio he had*
Henry’s fi- confulted), Henry began to think he might fafely op-
with'th^1 ^ofe the P°pe hIml'elf* ]b[e began b7 reviving in par¬
liament an old law againft the clergy, by which all
thofe who had fubmitted to the authority of the pope’s
legate were condemned to fevere penalties. The cler¬
gy, to conciliate the king’s favour, were obliged to pay
a fine of 118,000 pounds. A confeflion was likewile
extorted from them, that the king, and not the pope,
was the fupreme head of the church and clergy of Eng¬
land. An a£l was foon after paffed againft levying the
Hrft-fruits, or a year’s rent of all the biihoprics that fell
vacant. After this the king privately married his be¬
loved Anne Boleyn j and Ihe proving with child foon
after marriage, he publicly owned her for his wife, and
palTed with her through London, with a greater mag¬
nificence than had ever been known before. The
ftreets were ftrewed with flowers, the walls of the hou-
fes hung with tapeftry, and a univerfal joy feemed to
be diffufed among the people. The unfortunate queen
Catharine, perceiving all further oppofition to be vain,
retired to Amphthill near Dunftable, where Ihe conti¬
nued the reft of her days in privacy and peace. Her
marriage with Henry was at laft declared invalid, but
not till after the latter had been married to Anne Bo¬
leyn, though this declaration ought undoubtedly to have
preceded it. See Boleyn.
The pope was no fooner informed of thefe proceed-
Ingsi than he palled a fentence, declaring Catharine to
be the king’s only lawful wife ; requiring him to take
her again, and denouncing his cenfures againft him in
cafe of a refufal. Henry, on the other hand, knowing
Til ]
E
t
N
G
pope.
that his fubjecis were entirely at his command, refolved England.
to leparate totally from the church of Rome. In the  v~i-'
year 1534, he was declared head of the church by par-r f26?
lahS ?e rlrw pt was, compietev ^-.kdXht
wed in England ; all tributes formerly paid to the ho-church,
ly. V56 were declared illegal 5 and the king was entrufted
with the collation to all ecclefiallical benefices. The
nation came into the king’s meafures with joy, and took
an oath called the oath offupremacij; all the credit which
the popes had maintained over England for ages was
now overthrown at once ; and none feemed to repine
at the change, except thofe ■who were immediately in-
terefted by their dependence on Rome.
But though the king thus feparated from the church
of Rome, he by no means adhered to the doftrines of
Luther which had been lately publiflied. He had
vwitten a book againft this celebrated reformer, which
the pope pretended greatly to admire 5 and honoured
King Henry, on its account, with the title of “ De¬
fender of the faith.” ihis charatler he feemed to be
determined to maintain, and therefore perfecuted the
reformers moft violently. Many were burnt for deny¬
ing the popifli do&rines, and fome alfo were executed
for maintaining the fupremacy of the pope. The
courtiers knew not which fide to take, as both the new
and old religions were equally perfecuted 5 and as both
parties equally courted the favour of the king, he was
by that means enabled to affume an abfolute authority
over the nation. As the monks had all along Ihown
the greateft refiftance to Henry’s ecclefiaftical charac-
ter, he refolved at once to deprive them of the power
of injunng him. He accordingly empowered Crom¬
well, fecretary of ftate, to fend commiflioners into the
leveral counties of England to infpefl the monafteries ;
and to report, with rigorous exadnefs, the condud
and deportment of fuch as were found there. This
employment was readily undertaken by fome creatures
ol. the court, whofe names were Layton, London,.
1 rice, Gage, Petre, and Belafis. They are faid to
have difeovered monftrous diforders in many of the re¬
ligious houfes 5 whole convents of women abandoned
to.ab manner of lewdnefs j friars accomplices in their
crimes j pious frauds everywhere committed, to in-
creafe the devotion and liberality of the people ; and
cruel and inveterate fadions maintained between the
inhabitants. Thus a general horror w-as excited againft
thefe communmes; and therefore the king, in 1536, ,f P,L "
lupprelled the Idler monafteries, amounting 103*76 innafterits*
number. Their revenues, computed at 3 2,000 pounds
a-year, w*ere confifcated to the king’s ufe j befides their
plate and other goods, computed at 100,000 pounds
more. In 1538, the greater monafteries alfo were de-
molilhed. Ihe better to reconcile the people to this
gieat innovation, ftories were publilhed, perhaps with
aggravations, of the deteftable lives which the friars led
in their convents. The relicks alfo, and other objeds
of iuperftmous veneration, were now brought forth
and became objeds of derifion to the reformers. A great
number of theie are enumerated by Proteftant writers ;
Inch as the parings of St Edmund’s toes j fome of the
coals that roafted St Laurence j the girdle of the vir¬
gin Mary, Ihowm in no fewer than eleven different
places ; two or three heads of St Urfula 5 the felt of
St Thomas of Lancafter, an infallible cure for the
headacn j part of St Thomas of Canterbury’s Ihirt,
much
.ENG [H
finglatid. tnucli reverenced among big-bellied women j Tome re-
—"v—•' licks, an excellent prefervative againft rain, others
againft weeds in corn, &c. Some impoflures, how¬
ever, were difcovered, which difplayed a little more in¬
genuity in the contrivance. At Hales in the County
of Gloucester had been fhown, during feveral ages, the
blood of Chrift brought from Jerufalem. The vene¬
ration for this precious relick may eafily be imagined j
but it w^as attended with a moil remarkable circum-
ilance not obferved in any other relicks, The facred
blood was not vifible to any one in mortal fin, even
when fet before him •, nor could it be difcovered till he
had performed good works fufficient for his abfolution.
At the diffoiution of the monaftery, the whole con¬
trivance was difcovered, _Lwo of the monks who were
let into the fecret, had taken the blood of a duck,
which they renewed every week : they put it into a
phial, one fide of which was thin and tranfparent cry-
ftal, the other thick and opaque. When any rich pil¬
grim arrived, they were fure to ihoW him the dark fide,
till maffes and offerings had expiated his offences $ af¬
ter which they made him happy, by turning the phial,
—A miraculous crucifix had been kept at Boxely in
Kent, and bore the appellation of the rood of grace.
The lips, eyes, and head of the image, moved on the
approach of its votaries. Helfey bilhop of Rochefter
broke the crucifix at St Paul’s crofs, and ihowed to all
the people the fprings and wheels by which it had
been fecretly moved. A great wrooden idol, called
Darvel Gathering was alfo brought to London and cut
in pieces : and, by a cruel refinement of vengeance, it
was employed as fuel to burii Friar Foreft j who was
punilhed for denying the king’s fupremacy, and for
iome pretended herefies. A finger of St Andrew,
covered with a thin plate of filver, had been pawned for
a debt of 40 pounds ; but as the king’s commiffioners
refufed to releafe the pawn, people made themfelves
very merry with the poor creditor on account of his
fecurity. On this occafion alfo wTas demolifhed the
noted fhrine of Thomas a Becket, commonly called
St Thomas of Canterbury *. The riches of it were
inconceivable : when broken down, the gold with
which it was adorned filled two large ehefts that eight
ftrong men could fcarcely carry out of the church, T he
king, on the whole, fuppreffed 645 rtonafteries, of
which 28 had abbots who enjoyed feats in parliament*
Ninety colleges were demolifhed in feveral counties 5
2374 chantries and free chapels, and 110 hofpitals.
The whole revenue of thefe eftabliihments amounted to
161,100 pounds, ^ . 1 • 1 r u
It is eafy to imagine the indignation wmich iuch an
uninterrupted courfe of facrilege and violence would
occafion at Rome. In I535> kin8 had executed
Bilhop Filher, who was created a cardinal while in
prifon, and Sir Thomas More, for denying or {peak¬
ing ambiguoufly about his fupremacy. When this was
reported in Italy, numerous libels were publilhed all
over the country, comparing the king of England to
Nero, Domitian, Caligula, and the moll wicked ty¬
rants of antiquity, Clement VII. died about fix months
after he had threatened the king with a fentence of ex¬
communication $ and Paul III. who fucceeded him in
the papal throne, entertained fome hopes of an accom-
ymodation. But Henry was fo much accultomed to do-
tameering, that the quarrel was foon rendered totally
See
Bechet.
2 ] ENG
incurable. The execution of Filher was reckoned fuch England. ^
a capital injury, that at fall the pope paffed all his cen- ' w—'
hires againlt the king, citing him and all his adherents
to appear in Rome within qo days, in order to anfwer excammu-
for their crimes. If they failed, he excommunicated nicated.
them ; deprived the king of his realm 3, iubjecled the
kingdom to an interdict 3 declared his ilfue by Anne Bo-
leyn illegitimate 3 dillolved all leagues which any Ca¬
tholic princes had made with him 3 gave his kingdom
to any invader 3 commanded the nobility to take up arms
againlt him 3 freed his fubjccls from all oaths of alle¬
giance 3 cut off their commerce with foreign Hates $
and declared it lawful for any one to feHe them, to make
Haves of their perfons, and to convert their effects to
his own ufe. But though thefe cenfures were then
paffed, they were not openly denounced. The pope de¬
layed the publication till he Ihould find an agreement
with England totally defperate, and till the emperor,
who was then hard prefl'ed by the T urks and the Pro-
tellant princes of Germany, Ihould be in a condition to
carry the fentence into execution. But in 15T8, when
news arrived at Rome that Henry had proceeded with
the rAonafteries as above related, the pope wras at laft.
provoked to publilh the cenlures againft him. Libels
were again difperfed, in which he was anew compared
to the moll furious perfecutors of antiquity, and the
preference W'as now given on their fide. Henry, it was
faid, had declared war wdth the dead, whom the Pagans
themfelves refpefledj was at open enmity with heaven 3
and had engaged in profeffed hoftility with all the faints
and angels. Above all, he was reproached with his
refemblance to the emperor Julian, whom (it was faid)
he imitated in his apoftafy and learning, though he fell
Ihort of him in his morals. But thefe terrible fulmi-
nations had now loft their efted. Henry had long ago
denied the fupremacy of the pope, and therefore had
appealed from him to a general council 3 but now, when
a general council was fummoned at Mantua, he refu¬
fed to be fubjefl to it, becaufe it was called by the
pope, and lay entirely under fubjeclion to that fpi-
ritual ufurper. He engaged his clergy to make a de¬
claration to the like purpofe, and prefcribed to them
many other alterations with regard to their ancient te- 3yr
nets and practices, It was expefted that the fpirit of His ahfur4
oppofition to the church of Rome would have at laft ^ Tran-
made him fall in with the doftrines of the reformed 3 con“
but though he had been gradually changing the theo¬
logical fyftem in which he was educated, ever fince he
came to the years of maturity, he was equally pofitive
and dogmatical in the lew articles he retained, as though
the whole fabric had continued entire and unlhaken:
and though he Hood alone in his opinion, the flattery
of courtiers had fo much inflamed his tyrannical arro¬
gance, that he thought himfelf entitled to regulate by
his own particular ftandard the religious faith of the
whole nation. The point on which he chiefly relied
his orthodoxy was the moll abfurd in the whole popilh
doclrine 3 namely, that of tranfubftantiation. All de¬
parture from this he held to be a damnable error ; and
nothing, he thought, could be more honourable for him,
than, while he broke off all connexions with the Ro¬
man pontiff, to maintain, in this effential article, the pu¬
rity of the Catholic faith.
In 1539, a parliament was called, wdiich met on
the 28th day of April. The chancellor opened this
parliament
(be articles
framed.
ENG • [ i
England, parliament by informing the houfe of lords, that it
v"’" was his majefty’s earneil defiire to extirpate from his
kingdom all diverfity of opinions with regard to reli¬
gion ; and as this enterprife was, he owned, difficult
and important, he delired them to choofe a committee
from among themfelves, who might frame certain ar¬
ticles, and communicate them afterwards to parliament.
The lords named the vicar-general Cromwell, now
created a peer, the archbiffiops of Canterbury and York,
the biffiops of Durham, Carlifle, Worcefter, Bath and
f aw^ot the Bangor, and Ely. This fmall committee itfelf
w7as agitated with fuch diverlity of opinions, that it
could come to no conckffion. The duke of Norfolk
then moved, that fince there w-as no hope of having a
report from the committee, the articles of faith pro-
pefed to be eftabliffied ffiould be reduced to fix, and a
new committee be appointed to frame an a£l with re¬
gard to them. As this peer was underilood to fpeak
the king’s mind, his motion was immediately complied
W’ith ; and, after a ffiort prorogation, the bill of the
fix articles, or the bloody bill, as the Proteftants juftly
termed it, was introduced \ and having palled the two
houfes, received the king’s affent. By this law the
doftrine of the real prefence was eftabliihed j the com¬
munion in one kind •, the perpetual obligation of vows
of chaftity ; the utility of private maffes 5 the celibacy
of the clergy; and the neceffity of auricular confeffion.
The denial of the real prefence fubje&ed the perfon to
death by fire, and to the fame forfeiture as in cafes of
treafon 5 and admitted not the privilege of abjuring :
an unheard-of cruelty, unknown even to the inquifi-
tion itfelf. The denial of any of the other articles,
even though recanted, was puniihable by the forfeiture
of goods and chattels, and imprifonment during the
king’s pleafure : an obftinate adherence to error, or a
relapfe, was adjudged to be felony, and punilhable by
death. The marriage of priefts wras fubje£ted to the
fame puniffiment. Their commerce writh women was,
for the firft offence, forfeiture and imprifonment 5 and
for the fecond, death. Abllaining from confeffion,
and from receiving the eucharift at the accuftomed
times, fubjefted the perfon to fine, and to imprifon¬
ment during the king’s pleafure 5 and if the criminal
perfevered after convidtion, he wras puniffiable by death
and forfeiture, as in cafes of felony. Commiffioners
wTere to be appointed by the king for inquiring into
thefe herefies and irregular practices, and the criminals
were to be tried by a jury.
The parliament having thus farrendered their eccle-
fiaffical privileges, next proceeded to furrender their
civil ones alio. They gave to the king’s proclamations
the fame force as to ftatutes enadled by parliament, and
thus by one blow made a total fubverfion of the Eng-
lifh conftitution 5 and to render the matter worfe, if
poffible, they framed this law as if it were only de¬
claratory, and intended to explain the natural extent
of the royal authority.—Notwithllanding this, how¬
ever, they afterwards pretended to make fome limita¬
tions in the regal power ; and they enabled, that no
proclamation ffiould deprive any perfon of his lawful
poffeffions, liberties, inheritances, &c. nor yet in-r
fringe any common law or laudable cuftom of the
realm.
As foon as the a£t of the fix articles had paffed, the
Catholics were extremely vigilant to inform agaiaft of-
V-OL. VIII. Part I.
13 1 ENG
fenders ; and, in a ffiort time, no fewer than 500 per- England.
fons were thrown into prifon. But fome of the chief1*—v 1
officers of Hate remonftrating againft the cruelty of pu-
niffiing fuch a number of delinquents, they were all of
them let at liberty j and foon after this, Henry, as if
he had refolved to give each party the advantage by
turns, granted every one permiffion to have a tranfla-
tion of the Bible, which had been newly made, in his
family.
In 1540, the king again complained to parliament
of the great diverfity of religious tenets which pre¬
vailed among his fubjedsj a grievance, he affirmed,
which ought the lefs to be endured, becaufe the ferip-
tures were now publiffied in England, and ought uni-
verfally to be the itandard of belief to mankind. But
he had appointed, he faid, fome biffiops and divines to
draw up a lift of tenets 5 and he was determined that
Chrift and the truth fliould have the vidlory j whence
he feems to have expe&ed more from this new book
of his do&ors, than had enfued from the publica¬
tion of the feriptures. Cromwell, as vicar-general,
alfo made a fpeech in the upper houfe j and the peers
in return told him, that he deferved to be vicar-gene¬
ral to the univerfe : To fuch a degree of mean and fer-
vile fubmiffion was the Engliffi parliament at this time
reduced.
This year alfo the king fuppreffed the only religious o ^73ir,
order remaining in England j namely, the knights of0f [hiT
St John of Jerufalem, or the knights of Malta, as they knights of
are commonly called. This order had by their valour Malta,
done great fervice to Chriftendom j and had very much
retarded, at Jerufalem, Rhodes, and Malta, the rapid
progrefs of the barbarians. During the general fur-
render of the religious houfes in England, they had
obftinately refufed to give up their revenues to the
king ; and Henry who would endure no fociety that
profeffed obedience to the pope, was obliged to have
recourfe to parliament for the diffolution of this order.
Their revenues were large, and formed a confiderable
addition to the acquifitions which the king had already
made. But he had been fuch a bad economift, that,
notwithftanding the immenfe plunder afforded him by
the church, he now demanded from parliament a very
confiderable fupply. The commons, however, though
lavifh of the blood of their fellow-fubje&s, were ex¬
tremely frugal of their money j and it was not with¬
out murmuring that the grant could be obtained, even
by this abfolute and dreaded monarch.
The king all this time continued to puniffi with un¬
relenting feverity the Proteftants who offended againft
the law of the fix articles, and the Papifts who denied
his fupremacy ; which gave occafion to a foreigner at
that time to fay, that thofe who were againft the
pope were burned, and thofe who were for him were
hanged. The king even feemed to difplay in an often-
tatious manner his tyrannical juftice and impartiality,
which reduced both parties to fubje&ion. This year
he executed three Proteftants and three Papifts coupled
together. The latter declared, that the moft grievous
part of their punifhment was the being coupled to fuch
heretical mifereants as fuffered with them.
In 1542, Henry proceeded to the further diffolu-^
tion of colleges, hofpitals, and other foundations ofny colleges,
that nature. The courtiers had been dealing with the hofpitals,
prefidents and governors to make a furrender of their ^
P revenues
ENG [ii
England, revenues to the king j and they had fucceeded with
 ' eight. But there was an obikicle to their farther pro-
grefs: it had been provided by the local ftatutes of
moll: of thefe foundations, that no prefident nor any
fellows could make fuch a deed without the unanimous
eonfent of all the fellows. This confent would not
have been eafily obtained; but the parliament proceed¬
ed in a fummary manner to annul all thefe ftatutes : by
which means the revenues of thofe houfes were expofed
to the rapacity of the king and his favourites. Henry
alfo now extorted from many bilhops a furrender of
their chapter-lands} by which means he pillaged the
fees of Canterbury, York, and London, and enriched
his favourites with their fpoils. He engaged the par¬
liament to mitigate the penalties of the fix articles, as
far as regarded the marriage of prielts, which was now
only fubjefted to a forfeiture of goods, chattels, and
lands during life : he was ftill equally bent on main¬
taining a rigid purity in fpeculative principles. He
had appointed a commiftion confifting of two archbi-
Ihops and feveral biihops of both provinces, together
with a confiderable number of doflors of divinity 5 and
by virtue of his ecclefiaftical fupremacy he had charged
them to choofe a religion for his people. Before the
commiffioners, however, had made any progrefs in this
arduous undertaking, the parliament had palled a law
, by which they ratified all the tenets which thefe divines
fhould eftablilli with the king’s confent 5 and thus they
were not afhamed of declaring exprefsly that they took
their religion upon truft, and had no other rule either
in religious or temporal concerns than the arbitrary will
of their mafter. One claufe of the ftatute, however,
feems to favour fomewhat of the fplrit of liberty. It
was enadled, that the ecclefiaftical commiffioners ftiould
eftabliih nothing repugnant to the laws and ftatutes of
the realm. But in reality this provlfo was inferted by
the king, to ferve his own purpofes. By introducing
a confufion and contradiclion into the laws, he became
more the mafter of every one’s life and property ; and
as the ancient independence of the church ftill gave him
iealoufy, he was well pleafed, under colour of luch a
claufe, to introduce appeals from fpiritual to civil
courts. For the fame feafon he would never promul¬
gate a body of canon law 5 and he encouraged the
bulges on all occafions to interpofe in ecclefiaftical cau-
fes, wherever they thought the law or the prerogative
concerned. Being thus armed by the authority of par¬
liament, or rather by tbeir acknowledgment of his fpi¬
ritual fupremacy, the king employed bis commhffion-
ers to felect a fyftem of tenets for the affent and belief
abfunlity ofof the nation. A fmall volume was publixhed, under
the king’s the title of The Inflitution of a Chri/iian Man, which
conduct. wa-s received by the convocation, and made the infal¬
lible ftandard of orthodoxy. In this book the points
of juftification, faith, free-will, good works, and grace,
were difcufi’ed in a manner fomewhat favourable to the
opinions of the reformers. The facraments, which a
few years before were only allowed to be three, were
now increafed to feven, conformably to the fentiments
6t the Catholics. Throughout the whole of this book
the king’s caprice is very difeernible •, and the book
is in reality to be regarded as bis compofition. For
Ilenrv, while he made his opinion a rule for the na¬
tion, would himfelf fubmit to no authority whatever ;
not even to any which he had formerly eftablilhed. The
VS
Extrem^
4 ] ENG
fame year the people had a farther inftance of the king’s England,
inconfiftency. He ordered a new book to be compo- v ''
fed, called The Erudition of a Chri/iian Man; and with¬
out alking the confent of the convocation, he publiihed
by his own authority this new model of orthodoxy. He
was no lefs pofitive in his new creed than he had been
in the old one 5 but though he required the faith of the
nation to veer about at his fignal, he was particularly
careful to inculcate the doctrine of paffive obedience in
all his books, and he was no lefs careful to retain the
nation in the pra&ice.
But while the king was thus fpreading his own books
among the people, both he and the clergy feem to have
been very much perplexed with regard to the fcrip-
tures. A review' had been made by the ecclefiaftical
fynod of the new tranflation of the Bible ; and Bilhop
Gardiner had propofed, that iuftead of employing Eng-
lifh expreffions throughout, feveral Latin wTords ihould
ftill be preferved, becaufe they contained, as he pre¬
tended, fuch peculiar energy and fignificance, that they
had no correfpofldent terms in the Englilh tongue. A-
mong thefe were ecclefa, fnrnitentia, pontifex, contritusy
&c. But as this mixture would appear extremely bar¬
barous, and was plainly calculated for no other pur-
pofe than to retain the people in their ancient igno¬
rance, the proppfal was rejedled. The knowledge of
the people, however, feemed to be ftill more danger¬
ous than their ignorance; and the king and parliament,
foon after the publication of the fcriptures, retraced
the conceffion wftiich they had formerly made, and pro¬
hibited all but gentlemen and merchants to perufe them.
Even that liberty w'as not granted without an appa¬
rent hefitation, and dread of the confequences. Thefe
perfons were allowed to read, fo it be done quietly and
with good order. And the preamble to the a£t fets forth,
“ That many feditious and ignorant perfons had abu-
fed the liberty granted them of reading the Bible 5 and
that great diverfity of opinion, animofities, tumults,
and fchifms, had been occafioned by perverting the
fenfe of the fcriptures.” The. mafs book alio paficd
under the king’s examination ; but little alteration wgs
yet made in it. Some doubtful or fi&itious faints only
were (truck out j and the name of the pope was erafed.
The latter precaution was alfo ufed with every new
book that was printed, and even every old one that
w'as fold. The w'ord pope w7as carefully omitted or blot¬
ted out; as if that precaution could aboliih the term
from the language, or caufe the people forget that
fuch a perfon exiited. About this time alfo, the king
prohibited the afting of plays, interludes, and farces,
in derifion of the popifti fuperftitions j w'hich the Pro-
teftants had been in ufe to praftife : and this prohibi¬
tion w-as in the higheft degree pleafing to the Roman
Catholics.
In this tyrannical and headftrong manner Henry
proceeded w'ith regard to ecclefiaftical affairs. In
•other refpefts his conduct was equally violent. With
regard to his domeftic concerns, hiftory fcarce affords
his parallel. We have already taken notice of his ex¬
treme love for Anne Boleyn, whom he married, con¬
trary even to his own principles, before the marriage
with Catharine w'as diffolved. His affection for the
former was carried to fuch a height, that he even
procured an act excluding from the fucceffion the il-
fue of Oueen Catharine, in favour of the children of
Anne.
Anne Bo¬
le vn.
277
Indecent
behaviour
of the new
queen on
hearing of
The king’s5
affe<ftion
declines.
ENG [ i
England. Anne Boleyn ; and failing them to the king’s heirs for
' "A ever. An oath to this purpofe was Ukewife enjoined, un-
Th» fuc- ^er Penalty °f imprifonment during the king’s pleafure,
ceffion fet- and forfeitute of goods and chatties. All Hander againft
tied on the the king and his new queen or their iffue was fubjefted
children of to the penalty of treafon or mifprilion of treafon. The
reafon given for this extreme feverity toward his own
child was, that her mother had obllinately refufed to
quit the kingdom, notwithftanding all the methods he
could take to induce her to do fo. The oath was ge¬
nerally taken throughout the kingdom j Sir Thomas
More the chancellor, and Filher bilhop of Rocheifer,
being the only perfons who refufed ; for which both of
them were imprifoned, and foon after executed. The un¬
fortunate Queen Catharine died, in her retreat at Ampht-
hiH, in the year 1536. On her death-bed flic wrote
a mod pathetic letter to the king, in which (he for¬
gave him all the injuries die had received, and recom¬
mended to him in the llrongeft terms their daughter
the princefs Mary. This letter affected; Henry fo
much, that he could not read it without tears j but
the new queen is faid to have exulted in fuch a man¬
ner on hearing of the death of her rival, as was quite
the death of ^nconhffent with either decency or humanity. Her
Catharine, triumph, however, was of Ihort duration. Henry had
27^ no fooner poffeffed her, fecure from every difquieting
'• thought by the death of Queen Catharine, thtm his
paffion began to decline 5 and to this her delivery of a
dead fon did not a little contribute ; for fo impetuous
and abfurd were his paflions, and fuch was his defire
for male iffue, that the difappointment in this refpedh
alone was fufficient to alienate his afiedlion from his
wife. The levity of her temper, and her extreme
gaiety of behaviour, bordering upon licentioufnefs, as
related under the article Boleyn, alfo gave an oppor¬
tunity to her enemies of inflaming the king’s jealoufy
agaiufi: her. The vifcountefs of Rochford, in parti¬
cular, a woman of profligate manners, and wTho wras
to the kins inarr’ec^ to the queen’s brother, had the cruelty to re¬
port to the king that her hulband committed inceft
with his own filler ; and, not content with this, ftie in¬
terpreted every inffance of favour Ihown by her to a
man, as proof of a criminal intercourfe between them.
At the fame time it mull not be forgot, that he wdio in¬
filled on fuch rigid fidelity from his wives, was himfelf the
moll faithlefs of mankind. He had doubts, it may be
allowed, about tbe legality of his marriage with Queen
Catharine, but his doubts were evidently confirmed by
the charms of Anne Boleyn. After being fatiated
with the poffeffion of her for fix years, perhaps he really
doubted her fidelity j but here again his doubts wTere
confirmed by the beauty of Jane Seymour, with whom
he had nowr fallen in love. It may eafily be believed,
that from this confideration alone there wTas no reafon
to hope that ever the unfortunate Anne would be able
to exculpate herfelf. Had Ihe really been guilty, her
monller of a huiband might have allowed her to live 5
but his cruelty was as unbounded and infatiable as his
-other perverfe paflions. She wras condemned j and the
fentence pronounced againll her was, that Ihe Ihould be
burned or beheaded at the king’s pleafure. On hearing
this dreadful denunciation, Ihe exclaimed, “ O Father !
O Creator ! thou who art the way, the truth, and the
Jife ! thou know7ell that I have not deferved this fate.”
-She then made the moft folemn protellations of inno-
279
She is ac-
cufed of
infidelity
280
Henry’s
love for
Jane Sey¬
mour the
tme caufe
of Anne
Boleyn’s
death.
15 1 ENG
Cence before her judges ; but thefe, as they ha4 been England,
from the beginning ineffectual, fo it wras not to be ^ ~y
fuppofed that they could now avail any thing. Anne £xe2cut;on
was beheaded by the executioner of Calais, who was 0f Anne
reckoned more expert than any in England ; and Hem Eel yn,and
ry enjoyed the pleafure of marrying his beloved Jane t!l'rc* nbir"
Seymour. His fatisfaftion, howrevcr, wras of no long |
continuance ; for the queen, becoming pregnant imme- 2sz
diately after marriage, died in two days after the birth Queen Jane
of the child j wrho being a fon, was baptized by the
name of Edward VI. As this lady had been more be-
loved by Henry than any of his other wives, his grief yjj
for the lofs of her was extreme. However, it did 2S3
not hinder him from entering very foon afterwards Extrava-
into a new matrimonial fcheme 5 in which he met
with many difficulties. His firft propofals were made t{ie king
to the duchefs dowager of Milan, niece to tfie em-concerning
peror and to Catharine his own former queen ; but his fourth
as he had behaved fo indifferently to the aunt, it is mairiagc*
fcarcely to be fuppofed that his addreffes could prove
agreeable to the niece. On this he demanded the
cluchefs-dowager of Longueville, daughter of the
duke of Guile ; but on making the propofal to the
French monarch, Francis I. he was informed that the
princefs had been already betrothed to the king of
Scotland. Henry, however, would take no refufal.
He had learned that the objeCl of his affeClion was
endowed with many accomplilhments, was very beau¬
tiful, and of a large lize, which lalt property he look¬
ed upon to be neceffary for him who was now be¬
come fomewhat corpulent himfelf. Francis, to pre¬
vent any more felicitations on this fubjefl, fent the
princefs to Scotland, but at the fame time made Henry
an oiler of Mary of Bourbon, daughter of the duke
of Vendofme. This princefs was rejedled by Henry,
becaule he had heard of her being formerly refufed
by the king of Scotland. He was then offered his
choice of the two younger fillers of the queen of Scot¬
land, both of them being equal in merit as well as hze
to the one whom he had defired : but Henry, unwill¬
ing to trull to any reports concerning the beauty of
thefe ladies, or even to their pictures, propofed to Fran¬
cis, that they Ihould have a conference at Calais under
pretence of bufinefs, and that the latter Ihould bring
with him the two princeffes of Guife with the finell
ladies of quality in France, that he might make a
choice. This indelicate propofal fhocked Francis : he
returned for anfwer, that he was too much impreffed
with regard for the fair fex to carry ladies of the firll
quality, like geldings, to a market, to be chofen or re-
je&ed according to the humour of the purchafer.
Henry xemonllrated and llormed as ufual ^ but though
Francis at this time earaellly wilhed to oblige him, he at
lall totally rejefted the propofal. Negotiations were 2S4
then entered into for a German match ; and the prin- Marriage
cefs of Cleves was propofed by Cromwell, on accountAline
of the great interell her father had with the Proteftaht C eves’
princes of Germany. Henry had alfo become enamoured
of her perfon from a pifture of her he had feen : but this,
though drawn by an eminent artilt, was unluckily done fo
much to the advantage, that when the negotiation was
quite finilhed, and the brjde arrived in England, he loll
all patience, fwearing that Ihe was a great Flanders mare,
and that he could never bear her the fmallell affe&ion.
The matter was Hill worle, when he found that Ihe
P 2 could
England.
The mar¬
riage an¬
nulled, and
Cromwell
put to
death.
2S6
Henry falls
in love
with Ca¬
tharine
Howard.
287
Infidelity
and death
of the nev
queen.
f. N' C [n
could fpeak no language but Dutch, of which he was
entirely ignorant. Notwithftanding all thefe objec¬
tions, however, he refolved to complete the marriage,
telling Cromwell, that, lince he had gone io far, he
rnuft now put his neck into the yoke. -The reafon of
this was, that the friendlhip of the German princes
was now more than ever neceffary for Henry 5 and it
was fuppofed that the affront of fending the princefs
back to her own country might be refented. Crom¬
well,. who knew that his own life depended on the e-
vent of the matter, was very anxious to learn from the
king how he liked his fpoufe after having palfed a
night with her ; but was ftruck with terror when he
replied that he now hated her more than ever •, that
he was refolved not to cohabit with her, and even fu-
fpecled that fhe was not a virgin *, a matter in which
he pretended to be a connoijjeur, and about which he
was extremely fcrupulous. In a little time his aver-
fion increafed to fuch a degree, that he determined at
any rate to get rid of his queen and prime minifter
both at once. Cromwell had long been an object of
averfion to the nobility, who hated him on account of
his obfcure birth •, his father being no other than a
blackfmith, though the fon had obtained the firft em¬
ployments in the kingdom. By his office of vicar-
general, he had an almoft abfolute authority over the
clergy ; he was alfo lord privy-feal, lord-chamber¬
lain, and mafter of the wards. He had alfo been in¬
verted with the order of the garter, and was created
earl of Effex.' This was fufficient to raife the envy
of the courtiers: but he had alio the misfortune to
fall under the difpleafure of both Proteftants and Pa-
pilfs 5 the former hating him on account of his con¬
currence with Henry in their perfecution, and the lat¬
ter looking upon him as the greateft enemy of their
religion. To thefe unfortunate circumftances on the
part of Cromwell was added the ufual rttuation of
Henry himfelf, who had now fallen in love with Ca¬
tharine Howard, niece to the duke of Norfolk; to
enjoy whom, he now determined to divorce Anne of
Cleves. By the infmuations of this lady and her
uncle, Cromwell’s ruin was accompliffied ; and he
was condemned, not only without any trial, but even
without examination. The charge was of herefy
and high treafon 5 but the inftances of the latter were
quite abfurd and ridiculous. He fubmitted, how¬
ever, to his fentence without murmuring, as know¬
ing that his complaints on this fubjeft would be re¬
venged on his fon. He was terribly mangled by the
executioner before his head could be ftruck off. His
death was foon followed by the diffolution of the mar¬
riage with the princefs of Cleves, which was annulled
by the confent of both parties. The princefs parted
from him with great indifference ; and accepted of
3000I. a-year as a compenfation, but refufed to re¬
turn to her own country after the affront fhe had re¬
ceived.
The king’s marriage with Catharine Howard foon
followed the diffolution of that with Anne of Cleves;
1 but the event may furely be regarded as a providential
punilhment upon this tyrant, whofe cruelty, lull, and
other bad qualities, can fcarcely be matched in hiftory.
We have already mentioned his infmuations againft the
virtue of the unfortunate princefs of Cleves : thefe were
amply repaid by the actual infidelities of his new queen,
6 ] ENG
whom we murt fuppofe he believed to be a pure and England,
perfeft virgin at the time he married her. So happy '‘""i
indeed did he imagine himfelf in this new" marriage,
that he publicly returned thanks for his conjugal feli¬
city, when a moft unfortunate information concerning
the queen’s incontinence was given to Cranmer by
one of the name of Lafcelles, whofe filler had been
fervant to the duchefs-dowager of Norfolk. He not
only gave intelligence of her amours before marriage,
but affirmed that die had continued the fame criminal
praftices ever fince. Two of her paramours were ar-
refted, and confeffed their crimes: the queen herfelf
alfo confeffed guilt before marriage, but denied having
ever been falfe to the king’s bed j which, however, had
very little probability. She was beheaded on Tower-
hill, along with the vifcountefs of Rochford, who had.
been a confidant in her amours. The latter, as has
already been obferved, was a principal inftrument in
procuring the dellruclion of the unhappy Anne Bo-
leyn, and therefore died unpitied *, while the virtuous
charafter of that unfortunate lady received an addi¬
tional confirmation from the difcovery of this woman’s
guilt. _ 2-SS
To fecure himfelf from any farther difafters of this Abfurdity
kind, Henry paffed a moft extraordinary law, enaft-°ftlie kjng
ing, that any one who ffiould know, or ftrongly fu-
fpeft,' any guilt in the queen, might, within 20 days,
difclofe it to the king or council, without incurring
the penalty of any former law againft defaming the
queen •, though at the fame time every one was pro¬
hibited from fpreading the matter abroad, or even
privately whifpering it to others. It wyas alfo enabl¬
ed, that if the king married any wroman who had been
incontinent, taking her for a true maid, ffie ffiould be
guilty of treafon if fire did not previoufly reveal her
guilt to him.
Thefe laws afforded diverfion to the people, who
now faid that the king mull look out for a widow }
as no reputed maid wmuld ever be perluaded to incur
the penalty of the ftatute. This in truth happened to
be the cafe at laft ; for about a year after the death of
Catharine Howard, he married, for his fixth wife, Ca- 2g^
tharine Parr, widow of Nevil Lord Latimer. This sixth mar_
lady, being fomewhat inclined to the doblrines of the riage with,
reformation, and having the boldnefs to tell her huf- Catharine
band her mind upon the lubjecl, had like to have ffia- h^’t^cd°sm
red the fate of the reft. The furious monarch, inca-alfo toput
pable of bearing the leaft contradiblion, inftantly com- to death,
plained to Bilhop Gardiner, who inflamed the quarrel
as much as poffible •, fo that at laft the king contented
that articles of impeachment thould be drawn up againft
her. But thefe were rendered abortive by the pru¬
dence and addrefs of the queen, as related under the ar¬
ticle Parr. _ _ 290
All this time Henry had tyrannized over his nobi- Monitrous
lity in the moft cruel manner. The old countefs ofcmeiiyof
Saliffiury, the laft of the houfe of Plantagenet, was ex-the kinSi
ecuted with circumftances of great cruelty. She had
been condemned, as ufual, without any trial ; and
when ffie was brought to the fcaffold, refufed to lay
her head on the block in obedience to a fentence, to
the juftice of which Ihe had never confented. She
told the executioner, therefore, that if he would have
her head, he muft win it the beft way he could j and
thus ffie ran about the fcaffold, purfued by the execu¬
tioner.
England.
291
Attainder
of Norfolk
and Surry.
29a
Henry dies,
and is fuc-
ceeded by
Edward VI.
293
Reforma¬
tion cora-
glettd.
ENG [
tioner, who aimed many fruitlefs blows at her neck
before he was able to put an end to her life. Soon
after her, the lord Leonard Grey was likewife exe¬
cuted for treafon, but we have very little account of
this tranfaclion.
The laft inilances of the king’s injuftice and cruelty
were the duke of Norfolk arid his fon the earl of
Surry. The former had ferved the king with fidelity,
and the latter was a young man of the molt promifing
hopes. His qualifications, howxver, were no fecurity
againlf the violence of Henry’s temper. He had drop¬
ped fome exprelhons of refentment againll the king’s
minifters, wdio had difplaced him from the government
of Boulogne; and the whole family had become ob¬
noxious on account of the late queen Catharine Ho¬
ward. From thefe motives, orders wrere given to arrelt
both the father and fon 5 and accordingly they wrere
arrefted both on the fame day, and confined to the
tower. The duchefs-dowager of Richmond, Surry’s
own filler, was among the number of his accufers ;
and Sir Richard Southwell alfo, his moll intimate
friend, charged him with infidelity to the king. Surry
denied the charge, and challenged his accufer to a
fingle combat. This favour was denied him; and,
notwithllanding his eloquent and fpirited defence, he
W'as condemned and executed at Tower-hill.—The duke
of Norfolk vainly endeavoured to mollify the king by
letters and fubmitlions. An attainder was found againlt
him, though the only crime his accurers could allege
was, that he had once faid that the king was fickly, and
could not hold out long ; and that the kingdom wTas
likely to be torn between the contending parties of dif¬
ferent perfuafions. Cranmer, though engaged for many
years in an oppofite party to that of Norfolk, and
though he had received many and great injuries from
him, would have no hand in fueh an unjull profecu-
tion ; but retired to his feat at Croydon. The death-
warrant, however, was made out, and immediately
fent to the lieutenant of the tower; but a period
was put to the cruelties and violence of the king by
his death, which happened on the 14th of January
1547, the night before Norfolk wras £0 have been exe¬
cuted.
Henry wra£ fucceeded by his only fon Edwrard, a
boy of nine years of age. The moil remarkable tranf-
aftions of his reign are thofe wfith regard to religion.
The reftraint which Henry VIII. had laid upon the
Proteflants was now taken off; and they not only main¬
tained their do&rines openly, but foon became the
prevailing party. Henry had fixed the majority of his
fon at 18 years of age; and, in the mean time, ap¬
pointed 16 executors of his will, to whom, during the
minority, he entrufted the government of the king
and kingdom. This will, he imagined, would be
obeyed as implicitly after his death as though he had
been alive. But the firll a£t of the executors was to
choofe the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somer-
fet, protector of the realm ; and in him wras lodged all
the regal power, together with a privilege of naming
whom he pleafed for his privy council.
The duke of Somerfet had long been reckoned a
fecret partifan of the reformers; and, immediately on
his elevation to his prefent high dignity, began to ex-
prefs his intention of reforming the abufes of the an¬
cient religion. Under his direction and that of Cran-
117 ] ENG
mer, therefore, the reformation was carried forward England,
and completed. The only perfon of confequence v
who oppofed the reformers was Gardiner bilhop of
Winchefter; and, to the difgrace of their own prin¬
ciples, the reformers now ftiowed that they could
perfecute as feverely as the Papifts had formerly per- 294
fecuted them. Gardiner wras committed to the Fleet The refer,
prifon, where he was treated with great feverity. He mers peife-
was afterwards fent to the tower: and having con-
tinued there two years, he was commanded to fubferibe 1
feveral articles, among wffiich was one confefling the
juftice of his own imprifonment. To all the articles
but this he agreed to fubferibe ;• but that did not give
fatisfadlion. He was then committed to clofe cuftody ;
his books and papers were feized ; all company was
denied him, and he was not even permitted the ufe of
pen and ink. The bifhops of Chichefter, Worcefter,
and Exeter, were in like manner deprived of their offi¬
ces ; but the biffiops of Llandaff, Salifbury, and Co¬
ventry, efcaped by facrificing the moil confiderable ffiare
of their revenues. The libraries of Weftminfter and
Oxford were ordered to be ranfacked, and purged of
the Romilh legends, miffals, and other fuperftitious vo¬
lumes ; in which fearch, great devaftation was made
even in ufeful literature. Many volumes clafped in
filver were deftroyed for the fake of their rich bind¬
ings ; many of geometry and aftronomy were fuppofed
to be magical, and deftroyed on that account ; while
the members of the univerfity, unable to put a flop to
thefe ravages, trembled for their own fafety.
The reformers, however, were not contented with
feverities of this kind. A commiffion was granted to
the primate and others, to fearch after all Anabaptifls,
heretics, or contemners of the new liturgy. Among
the numbers who were found guilty upon this occafion,
wras one Joan Boucher, commonly called 'Joan of Kent;
who was fo very obllinate, that the commiffioners could
make no impreffion upon her. She maintained an ab-
flrufe metapbyfical fentiment, that Chrift, as man, was
a finful man ; but, as the Word, he was free from fin,
and could be fubjeft to none of the frailties of the
fieffi with which he was clothed. For maintaining
this do£lrine, the poor woman wras condemned to be
burnt to death as a heretic. The young king, who
it feems had more fenfe than his teachers, refufed at
firil to fign the death-warrant: but at laft, being over¬
come by the importunities of Cranmer, he relu&ant-
ly complied ; declaring, that if he did wrong, the fin
fhould be on the head of thofe who had perfuaded him,,
to it. The primate, after making another unfuccefsful
effort to reclaim the woman from her opinions, com*,
mitted her to the flames. Some time after, one Van
Paris, a Dutchman, was condemned to death for Aria-
nifm. hie fuffered with fo much fatisfaftion, that he
hugged and careffed the faggots that were eonfuming
him.
_ The reft of this reign affords only the hiftory of in¬
trigues and cabals of the courtiers one againft another.
The protestor was firft oppofed- by his own brother
admiral Sir Thomas Seymour, who had married Ca¬
tharine Parr the late king’s widow. She died foon af¬
ter the marriage ; and he then made his addreffes to
the princefs Elizabeth, who is faid not to have been
averfe to the match. His brother the duke, who
was at that time in the north, being informed of
his.
\
England.
295
Lady Jane
Gray decla¬
red heir to
the crown.
296
Death of
'Edward VI,
X
ENG [11
His ambitious projefts, fpeedily returned, Had him at¬
tainted of high treafon, and at laid condemned and ex¬
ecuted. The duke of Somerfet himfelf, however, was
fome time afterwards deprived of his office by Dudley
duke of Northumberland ; who at laid found means to
get him accufed of high treafon, and executed. Not
fatisfied with the office of proteftor, which he aflumed
on the death of Somerfet, this ambitious nobleman
formed a fcheme of engroffing the fovereign power al¬
together. He reprefented to Edward, who was now
in a declining ftate of health, that his filters Mary
and Elizabeth, who were appointed by Henry’s will
to fucceed, in failure of diredt heirs, to the crown,
had both been declared illegitimate by parliament *, that
the queen of Scots his aunt flood excluded by the
king’s will; and, being an alien alfo, loll all right of
fucceeding. The three princeffes being thus excluded,
the fucceffion naturally devolved to the marchionefs of
Dorfet, eldeft daughter of the French queen, Henry’s
filter, who had married the earl of Suffolk after her frit
Huiband’s death. The next heir to the marchionefs was
Lady Jane Grey, a lady univerfally refpefted, both on
account of the charms of her perfon, and the virtues
and endowments of her mind. The king, who w^as
-accuftomed to fubmit to the politic views of this
minifter, agreed to have the fucceffion fubmitted to
council, where Northumberland hoped to procure
an eafy concurrence. The judges, however, who
were appointed to draw up the king’s letters patent
for this purpofe, warmly objedted to the meafure 3
and gave their reafons before the council. T- hey
begged that a parliament might be fummoned, both
to give it force, and to free its partifans from dan¬
ger : they faid that the form was invalid, and would
not only fubject the judges wffio drew it, but every
counfellor who figned it, to the pains of treafon.
Northumberland could not brook their demurs 3 he
threatened them with his authority, called one of
them a traitor, and faid he 'would fight with any man
in his fliirt in fuch a juft caufe as that of Lady Jane’s
fucceffion. A method was therefore found out of
fcreening the judges from danger, by granting them
the king’s pardon for what they ffiould draw up 3
and at length the patent for changing the fucceffion
was completed, the princefies Mary and Elizabeth
were fet afide, and the crown fettled on the heirs of the
dutchefs of Suffolk (for fire herfelf was contented to
forego her claim.)
For feme time the king had languiffied in a confump-
tion. After this fettlement of the crown, his health
vifibly declined every day, and little hopes were enter¬
tained of his recovery. To make matters wmrfe, his
phyficians were difmiffed by Northumberland’s advice,
and by an order of council 3 and he was put into the
hands of an ignorant old woman, who undertook in a
little time to reltore him to health. After the ufe of
her medicines all his bad fymptoms increafed to the
molt violent degree. He felt a difficulty of fpeech
and breathing 3 his pulfe failed, his legs fwelled, his
colour became livid, and many other figns of approach¬
ing death made their appearance. Fie expired at Green¬
wich on the 6th of July 1553, in the 16th year of his
ap-e and 7th of his reign.
° After the death of King Edward, very little regard
-was paid to the new patent by which Lady Jane Grey
2
8 ] ENG
had been declared heir to the throne. The undoubt- England,
ed title of Mary, notwithftanding the fcandalous be- v
haviour of her father and his fervile parliaments, wras
acknowledged by the whole nation. Northumberland,
howrever, was refolved to put the late king’s will in exe¬
cution. He therefore carefully concealed the death of
Edward, in hopes of fecuring the perfon of Mary, who
by an order of council had been required to attend her
brother during his illnefs 3 but the being informed of
his death, immediately prepared to aflert her right to ^
the crown. Northumberland then,, accompanied by Lacjy jane
the duke of Suffolk, the earl of Pembroke, aird fome Gray pla-
other noblemen, faluted Lady Jane Grey queen of red on the
England. Jane was in a great meafure ignorant of
thefe tranfactions, and it was with the utmoit difficul- reflan lt>
ty die was perfuaded to accept of the dignity conferred
upon her. At lalt lire complied, and luffered herfelf
to be conveyed to the tower, where it was then ufual
for the fovereigns of England to pafs fome days after
their acceffion. Mary, howrever, who had retired to
Kenning-hall in Norfolk, in a very few days found
herfelf at the head of 40,000 men 3 and Lady Jane re-
figned the fovereignty in ten days, with much more
pleafure than ffie had received it. She retired with her
mother to their own habitation 3 and Northumberland
finding his affairs quite delperate, attempted to quit
the kingdom. But he was Hopped by the band.of pen-
fioner guards, who informed him that he mult ft ay to
juftify their condudl in taking arms againlt their law¬
ful lovereign. He therefore furrendered himfelf to
Mary ; and w^as foon after executed, together with Sir
John Gates and Sir Thomas Palmer, two infamous-
tools of his power. Sentence was alfo pronounced
againft Lady Jane Grey and her huffiand Lord Guild¬
ford 3 but without any intention of putting it in exe¬
cution againft them at prefent, as their youth and in¬
nocence pleaded fo ftrongly in their favour, neither of
them having yet reached their 17th year.
Mary nowr entered London, and was peaceably fet-Mary de-
tled on the throne without any effufion of blood. I he dared
Englifh, how-ever, foon found reafon to repent their ffiieen’
attachment to her caufe. Though the had at firft 1b-
lemnly promifed to defend the religion and laws of
her predeceffor, Ihe no fooner faw herfelf firmly efta-
bliffied on the throne, than Ihe refolved to reftore the
Popiffi religion, and give back their former power to
the clergy. Gardiner, Bonnar, and the other bifhops
wffio had been imprifoned or fuffered lofs during the
laft reign, were taken from prifon, reinftated in their
fees, and now triumphed in their turn. On pretence
of difeouraging controverfy, the queen by her preroga¬
tive filenced all preachers throughout England, except
fuch as ffiould obtain a particular licenfe, and this ffie
was refolved to give only to thofe of her own perfua-
fion. The greater part of the foreign Proteftants took
the firft opportunity of leaving the kingdom 3 and ma¬
ny of the arts and manufactures, which they had fuc-
cefsfully introduced, fled with them. Soon after, the
queen called a parliament, which feemed willing to
concur in all her meafures. They at once repealed all
the ftatutes with regard to religion that had paffed
during the reign of Edward VI, and the national reli¬
gion was again placed on the fame footing in which it
had been at the death of Henry VIII.
To ftrengthen the caufe of the Catholics, and give
v the
ENG- [ ]
England, the queen more power to eftabliih the religion to
’ -v——' which fhe was fo much attached, a proper match was
Propotals of?0 be ^ouS^t ^or iler 5 and it was. luppoied that three
marriage to^ad already been propofed as candidates for her favour.
(£neen Ma-Her affedlicn feemed to be engaged by the earl of De-
ry. vonfhire : but as lie was rather attached to the prin-
cefs Elizabeth, he received the overtures which were
made him from the queen with negleft. The next
perfon mentioned as a proper match for her was Car¬
dinal Pole, a man greatly refpefled for his virtues ;
but as he was now in the decline of life, Mary foon
dropped all thoughts of that alliance. At laft die
caft her eye on Pnilip II. of Spain, fon to the emperor
Charles M He was then in the 27th year of his age,
and confequently agreeable in that refpedl to Mary,
who was in her 48th year •, but when her intentions
with regard to this match became known, the great-
elt alarm took place throughout the whole nation.
1 he commons prefented fuch a llrong remonftrance
againft a foreign alliance, that the queen thought pro¬
per to dilfolve the parliament in order to get quit of
their importunity. To obviate, however, all clamour,
with Spain the articles of marriage were drawn up as favourably
generally as poffible for the interefts of England. It was agreed,
that though Philip Ihould have the title of king, the
adminiftration ihould be entirely in the queen j that
no foreigner ihould be capable of holcfing any office in
the kingdom; nor ihould any innovation be made in
the laws, cuftoms, and privileges of the people 5 that
Philip ihould not carry the queen abroad without her
confent, or any of her children without the confent of
the nobility. Sixty thoufand pounds a-year were to
be fettled upon her as a jointure ; and the male iifue of
this marriage were to inherit Burgundy and the Low
Countries as well as the crown of England : and in
cafe of the death of Don Carlos, Philip’s fon by his
former .marriage, without any heir, the queen’s ilfue
ihould inherit all the reit of the Spanilh dominions
alio.
All thefe conceffions, however, were not fufficient
to quiet the apprehenfions of the people : they were
confidered namely as words of courfe, which might be
retraced at plealure } and the whole nation murmured
Wyatt’s agamit a tranfaftion fo dangerous to its ancient
furredion. jllK^ independence. An infurrection was railed
by Sir -1-hoiTiris Wvatt. a of- In^o^
ENG
Wyatt himfelf was condemned
and cxe- England.
300
Alliar/ce
difagree-
able.
391
by Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Roman Catholic, at the head
bf 4000 men, who fet out from Kent to London, pub-
Jilhing a declaration againft the Spaniffi match and
the queen’s evil counfellors. Having advanced as far
as Southwark, he required that the queen ihould put
the. tower of London into his hands j that ihe iliould
deliver four counfellors as hoftages j and, in order to
enfure tne liberty of the nation, Ihould marry an Eng-
hlhman. But his force was at prefent by far too
imall to fupport fuch magnificent pretenfions 5 and he
unluckily wafted fo much time without attempting any
thing of importance, that the popular ferment entire¬
ly iubfided, his followers abandoned him gradually,
and he wras at laft obliged to furrender himfelf to Sir
x.v; u >.uu- ^aurice Berkeley near lemple-bar. His followers
demned and were treated with great cruelty: no fewer than 400 of
executed them fullered by the hand of the executioner j 400
wnh many more were conduced with ropes about their necks
into the queen’s prefeace, and there received their
301
He is con-
of his fol¬
lowers.
l9 ]
pardon,
cuted.
I his. rebellion had almoft proved fatal to the Prin- p.. r
cefs Elizabeth, who for fome time paft had been treatsi^abeth "
ea with great feverity by her filler. Mary, who pof-harihly
lellea a moft malignant and cruel heart, had never for-treated»
got the quarrel between their mothers; and when a de¬
cimation was made after her own acceffion, recognifinp-
Queen Catharine’s marriage as legal, Ihe was thus fur°-
nilhed with a pretence for accounting Elizabeth ille¬
gitimate. She was likewife obnoxious on account of
her religion, which Elizabeth at firft had not prudence
iuhicient to conceal; though afterwards Hie learned
lull well to difguife her fentiments. But, above all, her
Handing fo high in the affection of the earl of De¬
von {hire, was a crime not to be forgiven ; and Mary-
made her fenfible of her difpleafure by numberlefs mor¬
tifications. She was ordered to take place at court-
after the duchefs of Suffolk and the countefs of Le¬
nox 3 to avoid which, and other indignities, Elizabeth
at laft retired from court altogether into the country.
After, the fuppreflion of Wyatt’s rebellion flie was
committed to the tower, and underwent a ftrict exa¬
mination before the council ; but as Wyatt had made
a declaration on the fcaffold that flie was in no manner
of way concerned, the queen found herfelf under a ne-
ceffity of releafing her. To get rid of fuch a trouble-
iome rival, however, ffie was offered in marriage to the
duke of Savoy 3 and on Elizabeth’s declining the pro-
pofal, fhe was committed clofe prifoner to Woodftoke..
V1 j • ^^e\^on Proved fatal, however, to many perfons
of d.iftinftion, and gave the queen an opportunity of
manifofting that unbounded cruelty which reigned in
her heart. The tower, and all the prifons in the
kingdom, were filled with nobility and gentry, who
became objedls of royal vengeance, more on account of
their credit and intereft with the people than any con¬
cern ffiey were fuppofed to have had with Wyatt.
Sir Nicholas. Throgmorton was tried in Guildhall 3
but as no fatisfaffory evidence appeared againft him
the jury gave a verdict in his favour. The queen was
fo.much enraged at this difappointment, that ftie recom¬
mitted him to the tower, fummoned the jury before
t^e council, and at laft fent them all to prifon, fining
them afterwards fome of 1000I. and others of 2000I.
each. Sir John Throgmorton, brother to Sir Nicho¬
las juft mentioned, was condemned and executed upon
evidence which had been already rejected as infuffi- ,C4
cient. But of all thofe who periihed on this occafion, Ex^cuti'enc
none excited more univerfal compaflion than the un-°^a^y
fortunate Lady Jane Grey and her huffiand Lord farJe,Grey
Guilford Dudley. They had already received fentence huland
ot death, as has been mentioned 3 and two days after
the execution of Wyatt, they received orders to pre¬
pare for eternity. Lady Jane, who had been in ex-
peelation of this blow, was no way intimidated, but
received the news with the moft heroic refclution
Ihe place intended at firft for their execution was
Lower-hill 3 but the council, dreading the effeifts of
the people’s compaflion for their youth, beauty, and
innocence, gave diredions that they Ihould be beheaded
within the verge of the tower. The duke of Suffolk
was loon after tried, condemned, and executed; but
I'ould have met with more compaffion, had not his
ambition, >
ENG [ 120 ] ENG
England, ambition been tbe caufe of his daughter’s unhappy fate head of the perfecution ; and therefore eonfigned that England.^
—‘v ‘ juft mentioned. Sir Thomas Grey alfo loft his life on office to Bonnar biffiop of London, a man of a very
the fame account} but the cruel fpirit of Mary was ftill abandoned charafter. The bloody icene began by the
unfatisfied 5 and finding herfelf univerfally odious, that execution of Hooper biffiop of Gloucefter, and Rogers
{he might free herfelf from any apprehenfions for what prebendary of St Paul’s. Thefe were quickly follow-
305 was paft, as well as tyrannize with the more freedom ed by others, of rvhom the principal were Archbiffiop
The people jn tjme ’to come, ftie difabled the people from refill:- Cranmer, Ridley bilhop of London, and Latimer bi-
difarmed. ance^ ordering general mufters, and caufing the Ihop of Worcelter *. Thefe perfecutions foon became * See Craw.'
commiffioners feize their arms and lay them up in forts odious to the whole nation, and the perpetrators oimer>
and caftles. them were all willing to throw the blame from them-
Notwithftanding this unpopularity, however, the re- felves upon others. Philip endeavoured to fallen the
bellion of Wyatt had fo ftrengthened the hands of go- whole reproach upon Bonnar 5 but that bilhop would
vernment, that a parliament was affembled in hopes of not take the whole, and therefore retorted on the
gratifying the queen’s wiffies in regard to her mar- court. A bold ftep was now taken to introduce a
■riage with Philip of Spain. To facilitate this purpofe court limilar to the Spaniffi inquifition, that ffiould be
■alfo, the emperor of Germany fent over to England empowered to try heretics, and condemn them with-
400,000 crowns to be diftributed among the members out any other law but its own authority. But even
of parliament in bribes and penfions; a practice of this was thought a method too dilatory in the prefent
which there had hitherto been no example in England, exigence of affairs. A proclamation ilfued againft
The queen, notwithftanding her bigotry, refumed the books of herefy, treafon, and fedition, declared, that
title of Supreme Head of the Church, which ffie had whofoever had fuch books in his poffeffion, and did not
dropped three months before. Gardiner made a fpeech, burn them without reading, ffiould fuffer as a rebel,
in which he propofed, that they ffiould inveft the queen This was attended with the execution of fuch numbers,
with a legal power of difpofing of the crown, and ap- that at laft the magiftrates who had been inftrumental
pointing her fucceffor •, but the parliament, however in thefe cruelties refufed to give their affiltance^any
obfequious in other refpe&s, did not choofe to gratify longer. It was computed, that during this perfecu-
their fovereign in a meafure by which the kingdom of tion, 277 perfons fuffered by fire, befides thofe punifh-
England might become a province of the Spaniffi mo- ed by imprifonments, fines, and confifcations. Among
narchy. They would not even declare it treafon to thofe who fuffered by fire were 5 bifhops, 21 clergy-
imagine or attempt the death of the queen’s huffiand men, 8 lay-gentlemen, 84 tradefmen, 100 hulbandmen,
during her life-time, though they agreed to ratify the 55 women, and 4 children.
articles of marriage. Finding therefore that the par- The only remarkable tranfaclion which happened
liament even yet was not fufficiently obfequious, it was during this reign with regard to the temporal affairs
Marriage, thought moft proper to diffolve them. Soon after this of the kingdom was the lofs of Calais, which had been
with Philip the marriage with Philip was folemnized; but as the in the pofleffion of the Engliffi for upwards of .
folemnized. latter had efpoufed his queen merely with a view to be- years f. This lofs filled the whole kingdom with
come king of England, he no fooner found himfelf complaints, and the queen with grief. She was heard
difappointed in this than he ftiowed a total want of to fay, that, when dead, the name of Calais would be 3C8
affection for her as a wife. He paffed moft of his time found engraven on her heart. She did not long fur- Mary dies,
at a diftance from her in the Low Countries ; and fel- yive this lofs; but died in the year 1558, of a ^n8er“ceedcd hv"
dom wrote to her except when he wanted money, with ing illnefs, after a reign of five years four months andElizabetk
which Mary would at all times gladly have fupplied eleven days. .
him even had it been at the expence of her kingdom, After the death of Mary, the prmcefs Elizabeth
if in her power. fucceeded to the throne without oppofition. She was
Proteftants The enemies of the ftate being fuppofed to be fup- at Hatfield when news of her fifter’s death were brought
perfecuted. preffed, thofe of the Proteftant religion were next per- her , upon which (he haftened up to London, where ffie
fecuted’. The old fanguinary laws which had been re- was received with great joy. This prmcefs was well
iefled by a former parliament were now revived. Or- qualified for government. She had judgment fufficient
ders were given, that the priefts and biffiops who had to make choice of proper minifters, and authority
married fhould be ejeffed } that the mafs ffiould here- enough to keep her fubjefts in awe. The reftramts
ftored and the pope’s authority eftablilhed; and that the alfo, to which ffie had been fubjecfed during her fifter s
church and its privileges, all but their goods and eftates, reign, had taught her fo well to conceal her fentiments,
ffiould be put on the fame footing on which they were that ffie had become a perfect miftrefs of diliimulation j
before the commencement of the reformation. But as which, though no commendable^ part of her character,
the gentry and nobility had already divided the church- proved occafionally of great fervice to her government,
lands among them, it was though inconvenient, and She perfected the reformation, and put the religion of
indeed impoffible, to make a reftoration of thefe. The England upon the fame plan which lubfifts at prefent.
perfons who chiefly promoted thefe meafures were Gar- This was accompliflied without the leaft difficulty j for
diner biffiop of Winchefter, and Cardinal Pole, who the perfecutions in Mary’s reign had ferved only tp
was a kinfman of Henry VIII. but had been long in give the whole nation an averfion for popery. In the
Italy, and was now returned from it. The latter was time of Edward VI. the people had been compelled to
for tolerating the Proteftants 5 but the former, percei- embrace the Proteftant religion, and their fears mdu-
vino- that rigorous meafures would be moft agreeable ced them to conform 5 but now, almoft the whole na-
to the king and queen, declared himfelf againft it. He tion were Proteftants from inclination. The rerorma-
W3S too prudent, however, to appear in perfon at the tion was confirmed by acf of parliament in 1559,
3C9
Peace with
fiance.
ENG [ j
England, thus England was feen to change its religion four times
'1 in the fpace of 3 2 years.
During the time that the queen and her counfellors
were employed in fettling the religious affairs of the na¬
tion, negotiations were Hkewife carried on for a peace
between England and France j which was at laft con¬
cluded on the following terms, viz. that Henry Ihould
reftore Calais at the expiration of eight years 5 that in
cafe of failure, he Ihould pay 500,000 crowns, and E-
lizabeth’s title to Calais ftill remain $ that for the pay¬
ment of this fum he Ihould find the fecurity of eight
foreign merchants, not natives of France 5 and until
that fecurity were provided he Ihould deliver five hof-
tiiges. If during this interval Elizabeth Ihould break
the peace with France or Scotland, Ihe Ihould forfeit
all title to Calais j but if Henry made war on Eliza¬
beth, he Ihould be obliged to reftore the fortrefs imme¬
diately. fhis pacification was loon followed by an irre-
concileable quarrel with Mary queen of Scotland j
which wras not extinguiftied but by the death of the
Scottifh princefs } and that with fuch circumftances of
accumulated treachery, hypocrify, and diflimulation, as
have ftamped an indelible difgrace on the memory of
Elizabeth. See the articles Mary and Scotland.
Elizabeth having at laft got rid of her rival in the
year 1587, began to make preparations for refilling
the Spanilh invafion. Hearing that Philip was fe-
cretly fitting out a great navy to attack her, Ihe fent
Sir Francis Drake with' a fleet to pillage his coafts
and deftroy his Ihipping. On this expedition he fet
fail with four capital ftiips fumilhed by the queen, and
26 others of various fizes furnilhed him by the mer-
311 chants of Lbndon in hopes of lharing the plunder.
Exploits of Having learned that a Spanilh fleet richly laden was
Sir Francis lying at Cadiz in readinefs to fet fail for Lilbon he
T^reil^o J* _ Cl 1 1 • r i-a «
ENG
excited to attempt invafions in England.
310
Prepara¬
tions for
war with
Spain.
Brake. dire&ed his courfe towards the former port, where’ he
boldly attacked the enemy. Six galleys were obliged
to take Ihelter under the cannon of the forts j he binn¬
ed about 100 veffels laden with ammunition and naval
ftores ; and deftroyed a great Ihip belonging to the
marquis de Santa Croce. Thence letting fail for Cape
Vincent, he took by affault the caftle fituated on that
promontory, with three other fortreffes. Having next
anfulted Lifbon, he failed to the ifland Tercera, one of
the Azores, where, after lying in wait for fome time, he
took a rich prize, and then returned to England j having
by this Ihort expedition taught the Englilh to defpife the
huge and unwieldy ftiips of the enemy, and thus prepared
them to a£t with more refolution againft the formidable
-12 armament that now threatened to invade them.
Mifcar- But though the expedition of Sir Francis Drake had
mge of retarded the intended invafion of England for a twelve-
fcheme of ’ j not .any means induced Philip to aban-
an invafion. on ^IS defign. During that interval he continued his
preparations with the greateft afliduity, the more efpe-
cially as the invalion of England feemed to be a necef-
fary preparative for regaining his authority over the Ne¬
therlands, the revolted provinces having been ftrongly
fupported by Elizabeth. The fleet prepared at this
time was fuperior to any thing then exifting in the
world 5 and no doubt being entertained of its fuccefs,
it was oftentatioufly ftyled the Invincible Armada. The
miferable event of this expedition, and the total failure
of all the mighty hopes of Philip, are related under
the article Armada. The Ipirit and courage of the
Vod. VIII. Parti.' . *
21 ]
Englilh were n
their turn 5 which they executed in numerous deicents*
on the Spanilh coafts $ though thefe were only tem¬
porary, and defigned not for permanent conqueft, but
to harafs the enemy. It would be endlefs to relate
all the advantages obtained over the enemy at fea
where the capture of every Ihip muft have been a fe-
parate narrative. It is fufficient to obferve, that the
fea-captains of that reign are ftill confidered as the
boldeft and moft enterprifing fet of men that England
ever produced ; and among this number we are to rec¬
kon Raleigh and Howard, Drake, Cavendilh, and
Hawkins. The Englilh navy then began to take the
lead j and has fince continued irrefiftible in all parts of
the ocean.
Elizabeth continued to reign with great glory till
the year 1603 ; but all her greatnefs could not prevent
her from being extremely miferable before her death.
She had caufed her greateft favourite, and probably
her lover, the earl of Effex f, to be executed. Though f See Btve-
this execution could not be called unjuft, the queen’s reux‘
aftedtion (on being informed that he had at laft thrown
himfelf entirely on her clemency) returned to fuch a
degree, that Ihe thenceforth gave herfelf entirely over
to defpair. She refufed food and fuftenance ; Ihe con¬
tinued filent and gloomy j fighs and groans were the Grief and
only vent Ihe gave to her defpondence 5 and Are lay for mifery of
ten days and nights upon the carpet, leaning on culhions, Ehzabetk.
which her maids brought her. Perhaps the faculties of
her mind were impaired by long and violent exercife •
perhaps fhe refledfed with remorfe on fome paft adtions
of her life, or perceived, but too ftrongly, the decays
of nature, and the approach of her diffolution. She
faw her courtiers remitting in their afliduity to her, in
order to pay their court to James the apparent fuccef-
for. Such a concurrence of caufes was more than fuf¬
ficient to deftroy the remains of her conftitution 5 and
her end was now vifibly feen to approach. Feeling a
perpetual heat in her ftomach, attended with an un¬
quenchable thirft, fhe drank without ceafing, but refu¬
fed the afliftance of her phyficians. Her diftemper
gaining ground, Cecil and the lord admiral defired to
know her fentiments with regard to the fuccefiion. To
this fhe replied, that as the crown of England had al-
ways been held by kings, it ought not to devolve upon
any inferior charader, but upon her immediate heir
the king of Scotland. Being then advifed by the arch-
bifliop of Canterbury to fix her thoughts upon God,
fhe replied, that her thoughts did not in the leaft wan¬
der from him. Her voice foon after left her; fhe fell
into a lethargic flumber, which continued fome hours;
and fhe expired gently without a groan, in the 70th
year of her age, and 45th of her reign. She was fuc-Her dtatli
ceeded by James I. king of Scotland ; fince which time
the hiitory of both England and Scotland is compre¬
hended under the article Britain.
Since the Norman conqueft, England has been di-Eniw
vi. ed mto fix circuits, each circuit containing a cer-howdivi-
tam number of counties. Two judges are appointed<led'
for each circuit, which they vifit in the fpring and au¬
tumn for adminiftering juftice to the fubjefts who are
at a diftance from the capital. In holding the lent
(or fpring) aflizes, the northern circuit extends only to
ork and. Lancaftdr 5 the aflizes at Durham, New-
caftle, Carlifle, and Appleby, being held only in the
QL autumn,
ENG [ 122 ]
England, autumn, and diftinguilhed by the appellation of the
■ ■”'» long circuit. Thefc circuits and counties are :
1. Home Circuit contains the counties of Effex, Hert¬
ford, Kent, Surry, and Suffex.
2. Norfolk Circuit contains thofe of Bucks, Bedford,
Huntingdon, Cambridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk.
3. Oxford Circuit. Oxon, Berks, Gloucefter, Wor-
cefter, Monmouth, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford.
4. Midland Circuit* Warwick, Leicefler, Derby,
Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, and Northampton.
y. Wejlern Circuit. Hants, W ilts, Dorfet, Somer--
fet, Devon, and Cornwall.
6. Northern Circuit. York, Durham, Northumber¬
land, Lancafter, Weflmorland, and Cumberland. _
Middlefex and Chefhire are not comprehended in the
above circuits j the former being the feat of the fu-
preme courts of juffice, and the latter a county pa¬
latine. There is ftill a court of chancery in Lan¬
cafter and Durham, with a. chancellor j and there is
a court of exchequer at Chefter, of a mixed kind, both
for law and equity, of which the chamberlain of Chef¬
ter is judge ; there are alio other juftices in the coun¬
ties palatine, to determine civil actions and pleas of the
crown. _ _
Befides the 40 counties into which England is di¬
vided, there are counties corporate, conufting of cer¬
tain diftrias, to which the liberties and jurifdiaions
peculiar to a county have been granted by charter from
the throne. Thus the city of London is a county di-
ftina from Middlefex; the cities of York, Chefter,
Briftol, Norwich, Worcefter, and the towns of King-
fton upon Hull and Newcaltle upon dyne, are coun¬
ties of themfelves, diftina from thofe in which they
lie. The fame may be faid of Berwick upon Tweed,
•which lies in Scotland, and has within its jurifdiaion
a fmall territory of two miles on the north fide of the
river. Under the name of a town^ boroughs and cities
are contained : for every borough or city is a town,
though every towm is not a borough or city.—An ac¬
count of the Englilh conftitution and government is
given under the articles King, Lords, Commons,
Parliament, Law, Liberty, Rights, &c.
The eftablilhed religion of England is Epifcopacy.
Since the reign of Henry VIII. the fovereigns of
England have been called, in public writs, the fupreme
heads of the church j but this title conveys no fpiritual
meaning, as it only denotes the regal power to pre¬
vent any ecclefiaftical differences, or, in other words,
to fubftitute the king in place of the pope before the
reformation, with regard to temporalities and the inter¬
nal economy of the church, ihe kings of England
never intermeddle in ecclefiaftical difputes, and are
contented to give a fanftion to the legal rights of the
clergy. .
The church of England, under this defcnption of
the monarchical power over it, is governed by two
archbiftiops, and 24 biihops, befides the biftiop of So-
dor and Man, whc, not being poffeffed of an Englilh
barony, does not fit in the houfe of peers. See Arch¬
bishop and Bishop.
England contains about 60 archdeacons. Subordi¬
nate to them are the rural deacons, formerly ftyled
archprejbyters, who fignify the bilhop’s pleafure to his
clergy, the lower clafs of which confifts of parilh-
priefts (who are called rcolors or vicars') f deacons and
3I(S
Religion.
ENG
curates. See the articles Curate, Deacon, Parson, England,
and Vicar. . . tv ""
The following is a lift of the* Englilh bilhoprics,
with their revenues, as charged in the king’s books; 0f the
though that fum is far from being the real annual ya- clergy,
lue of the fee, yet it aflifts in forming a comparative
eftimate between the revenues of each fee with thofe of
another.
Archbishoprics. L. s. d.
Canterbury, - - 2682122 %
York, - - 1610 o o
Bishoprics.
London, - - 2000 o o
Durham, - - 1821 1 3
Winchefter, - - 3124128
Thefe three bilhops take precedency of all others in
England, and the others according to the fenio-
rity of their confecrations.
Ely, - - 2134 18 6
Bath and Wells, - - 533 1 3
Hereford, - - 768110
Rochefter, - - 35^ 4 9
Litchfield and Coventry, - 559 17 3
Chefter, - - 420 1 8
Worcefter, - ' 929 I3 3
Chichefter, - - 677 1 3
St Afaph, - - 187 11 8
Salilbury, - - I3^5 5 0
Bangor, - I3I 3
Norwich, - - 834 11 7
Gloucefter, - " 3I5 7 3
Llandaff, - - I54 I4 2
Lincoln, - - 894 18 1
Briftol, - - 297 11 o
Carlifle, - - 531 4 9
Exeter, - - 500 o o
Peterborough, - - 414 14 8
Oxford, - - 381 11 o
St Davids, - - 426 2 1
The ecclefiaftical government of England is, proper¬
ly fpeaking, lodged in the convocation 5 which is a na¬
tional reprefentative or fynod, and anfwers pretty near
to the ideas w^e have of a parliament. They are con¬
voked at the fame time with every parliament; and
their bufinefs is to confider of the ftate of the church,
and to call thofe to an account who have advanced new
opinions, inconfiftent with the dodfrines of the church
of England. Some high-flying clergymen during the
reign of Queen Anne, and in the beginning of that of
George I. raifed the powers of the convocation to a
height that was inconfiftent with the principles of re¬
ligious toleration, and indeed of civil liberty : fo that
the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative of call¬
ing the members together, and of diflblving them 5 and
ever finee they have not been permitted to fit for any
time, in wThich they could do bufinefs.
The following table exhibits a view of the popula¬
tion of England, taken from the returns made to the
houfe of commons in ccnfequence of an adt of parlia¬
ment which w7as paffed for the purpofe of afcertaining the
number of inhabitants in the kingdom. From this table
it appears that the total number of perfons in England
amounts to 8,3 31,43 4.
« /"vrTXTnni T'o
.r//.A//
ENG
[ 123 ]
ENG
England,
New
[England
ii England,
New
COUNTIES.
Bedford
Berks
Buckingham
Cambridge
Chefter
Cornwall -
Cumberland
Derby
Devon
Dorfet
Durham
Effex
Gloucefter
Hereford
Hertford
Huntingdon
Kent
Eancafter
Leicefter
Lincoln
Middlefex
Monmouth
Norfolk
Northampton
Northumberland
Nottingham
Oxford
Rutland
Salop
Somerfet
Southampton
Stafford
Suffolk
Surrey
Suffex
Warwick
jWeflmorland
Wilts
Worcefler
York (Eaft Riding)
(North Riding)
(Weft Riding)
HOUSES.
Inhabited.
11,888
2°>573
2°,443
1.6,139
34,482
32,906
2I>573
31,822
57.955
2I>437
27>I95
38r37i
46,457
17,003
17,681
6,841
5L585
114,270
25,992
4C395
112,912
8,948
47,6»7
26,665
26, ci8
25,611
20,599
3,274
31,182
48,040
38,345
45,*98
32,253
46,072
25,272
40,847
7,897
29,462
26,711
25,78i
3L512
111,146
By how many
Families occu¬
pied.
13,980
23,416
23,384
19,262
37,613
39,040
25,893
33,660
7M59
24,142
38,109
46,784
55,133
18,822
20,092
8,150
65.967
I3 2,T47
27.967
42,629
i99,854
9,9°3
57,930
29,361
35,503
30,081
23,750
3,563
34,5oi
57,oi3
45,331
48,185
43,48i
63,673
3Q,755
44,028
9,026
39,527
29,74i
3I»544
34,542
417,379
,467,870 1,778,420
PERSONS.
Males.
30,523
52,821
52,094
44,031
92,759
89,868
54,377
79,4oi
157,240
53,667
74,770
111,3 56
117,180
43,955
48,063
18,521
*51,374
322,356
63,943
!02,445
373,655
22,173
129,842
63,41?
73,357
68,558
53,786
7,978
82,563
126,927
105,667
118,698
101,091
127,138
78,797
99,942
20,175
87,380
67,63*
67,457
74,904
276,005
Females.
3,987,935
32.870
56,394
55,354
45,265
98,992
98,401
62,853
81,471
185,761
61,652
85,591
115,081
*.33,629
45,236
49,5*4
*9,047
156,250
350,375
66,138
106,112
444,474
23,409
*43,529
68,340
83,744
71,792
55,834
8,378
85,076
146,823
113,989
1 20,455
109,340
141,905
80,514
108,248
21,442
97,727
71,702
71,976
80,602
287,948
OCCUPATIONS.
Perfons chiefly
employed in
Agriculture
4,243,499
18,766
38,155
. 25,083
23,05 4
38.823
42,687
21,062
3*,743
96,208
28,204
18,217
65,*74
49,420
3*,261
20,611
9,536
54,*24
52,018
23.823
60,584
43,4*7
12,871
61,791
29,303
23,190
23,904
33,*09
3,995
45,046
6i,434
50,696
43,930
55,744
2,746
38,925
34,756
12,141
53,5*7
38,865
3*,538
44,061
55,695
Ditto in Trade
Manufadlures,
or Handicraft.
1,524,227
13,816
16,921
20,138
11,988
67,447
24,870
*8,387
39,5*6
60,844
22,259
25,208
25,283
49,645
8,588
12,861
4,484
43,253
269.259
42,036
24,263
162.260
5,540
38,181
3 *,426
25,738
35,5*3
16,346
*,923
35,535
54,053
30,303
72,465
34,064
42,865
19,608
9*,922
8,673
39,422
30,230
22,003
26,207
164,188
*,789,53*
Total of
Perions.
63,393
*09,215
107,444
89,346
*9*,75*
188,269
117,230
161,142
343,ooi
**5,3*9
160,361
226,437
250,809
89,19*
97,577
37,568
307,624
672,731
130,081
208,557
818,129
45,582
273,37*
*3i,757
*57,101
i4°,350
109,620
*6,356
167,639
273,750
219,656
239,153
210,431
269,043
*59,3*i
208,190
41,617
185,107
*39,333
*39 433
155,506
563,953
England.
8,33 *,434
New ENGLAND, late a province of the Britifh
empire in America, is bounded on the north by Ca¬
nada, on the eaft by Nova Scotia and the Atlantic
-ocean, on the fouth by the Atlantic and Long Ifland
found, and on the weft by New York. It lies in the
form of a quarter of a circle. Its weft line, beginning
at the mouth of Byram river, which empties into
Long Ifland found at the fouth-weft corner of Con-
neflicut, latitude 410, runs a little eaft of north, un¬
til it ftrikes the 45th degree of latitude, and then
curves to the eaftward almoft to the gulf of St Law¬
rence. t
This country was difcovered in the beginning of the When firft
laft century, and called North Virginia; but no Euro-difcovered.
peans fettled there till the year 1608. The firft co¬
lony, which was weak and ill-direfted, did not fuc-
ceed ; and, for fome time, there were only a few ad¬
venturers who came over at times in the fummer, built
themfelves temporary huts for the fake of trading with
the favages, and, like them, difappeared again for the
() 2 reft
ENG [ i
New ttfl: of the year. At laft fome Brownifts, headed by
England.^ j\,jr Robini’on, whom Neal ftyles the Father of the In-
v dependents, who in 1610 had been driven from Eng¬
land by perfecution, fled to Holland, and fettled at
Leyden j but in 1621 determined, with Mr Brewfter
afliftant-preacher to Mr Robinfon, to found a church
for their fetl in the new hemifphere. They therefore
purchafed, in 1521, the charter of the Engliih North
Virginia-company. Forty-one families, making in all
1 20 perfons, landed in the beginning of a very hard
winter, and found a country entirely covered with wood,
which offered a very melancholy profpec! to men alrea¬
dy exhaufted with the fatigues of their voyage. Near
one half periihed either by cold, the fcurvy, or other di-
ilrefs. The courage of the reft was beginning to fail j
when it was revived by the arrival of 60 favage war-
riors, who came to them in the fpring, headed by their
chief. The old tenants afligned for ever to the new
ones all the lands in the neighbourhood of the fettle-
roent they had formed, under the name of New Ply¬
mouth ; and one of the favages who underftood a little
Englifti ftaid to teach them how to cultivate the maize,
and initruft them in the manner of fifhing upon their
coaft.
This kindnefs enabled the colony to wait for the com¬
panions they expedted from Europe with feeds, with
domeftic animals, and with every afliftance they want¬
ed. At firft thefe fuccours arrived but flowly 5 but the
perfecution of the Puritans in England increafed the
number of profelytes to fuch a degree in America, that
in 163 o they were obliged to form different fettlements,
of w'hich Bofton foon became the principal. Thefe
flrft fettlers were not merely eccleftaftics, who had been
deprived of their preferments on account of their opi¬
nions j nor thofe fedlaries influenced by new opinions,
that are fo frequent among the common people. There
were among them feveral perfons of high rank, who,
having embraced Puritanifm, had taken the precaution
to fecure themfelves an afylum in thefe diftant regions.
'I'hey had caufed houfes to be built, and lands to be
cleared, with a view of retiring there, if there endea¬
vours in the caufe of civil and religious liberty fliould
prove abortive.
The inhabitants of New England lived peaceably for
a long time, without any regular form of policy. Their
charter had indeed authorized them to eftablifti any
mode of government they might choofe 5 but thefe en-
thufiafts were not agreed among themfelves upon the
plan of their republic, and government did not pay fuf-
ficient attention to them to urge them to fecure their
own tranquillity. At length they grew fenftble of the
neceffity of a regular legislation j and this great work,
which virtue and genius united have never attempted
but with diffidence, was boldly undertaken by blind fa-
a naticifm. It bore the ftamp of the rude prejudices
Fiift code on which it had been formed. There was in this new
»f laws. code a Angular mixture of good and evil, of wifdom
and folly. No man was allowed to have a flrare in the
government except he were a member of the eftabliffi-
ed church. Witchcraft, perjury, blafphemy, and adul¬
tery, were made capital offences $ and children were
alfo punilhed with death, either for curfing or ftriking
their parents. Marriages, however, were to be fo-
kmnized by the magiftrate. The price of corn was
fixed at 2s. u id. per bulhel. The favages who ne-
Jtaynal s
WJiory of
European
Settlements.
24 ] ENG
glefted to cultivate their lands were to be deprived of New
them ; and Europeans were forbidden under a heavy England. ^
penalty to fell them any ftrong liquors or warlike ftores. v
All thofe who were detected either in lying, drunken-
nefs, or dancing, were ordered to be publicly whipped.
But at the fame time that amufements were forbidden
equally with vices and crimes, one might be allowed
to fwear by paying a penalty of n^d. and to break
the fabbath for 2I. 19s. p^d. Another indulgence
allowed was, to atone, by a fine, for a negledt of
prayer, or for uttering a rafh oath. But it is ftill more
extraordinary, that the worfhip of images was for¬
bidden to the Puritans on pain of death j which was
alio infli&ed on Roman Catholic priefts, who Ihould
return to the colony after they had been baniflied j
and on Quakers who ftiould appear again after having 3
been whipped, branded, and expelled. Such was the Quakers
abhorrence for thefe feftaries, wffio had themfelves anPeifecute‘l<’
averfion for every> kind of cruelty, that whoever either
brought one of them into the country, or harboured
him but for one hour, was liable to pay a confiderable
fine.
Thofe unfortunate members of the colony, who, lefs
violent than their brethren, ventured to deny the coer¬
cive power of the magiftrate in matters of religion,
were perfecuted with ftill greater rigour. This was
confidered as blafphemy by thofe very divines wffio had
rather chofen to quit their country than to (how any
deference to Epifcopal authority. This fyftem was
fupported by the feverities of the law, which attempt¬
ed to put a flop to every difference in opinion, by in-
flicting capital puniftiment on all who diffented. Thofe
wffio were either convitfted, or even fufpefted, of enter¬
taining fentiments of toleration, were expofed to fuch
cruel oppreffions, that they wrere forced to fly from their
firft afylum, and feek refuge in another. They found
one on the fame continent j and as New England had
been firft founded by perfecution, its limits wrere ex¬
tended by it.
This intemperate religious zeal extended itfelf to
matters in themfelves of the greateft indifference. A
proof of this is found in the following public declara¬
tion, tranferibed from the regifters of the colony. ^
“ It is a circumftance univerfally acknowledged, Law a-
“ that the cuftom of wearing long hair, after theSa’n^
“ manner of immoral perfons and of the favage In-^arj"^
“ dians, can have been introduced into England only * ‘'
“ in facrilegious contempt of the exprefs command of
“ God, who declares that it is a Ihameful pradUce for
“ any man who has the kaft care for his foul to wear
“ long hair. As this abomination excites the indig-
“ nation of all pious perfons j we, the magiftrates, in
“ our zeal for the purity of the faith, do exprefsly
“ and authentically declare, that we condemn the im-
“ pious cuftom of letting the hair grow 5 a cuftom
“ which we look upon to be very indecent and dilho-
“ neft, wffiich horribly difguifes men, and is offenfive
“ to modeft and fober perfons, in as much as it cor-
“ rupts good manners. We therefore, being juftly
“ incenfed againft this fcandalous cuftom, do defire,
“ advife, and earneftly requeft all the elders of our
“ continent, zealoufly to Ihow their averfion for this
“ odious practice, to exert all their power to put a
“ flop to it, and efpecially to take care that the mem-
“ bers of their churches be not infedted with it j in
M order
New
England.
ENG [ i
“ order that thofe perfons who, notwithftanding thefe
“ rigorous prohibitions, and the means of corredtion
“ that {hall be ufed on this account, {hall ftill perfift in
“ this cuftom, {hall have both God and man at the fame
“ time againlt them.”
This feverity foon exerted itfelf againfl; the Quakers.
They were whipped, banilhed, and imprifoned. The
behaviour of thefe new enthufiafts, who in the midft of
tortures and ignominy praifed God, and called for blef-
fmgs upon men, infpired a reverence for their perfons
and opinions, and gained them a number of profelytes.
This circumftance exafperated their perfecutors, "and
hurried them on to the moft atrocious aas of vio¬
lence } and they caufed five of them, who had return¬
ed clandeftinely from banifhment, to be hanged. This
fpirit of perfecution was, however, at laft fupprefled
by the . interpofition of the mother-country, from
whence it had been brought. Charles II. moved with
the fufferings of the Quakers, put a flop to them by a
proclamation in 1661 ; but he w7as never able totally
to extinguifh the fpirit of perfecution that prevailed in
America.
The colony had placed at their head Henry Vane,
the fon of that^ Sir Henry Vane who had fuch a re¬
markable {hare in the difturbances of his country. This
obftinate and enthufiaftic young man had contrived to
revive the queftions of grace and free will. The de¬
putes upon thefe points ran very high 5 and would
probably have plunged the colony into a civil w7ar, if
feveral of the favage nations united had not happened
at that very time to fall upon the plantations of the
difputants,. and to malfacre great numbers of them.
The colonifts, heated with their theological contefls,
paid at firft very little attention to this confiderable
lofs. But the danger at length became fo urgent and
fo general, that all took up arms. As foon as the
enemy was repulfed, the colony refumed its former
di{fenfions ^ and the frenzy which they excited
broke out in 1692 in a war, marked with as many
atrocious inflances of violence as any ever recorded in
s hiftory.
Extraordi- There lived in a town of New England, called
cut'on^ot'^" two young women who w7ere fubjeft to convul-
witches. hons, accompanied with extraordinary fymptoms. Their
father, minifter of the church, thought that they were
bewitched \ and having in confequence call his fufpi-
cions upon an Indian girl w7ho lived in his houfe, he
compelled her by harlh treatment to confefs that Ihe
was a witch. Other wTomen, upon hearing this, im¬
mediately believed, that the convulfions, which pro¬
ceeded only from the nature of their fex, w ere owing
to the fame, caufe. Three citizens, cafually named,
were immediately thrown into prifon, accufed of witch¬
craft, hanged, and their bodies left expofed to wild
beafts and birds of prey. A few days after, 16 other
perfons, together wdth a counfellor, w7ho, becaufe he
refufed to plead againft them, w7as fuppofed to {hare
in their guilt, fuffered in the fame manner. From this
inffant, the imagination of the multitude was inflamed
with thefe horrid and gloomy fcenes. Children of ten
years of age were put to death, young girls were {trip¬
ped naked, and the marks of witchcraft fearched for
tipon their bodies with the molt indecent curiofity 5 and
thofe fpots of the fcurvy wdiich age imprelfes upon the
bodies of old men w7ere taken for evident figns of the
25 ] ENG
infernal power. In default of thefe, torments wTere
employed to extort confeflions dictated by the execu¬
tioners themfelves. If the magiftrates, tired out with *
executions, refufed to punifti, they were themfelves ac¬
cufed of the crimes they tolerated 5 the very minifters
of religion raifed falfe witneffes againfl; them, wdio made
them forfeit with their lives the tardy remorfe excited
m them by humanity. Dreams, apparitions, terror,
and confternation of every kind, increafed thefe prodi¬
gies of folly and horror. The prifons were filled, the
gibbets left Handing, and all the citizens involved in
gloomy apprehenfions. The mofl: prudent quitted the
country ftained wdth the blood of its inhabitants ; and
nothing lefs than the total and immediate fubverfion of
the colony was expected, wdien, on a hidden, all eyes
were opened at once, and the excefs of the evil awa¬
kened the minds which it had firft ftupified. Bitter ancf'
painful remorfe was the immediate confequence ; the
mercy of God was implored by a general fail, and pu¬
blic prayers were offered up to alk forgivenefs for the
prefumption of having fuppofed that Heaven could have
been pleafed wdth facrifices with wrhich it could only-
have been offended.
Pofterity will probably never know exa£Uy what was
the caufe or remedy of this dreadful diforder. It had,
perhaps, its firft origin in the melancholy which thofe
perfecuted enthufiafts had brought with them from their
own country, which had increafed with the fcurvy they
had contracted at fea, and had gathered frelh ftrength
from the inconveniences and hardftiips infeparable from
a change of climate and manner of living. The con¬
tagion, how7ever, ceafed like all other epidemical dis¬
tempers, exhaufted by its very communication. A per¬
fect. calm fucceeded this agitation j and the Puritans of
New England have never fince been Seized with fo
gloomy a fit of enthufiafm.
But though the colony has renounced the perfecu-
ting Spirit* which hath ftained all religious feCts with
blood, it has preferved fome remains, if not of intole¬
ration, at leaft of feverity, which remind us of thole
melancholy days in w7hich it took its rife. Some of its
laws are ftill too fevere.
New England had, however, fome remedy againft
bad laws, in the constitution of its mother-country,
where the people who have the legislative pow-er in their
owrn hands are at liberty to correCt abufes 5 and it has
others derived from its fituation, w7hich open a vaft field
to induftry and population.
New
England.
The clearing of the lands in this colony is not di-Mannerof
reded by chance- as in the other provinces. This mat- fettkn3Cnt
ter from the firft w7as fubjeCted to law7s wdiich are ftill j1"nthls co~
religioufly obferved. No citizen wdiatever has the li- °n^"
berty of fettling even upon unoccupied land. The go¬
vernment, defirous of preferving all its members from
the inroads of the favages, and of placing them in a
condition to Share in the protedion of a well-regulated
fociety, hath ordered that whole villages Ihould be
formed at once. As foon as 60 families offer to build
a church, maintain a clergyman, and pay a fchool
mafter, the general affembly allot them a fituation, and
permit them to have two representatives in the legisla¬
tive body of the colony. The diftriCl afligned them
always borders upon the lands already cleared, and ge¬
nerally contains 60,000 fquare acres. Thefe new7 people
chofe the fituation moft convenient for their habita¬
tion* /
. .7
Divifion,
3cc.
ENG [ i
New tlon, wKich is ufually of a fquare figure.^ The church
^England. £s placed in the centre } the colonifts divide the land
v~ among themfelves, and each inclofes his property with
a hedge. Some woods are referved for a common \
and thus New England is conftantly enlarging its terri¬
tory, though it ftill continues to make one complete
and well conllituted province.
The country was divided into four Hates, which at
firft had no connexion with one another. 1 he necef-
fity of maintaining an armed force againft the favages,
obliged them to form a confederacy in 1643, when ^7
took the name of the United Colonies. In confequence
of this league, two deputies from each eftablifhment
ufed to meet in a Hated place to deliberate upon the
common affairs of New England, according to the in-
ffruftions they had received from the affembly by
which they were fent. This affociation laid no con-
Hraint upon the right of every individual to act entire¬
ly as he pleafed, without either the permiflion or ap¬
probation of the mother-country. All the fubmiflion
required of thefe provinces was merely to acknowledge
ihe kings of England for their fovereigns. Charles II.
wifhed to make them more dependent. The province
of Maffachufet’s bay, which, though the fmalleff, was
the richeff and the moff populous of the four, being
guilty of fome mifdemeanour againff government, the
king feized that opportunity of taking away its char¬
ter in 1684: and it remained without one till the re¬
volution } when it received another, which, however,
did not anfwer its claims or expeftations. 1 he crown
referved to itfelf the right of nominating the governor,
and appointing to all military employments, and to all
principal poffs in the civil and juridical departments :
it allowed the people of the colony their legiflative
power, and gave the governor a negative voice and the
command of the troops, which fecured him a fufficient
influence to enable him to maintain the prerogative of
the mother-country in all its force. The provinces of
Connecticut and Rhode-Ifland, by timely fubmiflion,
prevented the punifhment which that of Maffachufets
had incurred, and retained their original charter. That
of New-Hampfhire had been always regulated by the
fame mode of adminiHration as the province of Maf¬
fachufets bay. The fame governor prefided over the
wdiole colony, but with regulations adapted to the
conflitution of each province. lo the above Hates,
another has been added fince the revolution, viz. Ver¬
mont. Thefe Hates are fubdivided into counties, and the
g counties into townfliips.
Tace of the New England is a high, hilly, and in fome parts a
<ountry, mountainous country, formed by nature to be inhabi-
mountains, tecj ^y a hardy race of free, independent republicans,
—The mountains are comparatively fmall, running
nearly north and fouth in ridges parallel to each other.
Between thefe ridges flow’ the great rivers in maje-
Hic meanders, receiving the innumerable rivulets and
larger Hreams which proceed from the mountains on
each fide. To a fpeftator on the top of a neighbour¬
ing mountain, the vales between the ridges, while in a
Hate of nature, exhibit a romantic appearance. They
leem an ocean of woods, fwelled and depreffed in its
furface like that of the great ocean itfelf. A richer
though lefs romantic view is prefented, when the val¬
leys, by mduflnous hufbandmen, have been cleared of
4.heir natural growth } and the fruit of their labour ap-
.2
26 ] ENG
pears in loaded orchards, extenfive meadows, covered
with large herds of flieep and neat cattie, and rich ^
fields of flax, corn, and the various kinds of grain.
Thefe valleys, which have received the expreflive name
of interval lands, are of various breadths, from two to
20 miles •, and by the annual inundations of the rivers
which flowr through them, there is frequently an accumu¬
lation of rich, fat foil, left upon their furface when the
waters retire.
There are four principal ranges ot mountains, paf-
fing nearly from north-eaH to fouth-wreff through
New England. Thefe confifl of a multitude of paral¬
lel ridges, each having many fpurs, deviating j.rom the'
courfe of the general range ; which fpurs are again
broken into irregular hilly land. The main ridges
terminate, fometimes in high bluff heads, near the
fea-coafl, and fometimes by a gradual defcent in the
interior part of the country. One of the main ranges
runs between Connecticut and Hudfon’s rivers. This
range branches and bounds the vales through w7hich
flows the Houfatonick river. The moH eaffern ridge
of this range terminates in a bluff head at Meriden j
a fecond ends in like manner at Willingfoid, and a
third at New Haven. In Lyme, on the eaH fide of
Conne&icut river, another range of mountains com¬
mences, forming the eafiern boundary of Connecticut
vale. This range tends northerly, at the diHance,
generally, of about to or 12 miles eaH from the ri¬
ver, and paffes through Maffachufets, where the range
takes the name of Chickabee Mountain ; thence croflmg
into New Hampfliire, at the diHance of about 20 miles
from the Maffachufets line, it runs up into a very
high peak, called Mcnadnkk, which terminates this
ridge of the range. A wTeffern ridge continues, and
in about latitude 43“ 20' runs up into Sunipee. moun¬
tains. About 30 miles further, in the fame ridge, is
Moofcoog mountain. A third range begins near Sto-
nington in Conne£licut. It takes its courfe north-eaH-
erly, and is fometimes broken and difcontinued ; . it
then rifes again, and ranges in the fame direttion in¬
to New Hampfliire, where, in latitude 430 it runs
up into a high peak called Cowjawajkog. Ihe fourth
range has a humble beginning about Hopkinton in
Maffachufets. The eaffem ridge of this range runs
north by Watertown and Concord, and croffes IVIer-
rimack river at Pantucket Falls. In New Hamplhire,
it rifes into feveral high peaks, of which the White
mountains are the principal. From thefe White moun¬
tains a range continues north-eafl, croffing the eaH
boundary of New Hampfliire, in latitude 44 S® > anc^
forms the height of land between Kennebek and
Chaudiere rivers. Thefe ranges of mountains are full
of lakes, ponds, and fprings of water, that give rife to
numberlefs flreams of various fizes, which, interlock¬
ing each other in every direction, and falling over the
rocks in romantic cafcades, flow meandering into the
rivers below. No country on the globe is better wa¬
tered than New England.
On the fea-coaff the land is low, and in many parts
level and fandy. In the valleys, between the foremen-
tioned ranges of mountains, the land is generally" bro¬
ken, and in many places rocky, but of a ffrong rich
foil, capable of being cultivated to good advantage,
which alfo is the cafe with many fpots even on the tops
of the mountains,
ihe
New
England.
ENG [ 127 ] ENG
New The principal river in New England is Connecticut.
, Eng'ani3- See Connecticut.
9 The foil, as may be collected from what has been
Soil, pro- feid, mult be very various. Each trad of different
duCtions, foil is diitinguilhed by its peculiar vegetation, and is
&c* pronounced good, middling, or bad, from the fpecies of
trees which it produces ; and from one fpecies generally
predominating in each foil, has originated the defcrip-
tive names of oak land, birch, beech, and chefnut lands,
pine, barren, maple, afh, and cedar fwamps, as each fpe¬
cies happens to predominate. Intermingled with thofe
predominating fpecies are walnut, firs, elm, hemlock,
magnolia, moofe-wood, faffafras, &c. &c. The belt lands
produce walnut and chefnut j the next, beech and oak 5
lands of the third quality produce fir and pitch-pine 5
the next, whortleberry and barberry bufhes ; and the
pooreff produce nothing but marfliy imperfect Ihrubs.
Among the flowering trees and Ihrubs in the foreffs
are the red-flowering maple, the faffafras, the locuft-
tree, the tulip-tree, honeyfuckle, wild rofe, dogwrood,
elm, leather-tree, laurel, hawthorn, &c. which in the
Ipring of the year give the wroods a moll beautiful ap¬
pearance, and fill them with a delicious fragrance.
Among the fruits which grow wild, are the feveral
kinds of grapes j which are fmall, four, and thick
Ikmned. The vines on which they grow are very luxu¬
riant, often overfpreading the higheft trees in the fo-
refts j and without doubt, may be greatly meliorated
by proper cultivation. Eefides thefe, are the wild cher¬
ries, white and red mulberries, cranberries, walnuts,
hazel nuts, chefnuts, butter nuts, beech nuts, wild plums
and pears, whortle-berries, bilberries, goofeberries,
llrawberries, &c.
The foil in the interior country is calculated for the
culture of Indian corn, rye, oats, barley, flax, and
hemp (for which the foil and climate are peculiarly
proper), buck-wheat, beans, peafe, &c. In many of
the inland parts w'heat is raifed in large quantities 5 but
on the fea-coaft it has never been cultivated with fuc-
cefs, being fubjedl to blafts. The fruits which the coun¬
try yields from culture, are apples in the greateil plenty;
of thefe cyder is made, which conftitutes the principal
drink of the inhabitants; alfo, pears of various forts,
quinces, peaches (from which is made peach brandy,)
plums, cherries, apricots, &c. The culinary plants are
fuch as have already been enumerated. New England is
a fine grazing country *, the valleys between the hills
are generally interfered with brooks of water, the
banks of which are lined wdth a tracl of rich meadow
or interval land. The high and rocky ground is, in
many parts, covered with honeyfuckle, and generally
affords the fineft of pafture. It will not be a matter
of wonder, therefore, that New England boafts of
raifing fome of the fineft cattle in the world ; nor will
lire be envied, when the labour of raifing them is taken
into view. Two months of the hotteft feafon in the
year the farmers are employed in procuring food for
their cattle j and the cold wdnter is fpent in dealing
it out to them. The pleafure and profit of doing this,
is how’ever a fatisfying compenfation to the honeft and
10 induftrious farmer.
mamler1013’ • NeW England 18 the moft populous part of the U-
cufloras*' flhed States. It contains at leaft 823,000 fouls. One
and diver- are fencible men. New England then,
Con*. ftiould any great and bidden emergency require it,
could furnifti an army of 164,600 men. The great body New
of thefe are land-holders and cultivators of the foil. England,
The former attaches them to their country; the latter
by making them ftrong and healthy, enables them to
defend it. The boys are early taught the ufe of arms,
and make the bell of foldiers. Few countries on earth,
of equal extent and population, can furnifti a more for¬
midable army than this part of the union.
New England may, with propriety, be called a nur-
fery of men, whence are annually tranfplanted, into
Other parts of the United States, thoufands of its na¬
tives. The ftate of Vermont, which is but of yef-
terday, and. contains about 100,000 fouls, has received
more inhabitants from Connecticut than from any other
Hate; and yet between the years 1774 and 1782, not-
withftanding her numerous emigrations to Vermont,
Sufquehannah, and other places, and the depopulation
occafioned by a feven years bloody war, it is found,
from an actual cenfus of the inhabitants in the years be¬
fore-mentioned., that they have increafed from 197,856,
their number in 1774, to 290,150, their number in
1782. Vaft numbers of the New Englanders, fince
the war, have emigrated into the northern parts of New
York, into Kentucky and the Vreftern Territory, and
into Georgia j and fome are fcattered into every ftate,
and every town of note in the union.
The New Englanders are generally tall, flout, ^nd
well built. They glory, and perhaps with juftice, in
poffefling that fpirit of freedom which induced their
anceftors to leave their native country, and to brave the
dangers of the ocean and the hardlhips of fettling in a
wildernefs. Their education, laws, and fituation, ferve
to infpire them with high notions of liberty. Their
jealoufy is awakened at the firft motion toward an in-
vafion of their rights. They are indeed often jealous
to excefs j a circumftance which is a fruitful fource of
imaginary grievances, and of innumerable groundlefs
fufpicions and unjuft complaints againft government.
A law, refpe£ting the defeent of eftates which are
generally held in fee fimple, which for fubllance is
the fame in all the New England Hates, is the chief
foundation and proteflion of this liberty. By this
law, the poffeflions of the father are to be equally di¬
vided among all the children, excepting the eldeft fon,
who has a double portion. In this way is preferved
that happy mediocrity among, the people, which, by
inducing economy and indullry, removes from them
temptations to luxury, and forms them to habits of
fobriety and temperance. At the fame time, their in-
duftry and frugality exempt them from want, and from
the neceflity of fubmitting to any encroachment on their
liberties.
In New England, learning is more generally diffu-
fed among all ranks of people than in almoft any
other part of the globe j arifing from the excellent
eftablifhment of fchools in every townfliip. Another
fource. of information to the people is the newfpapers,
of which not lefs than 30,000 are printed every week
in New England, and circulated in almoft every town
and village in the country. A perfon of mature age,,
who cannot both read and write, is rarely to be found.
By means of this general ellablilhment of fchools, the
extenfive circulation of newfpapers, and the confe-
quent fpread of learning, every townfliip throughout
the country is fumiihed with men capable of conduc-
tingr.
ENG [ 128 ] ENG
New ting the affairs of their town with judgment and dif-
tnglanJ. cretion. Thefe men are the channels of political in-
~ formation to the lower clafs of people $ if fuch a clafs
may be faid to exiit in New England, where every
man thinks himfelf at leaft as good as his neighbour,
and believes that all mankind are, or ought to be, equal.
The people from their childhood form habits of can-
vaiTmg public affairs, and commence politicians. This
naturally leads them to be very inq&ifitive. This de-
fire after knowledge, in a greater or leffer degree, pre¬
vails throughout all claffes of people in New England :
and from their various modes of expreffing it, fome of
which are blunt and familiar, bordering on imperti¬
nence, ttrangers have been induced to mention imper¬
tinent inquilitivenefs as a diftinguiftiing charadfferiftic
of New England people.—Each man alfo has his in¬
dependent fyftem of politics 5 and each affumes a dic¬
tatorial office. Hence originates that reftlefs, litigious,
complaining fpirit, which forms a dark ffiade in the
.character of New Englandmen.
Before the American war, which introduced into New
England a flood of corruptions, with many improve¬
ments, the Sabbath was obferved with great ftrictnefs j
• no unneceffary travelling, no fecular bufinefs, no vifit-
ing, no diverflons, were permitted on that facred day.
They confldered it as confecrated to divine worffiip,
and were generally punctual and ferious in their at¬
tendance upon it. Their laws were ftri£t in guarding
the Sabbath againft every innovation. The fuppofed
feverity with which thefe laws were compofed and exe¬
cuted, together wdth fome other traits in their religi¬
ous charafter, have acquired, for the New Englanders,
the name of a fuperftitious bigotted people. But fu-
perftition and bigotry are fo indefinite in their fignifica-
tions, and fo varioufly applied by perfons of different
principles and educations, that it is not eafy to deter¬
mine how far they deferved that charafter. Lea¬
ving every perfon to enjoy his own opinion in regard
to this matter, we will only obferve, that, fince the
war, a catholic tolerant fpirit, occafioned by a more
enlarged intercourfe with mankind, has greatly increa¬
sed, and is becoming univerfal •, and if they do not
break the proper bound, and liberalize away all true re¬
ligion, of which there is much danger, they will coun-
teraft that ftrong propenfity in human nature, which
leads men to vibrate from one extreme to its. oppofite.
There is one diftinguilhing chara&eriftic in the reli¬
gious character of this people, which we muff not omit
to mention •, and that is, the cuftom of annually cele¬
brating faffs and thankfgivings. In the fpring, the fe-
veral governors iffue their proclamations, appointing a
day to be religioufly obferved in faffing, humiliation,
and prayer, throughout their refpeclive ftates, in which
the predominating vices, that particularly call for hu¬
miliation, are enumerated. In autumn, after harveft,
that gladfome era in the huffiandman’s life, the gover¬
nors again iffue their proclamations appointing a day
of public thankfgiving, enumerating the public blef-
fings received in the courfe of the foregoing year.
This pious cuftom originated with their venerable
anceftors, the firft fettlers of New England $ and has
been handed down as facred through the fucceffive ge¬
nerations of their pofterity. A cuftom fo rational, and
fo happily calculated to cheriffi in the minds of the
people a fenfe of their dependence on the great Bene-
J
factor ef the world for all their bleflings, it is hoped N ew
will ever be facredly preferved. Engknd.
The people of New England generally obtain their 'r~~
eftates by hard and perfevering labour : They of confe-
quence know their value, and fpend with frugality.
Yet in no country do the indigent and unfortunate fare
better. Their laws oblige every town to provide a
competent maintenance for their poor 5 and the necef-
fitous ftranger is protedled and relieved from their hu¬
mane inftitutions. It may in truth be faid, that in no
part of the world are the people happier, better fur-
niffied with the neceffaries and conveniences of life, or
more independent than the farmers in New England.
As the great body of the people are hardy indepen¬
dent freeholders, their manners are, as they ought to
be, congenial to their employment, plain, fimple, and
unpolilhed. Strangers are received and entertained
among them with a great deal of artlefs fincerity and
friendly unformal hofpitality. Their children, thofe
imitative creatures, to whofe education particular at¬
tention is paid, early imbibe the manners and habits of
thofe around them; and the ftranger, with pleafure,
notices the honeft and decent refpedi that is paid him
by the children as he paffes through the country.
As the people, by reprefentation, make their own
laws and appoint their own officers, they cannot be op-
preffed 5 atid living under governments which have
few lucrative places, they have few motives to bribery,
corrupt canvaffings, or intrigue. Real abilities and a
moral character unblemiffied are the qualifications re-
quifite in the view of moft people for offices of public
truft. The expreffion of a wiffi to be promoted is the
direct way to be difappointed.
The inhabitants of New England are generally fond
of the arts, and have cultivated them with great fuc-
cefs. Their colleges have flouriffied beyond any others
in the United States. The illuftrious characters they
have produced, who have diftinguiffied themfelves in
politics, law, divinity, the mathematics and philofophy,
natural and civil hiftory, and in the fine arts, particu¬
larly in poetry, evince the truth of thefe obfervations.
Many of the women in New England are handfome.
They generally have fair, freffi, and healthful counte¬
nances, mingled with much female foftnefs and deli¬
cacy. Thofe who have had the advantages of a good
education (and they are confiderably numerous) are
genteel, eafy, and agreeable in their manners, and are
fprightly and fenfible in converfation. They are early
taught to manage domeftic concerns with neatnefs and
economy. Ladies of the firft rank and fortune make
it a part of their daily bufinefs to fuperintend the af¬
fairs of the family. Employment at the needle, in
cookery, and at the fpinning-wheel, with them is ho¬
nourable. Idlenefs, even in thofe of independent for¬
tunes, is univerfally difreputable. The women in the
country manufacture the greateft part of the clothing
of their families. Their linen and woollen cloths are
ftrong and decent. Their butter and cheefe is not in¬
ferior to any in the world.
Dancing is the principal and favourite amufement in
New England ; and of this the young people of both
fexes are extremely fond. Gaming is praCtifed by none
but thofe who cannot or rather will not find a reputable
employment. The gamefter, the horfe-jockey, and
the knave, are equally defpifed, and their company is
avoided
New
England,
English.
tl
Shade.
E N; G [ t
avoided' by1, all who would fiiftaiu fair and irreproach¬
able characters. The odious and inhuman practices of
duelling, gouging, cocL-fighting, and horfe-racing,
are fcarcely known- here.—The athletic and healthy
diverfions of cricket, football, quoits, wreftling, jump¬
ing, foot-races, &c. are univerfally praftifed in the
country, and fome of them in the molt populous places,
and by people of aimed all ranks. Squirrel-hunting
is a noted diverfion in country places, where this kind
of game is plenty. Some divert themfelves with fox¬
hunting, and others with the more profitable fports of
fifiling and duck-hunting ; and in the frontier fettle-
ments, where deer and fur game abound, the inhabi¬
tants make a lucrative fport of hunting them. In the
winter feafon, while the ground is covered with fnow,
which is< commonly two or three months, fleighing is
the general diverfion. A great part of the families
throughout the country are furniftied with horfes and
lleighs.
New England has no one ftaple commodity. The
ocean and the forefts afford the two principal articles of
export. Cod-fifii, mackarel, Iliad, falmon, and other
fiih, whale-oil and whale-bone, mails, boards, fcant-
ling, Haves, hoops, and fhingles, have been and are Hill
exported in large quantities. The annual amount of
cod and other fifli for foreign exportation, including
the profits arifing from the whale-filhery, is efiimated at
upwards of half a million.—Befides the articles emu
merated, they export from the various parts of New
England Ihips built for fale, horfes, mules, live flock,
pickled beef and pork, pot-aih, pearl-afli, flax-feed,
butter and cheefe, rum, &c. The balance of trade,
as far as imperfect calculations will enable us to judge,
has generally been againfl New England ; not from any
unavoidable neceffity, but from her extravagant impor¬
tations. From a view of the annual- imports into New
England, it appears that the greatefl part of them con-
fifts of the luxuries, or at belt the dilpenfable conveni-
«*nces of life ; the country, affords the neceffaries in great
abvmdance.-
ENGLISH, or the English, Tongue, the language
fpoken by the people of England, and, with fome va¬
riation, by thofe of Scotland, as well as part of Ireland,
and the refl of the Britifh dominions.
The ancient language of Britain is generally allow¬
ed to have been the fame with the Gallic, or French ;
this illand, in all probability, having been firfl peopled
from Gallia, as both Caelar and Tacitus affirm, and
prove by many flrong and conclufive arguments, as by
their religion, manners, cufloms, and the nearnefs of
their fituation. But now we have very fmall remains
of the ancient Britiffi tongue, except in Wales, Corn¬
wall, the iflands and highlands of Scotland, part of
Ireland, and fome provinces of France ; which will not
appear flrange, when what- follow's is confidered.
Julius Caefar, fome time before the-birth of our Sa¬
viour, made a defeent upon Britain, though he may
be faid rather to have difeovered than conquered it;
but about the year of Chriff 45, in the time of Clau¬
dius, Aulus Plautius was fent over with foxne Roman
forces, by whom two kings of the Britons, Togodum-
nus and Caraftacus, were both overcome in battle :
whereupon a Roman colony was planted at Malden in
Effex, and the fouthern parts of the illand were redu-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
29 ] ENG
ced to the form of- a. Roman province: after that, the Englii)..
illand was conquered as far north as-the friths of Dun- ^
barton, and Edinburgh, by Agricola, in the time of
Domitian; whereupon a great number of the Britons,
in the conquered part of the illand, retired to the wTefl
part called IVa/es, carrying their language with them.
The greatefl part of Britain being thus, become a
Roman province,, the. Roman legions, who refided in
Britain for above 200 years, undoubtedly diffeminated
the Latin tongue; and the people being afterwards
governed by laws written in Latin muft neeeffarily
make a mixture of languages- This feems to have
been the firrt mutation the language of Britain fuf-
fered.
.Thus the Britilh tongue continued, for fome time,
mixed with the provincial Latin, till, the Roman- le¬
gions being called home, the Scots and Pidis took the,
opportunity to attack and harafs England : upon
which King Vortigern, about the year 440, called the
Saxons to his affillance ; who came over with feveral
of their neighbours, and having repulfed the Scots and
Pidts, were rewarded for their fervices wyith the ille of
Thanet, and the whole county of Kent; but growing
too powerful, and not being contented with their allot¬
ment, difpoffeffed the inhabitants of all the. country on
this fide of the Severn*: thus the Britilh tongue was * See-£»£■-■
in a . great meafure deflroyed, and the Saxon introdu-W’ N° 13
ced.in its Head. 42,
What the Saxon tongue was long before the con-
quell, about the year 700, we may obferve in the mofl
ancient manufeript of that language, which is a glofs
on the Evangelills, by Biihop Edfrid, in which the three
firft articles of the Lord’s prayer run thus :
“ Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, fic gehalgud thin
noma, fo cymeth thin ric. Sic thin willa fue is heof¬
nas, and in eortho,” &c.
In the beginning of the ninth century the Danes in¬
vaded England ; and getting a footing in the northern
and eaftem parts of the country, their power gradually
increafed, and they became foie mailers of it in about
200 years. By this means the ancient Britilh obtain¬
ed a tindlure of the Danilh language; but their go¬
vernment being of no long continuance, did not make
fo great an alteration in the Anglo-Saxon as the next
revolution, when the whole land, A. D. 1067, was fub-
dued by William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy
in France: for the Normans, as a monument of their
conqueft, endeavoured to make their language as gene¬
rally received as their commands, and thereby rendered
the Britilh language an entire medley.
. About the year 900, the Lord’s prayer, in the an¬
cient Anglo-Saxon, ran thus :
“ Fhue ur fader the eart on heofenum, fi thin nama
gehalgod ; cume thin rice fithin will a on eorthar* fwa,
fwo on heofenum,” &c.
About the year 1160, under Henry II. it was ren¬
dered thus by Pope Adrian, an EngHlhman, in rhyme :
“ Ure fader in heaven rich,
“ Thy name be halyed ever lich,
“ Thou bring us thy michel bleffe :
“ Als hit in heaven y doe,
“ Evar in yearth been it alfo,” &c.
Dr Hicks gives us an extraordinary fpecimen of the
R Engliflj^
E N C [ *3° ] E xN G
Englifh. Englifh, as fpoken in the year ^385, upon the very
fubje£l of the Englilh tongue.
“ As it is knowe how meny maner peple beeth in
this lond; ther beeth alfo fo many dyvers longages and
tonges. Nothelefs Walfchemen and Scots that beeth
nought medled with other nation, holdeth wel nyh hir
firfte longage and fpeche j but yif the Scottes, that
were fometime confederate and woned with the Pictes,
drawe fomewhat after hir fpeche $ but the Flemynges,
that woneth on the weft fide of Wales, haveth loft her
ftrange fpeche, and fpeketh Sexonliche now. Alfo Eng-
liftiemen, they had from the bygynnynge thre maner
fpeche ; northerne, foutherne, and middel fpeche in the
middel of the lond, as they come of thre maner of
peple of Germania: nothelefs by commyxtion and
mellynge firft with Danes, and afterwards with Nor¬
mans, in meny the contrary longage is apayred (cor¬
rupted.)
11 This apayrynge of the burth of the tunge is by-
caule of tweie things j oon is for children in fcole agenft
the ufuage and maner of all other nations, beeth com¬
pelled for to leve hir own longage, and for to conftrue
hir leflbns and here thinges in Frenfche, and fo they
haveth fethe Normans come firft into Engelond. Alfo
gentlemen children beeth taught to fpeke Frenfche
from the tyme that they beeth roked in here cradel,
and kunneth fpeke and play with a childe’s broche 5 and
uplondifl'che men wall lykne hymfelf to gentilmen, and
fondeth with great befyneife for to fpeak Frenfche to
be told of.—Hit feemeth a great wonder how Eng-
lifchemen and hir own longage and tonge is fo dyverfe
of fown in this oon iland 5 and the longage of Norman¬
die is comlynge of another lond, and hath oon maner
foun amonge alle men that fpeketh hit arigt in Enge¬
lond. Alio of the forefaid Saxon tonge that is deled
(divided) a three, and is abide fcarceliche with fewe
uplondiffche men is greet wonder. For men of the eft,
with, men of the weft, is, as it were, undir the fame
partie of hevene accordeth more in fownynge of fpeche,
than men of the north with men of the fouth. There¬
fore it is that Mercii, that beeth men of myddel Enge¬
lond, as it were, parteners of the endes, underftondeth
bettre the fide longes northerne and foutherne, than
northerne and foutherne underftondeth either other.
—All the longage of the Northumbers and fpechial-
liche at York, is fo fcharp, flitting, and frotynge, and
unfchape, that we foutherne men may that longage
unnethe underftonde,” &c.
In the year 1537, the Lord’s prayer was printed as
follows : “ O oure father whicl,i arte in heven, hallow¬
ed be thy name : let thy kingdome come, thy will be
fulfilled as well in erth as it is in heven j geve us this
daye in dayly bred,” &c. Where it may be obferved,
that thfe di eft ion is brought almoft to the prefent ftand-
ard, the chief variations being only in the orthography.
By thefe inftances, and many others that might be gi¬
ven, it appears, that the Engiith Saxon language, of
which the Normans defpoiled us in a great meafure,
had its beauties, was fignificant and emphatical, and
preferable to what they impofed on us. “ Great,
verily (fays Camden), wras the glory of our tongue
before the Norman conqueft, in this, that the old Eng-
lifti could exprefs, moft aptly, all the conceptions of
the mind in their own tongue, without borrowing from
any.” Of this he gives fcveral examples.
Having thus Ihown how the ancient Britiih language Englifh
was in a manner extirpated by the Romans, Danes, II .
and Saxons, and fucceeded by the Saxon, and after f-ngr^ving-i
that the Saxon blended with the Norman French, we
ftiall nowr mention twro other caufes of change in the
language. The firft of thefe is owing to the Britons
having been a long time a trading nation, whereby
offices, dignities, names of wares, and terms of traffic,
are introduced, which we take with the wares from the
perfons of whom we have them, and form them anew,
according to the genius of our own tongue 5 and be-
fides this change in the language, arifing from com¬
merce, Britain’s having been a confiderable time fub-
je<ft to the fee of Rome, in ecclefiaftical affairs, muft
unavoidably have introduced fome Italian words among
us. Secondly, As to the particular properties of a
language, our tongue has undergone no fmall mutation,
or rather has received no fmall improvement upon that
account : for, as to the Greek and Latin, the learned
have, together with the arts and fciences now rendered
familiar among us, introduced abundance j nay, almoft
all the terms of art in the mathematics, philofophy,
phyfic, and anatomy *, and we have entertained many
more from the Latin, French, &c. for the fake of
neatnefs and elegancy j fo that, at this day, our lan¬
guage, wftiich, about 1800 years ago, was the ancient
Britiih, or Welch, &c. is now a mixture of Saxon,
Teutonic, Dutch, Danifh, Norman, and modern French,
embellifhed with the Greek and Latin. Yet this, in
the opinion of fome, is fo far from being a difadvan-
tage to the Englilh tongue as now fpoken (for all
languages hav6 undergone changes, and do continually
participate with each other), that it has fo enriched
it, as now to render it the moft copious, fignificant,
fluent, courteous, and mafeuline language in Europe,
if not in the world.
ENGRAFTING, in Gardening. See Grafting,
Gardening Index.
ENGRAILED, or Ingrailed, in Heraldry, a term
derived from the French grejly, “ hail j” and fignifying
a thing the hail has fallen upon and broke off the ed¬
ges, leaving them ragged, or with half rounds, or fe-
micircles, ftruck out of their edges.
ENGRAVING, the art of cutting metals and pre¬
cious ftones, and reprefenting thereon figures, letters,
or whatever device or defign the artift fancies.
Engraving, properly a branch of fculpture, is divi¬
ded into feveral other branches, according to the mat¬
ter whereon it is employed, and the manner of perform¬
ing it. For the rudeft branch, that of
Engraving on IVood, fee Hood, Engraving on.
Eng rating on Copper, the making, correfpondently
to fome delineated figure or defign, fuch concave lines
on a fmooth furface of copper, either by cutting or
corrofion, as render it capable, when charged properly
with any coloured fluid, of imparting by comprelfion
an exadft reprefentation of the figure or defign to paper
or parchment. '
Whether we confider the art of engraving, w7ith re¬
gard to the utility and pleafure it affords, or the diffi¬
culty that, attends its execution, w7e cannot but confefs,
that on every account it deferves a diitinguilhed rank
among the polite arts -f. It is by means of this ait | §ee
that the cabinets of the curious are adorned with theUte Arts,
portraits of the greateft men of all ages and all na-N° 13.
tions j.
ENG T i
Engraving, tions j that their memories, their moft remarkable and
1 ’' v moft glorious actions, are tranfmitted to the lateft po-
fterity. It is by this art alfo, that the paintings of the
greateil matters are multiplied to a boundlefs number j
and that the lovers of the polite arts, diftufed over the
face of the whole earth, are enabled to enjoy thofe beau¬
ties from which their diftant tttuations feemed to have
for ever debarred them 5 and perfons of moderate for¬
tune are hereby enabled to become pofleffed of all the
fpirit, and all the poetry, that are contained in thofe
miracles of art, which feemed to have been referved for
the temples of Italy, or the cabinets of princes. When
we reflect, moreover, that the engraver, befide the
beauties of poetic compofition, and the artful ordi¬
nance of dettgn, is to exprefs, merely by the means of
light and fhade, all the various tints of colours and clair
obfcure ; to give a relief to each figure, and a truth to
each objeft; that he is now to paint a Iky ferene and
bright, and then loaded with dark clouds j now the
pure tranquil ftream, and then the foaming, raging
fea j that here he is to exprefs the charafter of the
man, ftrongly marked in his countenance, and there
the minuteft ornament of his drefs; in a word, that he
is to reprefent all even the moft difficult objects in na¬
ture j we cannot fufticiently admire the valt improve¬
ments in this art, and that degree of perfection to wffiich
it is at this day arrived. See the article Prints.
Engraving is an art, for the greateft part, of mo¬
dem invention ; having its rife no earlier than the
middle of the 15th century. The ancients, it is true,
praCtifed engraving on precious ftones and cryftals
with very good fuccefs; and there are ftill many of
their wrorks remaining equal to any production of the
later ages. But the art of engraving on plates and
blocks of wood, to afford prints or impreflions, wras not
known till after the invention of painting in oil.
The different modes of engraving are the following :
In ftrokes cut through a thin wax, laid upon the
copper, with a point, and thefe ftrokes bitten or cor¬
roded into the copper with aquafortis. This is called
etching.
In ftrokes with the graver alone, unaflifted by aqua¬
fortis. In this inftance, the defign is traced with a
ftiarp tool, called a dnj point, upon the plate j and the
ftrokes are cut or ploughed upon the copper with an
inftrument diftinguifhed by the name of a graver.
In ftrokes firft etched and aftenvards finiftied with
the graver : by this expedient the two former methods
are united.
In dots without ftrokes, which are executed with
the point upon the wax or ground, bitten in with the
aquafortis, and afterwards harmonized with the graver,
by the means of which inftrument fmall dots are made;
or with the graver alone, as in the flelh and finer parts,
-unaftifted with the point.
In dots firft etched and afterwards harmonized with
the dry point, performed by a little hammer, called
opus mallei, or the work of the hammer, as practifed by
Lutma and others.
In mezzotinto, which is performed by a dark barb
or ground being raifed uniformly upon the plate with
a toothed tool. The defign being traced upon the plate,
the light parts are fcraped off by inftruments for that
purpofe, in proportion as the effect requires.
Xn aquatinta, q newly invented method of engraving.
31 ] ENG
The outline is firft etched, and afterwards a fort of Engraving,
waflr is laid by the aquafortis upon the plate, refem- —v~—'
bling drawings in Indian ink, biller, &c.
On wood, performed with a lingle block, on which
the defign is traced with a pen, and thofe parts which
Ihould be white carefully hollowed out j and this block
is afterwards printed by the letter-prefs printers, in
the fame manner as they print a book.
On wood, performed with two, three, or more
blocks; the firft having the outlines cut upon it $ the
fecond is referved for the darker ihadows j and the
third for the Ihadows which terminate upon the lights j
and thefe are fubftituted in their turn, each print re¬
ceiving an impreflion from every block. This mode of
engraving is called chiaro-fcuro, and was defigned to
reprefent the drawings of the old mafters.
On wood and on copper: in thefe the outline is en¬
graved in a bold dark llyle upon the copper and two
or more blocks of wood are fubftituted to produce the
darker and lighter Ihadows, as before.
Of all thofe modes of engraving, the moft ancient is
that on wood; or, to fpeak more properly, the firft
impreflions on paper were taken from carved wooden
blocks. Tor this invention it appears that we are in¬
debted to the brief-malers or makers of playing-cards,
who prattifed the art in Germany about the beginning
of the 15th century. From the fame fource may
perhaps be traced the firft idea of moveable types,
which appeared not many years after : for thefe brief-
malers did not entirely confine themfelves to the print¬
ing and painting of cards, but produced alfo fubje&s
of a more devout nature ; many of which, taken from
holy writ, are ftill preferved in different libraries in
Germany, with the explanatory text facing the figures 5
the wfliole engraved in wood. In this manner they
even formed a fpecies of books; fuch as, Hijloria
fanBi Johannis, ejufqae Vijiones Apocalypticce ; Hi/loria
Vetens et Novi Tejlamenti, known by the name of the
Poor Man's Bible. Thefe ftiort mementos were print¬
ed only on one fide; and two of them being parted
together, had the appearance of a iingle leaf. The
earlieit date on any of thefe wooden cuts is 1423.
1 he fubject is St Chrijlopher carrying the Infant Jefus
over the Sea, preferved in a convent at Buxheim near
Menningen. It is of a folio fize, illuminated in the
fame manner as the playing cards j and at the bottom
is this infeription, Chri/loferi faciem die quacunque tueris.
Ilia nempe die morte mala non morieris. Millefmo CCCC°
NX" tertio.
Upon the invention of moveable types, that branch Sirutt’s
ef the brief-malers bufinefs, fo far as it regarded the mp 0/En-
making of books, was gradually difeontinued j but the graving.
art itfelf of engraving on wood continued in an im¬
proving ftate j and towards the end of the 15th and
beginning of the 16th century, it Jbecame cuftomary it
for almoft every one of the German engravers on
copper to engrave on wood alfo. The works of Al¬
bert Durer in this ftyle of engraving are jurtly held
m the higheft efteem. Italy, France, and Holland,
have produced many capital artifts of this kind ; but
for boldnefs and fpirit, we muft fee the prints of Chri-
ftopher Jegher, who worked under the direction of
Rubens, and was without doubt aflifted by that great
mafter.
The invention of that fpecies of engraving diffin--
R 2 guifloed
£ N C t 532 1 E N Q
Ehfraving, guiflied by tbe appellation of chiaro-fcuro, feems alfo
w ^ '1 ’ to be juftly claimed by the Germans, and firll: prac-
tifed by Mair-j one of whofe prints of this kind is dated
1499. Many excellent works in chiaro-fcuro have
been produced in France 5 and in Italy it was honour¬
ed with the performances of Titian and Parmegian'o ;
but the attempts of Jackfon, Kirkall, and others in
England, have not been equally fuccefsful. A fet of
excellent prints in this way have lately been publilhed
by J. Skippe, Efq. a connoilfeur and dillettante.
In Germany, about the year 1450, prints from 'en¬
graved copper firit made their appearance. The'ear-
lieft date of a copperplate print is indeed only 1461 j
but however faulty this print may be with refpeft to
the drawing, or defective in point of tafte, the mecha¬
nical part of the execution of it has by no means tire
appearance of being one of the firft produclions of the
Strutt's graver. We have alfo leveral other engravings, fevi-
Uijl- of En- dently the wmrk of the fame mailer j in w’hich the
graving. impreffions are fo neatly taken from the plates, and the
engravings fo clearly printed in every part, that ac¬
cording to all appearance they could not be executed
in a much better manner in the prefent day, with all
the conveniences which the copperplate printers now
poflefs, and the additional knowledge they mull ne-
ceffarily have acquired hi the courfe of more than three
centuries. Hence we may fairly conclude, that if
they wTere not the firil fpecimens of:the engraver’s wmrk-
manihip, they were much lefs the firft efforts of the
copperplate printer’s ability. It is likewife to be ob-
ferved, that Martin Schoen, who is faid, with great
appearance of truth, to have w’orked from 1460 to
i486, was apparently the fcholar of Stoltzhirs ; for he
followed his ftyle of engraving, and copied from him
a fet of prints, reprefenting the paffion of our Saviour.
Now, allowing Stoltzhirs to have preceded his difciple
only ten years, this carries the era of the art back to
1450, as was faid above. There is no ground to fup-
pofe that it was known to the Italians till at lead ten
years afterwards. The earlieft prints that are known
to be theirs are a fet of the feven planets, and an al¬
manack by way of frontifpiece •, on which are direc¬
tions for finding Eafter from the year 1465 to 1517
inclulive : and we may be well affured, that the engra¬
vings were not antedated, for the almanack of courfe be¬
came lefs and lefs valuable every year. In all probabi¬
lity, therefore, thefe prints mull have been executed in
the year 1464, which is only four years later than the
Italians themfelves lay any claim to. The three earlieft
Italian engravers are, Fimguerra, Boticelli, and Bal-
dini. If we are to refer thefe prints to any of the
three, We fhall naturally conclude them to be the work
of FinigUerra or BalHini $ for they are not equal either
in drawing or compofttion to thofe aferibed to Boticelli,
which we know at leaft -were defigned by him j and as
Baldini is exprefsly laid to have worked from the de-
fegns of Boticelli, it will appear moft probable that
they belong to FinigUerra.
With refpefl to the invention of etching, it feems to
be not well'•known to whom it’is to be aferibed. One
of the 'moft early fpecimens -is that print by Albert
Durer, known 'by the name of the Cation, dated 1518,
and thought by feme, with little foundation, to have
been worked on a plate of iron. Another etching by
the fame artift is Mofes receiving the Tables of the Engraving,.
Law, dated 1524. It was alfo pratftifed in Italy foon' v
after this by Parmegiano, in wdiofe tetchings we dif-
cover the hand of the artift working out a fyftem as
it were from his own imagination, and ft riving to pro¬
duce the forms he wanted to exprefs. We fee the dif
ficulty he laboured under; and cannot doubt, from the
examination of the mechanical part of the execution
of his works, that he had no inftruction ; and that it
wYas fomething entirely new to him. If the ftory is
true, that he kept an engraver by profeftion in his-
houfe, the novelty of the art is rendered fo much the
more probable. He died in 1540.
As to that fpecies of engraving in which the modes
of etching and cutting with the graver are united, it
muft have been found neceffary immediately upon the
invention of etching; it was, however, firll carried to
perfeftion by G. Audran, and is now almoft univer-
fally praffiled, whether the work is in ftrokes or in
dots.
Engraving in dots, the prefent faftiionable method,
is a very old invent inn, and the only mode difeovered
-by the Italians. Agoftino-de Mulls, commonly called
yluguJHtle of Venice, a pupil of Marc Antonio, ufed it
in feveral of his earlieft works, but confined it to the
fielh, as in the -undated print of An Old Man feated
upon a Bank, with a cottage in the back ground. He
flourilhed from 1509 to 1536. We alfo find it in a
print of “ A fingle figure Handing, holding a cup and
looking upwards,” by Giulio Campagnola, who engra¬
ved about the year 1-516. The back ground is exe¬
cuted with round dots, made apparently with a dry
"point. The figure is outlined with a .ftroke deeply
engraved, and finiibed with dots, in a manner greatly
refembling thofe prints which Demafteau engraved at
Paris in imitation of red chalk. The hair and beard
are-expreffed by ftrokes. Stephen de Laulne, a native
of Germany, followed the Heps of Campagnola; and
many of his flight works are executed in dots only.
John Boulanger, a French artift, who flourilhed in the
middle of the laft century, and his cotemporary Ni¬
cholas Van Plattetvherg, improved .greatly on this me¬
thod, and praffifed it'with much fuceefs. It is only,
however, of late, that it has been coillidered as an ob¬
ject worthy of general imitation. John Lutma exe¬
cuted-this kind of -work with a hammer and a fmall
punch or chiffel.
The method of engraving in 'me%%otinto was invent¬
ed about the middle of the 17th century ; and the
invention ’has generally been attributed to Prince Ru¬
pert, though it has alfo been afferted that he learnt the
fecret from another. See MezzotiNTO.
Of the method of engraving in aquatinta, aJhott.and
general account has already been given under that
word. See AqitaTTKTa. But as Tome farther infor¬
mation relating to this branch of the cart of engraving
has fallen in our way, we embrace this opportunity of
laying it before our readers.
Engraving in aquatinta, was originally invented by
Le Prince, a French artift. Fora long time, his pro-
eefs was kept fecret; and his prints, it is faid, were at
firft fold for drawings. As a proof that the art rofe at
once to perfeffion, as has already been mentioned, the
prints.
ENG -[ t
Engraving, prints which were executed by him, are ftill admired as
v the finelt and belt fpecimens of the art. It appears,
however, that he was only acquainted with the powder¬
ed grain, and the common method of Hopping out.
7'he firft who praftifed this art in England, was Mr
Paul Sandby. By him, we are informed, it was com¬
municated to Mr Jukes, whofe works afford excellent
examples to what perfeftion the art has been carried 5
and although it is now generally pra£ti!ed all over Eu¬
rope, yet in -no country with greater fuccefs than in
Britain.
The principle of this procefs confifts in corroding the
copper in fuch .a manner, that an impreffion from it ex¬
hibits the appearance of a tint laid on paper, or a draw-
ing in Indian ink. This is accomphlhed by covering
the copper with fome fubftance which aflumes a granu¬
lated form, and prevents the acid from afling where the
particles adhere j and thus the copper is only partially
corroded. The more minute the particles are, it is ob¬
vious the impreffion from the plate will more nearly re-
femble a wafli of Indian ink, or a drawing ; but the
larger the particles are, the granulation ^becomes more
diftinft. The powder or granulation is called the aqua-
tmta grain. It is produced in two ways.
The procefs for ufmg-the powdered grain, which was
firff employed, is the following. The outline being-
etched on a copper plate, fome fubftance which eaftly
melts with heat, adheres to the plate when cold, and
reftfls the a&ion df the aquafortis, is to be finely pow¬
dered and lifted. Befides afphaltum, rofin, and gum
fandarac, the fubftances which have been mentioned in
the article already referred to, Burgundy pitch, gum
copal, gum maftic, as w'ell as fome other reftns and gum
refins, may be employed. Gum copal, it is obferved, '
produces a grain which refills .the aquafortis extremely
well. Whatever the fubftance is which us to be em¬
ployed, the great objeft of the artift in its application
is, to have it equally diftributed over the plate. This
is an eifential part of the operation, and requires con-
fiderable attention. The ufual method is, to tie up a
quantity of the pow'der in a piece of muffin, and to ftrike
it againft a ftiek held at a confiderable height above
the plate. Thus managed, the powder fettles equally
over it, in the fame unifonn manner that hair powxler
fettles on the furniture of an apartment, where the ope¬
rations of the hair-dreffer are performed. The plate
being thus covered equally with the daft or pow'der, it
is to be fixed upon it, by the application of a gentle
heat, to melt the particles. This is ufually done by
holding lighted pieces of rbrowm paper, rolled up, and
moving them about till ’the whole of the powrder is
melted, which is known by its changing to a brown co¬
lour. It is now allowed to cool and after Being exa¬
mined with a magnifying glafs, if the particles appear to
be uniformly diilributed, the artift proceeds to the .next
part of the procefs.
Inofe parts of the defign or drawing to be engraved,
which are perfedlly wdiite, are to be obferved and mark¬
ed, and the correfponding parts of the plate inuft be
covered or flopped out. This is beft done by means of
maftic varnifh, diluted to fucb a confiftence with tur¬
pentine as'to work freely with the pencil. To give it
colour, lamp-black fhould be mixed with it, that the
touches of the pencil may be diftinctly feen. When
33 ] E 'N G
thofe parts of the plate which are flopped out, are mF- En^nving.
ficiently dry, a border of wax is raifed round the plate, '—
-in the lame manner as in etching, and the aquafortis
diluted with water is poured on. This being the moil
precarious part of the procefs, requires the greateft ex¬
perience. When it is fuppofed that the aquafortis has
remained on the plate for fuch a length of time, that
when an impreflion is taken, it will produce the lighteft
fhade in the drawing, it is poured off, and the plate is
walhed with water and dried. The lighteft tints are
then flopped out, and the aquafortis is again poured
on ; and this procefs is repeated as often as there are
tints or fhades to be produced in the plate.
Many plates are entirely etched in this way, by al¬
ternately flopping out and biting in. It is, however,
found to be extremely difficult, and indeed impoffible,
to produce impreffions of minute and complicated ob-
je&s with the requiftte degree of delicacy and freedom,
lo obviate this difficulty, another procels has been pro-
pofed, by which the touches are laid on the plate, with
equal eafe and expedition as on drawings with Indian
ink. Fine wafhed whitening is mixed with treacle or
fugar, and diluted with water in the pencil, that it may
is ork freely. This is laid on the plate covered with
the aquatint ground, in the fame way as ink on the
drawing. When this is dry, the whole of the plate is
varmihed over with a thin turpentine or maftic varniffi
and when this is dry, the aquafortis is poured on. The
varnifh immediately breaks up in thofe parts of the plate
where the treacle mixture was laid, and thus they are
expofed to the adlion of the acid, w hile the other parts
of the plate remain untouched. Thus the touches or
# Places of the plate where the treacle has been applied,
' ^re bit in deeper than the reft, and have the precifion
of touches done with Indian ink. The plate being
thus completely bit in, the bordering wax is removed,
by_ gently heating it with a piece of lighted paper!
It is then cleared from the ground, and varniffied by
means of oil of turpentine ; and being wiped clean with
a rag and a little fine whitening, it is ready for the
printer.
But in this method of aquatinting, it is found difficult
to produce the neceffary degree of coarfenefs or finenefs
in the grain ; and plates which are engraved in this
manner afford but a fmall number of impreffions before
they are worn out. On this account it is now more
rarely followed.
The other method of producing the aquatint ground,
•which is moft generally adopted, is the following. A
refinous fubftance, as common refin, Burgundy pitch,
or maftic, is diffolved in fpirits of wine. This foluiion is •
poured all over the plate, which is inclined, till the
whole of the fuperfluous fluid drains off, and what ad¬
heres to the plate becomes quite dry in a few minutes.
I he plate oeing then examined with a magnifying
glafs, it will appear that the whole of the fpirit hay6
mg evaporated, the refinous matter is left in a granu¬
lated Hate, or is craeked in every direction, and adheres
ftrongly to the copper. In this way a regular and
beautiful grain is eafily produced, which will' be found
prefetable, at leaf! for moft purpofes, to that which is
produced by the former method. T he grain being thus
formed, the other parts of the procefs are conducted in
the fame.manner as before deferibed.
Such::
ENG
I '34 ]
ENG
Engraving. Such are the ufual methods of conducting this pro-
cefs. We {hall add a few hints which the young artift
may find ufeful in the different parts of it. With re¬
gard to the materials which are employed, it is to be
obferved, that the fpirits of wine flrould be re£tified, and
of the belt quality. Refinous matters, as common re¬
fin, Burgundy pitch, and gum maftic, yield grains of a
different appearance and form •, fo that advantage may
be taken of this circumftance, by ufing them fometimes
feparately, and fometimes mixed in different propor¬
tions, according to the views and tafte of the artift.
Different proportions of refin may be employed, to pro¬
duce grains of different kinds. When a coarfe grain
is intended, a greater proportion is to be employed •, and
when a fine grain is wanted, a fmaller proportion of re-
jin only is required. The proper proportions may be
afcertained by providing a number of fpare pieces of cop¬
per j on thefe the liquid may be poured, and the grain
examined, before it is applied to the plate which is to
be engraved. After the folution is made, it Ihould re¬
main undifturbed for a day or two, till the impurities of
the refin have fubfided, and the liquid becomes quite
limpid. This is the beft method of freeing it from
impurities ; for if it is {trained through linen or muffin,
it is mixed wTith hairs, which are extremely injurious to
the grain. It may be added, that the apartment in
which the fluid is poured on the plate, ftiould be per-
fe6tly ftill, and entirely free from duff ; for if any fall
on the plate while it is wet, the grain forms a white
fpot which cannot be removed. Great care fliould be
obferved in cleaning the plate. This is done with a
bit of rag and whitening. The fmalleff ftain or particle
of greafe produces a ffreak or blemiffi in the grain.
Still, however, with all the attention which can be em¬
ployed, and with the utmoft delicacy in the manage¬
ment, it is neceffary to obferve, that the procefs is ex¬
tremely precarious and uncertain j and even the moft
experienced artifts find themfelves frequently fubject
to very unaccountable accidents.
Artifts have frequently complained of the inconve¬
nience from the fumes which proceed from the aftion of
the acid upon the copper, when the plate is large.
?hil. Mag. “ To remedy this inconvenience, the following ar-
-vol. xxiii. rangement, which'feems vrell calculated to anfwer
vI37* the purpofe, has been fuggefted by Mr Cornelius
Varley, a young artift who diltinguifties himfelf no lefs
by his mechanical abilities than by the exquifite produc¬
tions of his pencil in water colours.—Get a frame
made of common deal or any kind of wood, three or
four inches deep, covered with a plate of glafs, and open
at one fide •, and let the fide oppofite to this have a
round opening communicating, by means of a common
iron pipe, with the afhpit of any little ftove or other
fire-place, fhut up from all other accefs of air but what
muft pafs through the pipe. It is obvious that any
fumes rifing from a copper-plate laid under fuch a frame
will be carried backward into the iron pipe by the cur¬
rent of air required to maintain combuftion in the ftove,
and will by this means be carried up the chimney in
place of being allowed to fly about in the apartment.
The pipe may be very convemently ufed by carrying it
down through the table to the floor, and fo along to
the place where the chimney may chance to ftand; and
jwhep the frame is not wanted, the pipe at one of the
joinings may be made to anfwer the purpofe of a hinge, Enoravin».
by which to turn up the frame againft the wall ' * *
where it may be {ecured, while out of ufe, by a button
or any other contrivance.’1
This method of engraving in aquatinta feems to be
chiefly adapted for flight fubjetts in general, for imita¬
tions of {ketches, and waihed drawings. But for the
produ61ion of prints from finiftied pictures, it is by no
means calculated ; becaufe it is not fufceptible of that
accuracy in the nice management of the tints which is
neceffary for this purpofe. It is equally unfuitable for
book plates j becaufe, without retouching the plates, the
number of impreflions that can be thrown off is very
fmall. On thefe accounts, therefore, it is to be con ■
fldered greatly inferior to the other modes of engraving..
But as it is more expeditious, and may be attained w ith
more facility, it is undoubtedly ufeful when it is con¬
fined to thofe fubje&s for which it is peculiarly calcu¬
lated. This rapidity of execution, however, and facilit)r
in acquiring* the practice of the art, are followed wdth the
unfortunate circumftance, that they favour the production
of an indifcriminate multitude of prints w hich, it is to be
feared, may rather tend to vitiate the public tafte.
Engraving wdth the tool w7as the kind originally
praftifed, and it is yet retained for many purpofes. For
though the manoeuvre of etching be more eafy, and
other advantages attend it 5 yet wdiere great regularity
and exadtnefs of the ftroke or lines are required, the
working with the graver is much more effedlual: on
wEich account it is more fuitable to the precifion ne¬
ceffary in the execution of portraits : as there every
thing the moft minute muft be made out and exprefled,
according to the original fubjecft, without any liceufe
to the fancy of the defigner in deviating from it, or
varying the effeft either by that mafterly negligence
and fimplicity in fome parts, or thofe bold failles of the
imagination and hand in others, wffiich give fpirit and
force to hiftory-painting.
The principal inftruments ufed in engraving with
the tool are, gravers, fcrapers, a burnilher, an oil-ftone,
and a cuftiion for bearing the plates.
Gravers are made in feveral forms with refpedft to the
points, fome being fquare, others lozenge j the fquare
graver for cutting broad and deep, and the lozenge
for more delicate and fine ftrokes and hatches. La
Boffe recommends, as the moft generally ufeful, fuch
as are of a form betwixt the fquare and lozenge : and
he advifes, that they Ihould be of a good length j fmall
towards the point, but ftronger upwards, that they
may have ftrength enough to bear any ftrefs there may
be occalion to lay upon them : for if they be too hnall
and mounted high, they will bend •, which frequently
caufes their breaking, efpecially if they be not em¬
ployed for very fmall i'ubjects.
The burnilher is ufed to aflift in the engraving on
fome occafions, as well as to polifti the plates. It is
feven inches in length, and made of fine fteel well po-
liihed. The burnifher is formed at one end, and a
fcraper on the other, each about an inch and a half
long from the point : betwixt them, about four inches
of the inftrument is made round, and ferves as a
handle 5 and is thicker in the middle than at the necks,
wrhere the burniftier and fcraper begin, w hich necks are
only one quarter of an inch in diameter. The princi¬
pal
l
ENG [ 1.35 ] £ N G
Engraving, pal application of it in engraving, befides its ufe in po-
" v" liihing the plates, is to take out any fcratches or acci¬
dental defacings that may happen to the plates during
the engraving j or to leffen the effeft of any parts that
jnay be too ftrongly marked in the work, and require
to be taken down.
A cufhion, as it is called, is likewife generally ufed
for fupporting the plate in fuch a manner, that it may
be turned every way with eafe. It is a bag of leather
filled with fand, which fhould be of the fize that will
beft fuit the plates it is intended to bear. They are
round, and about nine inches over, and three inches in
thicknefs.
The cufhion, made as above directed, being laid
on the table, the plate muft be put upon it j and
the graver being held in the hand in a proper manner,
the point mull be applied to the plate, and moved in
the proper direction for producing the figures of the
lines intended : obferving, in forming llraight lines,
to hold the plate Heady on the cufhion ; and where
they are to be finer, to prefs more lightly, ufing great¬
er force where they are to be broader and deeper. In
making circular or other curve lines, hold your hand
and graver iteadily ; and as you work, turn your plate
upon the cufhion againft your graver, otherwife it will
be impoffible for you to make any circular or curved
line with that neatnefs and command of hand you by
this means may. After part of the work is engraved,
it is neceffary to fcrape it with the fcraper or graver,
pailed in the moil level direflion over the plate, to take
oft the roughnefs formed by the cutting of the graver ;
but great care muft be taken not to incline the edge of
the fcraper or tool ufed, in fuch a manner that it may
take the leaf! hold of the copper, as it would otherwife
produce falfe ftrokes or fcratches in the engraving : and
that the engraved work may be rendered more viftble,
it may afterwards be rubbed over with a roll of felt
Hipped in oil. In ufing the graver, it is neceffary to
carry it as level as poflible with the furface of the plate j
for otherwife, if the fingers flip betwixt them, the line
that will be produced, whether curve or ftraight, will
become deeper and deeper in the progrefs of its forma¬
tion ; which entirely prevents ftrokes being made at
one cut, that will be fine at their extremities, and larger
in the middle ; and occafions the neceflity of retouch¬
ing to bring them, to that ftate. For this reafon, it
is very neceflary for thofe who would learn to engrave
in perfetftion, to endeavour, by frequent trials, to ac¬
quire the habit of making fuch ftrokes both ftraight
and curving, by lightening or finking the graver
with the hand, according to the occafion. If, after
finilbing the defign, any fcratches appear, or any part
of the engraving be falfely executed, fuch fcratches, or
faulty parts, muft be taken out by the burnifher, and
further poll died, if neceffary, by the above-mentioned
roll.
The plate being thus engraved, it is proper to round
off the edges, by ufing firft a rough file, and afterwards
a fmoother j and to blunt the corners a little by the
fame means : after which, the burnifher fhould be paf-
fed over the edges to give it a farther poliih.
The dry point, or needle, which has been of late
*nuch ufed in engraving, is a tool like an etching point,
which being drawn hard on the copper, cuts a ftroke,
and raifes a burr } the burr is fcraped off, and there rc- Engravi
mains a ftroke more foft and delicate than can be pro-^
duced in any other way.
In the conduct of the graver and dry point confifts
all the art *, for which there are no rules to be given j
all depending on the habitude, difpofition, and genius,
of the artift. However, befides the explanations al¬
ready given, fome general obfervations and directions
may not be improper. As the principles of engraving
are the fame with thofe of painting, a perfon cannot
expeCt to attain any confiderable degree of perfection
in this art who is not a good mafter of defign j and
therefore he ought to be well acquainted both with
perfpeCtive and architecture : for the former, by the
proper degradations of ftrong and faint colours, will
enable him to throw backwards the figures and other
objeCts of the picture or defign which he propofes to
imitate 5 and the latter will teach him to preferve the
due proportion of its feveral orders, which the painter
often entrufts to the difcretion of the engraver. In
order to preferve equality and union in his works, the
engraver fhould always fketch out the principal objeCts"
of his piece before he undertakes to finifh them. In
working, the ftrokes of the graver fbould never be
croffed too much in a lozenge manner, particularly in
the reprefentation of flefh, becaufe fharp angles pro¬
duce the unpleafing effeCt of lattice-work, and take-
from the eye the repole which is agreeable to it in all
kinds of piCturefque defigns : we fhould except the
cafe of clouds, tempefts, waves of the fea, the fkins of
hairy animals, or the leaves of trees, where this method
of crofting may be admitted. But in avoiding the lo-
zenge, it is not proper to get entirely into the fquare,..
which would give too much of the hardnefs of ftone.
In conducting the ftrokes, the aClion of the figures,
and of all their parts, fhould be confidered 5 and it
fhould be obferved how they advance towards, or re¬
cede from the eye 5 and the graver fhould be guided
according to the rifings or cavities of the mufcles or
folds, making the ftrokes wider and fainter in the-
light, and clofer and firmer in the fhades. Thus the
figures will not appear jagged 5 and the hand fhould
be lightened in fuch a manner, that the outlines may¬
be formed and terminated without being cut too hard j
how-ever, though the ftrokes break off where the muf-
cle begins, yet they ought always to have a certain-
conneCHon with each other, fo that the firft ftroke may
often ferve by its return to make the fecond, which
will fhow the freedom of the engraver.
In engraving the flefh, the effeCt may be produced
in the lighter parts and middle tints by long pecks
of the graver, rather than by light lines ; or by round
dots j or by dots a little lengthened by the graver j
or, beft of all, by a judicious mixture of thefe to¬
gether.
In engraving the hair and the beard, the engraver
fhould begin his work by laying the principal grounds, .
and fketching the chief fhades in a carelefs manner, or
with a few ftrokes 3 and he may finifh it at leifure
with finer and thinner ftrokes to the extremities.
When architeClure or iculpture is to be reprefented,
except it be old and ruinous buildings, the wmrk ought
not to be made very black 3 becaufe, as edifices are
commonly conftrufted either of ftone or white marble,
the
E N G [ 136 ] E NT G
Engraving, the Colour, being reflected on all fldes, does not pro*
"1|1 v duce dark or brovm fliades as in other fubftances.
White points muft not be put in the pupils of the
eyes of figures, as in engravings after paintings’,
nor mufi: the hair or beard be repreiented as in na¬
ture, which makes the locks appear flowing in the
air j becaufe in fculpture there can be no fuch ap¬
pearances.
In engraving cloths of different kinds, linen fhould
be done with finer and clofer lines than any otlier forts,
.and be executed with Angle ftrokes. Woollen cloth
ftlould be engraved wide, in proportion to the coarfe-
*nefs or finenefs of the fluff, and with only two ftrokes j
and when the ftrokes are croffed, the fecond (hould be
fmaller than the firft, and the third than the fecond.
Shining fluffs, which are generally of filk or fatin, and
which produce flat and broken folds, fhould be en¬
graved more hard and more ftraight than others, with
one or two ftrokes, as^ their colours are bright or
brown ; and between the firft ftrokes other fmaller
rtwft be joined, which is called interlining. Velvet
and plufll are expreffed in the fame manner, and fhould
always be interlined. Metals, as armour, &c. are alfo
reprefented by interlining, or by clear fingle ftrokes.
In architeclure, the ftrokes which form the rounding
objecft fhould tend to the point of fight*, and when
whole columns occur, it is proper to produce the effefl
as- much as poflible by perpendicular ftrokes. If a
grofs rtroke is put, it fhould be at right angles, and
wider and thinner than the firft ftroke. In engraving
mountains, the ftrokes ought to be frequently difcon-
tinued and broken, for (harp and craggy objects ; and
they fhould be ftraight, in the lozenge manner, and ac¬
companied with long points or dots j and rocks fhould
be reprefented by crofs ftrokes more fquare and even.
Objefls that are diftant towards the horizon fhould be
kept very tender, and fiightly charged with black.
Waters that are calm and ftill are beft reprefented by
ftrokes that are ftraight, and parallel to the horizon, in¬
terlined with thofe that are finer : omitting fuch places
as, in confequence of gleams of light, exhibit the
fhining appearance of water •, and the form of objects
reflefled from the water at a fmall diftance upon
it, or on the banks of the -water, are expreffed by the
fame ftrokes, retouched more ftrongly or faintly as
occafion may require, and even by fome that are per¬
pendicular. For agitated waters, as the waves of the
fea, the firft ftrokes fhould follow the figure of the
waves, and may be interlined, and the crofs ftrokes
ought to be very lozenge. In cafcades, the ftrokes
fhould follow the fall, and be interlined. In engraving
clouds, the graver fhould fport when they appear thick
and agitated, in turning every way according to their
form and their agitation. If the clouds are dark, fo
that two ftrokes are neceffary, they fhould be croffed
more lozenge than the figures, and the fecond ftrokes
fhould be rather wider than the firft. The flat clouds,
that are loft infenfibly in the clear fky, fhould be made
by ftrokes parallel to the horizon, and a little waving ;
if fecond ftrokes are required, they fhould be more or
lefs lozenge ; and when they are brought to the extre¬
mity, the hand fhould be fo lightened, that they may
form no outline. The flat and clear fky is reprefented
by parallel and ftraight ftrokes, without the leaft turn¬
ing. In landfcapes, the trees, rocks, earth, and her-
2
bage, fhould be etched as much as pofhble j nothing Engr;
fhould be left for the graver but perfecting, foftening, w'“
and ftrengthening. The dry point produces an effecT
more delicate than the graver can, and may be ufed to
great advantage in linen, fkies, diftances, ice, and often
in water, efpecially in fmall engravings. In moft things
it is proper to etch the fhadows, only leaving the lighter
tints for the dry point, graver, &c.
To imitate chalk-drawings, a mixture of vatied and
irregular dots are- ufed, made more or lefs foft, fo as
to refemble the grain produced by the chalks on pa¬
per. Every ftroke of the chalks on paper may be
confidered as an infinite number of adjoining points,
which are the fmall eminences of the grain of the
paper touched by the chalk in pafling over it. When
the copperplate has been polifhed and varnifhed, or
properly prepared, as in the common method of en¬
graving, the drawing to be imitated may be coun-
terproved on the vamifti of the plate. If this can¬
not be conveniently done, black lead pencil, cfr- red
chalk, muft be applied to vamifhed or oiled paper j
and by means of this chalk or pencil, all the tra¬
ces of the original will be tranfmitted to the var-
nifh. The outlines of the objehf muft be formed in the
etching by points, wdiofe magnitude and diftance muft
be determined by the quality of the ftrokes in the ori¬
ginal drawing. The artift may be provided with
pointed inrtruments or needles of various fizes with
fingle or double points. In forming the light and
fhade, he fhould diftinguiih between thofe hatches
which ferve to exprefs the perfpeflive of the ohje-ft
and thofe which form the ground of it. The princi¬
pal hatches fhould be more ftrongly marked *, the
middle tints, if etched, fhould be marked lightly, or
they may be left till the varnifh is taken off, and be
perfecfed with a greater degree of foftnefs by needles
or the point of the graver, as- the original may re¬
quire. There is nothing peculiar in the method of
applying the aquafortis in this kind of engraving 5 but
it may be obferved, that it fhould not be left io long
as to corrode the lighter parts too much : if the light
parts are fufficiently corroded, they may be flopped
up with turpentine varnifh and lamp-black mixed
together, and the aquafortis may be applied again
to the ftronger parts *, for it will be no detriment to
them, if the points which compofe the fhade burft into
one another, provided the extreme be avoided. When
the work of the aquafortis is finifhed, and the var¬
nifh taken off the copper, it will be neceffary in the
fofteft parts, fuch as the flefh, &c. to interftipple with
proper points 5 as an effefl will be thus produced
more delicate than it is poffible to attain with the
aquafortis only 5 and the ftrongeft fhades will require
additional ftrength to be given them with fmall ftrokes
of the graver. Drawings made with chalks of differ¬
ent colours may be imitated in this manner, if a plate
be provided for every colour.—This method of engra¬
ving is intended to form a kind of deception, fo that the
connoiffeur may not be able, on the firft infpeflion, to
diftinguifh between the original drawing and the en¬
graving made in imitation of it; and it is extremely
ufeful, as it ferves to multiply copies of drawings left
by thofe mafters who excelled in the ufe of chalks, and
thus to form and improve young artifts, who could not
have accefs to the originals in the practice of drawing.
t
ENG r I
Engraving. To tills account of the. hiftory and pra&ice of the art
‘ of engraving, we lhall annex the following ingenious
obfervations by an eminent living artiil: (a). We pre~
fent them to our readers without alteration or abridge¬
ment.
On the lin- When compared with painting, the art of engraving
ear art in is but a recent invention, being coeval only with that
generai. of printing ; and like that noble art, it pofleffes not on¬
ly a ftmilar but a greater power, of multiplying and
extending the pfoduftions of genius over the world j for
its language is univerfally underftood.
It would have been well for the arts, if it could boaft
of a more remote date, as we might then have had
many, more of the fineft defigns of the firif painters of
antiquity, now doomed to oblivion, faved from the
rude ravages of time.
But this invention feemed to be referved for the
fourteenth century, and its improvements for the age of
Louis XIV. an age in which a number of artifts, who
may be laid to have invigorated the art, and invefted
it with beauty, arofe both in France and Italy.
Lines, in the firft date of the art, like every other
purfuit, whofe excellence is progreflive, were compa¬
ratively rude and unmeaning, and had nothing more to
recommend them, than merely reprefenting a particu¬
lar fort of markings, or (light hatchings with the pen,
without any other apparent degree of execution or ex-
pretlion. Although it is Our pride to acknowledge,
that it has not been a little beholden to the elegant
etchings of the great mailers in painting, as well as to
their drawings in pen and ink, in its early flages, by
which means an eminent degree of talle was introduced
into the art, particularly in the department of linear dif-
polition. Amongft thofe, the drawings of a Raphael,
Michael Angelo, and the learned da Vinci *, fome of
which wre have occafionally feen and admired. Some
by da Vinci were hatched in a fquare but delicate man¬
ner, with a wrhite fluid, on dark coloured paper. Thofe
of Michael Angelo and Raphael inclined more to the
lozenge, in black or browm ink. They even carried
this ftyle of hatching with the pencil into their pictures,
fome of which adorn the Vatican j and in the famous car¬
toons in his majefty’s colleftion by Raphael. Baccio
Bandinelli generally hatched his lines in one direction,
particularly a Taking down from the Crofs, which wras
fold in London at the fale of the late Sir Jolhua Rey¬
nold’s drawings. Vicenzio Dante, hatched in a limilar
way about the year 1550. Julio Romano ufed alfo to
draw in this flyle wdth the pen, feverals of wdiich are ftill
to be found in the moft felefl cabinets of men of talle j
and for near a century and a half after the invention of
etching, it is rare to mention a pointer of eminence, who
was diftinguilhed in drawing, who did not annex this art
to that of painting. But with the application of the bu¬
rin, the art has been gradually improving till the prefent
period, (b) Linear engraving is nothing more than draw¬
ing elegantly on copper. It became more ftudied as it
was found capable of reprefenting the various appear-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
37 I ENG
ances of nature. The texture or furface of obje&s be-Engraving,
came proportionally difcriminated by filch peculiar mo- v
difications of the line, as feemed moft fuitable to the
fubject reprefented, although, at the fame time, it ren¬
dered it much more arduous in the execution. Hence
arofe that diverlity of ftyle, and that fcope for fucceed-
ing excellence, which, by combining elegance with
fimplicity and beauty, diitinguifhed thofe artiits who
have been moft conipicuous in its improvement.
It has been faid, that we are indebted for the origin
of this art to an ingenious Florentine, Maffo Fini-
guerra, the fculptor. He wras fucceeded by a number
of other ingenious men, among whom we rank Botti¬
celli, Andrea Mantigna, and other able defigners 5—
and in Germany, Albert Durer, Aldgrave, and Lucas
Van Leyden, who feverally contributed their labours.
But in the fifteenth century, the works of the divine
Raphael began to be multiplied by the corredl graver
of Marc Antonio, an artift whofe prints were the de¬
light of that great painter. Antonio had many imi¬
tators, but none who equalled him for juftnefs of con¬
tour, for which his works will be ever highly appreci¬
ated among the early produftiohs of the art.—Having
had occafion to mention a few of the principal artifts
w7ho reared the fcaffolding of this elegant art, we lhall
proceed to thofe who have fo much diftinguilhed them-
felves in finilhing the Ihperftrutfure. Among thofe,
Auguftino of Venice began to introduce a better dif-
pofitibn of line in his ftiades, as well as the ingenious
Bolognefe, Auguftino Carrachi j whilft Egedius Sade-
laer difplayed no lefs zeal in Germany. In the fix-
teenth century, the art difplayed ftill more vigour and
tafte, and feemed to have but little more wanting j for
all that meagre drynefs of line began to difappear, which
fo manifeftly marks the early works of II Tedefca, Al-
degraff, and other artifts of a former period. Their
works became confequently more rich in ftyle, by em¬
bracing the beft produftions of the pencil 5 and as they
were applied to a greater number of ideas, they became
ftill more interefting and fuccefeful.
Patrons were numerous and liberal 5 and it is but pro¬
per to remark, that the various artifts, on their part, ac¬
tuated by a becoming zeal which was highly creditable
to themfelves, w'ere indefatigable. This is a circum-
ftance not lefs worthy of imitation, than the many ad¬
mirable monuments of the art which they produced.
Few but admired the works of Maffon, Poilly, Nantueil,
and RoulTelet; and fome time after the death of the in¬
genious Cornelius Bloemart, who had given a grace to
his lines, hitherto unknown at Rome, the matchlefs
Audran and Edelinck difplayed their excellent produc¬
tions at Paris. But arts are liable to fluctuate ; and
wrhen the art of engraving began to decline abroad, it
gradually difplayed a high degree of luftre in our own
country; and the variety of ftyles which hasfince fprung
from the original manner of engraving lhall be the fub-
jefl of the following Iketch.
We lhall therefore treat more particularly of the dif-
pofition of the lines and their confequent eftedts, dif-
S tinguilhed
(a) Francis Legat, Efq. hiftorical engraver to his royal highnefs the prince of Wales, and F. A. S. E.
(e) I he author has taken the liberty of here adopting the word linear, from its ftridf analogy to this msde of
engraving, and with the approbation of fome of the firft profeffors, both in' painting and engraving;-
ENG C 138 ] ENG
On linear
expreffion
and d f-
Engraving. tinguifhcJ by the terms, linear exprejjton, imitation, dif-
Vu" v 1 ' pojition, and harmony j with a ftrift inveitigation of the
firlf and moft approved lubjecfs, either in etching or
engraving j and of their eiiential beauties, as far as
they may tend to illulirate the fubjecf.
A§ the great object of this mode of engraving is, to
adopt thole lines the moil expreflive of the form and
character of whatever happens to be reprefented, by
maturely inveftigating not only the a&ion but the caule
and correfpondent efte£ts of the original picture ; in or¬
der that the artilt may avail himfelf of all that is moft
beautiful in his tranllation, and efficient in the aggregate,
either with refpect to the expreffion, fpirit, or fentiment.
When hiftorical iubjebts confift of feveral figures,
where there is generally a variety of draperies, fome of
them appearing thick and cumberfome, others more
thin and flexible, fitting dole and elegant on the limbs,
being compofed of a finer texture, or thread j the coarl-
er Ituifs are confequently more effectually reprefented
V a bolder line, as the thinner fort, by the application
of a fine line, gives a more lively reprefentation j a dif-
crimination winch has been oblerved of late, by the
molt approved riiodern tirtifts in linear engraving. Ob-
fervations of this defcription, when treated in a liberal
manner, not only fuperadd a degree of truth, but even
render the fubjeds fweeter to the eye of fancy. In the
early ftages of the art, fome efxcellent artiits have been
led into particular and-limited fyltems. In the works
of fuch as have affe&ed to defcribe every lubjebt in the
fame line indifcriminately, even the arms of the moft
delicate women are often engraven as if perfediy pp-
iilhed, by approaching to a metallic appearance, a mode
not uncommon among the fecond or third clafs of ar-
tifts about the beginning of the laft century j by which
manner, all that foftnels and delicacy was negleded,
which is fo happily effedted in the linear produdions of
Bartolozzi, Morgan, Sharp, Heath and others, at pre-
fent of the fir ft mailers in Europe. Thole who are ac¬
quainted with the works of the ingenious Chaffard,
mull with pleafure have perceived in his foliage, how
even the texture of flowers are imitated from the deli¬
cate line-like fibres of which they are compofed, iffuing
from the Item, and fpreading their filken beauties to
the fun : and in this clafs of imitation, the clear tranf-
parency of glafs, the rough texture of woollen, the
thinnefs of lawn,, the llickerings of fatin, or the light¬
nings of Heel, as well as the rude rock, the lucid lake,
o® the flalhing of the torrent, are all admirably adapt¬
ed to linear effed by the almoft infinite diverfity in
their conftrudion, and general conllituent principles,
ftridly obferving on what laws the beauty of lines con-
fifts, by ever keeping in view the due balance of tafte,
and a noble fimplicity of ftyle throughout. It is the
bufinefs of the Ikiiful artiil to overpower and fubdue
the difficulties in his profeffion $ for no excellence in
art is of cheap or vulgar acquifition. Let it be re¬
membered that with forming fteel, even the enchanting
graces of the Venus de Medicis were hewn from' a
rock, and the almott breathing Apollo, from a block
of Parian ftone.
An elegant Engliffi poet, in a critical effay on poet¬
ry, obferves, that the found ffiould feem an echo to the
fenfe j fo ihould the lines in a fine print feem to har¬
monize with the fubjed, by flowing with the external
call of the features, arid the predominant paflion ex-
prefled in the original pidure j for the fame chara&erEngruvnjg
and difpofition of the lines that fuit the adion of the —y—
mufcles in one paflion, will be found to appear more va¬
cant and lefs expreffive when applied to others, however
graceful they may appear.
As this is a point of view to which the art has never
yet been fully extended, perhaps it may meet with lome
degree of attention, as it will be found of utility int
forming a principle refpeding diipofition, more particu¬
larly in hiftorical fubjeds, where the paflions are requir¬
ed to be nicely exprefled : and although it may admit of
fome flight exceptions, it is a principle .that will m ge¬
neral be found to he true.
For example, let it be fuppofed, that the paflion of the
figure repreiented, is that of joy j the lines ihould feem
to expand and fwell, with every ailing mufcle, in the
moil delicate manner poflible.
But, on the contrary, if the fubjed difplays deep for-
row, they ftiould rather incline downward, partaking
fomewhat of the half ftraight, feeming to ad apparent¬
ly in perfed unifon and conformity with the features of
the face, with all due fubordination to the general ef¬
fed of light and fhadow.
Various obfervations may be made in this manner on
the principal paffions expreffed in the human counte¬
nance, which are but few comparatively, even from the
flighteft movement to the boldeft adion. We often
find, on examining the works of thole mailers who are
not fo confpicuous for great clearnefs of execution, that
they have been occupied by the dilpolition and energy
of the lines, as in the magnificent and mafterly prints
of the battles of Alexander, from the pidures of Carlo
le Brun, engraved by Gerrard Audran j where the
executive department is no lefs conipicuous from the
burin of the Chevalier Edelinck in the fine print of the
tent of Darius : whilft Audran difplays the true fpirit
of art, but rarely avails himfelf of much of the mecha¬
nical principles. The field, and tumult of battle, feem-
ed admirably calculated to call forth his rapid powers^,
particularly in works of magnitude.
The lefs adive feenery of the tent of Darius, was e-
qually appropriated to the fplendid talents of Edelinck,
as he feems to have been better qualified to diiplay fub¬
jeds of that nature in general. This is fufficiently ob¬
vious from the beautiful and intereiling groupe of the
queen mother, and her illuftrious family, kneeling at
the feet of the conqueror 5 his impreffive print of the
magdalene, or his moft admirable portraits of the dig¬
nified clergy, diftinguiihed authors, and eminent artifts,
Thefe, in point of engraving, are no lefs remarkable
for tafte in the execution, than for truth and nature in
expreffion.
In one of the battles of Alexander, the groupe where
Poms is wounded and fupported by the foldiers, the
rough diferimination of line finely accords- with that
bold deportment of charader in the grim vifage of that
gigantic prince, whilll a more delicate line marks the
youthful countenance of Alexander j a diferimination.
which is totally loft in the large Dutch copy by de Vos.
In the fame print, the figures of Alexander and Cly-
tus, are finely relieved from the diitant fcencry by
the varied defcription of engraving on their armour, dra¬
pery, and horfes. The latter are managed with fuch
fteedotn and fpirit, that it is difficult to fay whether the
horfes or figures teem the moil with mafteriy execution j
particuiarly
ENG
Engraving, particularly the white war-horfe on the right extremity
~of the print (c).
Had Audran fuperadded a ftill greater portion of the
delicacy and clearnefs of handling fo confpicuous in
Edelinck and other eminent artifts fince that period, it
would undoubtedly have given an additional beauty to
his other tranfcendant acquifitions j namely the vaft
fpirit of his lines, and power in drawing.
But it is feldom the lot of an individual to combine
every excellence. Arts too have their infancy •, for
they generally require the labour of ages to bring them
to maturity and perfeftion, and it yet remained to unite
and ameliorate the polifli of Edelinck, to the fpirited
ftyk of Audran. Without prejudice or partiality, a confi-
derable degree of this excellence will be found in the belt
works of Britilh art, as we (hall hereafter exemplify.
Another fine fpecimen of lineal engraving, and of a
different clafs, is the celebrated ftorm by Balechow,
from a picture of the famous Vernet. In this print he
has tranfmitted with the graver a certain fluidity and
action in reprefenting the liquid element, to which the
art had never before attained. To a grandeur of ftyle
ia the bold fwelling of the waves, he has fuperadded
the utmofl: tranfparency of line ; at the fame time, hav¬
ing attended to all that light reftlefs fpray which feems
fporting to the gales as they roll along. In a fanciful
mood, one might almolt imagine they heard the motion
of the water : fo finely did this difcriminating artift
tranflate, (if I may be allowed the expreflion) this ad¬
mirable picture.
When we confider the period in which this dif-
tinguiftied work was engraved, and that little or no¬
thing had been previoufly done in that department of a
fimilar excellence •, it is hoped it will be a fufficient
apology for the degree of admiration here expreffed;
for, as Lord Verulam truly obferves, “ we are too prone
to pafs thofe ladders by which the arts are reared, and
generally reflefl all the merit to the laft new perform¬
er.” We have already obferved, they are feldom rear¬
ed with rapidity, and oftentimes that which is confider-
ed an invention, is only a long fucceflion of trials and
experiments, which have gradually followed each other,
and ought rather to be confidered as a feries of human
mind than the knowledge of an individual, being the
works of ages. In any point of view, the prefent fub-
jeft will ever be confidered as a high improvement
and an elegant acquifition in the annals of the linear
art. But in hiftorical fubje£ls this artift is by no means
equal in point of tafte or difcrimination. His print of
St Genevive undoubtedly ranks high in the firft clalTes
of engraving. Had his tafte in other refpedls been
equal to his powerful cleamefs of execution, it would
have been almoft unparalleled ; but it betrays a want
of that effential, even in his mode of thinking. Patience
and labour are everywhere too prevalent. It remain¬
ed for Woollet to excel both in figures and inlandlkip.
In the various ftyles and modifications of this expref-
five art, from the neat to the FEEBLE, and from the BOLD
to the EXTRAVAGANT, Tajle (lands folearbitrefs: in brief,
it is ftie who diftributes variety wdth fpirit, and conceals
the appearance of intricacy and labour j who, by a due
1 r39 ]
ENG
modification of line, unites cleamefs to foftnefs, arrefting Engraving.
the hand of the fldlful artift, from every effort inconfift- l "" v ■ ‘
ent with her powers ; producing at once to the mind all
that agreeable finiflied combination or harmony which
ever accompanies and conilitutes the perfeflion of true
art.
In the execution of fubjedls of imagination, there is r
perpetual fcope for calling forth the fancy of the en¬
graver, as the various combinations of lines are in-
exhaullible, uncommon effects, fuch as aerial fpirits, or
celeftial beings blended with the light, or ghofts com¬
mingled with the gloom, or fairy elves by moonlight,
who trip the fands, and yet no footing feen j or wood-
nymphs, laving their taper limbs in the limpid ele¬
ment. Such lubjedls, in point of ftyle, depend entirely
upon the beauty, lightnefs, and tranlparency of execu¬
tion 5 for thofe that are merely ornamental or grotefque,
demand a ftyle of a different call from that of the
ferious or hiftorical, as they require a lefs degree of
truth even from the burin. In thefe cafes the ftyle
may be as capricious as the fubje&s. Thofe of Raphael,
in the Vatican, difplay an uncommon degree of tafte,
and particularly in the elegant flow of line with which
they are compofed.
In all works of tafte and genius, thofe which may
appear the moft Ample at a tranfient glance, will be often
found to contain the moft art on a more mature in-
veftigation. The firft impreffion may ftrike the fancy,
but the fecond generally calls up the difcriminating
powers of the judgment.
Arts generally rife in our efteem according to the
degree of exertion of the mental powers which they re¬
quire j and, as lines are capable £>f various ftyles, thole
which are moft congenial to the fubject reprefented
ought to be adhered to in preference to every other
confideration. Teniers, and Gerrard Houw, demand all
the fidelity and delicacy of the burin in deferibing the
various draperies and individualities which belong to
that clafs of painting j but, in proportion as the contour
is compofed of fewer parts, and the forms more full and
elegant, the beautiful flowing qualities of the graver is
increafed, and its lines glide more gracefully over the
figures, as may be found in the works of Strange and
others from Guido and Corregio. This diftinftion will
not appear fo obvious on a Superficial view of the art.
But, on a due inveftigation, it will be found, that not
only a different modification of lines is neceffary to the
various claffes of painting, but that even a different
defeription of ftyle is requifite to characterize fome of
the mailers in each particular clafs, from the fublime
and elevated figures of a Raphael and Michael Angelo,
to the fimple cottagers of Adrian Oftade.
When we take a more comprehenfive view of the
art, we often find, that the ftyles which are adopted in
the different countries in Europe by the artifts where
the art has in any degree been cultivated, are generally
regulated by the modes of painting, drawing, and even
the colouring refpeftively in each, whether hiftorical,
portrait, or landfcape, and is proportionably appretiated
according to the effective beauty and elegance of the
execution.
S 2 It
(c) Whenever Mr Bartolozzi happened to fpeak of thofe prints to me, he always expreffed himfelf with a
great degree of enthufiafm, thinking hnulelf extremely fortunate in liaving works of fuch excellence in his pop
feflion.
ENG £ i
Engraving. It is not improbable that the clear mode, which at
■' prefent conftitutes the modern German fchool, is a re¬
finement on the fimple ftyle of Cornelilis Bloemart.
In Italy, Jachimo Frey, that aftonifhing Swifs, from
his mafterly expertnefs in drawing, and a rapid ufe of
the etching fteel and the nitre, almoft produced an en^-
tire revolution in the art. The unprecedented richnefs
and eafe, the freedom and energy of his ftyle, and the
number and magnitude of his works, attrkfted all Italy,
and tended greatly to improve the Roman fchool. A-
bout the year 1672, we find him working jointly with
the nervous Dorigny Frezza, and Vanauden Aird.
From this fource wre can perceive the ftyle of Wagner,
of Cars in France, and various mafters now living ;
namely, Francifco Bartolozzi, Giov&nni Volpato, Domi-
nicus Cunigo, and fome of the early works of the excel¬
lent Raphael Morghen.
In many inftances Frey indicates, that if he had con-
fidered it of fufficient confequence to the art, he could
have engraved with more cleamefs, particularly by his
curious copy from the celebrated print by Edelinck, of
the Madonaand Child, with St John and Angels, from
Raphael ; and although but an imitation of another
ftyle1, tends to Ihew the verfatility of his talents), w'hen
the judgment is for a wdiile fufpended to know which is
the original. We find a performance of Frey’s, entitled
La Charite Humaine, dated 1723 *, a print was afterwards
engraved from the fame fubjeft at Paris by Daulle, dated
1763, in which he has rather been too profufe in the mere
mechanical part of the art, and deftitute of that ardour
which a well engraved work ftiould not only infpire but
maintain.
It is not enough for lines to be only well difpofed,
but alfo full of expreflion : neither is it' enough for a
line to be only clearly cut, but it muft alfo be free 5 for
in a certain free light fpirited lines convey an idea of
animation, and are fuited to fubjecls of that defcription,
while the long fweeping and bold lines are better adapt¬
ed to the folemn and majeftic productions of the pencil.
A fine print, like a miniature picture, ought to be
viewed near the eye ; as in itfelf, from the nature of
the art, will be found a due fubordination of effeCt, ever
receding from the bold and articulated lines in the fore
ground to thofe which are more evanefcent and remote.
The graceful birch, the mountain alh, and the oak,
have each their peculiar bark and texture j and thefe,
when freely indicated, ftamp their mark and character
molt completely to the eye. Much of this, as has been
formerly mentioned, depends upon, and is regulated by,
the peculiar ftyle of the picture and the fkill of the en¬
graver.
As lines feem to partake of motion, in proportion as
they deviate in gentle bendings from the ftraight and
precife 5 even fa alfo, in the motion of water feemingly
increafed, whether they undulate with the fimpleft wave,
or {well with the fierce and tempeft- curled furge. This
character is fufficiently illuftrated in the works of Bale-
chow and Woollet.
In the late Mr Brown’s large print of St John
preaching in the wildernefs, no engraver has ever more
40 ] ENG
fully difplayed the true fpirit of Salvator Rofa, particu-Engraving,
larly in the original mode of treating the rocks, and the l,, r ~v 1
bold ftyle of the furrounding fcenery •, in fhort, in the
aggregate it is a chef d’oeuvre unparalleled in any coun¬
try. This is freely acknowledged, not only by every
man of tafte, but by the firft landfcape engravers, (d).
But Brown was perhaps lefs happy iti the companion
to the above, from the celebrated Both, by adapting a
fimilar mode to that finilhed and delicate painter. For
the ftyle Ihould ever vary with the fubjeCt.
“ Whate’er Lorrain light touched with foftening hue,
Or favage Rofa daih’d, or learned Pouffin drew.”—
Thomson’s Cajlle of Indolence.
His admirable etchings of the cottager and its com¬
panion, and the Celadon and Amelia, are fine fpecimens
of his difcriminating powers, and characterized with fo
near an approach to truth, that we cannot help exclaim¬
ing with the poet,
“ He fees no other, nature’s felf who fees.”
The engraving of the above fubjeCts was finifhed
by the matchlefs Woollet, with the fame happy tafte.
And it muft be acknowledged that it is but feldom that
we fee fo many excellencies united 5 for it is equally rare
to fee the fineft engraving united to the fineft drawing,
as to find it in painting combined with the choiceft
colouring: yet each have their decided fafcinations in the
gallery, the cabinet, or the portfolio.
Woollet, whofe works abound with nerve and intelli¬
gence in point of charaCler, his ftyle of landfcape is
delightfully defcriptive j whether rocks, water, trees, or
Iky ; as the Niobe, the Ceyx, and Alcyone, and other
mafter-pieces from the great Wilfon evince. In the
winter fcene from Smith of Chichefter, he has admirably
contrived to convey the effeCt of the drifted fnow, by deli¬
cate dotting, and with no lefs precifion he has defcribed
the tranfparent ice with clear lines. Of trees, he was
the firft that ever faithfully characterized the graceful
larch 5 as may be feen in his views of the noblemen’s
feats. In the print of the filhery, he is indebted to the
mafterly etching of John Brown, particularly the Hup¬
ping, in which there is perhaps no fubjeCt more articu¬
late and perfpicuous. The engraving of this fubjeft is
finiihed by himfelf. In his figures he was the founder
of a ftyle, moft happily adapted for modern dreffes, and
hiftorical portraiture 5 a ftyle in which he moved with
unrivalled reputation. His print of the death of Gene¬
ral Wolfe, painted by Mr Weft, is an admirable ex¬
ample, and does honour to the Britilh nation. It
occupied him no lefs than four years. The print
of the battle at La Hogue is another fine fpeci-
men of his knowledge of linear difcrimination. In ftiort,
when we conlider the talents of this artift, it is difficult
to decide whether he moft excelled in modern hiftory
or landfcape. The art has to regret that he, who was
fo eminently qualified to adorn any line of the pro-
feffion, has left no works in ancient hiftory. We have
little doubt from his knowledge, and a real love of the
art, he would have left a fufficient monument in that
department alfo, for the pleafure and contemplation of
the
(d) Were I at liberty to mention eminent living artifts, I would have been induced here among others, to have
mentioned the fubject of the I empeft in the Twelfth Night, from the late ingenious Wright of l)erby, engraved,
by Mr Middleman, in the Meat's Boy dell’s large edition of the immortal bard of Avon.
ENG [ i
Engrav.ng, tile real connoiffeur and of pofterity. Engraving in this
v country fuftained a heavy lofs when he died ; and if the
death of fo excellent an artift may be conhdered as a
public lofs, it is certainly the more felt with refpeft to
Woollet, who died while he was yet improving in that
excellence (e).
Chattelaine has been termed a mannerift in his draw¬
ings, but he muft certainly be allowed to be an excellent
one : his etchings are. variety itfelf. Perhaps in the de¬
partment of etching no artift has fo happily tranllated
the pictures of Claude de Lorraine as Francis Vivares}
that is, with refpefl to aerial perfpeftive, the peculiar
charafteriftic of Claude. But his merits are not confined
to this mailer alone ^ for he followed Ruyldale, Berghem,
Gainfborough, and Cuype, with great fuccefs. He has
luch a free delivery of Hyle, that almofl every one who
examines his works is irrefiftibly impreffed with an idea
of performing the very fame. Few artifts, it has been
mentioned, have excelled in the etching department.
We cannot, however, omit the name of Peranezzi ; who,
to originality of flyle, which is apparently fpontaneous,
joins a certain grandeur which had never been furpaffed.
He has tranfmitted to pofterity fo fninted a reprefenta-
tion of the Greek and Roman edifices and ruins, that
travellers have often conleffed that they have raifed
their ideas beyond the magnitude of the luperftru&ures
themfelves. It is certain that in works of this ftu-
pendous nature, a degree of ruggednefs in the execution
correfponds with the fublimity of the fubje&s ; and thus
produces a ftill greater power over the mind, than if
they had been more poliihed. Some have cenfured his
figures, and not without caufe. This deleft has been in-
genioufly palliated by an excellent artift, Mr Bartolozzi.
“ For (laid he) if the purchafersof the works of Peranezzi,
get fo much for their money in the building way, the
figures may be fuppofed to be given for nothing.”
Doubtlefs thofe vaft piles of periftiing grandeur, were
never more judicioully prefented to the eye, than by
this aftonifhing artift, or better calculated to affeft the
mind by calling forth its molt fublime ideas.
We have another ftriking inftance of fpirited etching
in a different purfuit of the art, in the works of Ridin-
ger, a name which brings along with it all the favage
fcenery of nature.
“ Aflembling wrolves in raging troops defcend.
“ “ i hey faften on the fteed and pierce his mighty
heart.”
Thomson’s Winter.
For we 111all ever find fome peculiar beauty .’to ad¬
mire, even in the flighteft produftions of genius, as well
as in the moil perfeft produftions of the burin.
There are few artifts who do not regret, that etching
was unknown to Bolfwert, who has done fo much with¬
out its aid j from which we may eafily fuppofe how
much more he could have effefted with this charming
acquifftion. For the truth of this remark we may ap¬
peal to his landfcapes from Rubens, his animated por¬
traits from Vandyke, and his produftions from the Fle-
] ENG
milh fchool of hiftory, particularly his large print of the Engraving1..
taking down from the crofs from Rubens. —v 1
There is a fine inftance of linear effeft in a print of
a Flemilh converfation piece by Wille. One of the
figures is drinking out of a glafs, and the artift has moft
deceptively defcribed the texture of the drinker’s face
through the glafs. In the fame print, a female figure
ftiews great Ikill in this way, even the floor is charac¬
terized by lines; and the whole ftrongly marks the moft
pioper mode of treating fubjefts of a mere local nature.
The beautiful print of the Petit Phi/ficien, is alfo an ad¬
mirable imitation, particularly the little pellucid globule
which has juft mounted from the ftiell. When lines are
engraved in a fquare acute method of crofling, they ge¬
nerally convey the idea of hardnefs to the fubjeft repre-
fented. The fcientific Picart feems to have been fo much
aware of this, that in a print of his engraving of a large
marble groupe of horfes, from the animated chiffel of
Perriere, he adopted this ftyle in order to heighten the
imitation.
Mafon’s print of Marfhal Harcourt, is one of the many
fine efforts of portrait engraving ; and although it was
executed at an early period of the art, it abounds with
no fmall degree of tafte. The celebrated print (called
the table-cloth) from Titian, of the Laft Supper, alfo
contains a confiderable degree of linear difcrimination,
although he fometimes carries it to affeftation. He is
rather Angular in his mode of engraving hair. Vet the
portraits of Marfhal Harcomt and Brifafiere the fecre-
tary may be deemed exceptions.
Wille, by the magic of his tooling, is too apt at times
to give his works indifcriminately the appearance of
bronze; and we frequently find the fame in the figures
of Balechow: but it feems to have been referved for
Strange to give the foftnefs of carnation to copper •, and
to Woollet, to give force and clearnefs with difcrimi-
nating tafte. Bartolozzi in his lines elegance delicacy
and drawing; while the works of Audran teem with
boldnefs and fimplicity. In the prints of Sir Robert
Strange, the greateft excellence is perhaps his rich and
harmonious tones, as well as the whole effeft, which is
fupported by an expreflive flyle ; which he feems in a
great meafure to have invented for his moft favourite
painters, Corregio, Titian, Guido, and Guerchino. The
o tnefs, the gufto, and the flowing draperies in the
works of thefe mafters, w-ere his delight. His fleeping
Cupid from Guido, and the prints of the Venus and
Danae from litian, will ever be efteemed as chef
(Pceuvres in the linear art.
r t^liS attemPted to fulfil our original intention
of difcnmmating the moft expreflive combinations of
lines, and of analyzing and illuftrating their various
pmvers and effefts in engraving, we ftiall now conclude
thele obiervations; and if, from the nature of the fub¬
jeft, and from the limits of the fketch, we have failed
m marking every brilliant ftar in the galaxy of the art;
it muft at leaft be acknowledged, that we have not
omitted fome of thofe of the firft magnitude.
Engraving upon Glafs, See Glass, Engraving on.
Engraving
(e) Although we are notv contemplating linear engraving it is but nrrmnr nr .u * t. 11
ST-0’ ^ ^ ample hn^vemin^Xcotn, “ f/S vt'e^efol
ENG
[ H2 ]
E N H
Engravtng.1 EiiQRAriKG on Precious Stones, is the reprefenting
~ • -f of figures, or devices, in relievo, or indented, on divers
kinds of hard poliihed ftones.
The art of engraving on precious ftones is one of
thofe wherein the ancients excelled j there being divers
antique agates, cornelians, and onyxes, which furpafs
,any thing of that kind the moderns have produced.
Pyrgoteles among the Greeks, and Diofcorides under
the firft emperors of Rome, are the moft eminent en¬
gravers we read of •, the former was fo efteemed by-
Alexander, that he forbade any body elfe to engrave
his head} and Auguftus’s head, engraven by the lat¬
ter, was deemed fo beautiful, that the fucceeding em¬
perors chofe it for their feal.
AU the polite arts having been buried under the
ruins of the Roman empire, the art of engraving on
ftones met with the fame fate. It was retrieved in
Italy at the beginning of the 15th century, when one
John of Florence, and after him Dominic of Milan,
performed works of this kind no way to be defpifed.
From that time, fuch fculptures became common enough
in Europe, and particularly in Germany, whence great
numbers were fent into other countries : but they came
ftiort of the beauty of thofe of the ancients, efpecially
thofe on precious ftones j for, as to thofe on cryftal,
the Germans, and, after their example, the French,
&.c. have fucceeded well enough.
In this branch of engraving, they make ufe either
of the diamond or of emery.
The diamond, which is the hardeft of all ftones,
is only cut by itfelf, or with its own matter. Tho
firft thing to be done in this branch of engraving is,
to cement two rough diamonds to the ends of two
flicks big enough to hold them fteady in the hand, and
to rub or grind them againft each other till they be
brought to the form defired. The dull or powder
that is rubbed off ferves afterwards to polilh them,
which is performed with a kind of mill that turns a
wheel of foft iron. The diamond is fixed in a brafs
dilhj and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered with
diamond duft, mixed up with oil of olives; and w-hen
the diamond is to be cut facet-wife, they apply firft
one face, then another, to the wheel. Rubies, fap-
phires, and topazes, are cut and formed the fame way
on a copper wheel, and polilhed with tripoli diluted
in wrater. As to agates, amethyfts, emeralds, hya¬
cinths, granites, rubies, and others of the fofter
ftones, they are cut on a leaden wheel, moiftened with
emery and water, and polilhed with tripoli on a pew¬
ter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, &.c. are polifhed on a
wooden wheel. To fafhion and engrave vafes of
agate, cryftal, lapis-lazuli, or the like, they make ufe
of a kind of lathe, like that ufed by pewterers, to hold
the veffels, which are to be wrought with proper
tools : that of the engraver generally holds the tools,
which are turned by a wheel j and the veffel is held to
them to be cut and engraved, either in relievo or
otherwife j the tools being moiftened from time to time
with diamond duft and oil, or at leaft emery and wa¬
ter. To engrave figures or devices on any of thefe
ftones, when polifhed, fuch as medals, feals, &c. they
ufe a little iron wheel, the ends of whofe axis are re¬
ceived within two pieces of iron, placed upright, as
in the turner’s lathe •, and to be brought clofer, ox fet
farther apart, at pleafure : at one end of the axis are
4
fitted the proper tools, being kept tight by a fcrew. Engraving
Laftly, The wheel is turned by the foot, and the ftone , II
applied by the hand to the tool, and is ihifted and con-
dueled as occafion requires. ■ t ‘
The tools are generally of iron, and fometimes of
brafs; their form is various, but it generally bears
fome refemblance to chifels, gouges, &.c. Some have
fmall round heads, like buttons, others like ferrels, to
take the pieces out, and others flat, &c. When the
ftone has been engraven, it is polifhed on wheels of
hair-brulhes and tripoli.
Engraking on Steel is chiefly employed in cutting
feals, punches, matrices, and dyes, proper for ftriking
coins, medals, and counters. The method of engra¬
ving with the inftruments, &c. is the fame for coins as
for medals and counters r All the difference confifts in
their greater or lefs relievo j the relievo of coins being
much .lefs confiderable than that of medals, and that
of counters ftill lefs than that of coins.
Engravers in fteel commonly begin wdth punches,
which are in relievo, and ferve for making the creux
or cavities of the matrices and dyes : though fome¬
times they begin with the creux or hollownels j but
then it is only when the intended work is to be cut
Very (hallow'. The firft thing done, is that of defign-
ing the figures j the next is the moulding them in wax,
of the fize and depth they are to lie, and from this wax
the punch is engraven. When the punch is finiftied,
they give it a very high temper, that it may the better
bear the blows of the hammer with which it is ftruck
to give the impreflion to the matrice.
The fteel is made hot to (often it, that it may the
more readily take the impreflion of the punch 5 and af¬
ter ftriking the punch on it in this date, they proceed
to touch up or finifti the ftrok&s and lines, where by
reafon of their finenefs or the too great relievo they
are any thing defective, with fteel gravers of different
kinds'^ chifels, flatters, &c» being the principal inftru-
ments ufed in graving on fteel.
The figure being thus finilhed, they proceed to en¬
grave the reft of the medal, as the mouldings of the
border, the engrailed ring, letters, &c. with little fteel
punches, well tempered, and very (harp.
ENGUICHE', in Heraldry, is (aid of the great
mouth of a hunting horn, when its rim is of a different
colour from that of the horn itfelf.
ENHARMONIC, in Mujtc. The Greeks had
three different fpecies of mufic } the diatonic, the chro¬
matic, and the enharmonic. This laft was efteemed by
much the moft agreeable and powerful of the three}
but the difficulty of its execution rendered its duration
ftiort, and latter artifts were upbraided for having fa-
crificed it to their indolence. It proceeded upon lefler
intervals than either the diatonic or chromatic } and as
the chromatic femitone is ftill lefs than the diatonic,
the enharmonic intervals muft have confided of that fe¬
mitone divided into parts more minute. In Rouffeau’s
Mufical Di&ionary (at the word Enharmonique), the
reader may fee how that interval was found in the te-
trachords of the ancients. It is by no means eafy for
modern ears, inured to intervals fo widely different, to
imagine howr a piece of mufic, whole tranfitions were
formed either chiefly or folely upon fuch minute divi-
fions, could have fuch wTonderful effects 5 yet the me¬
lody of fpcech, which rifes or falls by intervals ftill
iRoro
E N N [ i
Enhydnus more minute than the« enharmonic, when properly mo-
FhJI'is dulated and applied with tafte, has an aftonilhing power
—v ' . over the foul. As to the modem enharmonic fyltem,
we may likewife refer the reader to the fame work for
an account of its nature and ufe j though he will find
it accurately and clearly explained by D’Alembert in
the Treatife of Music given in the prefent work, (art.
144. 145. 146.)
ENHYDRUS, in Natural Hi/loryy a genus of fide-
rochita or crullated ferruginous bodies, formed in large
and in great part empty cafes, inclofing a finall quanti¬
ty of an aqueous fluid.
Of this genus there are only two fpecies : u The
thick-fhelled enbydrus, with black, reddilb-brown, and
yellow crufts. 2. The thinner-flielled kind, with yel-
lowiftnbrown and purple crufts 4 neither of which fer¬
ments with aquafortis or gives fire with fteel.
ENIGMA. See Alnigma.
ENIXUM, among chemifts, a kind of natural fait,
generated of an acid and an alkali.
The fal enmun of Paracelfus, is the caput mortuum
of fpirits of nitre with oil of vitriol, or what remains in
the retort after the diftillation of this fpirit; being of
a white colour, and pleafing acid tafte.
ENMANCHE>, in Heraldry, is when lines are
drawn from the centre of the upper edge of the chief
to the fides, to about half the breadth of the chief j
fignifying lleeved, or refembling a fteeve, from the
French manche.
ENNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily, fi-
tuated on an eminence to the fouth of the Chryfas; call¬
ed the centre of Sicily. It was famous for a facred
grove, in which the rape of Proferpine happened j for
a temple of Ceres, thence furnamed Enncea, and En~
nenfs; and for fine fprings, whence the name (Bo-
chart.)
ENNEAGON, in Geometry,, a polygon with nine
fides. See Polygon.
ENNEAHEDRIA, in NaturalHiftory, a genus of
columnar, cryftalliform, and double-pointed fpars, com-
pofed of a trigonal column, terminated at each end by a
trigonal pyramid.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, diftinguiflied
by the length or fhortnefs of the column and pyramids,,
none of which give fire with fteel, . but all of them fer-
Eient with aquafortis..
ENNEANDRIA, in Botany, (from ws*, nine, and
a man or hu/band), the name of the ninth clafs in
Linnaeus’s fexual fyftem, confifting of plants which have
hermaphrodite flowers, with nine ftamina or male or¬
gans. See Botany Index.
ENNIUS, Quintus, an ancient Latin poet,, born
at Rudii, a town in Calabria; He came firft to Rome
when M. Porcius Cato was queftor, whom he had in-
ftnwfted in the Greek language in Sardinia j and by
his genius and behaviour he gained the efteem of the
moft eminent perfons in the city. According to Ho¬
race, Ennius never applied himfelf to writing till he
had drank freely of wine. Hence he contrafled the
gout, of which lie died nine years B. C. He was
interred in Scipio s fepulchre j who had a great efteem
and friendlhip for him, and caufed a ftatue to be erec¬
ted to him upon his monument* He endeavoured to
introduce the treafures of the Greek tongue among
*he Latins, and was the firft among the Romans who
43 1 E n o
made ufe of heroic verfes. He wrote the Annals of Enoch.
Rome; he tranflated feveral tragedies from the Greek ' 'T—
and wrote others, befide feveral comedies. We have
only feme fragments of his works, which were firft col-
lefted by the two Stephens, and afterwards publilh-
ed at Naples, wbth a learned commentary, by Je-
rom Columna, in quarto, 1590 j and reprinted at
Amfterdam in lyoy* in quarto, with additions by
HeiTelius.
ENOCH, the fon of Cain (Gen. ivv I70i honour
of whom the firft; city taken notice of in Scripture was
called Enoch by his father Cam, who built it. It was
fituated to the eaft of the province of Eden.
Enoch,- the fon of Jared-and father of Methufelah,
was born in the year of the world 622. At the age-
of 65 he begat Methufelah, and lived 300 years after,
and had feveral Ions and daughter. Enoch walked
with God j and after that he had lived in all 363 years,
“ he was not, for God took him.” Some conftrue
thefe laft words, as if they intimated that Enoch died a
natural death, becaufe in reality he lived not near f»
long as the other patriarchs of thofe times j as if God,
to iecure him from corruption, had been pleafed to
take him early out of this world. But the generality
of the fathers and commentators aflert that; he died not,
but was tranflated out of the fight of men, in like man¬
ner as Elijah was. The apoftle Paul (Heb. xi. 5.).
fhows very clearly that Enoch was tranflated, and did
not fee death.
Ihe apoftle Jude (ver. 14, 13*) cites a paflage from-
the book of Enoch, which has very much exercifed in¬
terpreters. The queftion is, whether the apoftle took,
this pailage out of any particular book written by E-
noch, which might be extant in the firft ages of the
church ; whether he received it by tradition ; or laftly,
by fome particular revelation. It is -thought probable,
that he read it in the book we have been fpeaking of,
which, though apocryphal, might contain feveral truths
that St Jude, who was favoured with a fupernatural
degree of underftanding, might make ufe of to the edi¬
fication of the faithful.
The ancients greatly efteemed the prophecy of E-
noch. Tertullian expreffes his concern that it was not
generally received in the world.- That father, on the
authority of this book, deduces the original of idola¬
try, aftrology, and unlawful arts, from the revolted
angels,'who married with the daughters of men. St
Auguftin allows indeed that Enoch wrote fomething
divine, becaufe he is cited by St Jude y but he fays it
was not without reafon that this book was not infert—-
ed in the canon which was preferved in the temple at
Jerufalem. This father fufficiently infinuates, that the
authority of this book is doubtful, and that it cannot
be proved that it was really written by Enoch. In¬
deed the account it gives of giants engendered by an¬
gels, and not by men, has manifeftly the air of a fable,
and the moft judicious critics believe it ought not- to be
aferibed to Enoch.
This apocryphal book lay a long time buried irt->
durknefs, till the learned Joieph Scaliger recovered a
part of it. Scaliger, Voflius, and other learned men,
attribute this work to one of thofe Jews who lived be¬
tween the time of the Babylonifti captivity and that of
Jefus Chrift. Others are of opinion, that it was writ¬
ten after th« rile and- eftabliihment of -Ghriftianity, by
one
E N S f 144 ] ENT
^Enormous one of diofe fanatics with whom the primitive church
'' II was filled, who made a ridiculous mixture ol the Pla-
Enfemble tonic philofophy and the Chriftian divinity.
The eaitern people, who call Enoch by the name of
Eelris, believe that he received from God the gift of
wifdom and knowledge } and that God fent him 30 vo¬
lumes from heaven, filled with all the fecrets of the
moil myiterious fciences. The Rabbins maintain, that
wdien Enoch was tranllated to heaven, he was admitted
into the number of the angels, and is the peri'on gene¬
rally known by the name of Michael.
ENORMOUS, fomething exceilive or monftrous,
efpecially in bulk.—The word is formed of the priva¬
tive e, and norma, “ ruleq. d. “ void of, or contrary
to, rule or meafure contra normam. In the corrupt
ages of Latinity they ufed innormis and inormis.
In the French juriiprudence, Icejio enortnis, “ enor¬
mous damage,” is that which exceeds half the value of
the thing fold.
ENOS, the fon of Seth and father of Cainan, was
born in the year of the world 235. Mofes tells us
(Gen. iv. 26.), that then, “ men began to call upon
the name of the Lord j” or, as others tranflate it,
that “ Enos began to call upon the name of the
Lord j” that is to fay, that he was the inventor of
religious rites and ceremonies in the external worlhip
which was paid to God. This worlhip was kept up
and prelerved in Enos’s family, while Cain’s family
was plunged in all manner of irregularities and impie¬
ties. Several Jews are of opinion, that idolatry was at
firft introduced into the world in the time of Enos.
They tranflate the Hebrew thus, “ Then men began
to profane the name of the Lord.” Good men, to
diftinguilh themfelves from the wicked, began to take
upon them the quality of fons or fervants of God ; for
which reafon, Mofes (Gen. vi. 1, 2.) fays that the fons
of God (that is to fay, the defeendants of Enos, who
had hitherto preferved the true religion), feeing the
daughters of men, that they wrere fair, took them waves
of all which they chofe. Enos died at the age of 905
years, in the year of the wmrld 1140.
ENS, among metaphyficians, denotes entity, being,
•or exiitence; this the fchools call ens reale, and ens po-
ftivutn ; to diffinguifh it from their ens rationis, which
is only an imaginary thing, or exifts but in the imagi-
aation.
- ItNS. among chemifts, imports the power, virtue,
and efficacy, which certain fubftances exert upon our
bodies.
Ens, in Geography, a city of Germany, fituated at
the confluence of the Danube and the river Ens, about
80 miles fouth of Vienna. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat.
48. 16.
ENSATiE, in Botany, (from enfs, “ a fword”) j
the name of the fixth order in Linnaeus’s .natural me¬
thod, confiding of plants with fword-lhaped leaves. It
contains the following genera, viz. Antholyza, Cal-
lifia, Commelina, Crocus, Eriocaulon, Ferraria, Gla¬
diolus, Iris, Ixia, Moraea, Pontaederia, Sifyrinchium.
Tradefcantia, Wachendorffa, Xyris. See Botany
Index.
ENSEELED, in Falconry, is faid of a hawk that
has a thread drawn through her upper eye-lid, and made
fall under her beak, to take aw ay the fight.
ENSEMBLE, a French term, fometimes ufed in
3
our language ; literally fignifying together or one 'with Enfiformis
another :—being formed from the Latin in and fmul. Jl
In architedlure, we fay the enfemble, or tout enfemble, ” ' ',
of a building *, meaning the wdiole work, or compofi-
tion, conliueied together, and not in parts j and lome-
times alio, the relative proportion of the parts to the
whole.—“ All thole pieces of building make a fine
enfetnbley
To judge well of a wrork, a ftatue, or other piece of
fculpture, one mult firit examine whether the enjemble
be good. The tout enjemble of a painting, is that har¬
mony which refults from the diftribution ©f the feveral
objects or figures whereof it is compofed.—“ fl his
piefure is good, taking the parts feparately j but the
tout enfemble is bad.”
ENSIFORMIS cartilago. See Xiphoides.
ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner or colours
under which loldiers are ranged, according to the dif¬
ferent companies or parties they belong to. See Flag,
Colours, Standard, &c.
The Turkilh enfigns are horfes tails j thofe of the
Europeans are pieces of taffety, with divers figures, co¬
lours, arms, and devices thereon. Xenophon tells us,
that the enlign borne by the Perlians wus a golden eagle
on a wEite flag j the Corinthians bore the winged
horfe, or Pegalus, in theirs; the Athenians, an owl j
the Meffenians, the Greek letter M ; the Lacedaemo¬
nians the A. The Romans had a great diverfity of en¬
figns ; the wolf, minotaur, horfe, boar, and at length
the eagle, wdiere they flopped : this wras firfl affumed
in the fecond year of the confulate of Marius*. A * See ^agU
military enfign on a medal of a Roman colony denotes
it a colony peopled with old foldiers.
Ensign is alfo the officer that carries the colours,
being the low’d! commiffioned officer in a company of
foot, fubordinate to the captain and lieutenant. It is
a very honourable and proper poll for a young gentle¬
man at his firft coming into the army : he is to carry
the colours both in affault, day of battle, &c. and
ffiould not quit them but with his life : he is always
to carry them himlelf on his left fhoulder : only on a
march he may have them carried by a foldier. If the
enfign is killed, the captain is to carry the colours in
his flead.
Naval Ensign, a large ftandard or banner hoifled oA
a long pole eredled over the poop, and called the enfign-
faff.—The enfign is ufed to dillinguifh the fhips of
different nations from each other, as alfo to charadfenze
the different fquadrons of the navy. The Britifh enfign
in fhips of wTar is known by a double crofs, viz. that of
St George and St Andrew7, formed upon a field which '
is either red, white, or blue.
FNSISHEIM, a town of France, in Upper Al-
face. If 5s a pretty little place, well built, and con-
fifts of about 200 houfes. E. Long. 7. 30. N. Lat.
47- 58.
ENT, Sir George, an eminent Engliih phyfician,
born at Sandwich in Kent in 1604. He was educa-:'
ted at Sidney college, Cambridge \ and, afterwards'
travelling into foreign countries, received the degree
of dodlor of phyfic at Padua. After his return he ob¬
tained great praftice, was made prefident of the col¬
lege of phyficians in London, and at length received
the honour of knighthood from King Charles II. He
was extremely intimate with Debtor Harvey ) whom
ture
II
Entomo-
logy.
ENT [ i
Entabla- lie learnedly defended, in a piece entitled Apologia
ture pro Circulatione Sanguinis, contra JEtnilium Parifanum.
He alfo publidied, Animadverfiones in Malachite Thru-
Jlom; and fome obfervations in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions. Glanville, fpeaking of his Plus Ultra
of the modern improvements in anatomy, numbers
Sir George Ent, Doftor GlifTon, and Doctor Wallis,
with the molt celebrated difcoverers in that fcience.
The two former were among the firft members of
the Royal Society. Sir George Ent died in October
1689.
ENTABLATURE, or Entablement, in Archi-
tefture, is that part of an order of a column which is
over the capital, and comprehends the architrave, frize,
and comiche. See Architecture, chap. i.
ENTABLER, in the manege, the fault of a horfe
whofe croupe goes before his fhoulders in working
upon volts ; which may be prevented by taking hold
of the right rein, keeping your right leg near, and re¬
moving your left leg as far from the horfe’s fhoulder
as poflible.
This is always accompanied with another fault called
aculer. See Aculer.
ENTAIL, in Law, fignifies feetail, or fee entailed;
that is, abridged, curtailed, or limited, to certain con¬
ditions. See Fee and Tail.
ENTE', in Heraldry, a method of marfhalling, more
frequent abroad than with us, and fignifying grafted or
ingrafted.
We have indeed, one inftance of ente in the fourth
grand quarter of his majefty’s royal enfign, whofe bla¬
zon is Brunfwick and Lunenburg impaled with ancient
Saxony, ente enpointe, “ grafted in point.”
ENTEROCELE, in Surgery, a tumor formed by
a prolapfion of the inteflines through the rings of the
abdomen and proceffes of the peritonaeum, into the
icrotum. See Surgery Index.
ENTHUSIASM, an ecftafy of the mind, where¬
by it is led to think and imagine things in a fublime,
furprifing, yet probable manner. This is the enthu-
iiafm felt in poetry, oratory, mulic, painting, fculp-
ture, &c.
Enthusiasm, in a religious fenfe, implies a tranf-
port of the mind, whereby it fancies itfelf infpired with
fome revelation, impulfe, &c. from heaven. Mr Locke
gives the following defcription of enthufiafm. “ In all
ages, men in whom melancholy has mixed with devo¬
tion, or wThofe conceit of themfelves has raifed them in¬
to an opinion of a great familiarity with God, and a
nearer admittance to his favour than is afforded to
others, have often flattered themfelves with a perfuaflon
Entomo-
logy.
45 ] _ ENT
of an immediate mtercourle with the Deity, and fre- Entlmfiaft
quent communications from the Divine Spirit. Their
minds being thus prepared, whatever groundlefs opinion
comes to fettle itfelf ftrongly upon their fancies, is an
illumination from the Spirit of God. And whatfoever
odd action they find in themfelves a ftrong inclination
to do, that impulfe is concluded to be a call or direc¬
tion from heaven, and muff be obeyed. It is a com-
miflion from above, and they cannot err in executing
it. 'Lhis I take to be properly enthufiafm, which,
though arifing from the conceit of a warm and over¬
weening brain, works, when it once gets footing, more
powerfully on the perfuafions and actions of men, than
either reafon or revelation, or both together 5 men be-
ing moll forwardly obedient to the impulfes they re¬
ceive from themfelves.” Devotion, when it does not
lie under the check of reafon, is apt to degenerate into
enthufiafm. When the mind finds itfelf inflamed with
devotion, it is apt to think that it is not of its own
kindling, but blown up with fomething divine within
it. If the mind indulges this thought too far, and
humours the growing paflion, it at laff flings itfelf in¬
to imaginary raptures and ecftafies 5 and when once it
fancies itfelf under the influence of a divine impulfe, no
wonder if it flights human ordinances, and refufes to
comply with the eftabliftied form of religion, as think-
ing itfelf direfted by a much fuperior guide.
EN1HUSIAST, a perfon poffeffed with enthufiafm.
See the preceding article.
ENTHYMEME, in Logic and Rhetoric, an argu¬
ment confining only of two propofitions, an antecedent,
and a confequent deduced from it. The word is Greek,
ndvpnpct, formed of the verb n6v[Mi<r6xt, “ to think, con¬
ceive,” a compound of » and “ mind.”
I he enthymeme is the moft fimple and elegant of all
argumentations; being what a man, in arguing clofe-
ly, commonly makes, without attending at all to the
form. Thus, that verfe remaining of Ovid’s tragedy,
entitled Medea, contains an enthymeme 5 Servare potuiy
perdere an pojfum rogas : “ I was able to fave you } con-
fequently to have deftroyed you.” All the beauty would
have been loft, had all the propofitions been expreffed j
the mind is difpleafed with a rehearfal of what is no¬
wife neceffary.
Sometimes, alfo, the two propofitions of an enthy¬
meme are both included in a fingle propofition, which
Ariftotle calls an enthymematicalfenteuce, and gives this
inftance thereof: Mortal, do not bear an immortal hatred.
The whole enthymeme would be, Thou art mortal; lei
not, therefore, thy hatred be immortal,
ENTITY, the fame with Ens,
E N T O M
T^NTOMOLOGY, (from sfTfljMs?, “ an infeft”, and
. “ a difcourfe,”) is that part of zoology
which treats of infecls.
Many are difpofed to reckon the ftudy of Entomo¬
logy trifling. Hunters of butterflies, and catchers of
gralhoppers, are laughed at by the vulgar, and even by
thofe who are more enlightened. The great numbers
and diverfity of infecls, the beauty and configuration of
Vol. VIII. Part I. 6
O L O G Y.
fome of them, and the Angular inftimfls of others, can¬
not but attract notice, and excite aftonifhmentun thofe
who are fond of contemplating the works'* of nature,
rendering thus the ftudy of Entomology, to them, a
fource of much pleafure: A colleflign of the indivi¬
duals which ccmpofe any of the more numeious genera,
placed at the fame time, before one capable of attend¬
ing to the ftriking fimilarity of the whole, and tracing
T the
146
Definition.
Ileaci, &c.
E N T O M
the diftmgui{lnng peculiarities of each, cannot fail to
create furprife. The great and almoft phantaftic va¬
riety of their forms, the nice adaptation of their parts
•to the fituation in which each happens to be placed,
mult appear truly wonderful. In every department of
nature, which comes within the reach of the human
mind, a plealing and luxuriant variety is difcernible.
The fame fupreme Intelligence, which, by varying the
pofitk>n of the planetary orbs with refpedf to the fun,
and by other feemingly limple but beautiful contri-
tances, hath produced their different length of day and
year, and alternation of feafons, is manifett in the forma¬
tion of the minutett infeft. Each has received that
mechanifm of body, thofe peculiar inftinfts, and is made
to undergo thofe different changes, which fit it for its
deftined fituation, and enable it to perform its proper
functions. The utility of many infefts, fuch as the bee,
the crab, the filk-worm, the cochineal infedt, &c. renders
them both interefting and important 5 and a more intimate
acquaintance with the clafs, may enable us to add to the
number of thofe that are ufeful to man, and to improve¬
ments in the management of thofe already known. The
havock many infedfs make in the vegetable kingdom,
the vexation, difeafes, and deftruftion they occafion
among animals, fiiould induce thofe who are engaged in
agriculture, and in the rearing and management of ani¬
mals, to pay attention to Entomology j for the better
they are acquainted with their enemies, the abler they
muff be to attack them with advantage. ,
Molt inledls undergo three very diftinct changes :
which eircumftance, joined to the very great difference
of appearance which is often met with in the male and
female, and even in the neuters of fome fpecies, renders
their number apparently greater than it really is, and
adds confiderably to the difficulty of reducing them to
order.
Different naturalifts have attempted to arrange them
into families and genera, particularly the celebrated
Linnvf.us, whofe arrangement is followed here. He has
formed them into feven families or orders, compofing his
fixth clafs of animals, Insecta. He defines an infeft, a
fmall animal, breathing through pores on its fides, fur-
niflied with moveable antennae and many feet, covered
with either a hard cruft, or a hairy fkin. Before the
diftinguilhing marks of the orders and genera can be
underffood, it will be neceffary to enumerate and ex¬
plain the terms he has given to the different parts, and
the moft remarkable of the epithets he has applied to
them.
The body is divided into Head, Trunk, Abdomen,
and Extremities.
1. CAPUT, the Head, which is diftinguithable in
moft infefts, is furnilhed with Eyes, Antennce, and moft
frequently with a Mouth.
The Eyes, 2, 4, 6, or 8 in number, deftitute of
eye-lids, are either fmall and fimple; or large, compound
and herrlifpherical-, or polyedral. They are commonly
immoveable. They are called Jlipitati when placed on
a ftalk.
The AhteNNvE are two articulated moveable pro-
ceffes, placed on the head.
They are cither, 1. Setac-ece, fetaceous, i. e. like a
briftle, when they taper gradually from their bafe, or
infertion into the head, to their point.
O L O G Y.
2. Clavatce, clavated, i. e. club-fhaped, when they
grow gradually thicker from their bafe to their point.
3. Filformes, filiform, i. e. thread-fhaped, when
they are of an equal thicknefs throughout the whole of
their length.
4. Moniliformes, moniliform, i. e. of the form of a
necklace, when they are of an equal thicknefs through¬
out, but formed of a feries of knobs, refembling a ftring
of beads.
5. Capitatce, capitate, i. e. with a head or knob, when
they grow thicker towards the point, and terminate in
a knob or head.
6. Fijfiles, fiflile, i. e. cleft, when they are capitate1,
and have the head or knob divided longitudinally hit*
three or four parts or laminse.
7. Perfoliatce, perfoliated, when the head or knob is
divided horizontally.
8. PeEiinatce, peftinated, i. e. refembling a comb,
when they have a longitudinal feries of hairs projefting
from them, in form of a comb.
9. Barbate, barbed, when they have little projec¬
tions or barbs placed on their fides. They are either,
I. Longiores, longer than the body } 2. Breviores ihort-
er than the body j or, 3. Mediocres, of the fame length
with the body.
The Mouth, in moft infefts, is placed in the under
part of the head ; fometimCs however, it is fituated in
the thorax, and in a few inftances, is entirely wanting.
It is furnilhed with, 1. Pa/par, or feelers ; 2. Rojirum,
1. e. beak or fnout ; 3. Labium, or lip 5 4. Maxi lice, or
jaws, placed tranfverfely, and moving laterally; 5,
Delites, or teeth 5 6. Lingua, or tongue ; 7. Palatum,
or palate.
Pa/pce, feelers, wdiich are 4 or 6 in number, are
attached to the mouth, and have 2, 4, or 3 articulations.
The Stemmata are three prominent lliining points on
the top of the head.
II. TRUNCUS, the Trunk, to which the legs are Trunk,
attached, is fituated between the head and the abdo¬
men. It is divided into, 1. the Thorax, or chert, which
is the fuperior part ; 2. Scutellum, i. e. fmall fliield or
efcutcheon, which is the pofterior part j 3. the Breajl
and Sternum, which is the inferior part.
III. The ABDOMEN, that part which contains Asdome*.
the ftomach, inteftines, and other vifeera, confifts of
feveral annular fegments. It is perforated on the fides
with fpiracula, i. e. breathing-holes. The upper part
of it is termed Tergum, or back ; the inferior part Ven¬
ter, or belly •, the pofterior part Anus.
IV. ART US, the extremities, are, 1. the IVings
T rj-f •/ tlCS*
2. Legs \ 3. lail.
I. Al;e, the wings, are two, or four. They are
either,
1. P/ance, i. e. plain, fuch as cannot be folded up by
the infeft.
2. P/icatiles, or folding, fuch as can be folded up by
the infeft at pleafure.
3. EreFtce, ereft, fuch as have their fuperior furfaces
brought into contaft, and ftand upright -when the in¬
feft is at reft.
4. Patentes, fpreading ; fuch as are extended hori¬
zontally.
5. Incumbentes, incumbentj fuch as reft on the upper
part of the abdomen.
6. Deflexa, bent down j fuch as are partly incum¬
bent.
ENTOMOLOGY.
bent, but have their exterior edge inclined towards the.
lides of the abdomen.
7. Reverfce, reverfed ; fuch as are incumbent, but
inverted.
8. Dentatce, fuch as have their edges notched or fer-
rated.
9. Caudatce, fuch as have proeeffes extended from
their extremitres like a tail.
10. Reticulata, netted j when the veflels of the
wings put on the appearance of net-work.
11. Picite, painted ; fuch as are marked with co¬
loured fpots, bands, ftreaks, lines or dots.
1 2. Notatce, marked with fpecks.
13. Ornatcr, adorned with little eyes, or circular
fpots, containing a fpot of a different colour in their
centre. The central fpot is termed pupil; the exterior
'one is called iris. This may happen either in the pri¬
mary or fecondary wings, on their upper or under fur-
faces. The fuperior wing is called primary, and the
inferior fecondary, to avoid confufion, as they may be
at times reverfed.
The Elytra are hard fhells, occupying the place of
the upper wings. They are, for the moll part move-
able, and are either,
1. Truncate, truncated, when fhorter than the abdo¬
men, and terminated by a tranfverfe line.
2. Spinofa, or prickly, when their furfaces are co¬
vered with fharp points or prickles.
3. Serrata, ferrated, when their edges are notched.
4. Scabra, rough, when their furface refembles a file.
5. Striata, ilriated, when marked with llender longi¬
tudinal furrows.
6. Porcata, ridged, when marked with elevated ridges.
7. Sulcata, furrowed.
8. Punctate, marked with dots.
9. Fafigiata, when formed like the roof of a houfe.
Hemelytra. The Hemelytra, as it were half-elytra, partaking
partly of the nature of cruftaceous fhells, and membra¬
naceous wings; being formed of an intermediate fub-
flance.
Halteres. Halteres, or poifers, are fmall orbicular bodies
placed on flalks, fituated under the wings of infedls, of
the order Diptera.
II. Pedes, the Legs. They are divided into, 1.
Femur, or thigh, that part which is joined to the trunk 5
2. Tibia, or fhank j 3. Tarfus, or foot j 4. Ungues,
hooks or nails : 5. Manus, (chela), hands or claws,
fimple, with a moveable thumb, as in the crab.
The hind-legs are termed, 1. Curforii, formed for
running 5 2. Salt at or ii, formed for leaping j 3. Natatorii,
formed for fwimming.
III. Cauda, the Tail, which terminates the abdo¬
men, is, 1. Solitaria, i. e. fingle. 2. Bicornis, i. e. two-
homed or double. 3. Simplex, fimple, i. e. unarmed.
4. Armata, i.-e. furnifhed, 1. with Forceps or Pincers ;
2. with Furca, a fork ; 3. with -one or more Seta or
briflles ; 4. with an Aculeus, or fling, either fmooth or
barbed. A fling is a weapon, frequently hollow, with
which fome infedls are furnifhed, through which they
diicharge a poifon into the wound they inthcl.
^c-,es I he Sexes of infeifls are commonly two, male and
female. Neuters are to be met with among thofe infedls
which live in fwarms, fuch as ants, bees, &c.
T47
Moll infers undergo three changes. An infe£l isMetamor-
at firil hatched from a very fmall egg, and becomes aP*10^
Larva j a foft fucculent animal, without wings, incap¬
able of producing its fpecies, flow in its motions, fome-
times without feet, but more frequently with them;
confuming greedily the kind of food which is peculiar
to it, and which, in proper time, is changed into a
pupa.
Pupa (Nympha, Chryfalis'), is firmer and drier than
the larva, and is confined either by a naked membrane,
or enclofed in a follicle. It is commonly without a
mouth j fometimes it has feet, but more frequently
none.
1. Completa, complete in all their parts, and arrive $
as the aranea, acarus, onifeus, &c.
2. Semicompleta, half complete, with only the rudi¬
ments of wings ; as the gryllus, cicada, cimex, libellula,
and ephemera.
3. Incomplete, incomplete, with immoveable wings
and feet; as the apis, formica, and tipula.
4. ObteRa, covered, having the thorax and abdomen
enclofed in a fkin, and that either naked, or enclofed
in a follicle differently compofed.
5. Coarclata, confined within a globe ; as the mufea,
ceftrus.
The pupa is converted into the imago, or the perfeft
infeft.
Imago, is the perfe£l infe£l, a£live, ftrrnifhed with
antennae, and capable of generating.
Infe£ls are faid to inhabit thofe plants on which they
feed, and not thofe on which they may be occafionally
found, and receive from them many of their fpecifie
names.
Linnaeus has divided the clafs of infe£ls into feven
orders.
I. Coleoptera, (from “ a flieath,” and Clafiifica-
dhfor, “ a wing”), are fuch infedls as have four wings,tlon'
the upper pair of which are elytra, or cruftaceous
fhells, which, when the animal is at reft, fhut, and
form a ftraight future down the back.
II. Hemiptera, (from ipif a half,” and dle^oy, “ a
wing”), containing fuch infedls as have four wings, the
fuperior pair being half cruilaceous, and incumbent,
and a mouth or beak bent toward the breaft.
III. Lepidoptera, (from Aea-o? “ a fcale,” and
ditfoy, “ a wing,” containing fuch infetls as have four
wings covered with minute imbricated feales, a hairy
body, and a mouth furnilhed with an involuted fpiral
tongue.
IV. Neuroptera, (from vivgov, “ a nerve,” and
dltgov, “ a wing”), containing fuch infedls as have
four naked wings, marked with veins crofting one ano¬
ther like net-work ; the tail unarmed.
V. Hymenoptera, (from vftny, “ a membrane,”
and dhgor, “ a wing”), containing fuch infetfts as have
four membranaceous wings, and a tail furnifhed with
a fling.
VI. Diptera, (from Svm), “ two,” and dltfty,
“ a wing”), fuch as have two wings and poifers,
VII. Aptera, (from ec, “ without,” and -dhg»v, “ a
wing”), fuch as have no wings or elytra in either fex.
T 2
CHARACTERS
ENTOMOLOGY.
14$
CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
; .
Goleoptera. I. COLEOPTERA.
The infe&s belonging to this order are formed into four fubdivifions. 1. Thofe that have the antennae clavated, and
thickened towards their exterior fide. 2. Thofe that have the antennae moniliform. 3. Thofe which have the
antennae filiform. 4. Thofe which have the antennae fetaceous.
A. Ant&inis clavatis, extrorfum incraj/atis.
a. Clava larnellata.
1. SCARABiEUS. Tibiae anteriores dentatae.
2. Lucanus. Penicilli duo fub labio, palpigerk
b. Clava perfoliata.
3. DermESTES. Caput inflexum fub thorace, vix
marginato.
4. Melyris. Labium clavatum, emarginatum.
5. Byrrhus. Labium porredlum, bifidum.
6. Sylpha. Thorax et elytra marginata.
7. Tritoma. Palpi anteriores fecuriformes,
S. Hydrophilus. Maxilla bifida.
c. Clava folida.
9. Hister. Caput retra&ile intra thoracem.
10. Pauses. Antennte biarticulatae. Clava uncinata.
11. Bostrichus. Caput inflexum fub thorace, vix
marginato.
12. Anthrenus. Maxilla bifida.
13. Nitidula. Thorax et elytra marginata.
14. Coccinella. Palpi anteriores fecuriformes 5
pofteriores filiformes.
15. Curculio. Roftrum elongatum corneum.
B. Antennis moniliformibus.
16. Brentus. Roftrum elongatum, corneum, rec¬
tum. -
17. Attelabus. Roftrum elongatum, incurvum.
18. EroDIUS. Labium corneum, emarginatum.
19. Staphylinus. Elytra dimidiata, alas tegentia.
Veficulae duse fupra caudam exferendse.
20. ScAURUS. Labium truncatum integrum.
21. Zygia. Labium elongatum, membranaceum.
22. Meloe. Thorax fubrotundus. Caput gibbum,
inflexum.
23. Tenebrio. Thorax marginatus. Caput exfer-
tum. Corpus oblongum.
24. Cassida. Corpus ovatum. Elytra marginata.
Caput tedium clypeo.
25. Opatrum. Thorax et elytra marginata.
26. Mordella. Laminae ad bafin abdominis.
Caput inflexum.
27. ChrysoMELA. Corpus ovatum, immarginatum.
28. Horia. Palpi inaequales. Maxilla bifida. La-
bitttn rotundatum.
A. The Antenna clavated, becoming thicker towards
their exterior fide.
a. The Clava or Club la7nellated.
S. The (hanks of the fore-legs dentated.
L. Two tufts under the lip, to wdiich the feelers are
attached.
b. The Club perfoliated.
D. The head bent under the thorax, which is fcarcc-
ly marginated.
M. The lip clavated and emarginated.
B. The lip ftretched out, and bifid.
S. The thorax and elytra marginated.
T. The two anterior feelers hatchet-fliaped.
H. The jaw bifid.
c. The Club folid.
H. The head capable of being drawn back within
the thorax.
P. The antennae confiding of two articulations. The
club hooked.
B. The head bent under the thorax, which is (light¬
ly marginated.
A. The jaw bifid.
N. The thorax and elytra marginated.
C. The anterior feelers hatchet-ftiaped j the pofterior
filiform.
C. The beak, lengthened and horny.
B. With the Antennce moniliform.
B. The beak elongated, homy and ftraight.
A. The beak elongated and crooked.
E. The lip horny and emarginated.
S. The elytra half the length of the body, covering
the wfings. Two veficles above the tail, which can be
pulhed out at pleafure.
S. The lip truncated, and entire.
Z. The lip elongated and membranaceous.
M. The thorax roundifh. The head gibbous, and
bent inwards.
T. The thorax marginated. The head ftretched out..
The body oblong.
C. The body oblong. The elytra marginated. The
head covered with a (hield.
O. The thorax and elytra marginated.
M. Lamina; at the bale of the abdomen. Head in-
flefted.
C. The body oval, immarginated.
H. Feelers unequal. Jaw bifid. Lip rounded.
C. Antenna
149
ENTOMOLOGY.
C. Antennis JUiformibus.
29. Apalus. Thorax fubrotundus. Caput gibbum,
inflexum.
30. Manticora. Maxillae exfertae, dentatae. Oculi
prominuli.
31. Pimelia. Thorax marginatus. Caput exfer-
tum. Corpus oblongum.
32. Gyrinus. Antennae rigidulae. Oculi quatuor.
33. Cucujus. Labium breve, bifidum, laciniis dis-
tantibus.
34. Cryptocephalus. Corpus ovatum immargina-
tum.
35. Bruchus. Antennae extrorfum crafliores.
36. Ptinus. Thorax caput recipiens. Antennae
articulis ultimis longioribus.
37. Hispa. Antennae porreftae, approximatae, full-
formes. 1
38. BuPREStls. Caput dimidium, intra thoracem
retraftum.
39. Necydalis. Elytra dimidiata, alls nudis.
40. Lampyris. Elytra flexilia. Thoracis clypeus
caput obumbrans recipienfque.
41. Cantharis. Elytra flexilia. Abdomen late-
ribus plicato-papillofum.
42. Notoxus. Labium bifidum j laciniis conniven-
tibus obtufis.
43. Elate R. Pedloris mucro e poro abdominis
refiliens.
44. Calopus. Thorax ad latera mucronato-callo-
fus.
45. Alurnus. Maxilla fornicata.
46. Carabus. Thorax obcordatus, pofterius trun-
catus.
47. Lytta. Thorax fubrotundus. Caput gibbum
inflexum.
D. Antennis fetaceis.
48. Serropalpus. Palpi anteriores profundc fer-
rati.
49. Cerambyx. Thorax ad latera mucronato-cal-
lofus.
50. Leptura. Elytra apice attenuata. Thorax
teretiufculus.
51. Rhinomacer. Antennae roftro inlldentes.
52. Zonitis. Labium emarginatum.
53* Cicindela. Maxillae exfertae, dentatae. Ocu¬
li prominuli.
54. Dytiscus. Pedes pofleriores ciliati, natatorii.
55. Forficula. Elytra dimidiata. Alis testis.
Cauda forcipfta.
Hemiptera. HEMIPTERA.
56. Blatta. Os maxillofum. Alas coriaceae, plan*.
Pedes curforii.
57. Pneumora. Os maxillofum. Alae membra-
naceae, deflexae. Pedes curforii. Corpus cavum, infla-
tum, diaphanum.
58. Mantis. Os maxillofum. Pedes anteriores
lerrati, ungue unico.
59. Gryllus. Os maxillofura. Pedes poiteriores
Lltatorii.
C. Antennce filiform,
A. Thorax roundifli. Head turgid, infle&ed.
M. Jaws ftretched out, furnilhed with teeth. Eyes
rather prominent.
P. Thorax margined. Head ftretched out. Body
oblong.
G. Antennae a little rigid. Eyes 4.
C. Lip fhort, bifid, the divifions diftant.
C. Body oval, immarginated.
B. Antennae growing thicker towards the external
edge.
P. Thorax receiving the head : laft joints of the
antennae longer than the reft.
PI. Antennae ftretched forwards, approaching one
another, and fpindle-lhaped.
B. Head half retraced within the thorax.
N. Elytra half the length of the body. Wings
naked.
L. Elytra flexible. Shield of the thorax {hading
and receiving the head.
C. Elytra flexible. Sides of the abdomen edged
with folded papillae.
N. Lip bifid •, the divifions of it obtufe and ap¬
proaching clofely.
E. A ftiarp point proceeding from the breaft, fpring-
ing out at a pore in the abdomen.
C. The thorax callous at the fides, and fet with fharp
points.
A. Jaw arched. Feelers
C. The thorax refembling a heart inverted, and ter»
minating abruptly behind.
L. Thorax roundifti. Head turgid, inflected,
D. Antenme fetaceous.
S. The anterior feelers deeply ferrated.
C. The thorax callous at the fides, and let with
fixarp points.
L. . Elytra tapering^ towards the tip. Thorax
roundilh.
R. Antennae feated on the fnout,
Z. Lip emarginated.
C. Jaws ftretched out, furnilhed with teeth. Eyesi
a little prominent.
I). Hind-legs fringed, formed for fwimming.
F. Elytra half as long as the body. Wings covered.
Tail furnilhed with pincers.
II. HEMIPTERA.
B. Mouth fumilhed with jaws. Wings coriaceous.,
plane,. Legs formed for running..
P. Mouth fumilhed with jaws. Wings membrana¬
ceous, defle&ed. L.egs formed for running. Body
hollow, inflated, and tranfparent.
M. Mouth furnilhed with jaws. The anterior legs
ferrated, and terminated by a Angle claw.
G. Mouth furnilhed with jaws. Hind-legs formed
for leaping.
60..
150
entomology.
Go. F&LGORA. Roflrum inflexum. Frons produc-
ta, inermis. Antennae capitatae.
61. Cicada. Roftrum inflexuim Pedes pofteriores
faltatorii.
62. Notonecta. Roftrum inflexum. Pedes pofte¬
riores natatorii (ciliati).
63. Nepa. Roftrum inflexum. Pedes anteriores
cheliferi.
64. Cimex. Roftrum inflexum. Pedes curforii.
.Antennas thorace longiores.
65. Macrocephalus. Roftrum inflexum. An-
lennse breviflamae.
66. Aphis. Roftrum inflexum. Abdomen bicome.
67. Chermes. Roftrum pe&orale. Pedes pofteriores
faltatorii.
68. Coccus. Roftrum pe£lorale. Abdomen (mari-
t>us) pofterius fetofum.
69. Thrips. Roftrum obfoletum. Alae incum-
bentes, a^domine reflexile.
F. Snout inflefted. Fore-bead projecting, unarmed.
Antennae capitated.;
C. Snout infledted. Hind -legs formed for leaping.
N. Snout inflected. Hind-legs fringed and formed
for fwimming.
N. Snout infleCted. Fore-legs furnifhed with claws.
C. Snout infleCted. Legs formed for running. An¬
tennae longer than the thorax.
M. Snout infleCted. Antennae very ftiort.
A. Snout infleCted. Abdomen 2-homed.
C. Snout placed in the brealt. Hind-legs formed
for leaping.
C. Snout placed in the breaft. Abdomen (in the.
males) terminating in briftles.
T. Snout obfolete. Wings incumbent. The ab¬
domen capable of being turned up.
Lepidop- in. LEPIDOPTERA.
teta.
70. Papilio. Antennae extrorfum crafliores.
ereCtae.
71. Sphinx. Antennae medio crafliores.
7 2. Phalena. Antennae introrfum crafliores.
III. LEPIDOPTERA.
Alas P. Antennae thicker towards the point. Wings ereCt.
S. Antennae thicker in the middle.
P. Antennae thicker towards the bafe.
Neurop.
tera.
IV. NEUROPTERA.
73. Ltbellula. Cauda forcipata. Os multi max-
illofum. Alae extenfae.
74. Ephemera. Cauda fetis 2 et 3. Os eden-
tulum. Alae ereCtae.
75. Myrmeleon. Cauda forcipata. s bidenta-
•tum. Alae deflexae.
76. Phryganea. Cauda limplex. Os edentulum.
Alae deflexae.
77. Hemerobius. Cauda fimplex. Os bidenta-
tum. Alae deflexae.
78. Panorpa. Cauda chelata. Os roftratum. Alee
incumbentes.
79. Raphidia. Cauda filo 1. Os bidentatum.
Alae deflexae.
IV. NEUROPTERA.
L. Tail forked. Mouth with many jaws. Wings
expanded.
E. Tail with 2 and 3 briftles. Mouth without teeth.
Wings ereft.
Mi Tail forked. Mouth with two teeth. Wings
defleCled.
P. Tailfimple. Mouth without teeth. Wings de¬
flected.
H. Tail Ample. Mouth with two teeth. Wings
defleCted.
P. Tail furniftied with a claw. Mouth ftretched
out into a beak. Wings incumbent.
R. Tail ending in a Ample thread. Mouth with
two teeth. Wings defleCted.
Hymenop- V. HYMENOPTERA.
tera.
80. Cynifs. Acule»s fpiralis !
81. TenthrEDO. Aculeus ferratus 1 bivalvis.
82. Sirex. Aculeus ferratus, fab abdominis fpina
terminali.
83. Ichneumon. Aculcus exfertus! triplex.
84. Sphex. Aculeus punCtorius. Alae planae. Lin¬
gua inflexa, triftda.
85. Scolia. Lingua inflexa, triflda. Labium apice
membranaceum.
86. Thynnus. Lingua breviflima, involuta. La¬
bium trifldum.
87. Leucopsis. Labium maxilla longius, emargi-
natum. Antennae clavatae.
88. Tiphia. Labium breve, corneum, tridentatum.
89. Chalcis. Antennae breves, cylindricae, fufl-
ormes.
90. Chrysis. Aculeus punCtorius. Abdomen fub-
fomicatum.
V. HYMENOPTERA.
C. Sting fpiral.
T. Sting ferrated, two-valved.
S. Sting ferrated, under a fpine which terminates the
abdomen.
I. Sting ftretched out, triple.
S. Sting pungent. Wings fmooth. Tongue inflec¬
ted, and divided into three at the extremity.
S. Tongue infleCted, trifld. Lip membranaceous at
the extremity.
T. Tongue very ftiort, involuted. Lip trifld.
L. Lip longer than the jawr, notched. Antennae
clavated.
T. Lip ftiort, horny, with three fmall diviflous.
C. Antennae ftiort, cylindrical, fpindle-lhaped.
C. Sting pungent. Abdomen arched beneath.
51*
2
Diptera.
Aptera.
E N T O M
91. Vespa. Aculeus punclorius. Alee fuperiores
plicatse !
92. Apis. Aculeus pun£torius. Lingua inflexa!
93. Formica. Aculeus obfoletus. Alas neutris
nullse!
94. Mutilla. Aculeus punflorius. Alae neutris
nullae.
VI. DIPTERA.
A. Probofcide et UauJleUo.
95. Diopsis. Caput bieorne. Oculis terminalibus.
96. Tipula. Hauftellum line vagina. Palpi 2,
porrefti, filifomies.
97. Muse A. Hauftellum line vagina, fetis inltruc-
tum.
98. Tabanus. Hauftellum vagina univalvi, fetif-
que inftruclum.
99. Empis. Probofcis inflexa.
100. Conops. Probofcis porredla, geniculata.
B. Haujlello Jine Probofcide.
101. Oestrus. Haultellum retradlum intra labia,
connata poro pertufa.
102. Asilus. Haultellum reftum bivalve, ball gib-
bum.
103. Stomoxys. Haultellum vagina univalve con-
voluta, ball geniculata.
104. Culex. Vagina exferta, univalvis, flexilis, fe¬
tis 5.
105. Bombylius. Haultellum longiflimum, re£tum,
fetaceum, bivalve.
106. HippoBosca. Haultellum breve', cylindricum,
redtum, bivalve.
VII. APTERA.
A. Pedibus fex, Capite a Thorace difereto.
107. Lepisma. Cauda fetis exfertis.
108. Podura. Cauda bifurca, inflexa, faltatrix.
109. Termes. Os maxillis duabus. Labium cor-
neum, quadrliidum.
110^ Pediculus. Os aculeo exferendo.
in. Pulex. Os roltro inflexo/ cum aculeo. Pedes
laltatorii.
B. Pedibus 8—14. Capite Thoraceque unitis.
112. Acarus. Oculi 2. Pedes 8. Falpi com-
prefli.
113. Hydrachna. Oculi 2—8. Pedes 8, in an-
teriore corporis parte. Papillae textoriae.
114. Aranea. Oculi 8. Pedes 8. Papillae tex-
torice. Palpi clavati.
115. Phalangium. Oculi 4. Pedes 8. Palpi che-
lati.
116. Scorpio. Oculi 8. Pedes 8. Palpi clielati.
117. Cancer. Oculi 2. Pedes 10, prirno clielato.
O L O G Y.
V. Sting pungent. Upper wings folded*
A. Sting pungent. Tongjre infledted.
F. Sting obfolete. Neuters without wings.
M. Sting pungent. Neuters without wings.
VI. DIPTERA.
A. With Probofcis and Sucker.
D. Head two-homed. Eyes terminal.
T. Sucker without a Iheath. Feelers 2, projecting,,
filiform.
M. Sucker without a Iheath, furnilhed with briltles.
T. Sucker with a fingle-valved Ikeath, fumilhed with
briftles.
E. Probofcis infledted.
C. Probofcis projecting, and bent with an angular
flexure.
B. With Sucker, but no Probofcis.
O. Sucker drawn back within the lips, which are
perforated.
A. Sucker ftraight, with two valves, turgid at the
bafe.
S. Sucker with a lingle-valved convoluted Iheath,
bent at the bafe, with an angular flexure.
C. Sheath ftretched out, of one flexible valve, with
5 briltles.
B. Sucker very long, ftraight, fetaceous, with two-
valves.
H. Sucker Ihort, cylindrical, llraight, with twro
valves.
VII. APTERA.
A. Pegs fx. Head diftinci fro?n the Thorax.
L. Tail ending in fetaceous briltles.
P. Tail forked, inflected, elaftic.
T. Mouth with two jaws. Lip horny, cleft into
four pieces.
P. Mouth armed with a fling capable of being pufli-
ed out at pleafure.
P. Snout inflected, armed with a fling. Feet formed
for leaping.
B. Legs 8—14. Head and Thorax united.
A. Eyes 2. Legs 8. Feelers comprefled.
H. Eyes 2—8. Legs 8. Abdomen furnilhed with
papillae, with which the animal fpins thread and weaves
jtfelf a web.
A. Eyes 8. Legs 8. Abdomen furnilhed with
papillce, with which the animal fpins thread and weaves
itfelf a web.
P. Eyes 4. Legs 8. Feelers furnilhed with claws.
S. Eyes 8. Legs 8. Feelers furnilhed with claws.
C. Eyes 2. Legs 10, the firfl pair furpilhed with
claws.,
118,
151
152 E N T O M
iiS. Mo^oculus. Oculi 2. Pedes 12, decern chc-
latis.
119. ONISCUS. Oculi 2. Pedes 14.
C. Pedibus pluribus* Caphc a Thor ace difcreto.
120. Scolopendra. Corpus lineare.
121. Julus. Corpus fubcylindricum.
N. B.—In the following clajjification, fome of the me
•with an ajlerijli ari
O L O G Y. Coleoptera.
M. Eyes 2. Legs 12, 10 of them furniihed with
claws.
O. Eyes 2. Legs 14^
C. Legs numerous. Head dijlincl fro?)i the Thorax.
S. Body linear.
J. Body nearly cylindrical.
■e remarkable fpecies only are enumerated. Thofe ?narkcd
natives of Britain.
I. COLEOPTERA.
Elytra covering the wings.
Scarabsus. 1. Scarabaxs, Beetle.
Anteftnse clavated, the club lamellated. Feelers 4.
Jaws horny, for the moll part without teeth. The
fhanks of the fore-legs generally dentated.
The larvae of the genus fcarabceus have fix feet,
mnd a body compofed of annular fegments, furnifhed
with hairs, and with veficles at the end of the abdo¬
men. Their heads are hard, rormed of a fubftance like
horn. They are commonly called grubs, and do much
mifehief, both in the fields and in the garden. They
live chiefly under ground, or in dung, on which they
frequently feed. The larvae of the fpecies cetonia live
on rotten wood, and thofe of the 7nelolontha on the
roots of plants. The pupa remains under ground.—
Grubs are devoured by many kinds of birds, particu¬
larly by the rooks, which, on that account ought not
to be defiroyed fo eagerly as they are in many places j
for, though they do much mifehief themfelves, in
fpring, and during harveft, yet it is amply compenfated
by the good they do through the year, in clearing the
ground of grubs.
* Feelers filiform,
j- Jaw arched.
a. Without teeth.
N. Thorax horned,
a,. Scutellati.
* hercu/es. A horn on the thorax, large, and bent inwards,
barbed below with one tooth j a horn on the head bent
back, dentated on the upper fide with many teeth.
Stjfi. Nat. Lin. 1. It is a native of America, and va¬
ries in colour, being fometimes black, fometimes azure
fpotted with black. The female is without horns.
*centau- The horn on the thorax bent inwards, with two teeth
rut' at its bafe, and,bifid at the point; the horn on the head
bent back, furnifhed with one tooth. 92.
chorinteus. The horn on the breafl: bent inwards and very thick
at the bafe, bifid at the point; the horn of the head
bent back, very long, bifid. Native of Brafil 96.
rii typheeus. Bull-comber. With three horns on the thorax, the
middle ones fmaller than the reft, lateral ones projecl-
ing as far as the head does, which is without horns. It
is a native of Europe; to be met with under cowy-dung.
It makes its neft in holes, which it digs deep into the
ground. It is black. Head depreffed, hairy at the
£des, narrow. Knob of the antennae grayifh. Thorax
1
fmooth. The horns fometimes as long as the head, and
fometimes twnce as long; in the female hardly vifible.
Elytra ftriated. Shanks hairy. 9. . ^
Thorax with four projections like teeth. The horn molJ}H~
of the head bent back, and moveable. 116. Native corw^'r•
of England and Germany. Black. Elytra ftriated.
Female without horns on the head, or projections on
the breaft. ^ ^
Smooth ; thorax with twTo horns ; horn of the head ‘
notched with one tooth, bifid at the end; elytra fmootb.
3. Native of South America. The largeft of all
known infeCts, except crabs and monoculi. Elytra
black, or azure fpotted with black.
N. Thorax horned.
/3. Without Scutellmn.
Thorax with fix fpines ; jaws prominent; front flop- violaceus,
ing ; body entirely of a violet colour. 117. Native
of Siberia; found under ftones ; fmall. Elytra mark¬
ed with deeply excavated fpots.
Horn of the thorax flat, marked with one tooth on oedipus.
the under fide ; the horn of the head terminating ab¬
ruptly, with three teeth. 119. Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. Middle-fized.
Thorax with three horns, the middle one obtufe,#^«^*
and bifid ; horn of the head ereCt; Afield emarginated.
10. Native of Europe; on dunghills. The female
always without horns on the breaft.
Thorax marked with four projections like teeth -^camelus,
pofterior part of the Afield flightly marked with twx>
horns ; body black. 134. Native of Germany. The
female with nearly the fame marks as the male.
b. Thorax unarmed; Head horned.
a. Furnifhed with a Scutellum.
Thorax prominent, divided into two lobes ; horn of bilobus^
the head fimple ; elytra ftriated, 12. Native of the
fouth of Europe. Black.
A triple prominence on the breaft; horn on the head nafeorniu
bent back; elytra fmooth. 15. Native of Europe;
met with in (kmghills. Its larva gray, with a red-
difti head, feet, and fpiracula or breathing holes.
Swammerdam has fuppofed it to be the coffus of the an¬
cients. Vid. Plin. 17. 24. Thorax of the female
roundifli.
/3. Without Scutellum.
Thorax prominent, formed of two lobes ; horn onjacchus',
the head bent back, and fimple. 156. Native of the
Cape of Good Hope. The horn on the head of the
female very fhort, and terminating abruptly.
Thorax flat, angularly rough ; the horn on the herd carnifex.
bent
Coleoptera. E N T O M
bent inwards j the body of a yellow colour. 22. Na¬
tive of America. During the whole fummer they may
be feen in great numbers, rolling about balls which
they form out of dung. They mutually aiTiit one ano¬
ther to roll them into holes made for their reception,
like the pilularis. Their bodies are broad, and de-
pfelled j the horn on their heads is placed backwards.
It is black, and fmooth. In the female it is effaced.
c. Both Thorax and Head without horns.
a. Furnifhed with a Scute Hum.
Q Jimeta- Dunghill-beetle. Body black \ head marked with
tins. tubercles, commonly three in number •, the elytra red-
difh. 3 2. Native of Europe $ frequently to be met
•vVith in dung.
*J1 erco- Cloch-bcetlc. Body black* fmooth j the elytra fur-
I'arius. rowed; the head of a rhomboidal figure \ fore-head
prominent. 42. Native of Europe ; to be met with
in dung 5 much infelled with fome fpecies of the acct-
rus and ichneumon, and, on that account, frequently
called loufy beetle. It flies about in the evening with
a loud noife, and is faid to foretel a fine day. It was
confecrated by the Egyptians to the fun. It is fome-
times of a greenifh blue colour. It is likewife fome-
times yellowifh below, with dufky-red elytra. This is
the Jhard-borne beetle of Shakefpeare. The female
digs a hole, and kneads a lump of frefh dung, gene¬
rally of a cylindrical fliape, on which die depofits one
egg, and then covers it with 'more dung, attaching it
to the root of fome grafs. In a few days the larva
breaks the egg, and feeds on the frefh dung. During
the autumn it changes its fkin four times.
/3. Without Scutellunu
facer The fhield of the head marked with fix denticula-
tions 5 the thorax notched 5 the ihanks of the hind-legs
fringed ; top of the head marked with two flight pro¬
jections. 18. Native of the fouthern parts of the old
Continent. It is frequent in dry fitUations in the fouth¬
ern parts of RufTia, where it rolls about cylinders form¬
ed of cow-dung. Its figure is carved by the Egyptians
on the ancient pillars at Rome.
pilularius. Black, opaque, fmooth, yellow underneath •, the thorax
rounded behind. 40. Native of the fouth of Europe j
of the fame fize with the loufy beetle. In pairs, they
daily roll, like Sifyphus, a ball made of excrement,
feven times the bulk of their own body.
fvhaefferi. The thorax round ; the fhield emar.-dnated j the ely¬
tra triangular $ the thighs of the hind-legs elongated
and dentated. 41. Native of Italy, Germany, and
Siberia ; to be met with on the funny hills, where it
rolls and buries balls made of cow-dung. It is black.
*fo//br. Thorax retufe; head marked with three tubercles,
the middle one faintly refembling a horn. 31. A na¬
tive of Europe, in fandy places, and in dunghills.
b. Jaw arched, furnifhed with fome teeth ; the point of
the Abdomen naked, and obliquely truncated. Melo-
lonthse.
% Julio. Of a brick colour, and (potted with white. The feu*
tellum with two notches*, the antennae divided into fe¬
ven leaves. 57. It inhabits fandy fituations in Eu-
" rope and Barbary, living on the oak, elymus arenaria,
and arundo arenaria. It is hairy below : the hooks at
the ends of their legs are furnifhed, at their bafe, with
Vol. VIII. Part I.
0 L O G Y.
a crooked branch. It is the largeft coleopterous infeT
to be met with in Britain, except the flag-beetle. It
is but rare in England. __
The head and thorax befet with bluiih hair j the ely-fruticola*
tra of a livid colour 5 the fhield bent back at the top.
236. Native of Germany ; on the ears of rye.
The head and thorax befet with bluifh hairs; the ely- * hortieo*
tra of a brick colour $ the legs black. 59. Native oi/a.
Europe ; to be found in gardens, where its grub proves
very deftrudtive to cabbages, &c. and the beetle to the
fruit-trees.
The thorax hairy 5 the elytra of a livid colour, with agricola.
a black edge, and black band ; the ihield turned back
at the top. 58. Native of Europe, on grafs-fields.
The head and thorax covered with bluifh hairs ; the abdomi*
elytra reddifh ; the abdomen white a hr<ry. \o.nahs.
Native of Europe ; refembles the garden-beetle very
much, and is very deflrudlive.
Of a fliining copper colour; the fhield emarginated. regius*
241. Native of Africa, near the equator.
Green j the fides of the thorax yellow. 249. Avitis.
native both of Europe and America 5 on the vine:
very like the frifehii, differing only from it by the ely¬
tra, which are of a brick colour.
Blackifh yellow ; the elytra of a brick colour. Igo.frfchii.
Is a native of Germany 5 on the vine, and the rofe.
The elytra, fometimes, are of the fame colour with the
thorax.
Above fniooth, and of a golden colour * the fcutel- laetus.
lum, and a line on the back of the thorax, of a blood-
colour. 253. A native of New Zealand.
Door-beetle, May-bug, Cockchafer. Furnifhed with * melolon*
a fcutellum ; without horns j light brown j the thorax tha.
hairy ‘, the tail bent inwards j a triangular white fpot at
each incifure of the abdomen. 60. It inhabits the
northern parts of Europe 5 flies about in the evening,
and feeds on the leaves of trees. It is the moft deftruc-
tive of all the European infefts. When it happens to
be more plentiful than ufual, in the autumn, the vulgar
entertain an opinion, that fome epidemic difeafes are to
fellow. The male is diftinguifhed by a fharp inflected
tail. The grub is gray, with reddifh brown head and feet.
Eats the roots of plants, particularly of corn, frequently
laying wade a great tract of country. They remain fix
years under ground, before they become beetles. Their
thorax varies yearly in colour, from brown to black.
It is furnifhed with a fcutellum, and is without horns \folf\tialis '*
the thorax is hairy \ the elytra are of a pale yellow co¬
lour, marked with three white parallel lines. 61. Is
a native of Europe, to be met with among trees. The
claws at the end of the legs, have one little projedlion,
like a tooth, at their bafe. They make their appear¬
ance fomewhat later thari the May*bug, and are Very
frequent about the fummer folftice.
Body of a brick colour, and woolly below; fhieldvillofus.
marginated, and bent back; fcutellum white. 263.
Native of Europe; of the fame fize with the cockchaf.
fcr.
j-f J’h'id freight.
a. Sharp. Cetonise.
Furnifhed with a feuteilum ; without horns; demurs c r$fi>'
projecting ; fcutellum one half Iborter than the elytra.
49. Native of South America. Of the fame fize and
colour with the golden beetle.
U
Furmflied
LOG Y.
Coleoptera.
154 E N T O M
fafcicula- Fumithed with a fcutelium ; thorax marked with four
tit. fmall white lines j elytra green 5 incifures of the abdo¬
men bearded- 75. Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Covered on the under part of the body w7ith pale red
wool, collefted into little bundles.
o
3. Dermestes, Leather-Eater.
Antennae clavated 5 club perfoliated ; three articulations
thicker than the reft. Thorax convex, ftightly mar-
ginated. Head bent and concealed under the breaft.
b. Jaws Jiraight and blunt. Frifchii.
* fafcia- Furniftied with a fcutellum ; body black, covered
tus. with yellow down } elytra marked with two yellow bands
uniting into one. 70. Native of the north of Europe :
feeding on the flowers of the fyringa, filipendula,
and on feme umbelliferous plants.
'*hemipte- Furniftied with a fcutellum-, thorax downy, edged
rus. with two longitudinal wrinkles •, elytra ftiortened. 63.
Native of Europe. The larva is found in wrood the
beetle on flow'ers. The female is armed with a ftift',
fhort fting.
** Feelers terminating in knobs. Trox.
* fdbub- Furniftied with a fcutellum ; black, opaque, with
Jds, wrinkled tubercles j antennae hairy at the bafe. 48.
Native of Europe. To be met with on fandy hills,
wiiich are expofed to the funftiine.
morticiniu Shield unequal and fringed 5 elytra ftriated, and
marked with convex ftiarpiih points. 404. Native of
Tartary. To be found in great numbers, under dead
bodies, which have been dried by the fun. It makes a
noife, by rubbing its tail againft its elytra. Is of an
opaque black colour j and of the fame fize with fc.
f0JF°r.
*** Feelers cylindrical: the Club of the Anicnme tum-
cated.
hcmifpha- Hemifpherical *, the fore part of the fliield marked
tdcus. with two obtufe projections, 406. Larger than the
fc. facer.
43 2 fpecics of this genus, have been deferibed by
Gmelin, in his laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
2, Lucanus.
Antenna; clavated *, the club comprefled, being broadeft
at the fides, and divided into peftinated leaves. Jaws
llretched out, and forked at the points. Two tufts
under the lip, to which the feelers are attached.
edees.
* cervus.
slaphus.
The jaw's ftretched out, and furniftied with four teeth
at the point. 8. A native of Afia.
Stag-beetle. Furniftied with a fcutellum 5 the jaws
ftretched out, and forked at the points, furniftied with
one lateral tooth. 1. Native of Europe. It is the
largeft coleopterous infedl to be met with in Britain. It
feeds on decayed oak. The larva is white and very
thick, with head and feet of a rufty colour. By fome
fuppofed to be the crajfus of the ancients. The female
fmaller than the male.
The jaws projeciing, furniftied with one tooth, and
forked at the point \ the lip conical and bent down. 9.
Native of Virginia. In the female, wiiich is fmaller
than the male, the jaws do not projedt.
Furniftied with a fcutellum 5 the jaws projedling, and
only forked^ at the point. 2. It is a native of the fouth
of Europe,‘ and North America j about half the fize of
the ftag-beetle.
20 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
btft edition of the Syftem of Nature,
The larvce, or grubs, of this tribe, devour dead bodies,’
fkins, leather, and almoft any animal fubftance ; and
are exceedingly deftrudtive to books and furniture.
* Jaw bifd.
Black ; the fore part of the elytra of an afti colour. *lardarius
1. It is a native of Europe. Sometimes, though rare¬
ly, the anterior part of the elytra is of a rufty colour.
This infedt is the common peft of mufeums, libraries,
and preparations of natural hiftory. It is alfo found in
old bacon, whence it has received its name. When it
is eating, it protrudes balls of excrement from its anus,
which hang down in a firing. The larva is oval and
hairy.
Black } the elytra livid at the bafe, and marked with elongatus.
a band of the fame colour, at the pofterior part; the
antennae and feet of a rufty colour. 2. Native of Eu¬
rope to be met with in old wood j almoft filiform.
Oblong, black *, the elytra marked with a double * undatus.
wdrite linear band. 3. A native of Europe. Feeds
on putrid animal fubftances.
Black 5 the elytra marked with two white fpots. 4. *pellio.
It is a native of Europe. Feeds on fkins, bacon, and
old books. Its larva is oblong, hairy, and furniftied
with a briftly tail.
Oblong, of a rufty colour j with red eyes. 19. Fkss-*paniceus,
tive of Europe. In bread that has been long kept j in
bookbinders glue ; in books, &c. About the fize of
a millet feed. The larva is oblong, white and fhining.
** Jaw furnifhed with one tooth. Apate.
The elytra reticulated, blunted behind and notched ; muricatus.
thorax prickly and turgid. 6. It is a native of South
America •, in wood, and fugar canes.
Of a dufky colour ; the head drawm back ; the 2W.-ruficornis,
tennre and feet reddifh. 70. It is a native of Europe,
and very fmall.
70 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
4. Bostrichus.
Antennae clavated •, the club folid. Thorax convex,
and fcarcely marginated. Head inflefted and con¬
cealed under the thorax.
Black 5 the elytra and abdomen red \ the thorax capucinut,
flattened. 1. It is a native of Europe, and of Siberia.
It is to be found in trunks of trees, paticularly dead
ones, and in houfes.
Of a brick colour } hairy 5 the elytra ftriated, blunt- * typrgra-
ed and notched. 4. It is a native of Europe, mdphus.
America 5 to be met with under the bark of trees. It
is particularly hurtful to the pine tree; very prolific,
and very voracious •, fcooping out furrow's under the bark,
from which other fmaller ones proceed, in a parallel di-
reftion. They are very tenacious of life ; and accord¬
ing to age and fize, vary in colour, from a yellow to a
brown, and from that to black.
Black } the elytra red, and notched. 5. It is a nz-chalcogra-
Xhvzphus.
Coleoptera. E N T O M
tive of Europe j to be found under the bark of trees. It
fometimes varies in colour.
po/ygra- Blackifti j the elytra are fometimes blunted, and of
phus. an azure colour. 6. It is a native of Europe. It
forms winding canals under the bark of trees, and is one
of the moft deftruftive of this genus.
* micro- Of a ruily colour 5 the elytra entire, and of a brick
graphus. colour. 7. It is a native of Europe ; in wood, alfo
within the bark of trees j fmall, black j the elytra, an¬
tennae, and legs, of a brick colour.
* piniper- Black, and fomewhat hairy ; the elytra entire, and
da. black j the feet reddilh. 13. It is a native of Europe ;
on the under branches of pine-trees, which it perforates,
dries up, and deftroys. It fometimes varies in the co¬
lour of the elytra.
22 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syltem of Nature.
5. Melyris.
Lip clavated, and emarginated. Antennae perfoliated
throughout their whole length. Jaw with one tooth,
and pointed.
Hindis. Green •, the elytra marked with three elevated lines.
1. Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
nigra. Black j tbe elytra marked with three ele\ated lines.
2. About the third part of the fize of the preceding
fpecies.
6. Ptinus.
Antennae filiform j the articulations towards the points
larger than the reft. Thorax roundilh, not margina-
ted, receiving the head.
* Feelers clavated. Anobia.
rugofus. Brown j thorax unequal j elytra ftriated. I. It is
a native of Europe ; without fpots, and double the fize
of the fubfequent fpecies.
*pertinax. All over brown. 2. It is a native of Europe ; is
very deftruflive to wooden furniture, particularly to ar¬
ticles made of oak ; likewife to books, &c. When
catchcd, it contrails itfelf and counterfeits death. It
can be put in motion again, neither by pricking, nor any
other means, except by the application of a ftrong heat.
It is deftroyed by the attelahus formicarius.
* mollis. Of a brick colour, with dark-coloured eyes. 3. It
is a native of Europe, amongft rubbiih *, an unwelcome
vifitor in collections of plants, and to be got rid of ef¬
fectually, in no other way, but by the heat of an oven.
The larva is white, and is capable of enduring a great
degree of cold.
#pulfator. Death-watch. Cylindrical, opaque, and much wrink¬
led, fprinkled with gray fpots. 13. It is a native of
Europe. It is common in trunks of old trees, particu¬
larly of the willow, and in houfes. It beats, efpecially
in the night time, making a noife refembling that pro¬
duced by one’s nail {truck againft: a table. This is done
by feven, nine, or eleven diitinCt ftrokes, and has been
confidered, by the vulgar, as foreboding fome fatal oc¬
currence to the family occupying the houfe in which
the noife is heard. But, it is nothing more than the call
of one fex to the other.
O L O G Y. 155
** Feelers filiform^ bifid. Ptini.
Light brown, and almoft: without wings j the thorax * fur.
marked with four projections- like teeth ; the elytra
marked with two white bands. 5. It is a native of
Europe, and is exceedingly deftruCHve to feeds, mufe-
ums, books, furniture, preferved fubjects of natural hif-
tory, and even to the leaves of tobacco. It delights in.
cold and moifture j and is bell kept off by heat and
drynefs, by arfenic or alum. It is moft effectually de¬
ftroyed by corrofive fublimate. The female is without
wings. 1 he larva has fix feet, and is foft, thick, and
hairy. The pupa is enclofed in a glutinous fpherical
covering.
Brown; the thorax fomewhat crenated j the elytra * imperia.
marked with a white blotch, divided into lobes. 4. It is Us*
a native of the north of Europe ; to be found in trees. It
is about the fize of a grain of wheat: the antennee are of the
fame length with the body j the legs are of a rufty co¬
lour 5 the fcutellum white j the elytra marked with a
white fpot, refembling the eagle worn on the imperial
ftandard ; from whence it has recei ved its name.
T he thorax black, and fmooth j the elytra conneCIed, *ficotius.
fliining, brown. 22. It is a native of Europe ; on the
birch.
3 2 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
7. Hister.
Antennse clavated. Clu folid, the lower joint compref-
fed, and bent down. Head capable of being drawn
back into the body. Mouth furnifhed with pincers.
Elytra fhorter than the body. Shanks of the fore¬
legs notched.
Very large. 1. It is a native of India, fimilar Xomaximus.
the unicolor, but ten times larger. The corners of the
thorax rounded •, point of the breaft extended, not quite
up to the mouth.
Black ; the elytra obliquely ftriated. 3. It is a na- * unicolor.
tive of Europe and America 5 in fand, and in dung.
Black •, the pofterior part of the elytra red. 5. Na- * bimacu-
tive of Europe j in cow dung. latus.
1 7 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
8. Gyrixus, Whirler, or Water-fiea.
Antennae cylindrical. Jaw very {harp, and horny.
Eyes four ; two above, and two below.
Thefe little animals are found on the furface of water,
on which they run very nimbly, and deferibe circles.
When attempted to be taken, they dive down, draw¬
ing after them a bubble, refembling a globe of quick-
filver.
Black; faintly ftriated. 1. Native of Europe; in* natator.
lakes and ponds.
Black above; below, of a rufty colour; hind-legs bicolor. ‘
comprefied. 3. Native of Europe ; frequents waters;
is larger than the nalator.
Nine fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
U 2
9. Byrrhus,
iS6 t N T O M
9. Eyrrhus.
Antennae clavated, and perfoliated. Feelers equal, and
fomewliat clavated. Jaw bifid. Lip bifid.
gigas. Black j the elytra of a rufty colour, and marked with
points. 1. Native of Europe. The anus of the fe¬
male furnifhed with a fling.
* pilula. Brown 5 the elytra marked with black grooves. 4.
Native of Europe 5 in fandy places. It is fometimes,
though rarely, black.
* Darius. Black ; thorax of a bright yellow ; elytra brown, and
marked with three fhort green grooves, fpotted with
black. 5. Native of Britain.
Nine fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lall edition of the Syftem of Nature.
lo. Anthrenus.
Antenna; clavated. Club folid. Feelers unequal, filiform.
Jaws membranaceous, linear, bifid. Lip entire.
pimptnelhz. Black ; elytra marked with a white band, and of a
rufly colour towards their points, with a white ftain. 4.
Native of Europe 5 feeds bn the flowers of the pimpi-
nella.
* fcrophu- Black ; elytra fpotted with white j future of a blood-
lar <e. red colour. I. Native of Europe on the fcrophularia.
* mufeo- Clouded ; elytra flightly clouded. 2. Found in
rum. mufeums, deflroying animals preferved in them, and
books.
* verbafci. Black ; elytra marked with three waved bands. 3.
Native of Europe } on the verbafcum.
Seven fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lafl edition of the Syftem of Nature.
11. Sylpha, Carrion-Beetle.
Antennae clavated. Club perfoliated. Elytra margi-
nated. Head prominent. Thorax flattifh, margi-
nated.
Thefe are chiefly found under the loofe bark of trees,
©r on the half-decayed carcafes of animals, upon which
both the grub and the infebl feed.
™ germani-
ca.
' vefpillo.
* quadri-
pujialata.
* quad) i -
mac .data.
*ruJifrons
Oblong, black 5 fhield roundifh, unequal, and mar-
ginated 5 elytra very obtufe, with a rufty coloured
lateral margin. I. Native of Germany. There are
many varieties of this fpecies. They depofit their eggs
in the carcafes of other infects, which they bury under
ground.
Oblong, black ; fhield almoft fpherical and unequal;
elytra marked with a double rufty-coloured band. 2.
Native both of Enrope and America.—There are many
varieties of this fpecies. In America, fome of them are
ten times larger than thofe in Europe. They frequent¬
ly have the fmell of mufk, and fly very quickly, with
their elytra ere£t, and applied clofe together. They are
much infefted by the acarus, and depofit their eggs in
the carcaffes of other infers, which they bury.
Black, oblong ; elytra marked with two rufly fpots.
5. Native of Europe and America, in decayed wood $
very fmooth } the larva oblong, gray and hairy.
Red j thorax and elytra black ; the latter marked
with two red fpots. 27. Native of Europe.
Oblong, fmooth, black j the front, the legs, and two
O L O G Y. Coleoptera.
fpots on the elytra, of a rufly colour. 41. Native of
England. Antennae black club reddifh 5 thorax
fmooth, without fpots j elytra fmooth.
Blackifhy elytra wrinkled, and marked with three * rugofa.
elevated lines j thorax wrinkled and fcolloped behind.
16. Native of Europe and Afia. It confumes dead
bodies, either flefh or fifh. When catched, it vomits a
very foetid fluid.
94 fpecies of this genus are defcribed by Gmelin, in
the laft edition of the Syflem of Nature.
12. Nitidula.
Antennae clavated. Club folid. Elytra marginated.
Head prominent. Thorax a little flattened, and
marginated.
* Lipfquare. Elophori.
Brown j thorax wrinkled, which, together with the * aqualica,
elytra, are of a brownifh yellow. 1. A native of
Europe, in flagnant waters ; very fmall, and frequently
to be found among the conferva.
Brown } thorax wrinkled, and of the colour of brafs} * minuta.
elytra pale. 4. To be found in England, in flagnant
waters j very fimilar to the aquatica, but only the third
part of its fize.
* * Lip cylindrical.
Oval, black j elytra marked with a red dot. g.* bipufla-
It is a native of Europe ; and feeds on animal fub- lata.
fiances.
Black; elytra of a dulky colour at the point. 16.* difcoidca.
Native of England.
30 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the laft
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
13. Opatrum.
Antennae moniliform, thicker towards the outfide.
Elytra marginated. Head prominent. Thorax fom&-
what flat, and marginated.
Of an afh-colour ; thorax flat, and marginated;grifeutrU
elytra marked with three elevated lines, and dentated
behind. 1. Native of Italy, larger than the fabu-
lofum.
Brown ; thorax emarginated ; elytra marked with * fabulo-
three elevated lines, and dentated. 2. Native of Europey^m.
and North America, in fandy plains.
Brown; thorax and elytra hairy. 16. Native olmonilicorns
Europe ; not quite half an inch in length.
Of a light brown colour ; eyes, thorax, elytra, and tefaceum.
antennae dark brown. The bafe and tips of the latter
are reddifh ; the elytra marked at the bafe with a large
brick-coloured fpot, refembling a crefcent; the thorax
impreffed with two dots.
22 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the laft
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
14. Tritoma.
Antennae clavated. Club perfoliated. Feelers, anterior
pair hatchet-fhaped.
Black ; the elytra marked with a lateral fcarlet line.* bipujln.
1. Native of England, to be met with in thofe fpecies/a/«w.
of boletus which grow on trees.
Smooth,.
Coleoptera. E N T O M
glabrum. Smooth, black ; the antennae and legs of a dark
colour. 2. Native of the north of Europe, to be met
with under the bark of trees. It fomewhat refembles
the bipujlulatutn.
Seven fpecies of this genus are defcribed by Gmelin
in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
15. Cassida.
Antennae moniliform. Elytra marginated. Head con¬
cealed under the Ihield of the thorax.
* viridis.
murraca.
* nobilis.
fajiuofa.
jatnaicenjis
fuperba.
Green. 1. Native of Europe •, frequently met with
on thirties, and on a variety of plants. The larva is
deprerted, and fumiftied with fix feet ; it is armed with
acute lateral prickles, and has a tail formed of two
briftles. It walks about covered with its own ex¬
crement.
Black, with a red Ihield ; the elytra of a blood-
colour, fprinkled with black dots. 2. Native of Europe 5
to be met with on different kinds of plants.
Gray •, the elytra marked with a very bright blue
line. 4. Native of Europe \ to be met with on thirties
and vaiious plants. The bright blue line on its elytra
difappears when it dies, but reappears on its immerfion
into warm water.
Black ‘y elytra reddilh yellow, fpotted with black.
52. Native of Europe, but rare. It is to be met
with on the white poplar, is about the fame fize with
the nobilis, and, like it, lofes its bright colour along with
its life.
Of a bright gloffy yellow colour ; the elytra, without
fpots, are marked with fmall concave dots. 21. Native
of America. At the anterior part of the future, there
is a prominence forming a bunch on its back. It lofes
its colour in fpirits of wine, and recovers it again on be¬
ing immerfed into warm water.
Black •, elytra and Ihield dotted, and of a golden green
colour 5 antennae, abdomen, and legs green. 39. Native
of Europe. It lofes its golden colour at the fame time
with its life.
This genus contains 77 fpecies.
16. Coccineixa, Lady-bird.
Antennae clavated. Club folid. Feelers, the anterior
pair hatchet-lhaped j the pofterior filiform. Body
hemifpherical. Thorax and elytra marginated. Ab¬
domen flat.
* The Elytra red or yellow ; marked with black dots.
marginata. The elytra yellow, without fpots, with a black mar¬
gin ; . the margin of the thorax marked with two white
dots. Sometimes the elytra are red, with a black edge
the margin of the thorax marked with a white dot on
each fide. 1. Native of America, of a middling fize.
immacula- Elytra yellow, without fpots ; thorax marked with
ta% a black fpot, and two white dots. 155. Native of
Europe.
* bipunc- Elytra red, marked with two black dots. 7. Native
tata. of Europe 5 frequent in gardens and woods; feeding on
aphides.
* quadri- Elytra yellow, marked with four black dots. 9.
punBata. Native of Europe. Of a middle fize ; black below j
thorax yellow, wnth four black dots ; feet yellow.
* quinque- Elytra of a blood colour, marked with five black
punBata. dots. II. Native of Europe *, to be met with on trees.
o l o G Y. 157
Elytra red, marked with feven black dots. 1$.*feptem-
Native of Europe. The dots on the elytra are placed/>««<5?a.
in the form of a triangle. This infeft, as well as
fome others of the coleopterse, is faid to poffefs the pro¬
perty of giving immediate and effectual relief in the
moft violent paroxyfms of the toothache, by rubbing
them between the finger and thumb, and applying the
finger to the affedted tooth.
Lady-cow. Elytra red, marked with fix black fpots 5 *fextnacu*
the four anterior ones tranfverfe and arched. 68. It lata.
is a native of India. Head whitifti j thorax white be¬
fore with a black fpot, black behind j future red j body
pale yellowilh.
The elytra yellow j with 12 black dots and a blzckivariegata.
band in the middle. 86. It is a native of the Cape
of Good Hope j of a middle fize.
The elytra tawny, with a great number of h\a.ck. centum*
dots, many of them running together. 118. It is npunSlata.
native of India, about three quarters of an inch long.
* * The Elytra red or yellow, marked with white.
The elytra red j marked with 14 white, and threepundato-
black dots. 32. A native of Europe j differing guttata.
haps, only in fex, from the deccmpujlulata.
Elytra yellow, marked with 15 white fpots j the quindecem-
middle one, common to both elytra, almoft effaced., 1 guttata.
A native of Europe.
Elytra yellow •, marked with 16 white fpots. $$.fedecem-
Native of Europe. guttata.
* * * Elytra black, marked with red.
Elytra black, without dots, but marked with red at analis.
the points. 129. It is a native of Europe, very like
the hcemorrhoidalis, but only'half its fize.
Elytra black, their points red, marked with a black
band. 130. It is a native of Germany. It is frequent-
ly marked on the back with a red dot common to both
elytra.
Elytra black, marked with two red fpots. 41. It caBi.
is a native of America \ on the caBus, and is frequently
gathered along with the cochineal infeft. It is very
fimilar to the bipujlulata, which is common in Europe.
Elytra black, marked with two red fpots ; abdomen * bipujlu-
of a blood-red colour. 42. It is a native of Europe,/^,
common in gardens. Each of the fpots on the elytra is
compofed of three fpots uniting into one.
* * * * Elytra black, fpotted with white or yellow.
Elytra black, marked with eight yellow dots, ^.pantherina
Native of the north of Europe.
Elytra black, marked with eight yellow dots, the tveo burner alts
anterior ones hooked. 146. A native of Europe.
163 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin.
17. Alurnus, Rove-beetle.
Antennae filiform. Feelers, fix j Ihort. Taw, horny 5
arched.
Black thorax fcarlet \ elytra yellow. 1. It is agrojfus-. .
native of America and India. Antennae black, half as
long as the body 5 thorax a little rough, pointed on
each fide at the bafe ; the hind margin black 5 fcutellum
rounded, black •, elytra larger and longer than the
body.
Yellowilh .
158 E N T O M
ferhoratus. Yellowifh green, i\ith a metallic luftre j the thighs
and fhanks of the hind-legs dentated. i. It is a native
of India. It is large, fmooth, and fhining j the anten¬
nae are half as long as the body ; the extreme articula¬
tions are black.
dentipes. Black j the thighs and (hanks of the hind-legs
dentated. 3. Native of the Cape of Good Hope. It
is fmooth, without fpots, and very fimilar to the al. fe-
moratus.
There have been only three fpecies of this genus de-
fcribed.
* tenebri-
aides.
* gottin-
genjis.
vittala.
lujitamca.
* Icnkjii.
htcmor-
rhoidalis.
* gr a minis
* ccnea.
* hamopte-
ra.
centaurei.
mclarojlo-
rna.
polite*
18. Chrysomela.
Aptennae moniliform. Feelers fix, growing thicker to¬
wards their exterior (ides. Thorax marginated ;
elytra not marginated. Body (in mod of the fpecies)
oval.
This numerous and beautiful tribe is found every¬
where, in woods and gardens. Their motion is (low,
and fome of them when caught, emit an oily fluid of a
difagreeable fmell. The larvae of this and the next
family feed on the leaves of trees and plants, the fibres
and cuticle of which they leave, contenting themfelves
with the pulp.
* Thighs of the Hind-legs equal.
Without wings, black ; antennae and legs of a violet
colour. 1. It is a native of the fouth of Europe. The
larva has a bunch on its back, of a violet colour, with
a red anus \ it feeds on a variety of vegetables.
Black 5 the legs of a violet colour. 4. It is a native
of Europe, very rare in England.
The elytra blue, with a yellow edge, and marked with
a yellow (tripe in the middle. 3. It is a native of Ame¬
rica ^ very large.
Thorax of a copper colour ; elytra refembling brafs ;
impreffed with bluhh dots, of a violet-colour underneath.
74. Native of Portugal.
Of a brafs colour above, and of a brick colour be¬
low. 76. Native of Italy and Portugal, fmaller than
the preceding fpecies. Very rare in England.
Black, fhining ; anteimte yellow at the bafe *, anus
red above. 6. Native of Europe, on the birch and
alder. The elytra are marked with regular lines
of dots.
Greeni(h-blue, very (hining ; the antennae and legs of
the fame colour. 7. Native of Europe, on different
plants, efpecially on grabs.
Green, Alining; the extremity of the abdomen reddifli.
8. Native of Europe ; on the alder.
Of a violet-colour j feet and wings red. 11. Native
of Europe.
Of a bright copper-colour ; beneath green and gold ;
the legs of a bright copper colour. 102. Native of
Europe, on the centaureus. It exhibits fome variety,
efpecially in fize.
Oblong, black ^ head red, the mouth and a fpot on
the back part of the head black 5 the thorax red, with
a black fpot on each fide ; the elytra red, with a black
future. 254. Native of Europe.
Thorax gilt; elytra reddifli. 27. Native of Europe ;
to be met with on the poplar and willow.
Black ; the elytra fmocth ; marked with red waved
4
0 L O G Y. Coleoptera.
crofs bands, and with fpots of the fame colour. 182.
Native of South America.
Blackifli-blue ; the elytra blackifli-yellow, marked * anglua.
with dots arranged in ftraxght lines ; wings red. 187.
Native of England.
* * The Thighs of the Hind-legs thickened, and formed
for leaping. Alticoe.
Of a greenifli-blue. 51. Native of Europe. It* oleracea.
feeds on different kinds of plants, particularly on thofe
of the clafs tetradynamia. This is the little infeeff which
is fo troublefome in fields and gardens, commonly called
turnip-fiij. It attacks turnips, raddifties, and cabbages,
when newly fprung above ground, and confumes their
feminal leaves. It frequently deffroys whole fields of
turnips, fo completely, as to render a fecond fowing ne-
ceflary, which goes like the firft. The attempts may
be repeated with fimilar fuccefs, till the feafon for fow¬
ing be loft.
Blackifh blue, the head and four fore-legs yellow. 53. chryfoce-
Native of Europe. ~ pliala.
_ Greenifti blue ; the legs teftaceous; the thighs of the hyofeyami,
hind-legs of a violet-colour. 54. Native of Europe ; on
the henbane, turnip, and cabbage.
Black ; the elytra marked with four reddifh fpots. * quadri-.
217. Native of England and France, in gardens. pujlulata.
Black ; the elytra and lower part of the legs pale.*at>glica~
2x8. Native of England, on various forts of vtee-na.
tables.
Greenifti yellow, with a, metallic luftre ; legs black. * nigrtpes.
220. Native of England.
Of a violet-colour; head and thorax reddilh ; legs * fufeipes.
black. 224* Native of Britain, on plants of various
forts.
Teftaceous, hunch-backed ; elytra very fmooth. 225.* tefacea.
Native of England, on different kinds of vegetables.
Blackifti yellow; oblong, with black legs. 2^6.crucifera*
Native of Europe, on tetradynamious plants. rum.
270 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed by
Gmelin in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
19. Cryptocephalus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four. Thorax marginated.
Elytra not marginated. Body nearly cylindrical.
* Feelers equal, filiform.
f Jaw furnifhed with one tooth.
a. Lip entire, Body cylindrical.
Bulky black ; the elytra pale, marked with three black longipes.
blotches ; fore-legs very long. 1. Native of Europe, on
the hazel and wallow.
Black ; the elytra red, marked with two black dots; * quadri-
the antennae (hort and ferrated. 3. Native of Europe,
very common on the hazel. The larva is contained in
a rough bag ; which, on the fore-part, is terminated
obliquely and abruptly.
Of an obfeure brafs colour; the elytra of a brick colour, longima-
with a black fpot at the bafe. 19. Native of Europe ^nus.
feeds on the trifolium montanum, and the euphorbia cypa-
rifia ; the fore-legs are very long ; the larva is enclofed
in a bag. *
I borax variegated ; elytra reddifh, marked with twocordiger.
black dots. 25. Native of Europe, on the hazel and
willow.
cruentata.
Cokoptera. E N T O M
willow. The fpot on the middle of the thorax is fome-
times of the Ihape of a heart.
* vilis. Black} fmooth } elytra reddifh. 27. Native of the
fouth of Europe } on the vine, committing fometimes
great havock.
coryll. Black } thorax and elytra reddifh brown, without fpots.
28. Native of Europe } on the hazel.
b. Lip bijid; Body oblong. Ciflelae.
gigas. Hairy, brown ; elytra, abdomen, and thighs of a brick
colour, pi. Native of the fouth of France; very
large.
* cervims. Livid ; with brown legs. 92. Native of the north
of Europe.
rufitarjis. Black ; thorax fcjuare ; elytra ftriated and of a brick
colour. 96. Native of the fouth of Europe ; on the
ears of rye.
*fulphu- Yellow ; the elytra of a fulphur colour. 98. Native
reus. of Europe. Feeds on umbelliferous plants.
* murinus. Black ; the elytra and legs reddiQi brown. 103. Na¬
tive of the north of Europe.
* angufa- Thorax and elytra of a dark reddith colour, black in
tus. the middle. 106. Native of Britain ; fomevvhat i»e-
fembling the murinus, but narrower.
* pallidas. Pale ; the head, and tips of the elytra, brown. 107.
Native of Britain.
f f jaw bifid. Body oblong. Criocerides..
lineola. Gray; the thorax marked with aline behind; the
elytra with a black dot at their bafe. 124. Native of
Italy.
nymph ass. Brown ; the margin of the elytra a little prominent
and yellow, 1 25. Native of Europe, on the water-
lily.
tenellus. Of a rufty colour, the edge of the thorax and elytra
yellow. 133. Native of Europe, on the willow.
* cantha- Of a violet colour ; head, thorax and legs reddifh.
roides. 139. Native of Britain.
* cyanella. Blue; thorax cylindrical ; prominent on the fides.
161. Native of Britain.
melanopus. Blue; thorax and legs reddifh. 162. Native of
Europe. Feeds on the oak.
* fubfpino- Black ; head and thorax fomewhat prickly ; feet red-
fus. difh. 164. Native of Britain.
* afparagi. Thorax red, marked with two black dots; elytra
yellow ; marked with a black crofs, and four black
dots. 167. Native of Europe, feeding on afparagus.
There are two or three varieties of this fpecies. (1. With
two fpots on the elytra connedled at the bafe, is to be
met with in Italy, y. With two narrow red bands
on the elytra, is to be met with in France.
* phcllan- Black ; the edge of the thorax and twm lines on the
dril. elytra yellow. 168. Native of Europe; to be found
at the roots of the phellandrium aquaticum.
* * Feelers unequal, the anterior ones hatchet-jhaped.
f The Lip of a fubfance like horn. Erotyli.
gi^antcus. Oval, black ; the elytra marked with a great many
tawny dots. 191. Native of India.
venereus. Black ; the thorax and elytra of a bright copper
colour. 205. Native of New Holland.
O L O G Y. 159
f f The Lip membranaceous. Lagriot.
Black; the thorax red and hairy. 221. Native of* elonga-
Europe, particularly of England. tus.
Smooth ; thorax reddiih; elytra yellow. 230. Na- * glalra~
tive of England. * tus.
/
268 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftemof Nature.
20. Hispa, Blojfom-eater.
Antennae cylindrical ; approaching one another at the
bafe, and placed betwyeen the eyes. Feelers fpindle-
fhaped. Thorax and elytra frequently prickly.
Body entirely black ; antennae fpindle-fhaped; thorax * atta.
and elytra prickly. 1. Native of the fouth of Eu¬
rope and north of Africa. To be found at the roots of
grafs.
Without prickles ; the antennae hairy. 4. Native * mu tic a-..
of Europe; in rubbifh and in mufeums.
Antennae ferrated ; thorax red ; elytra blue ; head * cornige-
furnifhed with two horns. 15. Native of Britain. ra.
Black ; the antennae pe&inated ; the elytra dripped. * fab elli~ -
19. Native of England. cortiis.
20 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the.
laft edition of the Syllem of Nature.
21. Bruchus, Glutton.
Antennae filiform. Feelers equal and filiform. Lip
. pointed.
The elytra black, fpotted with white!; the anus white, * pfi.
with two black fpots. 1. Native of North America.
It has been lately introduced into Europe, where it
commits great havock in the fields of peas. It is alfo
very deftruftive to orchards wdien in bloom.
Gray, fomewhat fhining ; the elytra very little fhort- robinia.
er than the abdomen. 9, Large ; and has been in¬
troduced into Europe, along with the feeds of the robinia
pfeudacacia from America.
Black ; the elytra red, marked wdth raifed ftripes. * fcabro-
II. Native of Europe, chiefly on the horfe-chefnut.///j.
Body brown, fpotted with gray. 13. It feeds on cacao.
the feeds of the theobroma.
The elytra gray , fpotted wdth black; legs red ; theolroma-
fcutellum white. 2. Feeds on the feeds of the theo- tis.
broma.
Afh coloured ; elytra browm ; with a black dot at bipunSla-
the bafe ; furrounded by a yellow circle. 17. % Native tar.
of Switzerland, on different plants.
Elytra black ; fpeckled with white; the thighs of * granari-
the hind-legs are marked with a Angle projection re- us.
fembling a little tooth. 5. Native of Europe. Feeds
on the feeds of various plants.
Black ; the bafe of the antennae and fore feet reddifh *feminari-
brown ; thighs fmooth. 6. Native of Europe, on us.
flow'ers ; very fmall.
25 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syltem of Nature.
22. Pauses,.
Antennae confifting of two articulations, clavated. Club
folid and hooked..
1.
l6o
tmeroce-
pha/us.
oblonga.
chryfome-
lina.
fiava.
himacula-
tus.
barbicor-
nit.
anchorage
E N T O M
l. It is a native of North America \ entirely black,
the head very fmall, the thorax narrow, with an ele¬
vated tranfverfe margin on the fore-part} the elytra ter¬
minated abruptly by a tranfverfe line, and a little long¬
er than the abdomen ; which is likewife terminated ab¬
ruptly. It is about the fize of the dertnejles lav-
darius.
23. Zygia*
Antennae moniliform. Feelers unequal, filiform. Lip
elongated, membranaceous. Jaw furnilhed With one
tooth.
Oblong, reddifhy head and elytra of an bbfeure bliie.
1. Native of the eaft.
O L O G Y. Coleoptefsl.
deftruftive in granaries and to feeds of almofl every de-
feription. They infmuate themfelves into the grain,
and confume it gradually, leaving nothing but the fkin,
in which they lie concealed, and undergo their meta-
morphofxs. Thofe with the fhort fnout infefi: artichokes,
and the ftalks and leavres of plants. The leaves of many
trees, particularly the elm, may be ieen marked with
yellow fpots, occafioned by the larvae of this tribe infinu-
ating themfelves within the cuticle of the leaf, and form¬
ing a bag, in which they lurk, till they come forth a
perfect infect,
* Lotig-fnouled.
f Thighs Jimple.
24. ZoNITIS*
Antennae fetaceons. Feelers four, filiform; fhorter than
the jaw, which is entire. Lip emarginated.
Yellow 5 the elytra marked with a black dot in the
middle and at the bafe. 1. Native of Egypt. Black
below ; the extremity of the abdomen reddiih.
Reddilh ; the elytra yellow and black at the tip. 2*
Native of the eaft.
25. Apalus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers equal 5 filiform. Jaw horny j
furnifhed with one tooth. Lip membranaceous j ter¬
minating abruptly, and entire.
Furnifhed with wings •, black, the elytra yellow,
marked with a black dot behind :■ formerly melocbi-
maculatus. Native of the north of Europe 5 to be feen
early in the fpring, in fandy places.
26i Brentus.
Antennae monilifortii, advancing beyond fthe middle of
the fnout. Mouth fumifhed with a ftraight, cylin¬
drical fnout, which projefts confiderably.
* Thighs fimple.
Cylindrical fnout very long, bearded beneath ; the
elytra lengthened out and elevated, i. Native of New
Zealand. Snout longer than the body } antennae fhort¬
er than the fnout, placed near the tip \ eyes globular,
black \ thorax cylindrical, black with gray hairs ely¬
tra ftreaked and dotted, with furrowed fpots; legs black,
with gray hairs.
* * Thighs dentated.
Linear 5 the elytra ftriped with yellow : thorax
lengthened. Native of South America and India#
This genus includes 1 i fpecies.
27. Curculio, Diamond-beetle *
Antennae clavated, placed upon the fhout, which is
formed of a horny fubftance, and prominent. Feelers
four, filiform.
This beautiful and numerous genus is divided into
five fubdivifions: their larvae have a fcaly head, and fix
fcaly legs. Thofe of the long-fnouted ones are niofl:
3
The thorax and elytra rough. Antennae white "zX-gigaii
the tips. Native of Japan. Snout cylindrical, long,
arched, brown on the fore part, of an afti-colour be¬
hind •, thorax rounded, brown, rough, with raifed fharp
points; elytra rough, gray, with fcattered brown and
wdiite dots.
Black ; thorax flat and dotted, with a line flightly brachy-
elevated ; elytra fhortened and fomewhat ftripped j the pteros.
intervals dotted. 555. Native of Europe.
Black $ the elytra marked with white dots fet in regu - undatus*
lar rows, and with white interrupted waved bands.
356. Native of Europe.
Scarlet $ the elytra marked with ten rows of dots, coccineust
558. Native of Europe.
Black ; the elytra of a violet colour ) the fcutellum cyaneust
white. 5. Native of Europe, particularly on the wil¬
low.
Black above*, afh-cbloured below, and hunch-back-
ed. 6. Native of Europe ; feeds on the feeds of the
vetch 5 it is very fmall.
Gray *, the elytra and legs reddifh brown. 101. Na-*> ntalvtSi
tive of England, on the mallow. The fnout and abdo¬
men black. /
The fnout and thorax red *, the elytra of a violet rohoris.
colour. 103. Native of Europe, on the oak.
Black *, with the abdomen oval. 13. Native of the acridulus.
north of Europe, frequently to be met with on plants
of the clafs tetradynamia.
Of a blood-colour. 15. Native of Europe, andfrumenta <
very deftruftive to corn which has been long kept. rius^
Black j the thorax dotted, and of the fame length oryZce,
with the elytra j the elytra marked with two red fpots.
This fpecies is very deftru&ive to rice kept in gra¬
naries.
Weevil ox Bond. Black *, the thorax dotted, and of* granari^
the fame length with the elytra. 16. This deftmeliye us%
little animal does much mifehief in granaries, and in
bifeuit kept in ware-houfes, or on fhip-board. Woad,
henbane, and elder, are faid to drive them away from
grain which has been infefted by them, and, on that
account, is fometimes mixed with the grain.
The elytra of a brick colour, with cloudy bands. 19. *
Native of Europe $ in the bark of the pinus fyl-
vejiris.
Black, fprinkled with green : fnout black and bent, cytiarce.
foinewhat refembling a keel. i2i. Native of Africa,
and the fouth of Europe : on the flowers of the arti¬
choke. . t *
Cylindrical and afh-coloured j the elytra fet with t>araplec
{harp ticusi
Coleoptera. E N T O M
fliarp points. 34. Native of Europe $ on umbellife¬
rous plants, particularly on the phellandrum aquaticum j
' in the ftalks of which the larva is frequently lodged,
and is fuppofed to be the caufe of the llaggers in
horfes.
Vardance. Cylindrical j covered with a gray down j the fore¬
legs long. 152. Native of Europe, on the burdock.
When old, it lofes the gray down, and becomes fmooth
and black.
bacchut. Of a bright copper-colour j fnout and feet black. 38.
Native of the fouth of Europe, on the vine and hazel.
Somewhat hairy above.
frugilegus. Oblong j of a chefnut colour $ the elytra equalling
the thorax, markdS with four red fpots. Native of
South America and India. It is fmall, and very de-
ftrudive to grain.
f f Hind-thighs thickened. Saltatorii.
* quereus. Pale yellow $ eyes black. 25. Native of Europe j
on the willow, elm, and oak, the leaves of which it
frequently covers with blotches, by infinuating itfelf
within the cuticle. It is about the lize of the pediculus
humanus.
fegetix. Body black j elytra oblong. 45. Native of Eu¬
rope j on the ears of corn.
f f f Thighs dentated.
aterrimus. Black j the elytra Alining, x o. Native of Europe j
very frequent on plants of different kinds.
* ceraji. Black ; the elytra opaque and oblong. 11. Native
of Europe j on the leaves of the cherry and pear-tree,
the cuticle of which it eats.
*pomorum The thighs of the fore-legs dentated $ body gray,
clouded. 46. Native of Europe, on the flowers of
fruit-trees.
* caligmo- The ftreaks of the elytra approaching one another,
fus.A and dotted. 243. Native of Britain, but rare. Body
oblong, entirely black, opaque 5 thorax rounded and
punctured ; elytra with deep approximate ftriae in pairs $
thighs fharply dentated.
* germs- Black; the thorax marked with two reddifh dots
nus. on each fide. 58. Native of Europe j very common
in Germany. It is amongft the largeft of this genus
that is to be met with in Europe.
* nucum. Body gray, of the fame length with the fnout. 59.
Native of Europe 5 frequently to be found in hazel-nuts.
*fcrophu- The elytra marked with two black fpots fituated
laris. near the future. 61. Native of Europe j on the fig-
wort, the capfules of which the larvae confume, and fub-
ftitute in their place brown follicles.
* * Brevirojlres.
f Thighs dentated.
fpe&abilis. The body variegated with green and black. 298.
Native of New Holland.
fufco-ma- Black *, the thighs faintly dentated 3 the thorax and
culatus. elytra fmooth, fpotted with brown. 301. Native of
Europe j large, fmooth.
ovatus. The abdomen oval and black 3 the legs and antennae
reddifh. 69. Native of Europe 3 in orchards.
* pyri. Yellowifh-brown. 72. Native of Europe. The
larva feeds on the leaves of the pear-tree 3 the perfefl
infedl ore the flowers of the pear and of the plumb.
The colour varies 3 fometimes it is bronzed, red, green,
Vol. VIII. Parti.
O L O G Y. 161
&c. 3 legs reddifh 3 body covered with oblong fcales
of various colours 3 elytra ftriated, punctured.
Downy, brown 3 the thighs acutely dentated 3 anten- * malL
nae and legs brownifh. 308. Native of Europe 3 on
the apple-tree.
ff Thighs fmooth.
The thorax marked with lines 3 the elytra of an ■zStx-polygoni.
colour, marked with little brown lines 3 the future
brown, dotted with black. 26. Native of Europe 3
on the polygonum.
Above, brownifh-gray 3 beneath, afh-coloured 3 * grifeus.
fnout grooved. 335. Native of Britain.
Blackifh 3 the elytra gray, marked with two white * trigutta-
fpots, and with a larger one behind, which is common/ax.
to both elytra. 336. Native of Britain.
The elytra marked with black elevated flripes, and imperialis.
with bright green and gold dotted furrows alternately,
fwelling out at their bafe, and drawing to a point at
their tips. 349. Native of South America. It is
very large, and the mofl beautiful infedt hitherto
known 3 commonly known by the name of the diamond-
beetle.
Body green, filky, flriped with broad gold bands, regalis.
75. Native of South America. The thighs brown,
marked with a golden ring.
Oblong, brown j the back part of the thorax flat. * incanus.
81. Native of Europe 3 common in fir.
616 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syflem of Nature.
28. Rhinomacer.
Antennae fetaceous, placed upon the fnout. Feelers
four, thicker towards their exterior fide.
Covered with gray down 3 antennae and legs black, curculioi-
1. Native of Italy. des.
Covered with black hair 3 antennae and legs reddifh. attelaloi-
2. Native of Europe 3 in pine-forefts. des.
Blue, fomewhat hairy 3 bafe of the antennae and the t&rult us.
legs yellow. 3. Native of Europe.
Only three fpecies of this genus have been defcribed.
29. Attelabus.
Head drawn to a point on the hind part, and inclined.
Antennae moniliform, the articulations towards the
point thicker than the reft.
* Jaw bifid.
Black, the elytra red and reticulated. 1. Native * coryli.
of Europe 3 on the leaves of the hazel, which it rolls
up into cylinders and fhuts up at both ends.
Black 3 legs formed for leaping. 7. Native of* betuls.
Europe 5 on the leaves of the birch, which it renders
beautifully curled by its gnawing. It leaps very nim¬
bly.
* * Jaw furnijhcd with one tooth.
f The poferior feelers hatchet-fhaped. Cleri.
Black 3 the elytra marked with three white bands, mutillarius
and red at the bafe. 19. Native of Europe.
Black 3 thorax reddiih 3 elytra red, white at the bafe, * formica*
X . andr/w.
*62 E N T O M
and marked with two white bands. 8. Native of
Europe : it deitroys the ptinus pertinax and many other
infefts.
* apiarius. Bluifh j the elytra red, marked with three black
bands. 10. Native of Europe and America. The
larva is frequently to be met with in bee-hives, the
perfeft infeft on flowers. It is double the hze of the
formicarius.
f f Feelers four*, nearly Jlliform. Spondilides.
ceratnboi- Black ; the elytra full of wrinkles, and broader than
des. the thorax. 12. Native of Europe, in the boletus
fomentarius.
buprejloi- Black ; the elytra very much ribbed } the thorax al-
des. moft globular. 13. Native of Europe, in woods.
There are 34 fpecies of this genus.
30. Notoxus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, hatchet-fhaped. Jaw
furniflied with one tooth.
* mollis. Downy; the elytra black, marked with three pale
bands. 3. Native of Europe ; on flowers.
* monoce- Thorax projefting over the head like a horn ; ely*
ros. tra pale, marked with a black band and dot. 4. Na¬
tive of Europe, on umbelliferous plants.
There are four fpecies of this genus.
31. Cerambyx.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers four. Thorax prickly or
turgid. Elytra linear.
This is a very beautiful and finely variegated family.
The larvae refemble foft, oblong, {lender worms, with
a fcaly head and hard legs on the fore-part. They
bore through the inner part of trees, pulverifing the
wood, and are transformed into perfeft infefts in the
cavities they make. Many of them diffiife a ftrong
fmell, perceivable at a great diflance ; and fome, when
taken, utter a fort of cry, produced by the friction of
the thorax on the upper part of the abdomen and ely¬
tra.
* Feelers four, equal.
a. Filiform.
f ’javo cylindrical, entire. Prioni:
a. The Thorax furnifhed with moveable fpines.
■ trochlearis The elytra variegated with a dark colour and white,
with raifed dots. 2. Native of India.
longima- The elytra marked with a fmall projection at their
nus. bafe, and with two at the tip ; the antennae long.
1. Native of South America. The {hanks of the fore¬
legs, in the male, are very long.
b. Thorax marginated.
cefvicornis The thorax with three little projections on each fide ;
the jawTs ftretched out, and furnilhed with one fpine on
their outfide ; the antennae fhort. 3. Native of
. America. The larva is found in the w7ood of the bom-
bax. It is eatable, and reckoned a delicacy by the na¬
tives. »
O' L O G Y. Coleoptera.
The thorax furnilhed with four fmall projections onarmillatus.
each fide ; the elytra rufty-coloured, edged with black ;
the thighs of the hind-legs marked with a little projec- *
tion. 4. Native of India; very large. . . _
Thorax furnifhed with very fmall projections; thedam'icornis
jaws ftretching out, and fumifhed with two teeth the
antennae fhort. 86. Native of South America, ihe
larva is eaten by the natives, and much relifhed.
The thorax wrinkly and marked on each fide with zfabcr.
fmall projection '; the elytra black ; the antennae of a
middling length. 6. Native of Europe ; in wrood.
Thorax marked with three fmall projections; body * cortarius
black ; the elytra furnilhed with {harp points ; antennae
Ihorter than the body. 7* Native of Europe ; on de¬
cayed birch-trees. It produces large, oblong, yellowilh
eggs-
f f Jaw obtufe, furnijhed with one tooth. Cerambyces.
Thorax prickly ; elytra formed like the roof of a nebulofus.'
houfe, marked with black bands and dots; the anten¬
nae longer than the body. 29. Native of Europe ; in
the Items of fir-trees, wrhich it kills by confuming the
inner bark.
Thorax prickly ; elytra entire, marked with x\\xeefafcicu/a~
prickly dots ; the antennae of the fame length with the tus.
body. 106. Native of Europe.
Thorax prickly ; elytra whitifh at their anterior part, * hifpidus.
and furnifhed with twro fmall projections at their tips;
the antennae of the fame length with the body, and
rough. 30. Native of Europe.
Green fhining; thorax prickly ; antennae blue, tm&*mofcha
of the fame length with the body. 34' Native oitus.
Europe; on the willow7. The colour of the antennae
and legs varies from a blue to browm. Ihe living in-
feCt has a fmell of mufk, which is faid to have a fopo-
rific effeCt. It produces white eggs. _ The green co¬
lour of this infeCt is fometimes tinged with blue, and at
other times it is entirely blue and gold. 'Ihe fmell it
diffufes, is imagined by fome to refemble the fmell of a
rofe, and frequently pervades a w-’hole meadow, where
the infeCt happens to be plentiful.
Black ; the thorax prickly and wrinkled ; the elytra heros.
fomewhat prickly and reddifh browm : antennae long.
128. Native of Europe ; on the oak.
f t f Jaw divided.
* Horny. Lamiae.
Thorax prickly; elytra black, with rufly-colouredfutor.
fpots ; fcutellum yellow; antennae very long. 38.
Native of Europe ; in woods.
Black ; thorax prickly ; fcutellum bright yellow factor.
elytra without fpots ; antennae very long. 159. Na¬
tive of Europe ; larger than the preceding fpecies.
Thorax prickly; elytra black and convex; antennae
of the fame length with the body. 41. Native of
Europe ; on trunks of trees.
Black ; thorax fomewhat prickly ; elytra afa-colour-fuliginator
ed; antennae fhort. 43. Native of Europe. When
old, it becomes entirely black. It is met with in wool,
after it has been ctit from the fheep.
Thorax prickly, and marked with green bands ; the regalis.
elytra fprinkled with green, with threeatawny fpots. 167.
Native of Africa. Antennae longer than the body,
black ; head beneath lined with green; a tawny fpot
und$r
Coleoptera. E N T O M
under tlie eyes; tliorax black, with three impreffed
green bands j elytra fomewhat ilriated j black fprinkled
with green j abdomen with a white line ol tawny dots
on each fide.
* * Membranaceous. Sayerdse.
carcharias Thorax fmooth, cylindrical j body gray, dotted, with
black 5 antennae of the fame length with the body. 52.
Native of Europe.
cardui. Of a duiky colour j thorax marked with lines j fcu-
tellum yellow ; antennae long. 56. Native of Europe j
on thiftles, injuring them much in the month of May.
Body brown, fpeckled with yellow j thorax marked
with three yellow lines.
* populne- Thorax without fpines, cylindrical, yellow, . and
us, marked with lines; elytra marked with four yellow
dots ; antennae of the fame length with the body. 57.
Native of Europe j on the poplar. Body brown $ an¬
tennae variegated with black and wThite.
* cylindri- Cylindrical black •, fore-legs yellows 5. Native
cui. of Europe j on the pear and plum-tree.
/3. Feelers capitated. Rhagia.
curfor.
* anglicus.
inquiftor.
elegans.
Thorax prickly *, elytra obtufe and reddilh, marked
with a black line, and black along the future j antennae
of the fame length with the body. 45. Native of
Europe.
Thorax prickly; elytra marked with two oblique
yellow bands. 237. Native of Britain.
Black ; thorax prickly 5 elytra clouded with brick-
coloured ttripes j antennee fhorter than the body. 49.
Native of Europe, on the trunks of trees. The larva
has fix feet, and is naked j white ; head and collar
homy, brown 5 back grooved.
Black; thorax with a fpine on each fide ; elytra
chefnut-coloured ; their bafe future, and a fpot on each,
are black; they are likewife marked with twn yellow
bands. 242. Native of Europe.
y. Feelers elevated. Callidia.
* rujlicus. Thorax naked ; body pale ; the antennae tapering,
* and Ihorter than the body. 67. Native of Europe}
in woods.
luridus. Thorax naked and furniflied with knobs, black ; the
elytra of a brick colour. 68. Native of Europe j in
fir-woods.
* violaceus ^'he thorax fomewhat downy *, body of a violet co¬
lour 5 antennae Ihorter than the body. 70. Native of
Europe j chiefly in fir-timber, which has been cut down
fome time, and which has not been dripped of its bark.
It bores ferpentine cavities between the bark’ and the
vvood, which are larger in diameter as the infedt in-
creafes in fize, filling the fpace it leaves behind with its
excrement, which refembles fawT-duft. Body dark vio¬
let, a little hairy ; antennae hardly as long as the body,
hairy j fternum with a fmall projecting point 5 elytra
linear, rounded at the tip, turgid at the bafe. It varies
in having the head and thorax, and even the body, green-
ifh.
* bajulus. Thorax hairy, marked with two protuberances ; body
brown. 76. Native of Europe, on the trunks of trees,
in timber, in houfes, perforating the joifts, particularly
thofe that have been formed of fir-timber.
O L O G Y.r 163
* * Feelers unequal; the anterior pair Jiliformr the pqfle-
rior clavated. Stenocori Fabrieii.
Thorax flightly prickly j elytra formed like the roof * mtridia-*
of a houfe j the anterior part of them reddilh brown ; mis.
the bread Alining. 47. Native o'. Europe. Male of a
brick colour, female blackilh ; larva lives under ground,
and has very long legs.
379 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
32. Calofus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four 5 the anterior ones cla¬
vated ; the poderior filiform. Thorax turgid. Ely¬
tra narrow, and of an equal breadth throughout their
whole length.
Brown ; the antennae comprefied. 1. A native of* ferratU
Europe ; it is long, and cylindrical. cornis.
Very fmall, brown } the antennae ferrated and hdiry.pygnueus.
3. A native of Europe ; about the fize of a flea.
There are three fpecies deferibed in the lad edition,
of the Sydem of Nature.
33. Leptura.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers four, filiform. Elytra
growing fmaller towards the tip. Thorax fomewhat
tapering.
* Lip entire. Donacia of Fabricius.
Of a golden colour j the thighs of the hind legs cla- * aquatica,
vated and notched. 1. A native of Europe ; on aqua¬
tic plants, on the water-lily, phellandrum aquaticum,
at the roots of which the pupa may be found enclofed
in brown globes. The thighs of the hind-legs are fome-
times without notches. Antennae blackifli, the joints
pale, reddifn at the tip 5 head with a little down on the
middle } thorax grooved 5 elytra dreaked, dotted, and
terminating abruptly, with Ihort appendages at each ^
margin ; body beneath downy j legs dull, brownifli red.
Of a golden colour the thighs fimple. 17. A na- * Jimp lex.
tive of Britain ; on aquatic plants.
Shining green golden colour ; the elytra marked with nitida.
dotted dreaks and with crenated wrinkles, likewife
with a bright purple and green fillet j the abdomen,
antennae, and legs, of a golden colour ; the thighs of the
hind-legs notched. 88. A native of Europe.
Silvery green ; the elytra marked with dotted dreaks, vulgaris.
crenated wrinkles, with a broad green and purple fillet
common to both elytra ; . the head, abdomen, and legs,
of a golden colour; the thighs of thet hind-legs without
notches. 89. A native of Europe.
* * Lip bifid. Lepturae.
A. The Thorax on the fore part fomewhat oblong and
narrow.
Black} the elytra reddilh, with a black dot in t\\e unipunSla^
middle. 22. A native of Europe. ta-
Black •, elytra red, black at the tips - and at the fu- hafata.
ture. 23. A native of Europe. The abdomen is
reddiflr in the male, which is fmaller than the female.
X 2 . v 1 ' Black
1
Coleoptera,
164
me\anura>
entomology.
* rubra.
* villica.
fplcndida,
ruffes.
Black j the elytra reddilh or livid, black at the tips
and at the future. 2. A native of Europe \ the elytra
are black at the tips in the male, in the female they are
all of one colour.
Black j the thorax, the elytra, and (hank of the legs,
purnle. 3. A native of Europe 5 on flowers.
Of a rufty colour; the antennae, elytra, and breaft,
dark brown. 28. A native of Britain.
Black ; covered with yellow hairs; the elytra fmooth
at the tips ; the legs tawny j antenna? brown, and of a
rufly colour at the bafe. *49. A native of Europe.
Black ; the legs reddifli 5 the thighs red at the bafe.
52. A native of Europe j frequently to be met with
in the month of May, on the buckthorn, the dog-wood,
and hawthorn.
B. The Thorax nearly globular, and not attenuated on
its anterior part; the Elytra blunt at the tips, but not
truncated.
* Virginia. The thorax globular and black ; the elytra of a reddifli
colour j the abdomen reddifli. 15- A native of Eu¬
rope.
* collarisj, The thorax globular and red 5 the abdomen red j
and the elytra black. 16. A native of Europe.
bipartita. Black 5 the thorax of a rufly colour, marked with a
longitudinal black line j the elytra marked with a rufty-
coloured fpot, common to both of them. 71. A na¬
tive of Europe.
nitens. The thorax globular, which, well as the abdomen,
is of a fliining black, covered with a yellow down j the
elytra black, marked with four broad tranfverfe yellow
bands j the legs of a rufly colour. 67. A native of
America.
ico fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin, in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
34. Necydalis, Carrion-Eater.
Antennae either fetaceous or filiform. Feelers four,
filiform. Elytra fmaller, fhorter, or narrower than
the wings. Tail Ample.
* Antennae fetaceous ; Elytra Jhorter than the wings or
abdomen.
* major. The elytra of a rufty colour, without fpots j the anten¬
nae fhorter than the body. I. A native of Europe.
* minor. The elytra reddifh brown, with a fmall line at the top
the antennae larger than the body. 2. A native of
Europe.
* umbella- The elytra of a brick colour, without fpots j the anten-
tarum. nae long. 3. A native of Europe j on umbelliferous plants.
* * Antennae filiform ; the Elytra growing narrower
towards the tips, and of the fame length with the ab¬
domen.
* viridiffi- The thorax fomewhat tapering y body green. 13.
A native of Europe y very frequent in gardens.
The elytra black, yellow at the bafe. 18. A. na-
tive of Britain.
Black y the thorax and elytra reddifh brown y the latter
are black at the tips. 20. A native of Europe y on
plants of different kinds.
26 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature*
35. Lampyris. Fire-Fly.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four. Elytra flexible.
Thorax flat, hemifpherical, furrounding and conceal¬
ing the head under it. The fides of the abdomen
furnifhed with folded papillae. rIhe female in moft
of the fpecies without wings.
* Feelers nearly clavated.
Glow-worm. Oblong, brown-, fhield afti-colourcd.*nofliluca.
I. A native of Europe ; in woods and meadows. The
female is larger than the male, and emits a beautiful
phofphoric light, for the purpofe of attrafting the male.
It is apparent that their fliining light depends on a fluid
placed near the extremity of the abdomen-, the light be¬
comes brighter, and of a finer green colour, when the
infeft is in motion. The little animal can withdraw the
light at pleafure by contracting itfelf. Though the in-
fect be bruifed, the light continues for a confiderable
time.
Dufky black; the fhield marked, on both fides, with corufca.
a circular rofe-coloured fpot. 2. A native of North
America.
Oblong, browm-, the fhield refembling glafs at thefplendidula
tip. 3. A native of Europe j in woods. This has been
thought only a variety of the noBiluca y it is peculiarly
refplendent in fhowery w-eather. The female emits the
brighter light, particularly when pregnant.
The fhield reddifh, and black in the middle y xhzpyralis.
elytra black, with a white edge y the abdomen white.
4. A native of the fouth of America.
Yellow j the third fegmentof the abdomen from thejaponic a.
anus is black. 22. A native of Japan j very plenti¬
ful in the months of May and June j diffufing a very
ftrong light from two fmall bags at its tail, filled with
air y eyes, antennae, and wings black.
The elytra brown 5 the thorax tranfverfe, red. W.italica.
A native of Italy and Switzerland y on trees y lefs than
the reft of the genus y brown y the laft two fegments
of the abdomen yellow y the breaft and legs pale yel¬
low y the female black.
mus.
* humira-
tis.
mehntira.
* #
Feelers nearly filiform.
Black y the fides of the thorax and elytra of a blood fanguinea,
colour. 17. A native of Europe -, in ftony ground.
Black y the thorax and elytra of a brick colour y zn-peBinicor*
tennse pe61inated. 34. A native of Europe. nis.
Black y the thorax and elytra of a blood colour, and * coccinea.
without fpots. 18. A native of Europe -, in hedges *,
head fometimes reddifh, the elytra fometimes ftriated.
* * * Feelers with the lafi joint thicker than the refi,
and terminating abruptly. Lyci.
Yellow y elytra with a black marginal fpot, and black lati/fima,
behind, the lateral margin very much dilated. 14. A
native of Sierra Leona. Mouth cylindrical, prominent y
body narrower before, and very wide behind y antennae
ferrated.
Black y thorax orbicular, and with the elytra red,a/ra.
marked with an impreffed black fpot on the back. 44.
A native of Europe.
Forty-four fpecies-
36.
C oleoptera.
E N T O M
36. Horia.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers four, thicker towards
their outer fide. Lip linear, rounded at the tip.
tejlacea. R eddifii •, antennae and legs black. 1. A native
of Tranquebar ; the kind thigh of the male thickened,
and grooved beneath, and marked with a little projec¬
tion.
dermejloi- Reddifli brown $ eyes, wings, and breaft black. 2.
des. A native of Europe. *
There are only two fpecies of this genus defcribed.
*
37. Cucujus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, equal j the lafi articu¬
lation terminating abruptly, and thicker than the
reft. Lip ftiort, bifid 5 the divifioas linear, and dif-
tant from one another. Body depreiTed.
muticus. Thorax unarmed, black, with an impreffed dot on
each fide; elytra ftriated, brown. 2. A native of
Europe j black.
tejlaceus. Of a brick colour 5 thorax nearly fquare, unarmed j
thighs comprefied. 3. A native of Europe, under the
bark of the birch tree.
quadratus. Black j the thorax fquare, notched behind, marked
with tubercles in the middle, and wrinkled on the ex¬
ternal edge, clavated on the anterior part 5 the antennae
• brown; the legs and elytra fimple and reddiih. A
native of Europe.
Eleven fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
38. Caktharis.
Antennae filiform. Thorax (for the moft part) mar-
ginated, and fhorter than the head. Elytra flexible.
Sides of the abdomen edged with folded papillae.
* Teelers four, hatched-Jhaped.
marginella.
media.
hccmato-
Jioma.
biguttata.
cardiacce.
biflrio.
This is an extremely rapacious genus, preying on
other infefts; and even on its own tribe ; thofe of the
divifion lymexylon only, both in the grub and perfect
ftate, feed on green wood.
Thorax red, with a black fpot; elytra brown. 2.
A native of Europe ; in hedges; moft rapacious, and
devouring its own fpecies.
Reddifh; the abdomen black and marginated;
the back part of the head, eyes, and breaft yellow.
73. A native of Europe.
Brown; the thorax, head, bafe of the antennae, the
fides and tip of the abdomen, and the legs reddifti. 14.
A native of Europe.
Black; mouth and abdomen red. 75. A native of
Europe.
The middle of the thorax black; the elytra fhorten-
ed, black and yellow at the tip. II. A native of
Europe ; in groves and gardens.
The thorax fomewhat marginated ; body black ; an¬
tennae pedftinated; the elytra marked with a blood-colour¬
ed dot at the tip. 13. A native of Europe ; on the
leonurus cardiaca.
Black; the thorax, the bafe of the antennae, pof-
o l o G Y. 165
terior bafe of the fegments of the abdomen, and legs
yellow, with a brown fpot on the thorax. 82. A na¬
tive of Europe.
* * Feelers filiform, the lafi articulation fetaceous. Ma-
lachii.
Bright greenifti yellow; the upper furface of the * cerca-,
elytra red. 7. A native of Europe; on plants. It is
furnilhed with two tentacula at the bafe of the abdomen,
of a blood colour, blunt, and connedled at the bafe; like-
wife two on the thorax which can be ftretched out.
There is a fmaller variety, with the elytra wholly of a
blood colour.
Bright yellowifh green; the elytra red at the tips. * bipufiu-
8. A native of Europe. lata.
Black; the thorax and tips of the elytra red. ?>(i.h<gmeroi-
A native of Europe. dales.
Thorax red, emarginated ; elytra blue and fmooth ; cryfomiloi-
antennae and legs black. 63. A native of France; when
touched under the breaft, it contracts its head and body;
when fet at liberty it runs off very quickly.
* * * The anterior feelers firetched out; the lafi arti¬
culation but one, is enlarged with a large oval fplit
appendage; the lafi articulation arched, and acute.
Lymexylon.
Black ; the elytra light brown, and black at the tip ;probofd-
the feelers hooked, and irregular. 69. A native oidea.
Europe ; in timber.
Brown ; the antennae and {hanks of the legs black, barbata.
70. A native of Europe; in timber; covered with
gloffy down of a changeable hue; antennae and legs
paler.
The thorax fomewhat tapering ; body yellow ; the * navalis,
margin and tips of the elytra black. 26. A native
of Europe; in the timber of the oak, to which it is
very deftruftive.
Eighty-fix fpecies of this genus have been defcribed
in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
39. Serropaupus,
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers four, unequal; the ante¬
rior one longer than the reft, and deeply ferrated;
four articulations, the laft one very large, termina¬
ting abruptly, compreffed, and like a plate; the pof-
terior ones nearly clavated. Thorax marginated, the
anterior one receiving the head, with a prominent*
angle on each fide. Head bent down. Legs formed
for digging.
Body brown ;. the elytra ftriated. A native of theftriatux.
ifland of Runfala; found on old wooden buildings in’
autumn.
Body black; the elytra fmooth. 2. A native ollcevigatuti
Europe. ^
40. Elater, Shipper.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, hatchet-lhaped. Un¬
der fide of the thorax terminating in an elaftic fpine,
coming out from a cavity of the abdomen; by which
means the body, when placed on the back, fprings
up and recovers its natural pofture.
Brown 5'
Coleoptera.
166
ENTOMOLOG Y.
flabcllicor- Brown *, antennce witli a fan-fliaped tuft of eight
nis. large black leaves. I. A native of India. I his is one of
the largeft of the genus j the antennae fhort.
■nociilucus. Sides of the thorax, marked with a fmooth yellow
fpot. 4. A native of America. I his infeft, like the
lampyris and fulgora, affords a ftrong phoiphoric light in
the night time, the ftreams of which are fo llrong,
that a perfon may fee to read the fmalleft print. V' hen
placed on its back, it will fpring four or five inches
from the level on which it is put, to recover its natu¬
ral pofition *, the abdomen when removed from the bo¬
dy is luminous internally.
phofphorc- Brown *, the thorax marked on its pofterior part with
two fmooth yellow fpots. 5. A native of South America,
refembling the no6iiluca very much, but only half the
fize, although confiderably larger than the fpecies to be
found in Europe j the fpots of the thorax Ihine in the
night like the preceding fpecies.
bipujlulata Black, filming j the elytra marked with a black
dot at the bale, 9. A native of Europe, on pafture
grounds.
* brunnius The thorax reddiih, and black in the middle ) the
elytra and body of a rufty colour. 10. A native of
Europe ; in gardens.
* crucialus The thorax black, rufty-coloured on the fides j the
olytra yellow, marked with a black crofs, and black on
the edges. 12. A native of Europe; on pafture
grounds.
* ruficollii Black; the hind part of the thorax red, and ftun-
ning. 14. Amative of Europe *, on grafs land.
mefomelos. The thorax and edge of the elytra of a rufty colour j
body and elytra black. 16. A native of Europe j
larva fix-footed, filiform, and hardifti, furnifhed with a
horny ftiield at the tail, notched at the fides, and fur-
niftied beneath with a conical hollow tubercle in form
of a leg on the under fide. It is common in decayed
wood.
^aterrimus Thorax black and ftiinirig *, the elytra ftriated and
black. 17. A native of Europe.
* cajlantus The thorax reddiih and downy; the elytra yellow,
and black at the tip. 13. A native of Europe j in
low grounds.
* fanvm- Black*, elytra of a blood colour. 21. A native of
neus. Europe j in grafs lands. The tip of the elytra black.
—A larger variety is found with the thorax downy
and tawny \ the elytra of a deep colour, and marked
with a faint black blotch at the bafe.
fegetit. Black } the antennae and feet brown *, the elytra
marked with longitudinal black and brown lines. 114.
A native of Europe *, at the roots of corn, fhe larva
deftroys the fields, efpecially in dry feafons j it is a long
time before it undergoes its metamorphofis.
funereus* Reddiih; the elytra ftriated j head brown. 144.
A native of Europe.
* obfcurus. Of a rufty colour 5 head and thorax brd\vn, the lat-
, ter, together with the elytra and legs, are of a brick
colour. 146. A native of Europe.
149 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
CxciNDELA, the Sparkler.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers fix, filiform j the pofterior
ones hairy. The jaws prominent and many-toothed.
Eyes prominent. Thorax rounded and marginated.
2
* Lip divided into three little projeBiom.
This is, in general, a very beautiful genus of infefls j
they are found in dry fendy places, and prey with the
molt ravenous ferocity upon all other iniects wdiich
come in their way, and which they can overcome. 1 he
larva is foft, white, long, and has fix feet, with a brown
fcaly head*, and lurks in a round perpendicular hole in
the ground, with its head at the entrance, to draw* in,
and devour whatever infedts may come near, or fall rnto
it. .
Green *, the elytra marked with five white dots. 1. * campef-
A native of Europe j in fandy plains. 1 he upper part tns.
of the antennae brown, the under part red j thorax a
little angular, rough ; elytra irregularly dotted} upper
lip white j jaws projecting, flrarp j legs red, with a
coppery tinge.
Purple ; the elytra marked with a white band, and * hijbrida.
two white circular dots. 2. A native of Europe *, in
fandy places.
Of a copper colour j the elytra green, marked with -a gennamca'.
w'hite fpot, like a crefcent, at the tip. 4. A native of
Europe. It varies in colour, being fometimes blue,
green, or black.
Black, above bright brown-, the elytra with lateral
ftriae at a good diftance from one another. 40. A na¬
tive of Europe.
Black, on the upper part nearly of the colour ofpun&ata.
brafs j the elytra ftriated, marked with four impreffed
dots j legs a yellowiftr brown. 41. A native of Eu-
rope.
Of a rufty colour j legs, elytra, head, and Xhorzxferruginea
reddiftr *, the latter green behind j the elytra are
marked with a w’aved green band, and have a green
future. 49. A native of Europe j in water. Head
two-lobed behind *, lip white j thorax jagged on the
fore part $ it has no fcutellum *, elytra with each 15
punclured ftriae, and three fpots at the bafe near the
anterior margin.
* * Lip rounded, pointed, entire. Elaphrus.
Of a bright greeniftr yellow*, the elytra marked with * riparia.
broad concave points. 10. A native of Europe j in
moift places.
Of an obfcure brafs colour j the elytra fomewhat * jiavipci.
cloudy, legs yellow. II. A native of Europe j on
banks. The elytra are fometimes dotted j antennae
bla^k, the firft joint yellow, thorax rounded, and
grooved on the back.
Black j the elytra brown,, marked with two pale quadr'wta-
fpots, the (hanks of the legs reddifir. 13. A native
of Europe.
Of a bright brafs colour, poliflred ; head ft.nzX.za.* aquattca.
14. A native of Europe ; common in water.
48 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed m the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
42. Buprestis, the Cow-burner.
Antennae filiform, ferrated, and of the fame length
with the thorax. Feelers four, filiform*, the Jaft arti¬
culation obtufe and terminating abruptly.
drawn back within the thorax.
Head half
This is a genus remarkable for its rich metallic co-
, lours,
Coleoptera. E N T O M
lours, having frequently the appearance of the moft
highly polilhed gold or copper j the larvae are ufually
found among timber, and in decayed trees.
v'ittata. The elytra dotted, and furnilhed with two little pro-
jeftions; they are likewife marked with four elevated
lines, and with a broad fillet of green and gold. 33.
A native of India.
fajluofa. The elytra terminating abruptly, furnifned with two
fmall projedlions, green, and marked with dotted ftriae $
the back is of a bright golden colour. 34. A native
of America.
berolinenjls The elytra variegated with green and black, and fur-
nifhed with twTo finall projections •, the anus is furnHhed
with three fmall projections. 36. A native of Eu¬
rope.
ocloguttata The elytra formed like the roof of a houfe, and def-
titute of projections, marked with four white fpots;
body blue. 2. A native of Europe 5 in groves.
maculofa. The elytra black, (trialed, furnilhed with projections,
and terminating abruptly, marked with four yellow
fpots. 50. A native of Europe j of a middle fize.
Head and abdomen green and gold •, the legs and tho¬
rax black •, the edge of the latter yellow.
mariana. The elytra are ferrated, and marked with longitudi¬
nal wrinkles, likewife with two impreffed fpots $ the
thorax furrowed. 6. A native of Europe.
* chryfo- The elytra are ferrated, marked with two golden
Jligma. impreffed fpots, and longitudinal furrows j the thorax
dotted. 7. A native of Europe.
* ruflica. The elytra formed like the roof of a houfe, and (tri¬
aled ; the thorax dotted. 8. A native of Europe j
in groves.
* /alias. Shining green *, the elytra entire, of a golden co¬
lour, and green at the bafe. 85. A native of Eu¬
rope 5 on the willow.
120 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syltem of Nature.
43. Hydrophilus.
Antennae clavated ) the club perforated. Feelers four,
filiform. The hind-legs hairy, formed for fwim-
ming, and almoit deftitute of nails or claws.
The infeCts of this and the next genus, dytifcus, are
inhabitants of ponds and (tagnant waters, wdiere they
fwim with much dexterity, turning round with great
velocity. They fly abroad by night in fearch of other
waters. The males are diijtinguiftied from the females,
by having a homy concave flap or (hield on the fore-
' legs, near the fetting-on of the feet 5 the hind-legs are
peculiarly fitted for their aquatic fituation, being fur-
niihed on the inner fide with a feries of long and clofe-
fet filaments, refembling a fin, by which they are ena- .
bled to fwim -with great eafe and celerity. The larvas
remain about two years and a half before they change
into pupae, forming a convenient cell, and fecreting
themfelves in fome bank j are extremely voracious
and deftruClive to the more tender aquatic infeCts,
worms, and young fifh, which they ravenoufly feize
with their forked jaws, and deftroy by fucking out their
juice.
* piccus. Water-clack. Black; bread grooved, with along
fpine pointing backwards, i. A native of Europe.
O L O G Y. 167
The larva appears to have its legs feated on the upper
part of the body near the back ; but this is occafioned
by the peculiar (hape and pofition of the legs; the fe¬
male fpins a flattiih circular web, terminated by a long
tapering horn, from which the young efcape, as foon as
they are hatched. ^
Black, (hining ; the elytra fomewhat Arialed. 2. A * caraboi-
native of Europe. cles.
Black, fliining ; the edges of the thorax and elytra * fcaraba-
yellow. 3 A native of Europe. Feelers filiform. oides.
Oval, black ; the elytra and legs 'gray. 11. A * minutur.
native of Europe. It makes a buzzing noife in the even¬
ing. Thorax is fometimes gray.
Black, lliining above, and thickly dotted. 13. Apilula,
native of Europe.
Twenty fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in
the lad edition of the Syflem of Nature.
44. Dytiscus.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers fix, filiform. ‘The hind¬
legs hairy, almod entirely deffitute of clawTs or nails,
and formed for fwimming.
Black ; the edges of the elytra dilated, marked with * latijji-
a yellow line. 6. A native of Europe. It is fo voracious wy/.
as even to deffroy its own fpecies. The male is fmooth,
the female grooved.
Black ; the whole of the edge of the thorax, and the * mcrgina-
outer edge of the elytra, yellow. 7. A native of Eu-Z/j.
rope. The fore-feet of the male have a hemifpherical
appendage, with two circular cavities in the middle.
The female is femidriated.
Brown ; the elytra hairy, marked with ten furrows, * femijlri-
reaching half their length. 8. A native of Europe, ata.
It is furnilhed with a (harp crooked concealed fword.
Its eggs are oblong, large,.and white.
The elytra marked with ten longitudinal furrows, * fulcitus,
and are hairy. 3. A native of Europe and America.
The elytra of the male are fmooth.
Browm ; thorax yellowy marked with four black Aots.notatus.
31. A native of Europe. The thorax is fometimes
reddilh, fometimes variegated with black dots, or with
alhort black band.
The thorax of a rudy colour, marked with two black deprej/us>
dots at the bafe ; the elytra browm, fpotted with red.
32. A native of Europe.
Browm ; the elytra fmooth ; the legs and belly of a * glaber.
rudy colour. 86. A native Jof Britain; in dagnant
waters.
Bluifli, clouded with black ; the antennae and legs of* nebulofuj
a rudy colour ; the belly black, the margin of a light-
brown colour. 87. A native of Britain; m dagnant waters.
133 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
45. Carabus, Bull-head.
Antennae filiform. Feelers fix ; the lad articulation ob-
tufe, and terminating abruptly. Thorax heart-fliaped ;
fmaller end which terminates abruptly being next the
body. Both thorax and elytra are mSrginated.
Thefe infefts are exceedingly aftive and quick in.
running : they devour the larvae of other infefts, and
all the weaker-animals they can overcome ; the legs are
long,.
i6%.
E N T O M
long, tliiglis compreffed, flianks rounded and ciliated
within $ the fore ones prickly before j the larvae are
found under ground or in decayed wood.
# Majores.
Black, opake j without wings; the elytra conneaed
and marked with dots which run into one another, and
fomewhat wrinkled, i. A native of Europe } in woods.
One of the largeft fpecies in Europe •, head and thorax
irregularly dotted; body beneath fhining.
Without wings, and blapkiih j the elytra of the co¬
lour of brafs, ftriated, and marked with elevated dots,
placed between the ftriae. 2. A native of Europe } in
fields. t
Without wings j black, the elytra fmooth, marked
with a triple row of bright yellow depreffed dots, and
with a blue edge. 3. A native of Europe j in gardens
and woods. The dots on the elytra are fometimes of the
fame colour with the elytra.
Without wings, and of a blackilh copper colour j the
elytra ftriated, and marked with a triple row of concave
dots. 42. A native of Europe.
Without wings $ the elytra rough, green, with longi¬
tudinal raifed lines, the edge golden j legs black. 6. A
native of Europe j in woods.
Without wings j the elytra gilt, and marked with
’ elevated ridges and fmooth furrows. 7. A native of
Europe $ in clofe confined places in woods.
Winged ; the elytra fomewhat fmooth, black, with a
gilt edge } the thorax of a violet colour. 8. A native
of Europe j very common in woods.
Shining golden colour ; the thorax blue j the elytra
marked with ftrips of green and gold. 12. A native of
Europe. This is the largeft of this genus, that is to be
met with m Europe j the larva is black, it attacks cat¬
erpillars by night, and devours them.
Without wings} above of an obfcure greenifti yellow}
’ beneath black j the elytra marked with four rows of
concave fpots, and with furrows. 82. A native of
Europe j in woods, under ground. The elytra are fome-
times black.
* * Minores.
fabulofus. Pale j the head black, and a black fpot in the elytra.
J 96. A native of Europe 5 in fandy grounds.
* ruficar- Black ; the elytra fmooth, and furrowed, the anten-
„ls, nse and legs reddirti. 97. A native of Europe ; m
woods frequently.
*p'll'icornis The thorax roundifh ♦, the elytra ftriated, and mark¬
ed with impreffed dots} the antennae hairy. 104. A
native of Britain. It is fometimes black, fometimes of
a bright yellow.
. Blue } the thorax fpherical} mouth, antennae, and
{hanks of the legs reddilh. 105. A native of Eng-
land.
The thorax, head, and legs, of a rufty colour} the
elytra black. 13. A native of Europe} in groves.
It purfues the larger beetles, driving them away by the
noife made by its belly.
280 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
cortaceus:
* grafiu-
'latus.
*hortenfis.
jcrvenjis.
* nitens.
* auratus
tviolaccus.
*fyco-
phanta.
ad/perfus
* fpinibar-
bis.
crepitant.
O L O G Y. Coleoptera.
and margined. Head projecting. Elytra fomewhat
rigid.
* Feelers fix, filiform ; the Fore-legs formed for digging,
furnijhad with projctiions at the extremity like a
hand.
The larvae of fome of the fpecies of this genus live in
damp places under ground among rubbifti} oi others in
Hour and different kinds of food, where they perfoim
their metamorphofis. The perfeft infedts are veiy
troublefome in houfes, eating bread, meal &c.} they
precipitately avoid the light} refort to damp cellais,.and
dark places, where putrefadlion allures and nourilhes
them. They are all of a very dark gloomy appearance,
from which circumftance they have received their
name.
Black; thorax nearly fquare; the elytra very KwoQVn.complana-
13. A native 6f Cayenne } large. _ tus.
Black. 7. A native of Europe ; on fand hills, \n* fofbr.
which it digs holes. _
Brown ; thorax oblong, marked with five projecting * curfor.
angles. 8. A native of Europe } in fand hills.
46. Tenebrio.
Antennae moniliform ; the laft articulation roundifti.
Thorax flat on one fide, and convex on the other,
* * Feelers unequal; filiform.
Wholly black, and fmooth. 21. A native f-atratus.
gypt ; the elytra joined together, the fore legs furnilh-
ed with two projections.
* * * Feelers four; the anterior ones faintly clavated, the
pofierior ones filiform.
Black; the thorax nearly fquare and fmooth ; the laminatus.
elytra furrowed; the (hanks of the fore legs crooked and
(harp, terminating in a rufty-coloured plate. 22. A
native of India } the largeft of the genus.
Black ; the elytra ftriated ; thorax fmooth. 1. Agigas.
native of Surinam, about the fize of the ftag-beetle; the
antennae are fomewhat clavated.
Wholly black ; the thighs of the fore legs thicker * molitor.
than thofe of the reft. 2. A native of Europe;
among flour, in bake-houfes, mills, dry bread Sec.
The larva is white, foft, and fmooth, compofed of
thirteen fegments ; it is eagerly fought after by the
nightingales. _
Of a rufty colour; the elytra ftriated, the ftneldculinaris.
emarginated. A native of Europe ; in loofe fand, in
rubbifti, and in granaries.
Black above; beneath of a deeper and brighter black;^0n,0Ba.
the elytra marked with five elevated ftrise on each fide.
45. A native of Europe, in orchards ; the larva co¬
vered with a loofe net, by twos or threes lurk in the
folded leaves.
The thorax marked with two cavities ; the elytra vilignariu*.
a violet colour or reddifti ; the antennae and legs of a
rufty colour. 37• A native of Europe. The larva is
to be met with in the trunks of pine trees that have
been cut down, the inner bark of which they confume;
the infeCt is, when full grown, about half an inch
long.
64 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
47. PlMELIA.
Antennas filiform. Feelers four. Thorax flat on one fide,
and convex on the other and marginated. Head pro-
ieClin?.
Goleoptera. E N T O M
je&ing. Elytra flxghtly ridged. Wings are wanting
in many of the fpeoies.
* Antennce moniliform towards their extremity.
A. Feelers clavated.
gage*.
fulcata.
* morti-
faga.
muricata.
Jiriatula.
incufpi-
data.
cetrulea.
* anglica,
buparia.
Miaxillofa.
iejhidi-
narius.
Black*, thorax roundilh; the elytra (harp pointed
and very fmooth. i. A native of Europe.
The elytra fumifhed with ftiarp points, and furrow¬
ed. 2. A native of Egypt \ common in gardens.
They are recommended as remedies in the earache, and
againlt the bite of fcorpions *, the Turkifh women drefs
and eat them, and think them very fattening.
Black ; the elytra are furniftied with (harp points,
and fmooth. 3. A native of Europe *, in lhady clofe
fituations. This infeft is regarded as a prefage of the
death of one of the family, by the common people in
Sweden, when it is feen crawling about the houfe.
B. Feelers filiform.
Black $ the elytra obtufe, ftriated, and furnifhed
with fharp points. 20. A native of Europe, and the
northern parts of Africa and Alia 5 it makes a noife
by rubbing its hind legs againft its elytra ; it refembles
the mortifaga, but larger.
Black the elytra oblong, oval, and ftriated, 54.
A native of Europe.
* * The Antennce filiform through their whole length.
A- Feelers four, filiform.
The thorax fumilhed with three lharp points y body
gray. 56. A native of Egypt.
B. The anterior feelers hatchet-Jhaped, the pofierior ones
clavated.
Bluilh } the thorax nearly round, the elytra ftriated.
61. A native of Europe.
Black , the thorax roundilh before; the elytra dot¬
ted and ftriated 5 the antennas reddilh at the tips. 76.
A native of England.
Black j fmooth and furnilhed with wings j the thorax
circular j the jaws ftrong, furnilhed with teeth, and
longer than the head. 84. A native of Europe.
84 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
48. Manticora.
Antennae filiform. The articulations cylindrical. Feel¬
ers four, filiform. Thorax roundilh before, and emar-
ginated at the tip behind. Head projedling. Jaws
projecting. Elytra united. No wings.
I. A native of the Cape of Good Hope -, body
large, black *, head nearly globular, and impreffed on
each fide *, jaws furnilhed with teeth at the bafe 5 thorax
impreffed in the middle, and clavated behind, the mar¬
gin rounded and notched at the tip j elytra above, flat
and rough, deflected at the edge with a very lharp
lateral ferrated line j legs Ample, black.
Only one fpecies of this genus has been defcribed.
49. Erodius.
Antennas moniliform. Feelers four, filiform. Jaw homy,
bifid, and ending abruptly. Lip horny, emarginated.
Hunch-backed, black j the elytra united and rough;
the fides dully white. 1. A native of the Cape of
Good Hope *, large, flat beneath.
VOL. VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y. 169
Hunch-backed, black; the elytra marked with xkxttgibbus.
dotted lines. 2. A native of Africa ; in loofe fand,
and very common in Egypt.
Black ; the elytra marked with one clavated Xme.planus.
3. A native of Egypt.
Black ; the elytra very fmooth. 4. A native of Afia. mimitus.
Only four fpecies of this genus have been defcrxbed,
50. Lytta.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, unequal; the pofterior
pair clavated. Thorax roundilh. Head inflefted,
and turgid on the upper fide. Elytra foft, and flex¬
ible.
Green; the antennae black. 1. A native of Eu-veficatoria.
rope ; on the privet, the alh, the elder, the lilach both
common and Perfian, the poplar, and on the Tartarian
woodbine.
This infe£t is ufed in pharmacy, chiefly for the pur-
pofe of raifing blilters. It multiplies greatly, and has a
naufeous fmell, not much unlike that of mice; which
helps to conduct thofe who go in quell of them. The
odorous particles exhaled from them are extremely cor-
rolive. They were formerly ranked among the canthan-
des ; more recently in the genus meloe. More accurate
obfervation has placed them in the genus lytta.
Green and gold ; the elytra reddilh brown. 2. A* nitidula.
native of England.
Black, fmooth ; breaft downy ; the elytra grayilh yel- quadrima-
low, marked with two black and almoft fquare fpots. culata.
14. A native of the north of Afia. A pleafant fmel-
ling oil exfudes from its legs.
Smooth, pale reddilh brown ; thorax depreffed ; thefenefirata.
elytra gray, and black at the tips, and marked with two
fquare glazed fpots. 15* A native of the north of Alia,
among flowers ; of a middle fize. A pleafant fmelling oil
is likewife exfuded from its legs.
Brown ; the fore part of the elytra, and the thorax,formic aria.
which are elongated, are red. 29. A native of Eu¬
rope.
29 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
51. Meloe, the Blofibm-eater.
Antennae moniliform. Thorax roundilh. Elytra foft,
and flexible. Head inflated, and turgid on the upper
fide.
The larva as well as the perfedl infeft, both of this
and the preceding genus, feed on leaves.
* No Wings ; Elytra Jhortened.
Body of a violet colour. 1. A native of Europe. *profcara-
It is to be met with, particularly in the fpring, in fandy .
plains. They feed on the ranunculus and veratrum ; its
eggs have a pleafant fmell; when touched, a very thin
yellowilh oil exfudes from the joints of its legs. It is
recommended as a remedy in the hydrophobia. The
female is thrice as large as the male.
The fegments of the abdomen red. 2. A native majalis,
of the fouth of Europe.
* Furnifijcd with Wings ; the Elytra covering the Wings.
A. Jaw bifid.
Black ; the elytra yellow, marked with three black cichoreh
Y bands.
1
Coieoptera.
l7o E N T O M
bands. 5. A native of Afia, and the eaft of Europe.
It is ufed in medicine among the Chinefe. The an¬
tennae are fometimes yellow at the tips.
decent- Black ; the elytra reddiih, marked with five black
punElatus. dots. 6. A native of Italy. The lail articulation of
of the antennae clavated.
B. Jato entire.
Jtha-jferi. Green; the antennae and legs yellow. 12. A na¬
tive of Europe.
fchrebcri. Green ; the antennae, legs, and three fegments of the
abdomen, yellow.
3 2 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in. the
lali edition of the Syftem of Nature.
5 2. Mprdella, the Nibblcr.
Antennae monilifonn or peclinated. Feelers four ; the
anterior pair clavated, the pofterior filiform. Head
bent down under the neck. Elytra bent downwards
towards the lip. Before the thighs, and at the bafe
of the abdomen, there is a broad plate.
* Aitennce peEluiated.
paradoxa. The fides of the thorax, and the elytra, a brick colour.
r. A native of Europe ; on umbelliferous plants.
jlabellata. Reddiih brown ; mouth, bread, and upper part ofthe
abdomen, black. 10. A native of Europe.
** Antennce mmiliform.
bimaculata Of a ruily colour; bread black; elytra reddiih
marked with a black fpot. 13. A native of Europe.
Large.
* acukata. Blacky the anus terminating in afpine. 2. A na¬
tive of Europe ; on umbelliferous, and a variety of other
plants.
* abdomi- Black ; thorax and abdomen tawny ; the anus ter-
nalis. minating in a fpine. 19. A native of Europe.
* burner- Black ; the mouth, fades of the thorax, and legs yeh
alls. low. 3. A native of Europe; on dowers.
* bicolor. Black; the elytra reddiih, black at the tip, and
marked with a black band in the middle. 25. A
native of Britain ; very common on the dowers of the
hawthorn, of the dock, and of fome kinds of umbellife¬
rous plants. Very fmall.
*** Anlennce clavated.
* davtcor- Wholly black. 23. A native of Europe ; on the
nis. rhubarb.
28 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
lad edition of th'* Sydem of Nature.
53. Staphylinus, Rove-beetle.
Antenme moniliform. Feelers four. Elytra half the
length of the bodyv Wings covered. Tail fimple,
furnilhedi with two veficle.s, which can. be. thruft out
at pleafure.
This is-an extremely-rapacious'tribe, devouring what¬
ever infefls they can catch, and frequently each other ;
many of them, when laid hold ©f, turn up the tail; the
laws are drong and projecting, with which they bite
and pinch very hard. Mod ol them are found in damp
places, among putrid fubdances, and a few upon dowers.
The larvae live underground.
O L O G Y.
* All the Feelers: jHiJafm.
Hairy, black ; the thorax and poderior part of the * hirtuj,
abdomen black. 1. A native of Europe; in Tandy
places.
Downy, and aih coloured,, clouded with black. 2. * murinus*
A native of Europe ; in dead bodies, and in dung. Ihe
elytra blue underneath ; larva fix-footed, naked, pale ;
the head and three fird fegments of the abdomen chef-
nut brown; tail with, two jointed bridles, and. a. cylin¬
drical tubercle beneath.
Downy black ; marked with alb-coloured bands ; the * maxilla-
jaws of the fame length with the head. 3. A nativeJus.
of. Europe ; in woods, living on plunder.
Black ;. the. thorax, and elytra fhining. 5. A na- *polltus.
tive of Europe ; on dead bodies ; when recently caught,
it diffufes a very fragrant finell.
Black ; the edges of the thorax yellowilh ; the elytra * nitidulus*
of a rudy colour, with a black edge. 4. A native of
Brit|in.
** The pojlerlor Feelers hatchet-fhaped.
Reddiih ; the head, poderior part of the elytra and ab- * rufus.
domen, as well as the bafe of the thighs, black. 6. A
native of Europe ; on. the boletus.
Black ; the elytra, antennae, and legs of a rudy co-jlavipes.
lour. 22. A native, of Europe ; on the boletus.
* * * The anterior Feelers clavated.
R eddifh ; the elytra blue ; the head and tip of the ab- riparius.
domen black. 9. A native of Europe.
Black ; thorax reddiih ; the elytra pale blue. 96. A ruficollls.
native of Eui*ope ; under flones.
Black; the poderior part of the elytra, the legs and rlongaius,
antennae, of a rudy colour. 14. A native of Europe.
56. Forficula, the Earwig.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers unequal and filiform.
Elytra half the length of the body. Wings cover¬
ed. Tail furniflied with pincers.
The larvae of the forficula run very quickly. This in-
feft is very common, and very well known ; the pincers
at its tail, from whence it has received its Latin name
forjicula, afford a very good didinguilhing mark.
The elytra white at the tip ; the antennae have four-* auricu-
teen articulations. I. A native of Europe; commonlaria.
in fruit. It is accufed of creeping into the ears of- peo¬
ple while fleeping, whence it has received its name,
earwig.
Pale above, variegated with black.; the anus i\imni',cdg'gan!ea’
with two proj eft ions; the pincers projefting confider-
ably, and each furniihed with one projection. 3, A
native of Europe, Very large. ,
The elytra reddilh, without fpots; the antenpas *i7,wor*
have ten joints. 2. A native of Europe. The tips of:
the antennae are whitifii. It is rare. \
Black ; the hind-part of the head and legs reddiih ; bipundata*
back of the elytra marked with. a. white fpot. 4. A
native of Europe. The antennaa have eleven joints.
11 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in. the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
II. HEMIPTERA,
Htmiptera.
E N TOM
XI. HEMIPTERA.
The inoutli and fnout bent inwards, towards the
breaft. Wings covered with hemelytrae. The upper
wings, compofed of a femicruftaceous fubftance, do not
form a ilraight future when fliut, but the inferior edge
of the one paifes over the fuperior edge of the other.
55. Blatta, Ceck-roach.
Head bent inwards. Antennae fetaceous. Feelers un¬
equal, filiform. Elytra and wings fmooth, and fome-
what refembling leather. Thorax flattidi, circular,
and marginated. Feet formed for running. Two
imall horns are fituated at the tail in molt of the
fpecies.
Thefe infefts, with their larvae,wander about by niglit,
and fecrete themfelves by day. They are fond of
warmth, and haunt about houfes, devouring meal, and
Whatever provificns they can get at. They run with
great celerity } and are deftroyed by the fumes of char¬
coal or fulphur, alfo by the root of the nymphea alba
boiled in milk.
gigantea. Livid ^ the fliielcl of the thorax marked with a fquare
chefnut-coloured fpot. 1. A native of Afia and Ame¬
rica. It is the largeft of this genus, being nearly the
fize of a hen’s egg.
maderce. Brown ; the thorax and elytra livid, and variegated
with brown. 11. A native of the ifland of Madeira j
a little fmaller than the laft fpecies.
* ameri- Of a ruity colour ; the fhield of the thorax whitilh
cana. behind. 4. A native of America j it has been intro¬
duced into Europe along with fugar.
aujirala- Of a rufty colour •, the thorax black, marked with a
Jice. white ring •, the elytra marked at the bafe with a fmall
white line. 13. Found in ftiips returning from the
fouth feas.
* orienta- Of a rufty brown colour, without fpots 5 the elytra
/;>, fliort, marked with an oblong furrow. 7. A native
of America, and has been introduced into Europe for
almolt two hundred years. Frequent in many countries
of Europe, in meal and bread, and other provifions ;
likewife in fhoes, which it deftroys. It fhuns the light,
and runs very quickly. It is much haraffed by the
large tenthredc co.rulea. The female is without wings;
lire produces a cylindrical egg, half the fize of the ab¬
domen.
lapponlca. Yellowifh; the elytra fpotted with black. 3. A
native of Europe *, confirming provifions. In the moill
woods however of the call of Europe it is lefs noxious.
gtrtnanica Livid *, body yellowilh •, the thorax marked with two
black parallel lines. 9. A native of Europe.
tnaculata. "Thorax black, with a whitifh edge •, the elytra pale,
marked with a large black fpot near the tip. 25. A
native of Europe *, in pine forefls and heaths.
43 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in -the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
56. Pneumora.
Body oval, inflated, and tranfparent. Head bent in¬
wards, and fumifhed with jaws. Thorax convex, be¬
neath formed like a keel of a fliip. Elytra detledted
-and membranaceous. Legs formed for running.
0 L O G Y. Vjl
The whole of this genus feem to confift of a mere
hollow inflated membrane j by rubbing their legs a-
gainft their bodies, they make a fhrill noife in the twi¬
light } and during the night, they are attracted by a
bright light.
Elytra without fpots. 1. A native of the Cape of immacufa-
Good Hope. Head green ; eyes white 5 between the ta.
eyes are three red ftigmata, and above thefe two fhort
prqjeftions *, antenna; fhort, green •, thorax rough, with
a fhort tooth before and an impreffed wrinkle in the
middle j the elytra afh-coloured, reticulated with green,
fometimes marked with very fmall black dots y they are
very rarely yellowifli or reddifli \ the infe6t is about
twice the fize of the houfe-cricket.
Three fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
15. Mantis, Soothfayef-.
Head nodding > furniftied with jaws. Feelers filiform.
Antenna; fetaceous. Wings four, membranaceous,
rolled up. Fore-legs comprefted, notched under¬
neath, furnifhed with one hook, and with a lateral
fetaceous jointed finger ; the four hind-legs fmooth,
and formed for walking. Thorax linear, long, and
narrow7.
The thorax fomewhat tapering and rough; the elytxzgigat.
very fhort; the legs prickly. 1. A native of Afia ;
wings very large.
Thorax marginated, and marked with finall projec- mendica.
tions j the elytra variegated with green and white ;
dotted with white along the edge. 17. A native of
Alexandria.
The thorax fmooth 5 the elytra green ; the wings oratorio.*
reddifh at the anterior part, marked with a black fpot.
6. A native of Europe. This infefl refts fometimes
on its four hind-legs, ftretches the fore-legs out to the
right or left, and for this reafon has been fuppofed to
point out the way to ftrangers, when afked.
The thorax fomewhat fringed ; the elytra greeni^precaria*
marked with a rufty-coloured ocellus. 8, A native
of America and Africa ; the half of the ocellus on the
elytra is white, fometimes entirely white. This is fup¬
pofed to be the idol of the Hottentots.
Lbfear, afh coloured, fpotted with black. 30. Afaiijia,
native of the Cape of Good Hope. This is the tutelary
deity of the Hottentots.
52 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the laft
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
58 Gryllus, Cricket.
Head bent imvards j furniihed with jaws. Feelers fili¬
form. Antennae either fetaceous or filiform. Wings
four, either deflected or twifted j the under wings
folded. Hind-legs formed for leaping.
The whole of this genus feed on vegetables, except
thofe contained in the firft divifion, acrid a, which de¬
vour other infedls; the achetce deftroy the roots of plants j
the tetigonice and locujhc, the leaves or tender thoots, in
feme countries laying wafte whole diftrfifts j the larva;
and pupae referable the perfect infers, refide chiefly
under ground, and are fix footed, voracious and active ;
fome of this tribe are ufed as an article of food by the
natives of Africa and India ; many of them produce
found by the friftion of fome parts of their body.
Y 2 * Antenna
172
E N T O M
* Antennae the /hope of a /word; Head conic, and longer
than the thorax. Acrid*.
nafutus. Body green. I. , i • * r
turritus. Head conic •, antennae fword-ihaped j the wing tranf-
parent. A native of Africa and the fouthern parts of
Europe } the mouth placed at the under part of the
head ; antennae on the top of the head, and not longer
than the thorax.
zizanteus. Green j marked with two reddifh fillets j the anten-
nae of a rufty colour •, thorax marked with three railed
lines. 64. A native of America j larger than the gr.
nafutus. ir/r
foliaceus. Wings yellowilh 5 the antennae refemblmg a leaf. 67.
A native of Alia.
* * Thorax fanned Be a heel; Antenna?filiform, fhorter
than the thorax. Bull*.
* bipunBa- Brownilh •, the fcutellum of the thorax, of the fame
tus. length with the abdomen. 7. A native of Europe } on
fand hills expofed to the funlhine.
* fibula- The fcutellum longer than the abdomen. 3. A
tus. native of Europe j in ditches. It is fometimes gray,
fometimes brown.
*** Antenna:fetaceous; Feelersunequal; Thorax round¬
ed ; the Tailfurnifhed with two brifiles.
O L O G Y. Hemiptera.
* * * * Antennae fetaceous. Feelers unequal. Tail of
the female armed with a projeElion like a fword.
Tetigoniae.
The thorax round, and fomewhat warty *, wings very aquilinus.
broad •, wdth 15 nerves. 27. A native of South Ame¬
rica and India j large j the elytra of the lhape of a
lance j the lhanks of the legs fet with four rows of
prickles.
Brown •, the thorax roundilh and keel-lhaped bt-grtfeus.
hind, furnilhed with a black crooked fpine refembling
a fword, the bafe of which is pale on each fide. 108.
A native of Europe •, the antennae yellow, and of the
fame length with the body •, legs greenilh } the elytra
variegated with brown and alh-colour.
The thorax round ; the wings green and without viridijfi-
fpots ; the antennae very long. 3i._ A native oimus.
Europe } on trees, in pafture grounds, in barley fields.
It makes a noife in the night time in warm weather about
the time of the dog days.
Thorax nearly fquare and fmooth j the wings green, *
fpotted with brown ; the antennae fetaceous, about the varus.
fame length of the body. 34* ^ na^ve of Europe,
and is colle&ed by the common people of Sweden for
the purpofe of deilroying warts in the hand •, which it
is faid to perform by biting off the excrefcences, and
difchargmg on the wound a fluid which caufes them
to decay.
*gryllo- Mole-cricket. The wings furnifhed with a projec-
talpa. tion like a tail, and longer than the elytra *, the fore-feet
formed like hands, and downy. 10. A native of Europe.
This troublefome little animal frequents gardens and
cultivated grounds, both of Europe and America, where
it burrows below the ground, and is very deilruftive •,
eating and deftroying the roots of plants. Body dark
brown, hairy; antennae fhorter than the body. _
monfirofus. The elytra and wings furnifhed with projeftions like
tails, and rolled up. 73. A native of India.
* domefii- Houfe-cricket. The wings furnifhed with a tail and
cus. longer than the elytra •, legs fimple ; body yellowifh
brown. 12. A native of Europe 5 in many houfes,
about ovens, and kitchen chimneys: wanders about
during the whole night, keeping a continual chirping
efpecially before rain j is faid to forfake houfes mtelted
by the cockroach. There is a variety of this i'pecies
fix times the fize of the European. Arfenic or the
root of the wild carrot, mixed up into a pafte with flour,
is fometimes made ufe of to poifon them •, but an opinion
prevails among the vulgar, that their prefence in any
houfe is the caufe of good fortune ; and, therefore, though
they be troublefome, they are unwilling to drive them
*-campef- * Field-cricket. Wings fhorter than the elytra j body
tr\s. black, and furniflied with a long fpine. 13. A native
of Europe *, chirps from the beginning of May till the
end of September, and is faid to drive away the houfe-
cricket when domefticated.
pelluctns. Whitifh 5 thorax of the form of a trapezium. 85.
A native of Carniola and Europe ; in vineyards and
gardens *, about half an inch in length j it makes a
noife during the whole fummer in the night time ; it
refembles the houfe cricket, but larger j the head is
fhining *, the thorax is marked with three brown fpots,
the elytra with yellowifh ones.
* * * * * Antennae filiform. Feelers fimple. Tail unarmed.
Locuftae.
The thorax entirely keel-fhaped •, body without wings, elephat*
35. A native of Africa ythis is the largefi and heavieft
of the LiOcuficc \ green, the thighs fmooth, the rudiments
of two wings. r r • '
The thorax faintly carinated, compofed of one feg- migra-
mentj head obtufe; jaws black. 41. A native Storms.
Tartary, and migrates in incredible fwarms into various
parts of Europe. The mifchief thefe voracious crea¬
tures do, when they appear in vaft fwarms, far exceeds
that done by any other tribe of animals. By fud-
denly deftroying all vegetation, they change the moft
fertile countries into barren deferts, leaving behind
them defolation and famine. They have occafion-
ally appeared in fmall flights in England, but have pe-
rifhed in a fhort time. This was probably the fpe-
cies that conftituted one of the plagues of Egypt. Ihey
are eaten by the inhabitants of different countries, par¬
ticularly by the Egyptians, who roaft them alive and
eat their bodies, after having removed their wings and
legs. -
The thorax marked with an elevated ridge like a * fir idu Ins.
keel, the wings red and black at the tips. 47. . A na¬
tive of Europe j in dry fandy fituations, chirping all
day long, till late at night. Either black or variegated
with black and yellow.
240 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed.
59. Eulgora, Lanthorn-fiij.
The head inflated 5 fore head prominent. The anten-
n* ftiort, placed under the eyes, compofed of two
articulations, the upper one being the largeft and
globular.
Heiiiiptera. E N T O M
globular. The fnout long and bent inwards, is a
flieath confiding of five articulations. Legs formed
for walking.
lanterna- The forehead extended, forming a ftraight beak;
r\a. wings bluiih, the under wings marked with ocelli. I.
A native oi South America. It emits a very bright
light from the prominent part on its forehead. Travel¬
lers are faid to avail themfelves of the light they emit j
two or three of them, fixed on the end of a flick, af¬
fording light fufficient to let them fee in the dark.
diadema. The fore-head fet with tapering points, and extended
into a beak, divided at the tip into three j wings black,
fpotted with red. 2. A native of India.
candelaria The forehead extended into a clavated beak ; the
elytra green, fpotted with yellow •, the wings yellow
with black tips. 3. A native of China.
phofphorea The forehead raifed into a tapering beak 5 body gray-
ifli yellow. 4. A native of South America.
hyalina. The forehead conic and unequal 5 wings tranfparent,
marked with a black ftreak. 17. A native of Ben-
gah
20 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syflem of Nature.
60. Cicada, Frog-hopper.
Snout bent inwards. Antennae fetaceous. Wings four-,
membranaceous and deflefled. Legs, (in the moft
of the fpecies) are formed for leaping.
The infers of this genus feed on the juice of plants j
the larva is without wings; the pupa has only the rudi¬
ments of wings, but they have both fix legs j they very
much referable the perfect infeifl, and are very aftive $
the perfeft infe6l chirps as well as thofe of the preceding
genus.
* Antennce tapering at the point, and placed on the fore¬
head. Membracides.
A. Thorax compreffed, membranaceous, and larger than
the body. Foliaceae.
inflata. The thorax inflated, light brown and reticulated. 5 2.
A native of Cayenne.
*genijht. The thorax brown j lengthened out behind, the ab¬
domen being half the length of the thorax. 56. A
native of England •, on the genijla tinEloria.
inermis. The thorax greeniih, tapering to a point, and of the
lame length with the abdomen. 57. A native of A-
merica, on plants.
B. The thorax furnifhed with a horn on each fide. Cm1
ciatae.
* cor nut a. The thorax furnilhed with two horns *, black, taper¬
ing to a point behind, and of the fame length with the
abdomen j wings brown. 6. A native of Europe 5 on
thiflles and willows.
* * Legs not formed for leaping. Maniferte.
plebeia. The tip of the fcutellum parked with two fmall
projections 5 the elytra marked with four anaftomofes,
and fix lines of a rufty colour. 15. A native of Eu¬
rope and Africa, very large. Of this infeCt Virgil fays,
et canlu qucerulce rumpent < arbufa cicadee, and foie fub
ardente refonant arbufa cicadis.
irni. Black, fpotted with yellow \ the elytra are furrounded
with a thin edge, with fix brown connected dots *, the
wings are white, marked with two black fpots, and
O L O G Y. 173
yellow at the bafe. 16. A native of Europe } the
larva is eatable.
* * * Antennce fliform,ftuated under the eyes.
A. The fjeath of the fnout f retched out, obtufe, and
grooved above. Cercopides.
Yellowifh ; the elytra brown, marked with two bifafciata*
white bands. 11. A native of Europe j on plants of 1
different kinds.
Brown j the elytra are marked on the tides with fpuma-
two white fpots, and with a double interrupted whitifhrta'
band. 24. A native of Europe on various plants,
frequently on the rofe, on grafs and ofier } the larvae
and pupae of this, and fome others of the genus, dif-
charge a frothy matter from numerous pores about the
tail, within which they are completely enclofed •, this is
frequently found in fummer on various plants, very
much refembling a quantity of faliva, and is commonly
known by the name of cuckow fpit; the perfect infeft
will frequently leap two or three yards to efcape from
any one who attempts to catch it.
Brown ; the fore part of the thorax marked with \m-panelulata,
preffed dots, the elytra marked on the fides with two
white fpots. 212. A native of Europe.
f f The fheath of the fnout very fhort, membranaceous'
cylindrical, obtufe.
* Legs formed for leaping. Ranatrse.
Brown ; wings tranfparent, fpotted with brown, and nervofai
marked with dotted ribs. 25. A native of Europe j
on plants.
Yellow; the elytra gilt and brown. 123. A na-*fulgtda*
tive of Britain ; on plants.
§ § The wings defleEled, covering the fdes. , Deflexae.
Yellow; the elytra marked with brown, with iowenurata,
black fpots, and gilt behind. 48. A native of Eu¬
rope.
Yellowirti; the elytra marked with blood-coloured quercu$,
fpots, and brown at the tips. 173. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on the oak.
240 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
61. Notonecta, Boat-fly.
Snout bent inwards. Antennae fhorter than ithe tho¬
rax. Wings four, folded crofs-wife, the upper ones
coriaceous. Hind legs hairy, formed for fwim-
ming.
The infers of this and the next genus, Nepa, live in
ftagnant waters, and prey on aquatic animals ; the lar¬
vae and pupae are fix-footed, active, and fwim readily;
and very much referable the perfect infe£t; the larvae is
deftitute of wings, the pupae have only the rudiments of f
wings.
* Lip long.
The elytra gray, dotted with brown along the edge, * glauca.
and divided at the tip. 1. A native of Europe ; in
waters, very troublefome to fifh. It fwims on its back,
for which reafon it has been called by the Greek
name of notone&a. The hind legs, which are longer
than the reft, ferve it as oars. When caught, it muft
be cautioufly handled, as the point of its fnout is very
ftiarp, and its pun&ure very painftfl.
* '* No
174-
♦Jlriata.
* einerea.
* linearis.
* cimicai¬
des.
* le8ula-
rius.
E N T O M
** No lip. Sigarae.
The elytra brown j marked with a great number of
crofs waved lines of a darker colour. 2. A native of
Europe.
i4fpecies’of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
62. Nefa, Water Scorpion.
Snout bent inwards. Antennae fhort. Wings foilr,
folded crofs-wife, the upper ones coriaceous. The
fore-legs formed like claws j the other four are
.formed for walking.
The infefts of this genus are very voracious, and feed
on other aquatic animals, which they pierce and tear
with their (harp fnout,. while they hold them with the
claws of their fore-legs. They dy well, efpecially in
the evening and night, and convey themfelves from
one pool to another, particularly when water begins to
fail in the pool they have been in.
* Antenncz divided into feveral divifions refembhng a
hand; Lip wanting.
A(h-coloured $ thorax unequal; body long and oval.
5. A native of Europe j in ftagnant waters; the up¬
per part of the abdomen red.
Linear } the claws furniihed with a lateral fpine. 7.
A native of Europe and India, in frefh water. The
cggs of this infeft are fumilhed at one end with two
hairs ; they depofit them in holes made in (talks of
rufhes, leaving the hairs (landing out.
* * Lipjlretched out and roundifh. Naucorides.
The edge of the abdomen (lightly notched. 6. A
native of Europe.
Twelve fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
63. Cimex, Bug.
Snout bent inwards. Antennae longer than the thorax.
Wings four, folded crofswife ; the upper wings coria¬
ceous in the fore part. Back flat. Thorax margi-
nated. Legs formed for running.
Mod bugs have a had fmell; all of them except the
rcduvii, feed on the juice of plants, and all of them,
without exception, on the juices of animals, particular¬
ly of the fofter infedts, which they fuck by means of
their fnout. The larvae and pupae have fix feet, run
quickly, and very much refemble the perfedt infedt; the
larvae have no wings, only (tumps of wings.
0 L O G Y. Hemlptera,
Inhabitant of mod houfes in large towns ; crawling
about in the night time to fuck the blood of iuch as
are aileep, and hiding itfelf by day in the mod retired
holes and crevices.
f j- The Elytra almojl totally coriaceous. Coleoptrati.
Black ; without wings ; the elytra oval, with yellowgrylhides.
edges, and (horter than the abdomen. 13. A native
of Europe. The thorax refembling the gryllus.
f f f Membranaceous and very fiat.
The thorax divided into three wings ; the fcutellum * pyri.
refembling a leaf; the elytra reticulated and fwelling.out
at the bale. 137. A native of Europe ; on the under
furface of the leaves of the pear tree, which become
fpotted with its pundtures.
B. Lip long, tapering to a point at the extremity.
f The Scutellum of the fatne length with the Abdomen.
Scutellati.
Black ; the thorax marked w ith five, and the fcutel- lineatus.
lum with three orange-coloured lines; the abdomen
yellow, dotted with black. 6. There is a variety of
this fpecies.
(/3) Red ; the thorax marked with five, and the £cu- nigrolinea-
tellum with three black lines; the abdomen yellow7, tus.
dotted with black. A native of Europe ; on the flowers
of the apple and elder.
f f The Thorax armed with a fpine on each fide. Spinofi.
The thorax armed with blunt prickles; the elytra * luridus.
gray, marked with a brown fpot, the (hield emargi-
nated. 190. A native of England; in thickets.
f f f Thorax without Jpines.
A. Rotundati, fuch as are round or oval.
Somewhat tawny, the edge of the abdomen fpotted * baccha-
with brown. 45. A native of Europe ; on berries, rum.
Blue, with a metallic luftre; the thorax marked * oleraceus
with a fmall line; the tip of the fcutellum, and dots
on the elytra, all of a red or white colour. 53. A
native of Europe ; on tetradynamious plants. It is very
deftruftive to cabbages and to turnip fields.
B. Such as have the Thorax oblong.
f Antennce terminating in fmall hairs.
Black; head, thorax, and legs reddilh. 364. f.*fiavicot-
native of England. ■ Us.
* Antennce placed before the Eyes.
A. Lip wanting. Acanthi*.
-f- Without Wings.
Hou/e-buir. Without wings. 1. A native of Eu¬
rope, though originally a foreigner ; it was introduced
into Europe before the Chriftian era, but not into Bri¬
tain until the feventeenth century, being little known
before the year 1670. It is a troublefome and naufeous
* * Antennce clavatecL
Brown ; head and thorax reddifli. 679. A native iliericus.
of Europe.
C. Antennce filiform.
J Legs fnooth.
Yellowilh; elytra green. 36. A native of Europe; * pratenfi*
in meadows.
t J legs
Hemiptera,'
r75
E N T O M
11- Legs notched or prlchly,
calcaratus. Brown j the upper part of the abdomen of a blood
colour; the thighs of the hind-legs funli(bed with fix
lharp projeftions. 114, A native of Europe.
D. Antennce Jetaceous.
| Legs notched.
ahetis. Spotted, with tawny coloured fpots; legs reddifh j
thighs thick. 115. A native of Europe: on the
fir tree.
-t t Legs without prickles.
patulinus. Green, without fpots j wings tranfparent. 83. A
native of Europe j in meadows.
§ § $ Linear ; Body oblong and narrow.
|| Antenna’Jetaceous.
pedes. Variegated, with brown and yellow'; the thighs of
the hind-legs long and notched. 5 24. A native of
India.
|| || Antenna JUifonn.
*Jlagno- Black and tapering j the thorax marked in the centre
rum. w;th tw'o globular dots. 113. A native of. England ;
very common in. lakes.
|| || || Antenna c lav a ted.
trifpinofus. Greenifli brown ; the antennae long, with three ere&
prickles on the back. 54^* native of Surinam,
|| || || || Antenna double clavated.
fuecicus. Afh-coloured y the thighs elavated. C42. A na¬
tive of Europe.
|| || || || j| Antenna with two terminations.
tipularius. Whitifli -7 all the legs very long j the thighs cla¬
vated. 1 20. A native of Europe 5 on moffes.
* * The Antenna placed above the Eyes; the Snout
arched. Reduvii.
perfonatus. The antennae refembling hairs at the tips •, body
foraewhat hairy and brown. 67. A native of iEurope j
in rubbilh. The larva is rough, and deftroys the houfe-
. . bu£-
jlndulus. Smooth, black; the elytra brown, fpotted with
black, and with a red edge. 557. A native of Eu¬
rope. It is finall, and moves about with great agility
early in the fprihg; it keeps its antennae in conftant
motion, and makes a fhrill noife. by rubbing them
againft the thorax.
693 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
lad edition of the Syftem of Nature.
54. Macrocephalus.
Snout bent inwards. Sheath of one valve, and con¬
fiding of three articulations, and furnifiied with three
bridles,, deftitute of jawsr feelers, and lip. Antennce
2
O L O G Y.
dr etched forwards* very diort, clavated, and nearly
moniliform. Head oblong, cylindrical above. Scu-
tellum of the length of the abdomen, Hat and mem¬
branaceous.
A grayidi-reddilh colour^ the fcutellum of an afli-cimicaides,-
colour} a yellow fpot on the elytra; the wings of a
purplidi violet colour; the thighs of the fore-legs
thickened. 1. A native of America.
Only one fpecies of this genus has been deferibed in
the lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
65. Aphis, Blant-laufe or Vine-frctter.
Snout bent inwards; a {heath of five joints, furnifhed
with one bridle. 'Antennae fetaceous, and longer
than the thorax. Wings four, ereft in none. Legs
formed for walking. Abdomen frequently termi¬
nating in two horns.
The minute animals, which compofe this, lingular
genus, infed various plants, generally in large focieties,.
hindering their growth, and confuming their juices.
A peculiarity in the mode of their propagation attracted
the attention of naturalids. a good deal towards the be¬
ginning and about the middle of lad century. Reaumur,,
from lome obfervations of his own, and from the opinions
of fome preceding obfervers, was led to believe, that they 5
propagated without fexual connedtion. Bonnet adopt¬
ed the fame opinion, and thought he had eftablifhed it
beyond controverfy by fome very accurate, expenments
and obfervations of his owm, which he communicated to
the Royal Academy of Sciences. He fiiut up a young
aphis, at the indant of its birth, in the mod perfed fo-
litude, wdiich neverthelefs brought forth 95 young ones
in his fight. The fame experiment being repeated on
one of this family, it multiplied like its parent; and'
one of this third generation, brought up in folitude,
proved no lefs fruitful than the others. Repeated ex¬
periments, in this refpeft, as far as the fifth or fixth ge~
geration, all uniformly afforded the fame refult. A
fiifpicion entertained by Mr Trembley induced Mr
Bonnet to repeat his experiments with dill more accu¬
racy, and to continue them longer. He reared to the
amount of the tenth generation of folitary aphides, and i
had the patience to keep an account of the days and
hours of the births of each generation : he difeovered
that they are really didinguilhed by fexes; that the
males are produced only in the tenth generation, and
are but few in number; that thefe foon arrive at their
full growth, and copulate with the females ; that the
virtue of this copulation ferves for ten generations : he
likewife found that they were viviparous during fpring
and dimmer ; and that they wTere oviparous only in the
tenth generation; that from thefe eggs the aphides of
the following year were hatched early in the fpring.
His obfervations have been repeated by other naturalids
particularly by Dr Richardfon of Rippon, who has
given a very minute account of his obfervations, in a
paper _ publidied in the Bhilofophical Tranfathions,
voL xi. art. 22. Thefe little animals difeharge from
their anus a fwTeet fluid, commonly called honey-dew^.
which attracts the bees and ants. The fpecies are very
diificnitly didinguiflied ; it is dill more difficult to de- ~
feribe them ; different, fpecies are fome times found on,
the fame plant.
Of:
.176 E N T O M
* Lsir of- Gf an afli-colour j the fnout tlaree times the length of
tris. J the body. 34. A native of Europe j under the barks
of trees ; feeds on the larvae of the ants.
* vitis. ?6. A native of Europe $ on the vine. This deftruc-
tive little infeft cuts through the peduncles, or Items
which fupport the clutters of grapes, in their very early
ft age, caufing them to wither and drop off loon alter
the fruit is formed. „ , , ,
* ft/lac'uv. Black j wings whitilh j lhanks of the legs very long J
F the thorax warty. 33. A native of Europe and Afia,
on the pittachia; the antenns momliform j eyes
blackilh; the abdomen without briftles, covered with
white down, mixed with fmall balls •, the wings fome-
times ereft. It is lodged in a follicle anfing from the
bafe of the leaf, fwelling out in the middle, and tapering
towards each end, of more than an inch m thickneis, at
firft green, after the infeds have left it becoming flelh-
coloured.
77 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
l-aft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
66. Chermes.
The fnout is a fheath placed in the breaft, furnilhed
with three briftles, bent inwards. Antennae cylindrical,
longer than the thorax. Wings four, defleckd.
Thorax turgid on the upper fide. Legs formed for
leaping.
Thefe infects inhabit various trees and plants, and
produce by their punaures, protuberances and excrei-
cences of various lhapes and fizes, m which are fre¬
quently enclofed the eggs, and infeas m their feveral
ftates; the larva is fix-footed and apterous j the pupa is
diftinguilhed by two protuberances on the thorax, which
are the rudiments of future wings. . . . ,
* graminis 1. A native of Europe j on graffes, particularly t e
air a flexuofa. . r ,
0 caflanea. Brown-, the antennae fetaceous and Imooththe
J wings very much ribbed. 21. A native of Europe j
on different plants.
Twenty-fix fpecies of this genus have been defcribed
in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
67. Coccus, Cochineal.
The fnout fumilhed with briftles, fituated in the breaft.
Antennae filiform. The anus furnilhed with briftles.
Male with two erecl wings ; female without wings.
Thefe are extremely fertile, and very troublefome m
hothoufes and greenhoufes : the male is very a^ive, with
an oblong body, and ovate abdomen ; the tail furnilhed
with a ftyle and two long briftles: the female has a
body nearly globular, and is inadive and fixed to dif¬
ferent parts of plants.
Mperi- Oval, oblong. 1. A native of Europe ; on ever-
dum. green plants, in greenhoufes, e. g. the orange, the lau
rel •
adonidum. Reddifh, dufted over with powder, and hairy. 4.
A native of America and Africa lately in the warmer
Darts of Europe j on trees. Body oval and whitifh ,
antenme and legs brown, marked on the back with an
elevated line, and with a raifed dot on each of its feg-
ments, with the edges of the fide acute fumifhed with
fourteen prominent fegments and raifed dots-, its fm ace
T
O L o G Y. Hemiptera.
fprinkled with as many dots fet longitudinally between ,
the clavated line on the back and the edge-, the tail di¬
vided: the perfeft infedl conftrudls a follicle m which it
conceals itfelf and its yellow7 eggs. _ ^
Body oblong, ovate-, purple or chefnut.^ 17. Onpolomcus.
the roots of the filer anthus perennis.—This lifted: with¬
out impropriety may be called the cochineal of the
northern part of the world. It prefers cold climates,
and is commonly called coccus tinclonus polontcus, or
the fiarlet grain of Poland. Ray calls the plant on
which it feeds the polygonum cocctferum; but it is not
confined to one kind of vegetable, for it is found on
the moufe-ear, pimpernel, and pellitory, as well as on
the filer ant hits perennis. It is a native of iome other
northern countries as well as Poland-, though former y
the greateft quantity of it ufed to be colleded there.
Towards the end of June the coccus is m a fit ttate for
gathering. Every one of thefe creatures is then nearly
of a fpherical form, and of a fine violet colour. Some
of them, however, are not larger than poppy feeds,
and others of the fize of a pepper corn. Phe males
are produced from the fmall grains, the females from the
larger ones -, each of them is lodged, in a fort of cup
like that of an acorn. Thefe cups cover more than one
half of the body of the animal. They are rough and
of a blackifh brown on the outfide, and fmooth and
fhining on the infide. At the roots of fome of the
plants only one or two grains are to be found, at the
root of others more than forty are to be met with.
Thofe who colled the grains have a Ihort fpade,
with which they raife the plants from the ground 5 after
the infeds have been colleded they replace the plants .
the grains are then feparated from the earth, which
may have adhered to them, by means of a fieve, and
fprinkled with very cold water or vinegar to prevent
them from hatching. . .
After this they are dried m the fun, or by gentle
artificial warmth ; but this mull be managed with cau¬
tion as too hafty drying might injure their colour.
Sometimes the grains are feparated from their covers,
and made up into balls.
According to Bernard de Bemith, the lurks and
Armenians make ufe of thefe grains not only for dye¬
ing filk and wool, but likewife the manes and tails of
their horfes. The Turkifh women ufe it for tinging the
tips of their fingers. The Dutch formerly mixed it
with the true cochineal. The colouring matter extrac¬
ted from this infed, by means of a folution of alum
with the addition of a little chalk, is faid to form a lake
equal in beauty to that of Florence. The great fupe-
riority of the Mexican cochineal, has caufed the icarlet
grains of Poland to be negleded in all the countries of
Europe where dyeing is beft underftood, as they con¬
tain not a fifth part of the colouring matter which may
be extraded from the real cochineal.
Body depreffed, downy, and tranfverfely wrinkled -, caBt.
abdomen purplifti-, legs fhort and black-, antenme fubu-
lated, the third part of the length of the body. 22. A
native of South America, on the caclus cocctmllifera.
The male is very fmall-, its body is long, of a deep red
colour -, two long diverging threads proceed from the
extremity of the abdomen ; its wings are large, white,
and incumbent j its legs are pretty long; the antennas
are nearly the length of the body.
The female is more than double the fize of the male,
when
Hemiptera. E Kf T O M
when at Its full growth, it is almoft as large as a pea, of
a dark browrn colour, and covered wTith a white powder j
the antennae are fhort •, the body flat beneath, and con¬
vex above, and edged with annular fegments diftindlly
marked j the legs are fliort.
The female of this infedt is the real cochineal, fo
highly valued in every part of the world, for the in¬
comparable beauty of the red colour which it affords,
v/hich forms fo conflderable a branch of commerce be¬
tween the new’ and old continents. In the year 1736,
there was imported into Europe 700,000 pounds weight,
worth upwards of 700,000!. flerling. It was a long
while made ufe of before its nature was afcertained:
for a conflderable time it w’as thought to be the fruit of
i'ome vegetable. The fame opinion prevailed with re-
fpect to another fpecies of coccus, wdiich was much
ufed as a dye before the introduction of the Mexican
cochineal, and which, under the name of kermes, is
collected in Spain, Sardinia, Africa, and Afla Minor.
America is ftill the only quarter from which the true
cochineal is to be obtained. The principal countries,
where the cochineal infedts are bred, are Oaxaca, Tlaf-
cala, Chulula, Nueva Gallicia, and Chiapa, in the
kingdom of New Spain •, and Hambalo, Loja, and Tu-
cuman in Peru •, but it is only in Oaxaca that they are
gathered in great quantities, and form a branch of com¬
merce 5 the cultivation of thefe little creatures being
there the chief employment of the Indians. It is im¬
ported into Europe, in the form of fmall irregular
grains, flat on the one fide, and convex on the other:
the befl: is of a flate gray colour, mixed with red, and
covered with a white powder. There are two kinds of
cochineal, firfl: the fine, called by different names, ac¬
cording to the places from whence it comes, viz Majlique,
Campcfcane, and Tetrafcale; of thefe the maftique is
reckoned the bell. The fecond is called fylvejler, from
its being commonly colledted from a fpecies of caEius,
which grows without culture : this is much inferior to
the other, both in price and in the quantity of the co¬
louring matter which it affords; it is likewife fmaller,
and generally believed to be a different fpecies of coc¬
cus. The plant on which they rear the befl: cochineal
is called nopal by the Indians, cast us coccinellfera of
Linnaeus). The colour of the cochineal is byfome fup-
pofed to be derived from the juice of this plant. Its
flowers and the juice of its fruit are of a beautiful red
colour. The natives of thofe countries w’here the cochi¬
neal is reared, form plantations of the nopal in fmall
gardens near their houfes ; the plant is propagated by
cuttings, which grow freely. In about eighteen months
after the plantations have been formed they are fit for
the reception of the infecls. Thefe plantations muft be
renewed every fix years, as the infe£ls fucceed beft on
young vigorous plants.
The nopal will grow on almoft any foil, and needs
no other culture but to be kept clear of weeds, and
protected from the north-wind. The infecls are placed
upon the nopal about the middle of October, the period
at which good wreather commonly commences in Mexico
after the rains. Thofe who rear the infefts, take care
to preferve a fufficient number of females for this pur¬
pose, either by protecting them during the rainy feafon
with a covering of matts, or by removing fome branches
of the nopal loaded with them into their own houfes.
Eight or ten of thefe females are put into a flnall neft,
Vol. VIII. Part L
o l o G Y.
formed of a tuft of threads collected from a fpecies of
palm, or of any other cottony matter, which is attach¬
ed to the fpines of the nopal, on that fide of the plant
expofed to the rifing fun, the rays of which promote
the hatching of the young infeCts, which foon proceed
in great numbers from the neft, as each female pro¬
duces upwards of a thoufand. The larvae fpread over
the plant, and foon fix themfelves by means of their
trunk j after this, Ihould they by any accident be dif-
placed, they inevitably periih, as their trunks are broken,
In fome diftriCts the females are preferved during the
rainy feafon in boxes carefully ftiut up. The males
live for little more than one month. The females about
double that time. Both of them remain in the ftate of
larvae for about ten days 3 they remain fifteen days
longer in the ftate of pupae. The males wdien they
pafs from the ftate of pupae get wings 3 but till that time
they are not diftinguiftiable from the females, except
that they are only about half the fize. After they ac¬
quire wings, they impregnate the female, and die. The
female, in going through her different changes, does not
change her form, but only cafts her fkin. After flic
has been impregnated flie lives for about a month, and
increafes conliderably in bulk ; then lays her eggs, and
dies. According to M. Thierry, there are fix genera¬
tions of thefe little animals in the year. They might
be collected during the whole year, did not the rainy
feafon check their progrefs, and almoft entirely deftroy
them. According to all the writers on the fubjeft,
there are three collections made of them yearly. The
firft takes place about the middle of December, and
the laft in the month of May. When they make the
firft collection, they take away the nefts, and pick out
the dead females, which had been placed on the nopal
the preceding October. The fecond collection is made
when the infeCts again begin to produce young. The
infeCts are detached from the plant with a knife, the
edge and point of wrhich have been blunted, to prevent
the nopal from being injured. The infeCts are received
into a veffel as they are feparated from the plant, put
to death, and dried. The Indians have feveral ways of
killing thefe infeCts; which they are anxious to accom-
pliftr as foon as poflible, becaufe the females may live
for fome time after they are detached, and produce
their young, which might efcape and diminilh the quan¬
tity of cochineal collected. Some natives put the co¬
chineal in a balket, and dip them in boiling water 3 af¬
terwards they expofe them to the fun to dry.
Others put them in a hot oven, or on heated plates
of iron. But it appears that the beft cochineal is ob¬
tained by following the firft mode. The different co¬
lours imported into Europe depend entirely on the mode
of killing the infeCls. That wThich has been killed by
dipping in boiling water, lofes part of the white pow¬
der, with which they were covered, and acquires a
brownifh red colour : this kind is called renagrida.
That which is killed in an oven retains the white pow¬
der, and remains of a gray colour : this is called jar-
peada. That which is killed by plates of heated iron
becomes blackiih, and is called negra.
The dead females which are taken from the nefts
which had been put on the nopal, lofe more of their
weight in drying than the infeCts which are taken off
alive and full of young 3 the firft lofing three-fourths,
and the laft two-thirds in drying. After it has been dried
Z if
178
E N T O M
it may be kept for any length of time without lofing
either weight or colour.
It requires much care and attention to preferve thefe
infedls from their numerous enemies. l ire principal
enemies which infeft the cochineal are, the larvae of a
fpecies of coccinella, which fuck them, and _ leave no¬
thing but the fkin. A caterpillar of about an inch long,
and of the thicknefs of a crow quill, is their moil de-
flruclive enemy, which would foon deftroy the whole
race, were they allowed to carry on their depredations
without mdeflation. The larvae of a fpecies of ptimis
feeds on them likewife. There is a fpecies of infedl
which lives on the nopal in great numbers, and does as
much injury to the plant as the cochineal inie£ls them-
felves do; which pinches their body, prevents them from
taking nourifhment, and caufes them to drop from the
plant. A fmall moufe which always prefers the fine co¬
chineal to the fylvefter, becaufe the cottony matter
with which the fylvefter is more abundantly covered
entangles its teeth, alfo preys on them. Many birds,
too, are fond of them, and would deftroy great numbers
of them, were they not driven away by the owurers of
the plantations.
The fylvefter is fmaller than the true cochineal;
their bodies are covered wuth a wdiite cottony matter,
and edged all round with hairs. About eight days af¬
ter they are fixed, the cottony matter and the hairs in-
creafe in length, and become fo clofely attached to the
plant, that part of them is commonly left adhering af¬
ter the infefl has been removed. Though thefe infers
commonly feed on a prickly fpecies of caBus, which
grows wild, the Indians frequently rear them on the
nopal, becaufe they are colle&ed from it with much more
facility than from the uncultivated Ipecies : for the molt
dexterous workman cannot collect more of the in feels in
one day than will produce twm ounces of cochineal when
dry ; whereas he can colled! from the cachis coceinellv-
fera as many as will yield three pounds when dry. There
"is alfo another advantage obtained from rearing the fyl
vefter on the nopal which they cultivate in their gar¬
dens ; the infefts become almoft as large as the true
cochineal, and lofe more and more of their cottony co¬
vering in proportion to the frequency of their reproduc¬
tion. The fylvefter has been lately introduced into the
Eritiili fettlements in India. The following account of
its introduction and comparative value has been pub-
lifhed by Mr Nicolas Fontana, who refided for many
years in that part of the world.
“ The introduction of cochineal into Bengal, which
cur neighbours had endeavoured to naturalize in their
Weft India poflefiions, deferves particularly to be mark¬
ed, as being likely, under proper management, to be¬
come not only a new aera in the progreflive refources
of the company, but an acceffion of opulence to the
Britilh empire : an aera the more remarkable, as, not-
withftanding the attempts of government, the defign
was not accomplilhed but through accident, the great
parent of difeovery, which, with never-ceafing influ¬
ence operates in many wTays for the good of man¬
kind.
“ After a large plantation of the various fpecies of
tpuntia had been reared at Madras, waiting only the
arrival of the infect to make it ferviceable, which a long
correfpondence of thirteen years could not obtain, Dr
Anderfon’s folicitations about it had almoft been forgot-
O L O G Y. Hemiptera.
ten ; yet though his laborious induftry and zeal for his
country’s intereft, had no other reward, the introduction
of the cochineal infeft into India is entirely owing to
his publications on the fubjeft, wftuch fortunately fell
into the hands of Captain Nelfon, who was then fta-
tioned at Madras with the 5 2d regiment. On the
captain’s return to India in X795» ^ie ^eet
failed, repaired for refrefhment to the port of Rio de
Janeiro. In his perambulations a little way out of this
towrn, he rvas attended as ufually by the centinel, when
he faw a plantation of opuntia with the inleft upon it.
This circumftance immediately brought to his recollec¬
tion the ardent wiih for the importation of the infeft
exprefled in the letters he had read at Madras; and
he conceived the hope of being able to gratify Dr
Anderfon’s deftre, by carrying fome to India with him.
“ A day or two previous to his embarkation, he took
another wralk to the place wThere he had feen the opun¬
tia or nopal. He made bold to alk the cultivators for
fome of the plant, being curious, he faid, in matters of
natural hiftory. Having collefted feveral other plants,
he wilhed to have this alio. rlhe good people, being
the lefs fufpicious as he w^as in his regimentals, grant¬
ed his requeft. They gave him feveral plants with in-
fefts on them, which he carefully carried aboard. Ma¬
ny of thefe, during the paffage to Bengal, which was
remarkably long and tedious for fuch delicate pafien-
gers, died. A few infefts only remained alive on the
laft plant, feveral of the leaves having withered.
“ Captain Nelfon, on his arrival in Calcutta, fent the
furvivors to the Wotanic garden, where they were dif-
tributed on the different fpecies of the opuntia. This
well nigh fruftrated the whole labour. On the China
and Manilla fpecies, they were found to die faff. It
fortunately occurred to make trial on the indigenous
opuntia of Bengal, which is alfo abundant in many
parts of India. On this the infefts thrived amazingly ;
infomuch, that from thefe few, in the courfe of four
or five months, a quantity had been collefted fufficient
for diftribution among all who wilhed to try the rearing
of them, and feveral plants upon which the infefts were
feeding w^ere fent to Madras.
“ The novelty and importance of the objeft promi-
ffng fo fpeedy and plentiful a harveft of fortune, enga-
ed a multitude of individuals to undertake the bufinels ;
and this, no doubt, the more readily, as the cultiva¬
tion of this field of w ealth required but very .little capi¬
tal. Many golden dreams were enjoyed by the new
planters. All who had a mind were provided with in-
fefts ; and undertook plantations of opuntia.
“ The anxiety and impatience natural to all, who,
indulging in ardent expeftations, undertake new' enter-
prifes, induced fome of the planters of nopal to put the
infeft upon it when the plant had juft: emerged from
the ground. Others, through inattention, kept their
infefts in places too near to wftrere the opuntia tvas
growing young, which in that tender and premature
ft ate was devoured by thefe creatures when hard prefled
by hunger. The unikilful mode of drying was like¬
wife adopted; and fome of thofe perfons whofe opinions
led the multitude, declared in the moil decided and po-
fitive manner, that the cochineal would never anfwer,
as it would not be found wTorth the trouble and expence
attending the cultivation of it. All thefe confiderations
damped in a great meafure the ardour of the enterprife.
Many
Hemiptera. E N T , O M
Many abandoned the purfuit, and left the infeeds to pro¬
vide for themfelves, after the plants deftined for their ufe
were dcftroyed, wherever they could find nourilhment.
They were leen flying about indifcriminately on various
other plants, and thus perifliing j while others rooted out
the plantations, and employed the ground for other pur-
pofes.
“ Befides the difcouraging circuniftances already men¬
tioned, it was urged that the fpecies imported into In¬
dia was the grand fylvejiris, and that the firit fpecimens
fent home had been of no value. They had grown
lumpy and muity for want of being properly dried, or
thoroughly diveited of the cottony matter with which
the infehl is covered. But fuppofing, it was added, that
a proper mode of drying and preparing it could be
found out, and the cultivation of it brought to the
greatefl perfection, it would foon overftock the market,
as there is a certain quantity only, and that not very
great, which is required for Europe. This would foon
be fupplied, and lofs initead of gain would accrue to the
planters. This excefs, however, it was farther urged,
Was to be prefumed only in the cafe of the country be¬
ing able to fupply plants fufficient for the food of the
inieft, which was very doubtful on account of its quick
reprodudion, as it fends forth a new generation every
forty days. Thefe with other objections of lefs force,
may eaiily be refuted by any impartial obferver ac¬
quainted with the nature of the climate and foil of In¬
dia, even without any kind of knowledge of agricul¬
ture. In fuch a vail extent of territory as that of the
Eaft India Company, and lying under fuch a variety of
climates, it is not furely impolfible, or very difficult, to
find a climate and foil fitted for the naturalization and
rearing the cochineal infeCf, and where the plants will
grow to proper fize for affording it food ; in the fame
manner as in the diitriCts of Mexico, where the people
who take mofl: pains, have them growing to fuch a
height as to require ladders to gather the infeCls. Such
a ftate of the plant would check the too rapid repro¬
duction of the infeCt, and at the fame time improve its
Quality ; for it is a faCt, that the fylveiter cochineal,
when bred upon a full grown nopal, lofes part of its tena¬
city, and grows to double the fize of that gathered on gum¬
my plants, and is lefs covered with the cottony fubfiance.
“ The cultivation of cochineal, would in all probabili¬
ty be greatly favoured by the vicinity of a hilly coun¬
try } fuch as the Boglepore, Rajahmahl, and Purneah.
It can be afcertained by good authority, that there are
already in the Chittagong diftiiCt, plantations of large
opuntias, which have been growing for two years pall.
Whenever the infeCt fhall be placed on thefe plants, we
ffiall fee cochineal of a very good quality. The nature
and habits of the natives feem entirely calculated for
the employment of gathering the infeCt 5 work that
may be done by old men, women or boys.
“ As to the drying the infeCts, there is no country
where the fun has fuch influence as in Bengal. The
method of drying in the fun, after fcalding the infeCt
in hot water, is that praCtifed in Mexico and in Brazil:
the infeCls collected in wooden bowls are thereby fpread
from them on a hot dith of earthen ware, and placed
alive on a charcoal fire, where they are flowly roafted,
till the downy covering difappears, and the aqueous
juices of the animal are wholly evaporated. During
•this operation, the infeCts are conftantly Itirred about
o L o G Y.
with a tin ladle, and fometimes water is fprinkled upon
them, to prevent abfolute torrefaCtion, which would
deftroy the colour : but a little praCtice will teach them
to remove them from the fire, though furely its barba¬
rity ought to prevent its adoption.
“ By an eftimate,made on a large fcale, of the neeeffary
expence that would attend the cultivation of one hundred
biggahs of opuntia, it appeared, that after making every
poihble allowance for ground rent, ryots gathering, and an
European overfeer, and intereft on diffiurfement at twelve
per cent, the quantity produced of grana fylve/Iris, dm
ring nine months of the year, reckoning it at four licca
rupees per feer of thirty two ounces, would more than
treble the capital employed. But if this calculation be
juft in the vicinity of Calcutta, and there is no reafon to
fuppofe it otherwife, where labour and ground rent is
dear; how much would the whole expence of cultiva¬
tion and preparation be, if transferred to a greater dif-
tance, and to the other provinces !
“ When the infeCt has been well dried, it ffiould be
packed immediately, as it might otherwife be affected
by the damp air of Bengal. In this bufmefs the method
uled in Mexico ffiould be followed j which is to put it firfi
into a linen bag, covered with a compaCt net j and then
over the whole an ox’s hide fewed fo clofely as to ren¬
der it impervious to water.
“ For fome of the cochineal which I wanted for tliC
purpofe of making experiments, collected at Entally*
two miles from Calcutta, I paid in 1796 fixteen rupees
per feer; for the fame quantity raifed by another plan¬
ter the followin'g year eight rupees $ and ir 1797, I might
have bought a great quantity, part of which came one
hundred miles from Calcutta, at five rupees per feer.
“ The improveability of the grana JyheJlris, by at¬
tention, will be afcertained more clearly by the follow¬
ing fa Cl, than by a thoufand arguments. Some mer¬
chants, at my recommendation, bought about two hun¬
dred pounds of cochineal made at Raffapuglah, five
miles from Calcutta, at five rupees per feer. The fame
houfe paid for feven mauns, or 280 feers, to Mr Stephens
at Keerpay, feven rupees per feer 5 and I can fay, tha't
it was the bell of the fort that had yet been feen in the
town, both for its fize, cleaning and drying.
“ Let us now fuppofe for a iftoment, fuch cochineal
as that made at Keerpay, to be the belt that can ever be
obtained at Bengal, and that the above may be within a
rupee, more or lefs, the average price. The grana find
that is brought to Bengal by way of Manilla, fells, when
abundant, at fixteen rupees per feer, but oftener at nine¬
teen and twenty. The Bengal fylveJJris contains only
from to parts of the colouring matter contained iu
the other ; but fay only one half, fo that the manufactu¬
rer will be obliged to ufe two feers inllead of one, the
quality of the colour to be the fame ; even at this rate,
the filk manufactories at Bengal might be fupplied with
it, with a yearly faving. After fupplying this market,
if the quantity be increafed, there will be a demand for
it in the China and Englilh markets, though only of the
fylveiter kind. Suppofing it for ever to remain fucb,
by leaving it to the indolent natives only, even this
would be a great acquifition, confidering the various
ways in which it can be employed by the dyers. Be¬
fides, if the prices were immediately to fall, fo as not to
indemnify the prefent freight and infurance to the pri¬
vate adventurers, how eafy would it be to reduce the in-
Z % fed
i8o
E N T O M
feci to a much fmaller bulk, by making a lake, and pro¬
ducing carmine no lefs valuable than the grana fma.
“ The overftocking of the market, however, with a
drug fo important, and of fuch extenfive ufe, is not a
thing very likely to happen. The manufafturer, wheie-
ever he could get it at a low price, would ufe it. gene¬
rally, and fubftitute it in the room of other materials for
reds, luch as madder, red-wood, and others, ufed for
woollens, and filks j befides the great varieties of fhades
from fcarlet and crimfon, down to all thofe various tints
to be obtained by modifications of reagents from cochi¬
neal, with a brilliancy, and liability, mat would loon re¬
pay the fmall additional expence that might be incurred
by the fubilitution.
“ It is a thing greatly to be wifhed, by every citizen
and patriot, that the Bengal cochineal may foon be
brought to fuch a degree of perfeftion, and produced in
fuch plenty, as may admit of a reduction of its price fuffi-
cient to induce the calicoe printers in Europe to ufe it
more commonly than hitherto, in the dyeing of cotton *,
which would open a much wider field for its confump-.
tion. As to the fhynefs of cotton to the admiffion of
this animal colour, it is not an obftacle that ought by
any means to be confidered as infurmountable in the
prefent Hate of chemiflry, advancing fo rapidly to far¬
ther improvements, and particularly applying, with vafl
fuccefsmany pf its operations to the art of dyeing, ihe
few unfuccefsful attempts made by manufadlurers and
chemifls to fix this colour on cotton, have been defeated
piore by the dearnefs of the drug, than by any imprac¬
ticability of the defign. This exhauiled at once the
purfe and patience, both of the artifl and chemifl} and
precluded that continuation, repetition, and diverfifica-
tion of experiment, which is neceflary to the completion
of new inventiops.
“ It was upon cotton that the Spaniards firfl faw the
cochineal ufed in Mexico j but for want of preparation
it produced but a dull crimfon. When fome of the
dried Bengal infe£l was fhewed to the vakeel of the
rajah of Napaul, refiding as minifler to our government
at Calcutta, he foon knew it, and declared that it was
always ufed in dyeing his country robes and turbans.
The opportunity arifing from the management of a
chintz manufadlory, induced me to make fome trials
of cochineal in cotton cloth and thread. By thefe it
was afcertained, that the quantity of colouring matter
contained in the Bengal cochineal of 1796, compared
with the gratia jina, was from nine or eleven to fixteen.
I then repeated, as far as the chemical reagents to be
obtained in India would permit, various experiments of
the kind mentioned by Dr Bancroft, in his firfl volume
of the Philofophy of Fall Colours j and nearly with the
fame fuccefs, in variety of fhades, and degrees of perma¬
nency. From thefe experiments, there refulted two
confiderable benefits to that manufadlory : the firfl was,
that I was induced to make an addition of a certain
quantity of powdered cochineal to the morinda root,
for the fine cloths and muflins that were to undergo the
boiling procefs in the vat. The fecond, I wus led. to
mix with the bafis for printing red (alum), a decoftion
of cochineal, inftead of the turmeric or red wood, for¬
merly ufed by printers in tracing their defigns. This
lafl fubflitute was only boiled in fimple morinda, and the
other with the addition of cochineal. By this procefs,
O L O G Y. Kemlptera.
deep and brilliant reds were obtained, Inch as had not
hitherto been feen in Bengal.'5
The cultivation, therefore, of the cochineal infecl, is
an objeft worthy of all the countenance and care of go¬
vernment. The attempts toward its naturalization
ought not by any means to be abandoned ; but conti¬
nued with all perievering indullry, and unwrearied atten¬
tion to every circumftance that may promote fo import¬
ant a branch of commerce. lor this article wTe fend
annually immenfe fums to the Spaniards. Not only
might this expence be favedto Britain } but, in due time,
the reft of the world might be fupplied from the Ben -
gal produce of this valuable commodity. It is in the
recolletlion of moft people converfant with India affairs,
how the firft fpCcimens of indigo fent home from Ben¬
gal were depreciated and reje&ed. Hence the cultiva¬
tion of it was obftrufted for fome years. But when it
began to be attended to in 1780, and 1782, by people
who were acquainted wdth the bell modes of manufac¬
turing it, it was improved wuth fuch rapidity that in
1790, fome of the Bengal indigo wns judged to be
equal to the Guatimala, and bore the fame price. The
quantity fent home in the years 1795 an<^ I79^» was ^ar
beyond wdiat had ever been imported into the port of
London from all the world, and more than is required
for the annual confumption of Europe. The ufe of in¬
digo in the dye-houfe is very circumfcribed, and con¬
fined chiefly to the colours of blue and green. It gives
alfo a few finer blacks, wdth lilac grounds} but it can¬
not, like cochineal, be applied to the various principal
colours, as crimfon, fcarlet, purple, and all the interme¬
diate fhades.
Body red 3 antennae branched 3 tail furnifhed withJicus,
two briftles. 23. A native of India 3 on the ficus re-
ligiofa and indie a. This is the infecl which produces
the gum lac.
In the months of November and December, they firft
appear, and traverfe the branches of the trees on which
they are produced for fome time, and then fix themfelves
on the extremities of the young branches. By the middle
of January, they are all fixed in their proper fituations,
when they appear as plump as before, but fhew no other
figns of life. The legs, antennae, and fetae, are no longer to
to be feen. Around their edges they are environed with a
fub-pellucid liquid which feems to glue them to the
branch 3 it is the gradual accumulation of this liquid which
forms a complete cell for each infeft, and is wrhat is called
gum lacca. About the middle of March the cells are com¬
pletely formed, and the infecl is in appearance an oval
fmooth red bag without life, about the fize of a fmall
cochineal infeft, emarginated at the obtufe end, full of a
beautiful red liquid. In Oclober and November, we
find about twenty or thirty oval eggs, or rather larvae,
within the red fluid of the mother. When this fluid is
all expended, the young infe£ts pierce a hole through
the back of their mother, and wralk off one by one, leav¬
ing their exuviae behind, wdrich is that white membra¬
nous fubftance found in the empty cells of the flick lac.
Thefe infefls feed on fome other trees befides the
feus religiofa and indica of Linnaeus, viz. on the rham-
nus jujuba (Linn.) and on the plafo, (Hort. Malabar.)
The infedls generally fix themfelves fo clofe together, and
in fuch numbers, that fcarcely one in fix can complete
her cell; the others die, and are eaten by various infefts.
The
Hemiptera. E N T O M
T1ne extreme branches appear as if they were covered
with a red dud, and their fap is fo much exhaufted that
they wither and produce no fruit*, the leaves drop off or
turn to a dirty black colour. Thefe infects are tranf-
ported from one tree to another by birds. It is worth
obferving, that thefe fig-trees exfixde, when wounded, a
milky juice, which inftantly coagulates into a vifcid
ropy fubftance, and when dried refembles the gum lac.
A red gum is procured by incifion from the p/afo, fo
fxmilar to the gum lacca, that it may readily be taken
for the fame fubftance. Hence, it is probable, thefe ani¬
mals have but little trouble in preparing the fap of the
trees for the conftruflion of their cells.
The gum lacca is rarely feen on the 7'hamnusjujuba, and
is inferior to what is found upon the other trees. This
gum, in Bengal, is principally found on the uncultivated
mountains on both iides the Ganges, wdiere it is pro¬
duced in fuch abundance, that the markets might be
readily fupplied, wrere the confumpt ten times greater
than it is.
The only trouble in collefting it is in breaking down
the branches. The beft lac is of a deep red colour 5
if if be pale and pierced at top, the value diminiihes,
becaufe the infefts having efcaped, it cannot be ufeful
as a dye, though it may anfwer better as a varnilh.
Thefe infefts and their cells have been varioufty de¬
nominated : viz. gum lacca, lack, la Ur a, and in Bengal
lafcha. By the Englifh, lac is divided into four kinds *,
viz. Jlich lac, lump lac, feed lac, and Jhell lac; for
which, and their varieties, fee the article Lac.
The followung account of the lac infedl by Dr
William Roxburgh, is publilhed in the Afiatic Re-
fearches, vol. ii.
“ Some pieces of very frefti looking lac, adhering to
fmall branches of the mimofa cinerea, wTere brought me
from the mountains on the 20th of laft month. I kept
them carefully, and to day, the 4th December, fourteen
days from the time they came from the hills, myriads
of exceedingly minute animals were obferved creeping
about the lac and branches it adhered to, and more ftill
iffuing from fmall holes over the furface of the cells:
other fmall and perforated excrefcences were obferved
with a glafs, amongft the perforations j from which the
minute infedfs iffued, regularly two to each hole, and
crowned with fome very fine white hairs. When the
hairs were rubbed off, two white fpots appeared. The ani¬
mals, when Angle, ran about pretty brifkly ; but in
general they were fo numerous, as to be crow7ded over
one another. The body is oblong, tapering moft to¬
wards the tail, below plain, above convex, with a
double or flat margin *, laterally on the back part of
the thorax are two fmall tubercles, which may be the
eyes *, the body behind the thorax is croffed with 1 2
rings } legs fix 5 feelers (antennae) half the length of the
body, jointed, hairy, each ending in two hairs as long
as the antennae 5 rump, a white point between two
terminal hairs, which are as long as the body of the
animal j the mouth I could not fee.
“ On opening the cells, the fubftance that they were
formed of cannot be better defcribed, with refpedl to
appearance, than by faying it is like the tranfparent
amber that beads are made of : the external covering of
the cells may be about half a line thick, is remarkably
ftrcng, and able to refill: injuries; the partitions are
O L O G Y. I&I
much thinner ; the cells are in general irregular fquares-,
pentagons, and hexagons, about an eighth of an inch in
diameter, and a fourth deep 5 they have no comtnunica-
tion with each other: all thefc I opened during the
time the animals were iffuing, contained in one half a
fmall bag filled with a thick red jelly-like liquor, re¬
plete with what I take to be eggs: thefe bags, or utri-
culi, adhere to the bottom of the cells, and have each
two necks, which pafs through perforations in the ex¬
ternal coat of the cells, forming the fore-mentioned ex¬
crefcences, and ending in fome very fine hairs. The
other half of the cells have a diftindl opening, and con¬
tain a white fubftance, like fome few filaments of cotton
rolled together, and numbers of the infefts themfelves
ready to make their exit. Several of the fame infedls
I obferved to have drawn up their legs, and to lie flat 5.
they did not move on being touched, nor did they Ihow
any figns of life, with the greateft irritation.
“ December 5th. The fame minute hexapedes con¬
tinue iffuing from their cells in numbers 5 they are more
lively, of a deepened red colour, and fewer of the
motionlefs fort. To day I faw the mouth ; it is a flat¬
tened point, about the middle of the breart, which the
little animal projedfts on being comprefl'ed.
“ December 6th. The male infedls I have found to
day. A few of them are conftantly running amongfl:
the females moft actively ; as yet they are fcarce more,
I imagine, than one to 5000 females, but twice their
fize. The head is obtufe ; eyes black, very large j
antennae clavated, feathered, about two thirds the length
of the body j below the middle an articulation, fuch as
thofe in the legs 5 colour between the eyes, a beautiful
fhining green *, neck very fhort ; body oval, brown 5
abdomen oblong, the length of the body and head j
legs fix *, wings membranaceous, four longer than the
body, fixed to the fides of the thorax, narroxv at their
infertions, growing broader for tv/o-thirds of their
length, then rounded j the anterior pair is twice the
fize of the pofterior ; a ftrong fibre runs along their an¬
terior margins j they lie flat, like wings of a common fly,
when it walks or refts 5 no hairs from the rump ; it
fprings moft actively to a confiderable diftance on being
touched ; mouth in the under part of the head ; maxillae
tranfverfe.
“To day the female infefts continue iffuing in great
numbers, and move about as on the fourth.
“ December 7th. The fmall red infe&s ftill more
numerous, and move about as before j winged infects,
ftill very few, continue aflive. There have been frefti
leaves and bits of the branches of both mimofa cinerea
and corinda put into the wide-mouthed bottle with them :
they walk over them indifferently, without fhowing
any preference, nor inclination to work nor copulate.
“ I opened a cell whence I thought the winged flies
had come, and found feveral, eight or ten, more in it,
ftruggling to fhake off their encumbrances 5 they were
in one of thefe utriculi mentioned on the 4th, which
ends in two mouths, ftrat up with fine white hairs, but
one of them was open for the exit of the flies *, the other
would no doubt have opened in due time \ this utri-
culus I found now* perfeftly dry, and divided into cells
by exceeding thin partitions. I imagine, before any of
the flies made their efcape, it might have contained
about twenty. In thofe minute cells with the living
flies,
i82
ilkis.
E N T O M
flics, or wlience they liad made their efcape, were fmall,
dry, dark-coloured, compreffed grains, which may be the
dried excrements of the flies.
Shining brown, covered with white down. 6. This
infefl is commonly called kermesgrains, and inhabits the
quercus coccifera of the fouthern parts of Europe. Mr
Hellot of the French Academy of Sciences, in his Art
of Dyeing, chapter 12. fays it is found in the woods of
Vauvert, Vendeman, and Narbonne j but more abun¬
dantly in Spain, towards Allcant and Valencia j but
alfo in Murcia, Jaen, Cordova, Seville, Eftremadura,
la Mancha, Serranias de Cuenga, and other places. In
Xicona, and Tierra de Relluc, there is a diftrict called
de la Gratia, where the people of Valencia firft began
to gather it, whofe example was followed all over
Spain. It has fome years produced 5000!. to the in¬
habitants of Xicona. Both the ancients and moderns
feem to have had very confufed notions concerning the
origin and nature of the kermes •, fome confldering it as
a "fruit : this opinion was entertained by Pliny, and by
moft of the ancient naturalifts j others taking it for an
-excrefcence formed by the pundlures of a particular fly,
like the common gall obferved upon the oak. Tourne-
fort was of this number. Count Marfigli, and Dr Nifoli
a phyflcian of Montpelier, made obfervations and expe¬
riments, with a viewr of difcovering its nature, but did
not perfectly fucceed. Two other phyflcians at Aix in
Provence, Dr Emeric and Dr Garidel, applied them-
felves about the fame time with greater fuccefs \ they dif-
■covered the kermes to be nothing elfe than the body of
an infeT. About the beginning of March they are per¬
ceived on the branches of the quercus coccifera, very
fmall •, they foon fix themfelves and become immoveable,
after which they increafe rapidly in fize. In April
they arrive at their full grow'th, and are nearly about the
fize of a pea. About the end of May, fooner or later,
according to the warmth of the climate, the hulk ap¬
pears replete wuth fmall eggs, lefs than poppy feed.
Thefe are properly ranged under the belly of the in-
fefts, progreflively placed in the netl of down that covers
their bodies. After this it foon dies, though it Hill ad¬
heres to its pofition, rendering a further fervice to its
progeny, and Ihielding them from the inclemency of the
weather, or the hoilile attacks of an enemy. In a good
feafon they multiply exceedingly, producing from 1800
to 2000 eggs. In Languedoc and Provence the poor
are employed to gather the kermes j the "women letting
their nails grow for that purpofe, in order to pick them
off with greater facility.
The cuftom of lopping off the boughs is very injudici¬
ous, as by this means they deftroy the next year’s harveft.
Some women will gather two or three pounds a day j
the great point being to know the places wdiere they are
moll likely to be found in any quantity, and to gather
them early with the morning dew, as the leaves are
more pliable and tender at that time, than after they
have been parched by the rays of the fun : llrong dews
will cccafionally make them fall from the trees fooner
than ufual 5 when the proper feafon paffes, they fall off
themfelves, and become food for birds, particularly
doves. Sometimes there is a fecond colleftion •, but the
infeffs are commonly fmaller, and do not afford fo much
colouring matter. The infefts which are produced in
the fpring, are generally found adhering to the bark;
2
O L 0 G Y. Eepidoptera.
thofe of the fecond crop are commonly attached to the
leaves.
Thofe who buy up the kermes for exportation, fpread ,
it on linen, taking care to fprinkle it with vinegar, to
kill the infects, which caufes a red duff to feparate from
them 5 in Spain, this is carefully collected, and kept
apart by itfelf. After it has been dried, they pafs it
through a fearce and put it up into bags. In the mid¬
dle of each, its proportion of red duff is put into a
leather bag, which likewife belongs to the buyer. The
people of Hinojos, Bonares, Villalba, and ot lome other
parts in Spain, dry it on mats in the fun, ftirring it a-
bout, and feparating the red duff, which is the finefl:
part; which they fprinkle with vinegar, and call pajlil.
The kermes is much in requeft on the coaft of Barbary,
particularly that which comes from Spain. The people
of Tunis mix it with w?hat is brought from Tetuan,
for dyeing thofe fcarlet caps fo much ufed in the
Levant.
43 fpecies of this genus, have been defcribed in the luff;
edition of the Syflem of Nature.
68. Thrips.
Snout concealed within the mouth. Antennae filiform,
of the fame length with the thorax. Body linear.
Abdomen capable of being bent upwards. Wings
four, ftraight, incumbent, narrower than the body,
and nearly forming a crofs.
The infefts of this genus leap about very aftively on
flowers ; their feet are vehicular ; the larvae are equally
adlive with the perfedt infedl \ commonly red.
The elytra yellowifii •, body black. 2. A native of *plyjra^
Europe ; on compound flowers. It fhuts up the fiow'ers
of the lotus corniculatus, and caufes them to fwell out )
it is very deftrudlive to w'heat and rye, frequently ren¬
dering the ears quite empty.
Eleven fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in
the laft edition of the Sylfem of Nature.
III. LEPIDOPTERA.
Wings four, covered with fmall fcales laid over one
another, like tiles on the roof of a houfe. The mouth
fumiihed with a fpiral tongue. Body hairy.
69. Papilio, the Butterfly.
Antennae thicker towards the points. Moft frequently
they are both clavated and furnifhed with a knob at
the extremity. Their wings, wdien at reft, are for
the moft part eredt They fly about in the day time.
The butterfly feeds on the nedlarious juice of flowers,
or on the faccharine juice which exudes from the leaves
of vegetables. Their larvae are adlive, and run about
a good deal. They are furnifhed w-irh tentacula and
16 feet ; fome are naked, others covered with prickles,
and feed on the leaves of plants. The pupa is naked,
and remains torpid for a longer or fhorter period } fre¬
quently adhering to different fubftances, by means of
threads attached to its middle or head. The perfedt in-
fect is furniihed with two feelers, but wants jaw's, and
Lepidoptera. E N T O M
has four or fix feet. Their names are frequently taken
from the plants on which they feed.
Thefe butterflies which belong to the family of
hnights are, for the molt part, furnilhed with filiform
antennae, and with a tail or long appendix to the wings j
the larvae are commonly variegated, and but few7 of them
are natives of Europe.
Linnaeus has arranged the genus of Butterfly into
fix divifions, and thefe again into many fubdivifions.
i. Equites. Alls primo-
ribus ab angulo pofterio-
re ad apicem longioribus
quam ad bafin 5 his faepe
antennae filiformes.
A. Troes. Saepius nigri,
maculis ad pedlus fan-
guineis.
B. Aclnvi. Pectora non
cruenta, ocello ad angu-
lam ani.
a. Alls abfque fafciis.
b. Alls fafciatis,
2. Heltconii. Alis an-
guftis integerrimis, faepe
denudatis; primoribus
oblongis, pofterioribus
breviflimis.
3. Parnassii. Alis in¬
tegerrimis rotundatis.
4. Danaii. Alis integer¬
rimis.
A. Cand'uli. Alis albis.
B. FefHvi. Alis variega-
tis.
5. Nymfhales. Alisden-
ticulatis.
A. Ger?wiati. Alis ocel-
latis.
a. In alis omnibus.
b. primoribus.
c. pofterioribus.
B. Phnlerati. Alis abfque
ocellis.
6. Plebeii. Parvi, larva
faepius contra&a.
A. Rura/es. Alis macu¬
lis obfcurioribus.
B. Urbicohe. Alis macu¬
lis faepxus pellucidis.
1. Knights. Thofe which
have their upper wings
longer from the pofterior
angle to the tip, than
to the bafe, and have their
antennae for the moft part
filiform.
A. Trojans. Thofe equi¬
tes that are generally
black, and marked on
the breaft with fpots of a
blood-red colour.
B. Greeks. Such as are
not marked on the breaft
with red fpots 5 but have
an ocellus at the angle
of the wing near the an¬
us.
a. Wings wuthout bands.
b. Wings marked with
bands.
2. Heliconii. Thofewfliich
have narrow and perfect¬
ly entire wings, frequent¬
ly bare, the upper ones
oblong, the under very
fhort.
3. Parnassii. Thofe with
wings perfeCtly entire,
the upper pair being
round.
4. Danaii. Wings perfect¬
ly entire.
A. Candidi. Wings white.
B. Teftivi. Wings varie¬
gated.
5. Nymph ales. Thofe wuth
wings notched.
A. Gemmati. Wings adorn¬
ed with ieveral ocelli.
a. on all the wings.
b. on the upper wings.
c. on the under wings.
B. Phalerati. Wings with¬
out ocelli.
6. Plebeii. Such ras are
fmall and have contract¬
ed larvae.
A. Rurales. Such as have
their wings marked with
obfcure fpots.
B. XJrbicolce. Thofe with
tranfparent fpots on their
wings.
O L O G Y. 183
1. Esuirte,
A. Troes.
f Wings furnifhed with a tail.
Wings of the fame colour, both on their upper and heblor.
under furfaces, black 5 the upper ones marked with a
white band, the under with red fpots. A native of
India 5 on the arijiolochia. The white band on the up¬
per wings is compofed of eight white half-divided fpots.
1 he fcarlet fpots on the under wungs are round and
form a double arch.
Wings black, both above and below marked wfith a afcan\us0-
white band, common to both wings 5 that on the low7er
clouded with red. A native of the Brafils. It refem-
bles the tinRoria ; body black, breaft marked with
blood-coloured fpots.
Wings of the fame colour, both on their upper and anterior.
under furfaces, black fpotted with white; the under
ones marked with circular £red fpots along their edges.
A native of India. Head red ; antennse and thorax
black \ abdomen wftiite, wuth red bands 3 wings marked
with numerous white fpots, the lower part greenifh in
the middle with a red circular fpot at the angle of the
tail.
Wings nearly of the fame colour on both upper and glaucus.
under furfaces, clouded 3 the upper wungs marked with
a yellow7 fpot, the under with a tawmy one near the tail.
A native of America. The under furface of the lower
wings are marked with red and yellow fpots.
Wings black, fprinkled with green and gold &o\s,palinurus,
and marked with a bluifti green band. A native of
Tranquebar. Body covered with green and gold
fpecks. Wings black, fpeckled with white on their
under furface. The upper ones afli-coloured at the tip,
the under marked wuth tawny fpots along their edges.
Wings black, the under ones of a ftiining green, theph'denor,
under furface marked with feven red fpots fomewhat re-
fembling eyes. A native of America. Body black •
abdomen fpeckled with white 3 margin of the upper
wings variegated with white and black 3 under ones with a
few faint white fpecks 3 the margin variegated with white
and black, marked with a wftiite dot at the bafe on the
under furface 3 the tip greenifti, with feven round tawny
dots furrounded with a black ring, and marked with a
fmall white lateral dot.
Wings black, with a white band 3 the under furface afius
of the lowrer wings marked at the bafe and at the tip
with red. A native of America. Thorax marked with
an afli-coloured lateral line 3 breaft with an afti-coloured
dot ,on each fide 3 abdomen with an afti-coloured lateral
line beneath 3 upper wings with both furfaces alike •
under ones black above, with three fcarlet circular fpots
at the angle of the tail, and five ivhite ones at the mar¬
gin, brown beneath, marked with red fpots at the bafe
a red line at the inner margin, and three circular fpots’
at the angle of the tail, with four white circular fpots
on the outer margin.
f -f- Wings notched.
Wings notched and filky, the upper ones green onpriamus. ■
their fuperior furface, marked with a black fpot, the
under with fix black fpots. A native of Aijiboyna. -
This
i §4
anchjfes.
pyrrbus.
t (codes.
tiridates.
polhtx.
cedes.'
pohjcaon.
xipkares.
E N T O M
This is the moil remarkable fpecies of this genus, both
for its fize and beauty. Head and legs black ; abdo¬
men bright yellow, and the lides of the thorax varie¬
gated with fcarlet lines.
Wings of the fame colour on both their upper and
under lurfaces, black ; the under wings marked nith
feven oval fcarlet fpots. A native of America •, on the
orange-tree. The larva is prickly, brown marked with
white circular Itripes, and furnilhed with tentacula. T hey
are gregarious. Pupa brown, marked with four projec¬
tions on its anterior part.
B. Adiivi.
f Wings furniJ}jed with a double tail.
Wings brown, each of them marked with a white
band, the band on the upper wings as it were halved.
A native of South America and India.
Wings of a dufky blue, marked on both fides with a
white band, the edges of the under ones green. A na¬
tive of Africa.
f f Wings furniJJoed with two notched tails.
Wings black on their upper furface, fpotted with
blue, and marked with a dotted white edge. A native
of Amboyna.
Wings brown • marked with a yellow band on their
upper furface, and on their under furface with a white
band and white fpots. A native of Africa.
fj-f Wings furnifhed with two very Jlight tails.
Wings ftriped, with white and yellow7, with a white
band in the middle j the lower wings marked on their
under furfaces with a ftrip of dots refembling little eyes.
A native of Siam. Of a middle fize, and very tender.
ffff Wings notched and furnifhed with a tail.
Wings black, marked with a yellow band the under
furface of the lower wings marked with tawny blue and
yellow circular' fpots. A native of Surinam 5 feeds on
fome fpecies of the althcva.
Wings black, the upper fpotted with wdiite, the un¬
der ones marked with a yellow band. A native of
Africa.
O L O G Y.
Lepidoptera.
fituated at the edge neareft the extremity of the abdo¬
men. This is the largeft and one of the moft beauti¬
ful butterflies which Britain produces. It changes in¬
to the pupa in July, affumes the w inged ftate in Auguft,
and frequents meadowrs. Sometimes it appears in. May. ....
Wings nearly of the fame colour both on their upper podahr.-
and under furfaces, marked w7ith brownbands fet in pairs; us.
the under furface of the lower wings marked with a
blood-coloured line. A native of Europe and. tne
northern parts of Alia and Africa. It feeds on difter-
ent fpecies of the LraJJica : Larva folitary, yellowifh
dotted with brown 5 head pale green ^ pupa yellowifh
dotted with brown, marked wTith two flight projections
towards the anterior extremity.
Wings white, the upper ones marked w'ith blackalcibiades.
bands along the edges, the under ones .marked on. their
fuperior furface with red near the tip. A native of
Tranquebar. Head tawny, with a broad black line in the
middle } thorax downy and afh-coloured, marked with
two tawny fpots ; abdomen whitifh, marked on the.fides
w7ith a line of black blotches •, upper wings greenifli at
the bafe ; under ones marked w ith a black fpot near
the tail, and marginal circular fpots *, tail long, black
tipped with white, ftreaked with black beneath.
HI f f f Wings terminating in a Jlight projection faint¬
ly refembling a tail.
Wings brown, marked on their under furfaces vndtiphidippus.
white bands, adorned with tw7o eyes, and with a double
eye at the tail. A native of India. The female much
larger than the male.
Wings brown, black at the tip, fpotted with white; aurelius.
the under wings on their lower furfaces adorned with
two eyes. A native of India.
Wings; upper furfaces brown, under wings with zjafon.
band marked with fix green blotches. A native of
South America and India.
Wings brown 5 the under wings marked with twophilodetes.
blue ocelli, with black pupills, and three white dots.
A native of South America and India. The female
has a tuft of long diverging hairs at the end of the upper
wings.
Wings black, marked with a plain green band •, the nereus.
under furfaces of the wings are blackifh. A native of
Smitb America and India.
agamem- ]
non.
* macbaon
11 111 Wings furnifhed with a tail.
Wings black, with a blue radiant centre *, the under
furface of the lower ones adorned w7ith feven ocelli. A
native of Alia.
Wings black, fpotted with green ; the under furface
of the lower ones adorned with an ocellus, and with red
fpots. A native of Aha.
Wings of the fame colour in both furfaces, yellow
with a brown edge, marked with yellow circular fpots,
and w'ith a tawny one at the angle of the tail. A na¬
tive of Europe; on umbelliferous plants, and on rue.
The larvte are feldom found in numbers together, are
fmooth and marked with annular {trips of green and
black, dotted with red •, their tentacula are fhort and
yellow. They emit a very difagreeable fmell by which
they keep off the ichneumon. Their pupa is black and
yellow. The under wings are adorned with an eye of
a yellowifti-red colour, encircled with blue, which is
f f f t f t f Wings notched.
Upper furfaces of the wings of a bright blue, tiitmcnelaus.
under fpotted with browm. A native of South. Ameri¬
ca. The larva prickly and yellow, marked with rofe-
coloured {trips j head brown and feet red. Pupa pale,
and has a cylindrical inflefted tail.
Upper furfaces of the wings brown fpotted with nefor.
white and blue in the centre; their under furfaces adorn¬
ed with three or four eyes. A native of America.
"Wings brown-, the upper furfaces of both have ■ztelcmachus
large radiated dilk, the under furface. of each marked
with fix eyes. A native of South America.
Wings pale blue, and black at the tips, fpotted vnt\\perfeus.
red. A native of Surinam.
Upper furfaces of the wings black, marked with z-achilles.
blue band the under ones are brown, adorned with
three or five eyes. A native of America.
Under
*
Lepkloptera. E N T O M
argyrios. Under furfaces of all the wings of blue and filver j
the upper wings black on their fuperior furfaces, mark¬
ed with two filver bands, and with two brown ones on
the under furface j the under wings maj-ked on their
fuperior furface with a broad filver band, and with feven
fpots of blue and filver. 378. A native of Afia.
fttfffft Wings faintly notched.
idomcneus. Wings nearly crenated, and of a dulky blue colour •, the
under furfaces clouded, and adorned with twro ocelli. 45.
A native of South America. The larva is reddilh,\yith
feathery protuberances fet round it in a ring. The pu¬
pa is dentated and furniihed with two crooked horns at
the head,
2. Helicons!.
terpjichore Upper wings yellow ; under wings of a deeper yel¬
low than the upper, fprinkled with black fpots. t r» A
native of Afia.
calliope. Wings yellow 5 the upper marked with three black
ftreaks, and the under with three black bands. 56. A
native of South America and India. Tips of the upper
wings fpeckled with wThite.
polymnia. Wings pale-yellow 5 the upper ones marked with a
bright yellow band, the under with three black bands.
58. A native of South America. Larva yellowiflr and
prickly.
viol*. Wings tawny, dotted with black, and the under ones
have a black edge dotted with white. 359. A native
of India $ on the violet and borrage.
ricint. Wings brown 5 the upper wings marked on both fides
with two white bands. 63. A native of America j on
the ricinus palma chrifti j the bafe of the under wing
in the male marked with purple, in the female with
blue ; the larva green, covered with wiiite hairs.
3. Parnassh.
npollo. Wings white, fpotted with black ; the under wings
are red at the bafe, and adorned with four ocelli on their
upper, and fix on their under furfaces. 50. A native
of Europe, and feeds on the fedum telephium, and the
faxifraga cotyledon \ flies about flowly j the larva foli-
tary, filky, black, and furniihed with two tentacula at
the back part of its head *, all its fegments are marked
on each fide with two red dots. The pupa covered
with a flight follicle \ oval, bluilh, and marked on
each fide with red dots on the anterior part.
mnemofyne Wings wiiite, with black veins j the upper ones
marked with two black fpots near their edges. 51. A
native of Europe.
* eratagi. Wings white, with black veins. 72. A native of Eu¬
rope 5 on fruit trees. It is very deitru&ive in gardens
and orchards, and emits a fluid of a reddifh colour,
which has frequently given rife to the reports of {bowers
of blood winch are faid to have fallen in different pla¬
ces. Larva gregarious •, hairy and yellow', green be¬
neath; head black!; body marked with three black lines;
pupa greenifh, with black fpots and dots
androma- Wings of the fame colour, both on their upper and
che. under furfaces ; the upper ones dulky and naked, the
under yellow. 382. A native of New Holland. Head
black ; feelers yellow ; thorax black, with a yellow' dot
on each fide ;• breaft fpotted with yellow ; pofterior
Vol. VIII. Pajt I.
O L O G Y. 185
margin of the lowTer wings black, marked with feven
yellowilh dots,
4. Danai.
A. Candidi.
Wings black at the tips, marked with two black * traffic*.
fpots. 75. A native of Europe ; on fome fpecies of braffi-
ca. The upper wings in the male are without black
fpots, and the fame happens in the two following fpecies.
The larva folitary, dotted with black, and marked with
three fulphur-coloured fines ; the tail black ; pupa pale
green, marked with three yellow lines, and three of its
fegments glqbular ; eggs fet in clufters.
Smaller than the preceding fpecies ; wings white, * raped
upper ones tipt with brown; the female has three brown
fpots on the upper, and one on the lower pair. 76. A
native of Europe ; on the turnip and other fpecies of
brafjica ; alfo on the tropceolum. Larva green ; marked
with a bright yellow line on the back, and bright yel¬
low on the fides; pupa greenilh, marked with three ful¬
phur-coloured lines.
Wings marked on their under furfaces with broad * nap*.
greenilh veins. 77. A native of Europe ; on feveral
fpepies of braffica.
Wings roundilh ; of a dulky colour at the tips. 79. * finapis.
A native of Europe ; on the muftard.
Wings white above ; the upper ones on their fuperior (/{/corj.
furface, black at the edge and tip, which is marked
with four white dots ; inferior furfaces black, marked
at the tips with four yellow' fpots and a yellow bafe ;
the inferior furface of the under wings fcarlet, marked
with black veins. 881.
Wings roundilh, brown at the edges ; their under * dapli-
furfaces of a grayilli yellow fpotted wuth w'hite. 81. A. die*.
native of Europe; on different kinds of refeda and brafji¬
ca ; larva covered with bluilh hairs, marked with black
fpots and yellow llreaks.
Wings round ; the centre of the upper ones tawny; * card&
the inferior furface of the under ones clouded with raner.
green. 85. A native of Europe ; on the cardamine, braf-
fica, and thlafpis. Larva folitary ; greenilh above and
whitilh beneath. Pupa green, marked wuth a white
line on each fide ; thorax conical, afeending.
_ Wings, yellow, with black tips, and a brown mzr-palceno.
gin ; the inferior furface of the under ones marked with
a filver dot. 99. A native of Europe, on the coronilla ;
wings lometimes wdiitilh. Larva fomewhat hairy; green
marked with yellow lines and black dots.
Wings angular and yellow ; each marked with a rufty- * rhamnL
coloured fpot. 106. A native of Europe ; on the buck¬
thorn. Commonly flies about in Auguft, though fre¬
quently it lies dormant all wdnter, and appears early in
the fpring. The male is very often of a fulphur co¬
lour ; the female white. Larva fmooth ; and green ,j
with a dark line on the back. Pupa in the anterior
part turgid, and drawn to a point.
B. Feftivi.
Wings almoft, entire, brown with a rufly-coloured ^
band divided at the point. The lower furface of the
under wings alh-coloured and adorned, with two ocelli.
1 he larva^ green, ftreaked with red, with twro prickles
A a on
l86 E N T O M
on its head, and tail divided. Pupa reddilh, with fil-
very fpots. 120. , , r r r
^ hyper- Wings entire, of a dulky colour j the lower luriace ot
anthus. the upper ones adorned with three ocelli, and the infe¬
rior lurface of the under wings with two or three, i 27.
A native of Europe j is found at the roots of the poa an¬
nua the wings fometimes have ocelli on then upper
furfaces. Larva folitary, hairy, and of an afh-colour,
marked with a black line behind; the tail furnilhed with
two little prominences; pupa brown, Ipotted with
yellow ; and has a bunch on its back.
eedipus. ' Wings entire ; their upper furfaces black, without
fpots, the under brown ; the upper wings adorned with
three ocelli, the under with five. 495. A native of
Europe.
* pamphU Wings perfectly entire and yellow ; the upper adorn-
lus. ed on their lower furface with one ocellus ; the under
ones alh-coloured, marked with a band and four faint
ocelli. 239. A native of Europe ; on the cynofurus cri-
flatus \ in woody meadows. Larva and pupa green ; the
former marked with a white line, and has two imall
prominences at the tail.
arcanius* Wings perfeftly entire, of a rufty colour ; the upper
marked on their inferior furfaces with a Angle ocellus ;
the under wings with five, the firft being feparated by a
band. 242. A native of Europe ; in woody meadows.
Larva green, marked on the back wTith dull-coloured
lines, and on the fides with yellow lines ; the tail fur¬
nilhed with two little prominences.
founder. Wings perfeaiy entire, brownilh ; (the upper wings
of the female tawny), the lowTer furface of the under
ones alh-coloured and tawny at the tips, adorned with
fix ocelli. 503. A native of Europe ; fomewhat refem-
bling the lall.
5. NtMTHALES.
A. Gcmmati.
% jo. Wings angularly notched, tawny, fpotted with
black ; each adorned with one ocellus. 131. A native
of Europe. Larva gregarious, prickly, black, dotted
with white ; their hind legs of a rufly colour.. Pupa
green, dotted with gold ; having ten fmall projections
on the fore part of the body ; the tail divided.
* macra. Wings notched, brown ; the upper marked on both
furfaces with one ocellus and a half; the under adorn¬
ed on their fuperior furfaces with three ocelli, and on
their inferior with fix. 14.1 * A native of Europe ; on
pafture ground. Larva greenilh, fomewhat hairy, hav¬
ing two fmall prominences at the tail. Pupa greenilh,
flightly divided,, and prickly on the fides.
* megara. Wings notched, yellow, and marked with brown
bands ; the upper adorned with one ocellus, and the
under with five ocelli on the fuperior, and fix on the
inferior furface. 142. A native of Europe ; on paf¬
ture ground. Larva hairy, green, Itripped with white ;
the tail divided.
'* s-vcria. Wings notched, brown, fpotted with yellow; the
* ' ’ upper adorned on both furfaces with one ocellus; the
under with four ocelli on their luperior furface, and
four dots on their inferior. 143.
,v > wings notched, brown on both their fuperior and
* ' inferior furfaces ; the upper wings adorned with violet-
coloured ocelli. 1 ?o. A native of Europe ; feeds chief¬
ly on the avena eiatior. Larva gray, with two lines of
O L O G Y. Lepidoptera.
black dots on its back ; tail divided. It remains under
ground till it has undergone its metamorpholis.
B. Phaicrati.
Wings notched, of a dulky colour, marked withpopuli.
white dots and bands ; their inferior lurtaces yellow,
marked with white bands and black fpots. 162. A na¬
tive of Europe ; on the pcpuius tremula. Lne jemale
marked with a broader white band than the male. Lar¬
va prickly, and variegated ; head and tail tawny. Pupa
yellowilh, dotted with black.
Wings angular, black, with a whitilh circumfe” ^ ontiopa^
rence. 165. ' A native both of Europe and America ;
on the birch and willow. When it appears in fpring, the
edges of the wings are white, and in the fummer they
become yellow. Larva gregarious, prickly, black,
marked with fquare rulty-coloured fpots on the back.
Pupa black, marked with fmall prejeaions and tawny
dots.
Wings angular, tawny, fpotted with black ; the up- *polychlo*
per ones marked on their iupenor furface with foui ros.
black dots. 166. A native of Europe ; on fruit trees.
Larva gregarious, prickly, blackiih, marked with a
yellow line on the fides. Pupa of a tlelh colour.
Wings angular, tawny, fpotted with black; the * urtic*.
fuperior furface of the upper wings marked with three
black dots. 167. A native of Europe ; very common on
the nettle; fuppofed, though often falfely, to be a
forerunner of fpring. Larva gregarious, prickly, brown,
variegated writh green; the head black. Pupa brown,
marked with fmall projections, and golden fpots on the
neck, and fometimes entirely of a golden colour. Ihis
infect, and many others of the fame genus, p. atalanta,
polychlorosyjoy &c. foon after their enlargement from
the chryfalis ftate, difcharge a few drops of a reddith
coloured fluid ; which in places where they have ap¬
peared in great numbers, has had the appearance of
a flmwer of blood, and been marked by writers as a
prodigy foreboding lome extraordinary event.
Wings angular, tawmy fpotted with black'; the under# CalbufH^
ones marked on their inferior furface with a white C. 168.
Anative of Europe ; on the nettle, willow, and goofeber-
ry. Larva folitary, prickly, and tawmy ; the back yel¬
low on the fore part, and white behind. Pupa of a flefli
colour, contradled in the middle, dotted with gold.
Wings notched, yellowr, variegated with ^>lack, and hypjlpyle,
radiated at the tips; the under ones marked with feven
red dots. 607. A native of Europe ; on the ari/iolochia
clematis. Larva yellow, marked with black, fumilhed
with prickles fet round in a ■ circle; red, with black
tips.
Wings black, fpotted with white; the upper ones * atalanta
marked with a purple band on both fides, the under
with a purple band along the edge. 175. A native of
Europe and America; on the nettle.. Larva folitary,
prickly, green, marked with yellow lines on the fides.
Pupa marked with fmall projedtions ; blackifh above,
and alh-coloured below, dotted with gold.
Wings angularly notched, browm, marked with taw- celt is..
ny fpots and a Angle white one ; the under wings gray
on their inferior furfaces. 639. A native of the fouth of
Europe. Larva green, marked with white lines, fpot¬
ted with black. Pupa green, marked with white lines.
Wings flightly. notched, variegated, and reticulated,
6 on
Lepidoptera. E N T O M
on their inferior furface ; the upper ones marked on their
fuperior furface with fome white fpots. 201. A native
of Europe j on the common thiftle. Larva gregarious,
prickly, and black 5 legs red j head marked with two
prickles ; pupa fumilhed with fmall brown projections j
thorax yellowilh below.
* adippe. Wings notched, brown, fpotted with black, adorned
on the inferior furface with twenty-three lilvery fpots.
212. A native of Europe 3 on the viola odor at a and tri¬
color-. the filver fpots fometimes, though rarely, change into
yellow ; larva a(h-coloured or brown, covered with ma¬
ny reddifh prickles, and marked on the back with a
black line, rifmg out of a white one 3 pupa brown,
marked with filver dots.
6. Plebiii.
A. Rurales.
cupido. Under wings terminating in fix fmall projections,
white on their inferior furface, marked with filver fpots.
217. A native of America 3 on the cotton. Larva
white, dotted with black.
* betulce. Wings furnifhed with a flight tail, the under ones
marked with two white ftreaks. 220. A native of Eu¬
rope 5 on the birch and floe. Wings of the male marked
with tawny fpots 3 larva thick, green, marked with two
obliquely tranfverfe white lines, and two fmall furrows
on the back 3 pupa fmooth, of a rufty colour.
pruni. Wings flightly tailed, brown above, with a red
fpot at the tip of the lower ones 3 lower wings beneath
with a tawny marginal band, dotted with black. 221.
A native of Europe ; on the plum-tree. Larva thick,
green, with a pale lateral line 3 pupa brown, with a
white head.
* qucrcus. Wings flightly tailed, bluxfh, beneath afh-coloured,
with a white itreak and double tawny dot near the tail.
222. A native of Europe 3 on the oak. Larva thick
above, of a rofe colour 3 with three lines of green dots.
Pupa fmooth, of a rufty colour 3 with three lines of
brown dots on the back.
ccraji. Wings tailed, brown, without fpots 3 the inferior
furfaces marked with a white ftreak, and tawny cir¬
cular fpots; the under wings marked with a black dot.
719. A native of Europe 3 on the cherry tree.
fedi. Wings furnilhed with a tail, blue, with a white
fpotted edge, white on their inferior furfaces, marked
with black fquare fpots, and a reddifii band. 743. A na¬
tive of Europe 3 on the fedum telcphium. Larva green 3
marked with a red line on the back. Pupa obtufe 3
green on the anterior, and brown on the pofterior part.
cyllarus. Wings entire, and blue with a black edge 3 beneath
of a brownilh colour, adorned with a ftreak of dots
refembling ocelli 3 the under wings on their inferior
furface blue at the bafe. 750. A native of Europe 3 on
the flower of the aftragalus and mellilot. Larva pale ;
marked with a red ftreak on the back, and on the fides
with oblique green lines 3 head black. Pupa brown,
fpotted with black.
B. UrbicoLe.
comma. Wings perfectly entire, fpreading fo as to form an
obtufe angle, tawny, marked with a fmall white line,
and with white dots beneath. 256. A native of Europe 3
the line wanting in the female. Larva of a ftuning
red ; head black, with a white ftrip on ihe collar. Pu¬
pa long, cylindrical, and brown.
O L O G Y. 187
Wings perfectly entire, fpreading fo as to form an ob- * tinea.
tufe angle ; tawny, with a black margin. 817. A native
of Europe 3 upper wings in the male marked with a
fmall black line on the middle. Larva folitary and
green. Pupa green 3 with a very thin covering.
Wings notched and fpreading lb as to form an ob- * malva*
tufe angle 5 brown, waved with afli colour 3 the upper
wings marked with tranfparent dots 3 the under ones
with white dots. 267. A native of Europe 5 in the malva
and alth.eea. Larva gray 3 head black 3 neck marked
with four fulphur-coloured dots. It draws together the
leaves on which it feeds, by threads which it fpins. Pu¬
pa hunch-backed and bluifti.
876 fpecies of the butterfly have been deferibed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature publiftied by
Gmelin 3 but a great many more are to be met with in
the collections of the curious* which have not yet been
deferibed by any author.
Sphinx, Hawk-moth.
Antennse nearly prifinatic, thlckeft in the middle.
Tongue (in molt fpecies) projecting. Feelers two,
bent back. Wings deflected.
* Legitimae. Antennce fcalypFeelers hairy. Tongue fpi-
ral.
f Wings angular.
The under wings reddifh, adorned with a blue eye. * ocellata.
I. Native of Europe and America 3 on the fpireea,
willow, and fruit trees 3 the thorax marked with a
rufty-coloured fpot, the tongue very ftiort. The larva
foiitary, rough, green, and furnifhed with a tail 3 mark¬
ed with obtufe white ftreaks, and dotted w'ith yellow
ocelli. The pupa is brown, with a black back.
Wings angularly notched, yellowifh, marked on quercus.
the under furface with brown bands 3 the under wings
with a red band. 48. Native of Europe, on the oak’.
The body of the male is afh-coloured 3 that of the female
brown. The larva folitary, furnilhed with a tail, and
green ; marked on the fides with oblique white ftripes,
and with reddifh fpecks. The pupa a light brown, with
reddifii edges.
Wings dentated, reverfed and gray 3 the under wings * populi.
of a rufty colour at the bafe; the upper ones marked
with a white dot. 2. Native of Europe 3 on the pop¬
lar and willow. The larva folitary, rough, green, fur¬
nifhed vVith a tail 3 it is marked on each fide with a
white line, and with white oblique crofs ftripes. The
pupa a dufky gray, and of a rufty colour behind.
_ Wings marked with greenifh bands, and clouded * tiliae.
with dark green 3 the fuperior furface of the upper
wings of a yellowifh brick-colour. 13. Native of Eu¬
rope 3 on the lime-tree. The larva folitary, rough,
green, furnifhed with a tail. It grows fmaller towards
the head, and is marked on the fides with oblique
blood-coloured and yellow ftripes. The pupa of a dufky
brown.
Wings irregularly notched, and greenifh, marked
with a dark green band 3 the under wings tawmy, and
black at the tips. 54. Native of Europe 3 on the
ccnothera. The larva folitary, brown, and without a
tail 3 marked with blood-coloured fpecks, and wflth a
black ocellus, the pupil of wEich is white, on the lafl:
A a 2 fegment
188
tierii.
* convol¬
vuli.
f liguflri.
* atropos.
* cilerio.
* clpencr.
* euplior-
bit.
E N T O M
fegment but one of the abdomen. The pupa is unco¬
vered, and light brown. #
Wings faintly angular and green 5 variegated, with
bands of pale or dark green, and yehow. Native ot
Europe j on the nenum. I he larva folitary, dotted
with white, and marked on each fide of the neck with
a blue ocellus. The tail is bent down, and almoft joint¬
ed. The pupa yellow, marked with a black line and
black dots on the back.
f f Wings entire.
Wings clouded ; the under ones faintly marked with
bands \ the abdomen marked with belts of red, black,
and white. 6. Native of Europe j on the convolvulus.
It fmells of ambergrife. Its eyes are very bright. The
larva furniihed with a tail ; marked on each fide with
oblique white lines, and 'dotted with faint ocelli. 1 he
pupa light brown, furniihed with a relled'ced involuted
horn.
The under wings reddilh, marked with three black
bands ; the abdomen red, furrounded with black belts.
8. Native of Europe j on the privet, lilac, alh, and
elder. The larva green, and furniihed with a tail;
marked on the fides with oblique llreaks of a carnation
colour towards the anterior part of the body, and white
towards the pollerior. 1 he fore part of the body is
ereft, and it rells with the feet elevated. J?he pupa
brown j with a tail formed of four finall projections.
The under wings yellow, marked with brown bands $
the abdomen yellow7, marked with black belts. 9* Na¬
tive of Europe \ on the jeffamine, potato, and hemp.
It is alfo a native of Africa and Alia j but the varie¬
ty to be met w7ith there, is double the fize of that
in Europe. It makes a noife by rubbing its. feelers
againlt its tongue. The larva is folitary, and lies con¬
cealed under ground all day, coming out in the evening
to feed. It is yellow7 dotted with black, and furniihed
with a tail which is bent down} it is marked on the
fides with crofs lines, half blue, half green. 1 he pupa
light brown, marked on both fides with black fpecks.
Wings gray, marked with white ftreaks j the under
ones with brown ones, and with fix red fpots. 12.
Native of the fouth of Europe •, on the vine. The lar¬
va is brow?n, marked on the fides with tw7o white, lines,
and writh twro ocelli on each fide of the neck. It is fui-
nilhed wdth a tail. The pupa is of a dark browm be¬
fore, and of a light brown behind.
The wings variegated with purple and green 5 the un¬
der wings red, and black at the bafe. 17- Native of
Europe j on the French willow7, the balfam, the convol¬
vulus, and the vine. The larva is furniihed with a tail,
and is fpotted with black} it is alfo adorned wfifh two
blue ocelli on each fide of the neck. Ihe pupa on
the anterior part of the body is of a dulky gray> and
brown on the pofterior part, marked with dark-coloured
fpecks.
Winps gray j the upper ones marked wTith two green
bands } the under with tw o red bands, wTith a black
itreak al; the bafe; the antennae a pure white. 19.. Na¬
tive of Europe } on the euphorbia, llie larva is .fur¬
niihed with a tail, and is black, marked w'lth white j
marked with a blood-colourecf*line on the back, and on
the dides wdth yellow7 dots. Ihe pupa light browTn,
marked with black fpecks.
O L O G Y. Lepidoptera.
* * Sefiae. The Wings entire; the Tailfurnijhed with
a beard; the Tongue projeBing, and terminating ab¬
ruptly ; the Antenncc cylindrical.
The fides of the abdomen variegated with black imd.* Jlellata
white *, the under wings of a nifty colour. 27. Na- rum.
tive of Europe on the madder, and on the reit of thele
plants which form the natural order called Jlcllatcc.
The larva is fpotted with white, and is furniihed with a
blue tapering tail, of a rufty colour at the tip. 1 he
pupa browui.
The abdomen black, marked with a yellow band y* fucifor-
the wings tranlparent, with a black edge. 28. Na-z/w.
tive of Europe j on the woodbine, and on the fcabious.
The larva is green, marked on the fides with a yellow
line, and furniihed with a reddilh horn. The pupa
black, marked on the fore part of the body with yellow
ftreaks, and enclofed in a follicle.
The wings tranfparent; the abdomen yellow, with * aptfor-
black incifures } the thorax black, marked with two mis.
yellow fpots. 29. Native of Europe ^ on flowers.
The larva on the trunk of the poplar-tree..
The upper wings brown, the under wings tranfpa-ye/fo.
rent} the abdomen black, marked with three yellow
belts. 102. Native of Europe.
The wings tranfparent, with a black edge and black * vefpifor*
band $ the abdomen black ; the fecond and laft itg-tnis.
ments marked with a yellow margin. 31. Native of
Europe.
'P'Jje wings tranfparent, with a black edge and black ^ tipuh-
band ; the abdomen black ; the incifures are alternately/ormfr.
marked with a yellow margin. 32. Native of Europe.
Feeds on the pith of the common red currant.
* * * Zygcenee Fabricii, f. Adfcitae. The Tongue
projeBing, and fetaceous ; the Antenna: thicker in the
middle. 4
The upper wings blue, marked with fix red dots ; the *jHipen»
under wings red with a blue edge. 34. Native ok duke.
Europe } on the Jpircea Jilipendiila. There is a varie¬
ty of this fpecies (/3. peucedani) difiinguiflied by a red
belt on the abdomen, which feeds on the peucedanus.
The larva is thick, of a fulphur-colour 5 marked with
four rows of black dots, and furniihed with a tail. The
pupa is brown, of a fulphur-colour in the middle, and
marked with brown fpecks.
Black 5 the upper wings green, marked with \X\xeepythia>
oblong blood-coloured fpots, placed near one another 5
the under ones red. 106. Native of Europe. The
larva hairy and white *, the head marked with two lines
of black dots; the fore legs are black ; the hind legs
yellow. *
Blue ; the upper wings green, marked with five rt&fulvia.
fpots; the under ones of a blood-colour, and without
fpots. 107. Native of Europe ; on the lotus corni-
culatus.
Greenilh-black ; the wings marked with tranfparent^/^ftf.
dots, fix on the upper, and two on the under wings; the
abdomen marked with a yellow belt. 35. Native of
Europe ; on the oak, &c. The larva browm, with red¬
dilh head and legs } with tufts of whitilh feathers on the
back.
Blue ) the upper wings marked with fix red dots *, tnzephlte
under ones wuth one red dot} the abdomen girt with a
red belt. 36. Native of the fouth of Europe •, on the
medicago^
E N T O M
medicago. Sometimes the wings are dotted with white,
and the bafe of the upper wings and the abdomen mark¬
ed with a yellow belt. The larva hairy and yellowilh j
the head, legs, and two lines on the body, are of a pale
yellow colour.
165 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
71. Phal^ika, Moth.
Antennae growing gradually fmaller from their bafe to
their tip. Tongue fpiral. Jaws none. Shield (in
moft fpecies) ihort, and of a horny fubltance.
Moths fly about at night, have their antennae com-
pofed of many articulations, and commonly peflinated
in one or both fexes. Tiiey feed chiefly on the nec-
tareous juice of flowers. The larva is active, commonly
fmooth, and more or lefs cylindrical, and feeds on the
leaves of plants. The pupa remains torpid, is gene¬
rally cylindrical, fometimes pointed before, fometimes
at both ends, and in molt inftances covered with a foli-
licle.
Phalalnje dividuntur in,
1. Bombyces. Larva 16-
poda, faepius pilofa, fub-
cylindrica 5 pupa apice
acuminata 5 antennis fili-
formibus, apice acutis;
palpis duobus, compref-
iis, reflexis, aequalibus,
pilofis, obtufls j lingua
fpirali, brevi, membra-
nacea, vix exferta, filL
-formi, obtufa, bifida.
a. Attacos, alis patulis.
b. Bombyces, alis non pa- b
tulis.
<e. Alis reverfis.
&. deflexis.
y. incumbentibus.
convolutis.
Moths are divided into,
1. Bombyces. Thofe whofe
larvae are generally hairy,
nearly cylindrical, and
furnifhed wath 16 feet j
whofe pupa is drawn to a
point at the head 5 and
which have their antennee
filiform and fharp at the
tip j two feelers, equal,
compreffed, bent back,
hairy and blunt; the
tongue fpiral, ftrort, mem¬
branaceous, flightly pro-
je (fling, filiform, blunt,
and divided at the extre¬
mity.
Attacos, with fpreading
wings.
Bombyces, with wings
not fpreading.
«. Wings reverfed.
(i. deflecfled.
y. incumbent.
S. convoluted.
2. Geometry. Larva oc-
to vel decem-poda, pedi-
bus pesfloralibus 6, cau-
dalibus 2, et interdum
fubcaudalibus 2} hirudi-
nem inftar incedans,dum
quiefcitat, erefta, gla¬
bra, pupa apice acumi¬
nata j antennis filiformi-
bus, articulis obfoletis y
palpis duobus mquali-
bus, reflexis, membrana-
ceis, cylindricis j lingua
porredfla, membranacea,
:. Geometry. Thofe whofe
larvae are fmooth, and
have eight or ten feet, fix
attached to the breall,
two to the tail, and fome¬
times two more near to
the tail; moving like a
leech, and refting in an
eredfl pofture ; whofe pu¬
pae are pointed at the
head; which have fili¬
form antennae, with faint
articulations, two feelers
equal, bent back, mem-
O L O G Y
fetacea, bifida ; alis in-
quiefcentibus, ut pluri-
mum patulis, horizonta-
libus.
a. Alis angulatis, antennis
ut plurimum pec-
tinatis.
b. integris.
c. rotundatis.
3. Tortrices. Alis ob-
tufiflimis, fere retufis,
margine exteriore cur¬
ve ; antennis filiformi-
bus 5 palpis duobus se-
qualibus, nudiufeulis,
bafi cylindricis, medio
dilatato-ovatis, apice fe-
taceis j lingua porredta,
membranacea, fetacea,
bifida; larva 16-poda,
folia, quse vorat, et in-
tra quae fe recipit, filis
contorquente, et con-
ne (Sente.
4. Pyraeides. Alis con-
niventibus, in figuram
deltoideam forficatam;
antennis filiformibus,
articulis obfoletis; pal¬
pis duobus aequalibus,
reflexis, membranaceis,
cylindricis ; lingua por-
reifla, membranacea, fe¬
tacea, bifida ; larva 14
—16-poda.
branaceous, and cylindri¬
cal; the tongue membra¬
naceous, fetaceous, divi¬
ded at the extremity, and
projecting; the wings,
when at reft, fpreading
horizontally.
’. Wings angular; anten¬
nae, for the
moft part, pec¬
tinated,
entire.
. round.
. Tortrices. Thofe which
have their wings very
blunt, whth a curved ex¬
terior margin; the anten¬
nae filiform; two feelers
equal, nearly fmooth, cy¬
lindrical at the bafe, di¬
lated in the middle into
an oval form, and feta¬
ceous towards the tip ;
the tongue membrana¬
ceous, fetaceous, divided
at the extremity, and pro¬
jecting; and whofe larvae
are furnifiied with 16 feet,
and twift up the leaves
on which they feed, by-
means of threads they
{pin, into a retreat for
themfelves.
.PYR abides. Thofe which
have the wrings pafling
over one another, form¬
ing a forked figure re-
fembling the Greek 2;
the antennae filiform, with
their articulations faintly
expreffed ; tw2 * * * * 7o feelers e-
qual, bent back, mem¬
branaceous, and cylindri¬
cal; the tongue membra¬
naceous, fetaceous, divi¬
ded at the extremity, and
projecting; whofe larva
has from 14 to 16 feet.
5. NoCTUiE. Larva 16-
poda faepius glabra, pupa
apice acuminata, anten¬
nis fetaceis, palpis duo¬
bus compreflis, pilolis,
apice cylindricis, nudis;
lingua porreCla, cornea,
fetacea, bifida.
5. Noctuje. Thofe whofe
larvae are for the moft
part fmooth, and furnifh-
ed with 16 feet; w'hofe
pupa: are pointed at the
head, and have their an¬
tennae fetaceous; tvxj
feelers compreffed, hairy,
with naked cylindrical
tips; the tongue formed
of a horny fubiiance, fer
taceous, divided at the
point, and projecting.
a. AJis
1.9°
Lepidoptera,
a. Alls patulls.
b. incumbentibus.
a. Thor ace kevi.
/3. criftato.
c. Alls deflexis.
u. Thorace laevx.
/3, crillato.
6. TlNEiE. Larva 16-poda,
faepius intra cucullum
latente •, pupa anterius
acuminata j antennis fe-
taceis 5 lingua membra-
nacea, fetacea, bifida.
a. Tinea:, palpis quatuor,
inaequalibus j larva fae-
pius rebus eulinariis, vef-
timentis, pellibus, &c.
viclitante.
b. Tinece, palpis duobus
ad medium bifidis, lacinia
interiori acutiffima.
7. Pterophori five Alu-
cit^:. Alis digitalis ad
bafin ufque fiffis j anten¬
nis fetaceis •, palpis duo-
bus tenuiffimis, cylindri-
cis, filiformibus, reflexis,
nudis, apice fubulatis j
lingua porrefta, mem-
branacea, elongata, fe¬
tacea, bifida 5 larva 16-
poda, ovata, pilofa; pu¬
pa nuda apice, fubulata.
8. Hapiali. Larva 16-
poda, fubcylindrica, fae-
pius glabra, radicibus
plantarum viflitante ;
pupa folliculata, cylin-
drica, apice acuminata j
antennis brevibus, mo-
niliformibus 5 palpis duo-
bus aequalibus, obtufis,
compreffis, „ membrana-
ceis, reflexis 5 linguae-
que bifidae inter hos ru-
dimento.
E n t o M
a. Wings fpreading.
b. incumbent,
at. Thorax fmooth.
p. crefled.
c. Wings deflefted.
«e. Thorax fmooth.
p. crefted.
6. TiNEiE. Thofe whofe
larvae have 16 feet, and
moil commonly lie con¬
cealed under a covering 5
whofe pupa is pointed at
the head j and have the
antennae fetaceous, the
tongue membranaceous,
fetaceous, and divided at
the extremity.
a. Tinea:, with four unequal
feelers } whofe larva feed
on clothes, hides, furni¬
ture, $tc.
b. Tinece, two feelers divi¬
ded to the middle, the
interior divifion very
{harp.
7. Pterophori or Alucit,®.
Thofe which have their
wings divided to the bafe
into feveral portions j the
antennae fetaceous •, two
feelers, very fiender, cy¬
lindrical, filiform, bent
back, fmooth, and ta¬
pering at the tip \ the
tongue membranaceous,
fetaceous, divided at the
extremity, projecting, and
very long •, whofe larvae
are oval, hairy, and fur-
niflied with 16 feet.
8. Hapiali. Thofe whofe
larvae are cylindrical,
commonly fmooth, fur-
nifhed with 16 feet, and
feed on the roots of plants;
whofe pupa is cylindri¬
cal, pointed at the head,
and enclofed in a follicle;
and have Abort, monili-
form antennae ; two feel¬
ers, equal, obtufe, com-
preffed, membranaceous,
bent back, and the rudi¬
ment of a divided tongue
placed between them.
4
0 l o G y.
* Antennce filiform.
a. Feelers compreffed.
f Wings fpreading. Attach
Wings curved, of the fame colour both on their atlas,
per and under furfaces, variegated with yellow, marked
rvith a tranfparent fpot j the upper wings have a fmall
tranfparent fpot joined to the other. 1. Native of Afia
and America; on the orange tree. Each articulation
of the antennae has two proj eft ions proceeding from
them in oppofite direftions. The larva has hairy tu¬
bercles fet round it in circles. It fpins a large ball of
filk, which is unravelled with very great difficulty.
Wings of a dark carnation colour } the under ones niBitcins*
marked with a rufty-coloured eye, the pupil of winch
is tranfparent. 469. Native of Africa. Female larger
than the male.
Wings round, clouded with gray, and faintly marked *pavonia>
with bands, adorned with a long femitranfparent ocellus.
7. Native of Europe } on heath, bramble, the rofe,
the elm, the willow, and fruit trees. There are three
varieties of this fpecies, minor, media, and major. The
antennae in the male are more diftinftly peftinated than
in the female. The larva is gregarious, and green,
having red and yellow hairy tubercles fet round it in
circles. The pupa is blackiih, with a hole at the top of
the follicle, which is elaftic and afting like a valve.
Wings of a brick colour, adorned with an eye of atau*
violet colour 5 with a white fpear-ffiaped pupil. 8. Na¬
tive of Europe ; on the birch. The larva green, mark¬
ed on the fides with oblique white fireaks, the back co¬
vered with knots. The pupa light-brown and hairy.
•j- f Bombyces. Wings not fpreading.
u. Wings reverfed.
Wings of a brick colour, notched, and marked withpopulifa*
a great many brown fpots like crefcemts. 4^5* ^a_
tive of Europe •, on the white poplar.
Wings notched, and of a rufty colour 5 the mouth * yzwcz--
and ffianks of the legs black. 18. Native of Europe folia.
on grafs, the floe, pear tree, apple, and willow. The
larva is hairy, of a rufty colour, with a blue neck, and
fumiffied with a flignt tail. The pupa brown, marked
with red bands.
Wings fawn coloured, marked with two whitiflr * rul'i.
ftreaks on their upper furface. 21. Native of Europe j
on the bramble and willow. The larva is hairy, black
on the under fide, and of a rufty colour, marked with
black rings on the upper fide. When young it is cove¬
red with a veil of black filk. The pupa blackilh,
marked with three yellow rings, and enclofed in a co¬
vering of filk.
Wings notched, yellow, and marked with twTo brownpruni,
ftreaks and a wffiite dot. 22. Native of Europe *, on
the plum. The larva is fmooth, of an alh colour,
marked with blue lines, and fumiflred with tufts of hair
on the neck and along the fides-, the hind legs are
ftretched out, and at a dillance from one another. The
pupa black on the fore part of the body, and of a light
brown behind.
Wings faintly notched, and yellow, marked with a *
broad tawny ftripe, and with two white dots. 23. Na- ria.
tive of Europe j on grafs. It produces oblong eggs of
a leaden colour, marked at each end with a green ring,
and with a green dot in the middle. The larva has a
tail
LepiJoptera. E N T O M
tail and a creft, is hairy, and fpotted on the fides with
white. The pupa of a light brown.
* quercus. Wings of a rulty colour, marked with a yellow ftreak 5
the upper wings with a white dot. 25. Native of Eu¬
rope) on heatii, the Hoc, the birch, the willow and oak.
The colour of the female is paler than that of the male.
The larva is hairy, gray, marked with black rings, and
fpotted with white. The pupa is enclofed in a thick
covering of filk, is green, and brown on the fore part.
* lanef- Wings of a rufty colour, marked with a white ftreak)
iris. the upper wings are white at the bafe, and marked with
a white dot. 28. Native of Europe ) on the lime
tree, the floe, and the willow. It produces eggs cove¬
red with afti-coloured wool. The larva is hairy and
black j each of its fegments is marked with three white
dots between two red tufted fpots. It is gregarious, and
lives in habitations which it forms for itfelf compofed of
many cells) going out in queft of food, it returns
through parallel holes. The pupa is of a fulphur co¬
lour.
* vinula. Wings nearly reverfed, waved and ftreaked with
brown) body white, dotted with black. 29. A na¬
tive of Europe •, on the willow and poplar. Larva
folitary, green, and brown on the hack, on which
there is fttuated a turgid prominence 5 the tail is furniftied
with two briftles j it difcharges an acrid fluid from a
chink under its head. Pupa brown.
tnori. Silk-worm. Wings pale, marked with three faint
brown ftreaks, and a brown circular fpot. 33. Native
of China and Perfia ; on the mulberry. It was intro¬
duced into Europe by Juftinian. It varies a little in
fize and colour *, the wings being fometimes yellowifli,
fometimes whitilh. The larva is furniftied with a tail,
is naked, and whitilh. The pupa light brown, enclofed
m a thick ftlky covering, from which filk is manufac¬
tured. The firft perfon who unravelled the cocoons of
the filk-worm, and manufatftured them into filk, was
Paraphilia, a woman of Coos, the daughter of Latous,
(Th/ePlin. xi. 'l%l)\feupatiusPlatisfilia,(Ariftot. Anim.-
y. 19.)
* populi. Brown and whitifti on the fore-part ; the wings
brownifti, marked with a whitifli fpreading ftripe, with
a fmall one placed clofe by it. 34. Native of Europe ;
on the poplar, and on fruit trees. The larva hairy,
and of an afli-colour, darker on the back) each feg-
ment is marked with two pairs of red dots. The pupa
is brown on the fore part, and reddifti behind.
euena. Wings yellow (in the female brown), marked with a
white dot, and becoming paler towards the tip. 499.
Native of Europe j on the floe, &c. It depofits rough
eggs in clufters. The larva gregarious, hairy, and light-
brown. The divifions between the fegments black,
and marked on the fides with blue fpots and fulphur-
coloured dots. The pupa yellowifli.
* cajlren- Wings dark-coloured, marked with two pale bands.
Jis. 36. Native of Europe) feeds on thepilofella,jacea,
millefolium, alchemilla, and euphorbia. It depofits its
eggs in circles round branches. The larva is gregari¬
ous, confuming a great variety of vegetables : it feeds
under a web, and frequently fliifts its quarters : it is
hairy, blue, and marked with red lines dotted with
black. The pupa is dark-coloured.
* Prccef- Wings of a brownifti afti-colour : the female marked
fionea. with one dark ftripe j the male with three. 37. Na¬
tive of Europe j on the oak. Of a middle fize. The lar-
O L O G Y. jfpi
vae gregarious, hairy, of a brownifti afti-colour, black on
tue bacK, and marked with yellow warts; they move in
fets, differing in number. The Ikin which they caff
excites inflammation w^hen touciied.
/3. Wings deJleSied.
f Tongue fort.
[j Back fmooth.
Wings whitifli, marked on the back with a brown rufa.
fpot, and witn fix brown fpots like crelcents on the
lower wings. 508. Native of Europe. The under
wings white, with a brown edge j the antenna; pecti¬
nated and brown ) the legs brown.
Wings black, with white veins 5 the under wings* planta~-
yellow, with a black edge, and dotted with black, qi.gmis.
Native ot Europe ) on the plantane, elm, and hyacinth.
The under wings in the female are fcarlet; but in the
north of Europe, frequently white, with a black edge
and black fpots: when caught it emits a yellow drop
from its collar. Larva hairy, black, with the back '
brown.
Wings white, waved with black, marked withblood-co- * mono ch a.
loured rings between the fegments of the abdomen. 43.
Native of Europe) on the bramble, the willow, the
apple, the oak, the larix, and other fpecies of pine,
lo thefe laft it is particularly deftruftive. Larva
brownifli afii-coloured, with red tufts on the back ) the
fecond fegment of its body is marked with a black fpot
of a heart-ftiape. Pupa black.
W ings marked with fpots clouded with gray and * difoap-
brown ) the wings of the female whitifli, with black ^
ftains. 44. Native of Europe ) on the oak, the lime,
and fruit trees) the peft of orchards. The female twice
the fize of the male, covers her eggs with balls of dull.
I he larvae feed on a variety of vegetables, are hairy
marked with white lines, dotted with blue on the fore
part of the body, and with red behind. When touched
they excite an itching in the hands. The pupa is
marked on the fore part of the body with four black
dots) when touched, it rolls itfelf up into a circle.
Wings of a fnowy-white, a beard of a rufty colour * chryfov
at the anus. 45. Native of Europe) on the oak and rhota.
fruit-trees. There is a Imaller variety of this fpecies
with brownifti wings in India. The female produces
yellow eggs, and covers them with a large quantity of
tawny-coloured wool. The larva is blackifti, hairy,
gregarious ; not confined to one kind of food ) marked
with two red lines on the back, tufted with white on the
fides. The pupa blackifti.
J| [| Back furnijhed with a Crejl..
Wings of an afti-colour, marked with three brown * fiudibun*
waved ftreaks. 54. There is a variety of this fpecies, da.
fccpularis Q. Antennae pedinated, wings whitifti, mark¬
ed with three dark-coloured bands 5 the under wings
white. . It is a native of Europe; on the oak, beech.,
and fruit-trees. The larva is yellow, hairy; the tuft
on the tail longer than the reft, and red ) four tufts on
the back, white) the head is pale yellow. The pupa
is black in the lower part of the body, and a light
brown behind, fpotted with yellow.
Wings clouded) the posterior part of the thorax * co/Jut.
marked with a black band) antennas lamellated. 63. ^ '
A
1,92
A native of Europe ; in decayed wood. The larva
fomewhat hairy, of a carnation colour j the head black,
and back of a blood-colour. It was reckoned a deli¬
cacy by the Romans, who fattened it with flour. (Plin.
xviii. 24.). The pupa of a light brown on the fore
part of the body, and yellow behind.
dir aria. Wings yellowilh, marked with black bands. 1306.
A native of Chili ; on a kind of conyza. The larva
is naked, and red, while it undergoes its metamorphofis j
it rolls itfelf up in a kind of wax, at firft white and
fweet, and afterwards yellow and bitter, which the na¬
tives gather in the autumn and put into cakes.
f f Tongue long.
[a. Backfmooth.
* aulica. tipper wings gray, and dotted with yellow 5 the
under ones tawny fpotted with black. 68. A native
of Europe j on the angelica, nettle, and grafs. The
larva folitary, black, marked with white warts •, on the
upper part of the body it is covered with whitifh hairs,
and underneath with hairs of a rufty colour.
matronula. Wings brown ; the upper wings gray, fpotted with
yellow on their fuperior furface j the under ones yellow
marked with black bands. 92. A native of Europe 5
on the artemijia vulgaris.
Lepidoptera,
Tobago, Feelers wdiite at the bafe, and tipt with
black 5 thorax bluifh black with white dots, and two
tawny fpots j abdomen beneath white wflth black rings j
anus tawmy j upper wings blue at the tip, with white
dots j lower wings, and all beneath, black j the hind
margin a little whitifh.
§ $ Feelers cylindrical. Geometrce.
a. Wings angular.
Wings green and faintly notched, marked with a tbymiaria.
faint waved whitifh ftreak ; a fmalRr line of the fame
defcription being placed contiguous to it. 199. A
native of Europe j on thyme. Larva dark-coloured,
marked with carnation-coloured fpots on the back ; the
head and collar furnifhed with two little projeflions.
Pupa light brown, marked with a black line, fharp-
pointed before, and divided behind, and covered with a
very thin follicle.
Wings afh-coloured, and marked with a ruRy-co-punSloria.
loured ftreak, and tranfverfe row of black dots. 200.
A native of Europe ; on the oak. Larva afh-coloured,
marked with yellow fpots on the fides. Pupa of a pale
carnation-colour above, beneath yellow) and is attached
to a leaf.
b. Wings entire.
ENTOMOLOGY.
b. Back furnijljed with a Crejl.
e0' Wings of an afh-colour, ftreaked with a light brown,
and marked with 00. 81. A native of Europe j on
the oak. Larva naked, of a violet-colour, marked
with white lines, and dots.
tefculi. Of a fnow white colour *, wings marked with a great
number of bluifh-black dots} the thorax with fix. 33,
A native of Europe ■, in the wood of the pear and horfe-
chefnut. Larva yellow, dotted with black j hea and
tail black.
y. Wings incumbent.
Xgraminis. Wings gray •, marked with a white line dividing into
three branches, and a white dot. 73. A native of
Europe 5 on grafs. It varies in fize, and is very de-
ftructive to paflure grounds. The larva confumes all
kinds of grafs except the alopecurus. It is fmooth,
dufky, with a lateral and dorfal yellow flripe. It is
deflroyed by rooks and hogs. The pupa remains tor¬
pid for fourteen days only.
*Juliginofa Wings dark-coloured, tinged with red, marked with
a double black dot; abdomen red •, and black oif the
back. 95. A native of Europe •, on the turnip, muf-
tard, grafs, and birch-tree. The larva is hairy, of a
rufty colour, with black head and fore-legs; wanders
over the fnow in winter in Norway j and is faid to for-
bode a cold fummer and fcarcity where it appears in
confiderable numbers. Pupa black, marked with yel¬
low bands behind.
varella. Wings tranfparent and gray *, antennae brown. 591.
A native of Europe •, on the vicia fylvatica. The fe¬
male depofits her eggs while in the pupa ftate, and
never becomes a perfeft infeth
«>. Wings convoluted.
hifrrh. Wings tawny, marked with numerous white fpots,
' furrounded with blue. 593. A native of the ifland of
3
Wings green, fomewhat wraved, marked with apapiliona*
waved ftreak, and fmaller ftreak of the fame defcription ria.
contiguous to it. 225. A native of Europe ; on birch-
trees. Larva green, with ten crooked reddifh prickles
on the back. Pupa green, varied with yellow j re¬
mains torpid for 14 days.
Wing purple, marked with a pale fillet. 654. Avittata.
native of Europe.
c. Wings round.
All the wings yellowilh, marked with brown ftreaks, *atomaria.
and very fmall dots. 214. A native of Europe ; on
the centaurea. Larva gray, anc| fmooth, marked with
a number of interrupted lines of a rufty colour, having
two tubercles on the pofterior part of the body.
Wmgs white, marked with a ftriated yellow band 5 * pant aria.
the abdomen yellow dotted with black. 213. A na¬
tive of Europe •, on the elm and plane tree. Larva
green marked with black lines j head and tail black.
Pupa bluilh.
Wings variegated with green and alh-colour, mark- Uchenaria.
ed with two black ftreaks j the anterior one curved, the
pofterior one waved. 633. A native of Europe •, on
lichens. Small. Larva rough, varying in colour accord¬
ing to the colour of the lichen on which it feeds, green,
alh-coloured, or yellow, fpotted with black on the fides $
the fore-legs marked with a black fpot, and a green dot.
§ § § Feelers almojl naked, and cylindrical at the bafe;
dentated in the middle, and oval j tapering at the tips.
Tortrices.
The upper wings green, marked with two obliqueprafnaris,
yellow ftreaks ; the under wings white. 235. A native
of Europe \ on the alder and oak. Larva and pupa
green ; the former is marked along the fide with a
yellow line, and has the fecond fegment of the back
marked with tubercles j the latter marked on the back
with a black line.
Wings
Xepidoptera.
pomona. Wings clouded, the under ones marked with a red-
difh golden fpot. 401. A native of Europe ; on the
apple. Larva naked, and red $ with a black head.
Pupa light brown.
rejinaria. Wings brown, marked with a brown fpot at the bafe,
common to both wings, and with a triangular rufty fpot
at the tips. 406. A native of Europe. It takes up
its habitation in a ball of rofin, which exudes from a
wound made in the branches of the pine. Larva naked
. and yellowilh 5 head light brown. Pupa brown.
H H font ting clofely, with the under edge of
one over the upper edge of the other. Pyralides.
far in alls. Feelers bent backwards; wings yellowilh and polilli-
ed, marked with white waved ftreaks, yellowilh at the
bafe and tips. 327. A native of Europe 5 in flour
and meal. It walks with its tail ereft.
Feelers bent backwards j wings alb-coloured, thicker
at the edges, faintly marked with black bands. 336.
A native of Europe j on butter, bacon, &c. Very
common in houfes and kitchens, fometimes in the hu¬
man ftomach ; the moll pernicious of all the animals
that live within the bodies of others.' The larva
fmooth, brown, Ihining. Pupa naked, of a light
brown.
Wings gray, Itreaked with brown, and marked with
a kidney-lhaped fpot, on which there is infcribed a Ro¬
man A. 338; A native of Europe ; within the Italks
of rye, which it confumes within the Iheath, going from
one to another : this is the caufe of the ears becoming
white and empty. Larva green, marked with three
longitudinal green lines j head light brown.
ENTOMOLOGY.
*93
/S. The Thorax furnijhcd with a Cref.
* pinguin
aits.
fscalis.
qdora.
frix.
tnacrops.
Jivida.
* * The Antennce fetaceous.
$ Tongue proje&ing and horny. Noflute.
a. Wings fprending.
Wings notched, brown, and waved with black 5 the
upper wings are adorned with a black eye, and marked
with a blue fpot like a crefcent, and with a white fpot-
ed llreak. 11. A native of Surinam.
Wings of the fame colour, both on the upper and
under furface, reticulated and clouded with black and
white. 82. A native of South America. Larva
haked, black, and marked on the fides with a greenilh
line, and with green rings.
Wings indented ; brown, weaved with black ; upper
pair adorned with a large light bnnvn eye. 968. A
native of China. In fome fpecimens, probably the fe¬
males, the outer margin of the lower wings is refle&ed,
forming a pouch which contains a great quantity of fine
filk.
b. Wings incumbent,
cc. Thorax fmooth.
Wings fhining black j under wings of a rufty colour,
edged with dark brown. 999. A native of'Europe.
Larva growing fmaller towards each end, naked,
greenilh, variegated with yellow, and Ihining red, mark¬
ed with a dark-coloured line on the back, and with a
very flender pale one on the fides j the head of a pale
colour.
Vol. VIII. Part L
Wings white, ftreaked with dark brown, dotted with typhee.
black on their pofterior margin. 1005. A native of'
Europe $ on the ftalks of the typha anguf folia. It
comes forth in Auguft, about the fize of pinguinalis,
fmooth and whitilh. Larva is gray and naked. It
undergoes its metamorphofis within the ftalks, in the
month of July.
Wings variegated with green and gray; the under *folani.
ones reddifh, marked rvith a band near the edge. 1009.
A native of Europe ; on the potato and bean, devour¬
ing the larvae of other infers. Larva thick ; wrinkled,
and of an alh-colour. Pupa naked, and of a light
brown. “
Wings brownilh gray, marked with a black fyot'7C. nigrum.
white on the outer edge, and with a black line at the
tip. 162. A native of Europe; on the common
fpmach. Larva variegated with gray and dark brown,
marked on the fides with black crofs lines, and with a
fingle pale one.
c. Wings defccled.
x. Thorax fmooth.
Wings whitilh, marked with a very broad band of ztrabezina.
darker colour, dotted with black along the edge. 99.
A native of Europe on the hazel. Larva greenilh
marked with alh-coloured, whitilh, and fulphur-coloured*
lines : it devours the larvae of other infers, and even of
its own fpecies. Pupa of a light brown; it lies dormant
for four weeks.
Wings alh-coloured, without fpots, marked with three W«^.
whitilh waved ftreaks j the collar divided. 102* A,
A native of Europe ; frequently flying into candles,
whence it has received its name ; though many moths
are attraaed by the light, as well as this.
/3. Thorax furnifhed with a Crejl.
Wings alh-coloured ; the upper wings marked at the*/./?,
bale with a black fine, and black charade™; legs
without fpots. 135. A native of Europe; on the
alder, oak and fruit trees; varying in the number and
figure of the charaders. Larva hairy ; back yellow -
the fides fpotted with black and red; a blackered horn
on the thorax.
Wings yellowilh, marked with two dark hxoMmturea.
ftreaks, and adorned with a yellowilh eye. 140. A
native of Europe ; on the juncus pilofus, and in com
fields under ftones. Larva reddifh yellow, black at each
end, underneath of a whitifh yellow, marked on the
back with a whitifh line, and on the fides with a dark-
coloured one; the divifions between the fegments are
marked with fmall black fines, and the head is dark
brown. It gnaws over the ftalks of the com clofe by the
ground, m the months of May and June.
The upper wings of a rufty colour, marked with a*oleracea.
yellownfh fpot like a crefcent, and with a white fine
divided behind. 171. A native of Europe; at the
roots of cabbage, greens, &c. likewife on the leaves of
peas and beans. Larva feeds on a variety of vege¬
tables ; naked, of a livid colour, dotted with black, aLd
maiked on the back with a dark browm fine, and on
the fides with a whitifh one. Pupa naked and blackifli.
Wings of a rufty colour marked with two fpots, and * pif,
^ k / with
\
t
194
tritici.
Jlavicornis.
cerella.
pa dill a.
* pel lion el-
la.
* tapezella
*fafcitella
* mel/o-
nella.
* proletel-
la.
E N T O M
with a pale waved flreak on their pofterior part. 172.
A native of Europe } on the pea and broom, confuming
their pods. Larva naked, and of a rufty colour, mark¬
ed with four yellow lines 5 head of a carnation colour.
Pupa dark brown } the divilions between the fcgments
of a blood colour.
Of an aih-colour j the wings marked with two pale-
coloured fpots, and with a iingle blackifh one. 179*
A native of Europe 5 on the ears of wheat and oats.
Larva naked and yellow } marked with three white
lines.
Upper wings of an aih colour, marked with three
black flreaks j antennse yellow. 182. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on fruit trees. Larva naked, greenilh, mark¬
ed on the frdes with white dots} head of a carnation
colour.
§ § Tongue prominent and me??ibranaceous. Tineae.
a. Wings four, unequal.
Wings gray, emarginated behind 5 back of a dark
brown, and furrowed. 282. A native of Europe j in
bee hives, feeding on the wax.
The upper wings of a livid colour, and marked with
20 black dots j the under ones brown. 351. A native
of Europe •, on apple trees. The larva gregarious j
living in fwarms, under a common covering : it is
naked, and gray, marked with a black dot on each fide
of its fegments. Pupa yellowiih.
Wings gray, marked in the middle with a black
dot. 372. It is to be met with everywhere in w oollen
fluffs, which it deftroys, lying concealed within a cover¬
ing. Larva whitifli, marked with a red line on the back.
Pupa yellowifti.
Wings black, under ones whitifli; head pure white.
371. A native of Europe ; on tapeftry, furs, and ikins,
into which it gnaws holes.
Wings of an afli colour } thorax marked on each fide
with a white dot. 373. A native of Europe ; in cloths
and furs, which it deffroys. It lies concealed under a
covering.
Wings whitilh, growfing purple towards their exterior
part, marked with a white ftreak 5 the fcutellum black,
and white at the tip. 375. A native of Europe j in
bee-hives, where it penetrates the honey-combs. Larva
is naked, and gray, with a light brown head. Pupa
light brown.
Wings whitifti, marked with two dark brown dots 5
tongue bent inwards. 379* native of Europe ; on
different fpecies of cabbage j on the horned poppy ; and
on the oak. An individual, in the fpace of a year, may
produce many millions, as they propagate every month,
each depofiting a great number of- eggs.
b. Feelers divided the length of the middle, two in
number.
0 L O G Y. Neuroptera.
covered with tufts of hair. Pupa long; with two
lines of tubercles on the back, each furnilhed with four
prickles.
* * * Antenna tnonilifonn andfloort. Hepiali.
Wings yellow, with tawmy ftreaks j the wings of the * hutnuli,
male of a fnow-white colour. 84. A native of Eu¬
rope j at the roots of the hop : the hop-planters manure
with hogs dung, as a remedy againft this troublefome
infedt j it depofits a^very great number of eggs.
1529 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
IV. NEUROPTERA.
Wings four 5 naked j their veins forming a net-work.
Tail unarmed.
72. Libellula,
Mouth furnilhed with jaws. Jaws numerous. Lip di¬
vided into three. Antennas Ihorter than the thorax j
very flender and filiform. Wings extended. Tail of
the male furnithed with a hooked forceps.
* Wings fpreading when the infeB is at rejl.
A. The central divi/ion of the Lip very minute.
The under wings marked at the bafe with a blackhh * quadri-
fpot j and all the wings marked on the middle of their maculata.
upper (urface with a blackifh fpot 3 the abdomen flattifh
and downy. I. A native of Europe 3 in wraters.
The under wings becoming black at the bafe 3 the * rubicun-
body quadrangular. 4. A native of Europe 3 in frefli da.
waters. The one fex is waved on the back with red, and
the other with yellowu
All the wings black at the bafe ; the abdomen de- * deprejfa.
preffed 3 the fides yeilowilh. 5. A native of Europe 3
in frefti water. The abdomen of the male bluiih, mark¬
ed on the fides, near the bafe, with yellow fpots 3 the
abdomen of the female brown, and yellow on the
fides.
B. The divifions of the Lip equal. At,Hinge;
Abdomen yellow, marked with two black lines 5 the minuta.
under wings yellow, marked with two black fpots. 42.
A native of China. Small: head yellow 3 eyes brown 3
thorax with yellow lines beneath 3 abdomen with two
black lines above, and one beneath 3 upper ones black
at the bafe, with a yelkw fpot.
Thorax black 3 marked with various yellow charac- * forcipata
ters 3 tail furniflied with crooked hooks. 11. A na¬
tive of Europe.
* granella. Wings variegated with black and white 3 head very
white. 377. A native of Europe 3 in granaries,
w here it deftroys the grain and collefts it into knots 3 it
climbs up the walls of houfes in winter.
$ § § Wings divided into many divifions. Alucitce.
didaByla Wings fpreading and brown, marked with white
ftreaks 3 the fuperior wings bifid 3 the pofterior ones
divided into three divifions. 454. A native of Europe 3
on the geum rivale, and on the convolvulus. Larva green,
* * Wings ereB when the infect is at rejl; the Eyes di-
f ant from one another ; the exterior divijion of the Lip
fightly divided. Agrim.
Wings coloured. * virgo.
a. Body fhining, greenifh blue ; wings bluiih in the
middle, the bafe and tip whitilh, the margin without
fpots.
b. Body filky 3 wings bluilh green, the tip brown,
the margin without fpots.
c. Silky,
Neuroptcra. ENT O M
c. Silky, green ; wings brownifh, with a white mar¬
ginal dot.
cl. Body filky ; wings brown, gilt with a black fpot.
20. A native of Europe 5 about frelh wraters.
*puci!a. Wings tranfparent.
a. Body red, with yellow and black lines at each feg-
ment j wings with marginal fpots.
b. Body carnation colour ; w ings with a browui mar¬
ginal dot.
c. Body alternately blue and alh-colour j wings with
a black dot.
cJ. Body beneath bluifh green, above brown • thorax
with alternate brown and bluilh bands 5 wings writh a
black marginal dot.
e. Body green, and pale carnation colour 5 thorax
with three black lines 5 wangs with a brown marginal
dot. 21. A native of Europe j in almoft endlefs va¬
riety.
This is an extremely ravenous tribe, and are gene¬
rally feen hovering over ftagnant waters. They copu¬
late in the air, and fly about joined together. They
fly very rapidly, and at a greater height than moft other
infefts. The larvae are fix-footed j aftive •, inhabitants
* of the water ; furnifhed wflth articulated pincers, with
which they feize and prey with the moft rapacious fe¬
rocity on aquatic animals. The pupa refembles the
larva, but has the rudiments of wings.
48 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
73. Ephemera, Day-Fly.
Mouth without jaws. Feelers four, very fhort, and fili¬
form. The refemblance of a jaw, membranaceous,
cylindrical, and connected with the lip. Antennae
fhort, and tapering towards the tip. Tivo large ftem-
mata above the eyes. Wings ere£t, under ones very
fmall. Tail briftly.
Thefe fhort-lived animals are found everywhere
about waters in the fummer, and in their perfect flate
feldom live above a day, during which time they per¬
form all the funftions of life. They remain in the ftate
of larvae and pupae for one, twro, or three years. The
larva lives under w^ater, and is eagerly fought after by
fifli, particularly by trout, for which it forms an excel¬
lent bait. They are furnifhed with fix feet, a tail, and
fix fins which ferve them as oars. The pupa refembles
the larva, except in having the rudiments of future
wings. They fcoop out holes for themfelves in the
banks of rivers, formed like fiphons j the one leg ferving
as an entrance, the other as an outlet. The banks of
feme rivers are often perforated with them. When the
waters decreafe, they form frefh holes low'er down. The
ephemerae on the Rhine appear tw o hours before funfet 5
they come forth almofl all at the fame time, and in im-
menfe numbers. Thofe on the Marne and Seine,in France,
do not begin to fly till twm hours after funfet. The fe¬
males, by the help of the threads of the tail, and the
flapping of their wings, fupport themfplves on the fur-
face of the water, and in almofl: an upright pofition,
drop their eggs in clufters. A female will drop feven
or eight hundred eggs, which fink to the bottom.
o L o G ¥. 195
* Tail furnijhed with three / -i/iles.
Wings reticulated and fpotted with brown; body * vulgala.
brown. 1. A native of Europe j in frefh w;aters. In
the month of June, they are to be feen in the evenings
fluttering about under trees in innumerable fwarms. In
the neighbourhood of Laz in Camiola, they abound fo
much, that the country people collect them for
manure ; the peafant who has not colledled to the
amount of^ twenty cart loads, thinks himfelf unfortu¬
nate.
Wings white, the outer margin browm ; body black.* m^ii-
3. A native of Europe. nata.
Wings black, the under ones whitifh. 4. A native * vefperti-
of Europe j in frelh wraters. na.
* * Tail compofed of the two briJHes.
Wings white, and reticulated j the head marked with * biocula-
two yellow tubercles. 5. A native of Europe 5 in frefh to.
waters. The briftles of the tail wiiite dotted with
brown, and longer than the body.
Wings wiiite, the edges blackifh and thicker than * horar’ta,
the reft of the wing. 9. A native of Europe j in
frefh waters.
18 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
74. Phryganea.
Mouth furnifhed with a homy mandibla, fhort, arched
and fliarp, without teeth. Jaw membranaceous.
Feelers four. Stemmata three. Antennse fetaceous,
and longer than the thorax. Wings incumbent, the
under ones folded.
Thefe infects are feen in a fummer evening floating
in the air in great numbers, and are eagerly devoured
by fwallows j they are eafily diftinguiflied from the
fmaller moths, by their wanting the fpiral tongue. The
larva is fix-footed, found at the bottom of fhallow wa¬
ters enclofed in a tube, conftrudted of fand, ftraws, or
fmall chips of wood, and is known to fiftiers by the name
of caddy or caddo, who ufe it as a bait for trout, after
they have taken off the tube with which it is covered.
When about to become a pupa, it Units up the mouth
of its tube with a few loofe threads of filk, of the fame
nature with that by which it connects the ft raws and
chips that compofe its tube. The lame of the fpecies
which compofe the firft divifion have one or three tails,
which ferve them for fins ; the pupae have fix.feet, and
prominent horny jaws. The larvae of the other fpecies
are fomewhat hairy, furnifhed with two hooks at the
tail, and with three tentacula on the fourth fegment*
The pupa very much refembles the perfett infed.
* Jaw divided. Tail formed of two briflles, and ter¬
minating abruptly. Semblis.
Wings marked with many veins, forming a net-work. * ^^ouda-
1. A native, of Europe, in frefh waters ; carrying a'
about its eggs in a mafs under its belly ; body greenifh.
Body black ; wings white, fpotted with black. 3, halcenou
A native of Europe. J aes.
B b 2
** Tail
196 , E N T O M
* * Tail without briftlcs ; the Jaw joined to the lip.
reticulata. Body black j the wings of a nifty colour, reticulated
with black. 4. A native of Europe.
*gi'ifea. Body gray ; the upper wings clouded, and marked
with a black fpot on the edge. 6. A native of Eu¬
rope ; in frefh waters. The larva is covered with a tube
compofed of grafs and rufhes.
* grand is. Wings of a brownifh brick-colour, marked with afh-
coloured fpots. 7. A native of Europe j in frefh wa¬
ters. The larva is concealed in a cylindrical tube
formed of chips of wood.
* rhomli- Wings gray, marked with a white rhomboidal fpot.
ca. 8. A native of Europe 5 in frefh waters. The larva
is lodged within a cylindrical tube, formed of bits of
grafs, conne&ed together tranfverfely.
50 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syflem of Nature.
75. Hemerobius.
Mouth furnifhed with a fhort horny mandible. Jaw
cylindrical, ftraight, and cleft. Lip prominent and
entire. Feelers four; projecting, unequal, and fili¬
form. No flemmata. Wings defleCted, but not
folded. Antennae fetaceous, projecting, and longer
than the thorax, which is convex.
Like the ephemera, thefe infeCts are very fhort-lived 5
and in every flate of their exiftence, they prey with un-
ceafing avidity upon aphi/les. The larva is fix-footed,
generally oval and hairy. The pupa commonly folicu-
lated. The eggs are depofited in clufters on the leaves
of plants ; each placed on a fmall ftalk made of gum.
Many of them, when touched, have an excrementitious
fmell. The follicle in which the pupa is enclofed, is of
a denfe texture, formed of whitifh filk. In fummer, at
the end of three wyeeks, the hemerobius comes forth a
perfeCt infeCt. When the follicle has not been formed
till the end of autumn, the pupa remains in it the whole
winter ; and does not undergo its final metamorphoiis
till the enfuing fpring.
A. Lip cylindrical, membranaceous, and marked with
rings. Semblides.
* lutarius. Black ; wings whitifh, ftreaked and fpotted with
white. 14. A native of Europe j in frefh waters 5
very common in the fpring. It depofits a great num¬
ber of light brown eggs, which it attaches in clufters
to the leaves of aquatic plants by means of a glutinous
matter,
B. Lip horny, round at the tip, and arched.
per la. Yellowifh green ; wings tranfparent, and marked
with green veins. 2. A native of Europe ; on vege¬
tables. Its eggs are fet on capillary ftalks.
mellano- Yellowifh ; wings tranfparent, variegated with blue
tidlos. and gold, marked with whitifh veins, dotted, and fome-
what hairy, the edges marked with very fmall black
dots. 31. A native of Europe.
verjicolor. Yellow; wings tranfparent, variegated with blue and
gold 5 the bafe of the abdomen, the under-part, and
O L O G Y. Neuroptera.
anus black j the antennae yellow. 32. A native of
Europe.
31 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the laft
edition of the Syflem of Nature. ^
76. Myrmeleon, IJon-ant, or Ant-eater.
Mouth with a fharp homy jaw, and mandible. Lip
projecting. Feelers fix. No flemmata. Antennae
thicker towards their outer edge. Wings defleCled.
Tail of the male armed with a pair of pincers, com¬
pofed of two filaments nearly ftraight.
A. The posterior Feelers much longer than the rest;
jaw furnifhed with one tooth; Up membranaceous and
fquare, terminating abruptly, and cmarginated.
The infeCts of this family prey with the moft favage
ferocity upon ants, and leffer infeCts; and for the pur-
pofe of enfnaring them fink themfelves into the fand, and
form a kind of funnel or pit in which they lie buried,
the head only appearing above the fand: into this hollow
fuch infeCts as wander near it are fure to fall; and not
being able to crawl up the fides of loofe fand, are feized
and devoured by the lion-ant. But if the fides of the
pit do not give way, or the unlucky infeCt appears to be
able to make its efcape, its enemy, by throwing up with
its head repeated fhowers of fand, forces it down till it
comes within its reach. Larva is fix-footed, oval and
hairy, with exferted toothed jaws. Pupa enclofed in a
ball compofed of agglutinated fand or earth.
Wings clouded with brown, marked with a white * for trite a-
fpot on their pofterior margin. 3. A native of Eu-r/wj.
rope. The larva goes backwards j frequents fandy
places, where it digs pits to enfnare other infeCts.
B. Feelers nearly equal, andfiliform; the Jaw fringed ;
Lip horny, round and entire.
The upper wings tranfparent, marked at the bafe longicorrits
with a double yellow fpot 5 the under wings are yellow,
and black at the bafe. 2. A native of Europe.
Head black and hairy.
Wings white, marked with a black fpot at the edge 5 aufiraliu
body variegated. 14. A native of Europe. Varie¬
gated with brown and yellow 5 the antennae of the fame
length with the body, and black j club oblong.
15 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
/
77. Panorpa, Scorpion-fiy.
Mouth flretched out into a cylindrical fnout, compofed.
of a horny fubftance. Mandible, without teeth. Jaw7
divided at the point. Lip very long, covering the
whole mouth, and like it formed of a horny fubftance.
Feelers four, nearly equal. Antennae filiform, and
longer than the thorax. Tail of the male notched, of
the female unarmed.
Wings equal, fpotted with black. 1. A native, of * co/wj#-
Europe ; lives chiefly on dipterous infeCts. nis.
W'ings tapering towards the point, fomewhat cwsvedt hyemalU^
and fringed j female without wings. 3. A native of
Hymenoptera.
E N T O M
it
‘ ophiopjts
* notata.
Europe* It is common wlien winter difappears.
of a brownifh yellow colour above.
10 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the laft
edition of the Sylfem of Nature.
78. Raphidia.
Mouth furnilhed with an arched mandible fet with teeth.
Jaw cylindrical and obtufe j lip round and entire 5
all of them formed of a horny fubltance, Feelers
four, very fliort, nearly equal, and filiform. Stem-
mata three. Wings defieded. Antennae filiform,
the fame length of the thorax, which is lengthen¬
ed out at the anterior part, and cylindrical.
Tail of the female furnifhed with a loofe curved
briftle.
• Wings without fpots. 1. A native of Europe j in
pine forefts j feeding on other infeds. Larva has fix
feet. The pupa adive, very like the perfed infed in
every point, except that it wants wings.
Wings marked on the edge with a brown fpot. 2.
A native of Britain. Black j a reddifh brown fpot on
the head and legs, and furnilhed with a projeding fting
of the fame length with the abdomen.
V. HYMENOPTERA.
Wings four, membranaceous for the moll part. Tail
of the female furnilhed with a fling.
79. Cynips, Gall-fly.
Mouth with a Ihort jaw, furnilhed with one tooth, and
membranaceous. The mandible arched, cleft at the
tip, and with a Ihort, cylindrical, and entire lip, all
compofed of a horny fubftance. Feelers four, Ihort,
unequal and capitated. Antennae moniliform. Sting
fpiral, and for the moll part concealed.
The numerous excrefcences or galls, found on the
roots, branches, and leaves -of various trees, are produ¬
ced by the pundure of thefe infeds. The larva is
without feet, foft, cylindrical, and inhabits within the
gall, feeding on the juices of the tree. The pupa re-
fembles the perfed infed, except in having only the ru¬
diments of wings.
a lfcendens Of a brazen colour ; the abdomen conical, afeending
and joined to the trunk by a very narrow connedion.
2,0. A native of Europe. Large j legs of a pale colour j
the thighs black at the bafe.
* roflee. Body black ; the abdomen of a rufly colour, and
black behind ; the legs of a rally colour. 1. A na¬
tive of Bedeguar 5 on the rofe.
* quercus Black ; bafe of the antennae and legs yellowilh. 4.
baccarum. A native of Europe. Forms roundilh and tranfparent
galls, about the fize of a pea, on the under furface of the
leaves of the oak } and comes out about the middle of
fummer.
* quercus Black ; thorax marked with lines 5 legs gray ; thighs
folii. beneath black. 5. A native of Europe. Forms galls
about the fize of a hazel nut, on the under furface of
the leaves of the oak.
* quercus Black ; antennae and legs pale. 6. A native of
infera. Europe. Forms globular, opake, red galls, about the
fize of a hazel nut, on. the under furface of the leaves
of the oak.
o l o G Y. 197
Black j legs white j thighs brown. 7. A native of ^
Europe. Forms hollow galls, convex at each end, onpetioli. ,
the footllalks of the leaves of the oak.
Gray j wings marked with a linear crofs. 8. A * quercus
native of Europe. Forms granulated conneded galls,/>£Jane#//,
on the male flowers of the oak.
In galls on the bark of the oak. 9. A native oi* quercus
Europe. Forms a cup-fhaped gall, the difk convex and corticis*
furrounded with about twenty concave dots, funk into
the bark of the oak. N
Pale j abdomen and eyes black. 10. A native of * quercus
Europe. Forms white woolly galls on the fmall ramuli.
branches of the oak.
In the terminal bud of the querciis robur. II. A * quercus
native of Europe. Found in the large imbricated gaWsgemm#.
on the terminal buds of the quercus robur. This fly is
of a very dark green, flightly gilded. Its antennae and
feet are of a dun colour, rather deep. It depofits its
eggs in the oak buds, which produce one of the fineil
galls, leafed like a rofe-bud beginning to blow. When
the gall is fmall, the leaves are compreffed, and lie over
one another like the tiles on the roof of a houfe. In
the centre of the gall there is a kind of hard nucleus,
in the middle of which is a cavity, and in that is found
the little larva, which feeds there, takes its growth, un¬
dergoes its metamorphofis, and breaks through the in-
clofure in order to get out. The whole gall is often
near an inch in diameter, fometimes more when dried
and difplayed, and is attached to the branch by a foot-
flalk. (Barbut, Infeft. p. 233.)
On the calyx of the oak and regilops. 18. A native quercus,
of Europe. Forms galls on the calyx of the quercus calicis.
robur, fometimes ufed by tanners. They were called
by the Romans cerri.
Black, without fpots. 12. A native of Europe. *fagu
Forms galls of the drape of a pear, on the upper furface
of the leaves of the common beech.
Body brown. 22. Forms tenacious globular galls, rofmarinu-
about the fize of a hazel nut, filled with clear oil, on the
branches of the rofmarinus chilenfls.
Body black j the bafe of the antennae and legs of a phragmi- !
brick colour 5 the abdomen lengthened out into a broad tis.
tail. 25. It is lodged at the top of the ftalk of the
arundo fragmilis, which becomes dilated, and grows no
higher.
28 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.. ^
80. Tenthredo, Saw-fly.
Mouth furnidred with an arched mandible, formed of a
horny fubdance, and notched in the infide. Jaw
draight and blunt at the tip. Lip cylindrical and
divided into three. Feelers, four, unequal, and fili¬
form. Wings plain and fwelling out. Sting com¬
pofed of two ferrated laminae, {lightly projefling. r
Scutellum marked with two grains placed on its fur¬
face, at a didance from one another.
The male and female of many of the fpecies of this
genus vary in colour. They feed on the leaves of va¬
rious plants 5 the female ufes her ding in the manner of
a faw, and cuts out fpaces in the twigs or buds of treesj
for the purpofe of depofiting her eggs : larva cylindri¬
cal, foft, with fixteen or twenty-eight feet 3 feeds, on the
leaves
198 E N T O M
leaves of plants, and when touched rolls itfelf up fpiral-
ly. Pupa enclofed in a follicle, and is very like the
.perfeft infeft the eggs increafe in lize every day till
the larvte burlt from them.
* Antenruc c lav a ted.
* fem<jra~ Antennae pale yellow *, body black •, thighs of the
ia. hind-legs very large. I. A native of Europe $ on the
alder and willow. Larva green, marked on the back
with a blue line, and on the lides with a yellow one.
trijlis. Body black j antennae pale yellow j wings brown at
the tips. 56. A native of the Sundmore illands.
Larva green, marked on the back with a blue line
fringed with black and yellow.
* vitelli- Abdomen black above, reddilh on the Tides j the
nee. thighs of the hind-legs dentated. 5. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on the birch and willow } the antennae yellow,
and black at the tip. The larva is green, and fpouts
water from an opening a little above the anus.
* * Antennce without articulations, and thicker towards
their outer edge.
* enodis. Antennae fmooth : body of a bluifli black. 11. A
native of Europe j on the willow. Larva green, dotted
with black, marked on the Tides with a wrinkled yel¬
low line, and furnilhed with an acute tail.
’* ujlulata. Body black ; abdomen bluifti j (hanks of the legs
pale. 13. A native of Europe ; on the rofa canina.
-Wings of a faint rufty colour, marked with a brown
fpot. Larva green, marked with two white lines; the
head of a brick-colour, marked with a dark-coloured
band.
cyanocro- Head and thorax bluifh : the abdomen of a faffron-
cea. colour. 6. A native of Britain ; on umbelliferous
plants : antennm black 5 legs of many colours.
* * * Antennce pectinated.
cephalotes. Body black •, abdomen marked with four yellow
belts. 64. A native of Europe j large ; head large,
three dots (ituated between the eyes *, the thorax marked
on the fore part with an interrupted yellowifli ftrsak j
lees of a ruily colour.
" uorjata. Body whitilh ) head and back of the thorax and ab¬
domen black. 65. A native of Britain j antennae
black.
* * * * Antennce feathered.
* pin 1. Antennas fpear-diaped •, the thorax fomewhat hairy .
14. A native of Europe ; very common in the fir-tree.
The male black ; the thighs and (hanks of the legs of
a tawny colour : female twice the fize of the male 5
gray ; antennae ferrated. Larva blue, and of a tawny
colour at each end.
* * * * * Antennce filiform ; furnifhed with feven or
nine articulations.
* rufiica. Body black } the abdomen marked with three yel¬
low belts 5 the pofterior pair being interrupted. 16.
A native of Europe 5 cn the woodbine. Mouth whitilh}
the fcutellum and thorax marked with a yellow fpot ;
the legs yellow } the knees of the hind-legs black.
2
O L O G Y. Hymenoptera.
Larva of an a(li-colour, marked with triangular light
brown dots on the back.
Greenith yellow 5 legs tawny } the thighs of the cynipifor-
hind-legs of a brafs colour. 69. A native of Europe} twir.
in the pods of the vetch 5 about the lize of a black ant}
the thorax lengthened very much, refembling a cynips.
Female bluiih green, with a metallic luftre.
Body variegated. 21. A native of Europe} on*falicis.
the poplar and willow. Larvae feeding in parallel
troops} Hat, rough, yellowr, and marked on each Tide
with twm rows of black dots} head black.
Body black } head and thorax red. 29. A native * alni.
of Europe } on the leaves of the alder. When looked
at, it attempts to conceal itfelf. The antennae are
black} the abdomen black, with a violet glofs} the
fore-legs reddiih brown.
Body black } belly, legs, and fcutellum whitilh. 3 5. rapes.
A native of Europe } on the leaves of the turnip.
Small } whitilh beneath } the edges of the wings black 5
the edges of the fegments of the abdomen faint yellow }
head and thorax variegated with white.
Body yellow } head and upper part of the thorax * caprece.
and abdomen black } wings marked with a yellow dot.
55. A native of Europe } on the willow and corinth.
The larva yearly deftroys the goofeberry and red corinth,
but does not injure the black corinth } blue } the three
firil and three lad fegments tawny, marked with nine
lines of dots.
Body black } the (hanks and apophyfes of the thighs ribis.
of the hind-legs are white on their exterior fide. 88.
A native of Europe } on the red corinth. The larva
dedroys the edges of the leaves of the red corinth} it is
green} the head edged with black } body wrinkled }
fix feet fituated on the bread, are furnilhed with hooks }
fix on the abdomen are fet clofe together, and two near
the tail refemble papillae.
****** Antennce fetaccous, compofed of many articu¬
lations.
Body blue } head red. 40. A native of Europe } on * erythro-
the common pine. Male black } the mouth and (hanks cephala.
of the fore-legs pale yellow.
Black, with a tinge of blue} mouth, feelers, andpopuli.
dianks of the legs yellow. 44. A native of Europe }
on the poplar } wings brownKh } the bread variegated
with pale yellow on each fide, edged with bright yel¬
low } the abdomen pale yellow } fpotted on the back
with black.
******* The following fpecies, and other five, feem
doubtful.
Black } legs yellow } antennce (lightly clavated-. 50. intercus.
A native of Europe } on the leaves of the burdock, the
nightdiade, and the vulvaria; it is lodged under the
cuticle of the leaf} the antennce (liorter than the body,
tranfparent and deeply articulated} the abdomen oval
and pointed.
140 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed by
Gmelin, in his lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
81. Sirex, Tailed Wafip.
Mouth furnidied with a thick mandible, compofed of a
horny fubftance, terminating abruptly at the tip}
the
Hymenoptera.
the jaw bent inwards, pointed, cylindrical, and fring¬
ed, which, together with the lip, is membranaceous,
Ihort and entire. Feelers four; the pofterior ones
longer than the reft, and thicker on the outfide.
Antennae filiform, compofed of upwards of 24 articu¬
lations. Sting projefling, rigid, ferrated. Abdomen
clofely attached to the trunk, terminating in a fharp
point. Wings lance-lhaped and plane.
The larvae of this genus are fix-footed, foft, and cy¬
lindrical ; the head rounded ; they perforate wood, and
frequently eat their way into the bowels of other infe&s
and their larvae, particularly caterpillars, living upon
and confuming their vitals: pupae foliculated. The per-
fetft infect lives on the neftar of tlowers.
* gigas. Body black ; the abdomen yellow at the bafe and at
the extremity. 1. A native of Europe j on fir trees.
*fpeBrum Abdomen black 5 thorax hairy, with a pale yellow
mark before the wings. 3. A native of Europe 5 in
decayed timber, particularly fir wood.
phantoma. Abdomen yellow above, marked with black rings 5
head and legs pale yellow. 12. A native of Europe;
mouth, thorax, and under part of the abdomen black.
x 8 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
82. Ichneumon.
Mouth furnifhed with a jaw, ftraight, membranaceous,
roundiftt at the tip, divided, expanded, and fringed 5
the mandible arched, lharp, and fmooth ; and with a
lip cylindrical, membranaceous at the tip, and margi-
nated. Feelers four, unequal, and filiform ; fituated
in the middle of the lip. Antennae fetaceous,
furnifhed with upwards of 30 articulations. Sting
prominent, furnifhed with a flieath compofed of two
valves.
The whole of this finguiar genus are parafitical, de¬
riving their nourifhment from other infects. The fly
feeds on the neclar of flowers ; and when about to lay
her eggs perforates the body of fome other infebl or its
caterpillar, with its firing or inftrument at the end of
the abdomen, and there depofits them ; thefe, after be¬
ing transformed into larvae, prey upon the inteftines of
their fofter parents till they are metamorphofed into
pupae. The larva is without feet, foft, and cylindrical;
pupa fometimes naked, fometimes covered with a follicle.
It is a fpecies of this genus which produces the animal
cotton, of which M. Baudry des Lozieres gives an ac¬
count (Vide Second Voyage a la Louifianc, par Baudry
des Lo%ieres'). A worm of confiderable fize, which
Baudry calls fly-carrier, (well known to planters as the
manioc or indigo worm,) is at one period of the year,
attacked by fwarms of the ichneumon fly, which depo-
fit their eggs in every pore of the worm. The infects
are produced all nearly at the fame time, and fpin each
of them a minute covering for itfelf. The manioc worm
is now covered with a white cafe, which he with con¬
fiderable difficulty fhakes off, and, in a few days, the in-
fe£ts are again hatched from it, but in the form of flies,
leaving the animal cotton behind them. This produc¬
tion is very abundant, as M. Baudry could colledl fe~
199
veral bufhels of it in a fhort’ time. In his opinion, it
pofleffes many advantages over the vegetable cotton.
A. Scutellum whitij}); the Antcnnce marled with white
rings.
Scutellum white ; the thorax without fpots 5 the fe- * rapto-
cond, third, and fourth fegments of the abdomen pale*'i«J'«
yellow; the reft white at the tip. 2. A native of
Europe ; the thighs of the four hind-legs black.
Black ; the fcutellum, the extremity of the zhdo-feduclor*
men, and a notched band on the anterior part of the ab¬
domen, yellow; the legs, and connexion between the
abdomen and trunk likewife yellow. 221. A native
of Italy. It forms cells compofed of cemented clay, in
chimneys and windows, arranged commonly in parallel
rows, forming a cylindrical neft, each containing a
brown, lucid follicle, in which the larva is lodged, to¬
gether with the body of a fpider in which the egg had
been originally depolited. The upper wings are dark-
coloured towards the tip.
B. Scutellum whitijh ; Antennce totally black.
Black ; the fcutellum whitifh j the divifions between c-quitatG?
Jie fegments black j the fecond, third, and fourth feg- rius.
ments, as well as the legs, are yellow. 90. A native
of Europe. In the pupa of the phahcna piniperdq.
Black ; the fcutellum yellowifh 5 the under part of the * dimica-
antennas reddilh \ the thorax armed on each fide with a torius.
prickle ^ the abdomen black, marked with yellow belts;
anus yellow. 198. A native of Britain.
Scutellum white ; the thorax fpotted ; abdomen ^flajcta-
black ; the bafe of the fecond fegment, the third and torius.
fixth fegments yellow. 93. A native of Britain.
C. The Scutellum and Thorax of the flame colour ; An-
tetmce marked with rings.
Black ; the abdomen of a rufty colour, and black zX migrator*
the extremity. 116. A native of Europe.
Black ; legs reddiftr; the feet of the hind-legs white * obflcura-
at the tips. 199. A native of Britain. It fmells of/or.
muik.
D. The Scutellum, and Thorax of the flame colour ; An-
tennce black.
Body and wings black, marked with a tranfparent denigrator.
fpot like a crefcent; abdomen fcarlet. 28. A native
of Britain ; in gardens.
Blacic ; legs reddifh ; the flianks of the hind-legs
black, marked with white rings. 40. A native of
Europe. In the larva of moths, particularly in the
phalcena turionellce. Antennae of the fame length with
the body ; the fling ftrorter than the abdomen.
Black ; mouth and legs reddifh ; the abdomen joined * compunc*
to the trunk by a ftalk, or narrow connexion. 33. A/or.
native of Europe. In the pupae of fome fpecies of but¬
terfly.
Black; the abdomen curved like a fcythe, reddiih
in the middle; the thighs of the hind-legs clavated;/or.
udute at the bafe and at the extremity. ^2. A native
of Europe ; in the larvae of the bee and of the flpiiex.
Having examined with its antennae, wdiere the fphex is,
and.
ENTOMOLOGY.
200 E N T O M
and having difcoveved it, it flies away, and returns and
places its egg on it.
E. JlntenncE pale yellow.
venofus. Entirely yellow, except fome black between the {lem¬
mata ; wings white, with yellow veins. 354. A native
of Europe.
Hindus. Black 5 antennse and legs of a rufty colour *, wings
tranfparent, marked with a black fpeck. 60. A na¬
tive of Europe $ in gardens.
O L O G Y. Hymenoptera
wait till the poifon they have infufed through their
{ling produce its effedl. Their prey either ferves as
food for themfelves or their young. Thofe of the di-
viflon B are to be found chiefly on umbelliferous plants j
the larva is without feet, foft, and inhabits the body of
fome other infeft, on the juices of which it feeds j the
pupa has only the rudiments of wings} the perfetl in-
fe£t depolits her eggs in the bodies of other infefts.
A. Antenna: fetaceous ; Lip entire ; Tongue wanting.
Evanise.
gregarius.
* bedegua
ris.
* galla-
rum.
puparum.
cynipis.
globatus.
* glomera
tus.
F. Minute, with the Abdomen clofely attached to the
Thorax.
Black ) the legs and lides of the abdomen of a rufty
colour. 204. A native of Europe $ in the larvae of
butterflies ; gregarious, and very frequent in the fpring.
Soon after they are hatched they fpin each of them a
white follicle for themfelves, which are connected to¬
gether in a clufter, from which they come forth perfect
infe£ts.
Shining green ■, abdomen golden-coloured. 63. A
native of Europe j in the larvae of the cynips, which
produces the galls on the rofe and the oak. I he fting
the fame length with the body.
Of a bronze colour j abdomen black 5 {hanks of the
legs whitifti. 64. A native of Europe ; on the larvae
of the cynips, which produces the galls on the branches
of the oak, ^
Body blue and gold ; abdomen fhining green} the
legs pale. 66. A native of Europe j in the larvae of
flies and butterflies.
Green and gold *, the abdomen brown, marked with
a pale-coloured belt at the bafe j legs yellowilh. 68.
A native of Europe ; on the larvae of the cynips, and
on the pupae of butterflies.
Black ; legs of a rufty colour. 74. A native of
Europe; in ftalks of grain, within a roundifh follicle,
compofed of white filk, common to a number of the in-
fedts.
Black; legs yellow. 75. A native of Europe; in the
larvae of butterflies. Soon after they are hatched, they
fpin each of them a yellow follicle for themfelves ; they
depofite their eggs on the pupae of butterflies foon
after they have changed from larvae.
418 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
83. Sphex.
Mouth furnilhed with an entire jaw; the mandible
curved, notched, and formed of a lubftance like
horn. Lip horny, and membranaceous at the tip.
Feelers four. The antennae in fome fpecies have
upwards of 10 articulations. Wings in each fex in¬
cumbent and not folded. Sting pungent and con¬
cealed within the abdomen.
The infedls of this genus are the moft favage and ra¬
pacious of this clafs of animals; they attack whatever
infedls come in their way, and by means of their poi-
fonous fting overcome and devour fuch as far exceed
themfelves in ftze; when they attack any infeft, they
give one ftroke, and fall down as if dead, and quietly
Body black ; the abdomen very {hort, and attached app ndi-
to the back part of the thorax by a foot-ftalk. 1 2.gajler.
A native of Europe, America, and Africa. Sprinkled
with concave dots ; the thorax flattened behind; the
abdomen oval, comprefled and very fmooth ; wings
tranfparent, ftiort, and defledled.
B. Aniennce filiform ; the Lip emarginated, and furnijh-
ed with a brifile on each fide ; Tongue bent inwards,
aud divided into three divijions for almofi half its
length.
a. Abdomen attached to the trunk by a fialk or narrow
communication.
Black, hairy; the attachment of the abdomen to * fab ulofia.
the trunk fumilhed with two articulations; the fecond
and third fegments of the abdomen of a nifty colour.
I. A native of Europe ; on fandy ground, where it
digs a hole with its fore-feet, like a dog, in which it
buries the larva of a moth, on which it depoflts an
egg, and then {huts up the hole. The abdomen ex¬
ceeds the wings in length about one half, and in the
male is black on the back.
Smooth, black ; the lip and the edges of the feg- figulus.
ments of the abdomen lucid. 11. A native of Eu¬
rope ; in holes of wood, in partitions, which have been
formed and abandoned by other infefts : thefe it cleanfes
by gnawing round them ; and placing a piece of moift
clay at the bottom, fticks a fpider upon it. In the body
of this fpider it depofits its eggs, and then clofes up the
entrance with clay. The larva is pale, and very like
the larva of the bee. Having confumed the fpider, which
had been enclofed along with it, it fpins a yellowifti
brown membrane for itfelf, exaftly adapted to its
body. One female fphex forms a great many nefts ;
{he fpends no more than two days in forming any one.
Body black; fore-head, mouth, fcutellum, and twoinfiubrica,
bands on the abdomen, yellow. 98. A native of Italy ;
breeds in chimneys and in windows, in the fame neft
with the ichneumon feduEtor. It is about feven lines
long, dotted; the {hanks of the legs yellowifli, and
black at the extremities; wings tranfparent and dark-
coloured at the tips.
b. The Abdomen clofely attached to the Thorax.
Dowmy and black ; wings brown ; the anterior part # viatica.
of the abdomen of a rufty colour, marked with black
belts. 15. A native of Europe; in fandy ground :
it digs holes in the fand, in which it buries the larva of
a moth, after it has depofited an egg on it.
Body black; the fore part of the thorax fumiftied fp’mofa.
with
1
Hymenoptera. E N T O M
with a prickle on each fide 5 the lip and the breaft of
the colour of filver. 86. A native of England j fmooth j
wings tranfparent; legs reddifti,
98 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syitem of Nature,
84. Scolia.
Mouth fumifiied with a curved (harp mandible, crenated
on the iniide. Jaw compreffed, projecting, entire
and homy. Tongue infledted and divided into three
at the tip, very fhort. Lip projecting, membranace¬
ous at the tip, and entire. Feelers four, equal, Ihort,
filiform, and lituated in the middle of the lip. An¬
tennae thick and filiform j the firit joint longer than
the reft.
Jhxmacu- Hairy, black) the abdomen marked with three
fdra, pair of yellow fpots. 6. A native of Europe j
marked with a yellow fpot both before and behind the
eyes.
quadri- Body black j the abdomen marked with four white
pun&ata. dots, the wings of a reddiih brown. 22. A native of
Europe.
27 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
85. Thynnus.
Mouth formed of a horny fubftance j the mandible in¬
curved. The jaw fhort, and ftraight. Lip longer
than the jaw, membranaceous at the tip, and divided
into three, the middle divifion emarginated. Tongue
very Ihort and involuted. Feelers four, equal and
filiform. Antennae filiform.
wtentatus. Abdomen black ; the fecond, third, and fourth feg-
ments marked with two white dots. 1. A native of
New Holland. Likewife the firft fegments are marked
with a white dot on the fides.
13 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lafi: edition of the Syftem of Nature.
86. Leucopsis.
Mouth compofed of a homy fubftance, and furniftied
with fliort jaws. The mandible thick, and furnilhed
with three teeth at the tip. Lip longer than the
jaw j membranaceous and emarginated at the tip.
Feelers four, ihort, equal, and filiform. Antennae
fliort, ftraight, and clavated. Thorax furniihed with
a lance-ihaped fcale on its under fide. Sting bent
backwards, and concealed in a groove in the upper
part of the abdomen.
^selogajier* Abdomen attached clofely to the trunk j fcale of
the thorax half the length of the abdomen. 2. A na¬
tive of Europe j eyes black ; forehead without fpots ;
the pofterior part of the thorax marked with a yellow
fillet, and without dots. Small than the common wafp.
Three fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Svftem of Nature,
Vge, VIII. Parti.
O L O G Y. 201
87. TlPHIA.
Mouth furniihed with a membranaceous rounded jaw.
The mandible arched, and acute. The lip fhort,
fumilhed with three fmall projections, and compofed
of a fubftance like horn. No tongue. Feelers four,
filiform, unequal, projecting, and lituated in tiie mid¬
dle of the lip. Antennae filiform and arched.
r I
Black j the thighs of the four hind-legs angular and *femorata,
reddiih. 4. A native of England.
Black j thorax fpotted j abdomen marked with five *
yellow bands, the fecond interrupted. 6. A native ofcinfia,
Europe, chiefly in England.
x 7 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
88. Chalcis.
Feelers four, and equal. Antennas fliort, cylindrical,
and fpindle-lhaped; the firft articulation a little
thicker than the reft.
Shining black j the thighs of the hind-legs thicken-/^//*,
ed, and marked with a white dot at their extremities.
6. A native of Europe. Feet white.
7 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature,
89. Chrysis. Golden-fy.
Mouth compofed of a horny fubftance, and projecting;
is furniihed with a linear jaw, and with a lip emar¬
ginated, and membranaceous at the tip, and much
longer than the jaw. No tongue. Feelers four,
projecting, unequal, and filiform. Antenna; ihort,
and filiform ; the firft articulation longer than the
reft. Body gilt and Ihining. Abdomen arched
beneath, furniihed with a fcale on each fide. The
anus (in moft of the fpecies) is furniftied with fmall
projections. Sting is llightly projecting. Wings
plane.
The infeCts of this genus commonly form their nefts
in holes made in walls.
Smooth, polilhed; the thorax green ; the abdomen * ignite*
of a golden colour, and furniihed with four fmall pro¬
jections at the extremity. 1. A native of Europe: in
walls.
Smooth, ftiining j the thorax green ; the abdomen o{*aurala.
a golden colour j the anus furniftied with two fmall
projections. 4. A native of Europe j in walls.
Smooth, ftiining j the thorax and abdomen blue ; * cyanea.
the anus furniftied with three fmall projections. 5. A
native of Europe j in walls.
Smooth, ihining green ; the thorax and fuperior part vindula.
of the two firft fegments of the abdomen gilt j the anus
fumiflied with four fmall projections. 6. A native of
Europe j in walls of houfes.
27 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
C c
9°»
202
^ cralro.
* vulgaris.
E N T o M
90. Vespa, Wafj>.
Mouth compofed of a horny fubflance. Jaw comprelTed.
Feelers four, unequal, and filiform. Antennae fili¬
form ; the firft articulation longer than the reft, and
cylindrical. Eyes large and circular. Body fmooth.
Bting pungent, and concealed within the abdomen.
The upper wings are folded in the males, females,
and neuters.
Thefe live moftly in numerous focieties, conftrudling
curious nefts or combs, generally under ground ; they
prey upon other infedls, efpecially bees and flies, and
devour meal, bread and fruit. Ihe larva is fott, with¬
out feet, and feeds on the necftar of flowers and honey ;
the pupa quiefcent, and has the rudiments of wings.
Some of them are folitary, others live in fwarms.
A. No tongue.
* The Nntennce thicker towards their outer edge.
Hornet. The thorax black, marked on the fore part
with reddiflr fpots; there is a double dot contiguous to
the divifions between the fegments of the abdomen. 3,
A native of Europe. It has its neft in hollow trees, in
out-houfes, or any dry fituation; its combs are very
neatly conltrudled, and compofed of a fubftance like
coarfe paper, or decayed parchment. I hey prey on
other infe&s, particularly on bees. Their fting is very
painful.
Thorax marked on each fide with a fmall interrupted
line 3 the fcutelium marked with four fpots; the divi¬
fions between the fegments of the abdomen dotted wdth
black. 4. A native of Europe, about houfes 3 they
prey on flies, and rob bee-hives. They live in fwarms
compofed of males, females, and neuters. The male has
a yellow bead, and long antennae 3 an abdomen com¬
pofed of feven yellow fegments, marked with black
triangular fpots. They are deftitute of ftings, but are
longer and larger than the neuters, though fmaller than
the females. The female has Ihort antennae 3 lip yellow^ 3
abdomen compofed of fix fegments, marked on the
fides with two black dots, and is furnilhed with a fting.
There are frequently between two and three hundred fe¬
males, and as many males, in a iwairn of wafps. A
Angle female in the fpring that had been impregnated
in the preceding autumn, lays the foundation of afwTarm.
It makes itfelf a hole in fome dry fituation, or fixes on
a mole hole, where it haftily builds a few cells, and de-
pofits its eggs 3 wdiich in the courfe of about twenty
days, pafs through their different changes, and become
perfeft inlecls. Almoft the whole of thofe produced
from the firft depofited eggs are neuters. As foon as
they are fit to fly about, they commence their labours,
enlarge their hole by removing the earth with their
mouth, go out in quell of materials for forming new
cells, which are compofed of fmall fibres of wood, ce¬
mented together by a glutinous fubftance formed wdthin
the body of the animal. They may frequently be feen
on rails, polls, &c. on reeds, or ftalks of decayed ve¬
getables, gnawing off fmall particles which they convey
to their neft, and deliver to thofe occupied in the eon-
ftrudlion of the work. The external covering of their
weft is formed of ieveral layers of thin leaves refembling
O L O G Y, Hymenoptera.
paper, which are not in immediate contact with one
another, and in that way they prevent external moifture
from penetrating into the cells, which are arranged in
ftpt combs placed one over another, each ftory being
fupported by a number of very neat pillars. Ihe fe¬
male continues to dcpofit her eggs, which are oblong
and yellowifh, during the whole fummer, to the amount
of many thoufands. A few hundreds of thofe that are
laft depofited, produce males and females, which are
impregnated in the autumn, and which, lliould they
furvive the winter, lay the foundation of new fwarms
in the fpring. All the neuters and males perilh in the
beginning of winter.
Body black j the thorax is marked with two dots 5 *f,arietum
the fcutelium is likewile marked with two dots, the ab¬
domen with five yellow bands, the firft of which is at a
diftance from the reft. 6. A native of Europe 3
about houfes. It forms its neft in holes in wood.
Black 3 thorax marked with two pale yellow fpots 3 * nwrarid.
the abdomen marked with four yellow bands, the firft
at a confiderable diftance from the reft. 8. A native
of Europe, in walls 3 the fcutellum without fpots 3 the
fhanks of the legs yellowifh.
Firft fegment of the abdomen funnel-ftiaped 3 the fe- *Coar£lat*
cond bell-ihaped, and very large. JI. A native of
Europe, in gardens. It attaches its neft, which is glo¬
bular, and conftrudled of the fame materials with that
of the common wafp, to the branches of trees ; the ab¬
domen black, the fegments yellow at the edges the
the firft and fecond marked with tw'o dots.
* * Antennce filiform. Crabrones.
The abdomen marked with two yellow bands 3 the triJentats<t
anus furnifhed with three fmall projedf ions3 wings black,
white at the edge. 98. A native of Europe.
Thorax without fpots 3 the abdomen marked on each JQJJ-Qr\a^
fide with five yellow fpots 3 legs black. 101. A na¬
tive of Europe, in fandy fituations Head large, termi¬
nating abruptly in the fore part 3 mouth of a filver co¬
lour 3 the fpots on the abdomen uniting fo as to form a
band.
I
B. The Tongue bent inwards, and divided into three at the
point. Bombyces.
The upper lip conical and divided 3 the abdomen ronrataM
black, marked with waved yellowilh bands. 152. A
native of Europe, on fand hills. Their nefts contain on¬
ly a fingle larva.
Black 3 lip roundilh 3 the abdomen marked with fix fafciata.t
yellow bands, the firft; five of which are interrupted/
157. A native of Europe, covered with afli-coloured
down 3 the thorax fpotted with brown, the antennae
black, the firft articulation yellow below, the laft of a
nifty colour j lip and legs yellow 3 the thighs black 3 the
anus furnilhed with three fmall projections.
The lip nearly conical 3 the thorax brown, fpotted rufcorniu
with yellow 3 abdomen black, marked wfith fix yellow
bands 3 antennae and legs of a ruity colour. 159. A
native of Europe 3 head brown 3 mouth yellow' 3 the
bands on the abdomen broad, the firft four inter¬
rupted.
160 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
91.
Hymenoptera.
203
ENTO MOLOGY.
91. Apis, Bee.
Mouth formed of a fubflance refembling horn $ the lip
and jaw membranaceous at the tip j tongue bent in¬
wards. Feelers four, unequal, and filiform. Wings
plane. The females and neuters have a pungent
fting concealed within the abdomen.
The infedls of this genus live fome of them in large
focieties, and fome are folitary •, their food is the nettar
of flowers, honey, and ripe fruit j the larva is fofit and
without feet 5 the pupa refembles the perfedt infecl. The
larvas of the neuters are very numerous, and placed in
hexagonal cells j the larvae of the males are turgid and
obtufe in the fore part, and tapering behind.
A. The Tongue divided into five at the point i the Feelers
very Jhort.
*centuncu- Black } the under part of the abdomen covered with
laris. yellow wool. 4. A native of Europe. It forms fe-
veral nefts under ground, very neatly compofed of the
leaves of rofes. There are feveral fpecies which form
fimilar nefts in the trunks of trees or in walls, compof¬
ed fometimes of the leaves of the rofe, at other times
of thofe of the horfe chefnut.
*pun&aia. Black, covered with afh-coloured hairs •, abdomen
black ; the fegments of the abdomen marked on each
fide with a white dot 5 the fcutellum entire. 59. A
native of Britain, on flowers.
mellifica. Common Honey Bee. Downy •, the thorax grayifti 5 ab¬
domen brown $ thighs of the hind legs fringed with hairs $
on the infide marked with tranfverfe ftriae. 22. A native
of Europe, in hollow trees •, but they are more frequently
domefticated, and kept in hives. This well-known
and bufy infeft lives in great fwarms, compofed of fe¬
males or queens, males or drones, and neuters or work¬
ing bees. The female is larger and longer than the
reft, the abdomen being about one-third longer than
the wings ; the antennae have ten articulations 5 the feet
reddiftu The males are larger than the neuters; their
wings are longer than the body j their antennae have
eleven articulations •, the trunk is covered with long
hairs, and is of a tawny colour. The neuters as well
as the females are gray on the thorax, and are furnilh-
ed with a fting, of which the males are deftitute ; their
antennae have fifteen articulations j they are furnilhed
with two ftomachs. A fwarm confifts commonly of
one female, from 1000 to 1500 males, and of nearly
20,000 neuters (vide Bee.) They conftruft regular
combs, compofed of hexagonal cells, with wax which is
formed within the body of the infe6t. Reaumur and
others have fuppofed, that the wax was formed from
the farina of flowers, which the neuters collect and
carry home on their legs, and their opinion has been
implicitly followed. But Mr Huber, member of the
Society of Natural Philofophy and Natural Hiftory of
Geneva, by a fet of very accurate experiments and ob-
iervations, has clearly proven that the wax is formed
from honey (vide Journal de Phyfique, fa'c. Pluviqfe
An, XII.) We {hall give here his own account of the
•experiments he has made. “ It has been thought ftrange
that the word wax fhould feldom occur in a book which
treats of bees alone} but neverthelefs, as in the courfe of
-*ny obiervations I had not attended to the products of
their induftry, I could only have repeated what had
been faid by Swammerdam and Reaumur, and that did
not feem to me to be neceffary. I knew that thefe in¬
fers collefted abundantly upon the anther* of flowers j
that they are acquainted with the method of opening
them, of gathering their duft, keeping it in the cavi¬
ties of their hind legs, and carrying it to their hives.
It had been obferved that the particles of this duft
fwell in water, and that when one of them burfts, an
oily liquor runs out, which floats on its furface,.but did
not mix with it. From thefe experiments, repeated on the
duft of a great number of flowers, it was concluded that
they contain the principles of wax } but it was admitted
that thefe muft undergo a peculiar elaboration in the body
of the bee, fince, according to the experiments of Reau¬
mur, a flexible wax could not be made from the duft of
the anther*. It will be feen here from feveral paffages
in my work that I had adopted this opinion 5 a jingle
obfervation of Burnons, (the name of Mr Huber’s fe-
cretary), changed all my ideas. The true origin of w^ax
might have been fooner known, had there been any
fufpicion that it wras not already difeovered. I {hall
now ftate how I was led to doubt, and what I have
done to verify my new conjectures.
“ I was in Switzerland in 1793 ; t^ie former of the
eftate on which I refided had many bees } and the
greater part of his hives having been flocked in former
years, the combs with which they were filled reached
to the Hands, confequentiy there was no room to con-
ftruct new ones. We remarked, however, that the
working bees carried in a confiderable quantity of this
fecundating powder. There was alfo in the fame apiary,
fome fwarms of that year, the hives having only been
flocked a day or two } in fome of them the combs were
only begun } in others they wrere larger ; but in all of
them there were vacancies to fill up, and much work to
do. We obferved with aftoniihment, that the bees of
thefe fwarms did not carry in the pollen} and that,
neverthelefs, they worked with aclivky in the conftruc-
tion of new combs, and in lengthening thofe already
commenced. Where, therefore, did they procure mate¬
rials for their edifices ? After thefe obfervations, we
fufpected that it was not from the duft of the ftamina,
and that they had a very different ufe for it than that
for which it was believed to be intended. We, how¬
ever, found that it was impoflible to explain thefe
extraordinary fa£ts, without abandoning the hypothefis
of Reaumur, by fuppofing that the bees of the old hives
ftored up fo much pollen in their combs for their future
wants, while thofe of the new fwarms did not carry it
outwardly on their legs, in the infancy of their eftabliflr-
ment, becaufe they had no cells in which they could <je-
pofit it } it might be fufficient to enable them to con-
ftrudl their combs, if they were at liberty to fly to the
flowers, procure their pollen, and return to their hives
after having filled their ftomachs, where it muft be
elaborated, and converted into perfedl wax. It was to
obviate thefe doubts, that I undertook the following ex¬
periments.
“ Fir/l Experiment.—On bees in confinement, with
honey alone for their nourhhment. Muft pollen be ate
by bees, to be in a ftate to produce wrax ? This was
the firft queftion which I thought it neceilary to invefti-
gate; the method of trying the experiment was obvious j
204
E N T O M
it was only required to keep the bees within their hives,
and thus prevent them from colletting or eating the fe¬
cundating powder. On the 24th of May, Burnons
lodged a fwarm in a ftraw-hive, with as much honey
and water as was neceffary for their confumption 5 and
he clofed the doors, fo that the bees could not get out,
and the air be at the fame time renewed.
“ At firft the beesjwere very uneafy, but became calm
•n removing the hive to a cool dark place ; their cap¬
tivity laded five days j they were permitted to come out
into a room, the windows of which were Unit j we then
examined the hive more conveniently. We firft noticed
that there was no honey left in the veffel which had been
filled with it, with the foie intention of feeding the con¬
fined bees $ and were more aftonifhed to fee five combs
of the moft beautiful wax, fufpended from the roof of
the hive j they were perfectly white, and very brittle.
This refult was very remarkable j however, before form¬
ing a conclufion from it, that the honey with which
thefe bees were fed, had enabled them to produce the
wax, it was neceffary to inquire, whether it could not
alfo be explained in another manner. The bees which
I had employed had doubtlefs collected the dull while
they were at liberty. They might have done fo the
evening before, or on the very fame day of their con¬
finement, and might have enough in their itomachs, and
in the cavities of their legs, to extradl from it all the
wax which we found in their hives. But if it was true
that it had been obtained from the fecundating powder,
previouily obtained, this fource was not inexhauftible, and
the bees being unable to procure any more, they would
foon ceafe to conftruft combs, and fall into the moft com¬
plete inaftion. It was neceffary, therefore, to repeat the
fame trial, to render it decifive.
“The 28th, Burnons returned this fwarm into its hive •,
after having taken out all the combs, he ftmt them up
as before, with a frefti fupply of honey. This experi¬
ment was not long, for on the evening of the fecond day
we perceived the prifoners working with new wax. The
next day the hive was infpe£ted, and we found five
combs, as heavy and as regular as thofe made during
the firft captivity. We afterwards repeated this experi¬
ment five times fucceflively, with the fame bees, and the
fame precautions : we always found that the honey had
difappeared, and that new wax was produced. This re¬
fult was fo invariable during this long feclufion, that we
could no longer doubt that the honey alone had fup-
plied them with all the elements of their wax, without
the afliftance of the fecundating duft.
“ Second Experiment.—On a hive from which honey
was excluded, and in which only pollen and fruits, for
the nouriihment of the bees, were left, I thought it
would not be ufelefs to make the inverfe of the preced¬
ing experiment j it would (how me whether the pollen
could not fupply the want of honey, when the bees
were deprived of itr and enable them ta produce
wax.
“ I therefore enclofed a fwarm in a bell-glafs, fn which
had been placed a comb, whofe cells contained only
jpollen, and the foie nouriihment of the bees was fruit.
“ Thefe bees did not make combs, nor did they form a
fingle cell during eight days, which was the time of
their captivity. I was going to repeat this experiment,
when Bunions remarked, that the free bees were, in
fomc tneafure, in the fame flate as thofe we had con-
O L O G Y. Hymenoptera.
fined ■, there being no honey at that time in the flowers,
they found only pollen, and did not rvork in wax.
“ It may perhaps be aiked, how I was fatisfied of
this : to which I anfwer, bees wax is white at firft, the
cells foon become yellow j and in time, this colour
grows browner j and in older hives have acquired a
blackiftr tinge. It is, therefore, very eafy to diftinguifk
the new cells from thofe which have been fome time
formed, and confequently to know whether the bees are
really making combs, or whether that work is fufpend¬
ed 5 it is futticient to raife the hives, and to notice the
lower edge of the combs.
“ The odour exhaled by the hives, and the fhape of the
bees, are indications, by which it may always be known
whether there is honey in the flowers : if they are com¬
bined, there can be no further doubt j and, particularly,
if a great number of bees return to the hive, which are
remarkable for the bulk and form of their bellies.
Thofe which are filled with honey, have the abdomen
cylindrical j the name of wax-making bees, belongs to
them exclufively : the bellies of the labouring bees,
which have other functions, always preferve their ovoid
form, and their volume is never fenlibly augmented j
the name of nurjing bees is proper for thefe.
“ The farmers of the neighbouring villages kept their
bees in balkets, or in cafes of different forms ; and I
was able to vifit a very great number, without going to
any great diftance from my habitation.
“ In 1793, an intemperate fpring had retarded the fepa-
ration of the fwarms; there had not been any in the ‘
country before the 24th of May; but towards the
middle of June there were feveral in the vicinity of my
refidence. At that time the fields were covered with
flowers, the bees colledled much honey, and the new
fwarms worked at the wax with vigour.
“ On the 18th, Burnons vifited 65 hives 5 at the en¬
trance of all of them he obferved wax-making bees,
Thofe which returned to old hives, not having to con-
ftrufl cells, depofited their honey in the combs, or dif-
tributed it among their companions; thofe belonging to
the young fwarms converted their honey into wax, and
haftened to conftruct combs for the reception of their
young bees.
“ It was flaowery on the 19th j the bees went abroad,
but brought home only pollen. The weather was cold
and rainy until the 27th. We were defirouS of know¬
ing if this had prevented their working. On the 28th,
all the hives were lifted. Burnons found that the work
had been flopped j the combs which he had meafured
on the 19th, were not at all increafed, and were of a
citron yellow j nor was there a fingle white cell in any
of thefe hives.
“ On the firft of July, the chefhuts and limes were in
bloffom ; the thermometer indicated the twentieth de¬
gree ^ the wax-making bees reappeared 5 they carried
away great quantities of honey, which, as we had before
obferved, was employed in augmenting the provifions
of the old hives, and enabling the young fwarms to
conllruft new combs. The greateft adlivity was obferv-
able among them j the gathering of honey, and the
production of wax continued, until the middle of this
month. July 16th, the heat remained the fame j the
field flowers, as well as thofe of the chefnut and limes,
were completely withered 5 they yielded no more honey,
their, pollen alone attracted the working bees, and they
colleded
Hymenoptera. ENTOMOLOGY.
collected it abundantly $ but there was not any wax
produced ; the combs were not lengthened $ thofe of
the young fwartns did not fill more than two-thirds of
their hives.
“ Auguft 9th. It had not rained for fix weeks j the
heat was very powerful, nor was there any dew to al¬
lay it during the night; the black wheat which had
been in flower for fome days, did not offer any honey
to the bees j they found only pollen.
“ On the 10th of Auguft, it rained for feveral hours j
next day, the black wheat had the odour of honey j in
fa<ff it might be feen glittering in their expanded flowers.
The bees found enough to feed them, but too little to
* induce them to work at new w^ax.
“ On the 14th, the drought recommenced, and lafted
to the end of the month j no more honey appeared up¬
on the flowers 5 and when we vifited the 65 hives for
the laft time, we found, ill, That the bees had not pro¬
duced any wax after the middle of July. 2d. That
they had ftored up a great quantity of pollen. 3d,
That the fupply of honey wras much leffened in the old
hives, and that hardly any remained in the new fwarms,
that which they had collected in the fpring having been
employed in the preparation of wax. The pollen, there¬
fore, has not this property, and no further doubt re¬
mained on this head. This year had not been ftormy, and
I have lince afcertained, by a great number of obferva-
tious, that electricity is Angularly favourable to the fe-
cretion of honey by the flowers ; the bees never colled
it in greater abundance, nor is the preparation of wrax
ever more adive, than when the wind is in the fouth,
the air humid and warm, and a ftorm gathering.
“ Heat too long continued, and the drought which is
the confequence of it, cold rains, and principally a
north wnnd, fufpend it entirely.
“ Third Experiment. On the ufe which the bees
make of the fecundating pow'der. In the fecond ex¬
periment, the bees did not touch the pollen which I
had placed within their reach, and as its quantity was
not fenfibly diminiflied during this trial, I was induced
to believe it was not an aliment proper for them.
“ I alfo knew that the new fwarms were liable to perifl*
from hunger in the middle of fummer, and even when
the country was covered with flowers, if a particular
temperature, which is too uncommon in our climate,
did not favour the fecretion of honey in their neftaria..
What, therefore, is the ufe of the pollen they colledl
with fuch avidity during eight months of the year, and
oPVhich they lay up fuch abundance (a)? This quef-
tion remained to be inveftigated.
“ I had a hive in divifions,. the queen of which was
barren j its combs did not contain any pollen, but they
had much more honey 5 the two narroweft fides of this hive
were formed of panes of glafs, . through which the fur-
faces of the exterior combs might be feen,, and the con-
duft of the bees obferved.:
“ I took away the queen on the 16th of July; but to
confole the working bees, I removed the firff and
twelfth combs, in which there was not any thing to
interefl: them $ and I fupplied their places with two
combs, the cells of which were filled with eggs and
worms of all ages. I carefully cut away all the cells
in which pollen could be perceived, and ihut up the hive
with a grating. My intention will be gueffed j I wilhed
to know whether thefe infects could fupport their young
without this fecundating powder. The next day nothing
extraordinary occurred j the bees fat on their eggs and
feemed to nurfe them.
“On the 18th, after funfet, a great noife was heard in
the hive. Anxious to fee what occafioned it, we open¬
ed the fliutters, and obferved that all was in confufion j
the incubation was flopped j the bees ran over the combs
in diforderj we faw thoufands precipitate thenjfelves on
the Hand, thofe which were neareft to the mouth eagerly
gnawing the grating j their intention was no longer
doubtful, they wiflied to get out of their confinement.
“ I was fearful of deftroying them by continuing to
prevent them from yielding to their inflindl; they were
therefore fet at liberty. The whole fwarm came out,
but the hour was unfavourable to their colledfing: the
bees did not go far from the hive, the darknefs and
the chilnefs of the air foon compelled them to return,
and probably calmed their agitation j fpr we faw them
quietly reafcend their combs, and order appeared, to us,
to be re-eftablilhed. This moment was taken to clofe
the hive again. On the 19th, we faw two royal cells
begun on one of the combs of the nurfery: the even¬
ing of this day, and at the fame hour as the day before,
we heard a great tumult in the clofed hive j it was in a
general confufion, and we were again obliged to permit
the fwarm to come out. The 20th was the fifth day of
their captivity. We thought it had been of fufficient
duration, and were alfo very impatient to examine the
nurfery, and to fee what was the caufe of this periodical
agitation of thefe bees: Burnons therefore opened the
firft and twelfth windows, and drove the bees from the
combs, fuffering them to take their flight in a room, the
windows of which were ftiut. He firft noticed that the
royal cells had not been continued, that they did not
contain any worm, and that there was not an atom of
the jelly which ferves for the nourifhment and the cra¬
dle of the larvae of the queens. He fought in vain for
eggs, for worms, and for the liquid in the common
cells; all had difappeared. Had thefe worms died of
hunger ? Had we, by withdrawing the fecundating pow¬
der, deprived the bees of every means of nouriftiing the
larvae.
To afeertain this, it would be fufficient to reftore
them their pollen, and obferve the iffue. The bees
were, therefore, again returned to their prifon, after
having fubftituted young worms for thofe which had
been fuffered to die.
“ On the 2 2d, we found that the bees had faftened
thefe combs, and that they were again in a ftate of in¬
cubation j we then gave them fome pieces of combs in
which.other bees had ftored up the fecundating powder;.,
and
    ■ ■■ ' ' -     —  ——_—   
(-0 Reaumur was of opinion that the bees of a well-ftocked hive, might colledl at leaft a hundred pounds, of
this fubftance in the courfe of a year; but having remarked that the weight of wax, fabricated in the fame time,
did not exceed two pounds, he concluded that the bees extract only a very fmall portion of the true wax from
this native wax, that the greateft part of it is required fox their nouriihment, and that the reft is difeharged frorru
their bodies in the form of excrement-.
/
205
ENTOMOLOGY.
and the better to obferve what they did with it, we took
fome of the pollen out of the cells, and laid it expofed
on the Hand of the hive. In a few minutes the bees
difcovered the pollen in the combs, and that which we
had taken out; they took it grain by grain in their
jaws, and conveyed it into their mouths 5 thofe which
had eaten molt voracioufly reafcended the combs, and
placed themfelves, at firft, upon the cells of the young
worms, which they entered head foremott, and remain¬
ed there a greater or lefs length of time. One of the
windows of the hive was now Opened cautioully, Bur-
nons powdered the bees which ate the pollen, and
watched them for fome hours 5 he obferved that the
marked bees always reafcended the nurfery, and imme¬
diately entered the cells of the young bees.
“ The 23d, we found the royal cells begun.
“ The 24th, we drove the bees from off the young
worms j and we remarked,
“ iff. That all of them had the jelly, as in the com¬
mon hives.
“ 2d. That the worms had grown larger, and were
forwarder in their cells.
“ 3d. That others had been fhut up again : and,
“ 4th. That the royal cells had been lengthened,
“ The 25th, we withdrew the pieces of comb which
we had placed on the ftand, and found that the quan¬
tity of pollen was certainly diminilhed 5 we afterwards
replaced them in the hive with other cells filled with
the fecundating powrder.
“ The 26th, the royal cells had been clofed during
the night, as well as feveral of the common ones.
“ The 27th, I reftored thefe bees to liberty. Burnons
examined the cells with the greateft attention, and
found jelly in all thofe which ftill contained worms,
but moft of them were (hut with a lid of wax : he ex¬
amined fome of the latter, and found the worms em¬
ployed in fpinning cocoons of lilk.
AH the worms therefore had been tended as in the
natural hive. In this fecond trial we did not perceive
any diforder in this hive •, there had not been the lead;
agitation : it is true fome of the wnrking bees attempt¬
ed to go out in the courfe of the day; but finding it im-
podible, they reafcended the combs quietly, which were
never left for an indant. The hive being abundantly
fupplied with honey, and with the pollen neceffary for
their young, left them nothing to with for ; and they
were dill more happy when a queen was bom, who af¬
terwards became pregnant, and laid a great number of
eggs. After thefe two experiments, there could be no
more doubt that the fecundating powder was the ali¬
ment proper for the young bees, and that the want of
this fubdance was the caufe of their death, and of the
evident anguifh of their nurfes during their fird cap¬
tivity.
“ Fourth Experiment.—On bees deprived of honey and
pollen, and which it was attempted to feed with fugar.
I widied to know, if it was the faccharine part of the
honey which enabled the bees to produce wax. Bur¬
nons confined a fwarm in a glazed hive •, one pound of
Canary fugar was their foie aliment. He put a fecond
fwarm into another hive, and endeavoured to feed them
with very coarfe raw fugar 5 and to obtain a term of
comparifon, a'third fwarm w'as fhut up in the fame man¬
ner, and fed with honey. The bees of the three fwarms
produced wax } thofe fed with the different qualities of
Hymenoptera.
fugar produced it fooner than the fwarm which had on¬
ly had honey, and they produced a greater quantity.
A pound of Canary fugar reduced to fyrup, and clari¬
fied with wkite of egg, yielded 10 gros, 52 grains, of a
wax not fo white as that which the bees extraft from
honey. An equal weight of raw fugar, gave 22 gros
of very white wax. Maple fugar produced the fame
effeft. This experiment having been repeated feven
times fucceflively, ahvays employing the fame bees, we
could not doubt that fugar contains the principles of
wax ; and concluded that it w-as the faccharine part of
the honey which had this property.
“ Conclufion. Thefe obfervatlons fhewq
“ lit. That the wax comes from the honey.
“ 2d. That the honey is alfo a food of the firft ne-
ceffity to the bees.
“ 3d. That flowrers do not always contain honey, and
that the fecretion of honey depends in a great meafure
on the ftate of the atmofphere.
“ 4th. That it is the faccharine part of the honey
which enables the bees to produce wax.
“ 5th. That raw fugar yields more wax than honey,
or refined fugar.
“ 6th. That the duft of the ftamina does not contain
the principles of wrax.
“ 7th. That this duft is not the food of the adult bees,
and that they do not colled! it for themfelves.
“ 8th. That the pollen affords the only aliment which is
proper for their young j but that this fubftance muft under¬
go a peculiar elaboration in the ftomachs of the bees, to be
converted into an aliment} which is always appropria¬
ted' to their fex, their age, and their wants j fince the
beft microfcopes do not Ihew the particles of pollen, or
their coverings in the liquor, prepared by the working
bees.”
Hairy, black ; wings of a violet-colour. 38. A-violacea,
native of Europe, and of India. It pierces the trunks
of decayed trees, or polls, and forms longitudinal exca¬
vations, in which it conftrudts feveral nefts •, having pla¬
ced one at the bottom of the hole, it depofits an egg in
it, fills it with a mixture of honey and pollen of flowers,
clofes it Up, and commences another; it proceeds in this
way till the cells occupy the whole length of the perfo¬
ration •, the eggs are fo placed in the cells, that the head
of the larva points downwards towards the exit.
Humble-kee. Hairy, black j thorax marked with a terrejlrh,
yellow belt 5 anus white. 41. A native of Europe.
It forms a neft at a confiderable depth under ground,
and collefts a good quantity of honey.
Hairy, black •, the anus of a tawny colour. 44. A na- lapidaria.
tive of Europe 5 in heaps of ftones, or in old walls. It
collects a confiderable quantity of honey.
Black j flightly covered with reddifh hairs ; abdomenpracox,
finooth, marked with three bands, white above, and red-
diih beneath. 147. A native of Europe. It fomewhat
refembles A. mellifica, but lefs. It comes out very ear¬
ly in the fpring.
B. The Tongue divided into three at the extremity.
* The Lip fumifhed on each fide with two membrana¬
ceous briflles. Andrense.
Abdomen brown, marked with five whitilh belts; Edentata.
anus furnifhed with two fmall projedlions. 136. A
native of America. It forms its nefts in walls, of leaves
®£
Hymenoptera. E N T O M
of trees neatly folded up j the fore legs are long and
yellow j the feet fringed.
dlchroa. Black j anus of a rufty colour. 137. A native of
Europe j in groves.
* * Lip without brijlles, compreffed^ and entire ; pojleri-
or Feelers tongue-Jhapsd. Nomadte.
Jitecica. Covered with afh-coloured hairs j the abdomen fmootk
and black ; the fecond and third fegments of the abdo¬
men of a rufty colour. 200. A native of Europe j
in groves.
variegata. The thorax and abdomen variegated with white; the
legs of a rufty colour. 24. A native of Europe. It
fleeps all night fixed to the tfewers of the geranium
pfueum. The fcutellum fometimes of a rufty colour, and
fometimes white ; the firft and fecond fegments of the
abdomen marked with two white fpots j the third, fourth,
fifth, and fixth, marked with four.
morio. Very hairy, and black ; the jaws broad, and marked
on the outfide with elevated lines, and rounded at the
points ; wings of a reddilh violet-colour. 214. A na¬
tive of the fouth of America. One of the largeft of
this genus.
92. Formica, Ant, or Emmet.
Feelers four, unequal, with cylindrical articulations,
placed at the tip of the lip, which is cylindrical, and
nearly membranaceous. Antennae filiform. A fmall
eredl fcale placed between the thorax and abdomen.
The females and neuters have a fting concealed within
the abdomen. Thehnales and females have wings j
the neuters none.
This is a gregarious, and proverbially induftrious fa¬
mily, confifting, like bees, of males, females, and neuters.
The laft are the well known little infefts, who conftrucft
the nefts or ant-hills, who labour with fuch unremitting
afliduity for the fupport of themfelves and the idle
males and females, and who guard with fuch ferocity
the larvae, or what are commonly called ant eggs.
They wander about all day in fearch of food or materials
for the neft, and aflift each other in bringing home what
is too cumberfome for fuch as have attempted it. They
every day bring out of the neft, and expofe to the warmth
of the fun, the new hatched larvae, and feed them till
they are able to provide for themfelves. In the evening
they confume together whatever has been colle&ed du¬
ring the day, and do not, as is commonly fuppofed, lay
up any ftore for the winter, but probably become toroid
or die. They are peculiarly fond of aphides, and are
themfelves eagerly fought after by the ant-eaters, and va¬
rious birds. The punfture inflidfted by their fting, occa-
fions a hot painful itching fenfation. They contain a
peculiar acid. See Chemistry Index.
*hercula- Black ; the abdomen oval j legs of a rufty colour.
nca. 1. A native of Europe, and America; lodge in the
trunks of decayed trees.
viatica. Of a rufty colour ; the abdomen oval and black. 23.
A native of Europe ; runs very quickly ; the tip of the
jaws black ; the abdomen fmooth. ,
*rufa. Black; the thorax compreifed ; the legs of a rufty
colour. 3. A native of Europe; it lodges in fandy hills,
in woods ; it is large, and has no fting.
O L O G Y. ao7
Black ; the mouth, the tip of the thorax, and legs, of * fujca.
a rufty colour. 4. A native of Europe ; in woods.
^ Of a brick colour ; eyes black ; a black dot under * rubra.
the abdomen. 7. A native of Europe. It lodges
tinder ftones in woods. They inflift a very painful
pundlure.
Black ; two knots on the filament which connedts the * cafpitum,
abdomen to the trunk ; the fcutellum furniftied with two
fmall projections. 11. A native of Europe; in dry
meadows, under mofs. The males and females, in the
month of Auguft, leave their neft about mid-day, when
the weather is ferene, and fly about in the air. The
abdomen oral.
The thorax marked with raifed dots; the filament omnivores-
which joins the abdomen to the thorax is furnifiled with
two knots ; the body of a brick colour ; the abdomen
fmall, 12. A native of America. It is very deftruc-
tive to all forts of provifions. Small, The abdomen
brown, covered with white hairs fcarcely perceptible.
Black ; abdomen oval and hairy. 50. A native of vaga.
Europe ; on decayed trees. It gnaws holes in the wood
under the bark, and forms a number of paffages for
itfelf.
Black, fmooth ; the fcale placed between the thorax glabra*
and abdomen furnifhed with two fmall projefHons; the*
divifions between the fegments of the abdomen whitifli;
legs reddifh. 33. A native of Europe.
55 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the laft
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
93. MaTELLA.
Mouth formed of a fubftance like horn ; without a
tongue. Jaw membranaceous at the tip. Lip pro¬
jecting, refembling an inverted cone ; at the extremi¬
ty of which are placed four unequal feelers, with
conical articulations. Antennae filiform. Wings
wanting in moft fpecies. Body downy. The pof-
terior part of the thorax turned back. The fthig
is pungent, and concealed within the abdomen.
Scarlet; the abdomen marked with a black belt. 1. rm'denta*
A native of Europe. The antennae, eyes, legs, and lu
under part of the body black; the fting long and fili¬
form.
Black; the bale of the abdomen marked with two diadema.
yellow dots ; the middle with an interrupted yellow
ftreak ; the extremity with a fmall white line. 10. A
native of South America. Large ; the lower part of
the head marked with a white band ; the thorax marked
with two white lines, and with white on the inferior
part.
Bluifti; the abdomen marked with a Targe golden-aurata*
coloured fpot. 13. A native of New Holland.
Black; the thorax reddfth; the edges of the feg-*europaa.
ments of the abdomen white. 4. A native of Europe;
in woods of maple.
Hairy, black ; the thorax reddifh ; the abdomen halenfis-,
marked with two white dots, and with a white band
on the pofterior part. 15. A native of Europe ; the
upper part of the (hanks brown.
27 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature, publilhed by
Gmelin.
VI.
2oB
ENTOMOLOGY.
VI. DIPTERA.
Wings two. Poifers clavated; one placed behind
each wing, under a little fcale.
94. Oestrus. Gad-fly, Breeze.
A fucker drawn back within the lips, which are con¬
nected, and furnifhed with a fmall pore. Feelers two,
of two articulations, orbicular at the tip, and feated
in a depreffion on each fide of the mouth. Antefmae
Ihort and fetaceous.
The face of this Angular genus is broad and depreffed,
and has fome refemblance to the ape. They are ex¬
tremely troublefome to horfes, Iheep, and cattle, de-
pofiting their eggs in different parts of their bodies, and
occafioning painful tumours and even death. The larva
is without feet, thick, fhort, foft, and compofed of fe-
veral fegments *, they are fometimes furni(lied with
hooks. They lurk within the bodies, or under the Ikin,
of horfes, oxen, &c. \ and feed on their juices during
the winter. The pupa is without feet, oval, and in¬
capable of motion, covered wdth a hard light-brown
cruft. The perfect infeft lives but for a fhort time.
*bovis. Wings brown, without fpots $ the abdomen black,
white at the bafe, and of a tawny colour at the ex¬
tremity. 1. A native of Europe. It depofits its
eggs on the backs of oxen, and lodges them under
the Ikin. The larva, when young, is fmooth, white,
and tranfparent j as it advances in age it becomes
brownifh, and when full grown and ready to be
changed into a pupa, it acquires a dark-brown colour.
It is lodged in a fack formed in the cellular fubftance
immediately under the fldn, and occafions a very con-
fiderable tumour on the back of the animal. The fack
communicates with the air by a very narrow opening,
next to which the anus of the animal is placed. Through
the anus a yellow purulent matter is difcharged 5 and near
the anus are fituated twTo fpiracula. There is a fmall in¬
dentation on the oppofite extremity of the larva, which
is fituated at the bottom of the fack, furrounded by two
or three papillae, which forms the mouth. It has a number
of dots on its furface, difpofed in tranfverfe interrupted
lines. Two diftinft and different kinds of lines are
feen on each fegment j the uppermoft of them is nar¬
rower, and confifts of larger dots. Underneath this is a
broader line, and the dots confiderably fmaller. The
firft are eafily feen, by ufing the lens, to be hooks bent
upwards, or towards the tail of the infeft. On ex¬
amining the broader line of fmall dots, writh a tolerably
powerful magnifier, they are alfo found to be hooks,
but turned in an oppofite direffion, that is, downwTards
in the fack, and towards the head of the infeft. Thefe
hooks, it is probable, are occafionally erefted by the
mufcles of the fkin j and according to the feries of them
ufed by the larva, it is raifed or depreffed in the fack j
and by this motion, and confequent irritation, a more
or lefs copious fecretion of pus is occafioned for its fufte-
nance.
This Angular arrangement of hooks round the body
of the larvae, in this inftance ferves the fame purpofe as
the legs in other larvae, enabling them to move about in
3
Dlptefa,
the fack, and to crawl out of it when about to change
into pupae.
They uever change their {kin like moft other larvae,
the fame ferving them through their growth j and it at
length alfo ferves to form the fhell of the pupa. After
leaving the fack, and previous to their becoming pupae,
they contracf themfelves, and affume a different figure.
They continue in the ftate of pupae from about the
latter end of June until about the middle of Auguft,
when the fly appears. Full growm larvae are fometimes
to be met with on the backs of cows in the month
of September, which probably remain in the ftate
of pupae till the enfuing fpring. The perfeft infe£f, on
leaving the hard cruft which {unrounds it, forces open a
very remarkable, marginated, triangular valve, which
may be traced in the Ikin of the larvae, and is fituated
on one fide of the fmaller end.
The oeflrus bovis, in its perfeft ftate, is the largeft of
the European fpecies of this genus, and is very beauti¬
ful.
The pain it inflidis in depofiting its eggs is much
more fevere than any of the other fpecies. When one
of the cattle is attacked by this fly, it is eafily known by
the extreme terror and agitation of the whole herd;
the unfortunate objedl of attack runs bellowing from
among them to fome diftant part of the field, or the
neareft water, while the tail, from the feverity of the
pain, is held, with a tremulous motion, ftraight from
the body, in the direftion of the {pine j and the head
and neck are alfo ftretched out to the utmoft. Ihe
reft, from fear, generally follow to the water, or difperfe
to different parts of the field. When the oxen are
yoked to the plough, the attack of this fly is attended
with real danger, as they become perfectly uncontroul-
able, and will often run with the plough direftly for¬
wards, through the hedges, or whatever obftrudts their
way. There is provided, on this account, a contrivance
in many ploughs, to fet them immediately at liberty.
The ftrongeft and healthieft beafts feem conftantly to
be preferred by it, and commonly have the greateft
number of botts, wormuls, or warbles, on their backs j
dealers are frequently guided in their choice of cattle
by this circumftanee. The female fly is very quick in
performing the operation of depofiting her eggs : the
does not appear to remain on the back of the animal
more than a few7 feconds.
Gray, marked with a wftnte band, and dotted with buccatus
black. 6. A native of Carolina.
Black, hairy ; wings of a footy colour ; their outer trompc*
edge bright black •, head, thorax, fcutellum, and anus,
grayiih yell )w. 7- A native of Lapland. The larvae
occupy the frontal finus of the rein-deer j the animal
fometimes in the fpring, forces out great clufters of
larvae by fneezing. This is the largeft fpecies of the
genus.
Wings without fpots j the thorax yellow7, marked tarandi,
with a black band j the abdomen tawny, and bright
yellow at the extremity. 2. A native of Lapland. It
depofits its eggs on the back of the rein-deer. Such is
their dread of it, that they every year leave the woods,
and take refuge in the mountains. A very great pro¬
portion of them fall victims to this infect, before they
are three years old. Thofe who efcape with life are
very much emaciated, and have their {kins fpoiled.
Botts*
2°9
Dlptera. E N T O M
* tquu Bolts. Wings whitifh, marked with a black band in
the middle, and two black dots, A native of Europe,
(Vide Tranfaflions of the Linnaean Society, vol. iii.
p. 3261.) The forehead white and downy 5 top of the
head brown; the eyes black, and diilant from one ano¬
ther *, thorax brown, with a dark-coloured centre j the
abdomen yellowilh brown, the divifions between the
fegments of the abdomen marked wdth black fpots and
dots; the fcutellum furnifhed with two tufts of hair j
wings marked near the bafe with a very fmall black
dot, in the middle with a black band, and towards the
'extremity with two black fpots. The male is diftin-
guifhed by a brighter yellow ; the female by a deeper
brown, and by the extremity of the abdomen which is
long, bent inwards, and black, terminating in a bifid ftyle.
It depofits. its eggs on the hairs of the knees or fides of
horfes, which, when the animal licks itfelf, are con¬
veyed by the tongue into the ftomach. The body of
the larva is compofed of eleven fegments, all of which,
except the twro laft, are furrounded with a double row
of horny briftles dire&ed towards the truncated end,
and are of a reddifti colour except the points, which are
black. Thefe larvae attach themfelves to every part of
the itomach, but are generally moft numerous about
the pylorus ; and are fometimes, though much lefs fre-
quently, found in the inteilines. Their numbers in the
ftomach are very various, often not more than half a
dozen j at other times more than a hundred j and if fome
accounts might be relied on, even a much greater
number than this. They hang moft: commonly in
clufters, being fixed by the fmall end to the inner mem¬
brane of the ftomach, to which they adhere by means
©f twTo fmall hooks or tentacula. When they are re¬
moved from the ftomach they will attach themfelves to
any loofe membrane, and even to the fidn of the hand.
For this purpofe they {heath or draw back the hooks
almoft entirely within the {kin, till the twm points come
clofe to each other 5 they then prefent them to the
membrane j and keeping them parallel till it is pierced
through, they expand them in a lateral direction, and
afterwards, by bringing the points downwards towards
themfelves, they include a fufficient piece of the mem¬
brane, and remain firmly fixed for any length of time.
1 hefe hooks, the better to adapt them to this purpofe,
appear to have a joint near their bafe.
The larvae attain their full growth about the latter
end of May, when they quit their hold of the internal
membrane of the ftomach, and pafs along wfith the
food through the intellinal canal. From the end of
May till the beginning of July they may be feen in the
dung which drops from the horfe ; when they teach
the ground they feek out fome convenient fitUation, and
become pupce, and remain in that ftate for about fix
or feven wTeeks. The mode purfued by the perfedl in-
ieft to obtain for its young a fituation in the ftomach of
the horfe, is truly Angular, and is effedled in the fol¬
lowing manner.—When the female has been impreg¬
nated, and the eggs are fufficiently matured, {he feeks
among the horfes a fabjeft for her purpofe j approach¬
ing it on the wing, Ihe holds her body nearly upright
in the air, and her tail, wTich is lengthened for the
. purpofe, curved inwards and upwards: in this way {he
approaches the part where fire defigns to depofit the
<egg ; and fufpending herfelf for a few' feconds before it,
Vol. VIIL Part I.
O L O G Y.
fuddenly darts upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to
the hair j {he hardly appears to fettle, but merely
touches the hair with the egg held out on the proje£le*d
point of the abdomen. The egg is made to adhere by
means of a glutinous liquor fecreted with it. She then
leaves the horfe at a fmall diftance, and prepares a fe-
cond egg, and poifing herfelf before the part, depofits it
in the fame way. The liquor dries, and the egg be¬
comes firmly glued to the hair : this is repeated by va¬
rious flies till 400 or 500 eggs are placed fometimes on
one horfe.
I he infide bf the knee, or thofe parts of the body of
the animal that are liable to be licked, are chofen by
the fly from inftintt, as the proper places for depofiting
its eggs. The well-known difeafe in horfes called the
bolts, which frequently proves fatal, is fuppofed to be
occafioned by the larvae of this infeft.
Wings wdthout fpots j the thorax of a rufty colour 5 nafalls,
abdomen black, covered with yellow hairs. 3. A native
of Europe. This infeift is faid to depofit its eggs in the
noftrils of horfes, mules, afles, and of goats j and the
larvae occupy the feuces. Body black ; thorax delti-
tute of furrows j the head and abdomen covered with
yellow hairs, except the firft fegment, vrhich is covered
with white ones.
Thorax yellow, marked with a black band ; wingS * h'vmor^
White, marked with black bands. 4. A native of Eu- rhoidahs.
rope. It depofits its eggs on the lips of horfes, occa-
fioning a titillation, which caufes the animal, when at¬
tacked by it, to move his head about violently, and
gallop about with every appearance of diftrefs. The
larva of this infeft needs not to be particularly deferibed,
as it refembles in almoft every refpeft that of the equi.
Its habits are the fame, being feen in the ftomach of the
horfes, occupying the fame fituation as thofe of the equi,
from which they can only be diftinguilhed by their
fmaller fize and greater whitenefs. When it approaches
maturity it acquires a red colour. It is frequently feen
adhering to the extremity of the reflum 5 which cir-
cumftance, along with its colour, has occafioned it to
receive the name of hcemorrhoidalis. In about two days
after it has left the body of the horfe, it is changed in¬
to a pupa, in which ftate it remains nearly twro months.
Wings faintly dotted 5 the abdomen variegated with * ovi^
white and black. 5. A native of Europe. The larva
occupies the frontal finus of the ftieep ) they are flat on
the one fide, and convex on the other ; of a wdritiih
colour ; and nearly of the fame fize with the larvae of
the 0. equt. When young thefe larvae are perfeftly
white and tranfparent, except the two horny plates,
which are black. As they mcreafe in fize, the upper
fide becomes marked with two tranfverfe browm lines on
each fegment, and fome fpots are feen on the fides.
When full grown they fall through the noftrils, and
change to thejpupa ftate, lying on the earth. The in-
feift depofits its eggs on the inner margin of the noftrils
of the flieep. The moment the fly touches that part of
the flieep, they {hake their heads, and ftrike the ground
violently with their fore feet ; at the fame time hold¬
ing their nofes dole to the earth, they -run away, look¬
ing about them, on every fide, to fee if the fly purfue.
I hey do not, like the horfes and cows, take refuge in
the wrater •, they have recourfe to a rut, or dully road,
or a gravel pit, where they crowd together during the
D d heat
210
antilapce.
fafciculo-
fus.
kommis.
' * peEhni-
terms.
deracea.
*hortorum
* triangu¬
laris.
* varie-
gata.
* prqtenjis*
psrnicina.
E N T 0 M
heat of the day, ■with their nofes held clofe to the
ground, which renders it difficult for the fly convenient¬
ly to get at the noftril.
Wings dotted with brown, and marked with a brown
band j body hairy, of a grayilh yellow colour 5 the ab¬
domen marked with three rows of blackifh fpots. 8.
A native of Afia. It depofits its eggs under the flan of
the back of the antelope. About the fize of the mufca
carnaria.
Yellow and downy'*, the anus furniflied with three
tufts of black hairs. 9. A native of Siberia •, head
and eyes black. *
Entirely brown. 10. A native of South America.
Depofits its eggs under the flan of the abdomen of the
natives, or of people refiding in countries where they are
prevalent/ The larvae continue fix months under the
fkin j if they be difturbed, they penetrate deeper, and
produce very troublefome ulcers, which fometimes prove
fatal.
1 o fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
95. Tipula, Grane-jlij.
Mouth fumifned with a very fliort probofcis, membra¬
naceous, and grooved on the back, receiving a
briftle •, with a ftiort fucker without a (heath } and
with feelers two, equal, filiform, and longer than the
head. Antennee in moft of the fpecies filiform.
Moft of this genus have a great refemblance to the
gnat: They feed on various lubftances. The larva is
loft, without feet, and cylindrical *, its head is furnifhed
-with a fmall proje&ion, and terminates abruptly ; they
feed on the roots of plants •, they are eagerly fought
after by crows and other birds. The pupa is cylindri¬
cal, and is fumiffied with two horns on the anterior ex¬
tremity, with fmall projections behind.
A. Wings expanded.
The antennae pectinated •, the wings marked with a
black fpot j the thorax yellowifh. 1. A native of
Europe •, in moift places. The abdomen reddiffi at
the bafe, marked with a yellow band in the middle,
black at the tip.
Wings tranfparent, with a brown rib along the edge.
5.. A native of Europe. It does a" great deal of mif-
chief in gardens, com fields, and meadows, by confum-
ing the roots of potherbs, growing corn, and grafs.
Wings tranfparent, fprinkled with very faint fpots. 6.
A native of Europe } in gardens, deftroying the crops.
One half of the wings brown, marked with white
triangular fpots. ill. A native of Scotland.
Black $ the bafe and fides of the abdomen red, fpot-
ted with yellow. 7. A native of Europe y in gar¬
dens.
The thorax variegated y abdomen brown, fpotted
with yellow on the fides; the forehead tawny. 10.
A native of Europe y in meadows. It is very de-
ftrucftive to the roots of grafs.
Wings tranfparent, marked on the edge with a brown
fpot j the abdomen yellow, marked with three brown
lines. 12. A native of Europe. Very deflructive to
the roots of plants, and much fought after by crows.
O L O G Y. Diptera.
Wings tranfparent, and (Lining *, body of a brownifh * regela-
afli colour. 21. A native of Europe. This fpecies tionis.
appears very early in the fpring *, and may be feen dan¬
cing in the air in great numbers in mild weather.
B. Wings incumbent. Culiciformes.
Thorax greeniffi } wings white, marked with a brown * plumofa.
dot j the antennae feathered. 26. A native of Europe j
in m’arfliy places.
Greenifh •, wings fpotted j the fore legs very long. *littoralis,
27. A native of Europe y on the fea coaft.
Black, fmooth •, wings white, marked with a black johannis.
dot y the antennae ffiort *, legs black. 41. A native
of Europe y in (haded places.
Black j fmooth, wings tranfparent, marked with a * pomontfi-
black dot y the thighs of a rutty colour. 101. A na¬
tive of Britain, and Norway y on the flowers of fruit
trees.
Black, filky. 45. A native of Europe y on theJlorilega.^
flowers of fruit trees, which it injures very much. It
frequently blafts the hopes of the farmer.
Wings tranfparent -, the outer edge black. 46. A * hortula*
native of Europe. It is very deftruftive to afparagus, na,
and to the flovrers of fruit trees. The thorax and ab¬
domen fometimes black, fometimes red.
Wings of an affi colour } the thorax and abdomen mofchifera
yellow. 123. A native of Chili. This infedl has a
very pleafant fmell, and is made ufe of by the young
girls of Chili for perfuming their clothes.
Of a tawny colour, wings white and tranfparent, * tritici,
hairy on the margins-, the eyes black. A native of
England. Larva leaps y without feet y is orange-coloured,
and marginated y the margin folded with papillse y the
head acute y the tail terminating abruptly. The pupa
is narrow, acute at both ends and reddiffi.
126 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
96. Diopsis.
The head furniftied with two filiform boms, without
articulations, much longer than the head, on the tops
of which the eyes are placed.
I. A native of North America and Guinea. Red-ichneumo*
diffi •, antennae very fmall and fetaceous y the horns of nea.
a rufty colour y the eyes which terminate the horns are
globular and black y the thorax black ; furniffied with
two yellow tapering projections behind, and with a
Angle one on each fide y wings tranfparent, and marked
with a black dot before the abdomen clavated, and
attached to the trunk by a narrow (talk y the two laft
fegments of the abdomen black y the legs yellow ; the
thighs of the legs clavated. It refembles an ichneumorry
and is about the fize of the red ant.
Only one fpecies of this genus has been defcribed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature*
97. Musca, Fly.
Mouth furniffied with a fleffiy projecting probofcis, witB
two equal lips, with a fucker furniffied with bridles,.,
and with two ffiort feelers. Antennae ffiort (in moft.
fpecies).
Flies live chiefly in dunghills y their larvae are without
feet.
Diptera.
feet, compofed of feveral fegments,nearly cylindrical, and
' becoming fmaller behind. The larvae of the flies of the
firfl: and fecond diviflons, live in the water, have a breath¬
ing hole at their head, are bearded, and live on aquatic
animalculae j thofe of the fourth divifion live on rub-
bifli; thofe of the third on dung, putrid animal fub-
ftances, and on fmall infefts •, fome of them particularly
on aphides: they remain fixed on a leaf, and with their
fhout colleft, and devour the aphides. The pupae are im¬
moveable, and moft of them covered with a hard flrin j
the pup* of the flies of the firft and fecond divifions are
cylindrical, and covered with the ikin of the larvae,
which becomes hard.
A, The Suche^' compofed of a Jingle valve; the An-
tennce conneEied at the bafe, and Jharp at the points.
Bibiones.
* plebeja. Of an aflr colour, and hairy j the abdomen conical j
the edges of the fegments white, i. A native of the
north of Europe. The thorax is fometimes yellow, and
abdomen of a rufty colour.
* margi- Black *, the abdomen conical j the edges of the feg-
nata. ments white j the wings fpotted. 130. A native of
Europe.
B. Sucker without a /heath.
a. Thofe which have a fngle briflle.
f The Antennce pointed and conneEied at the bafe.
Stration\yes.
chamae- The fcutellum pale yellow, and furnifhed with two
Icon. fmall projections 5 the abdomen black, marked on the
fides with yellow bands. 3. A native of Europe j on
flowers. The larva lives in frefh water.
uhginofa. Body black 5 the fcutellum without projections j the
abdomen white, and black at the extremity. 22. A
native of Europe. The forehead yelloiv •, the joints of
the legs white j the flianks of the legs pale.
* vallata. The fcutellum marked with fix projections 5 the ab¬
domen and thighs yellow. 166. A native of Britain ;
on hedges. Wings of a faint rufty colour ; incumbent
and plain •, the nerves of the wings marked with a
brown dot in the middle *, the poifers yellow ; the feet,
and lowTer extremity of the flianks of the legs brown.
nedarea. Black \ antennas cylindrical and perfoliated ; wings
white. 24. A native of Europe 5 on the flowers of
apple trees. It drinks the nefarious juice, and lodges
all day long within the flower j it is very fmall, and not
larger than a common flea j body oblong 5 legs long.
f f. The Antenna: Jhort and clavatcd, fitrnijhed with a
brijlle.
* Feathery, or with hairy feathered Antennce.
* inanis. Brown ; the abdomen tranfparem, marked with three
black belts, 61. A native of Europe j in thickets.
* pellucens Black \ the firfl: fegment of the abdomen white, and
tranfparent. 62. A native of Europe j in flraded
places.
* cafdr. Shining green j legs black. 64. A native of Eu¬
rope j on carrion.
cornlcina. Thorax of a finning copper colour 5 the abdomen of
a greeniflr yellow with a metallic luftre j legs black.
21 X
169. A native of Europe. The fides of the lips of a
fhining filver colour.
Shining j the thorax blue j the abdomen green. 65. * cadave-
A native of Europe ^ on carrion. rina.
The thorax black; the abdomen fhining blue; the * vomito-
forehead tawny. 67. A native of Europe and Ame-rm.
rica ; on carrion ; they confiime dead bodies very quick¬
ly ; they likewife feed on milk.
Black ; the thorax marked with pale lines ; the da-*camariai
domen (Inning, and chequered. 68. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on carrion. The eyes reddifh ; the anus tawny.
The larva likewdfe infefts bee-hives.
Common houfe-fiy. The thorax marked with lines \ * domeflctt
the abdomen chequered, and pale on the under fide at
the bafe. 69. A native of Europe and America ; in
houfes. The larvae live in horfe dung.
Brown; the thorax blue and downy, marked with d/e*,
three eminences; the tip of the fcutellum and thighs
yellow. 390. A native of Europe ; very deftruiftive
to olives. The female depofits a great number of eggs
in the month of July, on the fruit of the olive ; the lar¬
vae confmjne the pulp.
* * The Antennce furnifhed with 4 naked brijlle.
Smooth, black ; the abdomen wrinkled on the u^tv/enefratai
fide, marked with white ftreaks ; wings brown. 14. A
native of Europe : in windows.
Blackifli; the tip of the fcutellum of a faint brick * larva-
colour ; the abdomen chequered. 78. A native oirum,
Europe; on the caterpillars of moths and butterflies,
and likewife on the roots of cabbage and colewort, ren¬
dering the root knotty ; the tips and bafe whitifh ; tho¬
rax black, marked with lines.
Black ; the abdomen of an afh colour, marked with * radicum.
black bands. 79. A native of Europe 3 on the roots
of the raddifh.
Hairy and whitifh, marked with a black line on dnznapobraf-
back, and with feveral black lines along the fides. zo^./icce.
A native of Europe ; on the roots of the turnip, which
it deftroys, and caufes to appear as if rotten ; it attacks
thofe turnips chiefly that have been fowm in light fandy
foil. ’ The larva is white, without feet; the head is
pointed and tint with black ; it undergoes its transform
mation about September. Pupa is oblong, browm, com¬
pofed of feveral fegments, and becomes a perfeft infedf
in May.
Of an afh colour ’; the thorax marked with five black/>/tfsW/x.
fpots ; the abdomen marked wdth very faint fpots. 83.
A native of Europe. It is to be feen. flying about in
fwarms before rain.
Hairy and afh-coloured ; the extremity of the thighs* rapax%
and flianks of the legs of a rufty colour. 212. A na'
tive of Britain ; and feeds on other flies.
Black ; the abdomen pale ; the eyes of a rufty co-* cellaru.
lour. 87! A native of Europe ; in cellars.
Black; the abdomen of an afh colour y the w ings * tneteorica
yellowifh at the bafe. 88. A native of Europe.
They.fly about very much in the air immediately before
rain, and colledt about the mouths of horfes in great
fwarms, particularly about the fummer folftice. The
larvae are fometimes found in the human ftomach.
Shining black ; eyes brownifh ; wings fhining red and avenx.
green, 216. A native of Europe ; in oats, which it
D d 2 deftroys
ENTOMOLOGY
212
* frit.
* pumilio-
eis.
petrcneUa.
fonehi.
vtrmilio.
E N T O M
deilroys by gnawing the ftalks when young. Larva
yellowifh and without feet.
Black 5 the poifers and feet of the hind legs, and ab¬
domen, pale green. 90. A native of Europe 5 on the
ears of barley. It is fo frequent in Sweden, that it has
been calculated that one tenth of the grain is confumed
by it annually.
Black 5 the under part of the head, and two lines on
the thorax yellow 5 the poifers white j the legs of an alh
eolour and black at the tip. 2x7. A native of Eu¬
rope. The larva has a flrarp head, black at the extre¬
mity j the body white, compofed of ten fegments 5 it is
changed into a pupa about the end of May. The pupa
is yellow, finning, and compofed of feveral fegments 3
the perfeft infedt appears about the middle of June.
At what time it depofits its eggs is not well afcertained.
The larvce are perceived early in the fpring, in the cen¬
tre of the ftalks of wheat and rye, very near the root.
In all probability the eggs have been depofited in the
month of Odtober, or end of September, as the early
fown grain is found to-be moft affedled. White wheat
is more liable to be injured than red. ' The ftalks in
which the larva is lodged, do not advance in growth,
but continue dwarf, whence the infect has received the
name of pumilionis. The ftalks become yellow in the
beginning of fummer, and decay 3 others commonly
fpring up from the fame root, and fupply their place.
This infedf firft attra&ed notice in England in the fpring
of the year 1791, when it excited fome alarm, as fears
were at firft entertained that it was the Heflian fly, which
had done fo much mifchief in America. Some plants
of infedted wheat were fent to Mr Markwick by a friend
in the neighbourhood of Battle. Mr Markwick fuc-
ceeded in obtaining the perfedt infedt from them, of
which he has given an account, (Vide Tranfadfions
of the Linnean Society, p. 76. tab. 15.) Some of
the infedted wheat was likewife fent by Arthur Young
to Sir Jofeph Banks, who afcertained the infedt to be
the mufca pumilionis defcribed in Gmelin’s Syftem of
Nature, and not the Heflian fly. An account of this
fly, and of the mifchief caufed by it, was firft publilhed
in the Tranfadtions of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Stockholm for the year 1778, by Mr Ob. Bjerkan-
der, who difcovered it on the young (hoots of the rye,
in the month of May 3 and in fuch quantity, that in
fome fields he found three or four ftalks affedted in a
fquare foot.
Livid 3 the forehead red 3 the legs long, and of a light
red colour 3 the joints of the legs black. 96. A
native of Europe. It may be feen running about on
the surface of ftagnant water.
Wings tranfparent, marked on the edge with a black
fpot 3 the. eyes green. 121. A native of Europe 3 on
the receptacles of the flower of the fow-thiftle. Thorax
brown, with a pale fcutellum 3 the abdomen black, oval,
and greenhh beneath 3 the edges of the fegments whit-
i(h 3 tail with an obtufe ftyle 3 wings with two brown
nerves 3 legs of a brick colour.
b. Sucker furnifhed with three briJUes. Ragiones.
Of an afh colour 3 the abdomen marked with three
rows of black dots 5 the thorax fpotted 3 the wings
without (pots, 17. A native of Europe 3 in loofe
(and,
O L O G Y. Diptera.
Black 3 the divifions between the fegments of the co/omba-
abdomen, the (hanks of the legs, and feet, white. 3 z^.fckenjis*.
A native of Europe and Alia. It is about half the fize
of the common gnat, and is moft frequent in the begin¬
ning of fpring and end of fummer, in Servia, Ruflia, and
Siberia 3 where it inlinuates itfelf into the bodies of cat¬
tle, which it frequently deftroys, as its bite proves fatal
in a few hours 3 (moke is very offenfive to it 5 and in the
places where it prevails the people have recourfe to it,
as their only mode of defence.
Antennae, body, and wings hairy. 3 25. A naXwcpapatofi.
of Europe. It is very troublefome in Lombardy in the
night time, during the whole fummer. It is very mi¬
nute 5 eyes black, dotted with white 3 the wings when,
the infeed is at reft, diverge fo as to fjprm an obtufe
angle 3 the abdomen red.
Black 3 the abdomen long, (lender, and tapering to- acuminata.
wards the extremity 3 the wings fpotted 3 the thighs
reddifli-yellow 3 the (hanks of the legs and feet brown-
i(h. 226. A native of Europe.
c. The Sucker furnifhed with four brijlles. Syrphi.
|| Bri/ile of the Antennce feathery.
Black 3 the abdomen hairy, and reddilh behind. 25- * bomly-
A native of Europe 3 among buihes. Ians.
The anterior part of the thorax yellow 5 the extre- * apiarijg,
mity of the abdomen white 3 the wings of a rufty co¬
lour at the tip. 328. A native of Europe j the pof-
terior part of the thorax, the forehead, and abdomen
black 3 wings obfeure.
|| || The Brifle of the Antenncefmple andfmooth.
Black, without hairs, the (ides of the thorax marked conopfea-.
with yellow lines, the abdomen with three yellow lines.
21. A native of Europe j among buihes.
The thorax marked with four yellow lines 3 the abdo- * penduld,
men with three interrupted yellow bands. 28. A na¬
tive of Europe. The larva lives in ftagnant water, and
is fulpended by a long filiform tube through which it
breathes.
Thorax gray 3 the abdomen brown 3 the thighs of* tena%,
the hind legs compreffed. 32. A native of Europe 3
in dunghills, in necefiaries, and in putrid water. The
larva is very tenacious, and difficultly deftroyed by
preffure.
Very (lightly hairy, black 3 the thorax without fpots 3 * pyraffi,
the abdomen marked with fix white circular fpots. 51.
A native of Europe 3 and feeds on the aphides on the
leaves of the pear tree.
Black 3 not hairy 3 the thorax fpotted '3 the abdomen * merthaf
marked with four yellow belts, the fcutellum yellow, tri.
54. A native of Europe 3 on flowers, chiefly on the
mint. The perfeft infect feeds on honey, the larva on
aphides.
Naked 3 yellow 3 the upper part of the abdomenfaltatrix.
brown 3 the thorax marked with three brown lines.
60. A native of Europe ; in meadows, where it leaps
about on the ground like a grafshopper3 the longitudinal
line on the thorax, fomewhat broad, marked with an
oblong black fpot, and with a black line on each fide
towards its extremity 3 poifers w'hite.
360.
213
Diptera. ‘ E N T O M
360 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature, publiihed by
Gmelin.
98. TaBanus, Ox-Fly.
Mouth furnifheci with a ftraight, projecting, and mem¬
branaceous probofcis 5 with a fmall and oval head j
with twTo equal lips j with a long projefting fucker,
which can be concealed in a groove on the back of
the probofcis. Sheath of one valve, and furnilhed
with five bridles. Feelers two, equal, clavated, and
(harp at the points. Antennae (hort, cylindrical, ap¬
proaching to one another, pointed, and compofed of
feven articulations.
Thefe infefts live by fucking out the blood of various
animals, of which they are very greedy. The larvae
are found under ground, in moift meadows : the colour
of the eyes vanilhes when the infedt is dead, but may be
reftored by placing it in warm water.
* bovinus. Eyes greenifh j the back of the abdomen marked
with long triangular white fpots. 4. A native of Eu¬
rope. It is very troublefome to horfes, and horned cat¬
tle ; their bite is painful; they even moled the human
fpecies in very warm weather; they are mod frequent
in moid fituations.
tarandinus Eyes green ; the fegments of the abdomen yellow
on the edges j legs reddidi. 7. A native of Europe.
-They wound the tender horns of the rein-deer, and fpoil
their fhape j they are met with in Italy, and the fouth-
em parts of Europe,, as well as in Lapland.
pellucens. Black •, eyes marked with bands j fird fegment of the
abdomen bluifh \ the (hanks cf the legs pale.
* paganus. The anterior parts of the eyes green, marked with
three tawny bands j the abdomen marked on both fides
with rudy-coloured fpots. 25. A native of Britain.
* tropicus. Eyes marked with three purple bands j the fides of
the abdomen of a rudy colmrr. 14. A native of Eu¬
rope ; very troublefome to cattle, efpecially to horfes,
immediately before rain.
* pluvial is Eyes green, marked with four waved bands j wings
dotted with brown. 16. A native of Europe.—This
little animal fixes on the hands, face, and legs, and
excites a painful inflammation in the part where it has
drawn blood.
* cacuti- Eyes green, dotted with black j wings without fpots.
ens. 17. A native of Europe. It is extremely trouble¬
fome in hot weather, efpecially before rain, fixing on
the hands and face, or any uncovered part 5 it draws
blood very dexteroufiy, and leaves an inflamed bloody
puncdure behind.
38 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature publifhed by
Gmelin.,
99. Culex, Gnat.
Mouth furnidied with a (heath of one piece, flexible,
and fet with five bridles. Feelers two, compofed of
three articulations. Antennae filiform.
The infeeds of this genus live on the juices of the
larger animals, and are eagerly fought after by poultry,
O L O G Y.
and fmall birds. The larva lives in dagnant waters, and
has a fmall cylindrical refpiratory tube, near the tail} the
head is armed with hooks to feize on the aquatic infeeds
upon which it feeds j it is devoured by ducks, and wa¬
ter fowl. The pupa is curved and oval, with refpira¬
tory tubes near the head. They continue but a ihort
time in the date of larva and pupa. The perfeed infeed
depofits her eggs in cluders on the furface of the water,
where they remain for a few days until they are hatch¬
ed. Gnats in this country, however troublefome they
may be, do not make us feel them fo feverely, as the
mufquito does in foreign parts.
Qfr an adi colour j the abdomen marked with eight * pipiens.
brown rings. 1. A native of Europe, and the north¬
ern parts of Alia and America $ in the neighbourhood
of frefh wraters, and in mardiy places. It is larger in
more foutherly climates, and its bite occafions more
pain and inflammation. When on the wing it makes a
condant (hrill noife, whence it has received its name
pipiens. The male is not eafily didinguifhed from the
female by its pedinate antennae : it is more trouble¬
fome, and its bite more painful than that of the female.
Ducks, and other aquatic fowls, feed their young with
them 5 different fpecies of the libellula likewife devour
them. They fometimes infinuate themfelves into the
lungs and intedines of quadrupeds, where their bite ex¬
cites a fatal inflammation. The natives of countries
wdiere they are very troublefome, have recourfe to the
fmoke of different vegetables as a defence. In warm cli¬
mates they are frequently compelled to. make ufe of
gauze curtains, which they draw clofe round them when
afleep. They are faid to dime in the dark..
Brown 5 the abdomen and feet marked with white
rings j the wings fpotted. 8. A native of the north
of Europe j the fnout half the length of the body.
Brown j. the thorax faintly marked with lines. 3. * bifurca*
A native of Europe j in marlhy fituations. tus.
Brown 5 wings white,, marked with three obfeure*puluarh
fpots. 1 a. A native of Europe •, it creeps about a
great deal; its bite is fucceeded by a brown fpot.
13 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by Gme¬
lin, in the lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
100. Empis.
Sucker with a (heath of one piece, furniflred with three
bridles, and,, an inflefted probofcis. Feelers (hort,,
and filiform. Antennae fetaceous.
The minute infedds which compofe this genus, live
by fucking out the blood and juices of other animals.
Black 5 wings nearly round, and of a suHy colour.* borealis.
1. A native of Europe ; they may be feen dancing in
the air in great numbers in the evening when the wea¬
ther is good.
Black; the hinds legs long and feathered. 2. A*pennipes.
native of Europe; it is frequently found on the leaves
of the geranium fylvaticum, and cardamine pratenjis.
Livid; thorax marked with lines, the bafe of the * livida.
wings and legs of a rudy colour. 3. A native of Eu¬
rope ; it is frequently to be found on the heraclium
fpondylium ; the upper part of the abdomen very dark
brown 5 wings oblong, marked with brown veins.
Of
2 14
•* cincrea.
ca'lci-
{fans.
* irritans.
pungens.
* roftrata.
lineata.
E NT O M
Of an afli colour; thorax without fpots; legs pale j
wings brown at the tip. 9. A native of Europe ; on
umbelliferous plants.
19 fpecies of this genus are defcribed in the edition
of the Syftem of Nature publilhed by Gmelin.
101. Stomoxys.
Sucker confifting of a (heath of one piece, and fur-
xiifhed with enclofing bridles. Feelers two, fliort,
briftle-fhaped, and compofed of three articulations.
Antennae fetaceous.
The infefls of this genus live by fucking the blood
and juices of other animals $ thofe of the divifion rin¬
glet; principally attack infecls of the orders lepidoptera
and diptera.
A. The Sheath convoluted, and bent at the bafe, with
an angular Jlexure, and furnijhed with two bri/lles.
Gray j antennae (lightly feathered j legs black. 4.
A native of Europe. It refembles the common fly
very much in every refpeft, except in the fnout, and
in having the fegments of the abdomen marked with
two black fpots. It is very troublefome to horned cat¬
tle 5 by getting about their feet, it caufes them to kick,
and (lamp with their feet: before rain it bites more fre¬
quently. It does not fpare the human fpecies, particular¬
ly in autumn.
Of an a(h colour, and fomewhat hairy; the abdomen
fpotted with black. 5. A native of Europe. This
fpecies is very frequent, and troublefome to cattle j by
fixing on their backs, it caufes them to keep their tails
almoft in conftant motion to la(h it off.
Of an alh colour, wtth black thighs. 6. A native
of Europe. It is very troublefome to cattle, refembles
St. irritans, but much fmaller wings • whitifh, without
(pots; the abdomen fometimes of a dark colour.
B. Sheath covering the mouth, and furnijhed with four
brijlles. Rhingiai.
Thorax faintly marked with lines j the fnout, legs,
and abdomen of a brick colour. 8. A native of Eu¬
rope. Very troublefome to cattle; about the (ize of the
common fly ; wings pale.
Thorax marked with lines; abdomen black, marked
on the fides with yellow fpots. 9. A native of Eu¬
rope. The lip long, yellow, with a black emarginated
tip, and formed of a horny fubftance enclofing the pro-
bpfeis. The antennae black, with a rufty-coloured
knob, and furniihed with a bridle ; the thorax marked
with four white lines; the fcutellum of a brick colour;
wings whitifh ; legs yellow ; the thighs marked with a
white belt.
0 L O G Y. - Diptera.
The infers of this genus live by fucking the blood
and juices of other animals.
A. Sucker furnijhed with a Jhort valve of one piece,
and with a fngle brijlle.
Blackifh ; back part of the head veficular, the ab- * vejicu*
domen yellowilh and black at the bafe. 4. A native laris.
of Europe ; in groves.
Black; fix fegments of the abdomen yellow on the * macroce-
edges ; antenna; and legs reddilh. 5. A native of Yvx-phalus.
rope; in groves.
B. The Slicker bent both at the middle*and at the bafe,
with an angular flexure. Sheath conflfting of two
pieces, the two pieces which compofe the Sheath equal.
Myopte. •
Of a rufty colour; the abdomen cylindrical, and bent * ferrugi-
inwards; the forehead reddiih. 8. A native of Eu-netf.
rope; in groves.
Abdomen cylindrical, and bent inwards; body black, atra.
2. A native of Europe ; among bufhes.
14 fpecies of this genus are defcribed in the edition
of the Sydem of Nature publidied by Gmelin.
103. Asilus.
Mouth furniflied with a fucker, compofed of a horny
fubdance, projecting, draight ; confiding of two
pieces, and turgid at the bafe. Antennse filiform.
They prey on other infe&s, efpecially thofe of the
lepidopterous and dipterous orders.
The abdomen hairy; on the fore part there are 'Hnxet*crabroni*
of the fegments black; behind yelkm and bent mwards.ybm/j.
4. A native of Europe. The larva lives under ground.
This is the larged fpecies of the genus which is to be
met with in Britain. Its fling is very painful.
Hairy, black ; the thorax white at the bafe. 19. A.epiphium.
native of Europe.
Hairy, black; with a whitilh band. 7. A native * ^r.
of Europe. It reds by leaning on its bread, with its
legs fpread. Claws white.
Black; wings black ; the forehead white. 22. A diadema,
native of Europe. Band and wings wholly black.
Of an alh colour, without hairs; legs of a rudy co- * tipulot-
lour; feet black. 14. A native of Europe. des.
Black; the thorax marked on each fide with an dhx-flriatiis.
coloured line; the poifers yellow. 44. A native of
Europe.
Gmelin has defcribed 48 fpecies of this genus, in his
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature,
104. Bombylius, Buzfly.
Only 9 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin in the lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
iq-2. CoNops.
Mouth furniflied with a projeCling fnout, which is bent
with an angular flexure. Antenna: clavated, and
pointed .at the extremity.
Mouth furniflied with a fucker, very long, fetaceous,
draight, and compofed of two valves, the valves un¬
equal, and like wife with three bridles. Feelers two,
(hort, and hairy. Antennae tapering towards the
point, and conneCled at the bafe.
The fpecies of this genus feed on the neClarious
iuice of flowers which they colled: when on wing.
Humble
4
Aptera. E NTOMOLOG Y.
* major. Humble Bee. Wings with a broad black waved
cuter edge} body black, with thick yellowifh down. i.
A native of Europe.
* medlus. Wings dotted with brown} body yellowifh and white
behind. 2. A native of Europe. It is to be met
with very early in the fpring.
minimus. Wings brownifh at the bale } body yellowifh, and
hairy } fnout and legs black. 7. A native of Europe.
Very fmall} antennae black } wings wEite.
grifeus. Elairy} wings white, brown at the bafe; thorax black,
marked with white lines } abdomen gray. 11. A na¬
tive of Europe } on compound flowers. Wings ma:ked
with two black dots in the middle.
*vlrefcens. Wings white, without fpots} body hairy, and green-
ifli} the fnout fhort. 12. A native of Europe} on
flowers. Thickly covered with greenilh hairs.
There are 15 fpecies of this genus defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
105. Hippobosca.
Mouth furnifhed with a fhort, cylindrical, flraight
fucker, compofed of two equal pieces. Antennae fi¬
liform. Legs fumifhed with many claws.
The fpecies of this genus live on the blood of other
infe&s.
* equina. Horfe-fly. Wings obtufe } thorax variegated with
w-hite ; legs terminating in four claws. 1. A native
of Europe and America.—They are very troublefome
to horfes; they hide themfelves under the hairs, and at¬
tach themfelves firmly to the Ikin,, by means of their
crooked claws.
* avicu- Wings obtufe } thorax of one colour. 2. A native
laria. of Europe } on the bodies of various birds, efpecially
fwallows. Wings longer than the body by one half,
marked with black veins} the hind part of the abdo¬
men flattened and dotted.
* hirundi- Wings tapering towards the extremity ; legs termi-
nis. nating in fix claws. 3. A native of Europe } on the
bodies and nefts of fwallows.
*fovir,a. No wings. 4, A native of Europe} among the
wool of flreep. The abdomen diftended, pale, obtufe,
marked on each fide with a double vraved white line,
and on the back with a red fpot: legs hairy, the claws
fet in pairs.
There have been only five fpecies of this genus hi¬
therto defcribed.
VII. APTERA.
Wings none in either fex.
106. Lepisma.
Mouth fumifhed with four feelers, two fetaceous, and
two capitated. Lip membranaceous, round, and e-
marginated. Antennae fetaceous. Body covered
with fcales laid over one another, like tiles on the roof
of a houfe. Tail furnifhed with briftles. Legs fix,
formed for running.
Thefe in their various fiages of exigence prey upon
fugar, decayed wood, and putrid fubftances. The lar¬
vae and pupae are fix-footed, active, and fwift.
Scaly, and refembling filver } tail triple. 1. A na- * faccha-
tive of America ; among fugar. They have been in- rinum.
troduced into Europe, and are frequently to be met with
among books and furniture. They run very quicklyr,
and are not eafily caught. Antennae whitifh, of the fame
length with the oody. It is furnifhed with two fcutella
which encloie the thorax} two fegments of the abdomen
lefs than the reft } the tail furnilhed wdth three long
briftles ftanding at a diftance from each other, and with
two pair of very fmail ones under the anus.
Leaping} tail triple} feginents of the abdomen hairy* polypus,-
on each fide beneath. 2. A native of Europe} in
fandy fituations, among ftones and rubbifh, and takes
prodigious leaps by means of the fprings under its tail }
brownifh, the antennae the length of the body } the
fore feet placed very near the mouth } each fegment of
the abdomen is furnifhed with a fpine beneath.
Naked; tail triple. 3. A native of Europe. It ter reft re.
refembles the podura, but larger, wholly white, and cy¬
lindrical ; the antennae obtufe, and half the length of
the body.
There are feven fpecies of this genus defcribed by
Gmelin.
107. PODURA, Spring-tail.
Mouth furnifhed with four feelers, flightly clavated
the lip divided. Eyes two, compofed of eight facets
Tail forked, bent under the body, and a&ing like a
fpring. Legs fix, formed for running.
The in feds of this genus, through all their ftages,
feed on vegetables. The larva and pupa have fix feet,
and are adive, and very much referable the perfed
infed.-
Nearly globular, and green. 1. A native of Eu- * viricfijS
rope ; on plants of different kinds, efpecially on the
feminal leaves of the buck-wheat fpolygonium fago~
pyrumf).
Oblong, and afh-coloured, with black marks. 6.* nivalis*
A native of Europe} among bufhes, in whoosh It is fre¬
quently to be feen in the winter on the fnow, in the
footfteps of men and other animais.
Black, and lives in water. 12. A native of Eu- * aquatic®
rope. Affembles in troops, early in the morning, on
the banks of pools and fifh ponds.
White ; lives on land. 13. A native of Europe ; *fmttarto-
found very early in the fpring on recently ploughed
land.
31 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.-
108. Termes, White Ant.
The mouth fumifhed with two jaws, formed of a homy
fubftance. Lip formed likewife of a horny fubfiancej
is divided into four, the diviiion linear and fharp.
Peelers four, equal and filiform. Antennse monilp
form in moft fpecies. Eyes two.
Thefe infeds might with more propriety be placed
uodcr-
2t§ E N T O M
under the order Neuroptcra, or HijMcnoptera, mod of
them having either two or four wings ifi the perfect
ftatek They are very deftru£tive, and deftroy provi-
iions, cloths, furniture, books, and timber of whatever
magnitude, leaving a thin (hell not thicker than paper,
in houfes they are not only troublefome, but dangerous,
as they deftroy the beams which fupport the floors and
roofs, and occafion them to fall in,
■fatale. Brown above ; the thorax is compofed of three feg-
ments; wings pale, fumiflred with a rib or nerve of a brick
Colour, i. A native of India &nd Africa. Larva fmall,
about a quarter of an inch long, furniflied with fix feet,
pale, with a roundith brick-coloured head, without eyes;
mandible fliort and ftrong, antennae as long as the tho¬
rax } the abdomen oval. Pupa larger} about half an
inch long, with a very large oval polilhed head, with¬
out eyes j jaws projeifling, as long as the head, forked,
without teeth, iharp and black j thorax and abdomen
palii'h. The perfect infeft both male and female has a
brown head, antennae yellowilh and globular, promi¬
nent black eyes, the fegments of the thorax margined,
the abdomen variegated with white ftreaks, wings twice
the length of the body, legs yellowifti. Of the white
ant vre have a very curious aud interefting defcription,
in the Philofophical Tranfa61xons for 1781, by Mr
Henry Smeathman of Clement’s. Inn. According to
this account, the w'orks of thefe infects furpafs thofe of
the bees, wufps, beavers, and othfer animals, as much
at leaft as thofe of the molt poliihed European nations
excel thofe of the leaft cultivated lavages* With re-
fpedt to the interior conftrudtion, and the various mem¬
bers and difpofitions of the parts of the building, they
may come into comparifon with fome of the molt cele¬
brated works of man himfelf. The moft ftriking parts
pf thefe ftructures are the royal apartments, the nur-
feries, magazines of provifions, arched chambers and
galleries, with their various communications J the ranges
of Gothic fhaped arches, projected, and not formed by
mere excavation, fome of which are two or three feet
high, but wdnch diminifh rapidly, like the arches pf
aides in perfpeclive ; the various roads, doping flair-
cafes, and bridges, confiding of one vafl arch, and
conftrudled to fhorten the diftance between the feveral
parts of the building, which would otherwife communi¬
cate only by winding paffages. In fome parts near
Senegal, their number, magnitude, and clofe arrange¬
ment, make them appear like the villages, of the na¬
tives. But thefe and many other curious inflances of
the great fagacity and powers of thefe infedts cannot
be underftood, without viewing the plates in which
their feeble frames, and comparatively, flupendous
wrorks are delineated. See Phil. Tranf. above referred
to. The economy of thefe induftrious infedls appears
to have been very attentively obferved by the ingenious
author, as well as their buildings. There are three
diftin£l ranks or orders of them, conflituting a well
regulated community* Thefe are, firfl, the larvae, la¬
bourers, or working infefts j fecond, the pupa?, foldiers,
or fighting order, who do no kind of labour, and are
about twice as long as the former, and equal in bulk to
about fifteen of them *, and laftly, the winged or perfedl
infects, which may be called the nobility of the ftate,
for they neither labour nor fight, being fcarcely able to
defend themfelves. Thefe only are capable of being
(fleeted kings or queens; and nature has fo ordered itr
O L O G t. Aptefl.
that they emigrate within a few' weeks after they are
elevated to this ftate, and either eftablifh new king¬
doms, or perifh within a day or two. Phe firft order^
the working, are moft numerous, being in the propor¬
tion of 160 to one foldier. In this fiate they are about
a quarter of an inch in length, and twTenty five of them
weigh about a grain, fo that they are not fo large as
fome of our ants. See plate DI. fig. 1. and 2. The
fecond order, or foldiers, have a very difterent form
from the labourers, and have been by tome authors fup-
pofed to be the males, and the former the neuters j but
they are in fa£t, the fame infects as the foregoing, only
they have undergone a change of form, and approached
nearer to the perfect iniect. Lhey are now much
larger, being half an inch long, and equal in bulk to
15 of the labourers^ (fig. 3. and 4). 'The third order,
the infedt in its perfect ftate, varies its form ftill more.
The head, thorax, and abdomen, differ almoft entirely
from the fame parts in the labourers and foldiers ; and
befides this, the animal is now furnithed with four fine
large brownifh, tranfparent wings, with which it is at
the time of emigration to wing its way in fedrch of a
new fettlement. It difiers fo much from the other two,
that they have not hitherto been luppofed to belong to
the fame community. In fadt, they are not to be dif-
covered in the neft, till juft before the commencement
of the rainy feafon 5 wThen they undergo the laft change,
which is preparative to the formation of new colonies.
They are equal in bulk to two foldiers, and about 30
labourers (fee fig. 5), and by means of the wings writh
which they are furnifhed, they roam about for a few
hours, at the end of which time they lofe their wings, and
become the prey of innumerable birds, reptiles, and in-
fedts •, while probably not a pair out of many millions
of this unhappy race, get into a place of fafety, fulfil
the firft law of nature, and lay the foundation of a
new community. In this ftate, many fall into the
neighbouring waters, and they are eaten with avidity
by the Africans. The author found them delicate,
nourifhing, and wholefome, without fauce or other
help from cookery, than merely roafting them in the
manner of coffee. The few fortunate pairs who happen
to furvive this annual maffacre and deftrudtiQn, are re-
prefented by the author as being cafually found by
fome of the labourers, that are continually running a-
bout on the furface of the ground, and are eledted kings
and queens of new ftates. Thofe who are not fo eledt-
ed and preferred,- certainly perith, and moft probably in
the courfe of the following day. By thefe induftrious
creatures, the king and queen eledt are immediately
protedted from their innumerable enemies, by being in-
clofed in a chamber of clay, wdiere the bufinefs of pro¬
pagation foon commences *, their voluntary fubjedts,
then employed m conftrudtmg wooden nurferies, or
apartments entirely compofed of wooden materials,
feemingly joined together with gum. Into thefe, .they
aftenvards carry the eggs produced from the. queen,
lodging them there as faft as they can obtain them
from her. The author even furniflies us with plaufible
reafons to believe, that they here form a kind of gar¬
den for the cultivation of a fpecies of microfcopical
muflirooms, which Mr Konig, in an Effay on the Eaft
Indian Termites, read before the fociety of naturalifts
of Berlin, conjedtures to be the food of the young in-
fedts. But perhaps the iiioft wonderful, and at the
fame
Aptera. ENTOMOLOGY
fame time beft authenticated part of the hiflory of thefe
fingular infers, is that which relates to the queen or
mother of the community in her pregnant ftate. After
impregnation, a very extraordinary change begins to
take place in her body, or rather in her abdomen only.
It gradually increafes in bulk, and at length becomes
of fuch an enormous fize as to exceed the bulk of the
reft of her body 1500 or 2000 times. She becomes
1000 times heavier than her confort, and exceeds
20,000 or 30,000 times the bulk of one of the labour¬
ers. In this ftate, the matrix has a conftant periftaltic
or undulating motion, the confequence of which is (as
the author has counted them), (fig. 8.) the protrufion
of a great many thoufands of eggs in twenty-four hours.
Thefe eggs, fays the author, are inftantly taken from
her body by her attendants, of whom there always are
a great number in the royal chamber and the galleries
adjacent, and carried to the nurferies, which are fome-
times four or five feet diftant in a ftraight line. Here,
after they are hatched, the young are attended and
provided with every thing neceffary, until they are
able to fhift for themfelves, and take their ftiare of the
labour of the community. Many curious and ftriking
particulars are related of the great devaftations com¬
mitted by this powerful community, which conftrudft
roads, or rather covered ways, diverging in all direc¬
tions from the neft, and leading to every object of plun¬
der within their reach. Though the mifchiefs they
commit are very great, fuch is the economy of nature,
that it is probably counterbalanced by the good pro¬
duced by them, in quickly deftroying dead trees, and
other fubftances, which, as the author obferves, would
by a tedious decay, ferve only to encumber the furface
pf the earth. Such is their alacrity and difpatch in this
office, that the total deftruftion of deferted towns is fo
effectually accompliftied, that in two or three years a
thick wood fills the fpace, and not the leaft veftige of a
houfe is to be difcovered. From the many fingular ac¬
counts here given of the police of thefe infeCts, we ftiall
mention one refpefting the different functions of the
labourers and foldiers, or the civil and military eftablifti-
ments in this community, on an attempt to examine their
neft and city.
_ On making a breach in any part of the ftrufture
with a hoe or pickaxe, a foldier immediately ap¬
pears and walks about the breach, as if to fee whether
the enemy has gone, or to examine whence the attack
proceeds. In a ftiort time he is followed by two or
three others, and foon after by a numerous body, who
rufti out as faft as the breach will permit them, their
numbers increafmg as long as one continues to batter
the building. During this time they are in the moft
violent agitation and buftle, while fome of them are em¬
ployed in beating with their forceps upon the building,
fo as to make a noife that may be heard at three or
four feet diftance. On ceafing to difturb them, the
foldiers retire, and are fucceeded by the labourers, who
haften in various directions to the breach, each with
a burden of mortar in his mouth ready tempered.
Though there are millions of them, they never flop to
embarrafs each other; and a wall gradually arifes that
fills up the chafm. A foldier attends every 600 or 1000
of the labourers, feemingly as a direCtor of the works ;
for he never touches the mortar, either to lift or carry
it. One in particular places himfelf clofe to the wall
Voi.. VIII. Part I.
which they are repairing, and frequently makes the
noife above mentioned; which is conitantly anfwered
by a loud hifs from all the labourers within the dome ;
and at every fuch fignal they evidently redouble their
pace, and work as faft again. I he work being com¬
pleted, a renewal of the attack conftantly produces
the fame effeCts. The foldiers again rufii out and then
retreat, and are followed by the labourers loaded with
mortar, and as aClive and diligent as before. Thus,
fays the author, the pleafure of feeing them come out
to fight or to work alternately may be obtained as often
as curiofity excites or time permits; and it will cer¬
tainly be found, that the one order never attempts to
fight, or the other to work, let the emergency be ever
fo great. Fhe obftinacy of the foldiers is remarkable.
I hey fight to the very laft, difputing every inch of
ground lo well as often to drive away the negroes,
who are without ftioes, and make the white people bleed
plentifully through their ftockings. Such is the
ftrength of the buildings erefted by thefe puny infefts,
that, when they are raifed to little more than half
their height, it is always the praftice of the wild bulls
to ftand as centinels upon them while the reft of the
herd is ruminating below. When at their full height
of ten or twelve feet, they are ufed by Europeans as
places to look out from over the top of the grafs, which
here grows to the height of thirteen feet, upon an a-
verage. The author has flood with four men on the
top of one of thefe buildings, in order to get a view of
any veffel that might come in fight. Thefe termites
indeed are frequently pernicious to mankind, but they
are alfo very ufeful and even neceffary; one valuable
purpofe which they ferve is to deftroy decayed trees
and other fubftances, which, if left on the furface of the
ground in hot climates, would in a ftiort time pollute
the air. In this refpetl they refemble very much the
common flies, which are regarded by mankind in gene¬
ral as noxious, and at beft as ufelefs beings in the crea¬
tion ; but it is certainly for want of confideration.
There are not probably, in all nature, animals of more
importance; and it would not be difficult to prove, that
we ftiould feel the want of one or two fpecies of large
quadrupeds much lefs than one or two fpecies of thefe
defpicable looking infers. Mankind, in general, are
fenfible that nothing is more difagreeable than putrid
fubftances, and nothing more peftiferous.
Of a brick colour above; head black ; antenna; ye\.deJlruElor.
low. 4. A native of America, Africa, and India.
They build ftrong oval nefts round the branches of trees.
It very much refembles the T. fatale, but is only half
the fize, the lower ftemmata are impreffed with a dot
on the centre; wings brownifh, marked with a yellowifh
yib. Larva pale brown ; head black, conic, and pro¬
jecting forwards.
Black ; fegments of the abdomen tipt with white • arda.
legs pale. 5. A native of Africa ; and refembles in
economy the T. fatale. It builds a neft ©f a cylindri¬
cal fhape, two or three feet high, of brown clay and
vegetables mixed up together, with a round vaulted
dome, furrounded by a prominent terrace. Larv* or
labourers have a pale head, without eyes; mandibles
fhort, furnilhed with teeth ; thorax and abdomen oval,
grayifti lead colour ; legs of a brick colour. Pupae or
guards have a very large brick-coloured head, clavated
and fwxlling out before, oval and extended behind;
E c mandiblq
21 8
E N T O M
viordax.
capetije.
fatidicum.
* pulfato-
rium.
divinato-
rium.
mandible projecting and forked j antennae of a brick
colour, as long as the head, without eyes 5 thorax fmallj
abdomen oval, grayifh lead-colour j legs of a brick
colour. Perfect ini'ea lefs than the Former ones, with
incumbent black wings, and pale brick-coloured legs.
Black j fegments of the abdomen tipt with white j
legs black. 6. A native of Africa. Builds cylindri¬
cal houfes. Larva^ and pupa like the laft, but much
lefs.
Pale yellow; wings tranfparent, edged with brown.
'7. A native of India and Africa. Larva furndhed
with two black eyes $ and wanders about in the day¬
time in troops like the common ant.
Abdomen oval 5 mouth pale ; eyes brown j antennae
fetaceous. 3. A native of Europe.
Abdomen oblong j mouth red ; eyes yellow } anten¬
nae fetaceous. 3. A native of Europe and America.
Erequent in houfes, in old books, wood, decayed furni¬
ture, mufeums, and is rarely found with wings. I he
female beats like the ticking of a watch, and is often
miftaken for the ptinus pulfator.
Abdomen tranfverfely furrowed j mouth brown ; eyes
black. 7. A native of Europe •, found in books, and
is very a&ive and lively. Body whitifh.
Thefe eight fpecies are all that have been defcribed
by Gmelin: other two, the morio andflavicolle, have been
defcribed lince.
106. Pediculus. Loufe.
Mouth furnifhed with a fucker, which the infeft can
flretxh out or draw back at pleafure •, without feelers
or probofcis. Antennae of the fame length with the
thorax. Eyes two." Abdomen flattilh. Legs fix,
formed for running.
The infefts of this genus live by fucking the juices
of animals. The larvae and pupae have fix feet, and
are aflive, refembling the perfect infect.
* hu?nanus Abdomen afh-coloured, and lobed. 1. There are
two varieties of this fpecies, the one fofter and whiter,
occupying the body and clothes, the other harder and
darker-coloured occupying-the heads of thofe that do
not attend to cleanlinefs, particularly of children.
The loufe which infefts the human body makes a
very curious appearance through a microfcope. It has
fuch a tranfparent fhell or Ikin, that we are able to dif-
cover more of what paffes within its body than in moft
other living creatures. It has naturally three divifions,
the head, the breaft, and the tail-part. In the head
appear two fine black eyes, with a horn that has five
joints, and is furrounded with hairs Handing before each
eye, and from the end of the nofe or fnout there is a
pointed projedling part, which ferves as a {heath or cafe
to a piercer or fucker, which the creature thrufts into
the {kin to draw out the blood and humour which are
its deftined food ; for it has no mouth that opens in the
common way. This piercer or fucker is judged to be
700 times fmaller than a hair, and is contained in an¬
other cafe within the fir ft, and can be drawn in or thruft
out at pleafure. The breaft is very beautifully marked in
the middle ; the Ikin is tranfparent, and full of little
pits: and from the under part of it proceed fix legs,
O L O G Y. Aptera.
each having five joints, and their {kin all the way re-
fembiing lhagreen, except at the ends, where it is
imoother. Each leg terminates by two claws, which
are hooked, and are of an unequal length and fize.
Thefe it ufes as we would a thumb and middle finger :
and there are hairs between thefe claws as well as all
over the legs. On the back part of the tail there may
be difcovered fome ring-like divifions, and a fort of
marks which look like the ftrokes of a rod on the hu¬
man {kin : the belly looks like {hagreen, and tow ards
the lower end it is very clear and full of pits : at the
extremity of the tail there are two femicircular parts all
covered over with hairs, which ferve to conceal the
anus. When the loufe moves its legs, the motion of •
the mufcles, which all unite in one oblong dark fpot
in the middle of the breaft, may be diftinguilhed per¬
fectly, and fo may the motion of the mufcles of the
head when it moves its horns. We may likewife lee
the various ramifications of the veins and arteries, which
are white, with the pulfe regularly beating in the ar¬
teries. But the moft furprifing of all the fights
is the periftaltic motion of the guts, which is con¬
tinued all the way from the ftomach down to the
anus. If one of thefe creatures be placed on the back
of the hand, wdien hungry, it will thruft its fucker into
the {kin 5 the blood which it fucks may be feen pafling
in a fine ftream to the fore part of the head, where
falling into a roundiih cavity, it paffes again in a fine
ftream to another circular receptacle in the middle of
the head 5 from thence it runs through a fmall veffel
into the breaft, and then to a gut which reaches to the
hinder part of the body, where, in a curve it turns a
little upwards } in the breaft and gut the blood is
moved without intermiflion with a great force, efpecial-
ly in the gut, where it occafions fuch a contraction of
the gut, as is very furprifing. In the upper part of
the crooked afcending gut above mentioned, the pro¬
pelled blood ftands Hill, and feems to undergo a fepa-
ration, fome of it becoming clear and waterifti, while
other black particles are puftied forwards to the anus.
If a loufe is placed on its back, twro bloody darkilh fpcts
appear, the larger in the middle of the body, the leffer
towards the tail: the dark bloody fpot, in or over
which the bladder feems to lie. This motion of the
fyftole and diaftole is beft feen when the creature be¬
gins to grow weak ; and on pricking the white bladder,
which feems to be the heart, the creature inftantly dies.
The lower dark fpot is fuppofed to be the excrement in
the gut.
The pofterior part of the abdomen emarginated 5 legs * pubis.
formed like claws. 2. A native of Europe. It is
found about the hairs of the groin, and fometimes,
though rarely, on the eyebrows of people who do not
attend to cleanlinefs. The antennae have five articula¬
tions ; the hind part of the abdomen hairy.
The abdomen orbicular, marked with a white line ; ricinoides,
fcutellum compofed of three lobes ; the fnout white. 3.
A native of America. It gets into the legs of the
naked inhabitants, where it draws blood, and depofiting
its eggs in the wound occafions foul and malignant ulcers.
8. A native of Europe ; on fheep. *
The abdomen is marked with eight tranfverfe rufty- * boTts.
coloured lines. 9. A native of Europe; on horned
cattle.
66
Aptera.
219
E N T O M
66 fpecies of this genus are defcribed in the laft edition
of the Syltem of Nature, all of which occupy the bodies
of different animals.
no. Pulex, Flea.
Mouth without jaws or feelers. The fnout long, and
bent inwards. A flieath of two pieces, confifting of
five articulations, covered at the bafe with two oval
fcales, and furnilhed with a fingle briftle. Lip round,
fringed with fharp points, which are bent backwards.
Antennae moniliform, projecting, and becoming
thicker towards their outer fide. Eyes two. Ab¬
domen compreffed. Legs fix, formed for leaping.
The gerius pulex is rather doubtful 5 it approaches in
many relpeCts to the infedts of the order hemiptera.
They live on the juice and blood of other animals.
Larva without feet, cylindrical, aftive, and furnifhed
with two fpines under the tail.
* \rritans. ‘ _ The fnout fhorter than the body. 1. This fami¬
liar infect is to be met with everywhere ; it lives by
fucking the blood of other animals, and is very trouble-
fome to many of them, efpecially to the hare and rabbit.
They depoiit fmooth round eggs at the roots of the
hair of the animals on which they feed, on blankets,
and articles made of wool, fur, &c. From thefe eggs are
hatched the larvae, refembling fmall white fhining
worms, which feed on the fcurfy fubftance adhering
to the cuticle of animals, or on the downy matter col-
lefted on clothes. About a fortnight after they are
hatched, they acquire a confiderable fize, and become
very aftive * when difturbed they roll themfelves up
into a ball. After they have acquired their full fize,
they retire into fome undifturbed lituation ; they form
fmall bags for themfelves compofed of filky threads^
which they fpin from their mouths. Thefe bags are
very white internally ; but on the outfide, they are of
the colour of dull, and are very little difcernible. They
remain in the ftate of pupa about 14 days. It continues
to be of a white colour till the fecond day before its
efcape from the bag, when it acquires a dark colour,
becomes firmer, and is transformed into a perfect in-
feft.
The flea, when viewed in the microfcope, exhibits a
very lingular appearance. It is covered all over with
black and hard fcales, which are curioufly jointed, and
folded over one another, fo as to comply with all the
nimble motions of the creature. Thefe fcales are po-
lilhed, and are befet about the edges with fhort fpikes
in a very beautiful and regular order. Its neck is
finely arched, and fomewhat refembles the tail of a lob-
fter. Its eyes are very large and beautiful. The
lucker contains a couple of lances or darts •, which,
after the fucker has made an entrance, are thruft farther
into the flelh, to make the blood flow from the adjacent
parts, and occafion that round red fpot, with a hole in
the centre of it, which remains for fome time after the
puncture of a flea, commonly called flea-bite. A pro¬
per view of the fucker with its two lances is not eafily
obtained, as the infesft puts out its fucker only at the
time of feeding. The beft way of obtaining a view is
to cut off the head, and fubjeft it to the microfcope by
itfelf. There is an hofpital. at Surat where a number
O L O G Y.
of fleas are kept, and fome poor creature, for pay, al¬
lows himfelf to be fixed down and fed upon by them.
Chigur. . Snout of the fame length with the body .penetrans-
2. A native of America. This in feel is very trouble-
fome in the fugar colonies, penetrating into the feet of
the inhabitants, where it lodges its eggs and caufes ma-
lignant ulcers. Body reddifh brown. The female pro¬
duces a veryfgreat number of eggs, and when pregnant
the abdomen fwells to 100 times the fize of the reft of the
body. It penetrates chiefly under the nails of the toes,
and eats its way onwards, depofiting its eggs, which
are exceedingly minute, in a bag. It is difeovered by
the uneafy itching it occafions, and mull be extrafled
with great, caution and dexterity ; for if the bag be
burft, and if any of the eggs or animals remain, a very
troublefome ulcer enfues, w'hich fometimes renders the
limb ufelefs. . The flaves who go barefooted are chiefly
expofed to this calamity, and they are moft dexterous at
extra&ing them.
There are only twm fpecies of this genus defcribed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature publiihed by
Gmelin.
ill. Acarus, Tick or Mite.
Mouth without a probofeis. The fucker with a cylin¬
drical flieath, compofed of two pieces. Feelers two,
comprefied, equal, and of the fame length with the
fucker.. Eyes twm, placed on the fides of the head.
Legs eight.
The infects of this genus are very minute, and very
prolific ; they abound everywhere; moft of them live
on the. juices of other animals. The larva and pupa
have fix feet, (thofe of the divifion trombidium have
eight feet) ; they are aflive, and very much refemble the
perfedt infedl.
A. The Antennce are filiform, comprefied, and of the
fame length with the Legs.
I ranfparent; convex above and flattened beneath ; urfdlus.
marked in the middle with a blackifti fpot. 36. It is
very common in waters, on the mucus which covers the
fpawn of frogs. Very fmall, flow, inoffenfive, and legs
terminating in three nails.
. Oval, almoft globular •, abdomen marked at the bafe * ricinus.
with a round brown fpot ; antennae clavated. 7. A
native of Europe 5 it is very common on oxen and
dogs.
Second pair of legs very thick. 8. A native oi* crafiipes.
Europe ; and very common. It is adlive, gregarious,
frequently to be found in gardens among the earth in
fpring. *
.1 horax angularly cruciform j the legs terminating in * vfpsrti-
hooks, and longer than the body. 9. It is found onlionis.
the body of the bat (yefpertilio murinus) of an uncommon
figure, refembling the phalangium. It cannot walk on a
flat furface.
Commonly called Red Spider. Tranfparent and red- telarius\
dilh j the abdomen marked on each lide writh a browm
fpot.. 14. A native of Europe \ on various plants,
particularly thofe that are not expofed to the weather,
or ftmt up in hot-houfes. It forms webs of parallel threads,
by which it fometimes fuffocates plants in green-houfes.
Ee 2 It
220
entomology.
Aptera.
It is frequently to be found on the leaves of the lime-
tree in autumn.
*Jiro. Cheefe-Mite. Whitifh j head and thighs oi a nifty
colour y the abdomen briftly. 15* -A- native of Eu¬
rope j in flour, cheefe, &c. which have been long
kept. The cheefe mite is a very minute fpecies j to
the naked eye they appear like moving particles of
duft. But the microfcope ftiows them to be perfect ani¬
mals, having as regular a figure, and performing all the
fundtions of life as perfeAly, as creatures that exceed
them far in fize. The head is fmall in proportion to
the body, and has a fharp fnout 5 they have two fmall
eyes, and are very quick-fighted, when they have once
been touched by a pin, they artfully avoid another touch.
The extremity of their legs are furniftied with two little
claws, with which they take hold of any thing. The
hinder part of the body is plump and bulky, and ends
in an oval foim, from which iffue out fome long hairs.
Other parts of the body are thinly befet with long
hairs. The males and females are eafily diftinguilhed.
The females are oviparous j and from their eggs the
young ones are hatched, in the fpace of x 2 or 14 days
in warm weather, but in colder weather longer time
becomes requifite. They are very minute when firft
hatched, and call their fkin feveral times before they
arrive at their full growth, but do not materially change
their appearance. They are very tenacious of life, and
may be kept alive feveral months without food. Mr
Leeuwenhoek had one that lived 11 wreeks on the end of
u pin, on which he had fixed it for microfcopical obferva-
tions. They may be kept a long time between two
concave glaffes, and occafionally lubjefted to the micro¬
fcope. In this way they may be feen tn ccntu, conjoin¬
ed tail to tail, and this is performed by an incredibly
fwift motion. They are very voracious animals, and
have been often feen eating one another. ’Iheir man¬
ner of eating is by thruiting one jaw forward and draw¬
ing the other back alternately, and in this manner, as
it were, grinding their food 5 after they have done feed¬
ing they leem to ruminate.
* fcabiei. Itch-infeB. White j legs reddifh j the four pofterior
legs are furniftied with a very long briftle. 50. In the
puftules occafioned by the itch. It is generally thought
to be the caufe of the itch, though fome. hold a con¬
trary opinion j the manner, however, in which the
itch is communicated, feems to confirm the former
opinion.
* laRis. Abdomen oval and obtufe, furnilhed with four
briftles the fame length with the body, which incline
downwards. lb. It is found m cream that has been
long kept, and in milk veffels that have not been kept
clean.
dyfenterice Legs furniftied with two briftles ; the abdomen oval,
furniftied behind with four horizontal briftles. of the
fame length with the body. 17. It is found in calks
and vats, in which beer has been kept 5 they, are moft
frequently found about the top or near any chink in the
veffel} they are likewife found very frequently" within
the calk, and are faid to walk about on the top of the
beer from 10 o’clock at night till 10 o’clock in the
morning *, during the day they conceal themfelves in
the chinks of the calk.
* bacca- The abdomen turgid -and red, and dark-coloured on
rum. the fides. 23. It is found on the fruit of the corinth
and goofeberry.
The abdomen reddilh ; the hind-legs very long and * mufco-
filiform. 24. A native of Europe j on different fpecies
of flies.
Abdomen red, marked on each fide with fcarlet * gymnop-
dots. 26. It is to be found on bees, wafps, dragon-A?rcr«OT.
flies, &c.
Oval, and reddilh; the anus whitilh. 27. It is* coleop-
found on many infedls, particularly on the common tratorum.
black beetle ; which, on that account, has been called
the loufy beetle: they run very quickly.
The pofterior part of the abdomen crenated ; the tcu-fanguifu*
tellum oval, and fomewhat tawny ; the fnout divided m-gus.
to three. 6. A native of America; they fix on the
legs of travellers and fuck the blood ; they adhere fo
clofely, that they are removed with difficulty.; the fore¬
legs are furnilhed with Ihort prickles, near their jundlion
with the body.
The firft pair of legs very thick, and furnilhederwwt/r.
with claws; the fecond pair very long, and furnilhed
with two briftles at the extremity. 62. Found in books
kept in damp places, particularly about the backs, where
the Iheets have been glued together. It is very injurious,
and not vifible without the help of a glafs.
Hemifpherical, pale, and fmooth. Legs equal. 31. acarorum.
It is found in troops on the body of the acarus craf-
Jlpes.
Oval; furnilhed with feveral long hairs at the ex- dejlru&or.
tremity of the abdomen ; the legs are furnilhed with a
Angle briftle. 61. Found on the bodies of infefts and
other fubjecfts of natural hiftory which are kept in too
moift places, and is more deftrudive to mufeums than
even the ptinus fur, and not vifible to the naked eye.
B. Antennce fetaceous. Trombidia.
The abdomen hairy, red, and obtufe behind ; the tin&orius.
fore legs whiter than the reft. 20. A native of Suri¬
nam and Guinea ; very hairy ; it becomes white when
immerfed in fpirits of wine.
The abdomen of a blood colour, flat, and downy, holoftn-
tumed up behind. 22. A native of Europe andff'WJ>*
America ; is faid to be poifonous if fwallowed.
82 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the laft
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
I 12. Hydrachna.
Head, thorax, and abdomen united. Feelers two, joint¬
ed. Eyes two, four, or fix. Legs eight.
The infeds of this genus are inhabitants of the
water, fwim with great velocity, and prey on the
larvae of tipuLx and monoculi. They depofit red fpheri-
cal eggs, which in about a month acquire a lunar form,,
and produce fix-footed larvae furnilhed with a Angle,
probofcis, which, after they have changed their Ikin
feveral times, become perfed infeds furnilhed with
eight feet.
A. Eyes two.
* Thofe which arefurnijhed with a Tail.
Globular; eyes red. 1. It is to be found in ditches *
containing water ; male greenilh and fpotted ; female
bluilh and without fpols, and double the fize of the
male.
Oval,
221
Aptera. E N T O M
buccinator. Oval, red, and black behind) furniihed with a
yellow cylindrical tail, and ftraightened at the bafe. 3.
It is found on the banks of rivers; black beneath, eyes
reddifh, legs black:
papilla tor. Purple and globular, furnifhed with a papilla on
each lide of the tail; legs black. 12. It is to be
found early in the fpring in overflowed meadows.
* * Furcatae. Bach marked with a fork.
crajjipes. White and oval; the dilk black and marked with a
reddifh fork, and fumifhed with papillae near the anus;
forelegs thick. 13. It is found in fifh ponds and ditches
containing water; the legs twice or thrice the length of
the body, wdnch renders it eaflly to be diftinguifhed. It
is tranfparent ; bread; whitifh; eyes black ; when walk¬
ing freely, it diredls its legs forwards; after it has gone
a few fteps, it extends its legs horizontally, and refls
as if it were dead, and a little afterwards it renews its
motion.
clavicornis Reddifh and oval; marked with a yellow fork, feel¬
ers clavated, legs pale. 15. It is found in marfhes ;
eyes fmall and black, feelers and legs white.
* * * Glabrce.
defpiciens. Round and red, marked with feveral fpots; the eyes
placed on the under part of the body. 23. It is to
be found in ditches full of tvater ; it refembles the H.
maculata in every refpeft, except the pofitions of the
eyes; flattifh, wrinkled, full of dimples, marked with
nine fpots ; eyes blackifh ; legs yellowifh.
verf color. Nearly fquare, marked with white, blue, and brown
fpots. 44. It is found in places overflown writh wa¬
ter ; white above, brown beneath, edge yellowifh; the
feelers and legs white and tranfparent.
B. Eyes four.
calcarea. Round, brown, and very white in the middle. 45.
It is to be found, though rarely, in moift places ; eyes
black, feelers pointed, legs pale and tranfparent.
maculata. Oval and red ; marked on the back with black fpots.
48. It is found in wet ditches ; fhining; eyes black;
legs yellow and tranfparent; feelers yellow, fometimes
long, fometimes fhort.
C. Eyes fx.
mumlrata. Round and red, marked with feveral fpots. 49. It
is found in woody marfhes ; fmooth, fomewhat depref-
fed, marked with more than ten obfcure fpots, black¬
ifh beneath ; eyes black ; feelers very fmall, tipt with
black; legs yellow.
49 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the lafl
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
93. Phalangium.
Mouth furnifhed with two filiform feelers; the mandible
compofed of a fubftance like horn ; the fecond joint
furnifhed with a fharp tooth, moveable, and furnifh¬
ed with a claw. Antennae none. Two eyes on the
top of the head contiguous, and two lateral eyes.
Legs eight. Abdomen (for the moil part) round.
The infers of this genus in their various ftages of
transformation prey .on the fmaller infers and worms;
O L O G Y.
the larvae have eight feet, aftive, and refemble the per-
fe£t infedl.
A. Sucker, a conical tube. Pycnogona.
Feelers four ; body filiform; legs very long. 1. &.*grojfipesr
native of the north of Europe; found on the Norwe¬
gian feas ; very flow, and very minute ; it is compofed
of feveral articulations, and has a very narrow linear
tail; it enters the fhells of mufcles, and confumes their
contents.
Feelers two ; body oval. 6. It is found in the * balance
north feas, under flones ; it is red on the back, the rum.
fucker projecting, ftraight, obtufe at the extremity, and
perforated with a round entire perforation; the feelers
inferted at the bafe of the fucker, and almoft: equalling
it in length; the legs jointed and angular.
B. Without a fucker.
Body oval and black ; the under part of the body morio.
and legs pale. 10. A native of Europe; it is to be
found on rocks.
Long-legged fpider, or fhepherds fpider. Abdomen * op'ilio,
oval and gray, beneath white. A native of Europe
and America ; wandering about in the night time.
Abdomen inverted, oval and flattifh ; claws fmooth, * cancroid
the fingers hairy. 4. A native of Europe ; in confin-des.
ed fhaded places, in boxes and damp cellars; it feeds
on termites and mites, and moves like a crab ; it is de-
ftruftive to colleClions of dried plants; it likewife en¬
ters the fkin of the human body, and excites a very
painful pimple about the fize of a pea.
Abdomen cylindrical, the claws fmooth ; head fur- acaroides-,
niflied with an appendage. 5. A native of America;
in confined places in tropical countries. Its bite is faid
to be dangerous; yellowifh, the claws oval.
Claws notched, and hairy ; body oblong. 15. A-araneoides.
native of Italy, Africa, Perfia, and the fouthern fhores
of the Volga ; its bite occafions very violent pain, livid
tumors, delirium, and fometimes death; foft, lurid, and
woolly ; the claws very turgid.
15 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature,
114. AraNEA, Spider.
Mouth forniftied with fhort horny jaws ; the lip round
at the tip. Feelers two, bent inwards ; jointed and'
very fharp at the extremity : in the males they are1
clavated, and have the organs of generation placed-
in them. Antennae none. Eyes eight; fometimes fix,
though feldom. Legs eight. The anus is furniihed *
with papillae, wnth which the infeft fpins threads,
and forms its web.
Thefe infefts, through every ftage of their exiftence,
prey upon other infefts, efpecially thofe of the order
Diptera ; they even do not fpare thofe of their ow-n
genus or fpecies: from the papillae at the end of the ab¬
domen they throw out at pleafure a number of fine
threads, which they unite in various ways for the pur-
pofe of entangling their prey. They every year caft
their old fkin, which they perform by fufpending them-
felves in fome folitary corner, and creeping out of it.
The young ones have the power of afcending the air to
22 2
fafciata.
* diadema,
* aquatic a,
latro.
* dotncjli-
ca.
* globofa.
argentata.
fumigata.
faccata.
extenfa.
mdulans.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Aptera.
a great height; to accomplifh which, they climb up
fome eminence, and are wafted about by the winds,
filling the air with their threads. They are deftroyed
by the fphex and ichneumon.
Linnaeus has fubdivided this genus according to the
number and pofition of their eyes.
A. Eyes eight.
1. Eyes placed thus, : ' ’ :
Of a fdver colour ; the abdomen marked with yel-
lowilh bands 5 the legs furrounded with brown rings.
48. A native of the bland of Madeira.
, Abdomen nearly globular and reddifti j brown, mark¬
ed with a white crols compofed of dots. 1. A native
of Europe, on trees j it is a very beautiful infeft.
, Brown j abdomen oval and of an alh colour} the
back brown, marked with two dots. 39. A native
of Europe, in ftagnant waters, where it dives to the
bottom in fearch of its food. It takes up its winter
quarters in an empty fnail fhell, the aperture of which
it clofes up with a web j jaws black, claws red.
gentle fudorific 5 thorax marked with a large depreffed
circular fpotj abdomen oval} legs equal.
Eyes placed thus, :t-
Black, thorax marked with a white line on the back. * dorfalls.
79. A native of Britain.
Marked with triangular black fpots on the back of tarantula.
the abdomen \ the legs fpotted with black. 34. A
native of the fouth of Europe, particularly Italy and
Barbary. It is found in caverns in argillaceous foil j
its bite was formerly fuppofed to be curable by nothing
but mulic ; though it occalions a great deal of pain, it
is almoft never fatal.
8. Eyes placed thus.
Oval and oblong \ thorax hairy, white; abdomen and pule hr a.
legs black, marked with yellow bands. 33. A native
of Europe.
9. Eyes placed thus, ’
2. Eyes placed thus, : ][ :
Thorax hairy, and of an alh colour j the abdomen
oval, black, and fpotted with red. 65. A native
of America ; large, the thorax oval, legs black, thighs
pale.
Abdomen oval and brown, marked with five black
fpots nearly contiguous, the anterior ones larger than
the others. 9. A native of Europe, in houfes, and
about windows 5 feeds chiefly on flies.
3. Eyes placed thus, . • ‘ .
Black *, fides of the abdomen of a blood red colour.
69. A native of Europe, in meadows.
4. Eyes placed thus, , .,
Abdomen white, and brown behind, and marked
round the edge with fix fmall proje&ions. 70. A na¬
tive of South America.
5. Eyes placed thus, : :
Abdomen oval and brown, marked at the bafe with
two W'hite dots. 16. A native of Europe, in mea¬
dows ; it watches near the nefls of the larvae of differ¬
ent infers, and waits their coming out, wben it feizes
on one after another, and fucks out their fubftance.
Abdomen oval, of a browmifh colour. 40. A na¬
tive of Europe, in gardens, and carries its eggs behind
it enclofed in a bag ; legs livid, marked with unequal
browm rings fet clofe together.
6. Eyes placed thus, ::::
Abdomen long, of a fiver colour tinged with green,
the legs extended longitudinally. 22. A native of
Europe, in wnods 5 its legs are applied clofely to the
branches.
Shining black } the abdomen hairy and black. 73.
A native of America) it forms a neft under ground,
and fpins a large cylindrical web, winch is covered
with a lid j its bite is very painful, and frequently oc-
-cafions fever and delirium, which is foon removed by a
2
Black, abdomen oval, forehead white, and leaps ongoezii.
its prey. 84. It is to be found frequently in w-oods
about Vienna abdomen marked with two comprefi’ed
dots.
10. Eyes placed thus, : :
Thorax orbicular and convex, with a tranfverfe cen- avicularia.
tral excavation. 31. It is a native of South America,
among trees, where it preys upon the larger infeefs,
and even fmall birds, dropping into their nefts and
fucking their blood and eggs j it is of fo enormous a
fize that its fangs may be compared to the talons of a
hawk, and its eyes are very large.
11. Eyes placed thus, . .
Of a grayifh rufty colour, and flightly clouded5 tEo-truncata.
rax globular, and flightly heart-fliapedj abdomen fome-
what triangular, and marked with a faint longitudinal
crofs. 85. A native of Europe, on oak and other
trees ; abdomen marked with four imprefled dots on the
back5 papilke three.
12. Eyes placed thus, : :
Abdomen oval, obtufely conic behind, variegated conica.
with brown and white j beneath black. 86. A na¬
tive of Europe, among bulhes *, it fpins and fpreads out
a web, to the furface of which it attaches the infefts it
has enfnared, after it has fucked out their juice. Tho¬
rax black, flightly tinged with ruffy colour, and nearly
double behind j legs gray, marked with browm rings 5
abdomen marked with a whitifh fpot, beneath refem-
bling a horfe flioe; papillae four.
13. Eyes placed thus,
Hairyj body oval, black, variegated writh hxown.albifrons,
99. A native of Europe.
B. Eyes fix, placed thus, ••
Abdomen greenifh, the fides yellow. 30. A. xva.-* fenccu*
tive of Europe: in gardens. lata.
C. Eyes
Aptera. E N T O M
C. Eyes -
* holoferl- Abdomen oval, oblong, and filky j marked under-
cea. neath near tbe bafe with two yellow dots. 29. A native
of Europe. It is found within the leaves of plants which
it rolls up.
venal aria. Thorax orbicular, fmooth and black ; abdomen oval,
downy and brown. 33. A native of America. It
conftrufts a tenacious cylindrical neft about a foot in
length, furniflied with a lid.
%
96 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by Gme-
lin, in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
115. Scorpio, Scorpion.
Legs eight 5 likewife two claws fituated on the fore part
of the head. Eyes eight j three placed on each fide
of the thorax, and two on the back. Feelers two,
furnilhed with claws, and projecting. Lip bifid.
Antennae none. Tail long, jointed, terminating in
a fharp crooked fling. On the under fide, between
the breaft and abdomen, are two excrefcences refem-
bling combs.
Scorpions have been conceived to be the moft malig¬
nant and poifonous of all animals. Though this opinion
be now very generally exploded, there are none of the
infefts we are acquainted with fo formidable. It is true
the efteCf of their fling differs greatly, according to the
circumftances of the conftitution of the perfon receiving
the ivound, as well as of the animal itfelf, the heat of
the climate in which it lives, and the degree of violence
with which the wound may have been inflifted.
The common European fcorpion certainly is not of
fo terrible a nature as is commonly fuppofed ; its fling
being very rarely productive of bad confequences.
But the large fcorpions of Africa, which are faid to be
nearly a foot in length, may well be fuppofed capable
of inflicting a wound of the moft fevere pungency, and
of the moft dreadful malignity. The poifon is evacua¬
ted through three very fmall foramina near the tip of
the fling 5 viz. one on each fide of the tip, and the
other on the upper part. A diverlity of opinion has
1’ubfifted among naturalifts, relative to the flit or fora¬
men in the fangs of fpiders, through which their poifon
is evacuated 5 and the fame variety of opinion has pre¬
vailed with refpeCl to the foramina in the fcorpion’s
fling. The celebrated Redi, aflifted by the beft micro-
fcopes he could procure, was not able to difcover them,
though he was wTell convinced of their exiflence, from
having perceived the minute drop of poifon exfude from
near the tip of the fling. Others have denied the exifl¬
ence of the foramina ; but Valifnerius and Leeuwenhoek
have both defcribed two, viz. one on each fide of the
tip, and which in Ihape are inclining to triangular 5 be-
fides thefe a third has fometimes beep feen, fo that the
fling of the Icorpion can with greater facility difcharge
its venom, than that of any other animal. The poifon
is whitifh, and is contained in a fmall bladder near the
tail. When this bladder is preffed, the poifon may be
feen iffuing out through the foramina of the fling.
Maupertius has made many experiments with the
fcorpion of Languedoc, the refults of which were by no
means uniform. He provoked one to fling a dog in
three places of the belly, where the animal was without
o l o G Y.
hair. In about an hour after the animal feemed greatly
fwollen and very fick. Fie then caft up whatever he
had in his bowels, and for about three hours continued
vomiting a whitifli liquid. The belly w^as always great¬
ly fwollen when the animal began to vomit, but this
operation always feemed to abate the fwelling; thus al¬
ternating for the fpace of three hours. The poor ani¬
mal after this fell into convulfions, bit the ground, drag¬
ged himfelf along on his forefeet, and at length died five
hours after he had been flung. There wras no partial
fwelling round the wound inflicled, as is ufual after the
fling of a wafp or bee 5 but the whole body was inflated,
and there only appeared a red fpot on the places flung.
I wo days afterwards the fame experiment wTas tried on
another dog, and even with more aggravated cruelty j
yet the dog feemed no way offended by the wounds, but
howling a little when he received them, continued alert
and well after them, and foon after was fet at liberty,
without fhewing the fmalleft fymptoms of pain. The
experiment was repeated with freih fcorpions upon feven
other dogs, and three hens, but not the fmalleft deadly
fymptom wras feen to enfue. He put three fcorpions and
a moufe into the fame veffel, and they foon flung the
little animal in different places. The moufe thus aL
faulted, flood for fome time on the defenfive, and at laft
killed them all one after another, and did not feem to
have received any material injury itfelf, at leaft no fatal
confequences followed, though it had received feveral
levere wounds. From hence it appears, that many cir¬
cumftances which are utterly unknown muft contribute
to give efficacy to the fcorpion’s venom. Whether the
nature of its food, long falling, the feafon, age of the
infeft, or the part of the body which it wounds, add to
or diminilh the malignity of the poifon, ftill remains to
be afcertained. The infers employed by Maupertius
were newly caught, feemingly vigorous, and wTere of
different fexes. The refult of thefe experiments may
ferve to fliew, that many of the boafted antidotes which
are given for the cure of the fcorpion’s fling, ow?e their
fuccefs more to accident than to their own efficacy.
The fcorpions of tropical climates are very large, and
perhaps more venomous. Helbigius, who refided long
in the eaft, fays that he was often flung by the fcorpion,
and never fuffered any material injury from the w^ound,
though a painful tumor generally enfued, which was
cured by rubbing with a piece of iron or flone, as he
had feen the Indians do, until the part became infenfi-
ble. Seba, Moore, and Bofman, give a very different ac¬
count of the fcorpion’s malignity 5 and affert that without
the fpeedy application of proper remedies, the wmund
proves fatal. Several fabulous anecdotes have been re¬
corded of thefe animals by the older writers on natural
hiltory, which are totally unworthy of notice. The
moft remarkable of thefe is, that fcorpions fometimes
commit fuicide, when they find themfelves in a fituation
from wffich they cannot make their efcape. It is faid
that a new'ly caught fcorpion, placed in a circle formed
with pieces of burning charcoal, runs round endeavour¬
ing to effeft its efcape, but finding no exit, it applies
its tail to the back part of its head, and flings itfelf to
death. Scorpions are viviparous, and produce about
forty or fifty young ones at a time, which are complete¬
ly ftiaped, and undergo no further change, except carting
their Ikin from time to time like fpiders. They feed on
flies, fpiders, worms, &c. and even on one another.
The
223:
224
aujlvalue.
carpathi-
cus.
afer.
America*
nus.
chilenjis.
europceus,
hotentotus,
auflralis.
"E N T O M
The comb-like excrefcences placed between the breaft
and abdomen, compofed of fix teeth } claws fmooth.
A native of the South fea iflands.
Comb compofed of eight teeth } clawrs nearly heart-
fhaped and pointed, I. A native of Africa.
Combs compofed of fix teeth j claws nearly heart-
fhaped and fmooth. 2. It is found on the Carpathian
mountains, and in Switzerland.
Combs furnifhed with thirteen teeth j claws nearly
heart-fhaped and hairy. 3* native of India and
Perfia } and is the largeft and moft formidable fpecies.
Combs fumifhed with fourteen teeth the claws
fringed with hair 5 toes filiform. 4. A native of South
America. It is eaten by the natives of California.
Combs fumifhed with fixteen teeth } claws fomewhat
angular. This is a variety of the former.
Combs furnifhed with eighteen teeth ; claws angular.
3^ A native of the fouth of Europe and north of Alia.
It is viviparous.
Combs furnifhed with twenty-two teeth •,. claws
fmooth ; the tail rough. 8. A native of Africa, in
the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone. Body of a dark
brown colour, and marked with raifed lines j legs
pale.
Combs furnifhed with thirty-two teeth } claws fmooth.
6. A native of Africa.
Thefe are all the fpecies of the fcorpion that have
been defcribed in the laft edition of the Syftem of Na¬
ture.
116. Cancer, Crab.
Legs eight, (feldom fix or ten), likewife two claws.
Feelers fix, unequal. Eyes two, placed at a diflance
from one another, and fet on moveable flalks in moft
fpecies. Mandible compofed of a horny fubftance,
and thick. The lip triple. The tail jointed and with¬
out a fling.
Thefe live chiefly in water •, and feed on infe&s, worms,
dead fifh, and dead bodies of any kind. _ They every
year call their fhell, which is performed with much dif¬
ficulty and pain *, and during the change they become
weak and fickly.
A. Antennce four.
f The lajl articulation bifid; the 1 ail Jhort.
X The Thorax fmooth,
|j And entire on the Jides.
cur for. The pofterior parts of the fides of the thorax fumifh¬
ed with fharp points; the tail bent back. 1. A na¬
tive of the Mediterranean and Indian feas. About fun-
fet it leaves the water, and runs about the fands with
great velocity.
pennophy- Thorax orbicular, unequal and fringed J four dorfal
lax. legs. 5. A native of America, within the fhell of the
chama la%arus, to which it gives notice of the approach
of the cuttle-fifh.
* Thorax orbicular, obtufe j the tail of the fame length
r J " with the body. 6. A native of the Mediterranean
feas. About the fize of a pea j the tail very obtufe ;
' the legs fmooth and without fpines j claws fomewhat
oblong j toes equal.
I
O L O G T. Aptera.
Thorax nearly fquare j edge fomewhat fharp 5 the legs* minutus.
compreffed. 8. It is found in the open fea, particu¬
larly on the fucus nutans, and runs about on the lurface
of the water.
Very fmooth; the anterior part of the thorax fat-pinnothe.
tened on the fides; the tail is carinated and knobbed res.
in the middle. 9. A native of the Afiatic feas. It
refides within the fhell of the pinna. The ancients fup-
pofed that this was a friendly connexion formed for mutual
defence : that the pinna being deftitute of eyes, and thus
expofed, when he opened his fhell, to the attacks of the
cuttle-fifh and other enemies, was warned of their ap¬
proach by his little lodger, on which he immediately
flmt his fhell, and both were fafe.
Land crab. The firft joint of the legs prickly ; the fe- ruricela*
cond and third joints fet with tufts of hair. 11. A native
of South America. This fpecies refides in the woods. In
the Bahama iflands they are fo numerous that the
ground feems to move as they crawl about. At breed¬
ing time they generally make to the fea Ihores, for the
purpofe of wafhing off their fpawn, and depofiting it in
the fand, and no obftruftion will make them turn afide
from the ftraight road, when they are on their progrefs
towards the fea. They are efteemed very excellent
food. They feed on vegetables, but when they have
fed on the manchineel apple, they are reckoned poifon-
ous. When taken, they will feize the perfon’s finger with
their claw, and endeavour to efcape, leaving the claw
behind, which for the fpace of a minute after it has
been feparated from the body, continues to fqueeze the
finger clofely. They vary in fize and colour j the
light-coloured ones being efteemed the beft food.
|| || Thorax marled along the Jides with incfions.
Thorax marked with one fmall projection, one of the vocans.
claws larger than the other; the eyes long. 14. A native
of Jamaica. It conceals itfelf under ftones, and utters
a cry when caught, and pinches feverely. #
The thorax furnifhed with two projections on each angula-
fide j claws very long. no. A native of England.^*
Found in the fea near Weymouth. The claws are
three times the length of the body.
Hairy \ thorax notched on both fides 5 the hind-legs dromta.
terminating in two nails. 24. A native of the Indian
feas. Black j the extremities of the claws fmooth and
white. It is reckoned poifonous.
Common Crab. Thorax marked on each fide vnx\\*pagurut'
nine obtufe folds j the tips of the claws black. 27.
A native of both the European and Indian fens. This
is the crab moft generally ufed in this country for the
table *, they are in feafon and heavieft in the fummer;
and call their fhells in the winter and fpring. They
frequent rocky fhores.
X X Thorax hairy or prickly on the upper fide.
Thorax hairy, marked with knobs and oval*, furnifh-* araneut
ed with a beak which is divided at the extremity ; claws
oval. 30. A native of the European feas. This
fpecies is fuppofed to be injurious to oyfterbeds ; on this
account the filhermen, when they meet with them in
the courfe of dredging, are careful not to return them
into the water, but carry them on fhore, and deftroy
them.
Thorax
22S
Apt era. E N T O M
maja. Thorax prickly j claws turgid and covered with
fpines j the fingers of the claws covered with tufts of
hairs j legs fix. 41. A native of the Norwegian feas.
* horridus. The thorax fet with fpines, and covered with knobs j
claws oval; tail carious. 43. A native of the Afiatic
and Norwegian feas. There is a large variety of this
found on the eaft coaft of Scotland, which has its legs
and claws covered with fpines.
iatro*
bernhar-
dm.
dloge-nes.
taput mor-
kiu/n.
* aranei-
formis.
§ $ sfriteniue fet on folks; the laf articulation of the
poferior pair bifid; Tail long and without leaves.
Paguri Fabricii. Parafitici.
Thorax divided into four ; the tail fimple and big-
bellied beneath. 56. A native of Eaft India. In
holes of rocks. Wanders about on land by night in
fearch of cocoa-nuts, on which it feeds. To procure
them it mounts the trees, and having detached the nuts,
and let them drop to the ground, it defcends and tears
them open with its claws. This fpecies is eatable, ex¬
cept the inteftines.
Claws heart-lhaped, and covered with fharp points j
the claw on the right fide larger than the other. 57.
A native of the European feas. This fpecies being
deftitute of fhell towards the tail, takes pofleflion of
the empty fhells of different fpecies of cochlea, chan¬
ging from one to another as it increafes in fize 5 tire tail,
which is foft and without a fhell, is furnifhed with a
hook to fecure itfelf in its habitation.
Claws fmooth and downy; the claw on the left fide
larger than the other. 53. A native of the American
and Afiatic feas. It occupies the empty fttells of dif¬
ferent fpecies of cochlea.
Downy, covered with a hemifpherical cap. A na¬
tive of the Mediterranean fea. It is of a dirty gray co¬
lour •, hemifpherical and without fpines. It very much
refembles a fcull or death’s head, whence it has re¬
ceived its name } it is about the fize of a chefnut. The
cap proceeds, as it were, from the hind-legs, and
is turned over the body j the fingers of the claws
equal and naked at the tips j the extremity of the legs
Iharp.
Claws rough ; the tail callous at the extremity, and
furnifhed with a hook. 143. It is found in the fiffures
of the rocks on the fea-fhore near Edinburgh. It oc¬
cupies the empty fhells of the nerita or turbo.
Thorax wrinkled, ciliated, and prickly on the fore
part; the beak furnifhed with three fmall projettions,
the claws filiform. 149. A native of the Mediterra¬
nean and north feas. It is found on the fea-fhore near
Banff in Scotland. This is the C. banfiius of Pennant,
and the C. brachiatus of Shaw.
$ $ $ Antemue fet on fialks, the pofierior pair cleft;
Tail long.
J The fhell of the Thorax covering the Thorax complete¬
ly. Aftaci. Lobfters.
]] The pofierior Antenncc bifid.
* gamma- Lobfier. Thorax fmooth •, the beak notched on the
rus. fides, marked on the upper fide, at the bafe, with a
double tooth. 62. It inhabits the fea, on rocky fhores.
IT is is reckoned the moft delicate fpecies j and is moft
Vol. VTII. Part I.
O L O G Y.
in requeft for the table. T^ey chiefly frequent deep clear
water. They are taken in wicker-bafkets, with holes
on the fides, which allow the lobfters to enter, and pre¬
vent their egrefs j or with fmall nets attached to iron
hoops. They breed in the fummer months, and depofit
many thoufands of eggs in the fand. They caft their
fhell annually, and when any of their legs or claws hap¬
pen to be torn off they grow again. They are in feafon
from Oftober to May. Lobfters are faid to be very
much alarmed at thunder, fo much fo as fometimes to
caft their claws.
Craw-fijh. Thorax fmooth, the beak notched on the * afiacusi
fides, with a fingle tooth on each fide at the bafe. 63.
It inhabits frefh waters 5 it lodges in holes in the clayey
banks of rivers or lakes. It is reckoned a delicacy, and
is much in requeft as food.
Antennae projefling ; beak tapering towards the ex- ^halecum",
tremity ; eyes globular and prominent. 156. A na¬
tive of the north feas. This little animal is very abund¬
ant, and is the principal food of the herrings and cod-
fifh.
j| || The pofierior Antenmc divided into three.
Prawn. Thorax fmooth j the beak ferrated above, *fquilla.
beneath furnifhed with three fmall projections; the
edge of the thorax fumifhed with five fmall projections.
66. A native of the European feas. The beak is
fometimes ftraight, fometimes crooked. There is a
fmaller variety of this, called in London the white
fhrimp, which is white when boiled. Prawns are
much relifhed by moft people j and are very abundant
in fandy fhores.
Shrimp. Thorax fmooth j beak fhort and entire j the * crangon.
moveable toe of the claw longer than the other. 67.
A native of the northern feas. This fpecies is reckoned
the moft delicious of the genus. It is very plentiful on
the fandy fhores of Britain.
11 The fhell of the Thorax not covering the Thorax
completely. Squillce Fabricii.
Claws furmfhed with a fingle fang, crooked, com- mantis.
preffed, and notched •, without a moveable toe. 76.
A native of the Mediterranean and Afiatic feas. It is
reckoned a delicacy by the Italians.
|| || || Antennce fet on folks, and fimple. Gammari
Fabricii.
Claws confifting of a fingle fang; legs fourteen ; ampulla
the thighs of the hind-legs comprefied and dilated.
170. A native of the north feas. Large, almoft
white \ the beak fhort, curved, and fharp j the tail
compofed of fix leaves or plates} the laft articulation
bifid.
Claws four, furnifhed with a fingle fang, and defti-*/>«/<?*•.
tute of a moveable toe j legs ten. 81. A native of
Europe. It is frequent on the fea-fhore, in wells,
ditches, rivulets, and likewife in the fait lakes of Si¬
beria it fwims on its back, and leaps. It is injurious
to fifhermen by eating their nets, and alfo hurtful to
fifties, by exciting ulcers on their gills. It fhines in the
dark.
F f B,
226
arShis.
€H»,cbarus,
Oitiius.
^quadri-
ccrnis..
e N T o M
B. Antennce two.
}| Two arched Scales in place of the pojlerior Antenna:.
Scvllari Fabricii.
The fcales of the antennae fringed with prickles. 75.
A native of almoft every fea.
jj |] Scales none 1 Antenna- fringed with thickhjfet hairs.
Hippos Fabricii.
Thorax wrinkled and oval j claws comprefled and
prickly along the edges. 7 2. A native of South A-
merica and India.
O L O G Y. Aptera.
Europe; in marfhes, lakes, and rivulets: it is to be
met with throughout the whole year. The antennae as
long as the body ) legs eight.
j] || Antenna nearly clavatcd.
Antennae lliffj tail bifid. 18. Inhabits, though claviget\
rarely, the rivers of Germany •, and glides flowly along,
alternately on its back, belly, and fides j and fome-
times raifes itfelf upright. Upper part of the body
white, beneath red j legs eight j tail very fmall and
without articulations.
§ § § Antenna dilated.
181 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin, in the laft edition of the Syrtem of Nature.
117. Monoculus.
Legs formed for fwimming j very long; from four to
eight. Body covered with a Ihell, compofcd of from
five to ten fegments, growing fmaller towards the
tail. Antenn* two ; thofe of the male thicker and
fhorter than thofe of the female. In fome fpecies
they are wanting. Sometimes one eye, more fre¬
quently two, approaching very near to one another.
Feelers four, conftantly in motion while the animal
is fwimming \ the poilerior pair are very fmall, and
bent like hooks.
The infers of this genus live in water \ fome of them
are found in the fea, others in rivers, but moll: of them
in ftagnant waters j they have been called monocuh from
the circumftance of fome of them having but one eye,
or two eyes placed fo clofe together as to appear but one.
Some of them are viviparous, fome oviparous.
A. Thofe which have one Eye.
§ Body covered with a hard Crujl.
j Antenna none. Polyphemus Mulleri.
Feelers two, long and divided; tail infle&ed. 10.
A native of Europe. To bfe found in lakes, and
marlhes from May to September. It fwims on its back,
frequently in large fwarms j eye very black, occupy¬
ing almoft the whole of its. head.
^ ^ Antenna two or four. Cyclopes Mulleri.
§ Antenna four.
Tail ftraight, and divided at the extremity. 6. A
native of Europe; in frelh waters. Body grayilh or
greenilh, fmooth or covered with hair 5 legs eight and
hairy. Female with an oval bag on each fide of the
tail, which contain the eggs. The antennae in the male
are much thicker and Ihorter than in the female j the
tail is compofed of four articulations j in the female it
is furniftied with two fmall fpines. When viewed in
the microfcope they are found to have two eyes placed
very clofe together. They are very frequent even in
the pureft water, and are often fwallowed along with it.
Antenna two.
$ Antenna linear.
Reddifh j tail ftraight and forked. 13. A native of
Antennae Ihort *, tail furniftied with two {harp points. cra/ruort,
19. A native of Europe j in marlhes. It is very rare.
Body compofed of five fegments; the antenn* fuelling
from the bafe to the middle, and becoming {harp to¬
wards the extremity.
§ § § § The tip of the Antenna terminating in three
points.
Antenn* very fmall and ftraight •, body -without ar- eurticornis.
ticulations j claws fmooth j tail furniftied with two
briftles. 20. Inhabits fait water.
§ § § § § Antenna bent backwards.
Antennae ftiort j body without articulations, furnifti -
ed with claws 5 tail furnilhed with two briftles. 21.
Inhabits fait ivater.
$§§§$§ Antenna of the {rnale) furnifhed with little
hooks.
The briftles of the tail very ftiort. 22. Inhabits hrevicorhis
fait marfties. It very much refembles the M. quadn-
eornis; the top of the antennae in the female larger,
and forked at the extremity.
if Thofe which have a bivalved Shell.
f Head expofed; two-branched Antenna; Legs from
eight to twelve. Daphniae Mulleri.
§ Tail bent inwards.
The pofterior part of the ftiell fet with (harp points. * puJe2L
4. It is found everywhere in ftagnant waters, and in
great abundance. It is a frequent caufe of the water
affuming the colour of blood. The ftiell is yellowifti;
the abdomen, inteftines, and ten legs red. The fe¬
male is three times the iize of the male j and produces
from eight to twelve green eggs; the back is marked
with a large fquare fpot refembling a faddle.
§ § Tail bent downwards.
The ftiell without prickles j the head fumilhed with cryf.alli-
two ftiort projecting horns. 29. A native of the north nus.
of Europe ; in lakes and rivers. White and oblong j
very tranfparent y viviparous, and fumiflied with twelve
hairy feet.
$ $ $ Tail bent backwards.
Tail bent backwards. 5., A native of Europe j vapeiiculus.
frelh water.
'^rttbentt
Aptera.
§ § § $ TailJlraight.
fetifer. The anterior angles of the fliell furniflied with a tuft
of bnftles. 30. A native of Europe } in ftagnant
waters ; tranfparent, of an oblong oval form 5 antennae
divided into three, furnirtied with eight or more hairy
legs; the extremity of the tail terminating in two
hooks.
viridit.
us
1-1 concealedy Antenn# two and hairy; Legs eight.
Cytherae Mulleri.
Shell kidney-fliaped ^and downy, 31. A native of
Europe ; found on various fpecies offucus and conferva;
the extremity of the antennae terminating in three
points; the fore-legs formed like hooks.
|| || || Head concealed; Slntenmv twof like hairs ; Legs
four. Cyprides Mulleri.j
^ conchace- Shell oval and downy, •j. Found in clear ftagnant
v\ aters ; the antennae white or yellowifli, and ftretched
out; fwims very fwiftly, with ten bridles. It is green,
opake; feet yellowdflij abdomen nearly bilobed and orange*
coloured, marked in the middle with a black circle. It
conceals itfelf within its Ihell, and fwims on its belly.
It refembles a mufcle in miniature, is very minute, and
ieldom exceeds the tenth part of an inch.
f f f Thofe with fhells conffling of one valve.
X Legs four; Antenna: txvo. Amymonae Mulleri.
*fatyrus. _ Shell oval; antennas obtufe, and extended in a ver¬
tical diredlion. 46. It is frequent in clear frefh wa-
ter ; it is agitated at intervals with a tremulous motion;
the thell is flat and membranaceous; antennae rigid
fumdhed with three very Ihort briltles at the extremity;
tne ore-legs thick and bifid ; tail terminating abruptly
eight-cleft in the middle. The infect is tranfparent. *
entomology. 227
very rarely found among petrefaAions. There are
ieven fpmes on the anterior part of the back of the
ihell: legs 14.
Shell oblong; the future before of the form of a * at>us.
ere (cent; tail compoled of two briftles. 3. A native
ot Europe ; in ditches, ponds, &c.; and though dried
m lummer, when the water has evaporated, yet they
revive when the water returns. This "is the largeft
ipecies to be found in Britain*
f||| Legs fix; Antennae two. Nauplii Mulleri.
brail eat us Shell orbicular, and without fpines or briftles. 52.
It is rare; found in clear frefh water; the fhel'l very
tranfparent ; the antennas refembling legs ; the legs
terminating in three briftles; the eye not confpicuous.
B. Etjes two. Binoculi.
f Thofe with fells cotnpofed of one valve.
§ Eyes two placed beneath ; Antenna txvo ; Legs four
to eight. Arguli Mulleri.
*delpbinus Tegs eight. 53. Found in rivers.
§ $ Eyes jitucited on the back; Antenna two or fx;
Legs varying in number. Limuli Mulleri.
Shell orbicular ; future in the middle of the form of
a crefcent; tail triangular, long and tapering. 1.
native of the Indian feas, particularly in the neighbour¬
hood of the Molucca iflands. It is likervife found on
the fhores of Carolina. It is the largeft of all known
mfefts ; fometimes it grows to the length of four feet.
It is frequently found in pairs, male and female. It is
polyphe-
mus.
f f § Eyes placed on thefdes; Antenna tWo,fetaceous;
Legs eight or ten. Caligi Mulleri.
Body fhort; tail bifid, and compofed of one thin pifeintst,
f* Aa nrA1Ver^f the EuroPean feas- Found on flound-
rs, cod-fifh, falmon, &c. adhering on the outfide be¬
tween the feales; running fwiftly both on the fifh and
on the water.
f t Thofe with Shells compofed of two valves ; Head
not enclofed within the fell; the Eyes placed on the
J, > Antenna txvo or four, refembling hairs, and
placed beneath; Legs eight and more. Lvncese
Mullen.
Tail inflefted ; fhell globular. 60. A native of Eu- * At „{.
r°pe. It is found about the edges of ftagnant waters,,^
and among duck-weed. It is very minute ; the fhell
is reddifb ; antennae two; legs twelve; tail furniflied
with a lma-1 hook at the extremity and concave beneath;
the ovaria green. *
66 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed by
Gmehn in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature. ^
118. Oniscus.
Jaw terminating abruptly, and furnifhed with fmall
teeth. Lip bifid. Feelers unequal, the pofterior ones
, lonfter than the others. Antenme fetaceous.
xfody oval. Legs fourteen.
The fpecies of this genus feed on the leaves of plants,
on filth, and on the juices of animals ; fome hf them
are very injurious to the fruit of wall-trees ; they under¬
go no other change but a change of flrin. They are
found under ftones, in old walls, houfes, and woods;
lome ipecies live in water. *
Abdomen covered with two thin plates; the tail k-* afilus.
mioval. 1. A native of the European feas. Vivipar- ^
ous ; and is very injurious to fifties.
the^H6111^ ffoUr ’ taU l0^ ,and lharp- J* Inhabits *entomon.
M \u very flulckly- It lives on crabs and
hihes ; the fiftiermen diflike it very much.
entire f * ^rOWnrifS aft*colour ; tail obtufe and *armadil~
entire. 15. A native of Europe ; under ftones. When to.
touched it rolls itfelf up into a hard motionlefs ball;
from which circumftance it has received the name of
armadillo.
ave^^rfuni^d wJth ^o Ample append-**/,//*,.
ge; I4* of Europe; in houfes, walls,
woods, sec. I he young are contained in a follicle of
four valves on the abdomen of the mother. This fpe¬
cies was formerly ufed in medicine.
38 fpe. es of this genus have been deferibed in the
Jalt edition of the Syftem of Nature.
119.
228
E N T O M
I ip. SCOLOPENDRA.
Antennse fetaceous. Feelers two, filiform. •, articulated
and conne&ed within the jaws. Lip divided and
marked with {mall projeftions. Body flattilh. Legs
very nunierous y one on each fide of each of the fcg-
ments of the body.
Thefe infers live in decayed wood, about houfes,
under ftones, and fome of them in frefh water. ^ They
feed on other infers in every ftage of their .exiftence.
The larvae differ but little from the perfedt infeiff, ex¬
cept that they have fewer feet. The pupae likewife
are a&ive, and very much refemble the perfect infeft.
All the European fpecies are fmall, but in tropical
countries they are to be feen a foot long and an inch
and a half in circumference.
* lagura.
* jorficata.
gigantea,
morjitans,
* eleBrica.
phofphorea
Twelve legs on each fide j body oval j tail furnifhed
with a white tuft of hairs. 1. *A native of Europe j
in moffy ground.
Legs fifteen on each fide. 3. A native of Europe
and America. Very frequent under ftones.
Legs feventeen on each fide. 4. A native of A-
merica.
Legs twenty on each fide ; eyes eight. 5. A na¬
tive of America and India. Body compofed of 22
fegments •, the antennae confifting of 20 articulations.
It is much dreaded on account of its bite, which is faid
to be poifonous.
Legs *jO on each fide j body linear. 8.^ A native
of Europe 'y in clofe damp places, and ftiines in the dark.
Legs 76 on each fide. 9. A native of Afia. It
ftiines in the dark like the lampyns; it is faid that this
infeft has dropt from the air into a ftiip 100 miles from
land, in the Indian and ^Ethiopian feas. Head oval,
yellowifh, and marked with two grooved lines, and a
third tranfverfe line j body filiform, and is about the
O L O G Y. Aptera.
thicknefs of a gocfe-quill, marked with two parallel
yellow lines ; antennae tapering, of a rufty colour, and
confifting of 14 articulations.
12 fpecies of this genus have been defctibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
120. JULUS.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers twro, filiform and
jointed. Body femicylindrical. Legs very numer¬
ous, two on each fide of every fegment of the body.
The infers of this genus feed on other infers, parti¬
cularly acari. The larva and pupa have many feet,
are active, and refembie the perfect infect.
Legs 20 on each fide. 1. A native of the Eu- ova/iit
ropean feas. , .
Legs 134 on each fide. 9. A native of America, maxmus.
This is the largeft fpecies of the genus. It bites fe-
verely, but is not poifonous. . , , r
Legs 120 on each fide. 5. A native of Europe ; *falulofus.
in fandy places, and on the hazel.
12 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
The following table exhibits the number of fpecies
included under each order.
COLEOPTERA 4°^7
Hemiptera i427
Lepidoptera 2570
Neuroptera !74
Hymenoptera 1265
Diptera 692
Aptera 679
In all 10,894
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Though the definition of an infect which we have
already given from Linnaeus be perfectly correft, (\iz.
a fmall animal breathing through pores on its fides,
furniftied with many feet and moveable antennae, cove¬
red with either a hard cruft, or a hairy {kin), it may
not be improper to mention, more at large, thofe cir-
cumftances which form the line of diftindlion betwreen
infe&s and other animals.
1. Infers are not furniftied with red blood, but m-
ftead of it their veffels contain a tranfparent lymph.
This may ferve to diftinguifti them from the fuperioi
animals, but it is common to them with many of the
inferior j though Cuvier has lately demonftrated the ex-
iftence of a kind of red blood in fome of the vermes.
2. They are deftitute of internal bones, but in place
of them are furniftied wdth a hard external covering to
which the mufcles are attached, which"ferves them both
for fkin and bones •, they are likewife without a fpine
formed of vertebrae, which is found in all the fupenor
claffes of animals.
3. They are fumiftied with articulated legs, fix or
more •, this circumftance diftinguifties them from all
other animals deftitute of a fpine formed of veiteb.ae.
4. A very great number of infefts undergo a meta--
morphofis: this takes place in all the winged infects.
5. They frequently change their {kin in the progrefs
of their growth. # r j • i
^ very great number of infefts are fumiihed with
laws placed tranfverfely. .
7 The wings, with which a very great number of m-
fefts" are furniftied, diftinguifti them from all other ani¬
mals which are not furniftied with a fpine compofed oi
vertebrae.
8. Infefls are oviparous; fcorpions and aphides du¬
ring the fummer months are viviparous.
9. Infefts have no noftrils.
10. Infeds are deftitute of voice.
11. They are not furniftied with a diftma heart com¬
pofed of ventricle and auricle.
12. Incubation is not neceffary for hatching their eggs.
Organization of InfeBs.
When we wifti to become throughly acquainted
with natural objeas, we muft not confine ourielves to
an examination of their external appearance and confi-
E N T O M
General
Obferva-
tions.
guration, but ought to examine their internal ftrufture
and their component parts; and extend our inquiries to
every thing which relates to them. Infe6ts, like all
other organized bodies which form the animal and ve¬
getable kingdoms, are compofed of fluids and folids.
In the four fuperior claffes of animals, viz. quadru¬
peds, birds, reptiles, and filhes, the bones form the
moll folid part, and occupy the interior part both of
the trunk and limbs j they are furrounded with mufcles,
ligaments, cellular membrane, and fldn. The matter
is entirely reverfed in the clals of infects •, the exterior
part is moft folid, ferving at the fame time both for Ikin
and bones y it enclofes the mufcles and internal organs,
gives firmnefs to the whole body, and by means of its
articulations, the limbs, and different parts of the body,
perform their various motions. In many infects, fuch
as the crab, lobfter, &c. the external covering is very
hard, and deilitute of organization ; it is compofed of a
calcareous phofphate, mixed with a finall quantity of ge¬
latine, formed by an exfudation from the furface of the
body. As its great hardnefs would check the growth of
the animal, nature has provided a remedy; all of thcfe
cruftaceous infedls call their (hell annually. The Ikin
of moll of the other infects, though compofed likewife
of calcareous phofphate, is fofter and organized, being
formed of a number of thin membranes adhering clofe-
ly to one another, and putting on the appearance of
horn. It owes its greater foftnefs to a larger proportion
of gelatine. The mufcles of infefls confift of fibres
formed of fafciculi; there are commonly but two muf¬
cles to produce motion in any of their limbs, the one
an extenfor, the other a flexor. Thefe mufcles are com¬
monly attached to a tendon compofed of a horny lub-
ftance, connefled to the part which they are deftined
to put in motion. The articulations of infefts are
formed in a variety of ways; Cuvier, in his Compa¬
rative Anatomy, tom. i. page 445, has given a very
minute account of them. Though Linnaeus, and feve-
ral others following him, have afferted that infects have
no brain, yet it is certain that at leaft a number of
the larger kind, as the lobfter, crab, &c. have a foft
fubftance fimilar to brain, from which the optic and
other nerves take their rife 5 befides, when this fub¬
ftance is irritated, the animal is thrown into convulfions;
hence we would conclude, that infefls have a brain as
well as the animals of the four fuperior claffes, though
it be fmaller in proportion to their body.
In moft infedls the brain is fituated a little above the
oefophagus •, it divides into two large branches which
furround the oefophagus, and unite again under it, from
which junction a whitifti nervous cord proceeds, cor-
refponding to the fpinal marrow of the fuperior animals,
which extends the whole length of the body, forming
in its courfe twelve or thirteen knots or ganglions, from
each of which fmall nerves proceed to different parts of
the body. Thofe who deny that infers have no brain,
lay much ftrefs on this circumftance, that many infefls are
capable of running about after they have been deprived
of their heads ; the hippobofea in particular, is frequent¬
ly inftanced, which moves about quite readily, and is
even faid to copulate after its head has been cut off.
The ganglions which are formed in the courfe of the
larger nerves, perform in a great mealure the funflion
of the brain, indeed each of thefe ganglions may be
viewed as a fubordinate brain 5 in this way it may be
o L o G Y. 22
eafily conceived how the various parts which derive General
their nerves from any one of thefe ganglions, may be Obferva-
enabled to perform their different funftions, after they ,
have been feparated from the other parts of the body,
and deprived of all connexion with the brain.
Whether infefls be endowed with any fenfes different
from thofe of the fuperior animals, cannot eafily be af-
certained, becaufe we are only acquainted with the five
which we ourfelves enjoy. It appears pretty evident
that they poffefs vilion, hearing, fmell, and touch ■, as
to the fenfe of tafte we are left to conjeclure, for we are
acquainted with no facts, by which we can prove that
infedls enjoy the fenfe of tafte, nor do we know of any
by which we can prove that they do not.
The eyes of infedts are of two kinds j the one com¬
pound, compofed of a number of lenfes, large, and on¬
ly two in number 5 the other are fmall, fmooth, and vary
in number from two to eight. The fmall lenfes which
form the compound eyes are very numerous 5 they a-
mount in fome infedls to many hundreds. Leeuwen¬
hoek has counted 800 of them in the eye of a fly.
Pugett fays he obferved upwards of 17,000 in the eye
ol a butterfly. The eyes of infedls are without eye¬
lids, and are covered externally with a hard fmooth
fubftance. Cuvier has given the anatomy of the eye of
a dragon-fly. The internal furface of the lenfes is cove¬
red with a black varnilh. Under each of the lenfes of
which the eye is compofed, there is a fmall nervous fi¬
bre, attached to the edge of the black covering which
lines the internal furface of each lens by one extremity,
and by the other to a membrane which is of the fame
extent with the cornea, which Cuvier calls the choroids.
It is eafily detached from the fmall nervous fibre, and
appears to the naked eye, finely radiated with black
and white 5 behind this there is ftill another membrane
compofed entirely of medullary fubftance, which is con-
nefted on each fide with the hemifphere of the brain.
Whether infects from the compound nature of their
eyes fee obje£ts multiplied, or enjoy only fingle vifion,
cannot be afeertained ; were objedls to be feen multi¬
plied in proportion to the vaft number of lenfes of which
the eyes of infe£ls are compofed, vifion would certainly
be very confufed, and were we to be guided by analogy;
we might naturally enough fuppofe that infects faw ob-
je£ts fingle with their compound eyes, as we ourfelves
fee objects fingle with two eyes.
The eyes of infedts, according to Swammerdam, do
not contain, the fame humours which are found in the
eyes of animals which compofe the fuperior claffes.
The external membrane which covers the eyes, varies
in colour in different infects 5 in many of the dipterous
infects, particularly the gad-fly, it is agreeably varie¬
gated.
The far greater number of infeeds have only two
eyes, like the animals of the fuperior claffes; fome have
three, e. gr. the fcolopendra; fome four, e. gr. gyrinus;
fome fix, e. gr. fcorpions; fome eight, e. gv.fpiders.
The eyes of infects are commonly immoveable; crabs,
however, have the power of moving their eyes.
That infects are endowed with the fenfe of hearing
can no longer be difputed, fince frog-hoppers, crickets,
&c. furnifh us with undeniable proofs of the fadt. Na¬
ture has provided the males of thefe infedts with the
means of calling their females, by an inftrument fitted
to produce a found, which is heard by the latter. Lh'e
male
23°
General
Obferva-
tiors.
O L O G Y.
a decifive proof would be obtained ; for were they read- General
ily to find their way to the excremen£, it may be fairly O’^ferva-
inferred that the antennas were not fne organs of fmell. tluns'
Should the reverfe take place, an oppofite conclufion
might naturally be drawn.
6. Nerves terminate the antennae, the articulations of
which, though externally covered with a pretty thick
membrane, are hollow, lined within with a foft fubftance,
which is often of a watery confiftence, the extremities
of which, w’hen expofed to the air, may receive impref-
fions from it.
Some have imagined the antennae to be the organs
of touch; but Latreille contends that fuch an opinion is
by no means fupported by fafts, and alleges that, the
(hortnefs of the antennae in moft fpecies, and the way
in which moft infefls carry their antennae, feem to prove
the contrary. He thinks their antennae ill adapted to
become the organs of touch, becaufe they have a hard
and fcaly covering. He is rather inclined to believe
that the fenfe of touch, at leaft in certain fpecies, is fitu-
ated in the paws or extremities of the fore legs. The
palpi or feelers in fpiders and fome other infers, feem
to poffefs the fenfe of touch in an eminent degree j but
many are difpofed to confider thefe palpi rather as the
organs of tafte. Though we have no diredft proof thatEin-
fe£ts enjoy the fenfe of tafte, yet we may naturally enough
fuppofe that they do, both from analogy, and from the
Circumftance that moft infedts prefer fome particular
kinds of food to all others 5 many of them will rather
die of famine, than eat any other kind of food than that
which is peculiar to them. The fuperior part of the
oefophagus has been fuppofed by fome to be the feat of
the organ of tafte.
E N T O M
male and female death-watch give notice of each others
;prefence, by repeatedly ftrikjng with their mandibles
againft old wood in houfes, or decayed trees, their fa¬
vourite haunts. Their ears have been difcovered to be
placed at the root of their antennae, and can be di-
ftinclly feen in fome of the larger kinds, as the lobfter.
That infects enjoy the faculty of fmelling, is very
evident. It is the moft perfeft of all their fenfes.
Beetles of various forts, nitiduhv, the different fpecies
of dermejlcs, fy/phs, JUes, &c. perceive at a very con-
fiderable diftance, the fmell of ordure and dead bodies,
and refort in fwarms to the fituations in which they occur,
either for the purpofe of procuring food or laying their
eggs. The common blue flelh-fly, is attracted by the
ftrong fmell of the arum dracuntium, which very much
refembles that of carrion, and depofits its eggs on it 1
thefe flies are likewife deceived, and depofit their eggs
on the flowers of the Jlapelia hirfutay which has a very
cadaverous fmell. But, though w'e can thus eafily
prove the fenfe of fmell among infe&s, it is difficult
to difcover the feat of that particular fenfe. Several
naturalifts have fuppofed that it refides in the antennae.
Dumeril, in a diflertation publilhed in 1799, attempts to
prove, that it muft be fituated about the entrance of the
fpiracula or refpiratory organs, as Bafter had previoufly
fuppofed. Notwithftanding his arguments, Latreille is
ftill difpofed to follow the opinion of thofe who believe
the antennae to be the organs of fmell. His reafons for
favouring this opinion are :
1. Smell is produced by the a£lion of air, impregnated
with odoriferous particles, on the nervous or olfactory
membrane, which tranfmits the fenfation.
If infects be endowed with an organ, furniffied with
fimilar nerves, capable of receiving impreffions from air
charged with odoriferous particles, fuch organ may be
regarded as that of fmell. Should the antennae prefent
a tiffue of many nerves, what inconvenience can refult
from fuppofing that this tiffue is capable of tranfmitting
odour ? Would not this hypothefis, on the contrary, be
more Ample, and more confonant to anatomical princi¬
ples, than that which fixes the feat of fmell at the en¬
trance of the fpiracula ?
2. Many male infects have their antennae more deve¬
loped than the females •, a fa£t eafily explained, if we
admit that thefe organs are the feat of fmell.
3. It is certain that moft of thofe infects which live
or depofit their eggs on putrid animal or vegetable mat¬
ters, ftagnant waters, &c. are almoft uniformly diftin-
guifhed by a greater developement of the antennae j
fuch, for example, as the beetle, fylphs, leather-eaters,
tipulse, &c. Thefe required a more perfect fenfe of fmell,
and are organized accordingly.
4. A, great many infefts, which are entirely rapaci¬
ous, have fimple antennae j and thofe which are charac-
terifed by fimilar manners, and which are fedentary,
have none at all; as for inftance fome of the fpiders.
5. Infe&s difcover their habitations and food by the
fenfe of fmell. Latreille deprived feveral infedts of
their antennae, and found they inflantly fell into a
ftate of ftupor or derangement, and feemed to be in¬
capable of recognifing their haunts or their food,
though placed clofe by them. Such experiments de-
ferve to be profecuted. With this view, wore the an¬
tennae of dung-beetles to be coated with varniffi, and
the animals placed near excrement, (their ulual food),
4
Alivient of Infects.
Insects feed on a great variety of fubftances*; there
are fewr things either in the vegetable or animal king¬
doms wffiich are not confumed by one or other of them.
T he leaves, flowers, fruit, and even the ligneous parts of
vegetables, afford nourifhment to a very numerous clafs 5
animal bodies both dead and alive, even man himfelf, is
preyed on by many of them j feveral fpecies of the
loufe, of acarus, of the gnat, and the common flea, draw
their nourifhment from the furface of his body j the %i-
gur or chiegoe, (pu/ex ulcer arts), penetrates the cuticle,
and even enteis his flefli. A fpecies of gad-fly {afrus ho-
minis) depofits its eggs under his fkin, where the larva:
feed j the phalena pmguinalis frequently finds its way
into his ftomach, where it fometimes proves a fatal
lodger. Other caterpillars infinuate themfelves into
different cavities of his body. All the inferior animals
have their peculiar parafitical infedls which feed on them
during their life.
There are fome infects which can feed only on one
fpecies. The caterpillars both of moths and butterflies,
which feed on the leaves of fome particular vegetable,
would die without being able to tafte any other. There
are others which can make ufe of two or three kinds of
vegetables, but which never attain full perfection, except
when they are fed on one particular kind 5 for example,
the common filk-worm, which eats readily all the fpecies
of mulberry, and even common lettuce, neither attains
fo great a fize, nor produces fo much filk, as when fed
on the white mulberry. Although that fpecies of coc¬
cus
«
E N T O M
General cus wliicli produces the lac, feed s on the Jicus religiofa.^
0ti«nsa ■fLCUS 'nd,ca-> rhamnus jujuba, andplofa Horti Malabarici j
  ' . yet the lac collected from the Jicus religiofa, is very much
fuperior in quality. That fpecies of coccus which pro¬
duces the cochineal, if it will at all feed on any other
fpecies of vegetables, never affords a dye equal to that
which is to be obtained from it when fed on that parti¬
cular fpecies of cactus called coccine/lfera by Linnceus.
There are a great many which feed indifcriminately on
a variety of vegetables, which from that circumitai.ce
receive the title of polyphaga. Almoft all herbivorous
infefts eat a great deal, and very frequently *, and moft
of them periili if deprived of food, for but a ihort time.
Carnivorous infects can live a long while without food,
e. g. the carabus, dytifeus, cicindela, fpiders, &c. As
many infedts cannot tranlpcrt themfelves eaiily in queft
of food, to places at a diitance from one another, nature
has furnifhed the perfect infefts of many fpecies with an
inftinft, which leads them to depofit their eggs in fitu-
ations where the larvae as foon as hatched, may rind that
kind of food which is beft adapted to their nature.
Moft of the butterflies, though they flutter about
and colleft the nefarious juice of a variety of flowers
as food for themfelves, always depolit their eggs on, or
near to thofe vegetables deftined by nature to become
the food of their larvae. The various fpecies of ichneu¬
mon depofit their eggs on the bodies of thofe infefts on
which their larvae feed. The Jirex (tailed wafp), and
fphex are likewife careful to depofit their eggs in fitua-
tions where their larvae, when hatched, may find fub-
liftence. The ichneumon feduBor, after having killed
an infeift (moft commonly a fpider) depolits an egg on
it, and then ftiuts it up in a cell which it forms of clay.
UVe. fphex fur ulus likewife depofits its eggs on the body
of fpiders which it has killed, and enclofes it in a cell
compofed of clay. Some infefts, at different periods of
their exiftence, make ufe of aliment of very different
properties : the larvae of fome are carnivorous, wdiile
the perfedt infecl feeds on the nedlarious juice of flowers:
e* £• J*rex> ichneumon, &c. The larvae of moft of the
lepidopterous infedls feed on the leaves and young fhoots
of vegetables, while the perfe<ft infedls either take no
food at all, or fubfift on the fweet juice which they ex-
traft from flowers: indeed the aonftrudHon of their
mouths prevents them from taking any other than fluid
food.
The alimentary organs may be divided into four
parts. I. Thofe of Maftication; 2. Deglutition j 3.
Digeftion $ and 4. Excretion. The organs of maftica¬
tion vary confiderably in different infedls. Amongft
thofe animals, fome fubfift on folid food $ therefore
muft be furnifhed with tentacula (or pincers) for its
comminution. Others fubfift on liquid food, and are
furniftied with fuckers, which vary in form in differ¬
ent infedts. Sometimes with a trunk formed of a
double iheath twifted in a fpiral form, as is to be feen
in the butterfly and the fphinx. Sometimes with a fharp
ftiff beak bent towards the breaft ; fuch as in the bug,
the frog-hopper, and boat-fly. At other times with a
flefhy probofeis ending in two moveable lips, Or in a
fucker compofed of feveral fyphons, inclofed in a fheath
confifting of two valves, which is the cafe i t the dip¬
terous infers j fuch as the common fly, the horfe fly,
the gnat, &c.
Amongft infers which have jawrs, fome, fuch as
o l o G Y. 23
thofe of the orders Coleoptera and Apt era, have thefe General
parts hard and compofed of a horny fubftance, and fub- va“
lift on matters of a confiderable degree of tenacity. t"^5'
1 hofe coleopterous infefts which have fix feelers feed
on living iniccbs 5 and thofe which have only four, feed
on putrid animal or vegetable fubftances. The other
mfects furniftied with jaws (luch as many of the order
Hymenoptera'), have thefe parts fort and membranaceous,
and confequently fubfift on liquid or very fucculent food.
There are no falivary glands to be met with m the
mouths of infeefts, but a fet of floating veiiels fecrete a
fluid, varying in colour in different iniech, very limiiar
to faliva.
J he organs of deglutition prefent nothing very re¬
markable. The oefophagus is a ftraight Ihort tube,,
reaching from a little way under the brain to the firft
ganglion of the nerves, which perhaps may be confider-
ed as the cerebellum of infefts. In the infects with ut
jaws, deglutition is performed by a tube compofed of
annular mufcular fibres. The trunk of the butterfly,
the probofeis of the common fly, and the beak of he¬
mipterous infefts, may be confidered as part of the
cefophagus projecting beyond the mouth.
The organs of digeftion confift of the ftomach and
inteftinal canal. Ehe ftomach of infeCts varies very
much according to the nature of the aliment on which
they fubfift. Sometimes it is fingle, frequently double,
at other times manyfold. The greater number of in¬
fers have a fingle ftomach, which is fometimes entire¬
ly membranaceous, fometimes mufcular, and at other
times it is merely the continuation of the oefophagus
without any perceptible dilatation. Thofe infefts which
have a dilated membranaceous ftomach, fubfift com¬
monly on the juices of vegetables 5 fuch as the bees,,
which fuck the neftar of flowers, the butterflies &c,
Their ftomachs are almoft always dilated, owing to the
difengagement of gas from the fubftances they contain.
Thofe which are furnilhed with a'mufcular ftomach,.
fuch as the bug, the boat-fly, and almoft all the he¬
mipterous infers, feed on animal fubftances.. Finally,.
thefe which have no dilatation in the oefophagus fo as
to form an evident ftomach, commonly feed on the
leaves and roots of vegetables, fuch as the cock-chaffer
and all the beetles. The whole of the alimentary canal
in thefe infeeds is very long, without any perceptible en¬
largement. The double ftomach is to be found in
thofe coleopterous infefls which feed on other live in¬
fers, fuch as the cicindela, carabus, attelabus, &c. all
of them are likewife diftinguiftied by fix palpae. The
firft of their two ftomachs is mufcular, and is a fort of
gizzard, the mufcles of which are compofed of flender
fibres. The fecond is a long membranaceous canal,,
whish appears villous when examined by the micro-
fcope $ this villofity at firft fight may appear Angular,
but a little attention to the manner in which nutrition
goes on. in infe&s, will fuggeft an explanation of this
peculiarity. When vtz confider that circulation pro¬
ceeds very {lowly,, and that the nutritive fluids muft be’
nearly in a ftate of ftagnation, digeftion could not
proceed without the afliftanceof abforbent tubes, which
may take up thefe fluids. We may naturally enough
fuppofe this villofity to be nothing elfe, but a number
of abforbent veffels which take up the nutritive part of
the circumambient fluid. Thofe infefls which have
many ftomachs may be called ruminating, becaufe they
have
2^2
General
Obferva-
E N T 0 M
have the poxver of caufing the food to return from the
ftomach to be chewed over again *? Inch as the graf-
hopper, cricket, &c.
The mole cricket has a long cefophagus terminating
in a round membranaceous ilomach, which may per¬
haps be compared to the firfl itomach of the ruminating
animals of the clafs jfylcwitndhci , where the food is ac¬
cumulated, to be thrown back into the mouth, again
to undergo a farther maftication.
A fhort intelline proceeds from this into a fecond
ilomach much lefs than the former, but mufcular and
apparently thicker, and furnilhed with parts which re¬
ferable the grinders in the Itomach of crabs. They are
fmall laminae, refembling faws, difpofed in five longitu¬
dinal rows, each compofed of from ten to twelve fmall-
er laminae, which perform a fort of periftaltic motion
by means of the mufcular a&ion of the itomach and it
appears pretty evident that the aftion of thole laminae
is exerted on the food contained in the ftomach. The
other two ftomachs are very fimilar, and placed one op-
pofite to the other at the opening of the inteftine which
correfponds to the duodenum of the fuperior animals j
they are wrinkled and thicker than the firit Itomach,
but not. fo thick as the fecond.
This apparatus is to imbibe fome part of the fluid
from the aliment.
In the grafshopper the flomachs are fimilarly arran¬
ged. The cricket has to the number of five fmall and
flender flomachs ; indeed the two firfl; feem only to be
Ample dilatations of the oefophagus.
In the cock-roach there is only one ftomach which is
very large, and almoft entirely membranaceous } at the
extremity of which, there is a number of partial en¬
largements which may be confidered as lo many fto¬
machs. The ftomachs of the larvae frequently differ
from thofe of their perfeft infeas ; viz. the alimentary
canal of the caterpillar differs very much from that of
the butterfly ; and the inteftinal canal of the grub dif¬
fers widely from that of the beetle.
The oefophagus of the grub of tht fcaraba’us nqftcor-
nis dilates fuddenly, forming a cylindrical ftomach
which is fumilhed with three ranges of ccecum, which
have their extremities Ample and loofe. The inteftine
proceeds in a ftraight line from the ftomach ■, then hav¬
ing formed a doubling, becomes larger, and puts on
the appearance of a colon, four times the length of the
ftomach j on which is to be perceived two. tendinous
lines. At the extremity of the colon there is a confid-
erable dilatation ; beyond which it becomes flender,
and forms the reftum. The inteftinal canal of the
fcarabceus melolontha, or cock-chaffer, is almoft exactly
fimilar •, but nothing analogous to this ftructure is ob-
fervable in the perfect infeft. The inteftines of the
Jcarabceus melolontha, and fc. najicorms are very long,
very much contorted, and equal throughout their whole
length.
The larva of the Jiyarophilus has a very evident fto
mach, and a very fhort inteftine. In the perfeft infe£!
the inteftine is long, without any vifible enlargement or
ftomach, which may be accounted for, perhaps in this
way *, the larvae fubfift on animal food, while the per¬
fect infefts feed on vegetables. The examples we have
juft given are ftriking. It may be remarked, that when¬
ever the larvae and the perfect infeft fubfift on the fame
hind of food, the difference in ftrufture is lefs remark-
0 L O G T.
able ; only the inteftinal canal is longer in the perfe& General
. r ’ J Oblcrva-
mleCt. . . tions.
The anus or the pofterior orifice of the inteftinal ca-
nal, not only affords a paffage for the excrement, but
enclofes the extremities of the parts of generation.
There are neither kidneys, bladder of urine, pancreas,
nor any of the conglomerated glands obfervable in
animals of the fuperior claffes, to be found in infedts..
Inftead of the liver, there is a number of fmall floating
filaments which lurrouud the inteftinal canal for almoft
two thirds of its length. There is a great quantity of
fat in many infects, particularly in thole which fpend a
confiderable portion of their lives in a torpid ftate. It
is contained in loofe membranes that fill up the intervals
between the bronchiae. This fat in caterpillars is very
white, and both in tafte and confiftence very much re-
fembles that of other animals. The quantity .is . fo con¬
fiderable in fome infefts as to equal one third of the
bulk of the body. All the infeds . which undergo a
metamorphofis, are abundantly fupplied with this fat,
without it, indeed they feem unable to go through
their deftined changes •, for it has been obferved, that
thofe caterpillars which have been fed on by the larvae
of the various fpecies of ichneumon, though they may
fwrvive the ravages of thefe parafitical infeds till they
are changed into pupse, commonly die before they be¬
come perfed infeds.
The Rcfpiration of InfeEls.
Respiration is the ad of inhaling and exhaling the
air into, and out of the lungs. Quadrupeds, birds, and
moft of the amphibia, breathe through the mouth and
noftrils. The air when received into the lungs is mix¬
ed with the blood, and imparts to it fomething necef-
fary, and carries off fomething noxious.
Some authors have afferted that infeds have no lungs.
But late experiments and obfervations ftiow, that no
fpecies wants them, or at leaft fomething fimilar. to
them *, and in many infeds they are larger in proportion
to their bodies than in other animals. In moft of them
they lie at or near to the furface of the body, and
fend out lateral pores or tracheae. The refpiration of
infeds has attraded the attention of many naturalifts,
particularly, Swammerdam, Malpighi, Reaumur, Ly-
onnet,Muffchenbroeck,Degeer, Bonnet, Vauquelin, &c.
From their obfervations it may be inferred,
T. That infeds do not breathe through the mouth
or noftrils.
2. That there are a number of veffels for the recep¬
tion of air placed along on each fide of the body, which
are commonly called fpiraculay which are fubdivided
into a number of imaller veliels or bronchia;.
3. That the veffels or tracheae which proceed from
the pores on the fides, are not compofed of a fimple
membrane, but are tubes formed of circular rugae.
4. That the fpiracula are diftinguiihable, and are
covered with a fmall fcaly plate, with an opening in
the middle like a button hole, which is furniftied with
membranes, or threads, to prevent the admiflion of ex¬
traneous bodies.
Reaumm is of opinion that the air enters by the
fpiracula into the tracheae and bronchiae j and is ex¬
pired through fmall pores on the fldn, without return¬
ing by the fame way through which it entered. Were
6 this
E N T O M
fcMeral this the cafej the refpiration of infefts would differ
©bferva- fj-om that of other animals. Degeer feems to entertain
t!°ns‘ the fame opinion with Reaumur, from the account he
has given of the manner in which caterpillars breathe }
but thinks that infpiration and expiration through the
fpiracula and bronchia take place in the pupa. Lyonnet
is not of the fame opinion with Degeer, on account of
an experiment made on the pupa of the fphinx. He
fuppofes that this pupa lives for a certain time without
refpiration, and that the two anterior fpiracula, svhich
are the largeft, and enclofe the polterior ones, only
ferve the purpofe of allowing the foperabundant moif-
ture to exhale, and to permit the external air to enter
in its Head. Some experiments of Muffchenbroeck
feem to confirm the opinion of Lyonnet with regard to
the pupa.
Perhaps nature, with that forefight which is obferv-
able in all her works, has taken care to form the pupa
fo as to require but a fmall quantity of air, and may
have included in its body every thing neceffary to en¬
able it to undergo the change of its condition. The
pupa of moft infedts is certainly very torpid, and little
Capable of receiving external impreffions. The experi¬
ments of Malpighi and Reaumur have eftablilhed the
fadt that infedts mufi: refpire. Oil applied to the fpira¬
cula caufes thefe animals to fall into convulfions, in-
duces a general or partial paralyfis, or caules their
death.
Vauquelin, the celebrated chemift, has made feveral
experiments on the refpiration of the green grafiiop-
per. The male of this infedl being put into fix cubic
inches of oxygen gas (the purity of which Was afcer-
tained), lived eighteen hours. The oxygen gas was
changed into carbonic acid gas 5 it rendered lime water
turbid, but did not extinguilh a lighted candle ; after
the carbonic acid had been abforbed by means of fixed
alkali, the combuftion of the candle was more vivid
than in common air. He found that the infedl refpir-
ed fifty or fixty times in a minute ; but when put into
oxygen, its refpiration became about twelve times more
frequent, being interrupted at lafl: almoft continually,
becaufe it was on the point of undergoing afphyxia.
The air in which the infedl had died, being wrafhed
with alkali, underwent a diminution of five per cent,
and the vapour of ammonia could not again revive the
infedl.
A female infedl being put into eighteen cubic inches
©f common air, lived thirty-fix hours*, its refpiration
was not altered as to frequency 3 the bulk of the air
was not diminifhed at the death of the animal, but it
extinguifhed a candle even after it had been wafiled in
lime water 3 this is a new* proof that oxygen is neceffary
to the life of infedls J and wrhen the atmofpheric air
contains but little of it, that infedls would foon die.
This female gralhopper, being placed in fulphur-
ated hydrogen gas, was feized with afphyxia inftantly,
and could be revived by no ftimulus. Thefe experi¬
ments not only prove that infedls refpire, and that oxy¬
gen is that part of the air wdiich is neceffary to their
exiilence, but that carbonic acid or azote is fatal to
them. The fpivacula are neither of the fame form, nor
fimilarly fituated in every infedl *, the larvae of the conv
mon fly have feveral of thefe organs placed at the pof-
terior extremity of their bodies} they are moll frequent¬
ly fix.
Vot. VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y.
«33
Circulation and Secretion of Infedls.
General
Obferva-
tions.
All the animals of the two firfi: claffes have a double
circulation} their hearts confifl of tw*o dillindt auricles
and ventricles. The heart in the amphibia has two dif-
tindl auricles without any communication } and under
thefe there is the appearance of two ventricles fimilar
in lhape to thofe of the former clafs} but they may be
confidered as one cavity } for the ventricle fends out
not only the pulmonary artery, but likewife the aorta :
for there is a paffage in the feptum, by wdiich the
ventricles communicate freely, allowing the blood t©
pafs from the left into the right one. *
The heart of filhes has but one auricle and one ven¬
tricle, and one great artery wThich conveys tbe blood
to the gills. The circulation in infedls differs confider-
ably from that of the fuperior animals. In the lobfter,
and others of the larger infedls, wrhen a piece of the
(hell is broken, the pulfation of the heart is feen dif-
tindlly, and that fometimes for feveral hours after it
has been laid bare. A long delicate veffel runs along
the back parallel to the intellines of many infedls, par¬
ticularly caterpillars, in wdiich an alternate contradlion
and dilatation is perceptible. The heart, or principal
artery which performs the fundtion of the heart, feems
to be compofed of a great number of fmall hearts, con-
nedled together, wdiich tranfmit the blood from one to
another. But wdien this veffel is injedled it becomes
continuous, and the fmall hearts difappear. In the ca¬
terpillar the pulfation begins at the pollerior part, and
proceeds from one fegment to another, till it arrive at
the head. Reaumur has alleged, that the pulfation.
of this artery changes its diredlion in the pupa, and that
the blood is propelled from the head towards the tail:
he fays this may be plainly obferved in a pupa newly
ftripped.
Lyonnet denies the accuracy of Reaumur’s obferva-
tions; and fays that he found a fpecies of caterpillar,
the pupa of which is very tranfparent, in wdiich the
longitudinal artery was to be feen very diftindlly ; hav¬
ing examined it carefully, a fewT days after its change,
he afcertained that the motion of the artery had not at
all changed its diredlion, and that it Hill continued to
move from the tail towrards the head as in the caterpil¬
lar. Further obfervations can alone determine which
of thefe two opinions is the moll corredl. One anato-
milt has lately afferted that the dorfal canal obfervable
in infedls, ferves the purpofe of refpiration. Cuvier has
proved, that the conglomerate glands which are to be
met with in all the animals that have a heart, do not
exill in infedls } but inllead of them, that they are fur-
nilhed with very long llender veffels wdiich float in the
internal cavities of the body, without being even con-
nedted into fafciculi} from this circumllance Cuvier is
difpofed to believe that infedls have no heart. It is by
means of thefe fine tubes that the different fluids are
fecreted, which are peculiar to various kinds of infedls.
Some infedls difcharge an acrid and fetid fluid, others
difcharge an oil of a very pleafant fmell.
The bee, the wafp, the fphex, the cryfis, have twro
veffels fituated at the bottom of their fling, wdiich con¬
tain a very acrid fluid, fecreted from the mafs of blood,
which the animal difcharges at pleafure through a per.
foration in the fling} it is this fluid which caufes the
G g pain,
234 E N T O M
General pain, inflammation, and fwelling, which follow a wound
Gbferva. inflicted by thefe infects.
. tion5. In the fcorpion, there is a fluid of a very malignant
'"”’v ' nature, which the animal difeharges at pleafure through
its fling } under certain circumitances, this fluid pro¬
duces fatal effects. Some of the fpiders difeharge a fluid,
which renders their bite dangerous. The aranea avicu-
lariay and the tarantulay in particular, are well known j
even the common fpiders inflict a fatal wound on the
infefts they entangle in their web. The filk of the
common filk-worm and other caterpillars, according to
Malpighi, Lyonnet, and others, is a fluid contained in
two velfels, which are of a confiderable fize at the ex¬
tremity, and taper towards the mouth, and become very
{lender.
The carabus and dytifeus contain an acid which
reddens the infuflon of litmus. 1 he ant contains an acid
well known to chemifts.
The acrid matter contained in the body of the lytta
ve/icatoris, is uf’ed in medicine, and forms the beft
epifpaflic we are acquainted with.
Generation of InfeBs.
Insects are the only animals without vertebrae in
which the fexes are diftinguifhed. Copulation is per¬
formed in them by the introdu&ion of the parts of gene¬
ration of the male into thofe of the female.
All infects are either male or female, except in a few
of the genera of the order Hymenoptera, (fuch as the
bee, ant, &c^) where individuals are to be found, which
are neither male nor female } and, on tnat account call¬
ed neuters. Among the bees, the neuters form the far
greater part of tire community, and perform the office
of labourers. Among the ants, the neuters are very
numerous, and conftitute the only active members of
the fociety. It has been alleged that thefe neuters are
nothing but females, wffiofe parts have not been deve¬
loped lor want of proper nouriffiment. Olivier, how¬
ever, after ft rift examination, is difpofed to think them
really different, though he does not adduce fafts fuffi-
■ftent to eftablifli his opinion.
The parts which diftinguifli the male from the
female, may be divided into two claffes, viz. I. Thofe
which are not direftly connefted with generation. 2.
Thofe which are abfolutely neceffary for the purpofes
af generation. The circumftances which have no direft
communication with generation, which ferve to point
out the diftinftion between the fexes, are, I. The dif¬
ference of fize, obfervable in the male and female.
2. The brightnefs of the colour in each. 3. The form
and number of articulations of the antennae. 4. I he
fize and form of their wings. 5- The prefence or abfence
of a fting. The male is always fmaller than the female.
The female ant is nearly fix times larger than, the
male. The female cochineal is from 1 2 to 15 times
the fize of the male. The female termes is 200 or 300
times the fize of the male. The colours of the male
are commonly much more brilliant than thofe of the
female j this is particularly the cafe in lepidopterous in-
fefts. In fome infefts, the colour of the male is totally
different from that of the female. The antennae of the
male are commonly of a different form, and larger than
tWe of the female. Frequently the males are fumiffi-
with wings, while the females have none y the
o L o G T.
lampyns, coccusy and b/attiiy and feveral moths, afford an
example of this. The female bee is furnifhed with a
fting, wffiile the male is deftitute of one. The males
of fome infefts are furnithed with (harp prominent
points, refembljng horns, fituated either on the head or
breaft, which are either not perceptible, or very faintly
marked in the female. The parts effential to gene¬
ration afford the beft diftinguiffiing mark. In moft in¬
fefts they are fituated near the extremity of the reftum.
By preffing the abdomen near to the anus they may fre¬
quently be made to protrude. But the parts of genera¬
tion are not always fituated near the anus. In the
fpiders they are fituated in the feelers. In the libellulay
the male organ is fituated in the breaft, while that of the
female is placed at the anus.
Organs of Generation.
In male infefts, the organs which ferve for the pre>-
paration of the femen, bear fome refemblance to thofe
organs in the animals which compofe the clafs Ma?ri~
malia. All of them have four organs, two of which,
may be compared to the tefticles, and the other two to
the vficuhe fennnales. They vary very much in form
in different fpccies. During the period the male is
ufually employed in impregnating the female, thefe
parts are very diftinft j after that, they difappear total¬
ly. In the larger aquatic infefts, (particularly in the
hydrophilus') befides thefe four organs already mention¬
ed, there are other two fmall veficl.es which may be
compared to the proftate gland of the fuperior ani¬
mals. The vafa deferentia m the hydrophilus are fome-
what reflefted, its tefticles are very iarge, and terminate
in a very flender folded filament. In the graffiopper,
thefe four organs are likewife found, but the veficulec
feminales are of a compound nature} the tefticles
have a good deal the appearance of thofe of the mam*:
malia.
They are of an oval form, and are fixed to the infide
of the back, their convex furface is covered w ith feve¬
ral tubes of a bright golden colour. After thefe yellow-
tubes have been removed, the tefticles are eafily unfold¬
ed ; like all the other fecretory organs of infefts, they
feem to be nothing but a colleftion of convoluted veffels.
The vejiculce feminales, which are attached to the tef¬
ticles, are formed into clufters. In the feafon of copu¬
lation, they increafe in bulk fo much as nearly to occupy
three-fourths of the abdamen ; they are full of a limpid
fluid, which is the femen.
The vafa deferentia, which in moft infefts are very
ffiort, in the blatta mucronata are of a confiderable
length, and form feveral convolutions before they arrive
at the penis.
The penis, in infefts, is either fingle or double. Thofe
which have a fingle penis, have it placed at the pofte-
rior extremity of the abdomen , in the hbellula, how¬
ever, it is placed at the anterior part: it is membrana¬
ceous externally j internally it is compofed of a fubftance
analogous to the corpus cavernofum of other animals;
its form is either cylindrical or conical} it is fumiftied
with two feales, one on each fide, which form a fort of
xyedge , this wedge being introduced into the vagina of
the female, and the feales being feparated by .means of par¬
ticular mufcles, which are fituated at their bafe, open
the vagina, and make way for the introduftion of the
penis..
General perns. This Angular conftrudion is perhaps owing to
®|JlerJa* the want of a proper ere6lion.
Infers which have a double penis (fuch as the
fpider) have this organ placed at the extremity of the
feelers of the lower jaw 5 thefe feelers are large in the
mak. During copulation, they are introduced into two
vaginae fituated in the anterior part of the abdomen of
the female. In thefe infers, the two fmall fcales are
likewife to be found, which ferve to open the vagina of
the female.
The female is furniflied with two ovaria; they are
long tubular canals, in which the eggs are arranged like
a ftrmg of beads. The eggs which are fituated next the
opening into the oviduft, are largeft, and they diminilh
gradually as they recede from it, till they difappear alto¬
gether. The tubular canals unite, and terminate in a
common canal, which communicates with an oblong
cavity, analogous to the uterus. It is in this cavity,
that the femen of the male is depolited. Malpighi
afferts, that the fluid penetrates into the oviduft, by
means of a canal of communication, and that the eggs are
fecundated the inftant they pafs the mouth of this canal,
tis they proceed towards the external orifice of the uterus.
In viviparous infects, fuch as the hippohofca, fcorpion,
5tc. the ovaria are different. Sometimes the little ani-
aials are arranged in clufters j at other times they com-
pofe a fpiral cord, the length of which correfponds to
the number and fize of the foetus.
Copulation is not performed exactly in the fame way
by all infers. In moft of the fpecies, the male mounts
on the back of the female; but the fpiders, dragon-flies,
and fome others, have a mode of performing copulation
peculiar to themfelves. After copulation, they foon
begin to lay their eggs. Some depolit their eggs gra¬
dually, one after another j others difcharge them all at
once, for example, the ephemera, the very fhort dura-
tion of whofe exiftence renders this neceffary. But the
far greater number of infe&s lay them one by one.
There are fome which lay a confiderable number at the
fame time. The large blue flefh-fly (mufca carnarui)
when it finds carrion in a proper date for the reception
of its eggs, depofits a good number of them at once in
the fame place; but when it does not find a proper
fituation, in which to depofit its eggs, it can refrain
lor iome time, till it find a proper place and opportu-
inty. There are fome infects that do not lay their eggs
till a very long time after copulation $ bees, wafps, &c.
are impregnated before winter, but do not lay their eo-gs
till fpring. ' 6,6
entomology.
cording to Swammerdam, is not the infect itfelf, but
only its head, which firlt acquires confiftence and colour.
And the fame author alleges, that infeas do not in-
creafe in bulk, in the egg, but that their parts only ac¬
quire fhape and .confidence. Under the died of the
egg . there is a thin and very delicate pellicle, in which
the infea is enveloped, which may be compared to the
chorion and amnios which furround the foetus in qua¬
drupeds. The little infea remains in the egg till the
fluids are diflipated, and till its limbs have acquired
drength to break the egg, and make its efcape. The
different fpecies of infedts remain inclofed in the egg
for very different periods. Some continue enclofed om
ly a few days, others remain for feveral months. The
many infeas remain without being hatched
during the whole winter; and the young infeas do not
come forth from them till the feafon at which the leaves
o the vegetables on which they feed begin to expand*
When the infeas are ready to break their prifon, they
commonly attempt to pierce the (hell with their teeth, and
form a circular hole, through which they put forth fird
one leg, and then another, till they extricate themfelves
entirely.
Number of Infers. *
Iksects are by far the mod numerous clafs of animals.
About eleven thoufand fpecies have been defcribed bv
Gmelin in the lad edition of the Sydem of Nature'.
A great many more have been defcribed by other na-
turahds fince the publication of that work, and a very
confiderable number are to be met with in the cabinets
of the curious, which have not as yet been defcribed by
any author. J
In thofe parts of the world which we are bed ac-
quainted with, we. may eafily fuppofe that many fpecies
01.infects exid which have hitherto efcaped notice. The
mmutenefs of fome infeas makes them eafily overlook¬
ed j the agility of others renders the catching of them
difficult. The retired fituations which many of them haunt
favour their concealment. In the unexplored parts of
America, Africa, and Afia, many hundred fpecies mud
exid utterly unknown to naturalids. All thefe cifcum-
dances render it very probable that not one half of the
infeas which exid in the world have hitherto been de-
icnbed.
Eggs of Infecls.
The eggs of infeas are of two forts ; the fird membra¬
naceous, like the eggs of the tortoife, and the other
reptiles j the other covered with a fhell like thofe of the
birds ; their .figure varies exceedingly ; fome are
round, fome elliptical, fome lenticular, fome cylindrical
fome pyramidal, fome flat, fome fquare, but the round
and oval are the mod common. The eggs of infeas
feldom increafe in fize, from the time they have been
depoiited by the parent till they are hatched. Thofe
of the tenthredo, however, and-of fome others, are obfer-
ved to increafe in bulk.
At fird there is nothing to be perceived in the eggs
of infeas but a watery fluid j after fome little time an
obfcure point is obfervable in the eentre j which, ac-
Utility of It if efts,
INSECTS, afford nourilhment to a great number of the
lupenor animals j many of the fillies, reptiles, and birds
draw the principal part of their fudenance from that
iource. I he immenfe fwarms of different fpecies of
crab which abound in every fea, direftly or indireaiy
form the principal part of the food of the cod, haddock
herring, and a great variety of filhes. The fnake, li¬
zard, frog, and many other reptiles, feed both on land
and aquatic infeas. Gallinacious fowls, and many of the
Imall birds, &c. feed on infeds. Swallows, indeed,
feed entirely on winged infeds. They afford food like-
wife to many of the mammalia, viz. to many fpecies of
tvt batt; t0.the a?t‘eater> &c- and even to man himfelf.
Many fpecies of crab, viz. lobder, common crab,
Ihnmp, prawn, landcrab, &c. are reckoned delicacies.
1 ne larvae of fome Coleopterous infeds and locuds form
part of the food of rtian*
Infeds likewife by confuming decayed animal and
G g 2 vegetable
E N T O M
vegetable matter, which if left to undergo the. putrefac-
ive procefs, on the furface of the ground, might taint
the atmofphere with pellilential vapours, preferve the
air pure for the refpiration of man and other animals.
t Prefervation of InfeEls in Cabinets»
In collecting infeas, both male and female ought if
poflible to be procured and the time of the year when
they are taken ought to be noted. Specimens with m«
lured wings or antennae muft be rejeaed.
For colleaing infeas in their perfea date, a fort
of forceps are made ufe of, which have their extre¬
mities covered with gauze. Befides thefe the en-
tomologill, in his walks, fliould be furnifhed with
a pinculhion, ftored with pins of various lizes, and a tin
box lined with cork, of a convenient lize for the
pocket, in which the infeas when caught are to be
placed , the lepidopterous inlefts being firft carefully
killed by fqueezing their thorax, left their fluttering
fliould injure their wings. Coleopterous infeas. are
moft expeditioufly killed by being immerfed in boiling
water } and thole who prefer this method may carry
them home without injury in common pillboxes. Moft
infeas are killed with a few drops of fpirit of turpentine j
the iepidoptera and hymenoptera may eaffly be killed
by being ftack through with a pin dipt in aquafortis.
When the infeas are killed they are to be transfixed
with pins, their wings, antennae, and feet fpread out and
kept tiifplayed. In feme of the lepidoptera, two fpe-
oimens xhould be preferved j the wings in the one dis¬
played, and in the other placed as much as poflible m
their natural pofition.
Infeas may likewife be colleaed by breeding them
from their larvae \ and this, when it is convenient, is by
O L O G Y.
far the beft method for procuring fine fpecimens •, it is
chiefly praaifed with the lepidopterous kinds. When
the caterpillars are taken, they are to be fed on the
leaves of the plant or tree on which they were found,
and kept in a box wdth fome moift earth at the bottom j
they will afterwards turn into a chryfalis, either by go¬
ing into the earth, by fpinning a web and enclofing
themfelves in it, or by changing into a. pupa obtefla, ac¬
cording to their kinds. Having continued in this ftate
their appointed time, the perfea infea wTill come forth,
and muft then be killed before it has injured its wings
Hiftory.
by flying. .
Lepidopterous infeas are likewife to be colleaed m
their pupa ftate, by feeking for them under the pro-
jeaions of garden walls, pales, and out-houfes, fummer-
houfes, &.c. or by digging for them in the winter
months under the trees they feed on. W7hen thus dug
up, they are to be put into a box with moift earth, and
kept till they come out.
When the infeas are prepared in this manner, they
are to be placed in the^cabinet, which may confift ot
boxes or drawers deep enough to hold, a long pm, and
lined on the bottom with cork, or wdth wax \ the in¬
feas of each order in drawers by themfelves j and. the
different genera clofe together. 1 he generic and. trivial
name of each infea is to be written on a piece of
paper, fixed to the bottom by the fame pin which fup-
ports the infea. The drawers muft be made to fliut
very clofe, fo as to exclude the duft and minute infeas;
fome cover them with glafs. A little camphor in each
drawer is likewdfe ufeful.
Infeas of the aptera order, fuch as Ipiders, Icolo-
pendrse, juli, &c. are beft preferved in fome kind of
fpirits. The onifei and cancri may be preferved like
beetles.
HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.
THOUGH the attention of man muft have been
attraaed by the vegetables and animals with which he
found himfelf furrounded, and by the earth and mine¬
rals on which he trod, even at the very earlieft periods
of human fociety, yet a very confiderable time muft
have elapfed before any attempts v’ere made at ar¬
rangement or claflification. Anftotle vras the firft (as
far as we know) who deferved the name of natural
hiftorian j his arrangement of animals wras the only one
followed for many centuries. He divided all animals
into viviparous and oviparous j the firft contained qua¬
drupeds, the fecond birds, fifties and infefts. Under in-
le£ls were comprehended alllmall animals whofe bodies
were divided into fegments. This definition of infedls
was followed by all natural hiftorians down to the time
of Linnaeus.
Theophraftus, the difciple of Ariftotle, the only other
perfon among the ancient Greeks who deferves. the
name of natural hiftorian, beitowed the moft of his at¬
tention on vegetables and minerals. Pliny has given us
an account of all that was known in natm al hiftory
down to his own times. Though he has mentioned many
infedls, owing to his want of method little is to be learnt
from him refpedling entomology. Diofcondes, who
was nearly cotemporary with Pliny, has confined him¬
felf chiefly to natural hiftory connected with medicine.
He has given an enumeration of all the natural bodies
which entered into the materia medica. On the revi¬
val of learning in Europe, writers on natural hiftory
feemed to have confined themfelves to writing commen¬
taries on the ancients j and nothing was done in ento¬
mology till the times of Gefner, who was the greateft
naturalift the world had feen from the time of Ariftotle,
and who was the firft who made a colleftion of the ob-
je&s of natural hiftory, and formed a mufeusn. He was
born in Zurich in and died in 1565’ Aldrovan-
dus lived nearly about the fame time with Gefner, and,
like him, formed a mufeum which ferved for the founda¬
tion of the public mufeum at Bologna, where many
fpecimens may be ftill feen marked with the venerable
hand of the firft colleftor. Gefner formed his zoology
on the principles of Ariftotle : his hiftory of animals is
very voluminous. Aldrovandus made a. colleftion of
all that had been written on natural hiftory before his
own time, without diferiminating truth from fi&ion.
He has given a methodical arrangement of infects
in the feventh book of his large wmrk publiihed in 1602.
He followed nearly the fame arrangement with Gefner.
Gefner, in conjunction with fome other natural hifto-
lians, wrote a treatife on infects, which was publiftied by
J Mouffet,
E N T O M
Hiftoty. MoufFet, an Engliili phylician. About this time our
—V—J countryman, the illuftrious Harvey, ventured to contro¬
vert Ariftotle’s erroneous opinion with refpect to equi¬
vocal generation. Though his aphorifm, omnia ex ovo,
at firft met with great oppofition, it was at laid efta-
blifhed by his own experiments and thofe of Redi and
Malpighi. From this period the writers on entomo¬
logy have been numerous •, we ihall content ourfelves
here with giving little more than an enumeration of the
principal works on the iubjetf.
Agricola, in a work entitled de Animantibus Sub-
terraneis, publiihed in 1549, has given a methodical ar¬
rangement of infedts : he divides them into, 1 Creeping
infedf s j 2. Flying infeils j and 3. Swimming infedts.
After giving this arrangement, he proceeds to give an
account of each fpecies.
A 'work entitled Theatrum Inferiorum Thomce Mouf-
feti opera concinnatum. Lond. 1634, the joint labour
of leveral of the mold eminent natural hiltorians who
lived about the middle of the fixteenth century, though
not publilhed till 1734, about 30 years after the death
of MoufFet, by whofe care the work had been abridged,
and prepared to meet the public eye, is the next worthy
of notice. It is divided into two books •, the firld treats
of winged infeeds \ the fecond of infedds without wings :
thefe two grand divifions are fubdivided into feveral
families characderized by the number and pofition of the
legs. There is but little method difplayed in the
arrangement of the infedds which compofe the different
families.
Aldrovandus divides infedds into terrejlria et aquatica,
(land infedds, and aquatic infedds.) The different orders
and fubdivifions of thefe two claffes, are for the mold
part determined by the number, nature and pofition of
their wings and legs. He calls his firfd order Favifica,
(thofe which form combs). As to the refd, according
to his own declaration, he follows Arifdotle.
Wolfang Frenzius, in his Hijloria Animalium facra,
publifhed in 1612, has divided infedds into three clafFes,
viz. 1. Aeria, (fuch as fly) j 2. Aquatica, (fuch as in¬
habit the water). 3. Terrea et Reptentia, (fuch as
creep about, or are lodged in the earth. His deferip-
tions are much more accurate than thofe of any of the
authors who preceded him.
John Johnfdon has borrowed freely from his predecef-
fors, in his Hijloria Natura/is Infeciorum, publilhed in
1653. He divides infedds into terrejlria and aquatica,
(into land and aquatic infedds) : the land infedds he di¬
vides into three orders -, 1. Such as have wings and
legs 5 2. Such as have legs without wings 5 and 3. Such
as have neither wings nor legs. Thefe three orders oc¬
cupy his three firfd books ; his fourth contains aquatic
infedds.
Walter Charleton follows the fyfdem of Aldrovandus
in his Onomajlicon 'Zoicon, publiihed in 1668.
Jo. Goodart publifhed Metamorphq/is- et Hijloria Na-
turalis de InfeRis, 8vo. Mediob. 1667.
Likewife in 1675, a work of his .appeared, ItfeHis
in Methodum redaflis, opera Mart, Lifter. Ebor. In
this w-ork infects are divided into ten families: the
ift includes butterflies with eredd wings 5 2d, Butterflies
with horizontal wings j 3d, Butterflies with defledded
wings 4th, Libellulae, (Dragon-flies) ; 5th, Apes,
(bees) 5 6th, Coleopterous infedts ; 7th, Loculds, and
grafhoppers j 8th, Flics correfponding to the order
O L O G Y. < 237
diptera of Linnasus j 9th, Millepeds j and 10th, Spi- Hiftory.
ders. This work is full of typographical errors and
mifdakes in natural hifdory.
The difeovery of the microfcope in 1618, tended
greatly to the advancement of entomology, as by means
of it the mold minute parts of infedds could be viewed,
and their organization examined. Naturalifds were
much engaged in making microfcopic difeoveries, parti¬
cularly Borel, Rhedi, Swammerdam, Bonanni, Bonomo,
Leeuwenhoek and Joblot.
John Swammerdam, in his Rib Ha Natures, publifhed in
1669, has divided infedds into four claffes.
John Ray publifhed his Hijloria InJeRorum. Lond.
1710. This work was properly the joint produddion of
J. Ray and Francis Willoughby. Thefe illufdrious
friends laboured together with uncommon ardour in
the fdudy of nature. Death carried off Willoughby in
the prime of life, before he had properly digefded what
the indufdry of his early years had colledded j and his
labours would have been lofd to the world, and his
name might have funk in oblivion, but for the friend-
fhip of Ray. So clofe was the intercourfe between thefe
two naturalifts, and fo intimately were their labours
blended together, that it is not eafy to aflign each his
due fhare of merit. Indeed Ray has been fo partial to
the fame of his departed friend, and has cherifhed his
memory with fuch afFeddionate care, that we are in
danger of attributing too much to Mr Willoughby,
and too little to himfelf. Though what Dr Derham
aflerts be not corredd, that Mr Willoughby had taken
the animal kingdom for his talk, and Mr Ray the ve¬
getable one, yet it is generally agreed, that the Hi/loria
InJeRorum is principally to be aferibed to Willoughby.
In that work infedds are divided into Tranjmutabilia et
Intranjmulabilia, (thofe which undergo a metamorpho-
fis, and thofe which undergo none). Thefe two grand
divifions are fubdivided into feveral orders, which are af-
certained by the number of their legs, or total want of
legs ; by the places which they inhabit 5 by their fize j
by the configuration of the various parts of the body j
by the fmell which they diffufe, &c. The tranjmutabi¬
lia are divided into four orders. 1. Vaginipennes, (thofe
which have their wings covered with a fheath). 2. Pa-
piliones, (lepidopterous infedds). 3. -^uadripennes^ (thofe
which have four wings) j and 4. Bipennes, (thofe which
have tw-o). The papiliones, quadripennes, and bipennes
are again fubdivided into families, the charadders of
which are taken, either from the appearance and con¬
formation of their larvae, or from the form, colour and
different properties of the perfedd infedd.
Eleazar Albin publifhed a natural hiftory of Englifh
infedds in 1720. He likewife publilhed the Natural
Hiftory of Spiders in 1736.
Antony Valifnieri, in his work entitled EJperienxe
e OJervaAoni intorno agli Injetti, publifhed in 173 a,
has divided infedds into four orders, according to the
fituation in which they pafs their lives.
Mary Sybelle Merian, pubhlhed in 1730, Hijloire
d'lnJeRes d"1 Europe et de Surinam. She likewife publifh¬
ed in -1705, Metamorphqfis InJeRorum Surinamenfium
ad vivum piRa et dejeripta ; and in 1717, Erucarum
Ortus.
George Bernard Rhump publiihed in 1705, and
again in I74I> a work entitled Amboinijche Ravitutlam-
mer.
Hans
$•
238 E N T O M
Hiftory. Hans Sloane, In the years 1707 and 1725, publiihed
l" v ' a Voyage to the lilands of Madeira, Barbadoes, Nevis,
Saint Chriftophers and Jamaica.
Henry Ruii'ch in 17x0 and 1718 publifhed Theatrum
TJniverfale omnium Animatium.
J. Petiver publiihed in 1715 his leones et Nomina
Aquatilium Animalium Amboince.
Richard Bradley publifhed in 1721 his Philofophical
Account of the Works of Nature.
Linnaeus, the moll celebrated natural hiftorian the
■world ever produced, in his firll edition of the Syjlema
Naturce, publilhed in 1735, divided infects into four
orders, from the number and different appearances of
their wings; x. Coleoptera; 2. Angioptera ; 3. Hemip-
tera ; and 4. Aptera. This was but an imperfect fleetch,
a firrt effay. In the lubfequent editions of the Syftem of
Nature which he publilhed, to the number of twelve,
he completed the arrangement of infedts, of which we
need fay nothing here, as we have followed it in pre¬
ference to all others ; and molt authors who have writ¬
ten on the fubje£t for more than half a century pall
have either followed it clofely, or with very flight al¬
terations. His extenlive genius embraced all the three
kingdoms of nature. In botany and entomology in
particular he far excels all who wTent before him, and
as yet remains unrivalled. Writers on entomology be¬
came fo numerous after Linnaeus had publiihed his
Syftem of Nature, and eftablilhed entomology on a folid
foundation, that a mere enumeration of their names
and titles of their books would occupy more room than
we can afford to beftow on this article ; wre lhall there¬
fore only notice a few of the moft remarkable.
Charles Degeer, in his Memoires pour fervir a PHif-
toire des Infe&es, in 1752, has arranged infefts into four¬
teen orders, diftinguiihed by the different appearances
of the various parts wrhich compofe their bodies, particu¬
larly the elytra, wings, and moft remarkable parts of
the head. He publiihed again in 1778.
M. de Reaumur publiihed his Memoires pour fervir i)
I'Hi/loire des InfeBes at Paris in 1737. No one has
paid fo much attention to the habits of infe&s, and to
every thing that concerns them, as Reaumur. He ought
to be read by every ftudent of entomology.
John Retzius, has fimplified the arrangement of
Degeer, in a fmall wrork entitled Genera et Species
Infeffiorutn. But although in this arrangement he
has followed the method of Degeer, the terms he
has made ufe of are principally thofe of Linnaeus.
His 14 orders are, I. Lepidoptera. 2. Alin-
guia. 3. Neuroptera. 4. Hymenoptera. 5. Siphona-
ta. 6. Dermaptera. 7. Hemiptera. 8. Coleoptera.
9. Hafterata. 10. Probofcidea. 11. Sudftoria. 12.
Ancenata. 13. Atrachelia. 14. Cruftacea.
M. Geoffrey, in his Hijioire Abrege des InfeBes, pub-
Ikhed at Paris in 1762, has divided infefls into fix or¬
ders ; Coleopteres, Hemipteres, Tetrapteres ailes fari-
neufes, Tetrapteres ailes nues, Dipteres, and Apteres.
He determined his families by the number of the arti¬
culations of the feet, and his genera by charaflers drawn
from all the parts of the body. He has formed a great
number of new genera.
John Antony Scopoli, in his Entomologia Carniolica,
publilhed in 1762, has followred the arrangement of
of Linnaeus, and only changes the names of feme of the
orders; e, g. Prpbofcidea, inftead of Hemiptera ; Acu-
4
O L O G Y.
leata, inftead of Hymenoptera; Halterata, Inftead of Miffory.
Diptera ; and Pedeftria, inftead of Aptera. e—y—
J. C. Schaeffer publilhed in 1766, E/ementa Entomo-
logica, 135 tabulce cere excuffeei he follows in many
points the method of Linnaeus. He divides infedls into
feven claffes. 1, Coleoptero-macroptera. 2. Coleop-
tero-microptera. 3. Hemiptera. 4. Hymeno-lepidop-
tera. 5. Hymeno-gymnoptera. 6. Diptera ; and 7.
Aptera. His firft and fecond clafles correfpond with
the Coleoptera of Linnaeus ; the fourth with the Lepi¬
doptera, and the fifth with the Hymenoptera.
John C. Fabricius is the founder of a new fyftem of
Entomology, which he publilhed in his Syfema Natures
1773. He diferiminates his orders and genera, by the
parts of the mouth, (infrumenta cibaria). He after¬
wards publilhed Species Infeclorum, Entomologia Sy/le~
matica, and Mantiffa InfeBorum.
The arrangement of Fabricius has acquired great re¬
putation, efpecially on the continent. It may not there¬
fore be amifs to give a flight view of it. He divides
infefts into eight claffes.
Clafs I. EleutheRata. Mouth armed with jaws,
and four or fix feelers. The jaws naked
and free.
Clafs II. Uea>tata. The jaws covered with an ob«
tufe helmet.
Clafs III. Synistata. The jaws united with the
!ip.
Clafs IV. Agonata. The under jaw wanting.
Clafs V. Unogata. Mouth armed with jaws and
two feelers; the under jaw generally
fumilhed with a fmall unguis or nail.
Clafs VI. Glossata. Mouth fumilhed with feelers*
and a fpiral tongue.
Clafs VII. Rhyngota. Mouth fumilhed with a fnout,
and an articulated Iheath.
Clafs VIII. Antliata. Mouth furnilhed with a hauf-
tellum and a Iheath not articulated.
In a fupplement to his Entomologia Systematica, he
has divided infefts into thirteen orders. 1. Eleutherata.
2. Ulonata. 3. Syniftata. 4. Piezata. 5. Odorata.
6. Mitofata. 7. Unogata. 8. Polygonata. 9. Klei-
ftagnatha. I o. Exochnata. 1 x. Glolfata. 1 2. Rhyn-
gota, 13. Anthliata. He has lately publilhed a work
entitled Systema Eleutheratorum, no more than two
volumes of which have as yet made their appearance.
Moles Harris publilhed an Expofition of Englilh In¬
fers, &.c.with coloured plates, 1776.
Jo. Chrift publilhed Philofophia Entomologica ffens
feientice fund ament a, &c. Hamb. 1778, 8vo.
Archiv. der Infehengefchichte heraufgege bervon.
joh. Cafp. Fuefly. Zurich, 1781.
Fr. Paulla, v. Schrank ; Enumeratio InfeBorum Au-
frice indigenorum. Aug. Vindel. 1781.
P. Sim. Pallas; leones InfeBorum. Hamb. I78r.
A. W. Knock ; Beytraege %ur Infebtengefchichte,
1781.
James Barbut publifhed the Genera InfeBorum of
Linnaeus, exemplified by various fpecimens of Englifh
infefts drawn from nature. Lond. 1781.
John Nepomuk de Laicharting, has divided infefts
into ten orders, charadfterized by the configuration of va¬
rious parts of the body. He adheres pretty clofely to
the
t. 'sv/'/vr.
i
%
-E ZNT T O MO O CI V.
O r tier III. L epitloptera
j
E N T O M
Hiflory, tlie method cf Linnaeus. His orders are, I. Scarabae-
~ oides. 2. Grylloides. 3. Cimicioides. 4. Papilionoides.
5. Libelluloides. 6. Vefpoides. 7. Mufcoides. 8.
Cancroides. 9. Aranoides, and 10. Oniicoides.
Olivier, in 1780, publifhed Entomologie, ou Hi/ioire
Naturelle des Infectes, in 3 vols, 4to. Paris. In 1790,
in the DiBionnairc des Infeffcs, forming a part of the
Encyclopedic Meihodique, he has given an arrangement
of infedls little different from that of Linnaeus. He has
added one order which he calls Orthopteres, diftinguiih-
ed by the mode of folding the lower wings, and a part
on the head, which he terms galea. He has like wife
fubdivided the order Aptera, into Arachnides and Cruf-
taces. Latreille in 1795, in a work entitled Precis du
CaraEiere des Genres, divides infects into two grand di-
vifions, viz. injecles aill r, et infecies apt eves, (winged
infefts, and infefls without wings). Thefe two grand
divifions he fubdirides into 14 orders. 1. Coleopteres.
2. Orthopteres. 3. Hemipteres. 4. Neuropteres. 5.
Lepidopteres. 6. Suceurs. 7. Thyfanoures. 8. Pa-
raiites. 9. Acephales. j o. Lntomoftraces. 11. Cruf-
taces. 12. Myriapodes. Since that he has publiflied
a more detailed account of this method in a work enti¬
tled les Genres et les Families des InfeBes.
Clairville in 1798* in the introduSion to his Entomo-
lt>gie Helvetique, has given an arrangement of infects,
O L O G Y. 231
in which he differs from Linnaeus almofl in nothing, ex- Hiftory.
cept in the names of his orders, viz. Elytropteres, Die- —r—"
tyopteres, Thlebopteres, Haltipteres, Lepidopteres,
Heminopteres, Rophoteires, and Pododuneres.
Link, in his Magajin fur Thiergefchite, has divided
infects into eleven orders j he follows de Laicharting
almoft in every thing, even in the names of his
orders 5 he has indeed added an order which he calls
Pediculoides.
Cuvier and Dumeril, in their Comparative Anatomy,
have very nearly followed the method of Linnaeus j they
have however divided the order Aptera into two, viz.
Gnathaptera and Aptera \ they have likewife altered the
arrangement of the orders, and have placed thofe firft
which contain infe£ts furnilhed with jaws,viz. Gnathapte¬
ra, Neuroptera,Hymenoptera, Coleoptera,and Orthopte-
ra j and have thrown thofe laft which are deftitute of jaws,,
viz. Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera and Aptera.
We lhall refrain from noticing thofe authors who have
written partial treadles ; though there are feveral works
of that kind which the entomologift might perufe with
advantage, fuch as Fauna Suecica, publilhed in 1761
by Linnceus, at Stockholm. Fauna Germanica, by
Panzer. La Faune Parijienne de Walhnair. Kirby’s
Monographia apum Anglice. Latreille’s treatife *1^
Ants.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Plate CCIII.
1. Axteykte pectinate, or feathered; as in the
phalcena, moths.
2. —— perfoliata;, or perfoliated; as in
the dermefes and dytifeus.
'« FissiLES, or fiflile, divided into la-
mime at the extremity, as in the fcarabcei,.
beetles.
^   clavat;e,. or club-fhaped, as in the
papilio, butterfly.
J. moniliformes, like a necklace of
beads ; as in the chryfotnela.
6.  setaceje, fetaceous, or briftle-flia-
ped ; as in many of the phalanx.
7- ~ ~ ARISTAT2E, fumilhed with a lateral;
hair, as in the fly.
:8. 9. a. Caput, the head.
b, Palpi, or feelers.
c, Antennae, or horns.
d, Oculi, the eyes.
<?, Thorax.
f Scutellum, or efcutcheon.
g, Pedlus, or breaft.
h. Sternum, or breaft-bone.
/, Abdomen, and its fegments.
k. Anus.
/, Elytra, or fhells.
m, Membranous wings.
Pedes, or feet, which are natatorii.
10. 0, Femur, or thigliv
/>, Tibia, or leg.
<7, Tarfus, or foot.
r, Unguis, or claw.
11. a. The anterior part of the wirtg),
b, The pofterior part. ■'
f, The exterior part.
d, The interior part.
e, The margin.
f The dilk, or middle,.
g, Oculus, or eye.
12. 13, 14, 15, Reprefent the infeft in Its egfr
caterpillar, pupa, and perfect;
ftate.
Order I. CoLEOPTERA. Fig. 16. Scarabaus. Fig. 17,
Ptinus. Fig. 18. Bupreflis. Fig. 19. Carabus.
Order II. Fig. 20. Mantis. Fig. 21. Fulgora.-
Fig. 22. Notonetfa. Fig. 23. Cimex. Fig. 24. Aphis.
Fig. 25. Coccus,
Order III. Fig. 26. Papilio. Fjg. 27. Sphinx,
Fig. 28. Phalcena.
Order IV. Fig. 29. Libellula. Fig. 30. Hemera-
bins. Fig. 31. Panorpa.
Order V. Fig. 32. Tenthredo. Jig. 33, Ichneiv*
tnon. Fig. 34. Chryfls. Fig. 35. Formica.
Order VI Fig. 36. Oeflrus. Fig. 37. Tipula*
Fig. 38. Afllus.
Order VII. Fig. 39. Lepifma. Fig. 40. Aranea,
Fig. 41. Scorpio, Fig. 42. Cancer. Fig. 43. Scolo-
pendra.
/INDEX*.
[ 240 ]
Abdomen, p. 146
Acarus, _ 219
Achivi, a fubdivifion of papilio, 183, 184
Attceon, largeft coleopterous infed
? 152
I47
176
224
23°
157
199
207
196
207
ib.
146
230
*56
146
160
VS
ib.
162
203
inown
Aculeus,
Adonidum^ fpecies of coccus,
Afery fpecies of fcorpio,
Aliment of infefts,
AlurmiS)
Animal cotton,
Ant,
Ant-eater>
Ant-eggs,
Ants do not ftore up for the winter,
Antennce,
ufe of,
Anthrenus,
Anus,
Apalus,
Aphides, propagation of
Aphis,
Apiarius, fpecies of attelabus,
Apis,
Aptera, I47?
Aranea,
Armadillo, fpecies of onifcus,
Afilus,
AJlacus,
Atlas, fpecies of phalaena,
Atrops, fpecies of fphinx,
Aitacos, a fubdivifion of phaleena,
Attelabus,
Auricularta, fpecies of forficula,
Avicularta, fpecies of aranea,
£
Barded,
Back,
Beak,
Bee,
Beetle,
Blatta,
Bliflering-fiy,
Blojfom-eater,
Boat-jly,
Bombyces, divifion of phalsena,^ 189,
BombyUus,
Bond,
Bojlrichus,
Bolts,
Bovinusy fpecies of tabanus,
Bovts, fpecies of oeftrus,
Brea ft.
Breeze,
Brentus,
Bruchus,
215
221
227
214
225
190
188
189
161
170
222
146
ib.
ib.
203
I7I
169
ib.
VS
190
214
160
154
209
2x3
208
146
208
160
*59
INDEX.
Bug, _ _ p-173
when introduced into Europe, 174
Bull-comber, . 152
Bullhead, 167
BupreJHs, 166
Butter-fly, ' 182
Buz-fly, 214
Byrrhus, ' tS^
C 1
Cacao, fpecies of bruchus, '159
CaBi, fpecies of coccinella, 157
a fpecies of coccus, 176
Caddo, 195
Caddy, ib
Calcitrans, a fpecies of ftomoxys, 2x4
Calopus, 163
Campefcane cochineal, 177
Cancer, 224
Cancraides, fpecies of phalangium, 2 21
Candelaria, fpecies of fulgora, 173
Candidi, a fubdivilion of papilio, 183
Cantharis, / 165
Capitate, 14^
Carabus,
Carnaria, fpecies of mufca, 211
Carrion-beetle, 156
Carrion-eater, 164
Cajflda, ' i J7
Ccecutiens, fpecies of tabanus, 213
Cells of wafps, how formed, 20 2
Centuncularis, fpecies of bee, 203
Cerambytc, 162
C err aria, a fpecies of phalaena, 192'
Cerella, a fpecies of phalaena, 194
Chalets, 201
Cheefe-mite, 2 20
Chela, 147
Cher mes, 1/6
Chermes grains, 182
Chryfalis, 147
Chryjis, 201
Chryfomela, 158
Cicada, VS
Cicindela, 166
Cimix, 174
Circulation of fluids in infe&s, 233
Clavated, 146
Claw, 147
Clock-beetle, 153
Coccinella, 157
Coccus, * 76
Cochineal, ib*
falfely fuppofed a vegeta¬
ble production, 177
introduced into Bengal, 178
Cock-chaffer, 153
Cock-roach, X71
Coleoptera, S47> IS2
Colombafchenfls, fpecies of mufca, 212
Comparative quantity of wax made
from fugar and from
honey, p. 206
Conops, 214
Coffus, fpecies of phalaena, eaten by
by the Romans, 191
Cow-burner, 166
Crab, 224
Crabro, fpecies of vefpa, 20 2
Crane-fly, 2i <3
Crangon, fpecies of cancer, 225
Cratccgi, a fpecies of papilio, 185
Craw-fijh, 225
Cricket, 171
Cryptocephalus, 158
Cuckow-fpit, 173
Cucujus, 165
Culex, 213
Culinaris, a fpecies of tenebrio, 168
Curculio, 16®
Cynips, 197
D
Danai, a divilion of papilio, 183, 185
Day-fly, 195
Death-watch, 155
Dentated, 147
Dermejles, 154
DeflruBor, a fpecies of acartis, 220
fpecies of termes, 217
Defle8ed, 146
Diamond-beetle, i6o, i6l
Diopfis, 210
Diptera, ,47> 20 ^
Domeflica, fpecies of mufca, 211
Domejlicus, fpecies of gryllus, 172
Door-beetle, 153
Dragon-fly, 194
Drone-bee, 203
Dung-beetle, 153
Dyfenterica, fpecies of acarus, 22®
Earwig, 17®
Economy of termes fatale, 216
Ela ter, 165
Elytra, X 47
Emmet, 207
Empis, 213
Ephemera, 195
Equi, fpecies of oeftrus, 209
Equina, fpecies of hippobofea, 215
Equites, a divifion of papilio, ✓ 183
Erodius, 169
Eruca, 147
Eyes infdds, 229, 146
Experiments of Maupertuis on fcor-
pions, 223
Extremities, 146
F
Index. E
F
Farina of flowers, the food of the
young bees, p. 205
Farinaiis, a fpecies of phalaena, 193
Fajligata, 147
Fatale, a fpecies of termes, 216
Faujla, fpecies of mantis, a Hotten¬
tot deity, 171
Feelers, 146
Female bee,
Fe/hvi, a divifion of papilio, 1 83, 188
Ficus indica, food of the lac infect, 180
religiofa, food of the lac infecl, ib.
fpecies of coccus, ib.
Field-crichet, 17 2
Figutus, fpecies of fphex., 200
Filiform, 146
Fi'*-fy, 164
146
Flea, 2Ip
Flowers do not always contain honey, 208
Fly, 210
Forceps, ,47
Forjicula, 1>j0
Formica, 207
Formicarius, fpecies of attelabus, 161
fpecies of myrmeleon, 148
Fojforia, fpecies of vefpa, 202
Frit, fpecies of mufca, 212
Frog-hopper, ^3
Frumentanus, a fpecies of curculio,
injurious to corn, 160
Fulgora, 172
Fullo, largeft Britifli fcarabaeus, 183
Furca, 147
G
Gad-fly, 208
Gall-fly, 197
Gammarus, fpecies of cancer, 225
Gemmati, a fubdiviflon of papilio, 183, 186
Geometra, a divifion of phalaena, 189, 192
Generation of infers, 234
Gigur, ^ 219
Glomeratus, a fpecies of ichneumon, 200
Glow-worm,
Glutton, x
Gnat, 213
Golden-fly, 201
Grana-fna, compared with grana-fyl-
veftris, X 79
Grana-fna, compared with Bengal
cochineal, 180
Grana fylveflris improveable, 179
Grananus, a fpecies of curculio, in¬
jurious to grain, 160
Grand la, a fpecies of phahena, 144
Gryllotclpa, a fpecies of gryllus, 172
Gryllus, 171
Gum-lac, l8o
Gyrinus, I r r
H
Habitations of the white ant, 211
Hamorrhoidahs, a fpecies of oeftrus, 209
Hat teres, ' 147
Hawk-moth, X87
VOL. VIII. Part I.
ntomolog
Hapiah, a divifion of phalaena, p. 190, 194
Hearing of infects, 229
Heliconii, a divifion of papilio, 183, 185
Hemelytra, 147
Hemiptera, ' 147, 171
Hemerobius,
Hippobofca, 21 c
FFfpa, x cn
Hfler, _ 1
Hominis, a fpecies of oeflrus, 210
Honeybee, 20 2
Ho/za, 163
Hornet, 2o 2
Horfe-fly, 219
Houfe-bug, 174
Houfe-cricket, 172
Houf e-fly,
211
Humble-bee, 2o6
Humile, a fpecies of phalaena, 194
Hyalina, a fpecies of fulgora, 173
Hydrachna, 220
Hydrophilus, 167
Hymenoptera, 147, 197
Ichneumon,
Ilicis, a fpecies of coccus, 18 2
. . / 147
Imperialis, a fpecies of curculio, 161
Incumbent, x 46
InfeEi, definition of, ib.
InfcPls, charadters of, 148
claflification of, 147
Irritans, a fpecies of pulex, 219
a Ipecies of Itomoxys, 214
Itch infect, 220
lulus, 228
faculator, a fpecies of ichneumon, 199
Japonic a, a fpecies of lampyris, 164
Jarpeada, a kind of cochineal, 177
Y. 24i
Lucanus, p. 1^4
Fytta, x 69
Lacca,
Lac infedt,
Lady-bird,
Lady-cow,
Lampyris,
Land crab,
Lanternana, a fpecies of fulgora,
Lanthorn-fly,
Larva,
Latro, a fpecies of cancer,
Leather-eater,
Ledularis, a fpecies of cimex,
Lepidoptera, 147,
Lepifma,
Leptura,
Leucopflf,
Libellula,
Lion-ant,
Lobfhr,
Locufl,
Locufle,
Long-legged fpider,
Loufe,
Loujy beetle,
Machaon, a fpecies of papilio,
Macrocephalus,
Male-bee,
Manticora,
Mantis,
Maflique cochineal,
Maurus. a fpecies of fcorpio,
Maxilla,
May bug,
Melhflca, a Ipecies of apis,
Melonella, a fpecies of phalaena,
Meloe,
Melolontha,
Melyris,
Metamorphofs,
Meteorica, a fpecies of mufca,
Method of rearing cochineal,
Migratorius, a fpecies of gryllus,
Mite,
Mole-cricket,
Molitor, a fpecies of tenebrio,
Moniltform,
Monoculus,
Mordella,
Mori, a fpecies of phalaena,
Morio, a fpecies of apis,
181
'IS
203
169
171
177
224
146
J53
203
194
169
*53
183
147
212
177
172
219
172
168
146
226
170
191
. , 207
Morfitans, a fpecies of fcolopendra, 228
Moth, x83
Mufca, 210
Mufquito, 217
Mu till a, 207
My rme Icon, ,95
M
Navalis, a fpecies of cantharis, inju¬
rious to oak timber, 163
Necydalis, 164
Negro, a kind of cochineal, 177
Nepa, I74
j8o Neuroptera, 147^ X94
ib. Neuter bee, 203
157 Neuters, 147
156 Nibbier, x 70
164 Nididans, a fpecies of aranea, 222
224 Nympha, _ 147
173 Nymph alls, a divifion of papilio, 183, 186
172 Nitidula, 164
147 Nodilucus, a fpecies of elater, 166
225 NoSliue, a divifion of phalfena, 189, 193
154 Nopal, food of the true cochineal, 177
174 NotoneBa, X73
192 NotOXUS, X 6 2
215 Number of bees in a hive, 203
1^3 ^ of fpecies of infedls, 228,235
201 Number of botts in the itomach of
J94 y horfes, 209
196 Nurflng bees, 204
225 O
172 Ocelli, 147
ib. Oeflrus, 209
22r Oleracea, a fpecies of tipula, 210
218 Oleraceus, a fpecies of cimev 174
I53 Onifcus, .227
H h ‘ Opatrum,
242
Opatrum,
Obilio, a fpecies of phalangium,
Organization of infedfs,
Organs of digeftion of infedls,
generation,
maftication,
Orient alts, a fpecies of blatta,
221
228
237
234
231
l7l
Orni, a fpecies of cicada, larva eatable, 173
Ovis, a fpecies of oeftrus,
Ox-Jly,
225
146
196
I82
Tagurus, a fpecies of cancer,
Palp#,
Panorpaf
PapHio,
Parapleflicus, a fpecies ofcurculio, fup-
pofed to be the caufe
of flaggers in horfes, 160
Pcrnajfu, a divifion of papilio, 183, 185
Pajhl, a preparation of coccus ilicis, 182
PaufuSy
Pediculus,
Peclinatedy
Penetrans, a fpecies of pulex,
Perfoliated,
Phalangium,
Phalana,
Phalerati, a fubdivifion of papilio,
Phofphoria, a fpecies of fcolopendra,
Phofphorius, a fpecies of elater,
Phryganea,
Ptlvlarius, a fpecies of fcarabaeus,
Pimeha,
Pincers,
Pinguinahs, a fpecies of phalaena,
fometimes found in the
human flomach,
PinnophyJax, a fpecies of cancer,
Pipiens, a fpecies of culex,
Pi/i, a fpecies of bruchus, introduced
into Europe from America,
Plant-lice,
Plebeii, a divifion of papilio,.
Pneumora,
Podura,
Polcnicus, a fpecies of coccus,
Polyphemus, a fpecies of monoculus,
Prawn,
Prefervation of infedls in cabinets,
Pterojhori, a divifion of phalama, 190
ENT OMOLO
Red fpider, p.
Rein-deer go to the mountains to fliun
the oeftrus,
Renagnda, a kind of cochineal,
Refpiration of infects,
Reverfed, *
Rhamnus jujuba, food of the lac
infedt,
Rhinomacer,
Robinhc, a fpecies of bruchus, intro¬
duced into Europe from
America,
Rofmarim, a fpecies of cynips,
Rojlrata, a fpecies of ftomoxys,
Rove-beetle,
Rurales, a fubdivifion of papilio,
Ruricohe, a fpecies of cancer,
209
213
159
21 8
146
219
146
221
189
183
228
166
J95
'53
168
147
'93
224
213
'59
'19
183,187
171
215
176
227
225
236
'94
Ptinus, 155
Pubis, a fpecies of pediculus, 218
Pulex, 219
a fpecies of monoculus, 227
Puf :tori' s, a fpecies of termes, 218
Pum lionis, a fpecies of mufca, 21 2
IV at ides, a divifion oi phalaena, 189, 193
Qt/een bee, _ 203
Kerens gemmae, fpecies of cynips, 197
foliae, tb'
R
Raphidia, 197
Sabulofa, a fpecies of fphex,
Saccharinum, a fpecies of lepifma,
Sanguifugus, fpecies of acarus,
Saw-Jy,
Scabiei, a fpecies of acarus,
Scarabaus,
Sckafferi, a fpecies of fear abacus,
Scarlet grain of Poland,
Scolia,
Scolopendra,
Scorpio,
Scorpion,
Scorpion fy,
Scute Hum,
Secafis, a fpecies of phalaena,
Secretion of infedts,
SrduSor, a fpecies of ichneumon,
Segetis, a fpecies of elater,
a fpecies of curculio, deftruc-
tive to grain,
Senfes of infedts,
Serropalpus,
Setaceous,
Sexes of infedts,
Shanks,
Shepherd's fpider,
Shrimp,
Silk, by whom firft made,
Silk-vjorm,
Sirex,
Siro, a fpecies of acarus,
Skipper,
Snout,
Soothfayer, a fpecies of mantis,
Spanifh fly.
Sparkler,
Sphex,
Shinx,
Sp der,
Spiracu/a,
Splendidula, a fpecies of lampyris,
Spring-tail,
Spumaria, a fpecies of cicada,
Syuiila, a fpecies of cancer,
Stag-beetle,
StaphiUnus,
G
219
208
'll
232
146
180
161
'59
'91
214
*57
170
224
200
215
220
'91
220
152
'53
176
201
228
223
221
196
146
'93
233
199
166
161
229
165
146
147
lb.
221
22?
191
lb.
198
146
165
146
171
169
166
200
187
221
146
164
215
'13
225
*54
170
Y. Index.
State of the atmofphere moft favour¬
able for the fecretion of
honey, p. 205
Stemmata, 146
Sternum, ib.
Sting, _ 147
of the European fcorpion not fo
dangerous as is commonly
fuppofed, 223
Stipi'ati, 146
Stomoxys, 214
Suicata, a fpecies of pimelia, 169
Sycophanta. a fpecies of carabus, 168
Syipha, 136
Syivefler, a fpecies of cochineal, 177
Tabanus,
rail,
Pailed wafp,
rapezella, a fpecies of phalrena,
Parandi, a fpecies of oeltrus,
Par an tula, a fpecies of aranea,
Pelarius, a fpecies of acarus,
Penebria,
Penthredo,
Permes,
Perreflris, a fpecies of apis,
Petrafcale cochineal,
Phorax,
Pblips,
Phynnus,
Pick,
Pinese, a divifion of phalaena,
Piphia,
Pipula,
Portrices, a divifion of phaloena,
Pritici, a fpecies of phalaena,
a fpecies of tipula,
Pritoma,
"Iroes, a fubdivifion of papilio,
Prompe, a fpecies of oeltrus,
Prank,
Pump-fly,
V
Verrucivorus, a fpecies of gryllus,
Veflcatoria, a fpecies of lytta,
Vefpa,
Vrtellince, a fpecies of tenthredo,
Vine-fretter,
Vio/acea, a fpecies of apis,
Vitis. a fpecies of aphis,
Voians, a fpecies of cancer,
Vulgaris, a fpecies of vefpa,
Vulgata, a fpecies of ephemera, ufed
as manure by the inhabi¬
tants of Carniola,
Urhicola, a fubdivifion of papilio, 183, 187
Urticce, a fpecies of papilio, 186
Uje the bees make of the farina of
flowers, 205
Utility of infedts, 235
W
Warbles, . 2C 8
Wafp, 20 2
Water-clock,
212
147
198
194
208
222
219
168
197
2*5
206
177
146
182
201.
219
I90, 192
201
210
I90
194
210
156
*83
208
146
*58
* 172
169
202
198
'15
206
176
224
202
'95
Index.
Water-clock,
Water-flea,
Waterflcorpion,
Wax formed from honey,
making bees,
Weevi/,
E
p. 167
J55
174
203
204
160
N T O M O L
Whirler,
Wings,
ereft,
defledled,
White ant,
eaten by the Africans,
o
p-
G Y.
I55
146
ib.
ib.
215
216
243
loungefl and mod: vigorous cattle at¬
tacked by the breeze, p. 208
Z
7Jgia, j 60
Zonitis, ' ib.
ENT
ENTREPAS, in the manege, a broken pace or go¬
ing, that is neither walk nor trot, but has fomewhat of
an amble.
This is a pace or gait of fuch horfes as have no reins
or back, and go upon their Ihoulders j or, of fuch as
are fpoiled in their limbs.
ENTRING ladders, in a drip, are of two forts j
one ufed by the veflel’s lides, in a harbour, or in fair
weather, for perfons to go in and out of the fhip : the
other is made of ropes, with fmall Haves for fteps 5 and
is hung out of the gallery to enter into the boat, or to
come aboard the drip, when the fea runs fo high that
they durft not bring the boat to the drip’s fide for fear
of Having it.
ENTROCHUS, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of ex¬
traneous fofiils, ufually of about an inch in length, and
made up of a number of round joints, which, when fe-
parate and loofe, are called trochitce: they are compo-
fed of the fame kind of plated fpar with the fodil diells
of the echini, wdiich is ufually of a bluidi-gray colour,
and very bright where freih broken 5 they are all dri-
ated from the centre to the circumference, and have a
cavity in the middle.
The entrochi are found of all fizes, from that of a
pin’s head to a finger’s length, and the thicknefs of
one’s middle finger; and are plainly of marine origin,
having often fea-lhells adhering to them. They feem
to be the petrified arms of that Angular fpecies of the
fea dar-fi(h, calledflella arborefcens.
ENTRY, in Law, fignifies taking poiTeffion of lands
or tenements, where a perfon has a right fo to do.
Entry of an Heir, in Scots Law, that form of law by
which an heir veds in himfelf a proper title to his pre-
deceffor’s edate.
Bill of Entry, in commerce. See Bill.
In making entries inwards, it is ufual for merchants
to include all the goods they have on board the fame
drip in one bill, though fometimes they may happen to
be upwards of 20 feveral kinds : and in cafe the goods
are diort entered, additional or pod entries are now al¬
lowed ; though formerly the goods fo entered were
forfeited. As to bills of entry outwards, or including
goods to be exported, upon delivering them, and pay¬
ing the cudoms, you will receive a fmall piece of parch¬
ment called a cocket, which tedifies your payment there¬
of, and all duties for fuch goods.
If feveral forts of goods are exported at once, of
which fome are free, and others pay cudoms j the ex¬
porter mud have two cockets, and therefore mud make
two entries *, one for the goods that pay, and the other
for the goods that do not pay cudom.
Entries of goods, on which a drawback is allowed,
mud likewife contain the name of the ihip in which the
Eonians.
EON
goods were imported, the importer’s name, and time Envelope
of entry inwards. The entry being thus made, and an
oath taken that the cudoms for thofe goods were paid
as the law direfls, you mud carry it to the colleflor
and comptroller, or their deputies 5 who, after exami¬
ning their books, will grant warrant, which mud be
given to the furveyor, fearcher, or land-waiter, for them
to certify the quantity of goods j after which the cer¬
tificate mud be brought back to the colleflor and
comptroller, or their deputies, and oath made that the
faid goods are really (hipped, and not landed again in
any part of Great Britain.
ENVELOPE, in Fortification, a work of earth,
fometimes in form of a fimple parapet, and at others
like a fmall rampart with a parapet: it is raifed fome¬
times on the ditch, and fometimes beyond it.
ENVIRONNE', in Heraldry, fignifies furrounded
with other things : thus, they fay, a lion environne
with fo many bezants. See Bezants.
ENUMERATION, an account of feveral things,
in which mention is made of every particular article.
Enumeration, in Rhetoric, a part of peroration 5 in
which the orator, collecting the fcattered heads of what
has been delivered throughout the whole, makes a brief
and artful relation or recapitulation thereof.
ENVOY, a perfon deputed to negotiate fome affair
with any foreign prince or date. Thofe fent from the
courts of Britain, France, Spain, &c. to any petty
prince or date, fuch as the princes of Germany, the
republics of Venice, Genoa, &c. go in quality of en¬
voys, not ambaffadors 5 and fuch a charaCfer only do
thofe perfons bear, who go from any of the principal
courts of Europe to another, when the affair they go
upon is not very folemn or important. There are en¬
voys ordinary and extraordinary, as wrell as ambaffadors j
they are equally under the proteftion of the law of na¬
tions, and enjoy all the privileges of ambaffadors j only
differing from them in this, that the fame ceremonies are
not performed to them. v
ENVY, in Ethics, pain felt, and malignity con¬
ceived, at the fight of excellence or happinefs in an¬
other. See Emulation.
EON, or AiiON. See AiON.
EONIANS, in church-hidory, the followers of Eon,
a wild fanatic of the province of Bretagne, in the 1 2th
century, whofe brain was difordered. He concluded
from the refemblance between cum, in the form for
exorcifing malignant fpirits, viz. Ber eum, qui vcnturus
efl judicare vivos et mortuos, and his own name Eon,
that he was the fon of God, and ordained to judge
the quick and dead. Eon, however, was folemnly con¬
demned by the council at Rheims, in 1148, at which
Pope Eugenius III. prefided, and ended his days in a
H h 2 miferable
E P A [ 244 ] E P A
miferable prlfon. He left behind him a number of fol¬
lowers and adherents, whom perfecution and death fo
weakly and cruelly employed could not perfuade to aban¬
don his caufe, or to renounce an abfurdity which, fays
Moflieim, one would think could never have gained cre¬
dit but in fuch a place as Bedlam.
EORIA, in Mi/thologij, a feaft celebrated by the
Athenians in honour of Erigonus, who, by Way of pu-
nifhment for their not avenging the death of his father
Icarus, engaged the gods to inflift the curfe on their
daughters that they ihould love men who never return¬
ed their paffion. The fealt was inftituted by the order
of Apollo.
EOSTRE, in Mythology, a Saxon goddefs to whom
they facrificed in the month of April, called the month
of Eojlra ; and thence the name Eq/ler, which the Sax¬
ons retained after their conversion to Chriftianity, ap¬
plying it to the fellival celebrated in commemoration of
our Saviour’s refurredtion.
EPACRIS, a genus of plants belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs. See Botany Index.
EPACTS, in Chronology, the excelfes of the folar
month above the lunar fynodical month, and of the
folar year above the lunar year of twelve fynodical
months 5 or of feveral folar months above as many fy¬
nodical months, and feveral folar years above as many
dozen of fynodical months.
The epafts, then, are either annual or menjlrual.
Menftrual epafls are the exceffes of the civil or ka-
lendar month above the lunar month. Suppofe, e. gr.
it were new moon on the firll day of January -, fmce
the lunar month is 29 days I2h. 44' 3,/, and the month
of January contains 31 days, the menftrual epa6t is 1
day uh. 15' 57".
Annual epacfts are the exceffes of the folar year
above the lunar. Hence, as the Julian folar year is
365 days 6h. and the Julian lunar year 354 days 8h.
48' 38", the annual epaft will be 10 days 2ih. u' 22";
that is, nearly 11 days. Confequently the epaft of 2
years is 22 days j of 3 years, 33 days j or rather 3,
ftnce 30 days make an emholifmic or intercalary month.
Thus the epaft of 4 years is 14 days, and fo of the
reft 5 and thus, every 19th year, the epaft becomes 30
or Oj confequently the 20th year the epadl is 11 again j
and fo the cycle of epadfts expires with the golden num¬
ber, or lunar cycle of 19 years, and begins with the
fame, as in the following table 1
Gold.
Numb.
Epadfs.
XI
XXII
III
XIV
XXV
VI
XVII
Gold.
Numb.
8
9
10
11
12
Epadfs.
Gold.
Numb.
XXVIII
IX
XX
I
XII
XXIII
14
16
18
!9
Epadfs.
IV
XV
XXVI
VIII
XIX
XXX
Again, as the new moons are the fame, that is, as
they fall on the fame day every 19 years, fo the dif¬
ference between the lunar and folar years is the fame
every 19 years. And becaufe the faid difference is al- Epaminon-
ways to be added to the lunar year, in order to adjuft , (ias-
or make it equal to the folar year j hence the faid dif- v
ference refpedlxvely belonging to each year of the
moon’s cycle is called the epacl of the fold year, that is,
the number to be added to the faid year, to make it
equal to the folar year \ the word being formed from
the Greek iTtayu, induco, intercalo.
Upon this mutual refpedt between the cycle of the
moon and the cycle of the epadts, is founded this rule
for finding the Julian epadt, belonging to any year of
the moon’s cycle. Multiply the year given of the
moon’s cycle into 11 : and if the produdt be lefs than
30, it is the epadl fought j if the product be greater
than 30, divide it by 30, and the remainder of the di¬
vidend is the epadt. For inftance, I would know the
epadt for the year 1712, which is the third year of the
moon’s cycle. Wherefore 3 is the epadt for 1712 j
for iiX3 = 33j and 33 being divided by 30, there is
left 3 of the dividend for the epadt. But the difference
of the Julian and Gregorian years being equal to the
excefs of the folar above the lunar year, or 11 days,
it happens that the Gregorian epadt for one year is the
fame with the Julian epadt for the preceding year.
EPAMINONDAS, a celebrated Theban, the fon
of Polymnus, and one of the greateft captains of anti¬
quity. He learned philofophy and muftc under Ly~
fis, a Pythagorean philofopher j and was from his in¬
fancy inured to all the exercifes of body and mind.
He was learned, generous, well-fkilled in war, brave,
modeft, and prudent ; and had fuch a regard for truth,
that he would not tell a falfehood even in jeft. He fer-
ved firft under the Lacedemonians j faved the life of
Pelopidas their chief, who received in a battle feven or
eight wounds and contracted a Itrict friendlhip with
that general, which lalted till his death. At his per-
fualions, Pelopidas delivered the city of Thebes from
the yoke of the Spartans, wTho had rendered themfelves
mailers of Cadmea, which occaftoned a bloody war be¬
tween the two nations. Epaminondas was made ge¬
neral of the Thebans ; on which he gained the cele¬
brated battle of Leuftra, in which Cleombrotus, the
valiant king of Sparta, was killed. He then ravaged
the enemy’s country, and caufed the city of Meflina
to be rebuilt and peopled. At length, the command
of the army was given to another, becaufe Epaminon-
das had kept his troops in the held four months longer
than he had been ordered by the people 5 but, inftead
of retiring in difguft, he now'ferved as a common fol-
dier, and diftinguilhed himfelf by fo many brave ac¬
tions, that the Thebans, alhamed of having deprived
him of the command, reftored him to his poll, in order
to carry the war into Theffaly, where his arms were
always viftorious. A war breaking out between the
Elians and the inhabitants of Mantinea, the Thebans
took the part of the former. Epaminondas then refol-
ved to endeavour to furprife Sparta and Mantinea j but
not fucceeding, he gave the enemy battle, in which
he received a mortal wmund with a javelin, the bearded
iron remaining in the wmund. Knowing that it could
not be drawn out without occalioning immediate death,
he would not fuffer it to be touched, but continued to
give his orders : and on his being told, that the enemy
wrere entirely defeated, “ I have lived long enough (he
cried),
E P H [ 245 T E P H
Epanalepfis cried), lince I die without being conqueredand at
^ II . the fame time he plucked the javelin from his wound,
Ephemen- 1 • j zr tj ^
des. anc* exP,recb 363 Jd. C.
u—yi—EPANALEPSIS. See Oratory, N° 73.
EPANODOS. Ibid. 'N° 75.
EPANORTHOSIS. Ibid. N° 75.
EPARER, in the manege, fignifies the flinging
of a horfe, or his yerking and linking with his hind¬
legs.
EPAULEMENT, in Fortification, a work raifed to
cover fidewife, is either of earth, gabions, or fafcines
loaded with earth. The epaulements of the places of
arms for the cavalry, at the entrance of the trenches,
are generally of fafcines mixed with earth.
EPAULETTES, are a kind of flioulder-knots
chofen for the foldiers, which are to be of the colour
of the facing, with a narrow yellow or white tape
round it, and worfted fringe 5 thofe for the officers are
made of gold or liiver lace, with a rich fringe ; they
are badges of diftinclion worn on one or both ffioulders.
Thofe of the dragoon-guards, horfe, and dragoons,
are worn on the left Ihoulder : the light dragoons, and
officers of grenadiers, have one on each Ihoulder :
thofe of the battalion wear one on the right Ihoulder
only, which is to be made of embroidery or lace
with a gold or filver fringe. Thofe of the royal regi¬
ment of artillery are to be gold and embroidery, with
gold fringe on fcarlet cloth, and worn on the right
fhoulder.
EPENTHESIS, in Grammar, the interpofition or
infertion of a letter or fyllable in the middle of a word;
as aliiuum, for ahtutn ; re/iigio, for religio 5 induperator,
for imperator, &lc.
EPEUS, of the line of Endymion, the inventor of
the battering ram, an engine of great fervice in fleges
to make a breach. He is thought to have built the
Trojan horfe, and to have founded the city Metapon-,
turn.
EPHA, or Ephah, in Jewiffi antiquity, a meafure
for things dry, equal to 3 pecks and 3 pints.
EPHEBAiUM, in antiquity, the place where the
ephebi or youth exercifed j or, as fome fay, where thofe
who defigned to exercife met, and agreed what kind
of exercife they fliould contend in, and what Ihould be
the viftor’s reward.
EPHEEI, among the Athenians, a defignation gi¬
ven to their young men when they arrived at I 8 years
of age, at which time they had their names entered in
a public regifler.
EPHEDRA, a genus of plants, belonging to. the
dioecia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 51ft order, Conferee. See Botany Index.
EPHEMERA, from “ a day f a diary fe¬
ver, or a fever of one day’s continuance only. In this
cafe, fuch a heat as attends an excefs of wine, a pulfe
fomewhat full and quick, but foft and regular, a flight
headach, a naufea, and reftleflhefs, are all the fymp-
toi. A, and which terminate without any fenfible eva¬
cuation. If it continue unto the third day, it is not a
diary fever •, and if the conftitution is very dry, a
hedtic is to be dreaded.
Ephemera, the Day-fij, a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to the order of neuroptera. See Entomology
Index.
EPHEMERIDES, in Afronomij, tables calculated
by aftronomers, ffiowing the prefent ftate of the hea- EphefLu.
vens for every day at noon 5 that is, the places where- —1'~“‘
in all the planets are found at that time. It is from
theie tables that the eclipfes, conjundlions, and afpeits
of the planets, are determined ; horofeopes or celeiiial
fchemes conftrudled, &c. We have ephemeiides of
Origan, Kepler Argoli, Heckerus, Mezzarachis,
Wing, De la Hire, Parker, &c. S. Callini has cal¬
culated ephemerides of the fidera medicsea or Ltellites
of Jupiter, which are of good ufe in determining the
longitude.
In England, the Nautical Almanack, or Aftronomi-
cal Ephemeris, publilhed annually by anticipation, un¬
der the direction of the commiffioners of longitude, is
the moll 'conliderable. In France, celeftial epheme¬
rides have been publiffied by M. Defplaces every ten
years, from 1715 to 1745 J they were afterwards con¬
tinued by the Abbe Cable, with many additions ; of
which an account may be feen in the Hiltory of the
Academy of Sciences for 1743. The Academy of
Sciences have likewife publilhed annually, from the
beginning of the prelent century, a kind of ephemeris
under the title of Connoijfance des Terns.
EPHESUS, a city of antiquity, much celebrated
on account of its temple of Diana, and for being
the moll famous mart or ftaple town of Hither Alia.
Ephefus was in ancient times the metropolis of all
Afia. Stephanus gives it the title of Epiphanejiates, or
mojl illufrious; and Pliny ftyles it the ornament of
Afla. The ancient city flood about 50 miles fouth of
Smyrna, near the. mouth of the river Cayfter, and the
Ihore of the Icarian fea, wffiich is a bay of the rEgeean;
but as it has been fo often deflroyed and rebuilt, it
is no eafy matter to determine the precife place. Moft
of our modern travellers are of opinion, that the an¬
cient city flood more to the fouth than the prefent;
which they argue from the ruins that ftill remain.
Ephefus was, in ancient times, known by the names of
Slopes, Ortygia, Alonges, Smyrna, Tracinea, Samornion,
and Ptelo. It was called Ephefus, according to He-
raclides, from the Greek word ephefus, fignifying per-
miffion; becaufe Hercules (fays he) permitted the Ama¬
zons to live and build a city in that place. Others tell
us, that Ephefus was the name of the Amazon that
founded the city 5 for Pliny, Juftin, and Orofius, una-
nimoufly affirm that it was built by an Amazon 5
while others bellow this honour upon Androclus, the
fon of Codrus king of Athens, who was the chief of
the lonians that fettled in Afia. But in matters of lo
early a date, it is impoffible to come at the truth, and
therefore not worth our while to dwell on fuch fruit-
lefs inquiries. What we know for certain is, that
the city, which in the Roman times was the metro¬
polis of all Afia, acknowledged Lyfimachus for its
founder $ for that prince, having caufed the ancient
city to be entirely demolilhed, rebuilt, at a vaft ex¬
pence, a nextr one, in a place more convenient, and
nearer the temple. Strabo tells us, that, as the in¬
habitants Ihowed a great reludlance to quit their an¬
cient habitations, Lyfimachus caufed all the drains
that conveyed the water into the neighbouring fens
and the Cayfter to be privately flopped up } v here¬
by the city being on the firft violent rains in great
part laid under water, and many of the inhabitants
drowned, they wTere glad to abandon the ancient and
retire
I
E P II [ 246 ] E P H
Ephefus. retire to the new city. This new Ephefus was greatly
v damaged by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius,
but by that emperor repaired and adorned with feveral
ftately buildings, of which there are now but few ruins
to be feen, and fcarce any thing worthy of ancient E-
phefus. The aquedudf, part of which is ifill Handing,
is generally believed to have been the work of the Greek
emperors ; the pillars which fupport the arches are of
fine marble, and higher or lower as the level of the wa¬
ter required. This aquedudf ferved to convey water
into the city from the fpring of Halites, mentioned by
Paufanius. The gate, now called by the inhabitants,
for what reafon we know7 not, the Gate of Perfecution,
is remarkable for three bas-reliefs on the mould of an
exquifite tafte. The port, of which fo many medals
have been ftruck, is at prefent but an open road, and
not much frequented. The Cayfter was formerly na¬
vigable, and afforded a fafe place for {hips to ride in,
but is now almoil choked up rvith fand.
But the chief ornament of Ephefus w^as the temple
of Diana, built at the common charge of all the Hates
in Afia, and for its Hru&ure, fize, and furniture, ac¬
counted among the wonders of the wmrld. 'ihis great
edifice w7as fituated at the foot of a mountain, and at
the head of a marfti; wdiich place they chofe, if we
believe Pliny, as the leall fubjedt to earthquakes. This
fite doubled the charges 5 for they were obliged to be
at a vafi expence in making drains to convey the water
that came down the hill into the morafs and the Cay-
fter. Philo Byzantius tells us, that in this work they
ufed fuch a quantity of Hone, as almoH exhaufled all
the quarries in the country •, and thefe drains or vaults
are what the prefent inhabitants take for a labyrinth.
To fecure the foundations of the conduits or fewers,
which w7ere to bear a building of fuch a prodigious
weight, they laid beds of charcoal, fays Pliny, w7ell
rammed, and upon them others of wool, iwo hun¬
dred and twenty years, Pliny fays 400, were fpent in
building this wonderful temple by all Afia. It was 425
feet in length, and 200 in breadth, fupported by 127
marble pillars, 70 feet high, of which 27 were niofi
curioufly carved, and the refi poliihed. Thefe pillars
v/ere the works of fo many kings, and the bas-reliefs
of one wrere done by Scopas, the moH famous fculptor
of antiquity j the altar was almofl wholly the. work of
Praxiteles. Cheiromocrates, who built the city of A-
lexandria, and offered to form Mount Athos into a
flatue of Alexander, was the architect: employed on
this occafion. The temple enjoyed the privilege of an
afylum, which at firff extended to a furlong, was after-
W'ards enlarged by Mithridates to a bow7 flrot, and dou¬
bled by Mark Antony, fo that it took in part of the
city : but Tiberius, to put a flop to the many abufes
and diforders that attend privileges of this kind, re¬
voked them all, and declared, that no man guilty of
any wicked or difhonefl adtion fhould efcape juflice,
though he fled to the altar itfelf.
The priefls who officiated in this temple w7ere held
in great efleem, and trufled with the care of facred
virgins, or priefleffes, but not till they were made eu¬
nuchs. They were called Efiatores and E fence, had a
particular diet, and were not allowed by their eonfli-
tutions to go into any private houfe. They were
maintained with the profits accruing from the lake Se-
linufis, and another that fell into it, which mufl have
4
been very confiderable, fince they eredled a golden fla¬
tue to one Artemidorus, who being fent to Rome, re¬
covered them after they had been feized by the farm¬
ers of the public revenues. All the lonians reforted
yearly to Ephefus with their wives and children, wrhere
they folemnized the feflival of Diana wdth great pomp
and magnificence, making on that occafion rich offer¬
ings to the goddefs, and valuable prefents to her priefls.
The affiarchai, mentioned by St Luke, were, accord¬
ing to Beza, thofe prieits whofe peculiar province it W7as
to regulate the public fports that w7ere annually per¬
formed at Ephefus in honour of Diana : they were
maintained with the collections made during the {ports j
for all Afia flocked to fee them. The great Diana of
the Ephefians, as fhe w as ftyled by her blind adorers^
wTas, according to Pliny, a fmall ftatue of ebony, made
by one Canitia, though commonly believed to have been
fent dowm from heaven by Jupiter. This ftatue was
firft placed in a niche, which, as we are told, the Ama¬
zons caufed to be made in the trunk of an elm. Such
w7as the firft rife of the veneration that was paid to
Diana in this place. In procefs of time the venera¬
tion for the goddefs daily increafing among the inha¬
bitants of Afia, a moft ftately and magnificent temple
was built near the place where the elm flood, and the
ftatue of the goddels placed in it. This was the firft
temple 5 but not quite fo fumptuous as that which we
have defcribed, though reckoned, as wTell as the fecond,
among the wonders of the world. The fecond, being
that above defcribed, was remaining in Pliny’s time,
and in Strabo’s 5 and is fuppofed to have been deftroy-
ed in the reign of Conftantine, purfuant to the edidt
by which that emperor commanded all the temples of
the heathens to be thrown down and demoliffied : the
former was burnt the fame day that Alexander w'as
born, by one Eroftratus, who owned on the rack, that
the only thing which had prompted him to deftroy fo ex¬
cellent a work, was the defire of tranfmitting his name
to future ages. Whereupon the common council of Afia
made a decree, forbidding any one to name him ; but
this prohibition ferved only to make his name more
memorable, fuch a remarkable extravagance, or rather
madnefs, being taken notice of by all the hiftorians
wffio have written of thofe times. Alexander offered
to rebuild the temple at" his own expence, provided the
Ephefians would agree to put his name on the front $.
but they rejefted his offer in fuch a manner as prevent¬
ed the refentment of that vain prince, telling him, that
“ it w7as not fit one god fhould build a temple to ano¬
ther.” The pillars, and other materials that had been
faved out of the flames, wTere fold, and alfo the jewels
of the Ephefian women, wTho on that occafion willing¬
ly parted with them } and the fum raifed from thence
ferved for the carrying on of the work till other con¬
tributions came in, which in a ffiort time amounted
to an immenfe treafure. This is the temple which Stra¬
bo, Pliny, and other Roman writers- fpeak of. It
flood between the city and the port, and was built, or
rather finilhed, as Livy tells us, in the reign of King
Servius. Of this wonderful ftrudlure there is nothing
at prefent remaining but fome ruins, and a few broken
pillars.
The lonians firft fettled at Ephefus under the con-
ducl of Androclus, wrho drove out the Carians and Le-
leges, by whom thofe places were poffehed at his ar¬
rival.
Ephefiu.'
E P H [ 2+7 ] E P H
Ephefus. rival. The city, whether built by him, as Strabo af-
firms, or by Croefus or Ephefus, long before the Io¬
nic migration, as others maintain, became foon the
metropolis of Ionia. It was at firft governed by An-
droclus, and his defendants, who aifumed the royal
title, and exercifed the regal authority over the new
colony : whence, even in Strabo’s time, *the pofterity
of Androclus were fly led kings, and allowed to wear
a fcarlet robe, with a fceptre, and all the enfigns of the
royal dignity. In procefs of time, a new form of go-
vemment-was introduced, and a fenate eltablifhed ; but
when, or on what occafiori, this change happened, we
know not. This kind of government continued till the
time of Pythagoras, who lived before Cyrus the Great,
and was one of the mofl: cruel and inhuman tyrants we
read of in hi ft or y} for having driven out the fenate,
and taken all the power into his own hands, he filled
the city with blood and rapine, not fparing even *thofe
who fled to the temple of Diana for (belter. Pytha¬
goras was fucceeded by Pindarus, who bore the fame
iway in the city *, but treated the citizens with more
humanity. In his time Ephefus being befieged by
Croefus king of Lydia, he advifed the inhabitants to
devote their city to Diana, and fallen the w'all, by a
rope, to the pillars of her temple. They followed his
advice, and w’ere, from reverence to the goddefs, not
only treated with great kindnefs by Croefus, but resto¬
red to their former liberty. Pindarus being obliged to
refign his power, retired to Peloponnefus. He wras,
according to Atlian, grandfon to Alyattes king of Ly¬
dia, and Croefus’s nephew. The other tyrants of E-
phefus mentioned in hiftory are, Athenagoras, Comes,
Ariftarchus, and Hegefias j of whom the lad wras ex¬
pelled by Alexander, who, coming to Ephefus, after
having defeated the Perfians on the banks of the
Granicus, beftowed upon Diana all the tributes which
the Ephefians had paid to the Perfians, and efta-
blifhed a democracy in the city. In the wrar between
Mithridates and the Romans, they lided wdth the
former, and, by his dire£lions, maffacred all the Ro¬
mans that redded in their city; for which barbarity
they were feverely fined, and reduced almoft to beg¬
gary by Sylla, but afterwards treated kindly, and fuf-
fered to live according to their own laws, as is plain
from feveral ancient infer?ptions and medals. The E-
pheiians were much addifled to fuperflition, forcery,
and curious arts, as the feripture ftyles them : rvhence
came the proverb “ Ephefian letters,” fignifying all
forts of fpells or charms.
In the time of the apoille Paul, Ephefus retained a great
deal of its ancient grandeur. But it was a ruinous
place, when the emperor Juilinian filled Conflantinople
with its ftatues, and. raifed his church of St Sophia up-
- on its columns. Since then it has been almoft quite
exhaufted. Towards the end of the i ith century, a
Turkifti pirate, named Tarv*ripermes, fettled there.
But the Greek admiral, John Ducas, defeated him in
a bloody battle, and purfued the flying Turks up the
M eander. In 1306, it was among the places which
iu fered from the exaiftions of the grand-duke Roger ;
and two years after, it furrendered to Sultan Sayfan,
who, to prevent future infurreclions, removed moft of
the inhabitants to Tyriseum, where they were maftacred.
Ephefus appears to have fubfifted as an inconfiderable
place for feme time. But now, the Ephefians are only Ephetie
a few Greek peafants, living in extreme wretchednefs, II .
dependence, and infenfibility j the reprefentatives of an ^*>‘uaiin'
illuftrious people, and inhabiting the wreck of their
greatnefs; fome, the fubftrudftions of the glorious edi¬
fices which they raifed; fome, beneath the vaults of
the ftadium, once the crowded feene of their diver-
fions *, and fome, by the abrupt precipice, in the fe-
pulchres which received their allies.
EPHETVE (from “ I fend forth”), in anti¬
quity, a fort of magiftrates among the Athenians, in-
ftituted by King Demophoon, to take cognizance of
murder, manflaughter, and chance-medley.
Their number was 100, whereof 50 were Atheni¬
ans, and 50 Argians : they were not admitted to the
poll till upwards of 50 years of age. Draco new-mo¬
delled it, excluded the Argians out of it, and made it
to confift of 51 Athenians, each above 50 years of age :
Ubfcp Emmius de Rep. Athen. fays, he transferred to
them part of the jurifdi&iorf* of the Areopagites. See
Areopagus.
EPHOD, in Jewifti antiquity, one part of the prieft*'
ly habit j being a kind of girdle, which, brought from
behind the neck over the two flioulders, and hanging
down before, was put acrofs the ftomach, then carried
round the waift, and made ufe of as a girdle to the tu¬
nic.—There were two forts of ephods, one of plain li¬
nen for the priefts, and the other embroidered for the
high-prieft.
EPHORI, in Grecian antiquity, magiftrates efta-
bliihed in ancient Sparta to balance the regal power.
The authority of the ephori was very great. They
fometimes expelled and even put to death the kings,
and abolifhed or fufpended the power of the other ma-
giftrates, calling them to account at pleafure. There
were five of them, others fay nine. They prefided in
the public (hows and feitivals. They were entrufted
with the public treafure ; made war and peace j and
were fo abfolute, that Ariftotle makes their government
equal to the prerogative of a monarchy. They were
eftabliihed by Lycurgus, according to the generality
of authors : though this is denied by others, who date
their origin 130 years after the time of that legiila-
tor. Thus Plutarch, in his Life of Cleomenes, a-
feribes their inftitution to Theopompus king of Spar¬
ta •, which is alfo confirmed by the authority of Ari¬
ftotle.
EPHORUS, an orator and hiftorian of Cumne in
Aiuiia, about 352 years before Chrift. He was dif-
ciple to Ifocrates, by whofe advice he wrote a hiftory
which gave an account of all the actions and battles
that had happened between the Greeks and barbarians
for 7 ;o years. It was greatly efteemed by the ancients;
but is now loft.
EPHRAIM, in Ancient Geography, one of the di-
vifions of Paleftine by tribes : Ephraim and the half
tribe of Manafleh are blended together by the facred
writer 5 and it only appears that Ephraim occupied the
more fouthern, and the half tribe of ManaiTeh the more
northern parts, but both feem to have extended 'from
the Jordan to the fea. Enhraim alfo denotes a king¬
dom, on the fenaration of the 10 tribes from the houfe
of David, called alfo the kingdom of Ifrael and of Sa¬
maria,
EPHRATA,
E P I [ 24B ] E P X
£p^rata EPHRATA, a fmall town of Pennfylvania in Ante-
!! rica, and the principal fettlement of the religious left
ri>icec on‘, called Dunkards or Tunhcrs. See Tukkkrs.
EPHREM, Syrus, an ancient Chriftian writer, in
the fourth century, deacon of Edeiia, was born at Ni-
fibe in Syria. He was greatly efteemed by St Balil,
St Gregory, Nyffen, and other great men. He wrote
againft the opinions of Sabellius, Arius, Apollonarius,
the Manichees, &c. and acquired fuch reputation by
his virtue and his works, that he was called the doBor
and the prophet of the Syrians. He died in 378. The
bell editions of his works are, that of Oxford, in 1708,
in folio, and that of Rome, from 1732 to 173^>
Syriac, Greek, and Latin, 6 vols folio.
EPHYDOR, in antiquity, an officer in the Athe¬
nian courts of juflice, who was to provide the plaintiff
and defendant with equal water hour-glaffes. When
the glafs was run out, they were not permitted to
fpeak any farther •, and, therefore, we find them very
careful not to lofe or mifnend one drop of their water.
Whilft the laws quoted by them were reciting, or if
any other bufinefs happened to intervene, they gave or¬
ders that the glafs thould be Hopped.
EPIBAT/E, E7r<£fltU<, among the Greeks, marines,
or foldiers wffio ferved on board the Ihips of war. 1 hey
w^ere armed in the fame manner as the land-forces, only
that more of them wore full or heavy armour.
EPIBATERION, a poetical compofition, in ufe
among the ancient Greeks. When any perfon of con-
- dition and quality returned home after a long abfence
or journey into another country, he called together
his friends and fellow-citizens, and made them a fpeech,
or rehearfed them a copy of verfes, wherein he return¬
ed folemn thanks to the immortal gods for his happy
return ; and ended with an addrefs by way of compli¬
ment to his fellow-citizens.—Thefe verfes made what
the Greeks call E/suSawegisv, epibatenum, of nr&xivu, “ I
go abroad.” At going away they had another, called
apobaterium.
EPIBATERIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the monoecia clafs. See Botany Index.
EPIC, or Heroic, Poem, a poem expreffed in nar¬
ration, formed upon a Hory partly real and partly
feigned; reprefenting, in a fublime ftyle, fome fignal
and fortunate adfion, diftinguilhed by a variety of great
•events, to form the morals, and affect the mind with
the love of heroic virtue.
We may diltinguiffi three parts of the definition,
namely, the matter, the form, and the end. The mat¬
ter includes the aftion of the fable, under which are
ranged the incidents, epifodes, characters, morals, and
machinery. The form comprehends the wTay or man¬
ner of the narration, whether by the poet himfelf, or
by any perfons introduced, whofe difcourfes are related :
to this branch likewife belong the moving of the paf-
fions, the defcriptions, difcourfes, fentiments, thoughts,
ftyle, and veriiftcation and befides thefe, the fimilies,
tropes, figures, and, in fhort, all the ornaments and
decorations of the poem. The end is to improve our
morals and increafe our virtue. See Poetry.
EPICEDON (formed of upon, and KYi
■tieral), in the Greek and Latin poetry, a poem, or
poetical compofition, on the death of a perfon.—At
the obfequies of any man of figure, there were three
Linds of difcourfes ufually made} that rehearfed at his
3
biiflum or funeral pile, was called nenia ; that engraven Epicedium
on his tomb, epitaph ; and that fpoken in the ceremony '
of his funeral, epicedion. We have two beautiful epice- ^
dions in Virgil, that of Euryalus and that of Pallas.
EPICEDIUM, in ancient poetry, a poem rehear¬
fed during the funeral folemnity of perfons of difthic-
tion.
EPICHARMUS, an ancient poet and philofonher,
born in Sicily, was a fcholar of Pythagoras. He is
faid to have introduced comedy at Syracufe.in the
reign of Hiero. Horace commends Plautus for imi¬
tating him, in following the chafe of the intrigue fo
clofely as not to give the readers or fpeilators time
to trouble themfelves with doubts concerning the dif-
covery. He wrote likewife treatifes concerning phi-
lofophy and medicine j but none of his -works have
been preferved. He died aged 90, according to La¬
ertius, wffio has preferved four verfes infcribed on his
ftatue.
EPICHIROTONIA, among the Athenians. It
was ordained by Solon, that once every year the law's
ftiould be carefully revifed and examined } and if any
of them wrere found unfuitable to the prefent ftate
of affairs, they Ihould be repealed. This was called
rut ttput, from the manner of giving their
fuffrages by holding up their hands. See a farther ac¬
count of this cuftom in Pott. Archseol. Grace, lib. 1.
cap. 26. tom. i. p. 242.
EPICOENE, in Grammar, a term applied to nouns,
which, under the fame gender and termination, mark
indifferently the male and female fpecies. Such in La¬
tin is aquila, vefpertilio, &c. which fignify equally a
male or female eagle or bat.
Grammarians diftinguiffi between epiccene and com¬
mon. A noun is faid to be common of two kinds,
when it may be joined either with a mafeuline or a fe¬
minine article 5 and epicoene, when it is alw’ays joined
to fome of the two articles, and yet fignifies both gen¬
ders.
EPICTETUS, a celebrated Stoic philofopher, bom
at Hierapolis in Phrygia, in the firft century, was the
Have of Epaphroditus, a freedman and one of Nero’s
guard. Domitian banilhing all philofophers from
Rome, about the year 94, Epidetus retired to Nico-
polis in Epirus, where he died in a very advanced age j
and after his death, the earthen lamp he made ufe of fold
for 3000 drachmas. He was a man of great modefty j
wffiich was eminent in his own praftice, as well as in his
recommendation toothers: hence he ufed to fay, “ That
there is no need of adorning a man’s houfe with rich
hangings or paintings, fince the moft graceful furniture
is temperance and modefty, wffiich are lafting ornaments,
and will never be the woife for w earing.” Of all the
ancient philofophers, he feems to have made the near-
eft approaches to the Chriftian morality, and to have
had the moft juft ideas of God and providence. He
always poffeffed a cool and ferene mind, unruffled by
paffion ; and w7as ufed to fay, that the whole of mo¬
ral philofophy was included in thefe words, fupport and
ab/lain. One day, his mafter Epaphroditus ftrove in
a frolic to wrench his leg } when Epicletus faid, with
a fmile, and free from any emotion, “ If you go on, you
will certainly break my leg but the former redoubling
his effort, and ftriking it w ith all his ftrength, he at laft
broke the bone } wffien all the return Epicletus made was,
“ Did
E P 1 [ 249 ]
Epicurean “ Did not I tell you, Sir, that you would break my rals of Epicurus.
•Philofophy. ]eg ?•>■> No man was more expert at reducing the rigour
of the maxims of the Stoics into pradtice. He con¬
formed himfelf ftridtly, both in his difcourfe and be¬
haviour, to the manners of Socrates and Zeno. He
Waged continual war with fancy and fortune ; and it is
an excellence peculiar to himfelf, that he admitted all
the feverity of the Stoics without their fournefs, and
reformed Stoicifm as well as profeffed it ; and befides
his vindicating the immortality of the foul as ftrenu-
oufly as Socrates or any Stoic of them all, he declared
openly againft felf-murder, the lawfulnefs of which was
maintained by the reft of the fedt. Arrian, his difciple,
wrote a large account of his life and death, which is
loft; and preferved four books of his difcourfes and
his Enchiridion, of which there have been feveral edi¬
tions in Greek and Latin; and, in 1758, a tranflation
of them into Englilh was publilhed by the learned and
ingenious Mifs Carter.
EPICUREAN philosophy, the dodtrine or fy-
ftem of philofophy maintained by Epicurus and his
followers.
His philofophy confifted of three parts; canonical,
phyfical, and ethereal. The firft was about the canons
or rules, of judging. The cenfure which Tully palfes
upon him for his defpiling logic, will hold true only
with regard to the logic of the Stoics, which he could
not approve of, as being too full of nicety and quirk.
Epicurus was not acquainted with the analytical method
of divifion and argumentation, nor was he fo curious
in modes and formation as the Stoics. Soundnefs and
ftmplicity of fenfe, aflifted with fome natural reflec¬
tions, was all his art. His fearch after truth proceed¬
ed only by the fenfes ; to the evidence of which he gave
fo great a certainty, that he confidered them as an in¬
fallible rule of truth, and termed them the JirJi natural
light of mankind.
In the fecond part of this philofophy he laid down
atoms, fpace, and gravity, as the firft principles of all
things^ he did not deny the exiftence of God, but
thought it beneath his majefty to concern himfelf with
human affairs: he held him a bleffed immortal Being,
having no affairs of his own to take care of, and above
meddling with thofe of others.
As to his ethics, he made the fupreme good of man
to confift in pleafure, and confequently lupreme evil in
pain. Nature itfelf, fays he, teaches us this truth ; and
prompts us from our birth to procure whatever gives
us pleafure, and avoid what gives us pain. To this end
he propofes a remedy againft the fharpnefs of pain:
this was to divert the mind from it, by turning our
whole attention upon the pleafures we have formerly
enjoyed. He held that the wife man muft be happy as
long as he is wife; the pain, not depriving him of his
wifdom, cannot deprive him of his happinefs.
There is nothing that has a fairer fhow of honefty
than the moral dodtrine of Epicurus. Gaffendus pre¬
tends, that the pleafure in which this philofopher has
fixed the fovereign good, was nothing elfe but the high-
eft tranquillity of mind, in conjunction with the moft
perfedt health of body: but Tully, Horace, and Plu¬
tarch, as well as almoft all the fathers of the church,
give us a very different account of it: indeed the na¬
ture of this pleafure, in which the chief happinefs is
fyppofed to be feated, is a grand problem in the mo-
Yol. VIII. Part I.
E P I
Hence there were two kinds of E- Epicurus
picureans, the rigid and the remifs : the firft were thofe . ^
who underftood Epicurus’s notion of pleafure in theEPidaurus-,
belt fenfe, and placed all their happinefs in the pure
pleafures of the mind, reliilting from the pradtice of
virtue : the loofe or remifs Epicureans, taking the words
of that philofopher in a grofs fenfe, placed all their hap¬
pinefs in bodily pleafures or debauchery.
EPICURUS, the greateft philofopher of his age, was
born at Gargettium in Attica, about 340 B. C. in the
109th Olympiad. He fettled at Athens in a fine garden
he had bought; where he lived with his friends in great
tranquillity,1 and educated a great number of difciples.
rl hey lived all in common with their mafter. The re-
fpedt which his followers paid to his memory is admi¬
rable : his fchool was never divided, but his dodtrine
wTas followed as an oracle. His birth-day was ftill
kept in Pliny’s time ; the month he was born in was
obferved as a continual feftival; and they placed his
pidture everywhere. He wrote a great many books,
and valued himfelf upon making no quotations. He
raifed the atomical fyftem to a great reputation,
though he was not the inventor of it, but had only
made fome change in that of Democritus. As to
his dodlrine concerning the fupreme good or happi¬
nefs, it was very liable to be mifreprefented, and fome
ill effedts proceeded from thence, which difcredited his
fedt. He was charged with perverting the worlhip of
the gods, and inciting men to debauchery ; but he did
not forget himfelf on this occafion ; he publiflied his
opinions to the whole world; he wrote fome books of
devotion; recommended the veneration of the gods, fo-
briety, and chaftity ; and it is certain that he lived in
an. exemplary manner, and conformably to the rules of
philofophical wifdom and frugality. Timocrites, a de-
ferter of his fedt, fpoke very fcandaloufly of him. Gaf¬
fendus has given us all he could colledt from the
ancients concerning the perfon and dodtrine of this
philofopher; who died of a fuppreflion of urine,
aged 72.
EPICYCLE, in the ancient aftronomy, a little
circle whofe centre is in the circumference of a greater
circle : or it is a fmall orb or fphere, which being fix¬
ed in the deferent of a planet, is carried along with it ;
and yet, by his own peculiar motion, carries the pla¬
net faftened to it round its proper centre.
. It was by means of epicycles that Ptolemy and
his followers folved the various phenomena of the
planets, but more efpecially their ftations and retrogra-
dations.
EPICYCLOID, in Geometry, a curve generated
by the revolution of the periphery of a circle, along
the convex or concave fide of the periphery of another
circle.
EPICYEMA, among Pliyfcians, denotes a fuper-
fetation ; being a falfe conception or mole happening
after the birth of a regular foetus.
EPIDAURUM, Epidaurus, or Epitaurum, In
Ancient^ Geography, a town of Dalmatia, on the Adria¬
tic, built the fame year, as is faid, with Dyrrachium,
430 years after the deftrudtion of Troy : a confiderable
town formerly, but now reduced to a fmall village, cal¬
led Ragu/i Vecchio ; diftant fix miles from the modem
Ragufi. E. Long. 190. Lat. 420. 20'.
EPIDAURUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
I i Argolis,
E P I
[ 250 ]
E P I
Epidaufus. Argolis, in Peloponnefus, on the Saronic bay, to the
fouth of the promontory S/nrceum ; called facrcd, be-
caufe of the religious veneration paid to ALfculapius,
whofe temple flood at the diftance of five miles from
the town. The Romans, during a peftilence, being
advifed to convey the god to Rome, fent a Hup, with a
folemn embafly, for his conveyance ; but while the Epi-
daurians were in fufpenfe to part with him, a huge fer-
pent failed to the Ihip j and being taken for the god,
was carried to Rome in great folemnity. Epidaurus
flood in a recefs of the bay, fronting the eaft ; and was
fortified by nature, being inclofed by high mountains
reaching to the fea, and rendering it difficult of accefs.
It had feveral temples, and in the acropolis or citadel
was a remarkable ilatue of Minerva. The fite is now
called Epi-thavro. The traces are indiftinft, and it
has probably been long deferted. The harbour of
Epidaurus is long. Its periplus or circuit was 15
ifadia or near two miles. The entrance is between
mountains, and on a fmall rocky peninfula on the left
hand are ruins of a modern fortrefs. This, it feems,
rvas the point on which a temple of Juno flood. It is
frequented by veffels for wood or corn. The grove
of TEfculapius was inclofed by mountains, within
which all the facrifices as well of the Epidaurians as
of ffrangers were confumed. One wTas called Titthion 5
and on this the god when an infant was faid to have been
expofed, and to have been fuckled by a fhe-goat. He
was a great phyfician, and his temple was always crowd¬
ed with a fick perfons. Beyond it was the dormitory
6f the fuppliants ^ and near it, a circular edifice called
the Tholus, built by Polycletus, of white marble, worth
feeing. The grove, beiides other temples, was adorn¬
ed with a portico, and a fountain remarkable for its roof
and decorations. The bath of Aifculapius was one of the
benefactions of Antoninus Pius, wffiile a Roman fena-
tor •, as was alfo a houfe for the reception of pregnant
women and dying perfons, who before were removed
out of the inclofure, to be delivefed or to expire in the
open air. The remains are heaps of {tones, pieces of
btick wall, and fcattered fragments of marble } befides
fomc churches or rather piles of rubbiffi mifcalled,
being deftitute of doors, roofs, or any kind of orna¬
ment. The ftatue of iEfculapius was half as big as
that of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. It was made of
ivory and gold, and, as the infcription proved, by
Thrafymcdes fon of Arignotus of Paros. He was .
prefented fitting, holding his itaff, with one hand on
the head of a ferpent, and a dog lying by him. Two
Argive heroes, Bellerophon combating with the mon-
Iter Chimsera, and Perfeus fevering the head of Medufa,
were carved on the throne. Many tablets defcribed
the cures performed by the deity, yet he had not e-
fcaped contumely and robbery. Dionyfius deprived
him of his golden beard, affirming that it was unfeem-
ly in him to appear in that manner when his father
Apollo was always feen with his face fmooth. Sylla
amaffed the precious offerings belonging to him and to
Apollo and Jupiter at Delphi and Olympia, to pay
his army before Athens. The marks in the walls tef-
tified that a great number had been plucked down.
A few fragments of white marble exquifitely carved
occur in the heap of the temple. The inclofure of the
temple once abounded in infcriptions. In the fecond
century fix marbles remained, on which were written Er.iuaurm
in the Doric dialed the names of men and women who , .
had been patients of the god, with the diftemper each . ‘!) ’.
had laboured under, and the remedies lie had direCled.
Dr Chandler found only a couple of votive infcriptions,
and two pedeftals of ftatues, one of which reprefented a
Roman, and was ereCled by the city of the Epidau¬
rians. The ftadium was near the temple. It was of
earth, as moft in Greece were. At the upper end are
feats of Hone, but thefe were continued along the fides
only a few yards. A vaulted paffage leading under¬
neath into the area, now choked up, wus a private vray
by which the Agonothetae or prefidents with the prieits
and perfons of diiiindtion entered. Two large cilierns
or refervoirs remain, made by Antoninus for the recep¬
tion of rain water. Beyond them is a dry w’ater-
courfe 5 and in the mountain-fide on the right hand are
the marble feats of the theatre, overgrown with bullies.
The fprings and wells by the ruins are now fuppofed to
poffefs many excellent properties. To theie and a
good air, Dr Chandler thinks, with the recreations of
the theatre and of the ftadium, and to the medicinal
knowledge and experience of the prielts, may be attri¬
buted both the recovery of the fick and the reputation
of-ATculapius.
Epidaurus, with the furname Limeret, to diftinguiffi
it from the Epidaurus of Argolis ; called fo, either from
its meadows or its commodious harbours (Stephanus,
Apollodorus) : a town of Laconia, on the Ionian fea,
to the fouth of the Sinus Argolicus, fituated where
now Molvafia Hands, intheMorea. E. Long. 23. 30.
Lat. 35. 40.
EPIDEMIA, in Grecian antiquity, fc-flivals kept
in honour of Apollo and Diana, at the Hated feafons,
when thofe deities, who could not be prefent every¬
where, were fuppofed to viixt different places, in order
to receive the vows of their adorers.
EPIDEMIC, among phyficians, an epithet of dif-
eafes which at certain times are popular, attacking
great numbers at or near the fame time.
EPIDENDRUM, a genus of plants, belonging to
the gynandria clafs } and in the natural method ranking
under the feventh order, Orchidece. See Botany In¬
dex.—This is the plant which produces the fruit called
vanilla, and which is ufed in perfuming chocolate, to¬
bacco, and fnuff.
EPIDERMIS, in Anato?mj, the cuticle or fcarf-fkin.
See Anatomy Index. The word is formed of the Greek
sot, on, over ; and fkin.
EPIDICASIA, among the Athenians. Daugh¬
ters inheriting their parents eflate wrere obliged to
marry their neareff relation 5 which gave occaiion to
perfons of the fame family to go to law with one
another, each pretending to be more nearly allied to
the heirefs than the self. The fuit was called sOT^fc«<j-«*s
: and the virgin, about whom the relations conteff-
ed, sw;5(x«5.
EPIDIDYMIS, in Anatomy, a little round body,
on the back of each tefficle ; called alfo parajlata. See
Anatomy Index.
EPIGyEA, a genus of plants, belonging to the de-
candria clafs *, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 1 8th order, Bieornes. See Botany Index.
EPIDOTAi, certain deities who prefided over the
growth
e p i r 251 ] e p 1
<jEpiga{lric growth of children. They were vvorfliipped by the
Lacedeemonians, and chiefly invoked by thofe who
J^pigiam. were perfecuted by the ghbils of the dead, &c.
EPIGASTRIC region, a part or fubdivifion of
the abdomen. See Anatomy Index.
EPIGLOTTIS, in Anatomy, one of the cartilages
of the larynx or wind-pipe. See Anatomy Index.
EPIGONI, the fons and delcendants of the Grecian
heroes who were killed in the firll Theban war. rJ£Jie
war of the Epigoni is famous in ancient hiftory. It
was undertaken ten years after the hr 11. The fons of
thofe who had perifhed in the firll war, refolved to
avenge the death of their fathers, and marched againll
Thebes, under the command of Therfander; or, ac¬
cording to others, of Alcmseon the fon of Amphiaraus,
about 1307 years before Chrill. The Argives were
aflilled by the Corinthians, the people of Meffenia,
Arcadia, and Megara. The Thebans had engaged all
their neighbours in their quarrel, as in one ^common
caufe. ihefe two holtile armies met and engaged on
the banks of the Gliffas. The fight was obfiinate and
bloody, but vidlory declared for the Epigoni, and fome
of the Thebans fled to Illyricum with Leodamas their
general, while others retired into Thebes, where they
were foon befleged, and forced to furrender. In this
war iEgialeus was the only one who was killed, and
his father Adraftus was the only one who efcaped alive
in the firll war. 1 his whole war, as Paufanias ob-
lerves, was written in verfe, and Callinus, who quotes
fome of the verfes, afcribes them to Homer, which opi¬
nion has been adopted by many writers.- “ For my
part (continues the geographer), I own, that next to
the Iliad and OdyfTey of Homer, I have never feen a
finer poem.” The defcendants of the veteran Mace¬
donians, who ferved under Alexander the Great, and
who had children by Afiatic women, were alfo called
Epigoni, (Juftin.)
EPIGRAM, in Poetry, a fhort poem in verfe, treat¬
ing only of one tiling, and ending with fome lively,
ingenious, and natural thought or point. The word is
formed of iirt^u.y.yct infeription, of nrfyxtpuv to inferibe
or write upon.
Epigrams then, originally fignify inferiptions, and
they derive their origin from thofe inferiptions placed
by the ancients on their tombs, ftatues, temples, trium-
phal arches, &c. Thefe, at firft, were only Ample mo¬
nograms : afterwards, increafing their length, they
made them in verfe, to be the more eafily retained :
Herodotus and others have tranfmitted to us feveral
of them. Such little poems retained the name of epi¬
grams, even after the defign of their firll inflitution
was varied, and people began to ufe them for the rela¬
tion of little fafts and accidents, the chara£lerizing of
perfons, &c. The point or turn is a quality much in-
iVled on by the critics, who require the epigram con-
llantly to dole with fomething poignant and unexpec¬
ted, to which all the reft of the compofition is only
preparatory •, while others, on the contrary, exclude
the point, and require the thought *to be equally dif-
fufed throughout the poem, without laying the whole
ft refs on the clofe : the former is ufually Martial’s
pra&ice, and the latter that of Catullus.
The Greek epigrams have fcarce any thing of the
point or brilknefs of the Latin one : thofe collected
is the Anthology have moll of them a- remarkable air
of eale and irmplicity, attended with fomething juft and Epigraphe
witty 5 fuch as we find in a fenfible peafant, or a child . 11 .
that has wit. They have nothing that bites, butginm£nK^
fomething that tickles. Though they want the fait of
Martial, yet to a good talle they are not infipid j ex¬
cept a few of them, which are quite flat and fpirit-
lefs. However, the general faintnefs and delicacy of
the pleafantry in them has given occafion for a Greek
epigram, or epigram a la Greque, to denote, among the
French, an epigram void of fait or fttarpnefs.
The epigram admits of great variety of fubjefts ;
fome are made to praife, and others to fatirize •, which'
laft are much the eafieft, ill-nature ferving inftead of
point and wit, Boileau’s epigrams are all fatires on
one or another; thofe of Des Reaux are all made in
honour of his friends j and thofe of Mad. Scudery are
fo many eloges. The epigram being only a Angle
thought, it would be ridiculous to exprefs it in a great
number of verfes.
EPIGRAPHE, among antiquarians, denotes the
infeription of a building, pointing out the time when,
the perfons by whom, the ufes, and the like, for which
it was eredfed.
EPILEPSY, in Medicine, the fame with what is
otherwife called the falling-fchnefs, from the patient’s
falling fuddenly to the ground. See Medicine Index.
EPILOB1UM, the willow HERB. A genus of
plants, belonging to the o£landria clafs ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 17th order, Calycanthe-
mce. See Botany Index.
EPILOGUE, in Oratory, the end or conclufion of
a difeourfe, ordinarily containing a recapitulation of
the principal matters delivered.
Epilogue, in dramatic poetry, a fpeech addrefled
to the audience, after the play is over, by one of the
principal aftors therein •, ufually containing fome reflec¬
tions on certain incidents in the play, efpecially thofe
in the part of the perion that fpeaks it j and having
fomewhat of pleafantry, intended to compofe the paf-
Aons raifed in the courfe of the reprefentation : A prac¬
tice which is ridiculed by the Spell a tor ; and compared
to a merry jigg upon the organ after a good fermon,
to wipe away any irupreflions that might have, been
made thereby, and fend the people awray juft as they
came. ' # x
EPIMEDIUM, BARREN-WORT. A genus of
plants, belonging to the tetrandria clafs j and in the
natural method ranking under the 24th orUtv,’Cory dales.
See Botany Index.
EPIMENIDES, an ancient poet and philofopher,
was born at Gnoffus in Crete. Contrary to the cuftom
of his country, he always wore his hair long j which,
according to fome, was becaufe he was alhamed of
being thought a Cretan : and indeed he does not feem
to have had a high opinion of his countrymen, if that
verfe cited by St Paul be, as it is generally believed to
be, his ; “ The Cretans are always liars, evil beafts,
flow bellies.” Many ftories are related of him, too
wonderful to merit attention 5 however, his reputation
was lo great over all Greece, that he was there efteem-
ed a favourite of the gods. The Athenians being af-
flifted wath the plague, and commanded by the oracle
to make a lolemn lullration of the city, fent Nicias,
the fon of Niceratus, with a fliip to Crete, to defire
Epimenides to come to them. He accepted their in-
I i 2 vitation.
E P I [ 252 1 E P I
Epime- vltation, accompanied the meffengevs to Athens, per-
thcus, formed the luftratxon of the city, and the plague ceafed.
Epiphamus. j.jere ]-,e contra<fted an acquaintance with Solon, whom
v he privately inftrufted in the proper methods for the
regulation of the Athenian commonwealth. Having
finilhed his bufinefs at Athens, the citizens offered him
many valuable prefents and high honours, and appoint¬
ed a fhip to carry him back to Crete ; but he return¬
ed their prefents, and would accept of nothing except
a little branch of the facred olive preferved in the ci¬
tadel ; and defired the Athenians to enter into an al¬
liance with the Gnoflians. Having obtained this, he
returned to Crete \ where he died foon after, aged
I57 years or as the Cretans, confiftently with their
characler, pretended, 299. He was a great poet, and
wrote 5000 verfes on “ the genealogy of the gods,”
6500 “ on the building of the fliip Argos and Jafon’s
expedition to Colchis,” and 4000 “ concerning Minos
and Rhadamanthus.” He wrote alfo in profe, “ Con¬
cerning facrifices and the commonwealth of Crete.”
St Jerome likewife mentions his “ book of oracles and
refponfes.” The Lacedemonians procured his body,
and preferved it among them by the advice of an ora¬
cle •, and Plutarch tells us, that he was reckoned the
feventh wife man by thofe who refufed to admit Peri-
ander into the number.
EPIMETHEUS, a fon of Japetus and Clymene,
one of the Oceanides, who inconliderately married
Pandora, by whom he had Pyrrha, the wife of Deu¬
calion. He had the curiofity to open the box which
Pandora had brought with her, and from thence iffued
a train of evils, which from that moment have never
ceafed to afflifl the human race. Hope was the only
one which remained at the bottom of the box, not
having a fufficient time to efcape, and it is {he alone
which comforts men under misfortunes. Epimetheus
was changed into a monkey by the gods, and fent into
the ifland Pithecufa.
EPIPHANIUS (St), an ancient father of the
church, born at Befanducan, a village in Paleftine,
about the year 332. He founded a monaftery near
the place of his birth, and prelided over it. He was
aftenvards elefted bhhop of Salamis j when he fided
with Paulinus againft Meletius, and ordained in Pale¬
ftine Paulinian the brother of St Jerome 5 on which a
conteft arofe between him and John bifhop of Jerufa-
lem. He afterwards called a council in the ifland of
Cyprus, in which he procured a prohibition of the
reading of Origen’s writings j and made ufe of all his
endeavours to prevail on Theophilus bilhop of Alex¬
andria to engage St Chryfoftom to declare in favour
of that decree : but not meeting with fuccefs, he went
himfelf to Conflantinople, where he would not have
any converfation with St Chi-yfoitom j and formed the
defign of entering the church of the apoflles to publifh
his condemnation of Origenbut being informed of
the danger to which he would be expofed, he refolved
to return to Cyprus 5 but died at fea in the year 403.
His works were printed in Greek, at Balil, 1544, in
folio and were afterwards tranflated into Latin, in
which language they have been often reprinted. Peta-
vius revifed and corredled the Greek text by two manu-
fcripts, and publifhed it together with a new tranllation
at Paris in 1622. This edition was reprinted at
Cologne in 1682.
EPIPHANY, a Chriflian • feftival, otherwife called Ep:phar.y
the Manifeflation of Chrijl to the Gentiles, obferved on I!
the fixth of January, in honour of the appearance of our [Epirus.
Saviour to the three magi or wife men, who came to v
adore him and bring him prefents. The feafl of epi¬
phany was not originally a diftindl feflival; but made a
part of that of the nativity of Chrift, which being cele¬
brated 1 2 days, the firit and laft of which were high
o^hief days of folemnity, either of thefe might pro¬
perly be called epiphany, as that word fignifies the ap¬
pearance of Chrili in the world.
The word in the original Greek, tmtpunti, fignifies-
appearance or apparition ; and was applied, as fome cri¬
tics will have it, to this feaft, on account of the liar
which appeared to the magi.—St Jerome and St Chry-
foilorn take the epiphany for the day of our Saviour’s
baptifm, when he wxas declared to men by the voice.
Hie ef flius mens dileBus, in quo mihi complacui: “ This
is my beloved Son, in whom I am wrell pleafed.” And
accordingly it is ftill obferved by the Cophtae and Ethi¬
opians in that view\ Others contend, that the feaft of
Chriltmas, or the nativity of our Saviour, wTas held in
divers churches on this day *, which had the deno¬
mination epiphany, or appearance, by reafon of our Savi¬
our’s hr ft appearance on earth at that time. And it
muft be allowed, that the wrord is ufed among the an¬
cient Greek fathers, not for the appearance of the ftar
to the magi, but for that of our Saviour to the world :
In which fenfe St Paul ufes the word epiphania in his
fecond epiftle to Timothy, i. 10.
EPIPHONEMA. See Oratory, n° 96.
EPIPHORA, in Medicine, a preternatural defluxion
of the eyes, when they continually difeharge a ftiarp
ferous humour, wdiich excoriates the cheeks. See Me¬
dicine Index.
EPIPHYSIS, mAnatomy. See Anatomy Index.
EPIPLOCELE, in Medicine, is a kind of hernia
or rupture, in which the omentum fubftdes into the
ferotum.
EPIPLOOMPHALON, in Medicine, an hernia
umbilicalis, proceeding from the omentum falling into
the region of the umbilicus or navel.
EPIPLOON. See Omentum, Anatomy Index.
EPIRUS, a diftrift of ancient Greece, bounded
on the eaft by Etolia, on the wTeft by the Adriatic, on
the north by Theffaly and Macedon, and on the fouth
by the Ionian fea. This country was anciently go¬
verned by its own princes, in which ftate it made a
very conftderable figure. The country, according to
Jofephus, was firft peopled by Dodanim the ion of
Javan and grandfon of japhet. The people were very
warlike ; but they continued in their favage ftate
long after their neighbours were civilized ; whence the
iflanders ufed to threaten their offenders wdth tranfpor-
tation to Epirus. Their horfes were in great requeft
among the ancients, as well as the dogs produced in
one of the divifions called MoloJJhs; and hence thefe
dogs were called by the Romans MoloJJi.
The hiftory of Epirus commences with the reign of
Pyrrhus the fon of Achilles by Deidamia the daughter
of Lycomedes king of Scyros. He is faid to have behaved
with great bravery at the liege of Troy ; but it would ap¬
pear that he behaved with no lefs barbarity. After the
city was taken, he is faid to have killed old king Priam
with his own hand } to have throwm Afty&nax the fon
of
r
Epirus.
E P I v [2
of Hector and Andromache headlong from a high
 /“— tower ; and facrificed Polyxena the daughter of Priam
on the tomb of his father. He carried Andromache
with him into Epirus, where he fettled by the advice
of the famous foothfayer Helenus, one of Priam’s fons,
who had ferved during the Trojan war both under his
father and himfelf. The only remarkable period of
the hiitory of Epirus is the reign of Pyrrhus II. who
made wTar upon the Romans. He wras invited into
Italy by the Tarentines 5 and embarked about 280
B. C. After having efcaped many dangers by fea, he
landed in that country, and with great difficulty gain¬
ed a victory over the Romans ^ but he wras afterwards
f See Rom*, utterly defeated by them f, and obliged to return
into his own own country. To retrieve his honour, he
then undertook an expedition againft Macedon 5
where he overthrew Antigonus, and at lad made him¬
felf mader of the wffiole kingdom. He then formed a
delign of fubduing all the other Grecian dates 5 but
met with fuch an obdinate refidance at Lacedaemon,
that he was obliged to drop the enterprife j and was
foon after killed at the liege of Argos by a woman,
wiio from the wall threw a tile upon his head. Dei-
damia, the grand-daughter of Pyrrhus, w-as the lad
that fat on the throne of Epirus. She is faid to have
been murdered after a diort reign 5 upon winch the
Epirots formed themfelves into a republic.
Under the new form of government Epirus never
made t|ny coiffiderable figure, but feems rather to have
been dependent on the kingdom of Macedon. The
Romans having conquered Philip king of that country,
redored the Epirots to their ancient liberty ; but they,
forgetful of this favour, foon after took up arms in fa¬
vour of Perfeus. As a puniffiment for this ingratitude,
the Romans gave orders to Paulus Emilius, after the
reduddion of Macedon, to plunder the cities of Epirus,
3nd level them with the ground. This w7as punctual¬
ly executed throughout the wffiole country on the fame
day and at the fame hour. The booty was fold, and
each foot-foldier had 200 denarii, that is, fix pounds
nine fhillings and twro pence, and each of the horfe
the double of this fum. An hundred and fifty thou-
fand men were made Haves, and fold to the beft bid¬
der for the benefit of the republic. Nor did the ven¬
geance of Rome flop here •, all the cities of Epirus, to
the number of 70, wrere difmantled, and the chief men
of the country carried to Rome, where they were tried,
and moft of them condemned to perpetual imprifon-
ment. After this terrible blow, Epirus never recover¬
ed its ancient fplendor. Upon the diifolution of the
Achsean league, it wras made part of the province of
Macedon 5 but when Macedon became a diocefe, E-
pirus was made a province of itfelf, called the province
of Old Epirus, to diftinguiffi it from New Epirus, an¬
other province lying to the eaft of it. On the divifion
of the empire, it; fell to the emperors of the eaft, and
continued under them till the taking of Conftantinople
by the Latins, when Michael Angelas, a prince near¬
ly related to the Greek emperor, feized on Etolia and
Epirus, of which he declared himfelf defpot or» prince •,
and was fucceeded by his brother Theodoras, who took
feveral towns from the Latins, and fo far enlarged his
dominions, that, difdaining the title of defpot, he af-
famed that of emperor, and wras crowned by Deme¬
trius archbiftiop of Bulgaria, Charles, the laft; prince
S3 1 E P I
of this family, dying without lawful iffue, bequeathed EplfcopacL,
Epirus and Acarnania to his natural fons, wffio were' ^
driven out by Amurath the fecond. Great part of
Epirus was afterwards held by the noble family of the
Caftriots •, wffio, though they were mafters of all Alba¬
nia, yet ftyled themfelves princes of Epirus. Upon the
death of the famous George Caftriot, furnamed Scan-
dcrheg, Epirus fell to the Venetians, who wrere foon
difpolTefled of it by the Turks ; in whofe hands it ftill con¬
tinues, being now7 known by the name oi Albania, which
comprehends the Albania of the ancients, all Epirus, and
that part of Dalmatia which is fubjeft to the Turks.
EPISCOPACY, that form of church-government,
in which diocefan biffiops are eftabliffied as diftindl from
and fuperior to priefts or prefbyters. We have already
obferved, that it is a long time ftnce the minifters
of religion have been diftinguifhed into different orders,
aad that it has been much controverted whether the
diftindftion be of divine or human right j wffiether it was
fettled in the apoftolic age or afterwards. (See Bi¬
shop.) This controverfy commenced foon after the r
Reformation ; and has been agitated wdth great warmth
between the Epifcopalians on the one fide, and the Pref- nxjnt °Ghe
byterians and Independents on the other. Among the^nt^'r^,i
Proteftant churches abroad, thofe which were reformed
by Luther and his affociates are in general epifcopal;
whilft fuch as follow the do£lrines of Calvin have for
the moft part thrown off the order of biffiops as one of
the corruptions of popery. In England, however, the
controverfy has been confidered as of greater import¬
ance than on the Continent; for it has there been ftre-
nuoufly maintained by one party, that the epifcopal order'
is effential to the conftitution of the church 3 and by
others, that it is a perniciqus .encroachment on the
rights of men, for which there is no authority in ferip-
ture. Though the queftion has for fome time lain al-
moft dormant, and though w7e have no defire to revive
it ; yet as a wTork of this kind might perhaps be deem¬
ed defective, did it contain no account whatever of a"
controverfy wffiich has employed fome of the ableft wri¬
ters of the paft and prefent centuries, we ffiall give a fair
though ffiort view7 of the chief arguments by wffiich the
advocates of each contending party have endeavoured
to fupport their owm caufe, leaving our readers to judge
for themfelves where the truth lies. See Indepen¬
dents and Presbyterians.
The Independent maintains, that under the gofpel 3
difpenfation there is nothing which bears the fmalleft The Indei
refemblance to an exclufive priefthood 5 that Chrift and pendent
his apoftles conftituted no permanent order of minifters lc^e'rne’
in the church 5 but that any man who has a firm belief
in revelation, a principle of lincere and unaffedfted pie¬
ty, a capacity for leading devotion and communicating
inftrucHon, and a ferious inclination to engage in the
important employment of promoting the everlafting fal-
vation of mankind 5 is to all intents and purpofes a re¬
gular minifter of the New Teftament, efpecially if he
have an invitation to the paftoral office from fome par¬
ticular fociety of Chriftians.
Againft this fcheme, which fuppofes the rights of
Chriftians all equal and common, and acknowdedges no
authority in the church except what may be derived
from the election of her members, the Proteftant Epif-^, 3
copalian reafons in the following manner. He admits, j.^!. ™^it5
as an undoubted truth, that our bleffed Lord gave toagjqnft i'£v
none-
E P I [ 254 ] E P
Xpifcopacy. none ox his inmiediate followers authority or jurifdiction not he would become a member.
of fuch
a nature as could interfere with the rights of
the civil magiflrate, for all fuch authority was difclaim-
cd by himfelf: “ My kingdom (faid he to Pilate) is
not of this world and to a certain perfon who alked
him to decide a queftion of property between him and
his brother, he replied, u Man, who made me a judge or
a divider over you.” But when it is confidered, that
Chrift came into this world to “ turn men from darknefs
to light, and from the power of Satan to the living
God ; that he gave himfelf for us, that he might redeem
us from all iniquity, and purify to himfelf a peculiar
people zealous of good works; that of thefe works
many are fuch as unregenerate humanity has no incli¬
nation to perform, and that the dodlrines which he re¬
vealed are fuch as human reafon could never have difeo-
vered ; the advocate for epifcopacy thinks it was ex¬
tremely expedient, if not abfolutely neceffaryj that,
when he afeended into heaven, he fhould eftablilh upon
earth fome authority to illullrate the revelation which
he had given, and to enforce obedience to the laws
"which he had enafted. There is nothing, continues
he, more ftriclly required of Chriftians, than that they
live together in unity, profefling the fame faith, join¬
ing in the fame worlhip, and praflifing the fame vir¬
tues. But as men have very dift'erent paffions, preju¬
dices, and purfuits, fuch unity would be impofiible,
were they not linked together in one fociety under the
government of perfons authorifed to watch over the
purity of the faith, to preferibe the forms of public
worlhip, and to explain the nature, and inculcate the
church, the neceffity of the feveral virtues. The fociety of Chri-
kingdom of ftians, in refpeft of its unity and organization, is com-
beaven, and pared to the human body : for “ as we have many
the kingdom member$ in one body, and all members have not the
J ’ fame office ; fo we being many are one body in Chrift,
and every one members one of another,” (Rom. xii.
4, 5.) It is called the church, the kingdom of heaven,
and the kingdom of God; and its affairs, like thofe of
every other kingdom, are adminiftered by proper offi¬
cers in fubordination to the one Lord, who, “ when
he afeended up on high, and led captivity captive, gave
ibme apoftles, and fome prophets, and fome pallors
and teachers, for the perfedling of the faints, for the
uork of the miniftry, for the edifying of the body of
Chrift (Ephef. iv. 8—13.) That thofe various or¬
ders of minilters were veiled with real authority in the
church might be inferred from principles of reafon as
well as from the diftates of revelation. A fociety
without fome fort of government, government without
5 laws, or laws without an executive power, is a direft
1 he churcr- abfurdity. Where there are laws, fome mull govern,
and others be governed 5 feme mull command, and
others obey ", fome mult direft, and others fubmit to
direction. This is the voice of nature; it is likewife
the language of feripture. “ Obey them (fays the in-
ipired author of the epiftle to the Hebrews) wrho have
the rule over you, and fubmit yourfelves ; for they
watch for your fouls as they that mull give account.”
A text which Ihows that the authority of the minifters
of religion was dillindl from that of the civil magi-
ftrate, wffiofe duty is to watch, not for the fouls, but for
the lives and properties, of his fubje61s.
Of the fociety thus conftituted, it was not, as of a
jahilofophical feel, left to every man’s choice whether or
.4
Chrilhans
linked to¬
gether in
one fociety
called the
governed
by proper
•Ificers.
All who embrace Epifcopacy.
the faith of the Redeemer of the World are required to —*
be haptifed, under the pain of forfeiting the benefits of vjj ^.
redemption: but one great purpofe lor which baptifmft,ans re_'
wTas inftituted, is to be the rite of initiation into the quired to
church of Chrift ; “ for by one fpirit are we all bapti-be mem-
zed into one body, whether we be Jew^s or Gentiles, ^.ers 0^t^'a
whether we be bond or free,” (1 Cor. xii. 13.). QfclLirc1'
baptifm, whatever be the importance, it is evident,
that to receive it, is not, like the pradlice of juftice, or the
veneration of the Supreme Being, a duty refulting from
the relations of man to his Creator and fellow-crea¬
tures ; that its whole efficacy, which in leripture is faid
to be nothing lefs than the remiffion of fins, is derived
from pqjitive infitution ; and therefore, that the external
rite can be of no avail, but when it is adminiftered
in the manner preferibed, and by a perfon authorifed to
adminifter it. That all Chriftians are not veiled with
this authority, as one of the common privileges of the
faith, appears from the commiffion which our Savi¬
our after his refurreftion gave to his apoftles. At 7
that period, wre are affured that the number of his fol- ^ri'
lowers w'as not lefs than five hundred; yet wre find, that
to the eleven difciples only did “ he come and fpeak, fay-t0 admini-
ing, All power is given unto me in heaven and in fter the fa-
earth •, go ye, therefore, and teach all nations, bapti-craments.
zing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghoft.”
Of the 500 difciples there is furely no reafon to be¬
lieve that there were not many well qualified to inftrudl
either a JewT or a Gentile in the doftrines of the gof-
pel; and it is certain, that any one of them could have
waflied his convert with water in the name of the Holy
Trinity as well as St Peter or St John : but fuch an
unauthorifed waffiing would not have been Chriftian
baptifm,| nor of equal validity with it, any more than
the opinion of a lawyer at the bar is the judgment of a
court of juftice, or of equal obligation. It is the com¬
miffion of the fovereign which gives force to the fudg*
ment of the court ; it is the commiffion of Chrift
which gives validity to baptifm. The fame reafoning
is applicable to the Lord’s fupper, which, if it be not
adminiftered by thofe who have authority for fueh ad-
miniftration, cannot be deemed a facrament of Chrift’s
inftitution.
Thefe two rites are the external badges of our pro-
feffion. By the one, wTe are incorporated into that fo¬
ciety of wffiich our Redeemer is the head and fove¬
reign : in the celebration of the other, we have a right
to join, whilft of that fociety we continue members.
But if by an open and fcandalous difregard of the pre¬
cepts of the gofpel, we fhould prove ourfelves unworthy
of its privileges, the fame perfons who are authorifed
to admit us into the church, are likewife veiled with
authority to call us out of it : for to them were given
“ the keys of the kingdom of heaven (or the church),
with affurance, that whatfoever they ffiould bind on
earth, ffiould be bound in heaven 5 and uffiatfoever they
ffiould loofe on earth, fliould be loofed in heaven,”
(Mat.xviii. 18.) As baptifm is to be adminiftered fo long
as there lhall be perfons to be enlifted under the ban¬
ners of Chrift, and the Lord’s Supper to be celebrated
fo long as it ftiall be the duty of foldiers to adhere to
the ftandard of their leader and their head ; and as it is
likewife to be feared that there will never come a time
when
£ P I [2
Kpifcopacy. when all Cliriftians (hall “ walk worthy of the voca-
1 ~'-i ~ tion wlierewith they are called j” it follows, that this
Chriftians Power °f keys, which was originally given to the a-
as a body poftles, muft continue in the church through all ages,
cannot even unto the end of the world. But as we have feen,
transfer to was not firft intruded to all the difciples in
numbefar^ commonj as one the privileges infeparable from their
authority of Pr°heihon, and as no body of men can poffibly transfer
which they an authority of which they themfelves were never pof-
were never feJJed; it is certain, that even now it cannot, by the
poireffed. eleaion 0f
one clafs of Chriftians, be delegated to ano¬
ther, but muft, by fome mode of fucceftion, be derived
from the apoftles, wrho were fent by Chrift as he
was fent by his Father. To argue from the origin of
civil to that of ecclejiajlical government, although not
very uncommon, the Epifcopalian deems extremely fal¬
lacious. Of the various nations of the world, many of
the fovereigns may indeed derive their authority from
the fuffrages of their fubjecls j becaufe in a ftate of na¬
ture every man has an inherent right to defend his life,
liberty and property 5 and what he pofTeffes in his own
perfon, he may for the good of fociety transfer to ano¬
ther : but no man is by nature, or can make himfelf a
member of the Chriftian church ; and therefore autho¬
rity to govern that fociety can be derived only from
him by whom it was founded, and who died that he
“ gather together in one all the children of
Authority
to govern
the church
can be de¬
rived only
from Ghrift. might
God
10
An objec¬
tion an-
fwered.
Againft fuch reafoning as this it hath been urged,
that to make inftitutions, which like baptifm and the
Lord’s fupper are generally neceflary to the falvation
of all Chriftians, depend for their efficacy upon the au¬
thority or commiffion of a particular order, appears in-
confiftent with the wifdom and goodnefs of God ; as
by fuch an economy an intolerable domination would
be eftabliffied over the fouls of men, and the purpofe
for which the Saviour of the world died might be in
fome degree defeated by the caprice of an ignorant and
arbitrary priefthood. The objection is certainly plau-
(ible 5 but the Epifcopalian affirms, that either it has no
weight, or militates with equal force againft the wifdom
of Providence in the government of this world.—In
every thing, he obferves, relating to their temporal
and to their fpiritual interefts, mankind are all fubjedt-
ed to mutual dependence. The rich depend upon the
poor, and the poor upon the rich. An infant neglect¬
ed from the birth would barely cry and ceafe to live ;
nor is it eafily to be conceived, that in the more rigid
climates of the earth a full grown man could provide
even the neceffaries of mere animal life. Of religion,
it is certain that in fuch a ftate nothing could be knowm 5
for there is not the fmalleft reafon to imagine that any
individual of the human race—an Ariflotle, a Bacon, or a
Newton, had he been left alone from his infancy, with¬
out culture and without education,—could ever, by the
native vigour of his xnvn mind, have difcovered the
exiftence of a God, or that fuch fpeculations as lead
to that difcovery would have employed any portion of
his time or his thoughts. Even in civilized fociety it
would be impoffible, in the prefent age, for any man,-
without the affiftance of others, to underftand the very
firft principles of our common Chriftianity 5 for the
fcriptures, which alone contain thofe principles, are
written in languages which are now nowhere vernacu¬
lar. In the fidelity of tranflators, therefore, every il-
55 ] E P I
literate difciple of Jefus mujl confide, for the truth ofEpiftopacy,
thoie doctrines which conftitute the foundation of all'
his hopes j and as no man ever pretended that the
Chrifti'dn facraments are more necelfary to falvation than
the Chriftian faith, the Epifcopalian lees no improprie¬
ty or inconfiftency in making thofe perfons receive bap¬
tifm and the Lord’s fupper by the miniftration of others,
who by fuch miniftration muft of neceffity receive the
truths of the gofpel. 11
By fuch arguments as thefe does the EpifcopalianA Peima-
endeavour to prove that Chrift conftituted fome of mini fliers
manent order of minijlers in the church, to whom in the conftituted
externals of religion the great body of Chriftians are by Chiift.
commanded to pay obedience 5 and thus far the Prefby-
terian agrees with him j but here their agreement ends.
Ihey hand in hand attack the Independent with the
(ame weapons, and then proceed to attack each other.
The one maintains, that originally the officers of the
Chriftian church were allprejhyters or ciders oi one order,
and veiled with equal powers; whilft the other holds,
that Chrift and his apoftles appointed divers orders of
minifters in the church j that of thefe orders the high-
eft alone was empowered to ordain others \ and that
therefore obedience, as to thofe who watch for our
fouls, can be due only to fuch as are epifcopalhj or-,
dained.
In behalf of the Prelbyterian plea it is urged, that xhe Pref-
the titles of hijhop and prejhyter, being in the New Telia-byterian
ment indifferently given to the fame perfons, cannot Plca-
be the titles of diftindl ecclefiaftical officers; which
appears Hill more evident from the ordination of Timo¬
thy, who, although he was the firft hijhop of Ephefus,
received his epifcopal charadler by the impofition of the
hands of the prejhytery.—That one and the fame man
is, in the New Teftament, llyled fometimes a bifhop and
fometimes a prefbyter, cannot be denied ; but although
every apoftolic bilhop was therefore undoubtedly0a
prelhyter, it does not of courfe follow, fays the Epif¬
copalian, that every prelhyter was likewife a bilhop.
In the Old Teftament, Aaron and his fons are without
any diferimination of order frequently fty led priejis ; and
in the New, both St Peter and St John call themfelves
prejhyters, as St Paul, upon one occafion, ilyles him¬
felf a deacon—l5tx>ccvos (Eph. iii. 7.) : yet no man ever
fuppofed thofe apoftles to have been fuch ecclefiaftical
officers as modern prefbyters and deacons ; and it is
univerfally known, that in the Jewiffi priellbood there
were different orders, and that Aaron was of an order
fuperior to his fons. This being the cafe, the prelby- 13
ters, by the laying on of whofe hands Timothy was Epifcopal
made a bilhop, may have been of the fame order with argamepts
St Peter and St John; and if fo, it follows that his*0^1"*11<r‘'
ordination was Epifcopal. At all events, we are certain,
continues the advocate for Epifcopacy, that it was not,
in the modern fenfe of the word, Prejbyterian ; for the
gift, which in the firft epiftle is faid to have been “ gi¬
ven by prophecy with the laying on of the hands of the
prefbytery,” is in the fecond faid to have been “ in him
by the putting on of the hands of St Paul.” And here
it is worthy of obfervation, that the prepofition ufed
m the former cafe is yMx, which lignifies concurrence ra¬
ther than inftrumentality; but that in the latter is ha,
which, as every Greek fcholar knows, is prefixed to
the infrutnental caufe by which any thing is eHeeled ;
fo that whatever may have been the order of the pref¬
byters
E P I f 2
Epifcopacy. byters wlio concurred, St Paul appears to have been
“ v the foie ordainer. But by the confeflion of all parties,
St Paul was a bifliop in the higheft fenfe in which that
word is ever ufed ; and the powers of the epifcopate
not being parcelled out among various partners, of
whom each poffeffes only a fliare, the impofition of his
hands was fufficient for every purpofe which could
have been effe£ted by the hands of the whole college of
apoftles.
It appears, therefore, that from the promifcuous ufe
of the titles bifhop and prejbyter, and from the ordination
of Timothy, nothing can with certainty be concluded on
either fide of this celebrated queftion. But if, inftead
of refling on mere words, which when taken alone and
without regard to the context, are almofl all of am¬
biguous fignification, we attend to fome important
faffs recorded in the New Teflament, the Epifcopalian
thinks we fhall in them difcover fufficient evidence
that the government of the primitive church was pre-
latical.
During our Saviour’s flay upon earth, it is unde¬
niable that he had under him two diftinft orders of
miniflers—the twelve, and the feventy $ and after his
afcenfion, immediately before which he had enlarged
the powers of the eleven, we read of apofles, prejhyters,
and deacons, in the church. That the prefhyters were
fuperior to the deacons, and the apoflles fuperior to
both, is univerfally acknowledgedbut it has been
faid, that in Scripture we find no intimation that the
apoflolic order was defigned for continuance. A
Quaker fays the fame thing of water-baptifm 5 and
1 kewife^f t^le Epifcopalian obferves, that it would be difficult
ter his at- t0 point out by what paffage of Scripture, or what
mode of reafoning, thofe wrho upon this plea reject the
apoflolic order of Chriflian miniflers, could overthrow
the principles upon which the difciples of George Fox
reject the ufe of that rite which our Saviour inilituted
for the initiation of mankind into his church. They
were the eleven alone to wffiom Chrifl faid, “ Go ye
therefore and teach all nations, baptifing them in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghofland therefore, although we frequently find
prefhyters and deacons adminiilering the facrament of
baptifm, we mull conclude, that as a judge admini-
flers juflice by authority derived from his fovereign, fo
thofe inferior officers of the church adminiftered bap¬
tifm by authority derived from the apofles. Indeed,
had they pretended to a61 by any other authority, it
’ is not eafily to be conceived how their baptifm could
have been the baptifm inflituted by Chrifl j for it wyas
not with the external wajhing by whomfoever perform¬
ed, but wTith the eleven and their fucceffors, that he
promifed to be “ always, even unto the end of the
world.”
That the eleven did not confider this promife, or the
eommiffion "with which it was given, as terminating
with their lives, is evident from their admitting others
into their owm order \ for vffiich they had competent
authority, as having been fent by Chrift as he was fent
by his Father. When St Paul, to magnify his office
and procure to it from the Galatians due reverence,
derndefi°n” hyles himfelf, “ an apoflle not of men, neither by man,
ed to be but by Jefus Chrift and God the Father,” he mufl
ps#manent. have known fome who derived their apojlolic miffion
by man-, otherwife he could with no propriety have
1
56 ]
E P I
14
Three or¬
ders of
Chrfftian
ininifters
during our
Saviour’s
flay upon
cenfion in¬
i’® heaven.
,5
The apo-
ftolic or
higheft or-
claimed particular refpedl, as he evidently does, from Epifcopacy.
what wTas in his own apofllefhip no particular diftinc-1 v “ ’ '
tion. At that very early period, therefore, therq mufl
have been in the church fecondary apoflles, if they may
be fo called, upon wffiom, by impofition of hands, or
by fome other fignificant ceremony, the eleven had
conferred that authority which was given to them by
their Divine Mailer. Such wrere Matthias and Bar¬
nabas ; fuch likewife wrere Timothy, 'Titus, and the an¬
gels of the feven churches in Alia, wTith many others
w'hofe names and offices are mentioned in the New
Teflament.
That Matthias and Barnabas were of the apoflolic
order, has never been controverted ; and that Timothy
and Titus were fuperior to modern prefhyters, is evi-
dent from the offices affigned them. Timothy was, Matthias,
by St Paul, empow'ered to prefide over the prelbyters Barnabas,
of F.phefus, to receive accufations againfl them, to xitus1 and
hart, to charge, and even to rebuke them } and Titus tjie ai’^ejs
wras, by the fame apoflle, left in Crete for the exprefsofthe feven
purpofe of fetting things in order, and ordaining pref churches'in
byters in every city. To exhort, to charge, and wffiffi
authority to rebuke one’s equal, is certainly incongru¬
ous ; and therefore the Epifcopalian thinks the powers
conferred on Timothy altogether inconfiflent wffih that
parity of order and of office for which his antagonifls
fo ftrenuoufly plead. Even the commiffion ’given to
Titus appears in his eyes by much too extenfive for a
Prefhyterian minifter, wffio, after having ordained in
one city, could not have proceeded to ordain in another
without the confent and affiflance of his brother and
fellow-labourer. With refpecl to the angels of the A-
fiatic churches, he obferves, that in the Old Teflament
the title of angel is fometimes given to the Jewifh high-
prief, and particularly by the prophet Malachi, wffio
calls him “ the meffienger (ayysAos) of the Lord of
Hoffsand that the angels of the churches mention¬
ed by St John, were Chrifian ' high-priefs, or bijhops
prefiding over more than one congregation, as it is af¬
firmed by all the ancient wniters, cannot, he thinks, be
denied by any man who wall take the trouble to com¬
pare Scripture with Scripture. We read (Acts xix. 10.
and 20.), that “ in the fpace of tw?o years all they
who dwelt in Alia heard from St Paul the word of the
Lord Jefus, both Jews and Greeks 5 and that there the
word of God grew mightily and prevailed'T but with
wffiat truth or propriety could this have been faid, if at
the time of St John’s waiting the Apocalypfe, wffiich
was 30 years after St Paul’s death, all the Chriflians
of Proconfular Alia were comprifed in feven congrega¬
tions, which affembled, each with its proper pallor, to
perform, in one place, the duties of public worfhip ? In
a word, the advocate for Epifcopacy infills, that no
man, who reads without prejudice the a61s of the apo¬
flles, the epiflles of St Paul, and the Apocalypfe of
St John, can feriouily believe that Timothy, Titus, E-
paphroditus, Sq/ihenes, and Silvanus, with the angels of
the feven churches in Alia, were tnereprefbyters, or that
the government of the church wTas, in thofe days, by
a college of elders.
When from the infpired penmen of the New Tefla¬
ment he proceeds to examine the fucceeding writers oi
the Chriflian church, the Epifcopalian finds fuch mul¬
tiplied and concurring evidence of the apoftolic inflitu-
tion of epifcopacy, as he thinks it inapoffible to refill
without
E P I [ 257 ] E P I
Epifcopacy. without denying the truth of all ancient hiftory, and
' , ! even ihaking the pillars of revelation itfelf j for “ in
the noble army of martyrs,” the witneffes of the epif-
copal government of the church are earlier, and by far
more numerous, than thofe who teftify that the gofpel
of St Matthew was written by that apoltle, or that the
book of the Apocalypfe is canonical Scripture. The au¬
thority of the fathers indeed is at prefent very low $ but
Ihould they be allowed to be as fanciful divines and as
bad critics as their word enemies are pleafed to repre-
fent them, this would detraft nothing from their evi¬
dence when they bear witnefs to the conftitution of
the church in their own times •, for of their integrity
there can be no doubt: and what the Epifcopalian
wants of them is only their teftimony to matters of faft
which fell under the cognizance of their own fenfes,
and about which therefore they could not be deceived.
It is here indeed chiefly that he triumphs over his an-
tagonifts. In the fecond and third centuries there
was no general council, nor any Chriftian fovereign.
The divine A prelacy therefore, he urges, could not have been
right of E- umverfally introduced, during that period, either by a
pifcopacy. concert among the clergy, or by the authority of the
civil magiftrate. Yet that even then there was no
church under heaven, of which the government was
not epifcopal, has been confeffed by fome of the mod
learned writers among the Prefbyterians themfelves 5
whence he concludes that epifcopacy is of divine indi-
tution.
The candid Epifcopalian, however, allows, that in
the apodolic age there may have been fome churches
which at fird had only bifliops and deacons to perform
the offices of religion *, for when the number of difci-
ples in any place was fo {mall that they could all meet
m one affembly, there was no neceflity for any other
order of miniders: but it appears that, from the very
beginning, bifhops, prejbyters, and deacons, were fettled in
all the larger cities of the Roman empire •, and it was
in thofe days an allowed maxim, that without a bifhop
there could be no church. The better to underdand the
original date and inditution of epifcopacy, it is neceflary
to obferve, that the empire, which contained almod
all the known part of the Chridian world, was by Au-
gudus Caefar divided into provinces, fubjefted each to
the authority of one chief magidrate, who was com¬
monly a prcetor or proconful, and who redded in the
metropolis or chief city of the province. A province
comprehended the cities of a whole region ; and in the
age of the apodles, each city was under the immediate
government of certain magidrates within its own bo¬
dy, known by the name of gavM, or fenatus, or do and
curia, “ the dates and court of the city.” Thofe magi¬
drates were fubordinate to the prcetor or proconful: but
among them there was one fuperior to the red, called
fometimes dilator and fometimes defenfor civitatis,
whofe jurifdi£txon extended not only over the city it¬
felf, but likewife over all the adjacent territory. That
territory was denominated ?rf>e>cc<f]ux, or the fuburbs, and
often reached to the didance of 1 o or 12 miles round
the city, and fometimes much farther, containing
i8 within it many villages and fmall towns under the go-
The origin yernment of the city magidrates. From fome paffages
diocefes. in the New Tedament, and from the concurring evi¬
dence of the earlied writers of the church, it appears
to have been the purpofe of the apodles to fettle a bi-
* Yol. VIII. Pan I.
{hop in every city where there was a civil magidracy fEpikopary.
but as they could not be perfonally prefent in all places —v  
at once, it was natural for them to enter upon the great
work of converting the nations by fr/l preaching the
gofpel in that city of each province which was the or¬
dinary refldence of the governor •, becaufe to it there
mud have been the greated refort of people, who
would carry the glad tidings with them into the coun¬
try when they returned. Accordingly, having difper-
fed themfelves over the empire, and made numbers of
profelytes in the principal cities, they fixed in each,
where they faw it neceflary, a bi/bop, with a college of
prejbyters and deacons; and gave to thofe bifliops, who
were at fird called apofiles, a commifllon, as the othei'
cities of the province fliould be converted, to fix in
them bifliops alfo.
In fome of the fmaller cities, it is extremely probable
that a bilhop and a deacon were for a fliort time the
only ecclefiaftical officers, till the number of Chridians
increafed fo much as to make it impoflible for them
all to aflemble in one houfe for the purpofes of public
worfliip. The bifliop then ordained prejbyters to of¬
ficiate in thofe congregations where he himfelf could
not be prefent, and to aflid him in other parts of his
padoral office; but in all their minidrations the prel-
byters -were fubordinate to him, who was the chief
pador within the city, who compofed the prayers which
were offered up in public, and to whom all the other
miniders of religion were accountable for their con-
du£l. So long as the number of the faithful was con¬
fined within the walls of the city, it appears that the
bifliop with his prefbyters and deacons lived together
as in a college; that divine fervice wras every Lord’s
day, or oftener, performed in what was afterwards call¬
ed the cathedral or mother-church, by the bifliop him¬
felf, aflided by fome of his clergy; and that the congre¬
gations which met in other churches, having no fxed
padors, were fupplied by fuch prefbyters as the bifliop
chofe to fend to them from his own church. Whild
matters continued in this date, the clergy had no other
revenues than what arofe from the voluntary oblations
of the people 5 which were indeed fo large as not only
to fupport them with decency, but likewife to anfwer
other ends of charity and munificence. They were
commonly divided into four equal parts j of which one
was allotted to the bifhop, a fecond to th» inferior
clergy, a third to the poor, and a fourth to keep the
churches in repair; and it was confidered as a part of
the bifliop’s duty to take care that the offerings fliould
be faithfully applied to thefe purpofes.
When converts increafed in number, and churches The origin
were built in the fuburbs, each of thofe churches had of parilhes.,
a fixed pador fimilar to a pariflv-pried among us; but
dill thofe padors, as well as the city-clergy, minidered
in fubordination to the biffiop, whofe authority ex¬
tended as far as the civil authority of the Roman ma-
gidrate, within which didrift or diocefe it was fupreme
over all orders of Chridians. This every man knows
who is acquainted with ecclefiadical hidory 5 for the
bifliop alone could ordain pnejls and deacons, adminifler
the rite of confrmation, abfolvepenitents who were under
church-cenfure, and exclude from communion heretics and
notorious offenders; and from his fentence there lay no
appeal but to a fynod of comprovincial bifliops.
Such fynods were in each province convened by the
K k bifliop
E P I
[ 258 ]
E P I
Epifcopacy,
20
The origin
of metropo¬
litans.
21
The probr.
ble origin
of fpiritua!
tourts.
biihop of the chief city •, for the apoftles having been
careful to place in thofe cities men of the molt emi¬
nent gifts and abilities, the other bifhops of the pro¬
vinces applied to them for advice upon every emergen¬
cy, and paid a particular deference to them upon every
occafion. So that though all bifhops were of equal
authority as bi/hops, yet when they met to confecrate a
new bidiop, or to deliberate upon the affairs of the
church, they yielded a precedency to the bifhop of the
metropolis, who called them together, and who fat as
prejldent or moderator of the fynod. Hence the origin
-of metropolitans or arcJibijhops; whofe authority was fo
confiderable, that though there is not a doubt but the
eleBion of bifhops was anciently placed in the clergy
and people of the vacant diocefe, yet the biihop eleB
could not be confecrated without the confent of the
archbifhop of the province.
In confequence of the extenfive powers with which
the primitive bifhops were veiled, they are commonly
ftyled in the writings of thofe times prcfidents, provo/is,
or infpeBors of the church, chief pnefs, princes of the
clergy, and even princes of the people ; but their autho¬
rity was wholly fpiritual, Thofe prelates, imitating
the example of their Divine Matter when on earth,
neither potteffed nor affumed to themfelves any jurif-
diclion over the properties or civil rights of men. In
confequence of St Paul’s having reprimanded the Co¬
rinthians for going to law before the unbelievers, they
were indeed often chofen as arbiters of fuch civil dif-
putes as arofe between individuals under their epifco-
pal government •, but on thefe occafions they could not
aft unlefs the fubmiffion was voluntarily made by both
the contending parties, and then their decifion was fi¬
nal. When the empire btecarae Chrittian, this privi¬
lege was fconfirmed to them by law *, for any civil
caufe depending before a court of juftice could be
withdrawn, and by the mutual confent of parties be
fubmitted to the arbitration of the biihop, whofe
award, which in former times could be enforced only
by the terror of church-cenfures, was then enforced by
the fecular magiftrate. In criminal caufes, where the
trial might be for life or death, they were prohibited
both by the canons of the church and by the laws of
the ftate from afting as judges ; and therefore they
never fuffered fuch caufes to come before them, except
when it was neceflary that the perfon accufed, if found
guilty, fhould be excluded from the communion of the
faithful. But they had fo many civil caufes flowing
in upon them, that they were foon obliged to devolve
, part of that care upon other perfons, in whofe know¬
ledge, prudence, and integrity, they could fully con¬
fide : and as the perfons employed to aft in the bi-
fhop’s ftead were often laymen, it has been conjeftured
that they gave rife to the office of lay-chancellor in the
church, and to all that train of fpiritual judges and
fpiiitual courts againft which fuch numbers are dif-
pofed to clamour.
Be this as it may, it is certain that, through the
piety and munificence of the Chrittian emperors, the
biihops eojoved large revenues and many valuable pri¬
vileges •, but it does net appear that they had any rank
or authority, as barons or temporal princes, till the Go¬
thic nations, which fubverted the Roman empire, had
embraced the Chriftian faith. As Chriftianity incapa¬
citated the leaders of thofe tribes from officiating as
chief priefts at the religious rites which were ufually Epifcopacy.
celebrated at the opening of their public affemblies, v
the bifhops came naturally to difeharge that duty on ka(j
fuch occattons, when they mutt have (hared in the rank n0 civil
by fliaring in the funftions of the chief. The tttua- rank till af-
tion in which they thus appeared at the opening of all161-^!16 b'b-
political conventions, would enable them to join with ^ Roman
much efieft in the deliberations which enfued ; and erripire anq
their fuperior knowledge, their facred charafter, and the conver-
their influence with the people, w ould foon acquire fi°n ot the
them power equal to their rank. They mutt therefore na~
have been well entitled to demand admiffion into that
council which was formed by the king and the lay-
chiefs at the national affiemblies : and as they balanced
the authority of thofe chiefs, wre cannot doubt that the
king would be difpofed to give the utmoft effect to
their claim. Accordingly, w'e find the dignified cler¬
gy, who received large grants of land to be held on
the fame tenures with the lands of the lay magittrates,
prefiding along with thofe magittrates in the provincial
affemblies of every degree in all the Gothic nations,
and enjoying every advantage in point of rank and au¬
thority in their national diets. Hence the biihop of
Rome, and feveral biihops in Germany, have, like the
dukes and marquifes of that empire, been for a long
time fovereign princes j and hence too the bifliops of
England and Ireland have always fat, and have an
equal right with the lay-peers to fit, in the upper houfe
of parliament. It is however obvious, that, fo far
as epifcopacy is of apoflolical inttitution, thofe peers
and princes poffefs not the original charafter in any
higher degree than the biihops in America, who are
barely tolerated, or than thofe in Scotland who do not
enjoy that privilegeand that confirmation admini-
ftered, or holy orders conferred, by a periecuted pre¬
late, mutt be as effeftual to the purpofes of religion, as
if given by a German prince or an Engliih peer.
In this ihort view of epifcopacy, it has been our en¬
deavour to do juftice to the fubjeft, "without fuftering
ourfelves to be influenced by partiality or prejudice.
As wre are not ourfelves epifcopalians, we have advan¬
ced nothing of our own ; but have felefted from Eng¬
liih writers, who have at different times undertaken to
defend the divine right of epifcopacy, fuch fafts and
arguments as to us appear to be of the moft import¬
ance, or to have the greateft weight, without remark¬
ing upon them, or offering any anfwer. The reafon-
ing employed to prove that the order of biihops was in-
ftituted by the apoftles, is taken from a work prepared
for the prefs by Dr Berkeley prebendary of Canterbury,
and fon of the celebrated biihop of Cloyne. For the
reft of the detail w^e are indebted chiefly to Bingham’s
Origines Kcclefajiicce; a performance in great ettima-
tion with thofe Engliih divines wdio are commonly
known by the appellation of high churchmen. As edi¬
tors of a work of this kind, it is not our bufinefs to be
of any party, or to iupport, in oppofition to all others,
a particular church, though that church ftiould be our
own : We ihall therefore treat independency and prefby-
tery as we have treated epifcopacy, by employing fome
able writer of each fociety to plead his own caufe-
Meanwhile, "we ftiall conclude this article with a few
refleftions, which, though they come from the pen oF
an obfeure author, deferve to be engraved deep in the
memory of every controvertift of every communion.
“ Oa
E P I - [ 259 ] E P I
Eplfcopacy. On complicated quellions (fays a late apologiil;
1 v for the epifcopal church in Scotland), men will always
Moderation opinion *, but confcious each of the weaknefs
in contro- of his own underftanding, and fenfible of the bias
verfy re- which the llrongeil minds are apt to receive from
commend- thinking long in the fame track, they ought to dift'er
with charity and meeknefs. Since unhappily there are
ftill fo many fubjecls of debate among thofe who name
the name of Chrift it is doubtlefs every man’s duty,
after diveiling himfelf as much as poilible of prejudice,
to inveftigate thofe fubjects with accuracy, and to ad¬
here to that lide of each difputed queilion which, after
fuch inveiligation, appears to him to be the truth : but
he tranfgreiTes the favourite precept of his divine Ma¬
iler, when he calls injurious reflections, or denounces
anathemas, upon thofe who, with equal iincerity, may
view the matter in a ditferent light ; and by his want
of charity does more harm to the religion of the Prince
of Peace, than he poflibly could do good, were he able
to convert all mankind to his own orthodox opi-
,4 nions.”
Epifcopal The following is a ftiort hiilory of the epifcopal
church of church of Scotland, extracted from a more detailed ac-
cot anc^ count by a member of that church.
The real tenets of the Scotch epifcopalians, or mem¬
bers of what was at one period the eilabliihed church of
Scotland, he obferves, appear to be very imperfeftly un-
derilood. About the time of the reformation from popery,
the want of order and decency in the worfliip of the re¬
formed church was aboliihed in the reign of James VI.
by the eftabliihment of epifeopacy on very liberal prin¬
ciples. This mode of worihip obtained the function of
the molt refpedtable part of the nation, and continued to
flourilh under the aufpices of government, till it was
overthrown by the ilicklers for the national covenant.
Its reiloration was effedled in the year 1662, and twenty-
feven years afterwards it was again aboliihed by the ad¬
vocates of the prince of Orange.
It may be proper to obferve, that the Scotch epifco¬
pal church had no public liturgy during her legal eila-
blifliment. It is indeed true, that the Engliih book of
common prayer was ufed by the firil reformers, and
there is reafon to believe that John Knox himfelf was
by no means inimical to fet forms of prayer, nor to cle¬
rical fubordination 5 but his fucceffor, Andrew Melvil,
a man much inferior to him in point of erudition, intro¬
duced an equality among the clergy, and excited the
odium of the people againfl: the liturgy to fuch a de¬
gree, that an attempt to modify the prayer book for the
ufe of the church of Scotland, was productive of the fo-
lemn league and covenant, and the fubfequent ruin of
the unfortunate Charles.
During the reign of William III. the epifcopalians
were treated with fome degree of feverity, becaufe they
could not transfer that allegiance to him which they
had fworn to King James. It is faid that they were
prohibited from officiating on the fabbath day, except
“ in their own hired houfes, where they received fuch
friends as chofe to come in unto them.” In this man¬
ner was their worfliip conduced, praying either extem¬
pore, or from premeditation, till the acceflion of Queen
Anne, when the Englifli liturgy was introduced by de¬
grees into Scotland, under the fanftion of an aft of par¬
liament, paffed on the 3d of March 1712, “to pre¬
vent the diilurbiug of thofe of the epifcopal communion
in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, in the Epifeopacy'
exercife of their religious worfliip, and in the ufe of the ., H
liturgy of the church of England.” But as their at- EPllc^lu’-.
tachment to the houfe of Stuart was well known, they
were, at the rebellion of i7i5j laid under fome re-
llraints, yet neither fevere in their nature, nor of any
long continuance, fince in x 7 20 their places of worfliip
■were as numerous as before, and frequented by numbers
both oi rank and refpeftability, many of whom held
places under government.
In England, Dr Sancroft, archbifhop of Canterbury,
with five other bifliops, were deprived of their fees for
refufing their allegiance to King William, which occa-
fioned a fchifm in the church, as they were extremely
popular. Different opinions were entertained refpefting
the nature and defign of the Lord’s fupper, and the
controverfy infefted the epifcopalians of Scotland. The
introduction of prayers into public worfliip in behalf of
departed friends, ivas at leail a very impolitic itep at
luch a critical period, when every thing favouring of
popery was held in the utmofl: abhorrence. On the
death of Dr Role, the proferibed biihop of Edinburgh,
the diocefan form of church government wTas oppofed
by fuch of the prelbyters as had been raifed to the epifi-
copal dignity, and it was propofed to govern the whole
church by a college of biftiops. This plan, for th£
adoption of which no precedent could be found in the
annals of hiilory, was fuccefsfully oppofed by many of
the moil enlightened biftiops, and it was of confequence
abandoned.
The Scotch epifcopalians, it is well known, were al¬
ways charged with an undue attachment to the Stuart
family, which was even confidered as their moil diitin-
guifning tenet; yet there is fome reafon to believe that
the public opinion of this matter was rather exaggerat¬
ed. They have invariably maintained that the Al¬
mighty, and not the people, is the ruler of princes,
which fairly places them beyoPd the imputation of a
republican or levelling fpirit. The feveral reilraints
laid on Scotch epiicopalians from time to time, with a
view to eradicate their attachment to the Stuart family,
were happily removed in the year 1792, and they en¬
joyed a free toleration like the reft of diffenters. It was
about this time that the clergy of this church, with a
very few exceptions, took the oaths of abjuration and
allegiance.
It is well known, it is added by the fame writer, from
whofe account the above is taken, that in Scotland there
are chapels quite diftinft from the Scotch epifcopal
church, where clergymen who have been ordained ei¬
ther in England or Ireland, make ufe of the liturgy of
the church of England 5 but as each of thefe is ftriftly
and properly independent of the reft, and under the
guardianfhip of no bifhop whatever, thofe who attend
them have, in every fenfe of the word, a much better
claim to the appellation of congregationalifs than to that
of epifeopa/ianf.
EPISCOPAL, fomething belonging to Bishops.
EPISCOPALIANS, in church hiftory, an appel¬
lation given to thofe who prefer the epifcopal govern¬
ment and difeipline to all others. See Epicopacy.
By the teft aft, none but Epifcopalians, or members
of the church of England, are qualified to enjoy any
office civil or military.
EPISCOPIUS, Simon, one of the moft learned
K k 2 men
E P I
Epifcopus men of the 17th century, and the chief fupporter of the
P Arminian feft, was born at Amiterdam in 1583. In
'p11 " .■ 1612, he was chofen divinity profeffor at Leyden, in
the room of Gomarus, who religned ; and the func¬
tions of his office, with his private ftudies, were light
burdens to him, compared with the difficulties he iuf-
tained on account of the Arminian controverfy : which,
though it began in the univerfities, foon flew to the
pulpits, from whence it fpread and inflamed the peo¬
ple. The Hates of Holland having invited Epifcopius
' to take his place at the lynod of Dort, he went thither
accompanied by feme remonilrant minifters } but the
fynod would not allow them to fit as judges, nor to ap¬
pear in any other capacity than as perfons fummoned
before them : they fubmitted, were depofed from their
functions, and banifhed the territories of the common¬
wealth. Epifcopius and his perfecuted brethren retired
to Antwerp ; but the times growing more favourable,
he returned to Holland in 1626, and was made mini-
Iter of the church of the Remonifrants at Rotterdam:
in 1634 he was chofen redlor of the college founded
by the feH at Amiterdam, where he fpent the remain¬
der of his days. He died in 1643 of the fame dif-
order which had killed his wife before, a retention of
urine j having loft his fight fome weeks previous to his
end. The learned have beftowed great eulogiums on
Epifcopius } but he did not always write with that mo¬
deration which might have been wifhed. His works
make twTo volumes in folio, of which the fecond confifts
of pofthumous publications.
EPISCOPUS, the fame with bifhop. See Bishop
and Episcopacy.
EPISODE, in Poetry, a feparate incident, ftory,
or aft ion, which a poet invents, and connefts with his
principal aftion, that his work may abound with a
greater diverfity of events 5 though, in a more limited
fenfe, all the particular incidents whereof the aftion or
narration is compounded are called epifodes. See
Poetry.
EPISPASTIC, in Medicine, a topical remedy, which
being applied to the external parts of the body, attracts
the humours to that part.
EPISTATES, in the Athenian government, was
the prefident of the proedri. See Proedri.
EPISTEMONARCH, in the ancient Greek church,
an officer of great dignity, who had the care of every
thing relating to faith, in the quality of cenfor. His
office anfwered pretty nearly to that of mailer of the
facred palace at Rome.
EPISTLE, denotes the fame with a miffive letter j
but is now chiefly ufed in fpeaking of ancient writings,
as the epiftles of St Paul, epiflles of Cicero, epiflles of
Pliny, &c.
Epistles and Gofpels, in the liturgy of the church
of England, are felefl portions of feripture, taken out
of the writings of the evangelifls and apoflles, and ap¬
pointed to be read, in the communion fervice, on Sun¬
days and holidays. They are thought to have been fe-
lefted by St Jerome, and by him put into the leclion-
ary. It is certain, they were very anciently appropri¬
ated to the days whereon we now read them, fince they
are not only of general ufe throughout the we (fern
church, but are alfo commented upon in the homilies
of fevered ancient fathers, which are faid to have been
E P I
preached upon thofe very days to which thefe portions Epiftolary
of feripture are now affixed. 11
The epilfles and gofpels are placed in an admirable , EPltaPh-,
order and method, and bear a fpecial relation to the
feveral days whereon they are read. The year is di-
ftinguifhed into two parts j the firft being defigned to
commemorate Chrift’s living among us, the other to in-
ftruct us to live after his example. The former takes
in the whole time from Advent to Trinity-Sunday ; the
latter, all the Sundays from Trinity to Advent. Du¬
ring the firft of thefe feafons, the epiftles and gofpels
are calculated to raife in us a grateful fenfe of what our
Saviour did and fuffered for us, and fet before our eyes
his nativity, circumcifion, and manifeftation to the
Gentiles j his doftrines and miracles 5 his baptifm, fail¬
ings, and temptation j his agony and bloody fweat j
his crofs and paftion ; his death, burial, refurreclion,
and afeenfion 5 and his million of the Holy Ghoft.
During the fecond feafon of the year, the epiftles and
gofpels tend to inftrudl us in the true paths of Chrifti-
anity. See Collects.
EPISTOLARY, fomething belonging to an epiftle,
fee Epistle.
Epistolary Cotnpojitions. See Letter $ and the ar¬
ticle Poetry.
EPISTROPHE. See Oratory.
EPISTYLE, in the ancient architeflure, a term
ufed by the Greeks for what we call architrave, viz. a
maffive piece of ftone or wrood, laid immediately over
the capital of a column.
EPITAPH (from wri, upon, and rapa?, fepulchre'), a
monumental infeription, in honour or memory of a
perfon deceafed. It has been difputed whether the
ancient Jews inferibed epitaphs on the monuments of
the dead but be this as it will, epitaphs it is cer¬
tain, of very ancient date, are found amongft them.—
The Athenians, by way of epitaph, put only the name
of the dead, with the epithet fignifying “ good,”
or “ hero,” and the word fignifying their
good wifhes: The name of the deceafed’s father and
his tribe were frequently added.—The Lacedemonians
allowed epitaphs to none but thofe who had died in
battle. The Romans inferibed their epitaphs to the
manes, diis manibus; and frequently introduced the
dead by w^ay of profopopceia, fpeaking to the living j
of which we have a fine inftance, worthy the Auguftan
age, wherein the dead wife thus befpeaks her furviving
hufhand :
Immatura peri; fed tu, felicior, annos
Vive tuos, conjux optime, vive meos.
The epitaphs of the prefent day are generally cram¬
med with fulfome compliments which were never me¬
rited, charaflers which human nature in its beft ftate
could fcarce lay claim to, and expreflions of refpedl
which were never paid in the life-time of the deceafed.
Hence the proverb with great propriety took its rife,
“ He lies like an epitaph.”
Epitaph, is alfo applied to certain eloges, either in
profe or in verfe, compofed without any intent to be
engraven on tombs j as, that of Alexander,
Sufficit huic tumulus, cui nan fufficeret orbis.
and that of Newton,
t .260 ]
Ifaacunt
Epitafis
II
Epitropus.
E P I [26
Ifaacum Newton,
&uem immortalem
Tejlantur Tempus, Natura, Coelum ;
Mortalem hoc niarmor
Fatetur.
EPITASIS, in ancient poetry, the fecond part or
diviiion of a dramatic poem, wherein the plot, entered
upon in the firit part or protajis, was carried on, height¬
ened, and worked up, till it arrived at its Hate or height,
called catqflajis.
Epitasis, in Medicine, the increafe of a difeafe or
beginning of a paroxyfm, particularly in a fever.
EPITHALAMIUM, in Poetry, a nuptial fong or
compolition in praife of the bride and bridegroom, pray¬
ing for their profperity, for a happy offspring, &c.
Epithalamia were lung amonglt the Jews, at the door
of the bride, by her friends and companions, the even¬
ing before the marriage. Pfalm xlv. is an epithalami-
um. Among the Greeks the epithalamium was fung
as foon as the married couple were gone to bed, and at¬
tended with fhouts and itamping of the feet to drown
the cries of the bride. They returned in the morning,
and with the fame fong, a little altered, faluted them
again. The evening fong was called iTr&ctXctftisc r.01-
fc^liKx, the morning falute was called i7r&cchxy.tu. tyi^nx-et.
This was the practice amongft the Romans alfo, but
their epithalamia were often obfcene,
EPITHEM, in Pharmacy, a kind of fomentation,
or remedy of a fpirituous or aromatic kind, applied ex¬
ternally to the regions of the heart, liver, &c. to
flrengthen and comfort the fame, or to correct fome
intemperature thereof.
EPITHET, in Poetry and Rhetoric, an adjective ex-
preffmg fome quality of afubflantive to which it is join¬
ed 5 or fuch an adjedlive as is annexed to fubflantives
by way of ornament and illuftration, not to make up
an elfential part of the defcription. Nothing, fays A-
riflotle, tires the reader more than too great a redun¬
dancy of epithets, or epithets placed improperly 5 and
yet nothing is lb effential in poetry as a proper ufe of
them. The writings of the beft poets are full of
them.
EPITOME, in literary hiflory, the fame with A-
BRIDGEMENT.
EPITRITUS, in profody, a foot confifling of three
long fyllables and one fhort. Of thefe, grammarians
reckon four kinds : the firfl confifling of an iambus
and fpondee, as falutantes •, the fecond, of a trocheus
and fpondee, as concitatl \ the third of a fpondee, and
an iambus, as commumcans *, and the fourth, of a
fpondee and trocheus, as Incantare. See the articles
Spondees, Trocheus, &c.
EPITROPE. See Oratory, N° 83.
EPITROPUS, a kind of judge, or rather an arbi¬
trator, which the Greek Chrillians, under the domi¬
nion of the Turks, elebt in the feveral cities, to termi¬
nate the differences that arife among them, and avoid
carrying them before the Turkifh magiflrates. See
Arbitrator.
Anciently the Greeks ufed the term inflpoTros, in the
fame fenfe as the Latins did procurator, viz. for a com-
miffioner or intendant. Thus the commiflioners of pro-
vifions in the Perfian army are called by Herodotus and
Epulares.
i ] E P U
Xenophon epitropi. In the New Teflament, influxes Epizcuxls
denotes the fteward of a houfehold, rendered in the vul-
gate procurator.
EPIZEUXIS. See Oratory, N° 68.
EPOCH A, in Chronology, a term or fixed point of
time whence the fucceeding years are numbered or
counted. See ./Era.
EPODE, in lyric poetry, the third or lafl part of
the ode, the ancient ode being divided into flrophe,
antiflrophe, and epode. See Ode, &c.
The epode was fung by the priefts, Handing flill be¬
fore the altar, after all the turns and returns of the
ftrophe and antiftrophe, and was not confined to any
precife number or kind of verfes.
The epode is now a general name for all kinds of
little verfes that follow one or more great ones, of what
kind foever they be; and in this fenfe a pentameter is
an epode after an hexameter. And as every little verfe,
which, being put after another, clofes the period, is
called epode ; hence the fixth book of Horace’s odes is
intitled liber epodon, “ book of epodes,” becaufe the
verfes are all alternately long and fhort, and the fhort
ones generally, though not always, clofe the fenfe of
the long one. ^
EPOPOEIA, in Poetry, the hiftory, a£lion, or
fahlv, which makes the fubjeft of an epic poem. The
word is derived from the Greek sires, carmen, “ verfe j”
and 5re/s«, facio, “ I make.”
In the common ufe of the word, however, epopceia is
the fame with epos, or epic poem itfelf. See the article
Poetry.
EPOPS, or Hoopoe. See Upupa, Ornithology
Index.
EPSOM, a town of Surry, about 16 miles fouth-
weft from London, long famous for its mineral wa¬
ters. Thefe were difcovered in 1618} and though not
in fuch repute as formerly, yet they are not impaired in
virtue, and the fait made from them is famous all over
Europe, for gently cleanfing and cooling the body.
The hall, galleries, and other public apartments, are
now run to decay ; and there remains only one houfe
on the fpot, wdiich is inhabited by a countryman and
his wife, who carry the waters in bottles to the adja¬
cent places, and fupply the demands of dealers in Lon¬
don. On the neighbouring downs are annually horfe-
races ; but the inns, fhops, and bowling-greens are not
near fo much frequented as formerly. The market is
on Friday; fair, July 25. The town is about one mile
and a half in femicircle, from the church to the palace
at Durdans, which was burnt down fome years fince,
but has been rebuilt. It was once inhabited by his pre-
fent majefty’s father. In Hudfon’s Lane here was Ep-
fom Court, an ancient Saxon feat, long fince converted
into a farm. Here are fo many fields, meadows, or¬
chards, gardens, and the like, that a ftranger would
be at a lofs to know whether this was a town built in a
wrood, or a wood furrounded by a town.
Epfom wTater is eafily imitated by art; i. e. by only
diffolving half an ounce of Epfom fait in a quart of
pure water, made fomewhat brifk or quick by adding a
little fulphuric acid and potafh, fo as to let the alkali
prevail.
EPULARES, in antiquity, an epithet given to
thofe who were admitted to the facred epulce or enter¬
tainments, ■
E Q U [
tamments, it being unlawful for any to be prefent at
them who were not pure and chafte.
EPULO, in antiquity, the name of a minifter of fa-
crifice among the Romans.
The pontifices, not being able to attend all the fa-
crifices performed at Rome to fo many gods as were
adored by that people, appointed three minifters, wdtom
they called epulones, becaufe they conferred on them
the care and management of the epula, feafts in the fo-
lemn games and feftivals. To them belonged the or¬
dering and ferving the facred banquet, offered on fuch
occafions to Jupiter, &c. \They wTore a-gown bordered
with purple like the pontifices. Their number w7as at
length augmented from three to feven, and afterwTards
by Caefar to ten. Their firft eftablifnment was in the
year of Rome 558, under the confulate of L. Furius
Purpureo and M. Claudius Marcellas.
EPULUM, in antiquity, a holy feaft prepared for
the gods in times of public danger. The feaft was
lumptuous, and the gods were formally invited and
attended ; for the ftatues were brought on rich beds
furnilhed with foft pillows, called pulvinaria : Thus ac¬
commodated, their godlhips w7ere placed on their couch¬
es at the moft honourable part of the table. The care
of the epula belonged to the epulont t, and the gods were
plentifully ferved \Vith the richeft dainties, as if they
were able to eat; but the epulones performed that func¬
tion for them, and doubtlefs were competent proxies !
No wonder that Pliny folicited Trajan to be admitted
ol their order.
Epulum is alfo ufed to fignify any folemn feaft j
fo we meet with epulum ferale, “ a funeral entertain¬
ment.”
EQUABLE, an appellation given to fuch motions
as ahvays continue the fame in degree of velocity, with¬
out being either accelerated or retarded.
EQUAL, a term of relation between two or more
-things of the fame magnitude, quantity, or quality.
Mathematicians fpeak of equal lines, angles, figures,
circles, ratios, folids.
EQUALITY, that agreement between two or more
things, whereby they are denominated equal.
EQUANIMITY, in Ethics, denotes that even and
calm frame of mind and temper, under good or bad
fortune, whereby a man appears to be neither puffed
up nor overjoyed with profperity, nor difpirited, foured,
or rendered uneafy by adverfity.
EQUATIONS, in Algebra. See Algebra.
Equation of Time, in Sljlronomy and Chronology,
the rcduftion of the apparent time or motion of the
fun, to equable, mean, or true time. See Astronomy
Index.
262 ] E Q U
EQUATORIAL instrument. See Astronomy Equatorial
Index. ii
EQUERY, or Ecury, a grand liable or lodge for Eque^rian*.
horfes, furnilhed with all the conveniences thereof • as
ftalls, manger, rack, Stc. The word is formed from
the French efcune, which fignifies the fame thing.
Some again derive efcurie from the Latin /curia, which
not only denotes a place for beafts to be put up in, but
alfo a grange or barn. But a more probable derivation
is from equile, “ a liable for horfes,” of equus, “ horfe.”
Some hold that the word fable, in propriety, relates
only to bullocks, cows, Iheep, hogs, &c. and equery, to
horfes, mules, &c.
A Jimple equery is that provided for one row of
horles; a double equery that provided for two, with a
paffage in the middle, or two paffages ; the horfes be¬
ing placed head to head, as in the little equerv at Ver*
failles.
Under equery are fometimes alfo comprehended the
lodgings and apartments of the equerries, grooms,
pages, &c.
Equery {efcuyer), is alfo an officer wffio has the
care and management of the horfes of a king or prince.
EQUERIES, or Equerries, popularly called
^uerries, are particularly ufed among us for officers of
the king’s ftables, under the mailer of the horfe, feven
in number, who, when his majefty goes abroad, ride in
the leading coach, are in waiting one at a time month¬
ly, and have a table with the gentlemen ulliers during
the time, and a falary of 300I. a-year each. They
ufed to ride on horfeback by the coach fide when the
king travelled ; but that being more expenfive to them
than neceffary to the fovereign, it has been difconti-
nued.
E queries of the Crown Stable have that appellation,
as being employed in managing and breaking the fad-
dle-horfes, and preparing them for the king’s riding.
Thefe are two in number j the firft having an annual
falary of 256I. and the fecond 200I. 'whereof one is, or
always Ihould be, in clofe waiting at court ; and w'hen
his majefty rides, holds the ftirrup, while the mailer of
the horfe, or one of the equeries in his abfence, affifts
in mounting him; and when his' majefty rides, they
ufually attend him.
EQUES, in antiquity. See Equestrian Order and
Equites.
Eques Auratus, is ufed to fignify a knight-bachelor,
called auratus, q. d. gilt, becaufe anciently none but
knights might gild or beautify their armour or other
habiliments of war with gold. In law this term is
not ufed, but inftead of it miles, and fometimes cheva¬
lier.
EQUATOR, or ^Equator, in Afronomy and
Geography, a great circle of the fphere, equally diftant
fiom the two poles of the w’orld, or having the fame
poles with thofe of the wmrld. It is called the equator,
became when the fun is in it the days and nights are
equai; whence aifo it is called the equinoBial; and
when drawn on maps and planilpheres, the equinoEiial
line, or limply toe line. Every point of the equator is
a quadrant’s diilance from the poles of the ’ world ;
whence it follows, tnat the equator divides the fphere
into two hemifpheres, in one of which is the northern,
and in the other the fouthern pole.
EQUESTRIA, among the Romans, a place in the
theatre where the equites or knights fat.
EQUESTRIAN (Equtfris), a term chiefly ufed in
the phrafe equefrianfatue, which fig.nifies a ftatue re-
prefenting a perfon mounted on horfeback. The word
is formed of the Latin eques, “ knight, horfeman,” of
equus, “ horfe.”
Equestrian Games, among the Romans, horfe-races,
of which there w7ere five kinds, the prodromus or plain
horfe-race, the chariot-race, the decurfory-race about fu¬
neral piles, the ludi fevirales, and the ludi neptunales.
Equestrian Order, among the Romans, fignified
their
2
E Q U [ 263 ] E Q U
Equiangu- their knights or equites; as alfo their troopers or horfe-
Iar men in the Held ; the fir ft of which orders ftood in con-
Eaninox tradiftinflion to the fenators; as the laft did to the foot,
_   . military, or infantry. Each of thefe diltinctions was
introduced into the ftate by Romulus.
EQUIANGULAR, in Geometry, an epithet given
to figures whofe angles are all equal: luch are a fquare,
an equilateral triangle, &c.
EQUIDISTANT, an appellation given to things
placed at equal diftances from fome fixed point or place
to which they are referred.
EQUILATERAL, in general, fomething that hath
equal fides ; as an equilateral triangle.
EQUILIBRIUM, in Mechanics, is when the two
ends of a lever or balance hang fo exaftly even and le¬
vel, that neither doth afcend or defcend, but both
keep in a pofition parallel to the horizon •, which is
occafioned by their being both charged with an equal
weight.
EQUIMULTIPLES, in Arithmetic and Geometry,
are numbers or quantities multiplied by one and the
fame number or quantity. Hence, equimultiples are
always in the fame ratio to each other as the fimple
quantities before multiplication •, thus, if 6 and 8 are
multiplied by 4, the equimultiples 24 and 3 2 will be to
each other as 6 to 8.
EQUINOCTIAL, or ^Equinoctial, in Ajirono-
fny, a great and immoveable circle of the fphere, under
which the equator moves in its diurnal motion.
The equinodtial or equinodtial line is ordinarily con¬
founded with the equator : but there is a difference 5
the equator being moveable, and the equinodlial im¬
moveable ; and the equator being drawn about the con¬
vex furface of the fphere, but the equinoctial on the
concave furface of the magnus orbis.
Whenever the fun in his progrefs through the eclip¬
tic comes to this circle, it makes equal days and nights
all around the globe 5 as then rifing due eaft and fet-
ting due weft, which he never does at any other time of
the year. And hence the denomination from ecquus
and nox, “ night,” quia cequat diem noBi.
The equinodtial then is the circle which the fun de-
fcribes, or appears to defcribe, at the time of the equi¬
noxes 5 that is, ivhen the length of the day is every-
where equal to that of night, which happens twice a-
year. See Equinox.
Equinoctial, in Geography. See Equator.
The fhadows of thofe wdio live under this circle are
caft to the fouthward of them for one half of the year,
and to the northward of them during the other half;
and twice in a year, viz. at the equinoxes, the fun at
noon cafts no Ihadow, being in their zenith.
From this circle is the declination or latitude of pla¬
ces accounted in the degrees of the meridian.
Equinoctial Points, are the twm points wherein the
equator and ecliptic interfedl each other : the one being
in the firft point of Aries, is called the vernal point or
equinox; and the other in the firft point of Libra, the
autumnal point or equinox.
Equinoctial Dial, is that whofe plane lies parallel
to the equinodlial. See Dial..
EQUINOX, or ./Equinox, in AJlronomy, the time
when the fun enters one of the equinodtial points.
The equinoxes happen when the fun is in the equi-
nodlial circle y when of confequence the days are equal
to the nights throughout the world, which is the cafe
twice a-year, viz. about the 20th of March and the 23 d
of September, the firft of which is the vernal and the
fecond the autumnal equinox.
It is found by obfervation, that the equinodtial points,
and all the other points of the ecliptic, are continually
moving backward, or in anteeedentia, that is, well ward.
This retrograde motion of the equinoctial points, is that
famous and difficult phenomenon called the precej/ion of
the equinoxes. See Astronomy Index.
EQUIPAGE, in the military art, denotes all forts
of utenfils, artillery, &c. necelfary for commencing and
profecuting with eafe and fuccefs any military opera¬
tions. Camp and field equipage confifts of tents,
kitchen-furniture, faddle-horfes, baggage, waggons, bat -
horfes, &c.
To EQUIP, in naval language, a term borrowed
from the French marine, and frequently applied to the
bufinefs of fitting a ftiip for fea, or arming her for war.
EQUIPOLLENCE, in Logic, is when there is an
equivalence between any two or more terms or propo-
litions j i. e. when they fignify one and the fame thing,
though they exprefs it differently. Such propofitions,
&c. are faid to be equipollent.
- EQUIRIA, in antiquity, a feftival inftituted by Ro¬
mulus, and celebrated on the 27th of February, in ho¬
nour of Mars, at which there were horfe-races.
EQUISETUM, Horse-tail : A genus of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 51ft order, Conifercz. See
Botany Index.
EQUITES, amongft the Romans, were perfons of
the fecond degree of nobility, immediately fucceeding
the fenators in point of rank. The cquites or knights
were required to be poffeffed of 400 fefiertia before they
could be admitted into that order y and when the
knights were fo reduced as to fall flicrt of the pre-
fcribed revenue, they were expunged out of the eque-
ftrian lift. The equeftrian revenue juft mentioned a-
mounted to about 10,000 crowns.
Part of the ceremony whereby the honour of knight¬
hood was conferred amongft the Romans was the giving
of a horfe 5 for every eques or knight had a horle kept
at the public charge, he received alfo the ftipend of a
horfeman to ferve in the wars, and wore a ring which
was given him by the ftate. The equites compofed a
large body of men, and conftituted the Roman cavalry j
for there -was always a fufficient number of them in the
city, and nothing but a review was requifite to fit them
for fervice.
The knights at laft grew too powerful, were a ba¬
lance for the fenate and people, negleUed the exercifes
of war, and betook themfelves to civil employments.
The equites were liable to be punifhed by the cenfors,
and to fuffer degradation. They were degraded by ta¬
king from them the horfe which -was kept for each of
them at the public charge 5 this was called equum adi-
mere.
EQUITY, in a general fenfe, the virtue of treating
all other men according to rcafon and juftice, or as we
would gladly be treated ourfelves when we underhand
aright what is our due. See Justice.
Equity, in jurifprudence, is defined a correction
or qualification of the lawT, generally made in that - art
wherein it faileth or is too ievere. It like wife figures
» the
Equipage
ii.
Equity.
E Q U [2
Equity tlie extenfion of tlie words of tlie law to cafes unex-
II preffed, yet having the fame reafon ) fo that where one
^uon a" t^ng 1S enacted by ftatute, all other things are enafted
u-—y—that are of the like degree. For example, the ftatute
of Glouc. gives action of wafte againft him that holds
lands for life or years 5 and by the equity thereof, a
man (hall have a£tion of wafte againft a tenant that holds
but for one year, or one half-year, which is without
the words of the aft, but within the meaning of it 5
and the words that enaft the one, by equity enaft the
other. So that equity is of two kinds. The one a^
bridges and takes from the letter of the law j the other
enlarges and adds to it : and ftatutes may be conftrued
according to equity, efpecially where they give remedy
for wrong, or are for expedition of juftice. Equity
leems to be the interpofing law of reafon, exercifed by
the lord chancellor in extraordinary matters to do equal
•juftice $ and by fupplying the defefts of the law, gives
remedy in all cafes. See Chancery.
Equity, in Mythology, fometimes confounded with
Jufice, a goddefs among the Greeks and Romans, re-
.prefented with a fword in one hand and a balance in the
other.
EQUIVALENT, is underftood of fomething that
-is equal in value, force, or effeft, to another.
Equivalence is of various kinds, in propofitions, in
terms, and in things.
Equivalent Propoftions. See Equipollence.
Equivalent Terms, are where feveral words that
differ in found have yet one and the fame fignification ;
as every body was there, and nobody was abfent, nihil
non, and omne.
Equivalent Things, are either moral, phyfeal, or
JlaticaL Moral, as when we fay that the commanding
or advifing a murder is a guilt equivalent to that of the
murderer. Phyfeal, as when a man who has the ftrength
of two men is faid to be equivalent to two men. Sta¬
tical, whereby a lefs weight becomes of equal force
with a greater, by having its diftance from the centre
increafed.
EQUIVOCAL terms or WORDS, among logicians,
are thofe which have a doubtful or double meaning.
According to Mr Locke, the doubtfulnefs or uncer¬
tainty of words has its caufe more in the ideas them-
felves, than in any incapacity of the words to fignify
them and might be avoided, would people always ufe
the fame term to denote the fame idea or colleftion of
ideas : but, adds he, it is hard to find a difeourfe on
any fubjeft where this is the cafe •, a praftice which can
only be imputed to folly or great dilhonefty j fince a
man, in making up his accounts, might with as much
fairnefs ufe the numerical charafters fometimes for one
fometimes for another colleftion of units.
Equivocal Generation, the produftion of animals
without the intercourfe between the fexes, by the in¬
fluence of the fun or liars, &c.
This kind of generation is now quite exploded by the
learned.
EQUIVOCATION, the ufing a term or expreftion
that has a double fignification. Equivocations are ex¬
pedients to fave telling the truth, and yet without tell¬
ing a falfity. The fathers are great patrons of equivo¬
cations and mental refervations, holding that the ufe
of fuch Ihifts and ambiguities is in many cafes allow¬
able..
64 ] ERA
EQUULEUS, or Eccitleus, in antiquity, a kind Eqimleus
of rack ufed for extorting a confeflion } at firft chiefly II
praftifed on flaves, but afterwards made ufe of againft, Eraimu*,i
the Chriftians.
The equuleus was made of wood, having holes at
certain diftances, with a ferew by which the criminal
was ftretched to the third, fometimes to the fourth or
fifth holes, his arms and legs being faftened on the
equuleus with cords 5 and thus was hoifted aloft, and
extended in fuch a manner, that all his bones were dif-
located. In this ftate red-hot plates w7ere applied to
his body, and he was goaded in the fides with an inftru-
ment called an ungula*
Equuleus, Equiculus, and Equus Minor, the
horfe’s head, in Afronomy, a conftellation of the north¬
ern hemifphere, whofe liars in Ptolemy’s catalogue
are four, in Tycho’s four, in Hevelius’s fix, and in Mr
Flamfteed’s ten.
EQUUS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the
clafs mammalia, and order of belluae. See Mamma¬
lia Index. And for the difeafes of the horfe, fee
Farriery Index.
ERA, in Chronology. See ALra.
ER AN ARCH A, a public officer among the an¬
cient Greeks, whofe bufinefs wras to prefide over and
direft the alms and provifions made for the poor. Cor¬
nelius Nepos, in his life of Epaminondas, deferibes his
office thus: When any perfon was reduced to poverty,
taken captive, or had a daughter to marry, which he
could not effeft for want of money, &c. the eranarcha
called an affembly of friends and neighbours, and taxed
each according to his means and eftate, to contribute
towards his relief.
ERANTHEMUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the diandria clafs. See Botany Index.
ERASISTRATUS, a celebrated phyfician, grand-
fon to the philofopher Ariftotle. He difeovered by
the motion of the pulfe the love which Antiochus had
conceived for his mother-in-law Stratonice, and was
rewarded wdth 100 talents for the cure by the father of
Antiochus. He was great enemy to bleeding and
violent phyfic.
ERASMUS, Desiderius, bom at Rotterdam in
1467. He loft his father and mother at 14 years of
age j and was committed to the care of a certain guar¬
dians, who would force him to be an ecclefiaftic, which
he refufed for a long time. However, he was obliged
to affume the religious habit among the canons regular
in the monaftery of Stein near Tergou ; but afterwards
obtained a difpenfation from his vowrs. He was the
moft learned man of the age in which he lived j and
contributed, by his example and his writings, to the
reftoration of learning in the feveral countries in which
he occafionally refided, viz. Italy, Switzerland, Hol¬
land, France, and England : wuth the laft, he was moft
fatisfied j and found the greateft encouragement from
Henry VIII. Sir Thomas More, and all the learned
Engliffimen of thofe days. He publiffied a great ma¬
ny books j and died at Balil in 1536. He was buried
honourably, and his memory is ftill held in venera¬
tion. He had, however, many enemies j and as he
did not embrace the reformation, and yet cenfured
many things in popery, he hath been treated injuri-
oufly both by Catholics and Proteftants. The works
of Erafmus in 10 vols folio were publiffied at Leyden
in
I
£ R E [ 26$ ] E R I
Eraftians lit in a Very handfome mannei*, under the care
I! of M. le Clerc. Dr Jortin publiflied his life in one
vol. 4to, 1758.
11f 'i- ERASd'IANS, a religious feel or faction which
arofe in England during the time of the civil wars in
1647, thus called from their leader Thomas Eraftus,
whole diltinguilhing do£trine it was, that the church
had no right to difcipline^ that is, no regular power to
excommunicate, exclude, cenfure, abfolve, decree, or
the like.
ERATO (from / love), in Mythology, the
name of one of the nine mufes, who prelided over love-
poetry. To this mule fome have aferibed the inven¬
tion of the lyre and lute 5 and Ihe is reprefented with
a garland of myrtles and rofes, holding a lyre in one
hand and a bow in the other, and at her lide a Cupid
with his torch. There is alfo a Nereid of the fame name.
ERATOSTHENES, a Cyrenaean philofopher, hi-
liorian, and poet ■, called for his learning rlcuo Minor.
He was keeper of the famous library at Alexandria ;
and was greatly in favour with Ptolemy Euergetes, by
whofe order he wrote a hillory of the Theban kings of
Egypt, which fucceffion was entirely omitted by Ma-
netho. He thus fixed the Egyptian chronology, and
his authority is by many preferred to that of Ma-
netho. He wrote many other things, a catalogue of
which is to be feen in Fabricius, Voflius, &c. but his
only piece now remaining entire is a defeription and
fabulous account of the liars. He llarved himfelf in
old age through grief for the dimnefs of his fight,
about the 10th or 12th year of Ptolemy Epiphanes,
194 B. C.
ERATOSTRATUS, an Ephefian who burnt the
famous temple of Diana the fame night that Alexan¬
der the Great was born. This burning, as fome wri¬
ters have obferved, was not prevented or feen by the
goddefs of the place, who was then prefent at the la¬
bour of Olympias, and at the birth of the conqueror of
Perfia. Eratollratus did this villany merely to eternize
his name by fo uncommon an a&iom
EREBUS (Egsooj, from SIJJ, night), in Mythology a
term denoting darknefs. According to Hefiod, Ere¬
bus w“as the fon of Chaos and the night, and the fa¬
ther of the day. This wras alfo the name of part of the
inferi among the ancients : they had a peculiar expia¬
tion for thofe who were detained in Erebus.
Erebus was properly the gloomy region, and diltin-
guithed both from Tartarus the place of torment, and
Elyfium the region of blifs : according to the account
given of it by Virgil, it forms the third grand divifion
of the invifible -world beyond the Styx, and Compre¬
hends feveral particular diftricls, as the limbus infantum,
or the receptacle for infants $ the limbus for thofe who
have dellroyed themfelves j the fields of mourning,
full of dark groves and woods, inhabited by thofe who
died for love ; and beyond thefe, an open champaign
country for departed warriors.
ERECTION, in a general fenfe, the art of railing
or elevating any thing •, as the eredlion of a perpendi¬
cular, &c. It is alfo ufed n a figurative fenfe 5 as the
eredlion of a bilhop, marquifate, &c.
Erection is particularly ufed by medical writers
for the Hate of the penis when fwclled and dillended
by the aftion of the mufcles called ereflores. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
There is alfo an eredlion of the clitoris, which is Eiemif.
performed by mufcles for that purpofe. . D
EREMIT* See Hermit. Erigena
ERETRIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Euboea*
lituated on the Euripus, in the fouth-well of the iilaad.
A very ancient city, and the largeft of the ilia: d,
after Chalcis. After being demolilhed by the Per-
lians, it was rellored on an adjoining fpot, according
to Strabo, who mentions a fchool of E etrian philofo-
phers there. The Abantes of Homer were of Eu¬
boea.
ERFORT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, the capital of Thuringia* and fubjedt
to the eledlor of Mentz It is defended by good ram¬
parts $ and has a caille on an eminence, which com¬
mands the town. Its inhabitants are almolt all Lu¬
therans, but its principal churches belong to the Ca¬
tholics. There are feveral handfome Itrudlures, both
public and private j but the houfes in general are
but indifferently built. E. Long. 11. 14. N. Lat. 50.
49-
ERG ASTULUM, among the Romans, was a pri-
fon, wrork-houfe, or houfe of corredlion, where Haves
by the private authority of their mailers w ere confined
and kept for their offences to hard labour. The
Greeks had a place of confinement of this fort called
ERGOT, in Farriery, is a Hub, like a piece of foft
horn, about the bignefs of a Chefnut, placed behind
and below the pallern joint, and commonly hid under
the tuft of the fetlock. See Farriery Index.
ERICA, HEath, a genus of plants belonging to the
odlandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany
Index.
ERIDANUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of At¬
tica, falling into the Iliffus.—^-Another Eridanus, the
more ancient name of the Padus, an appellation aferib¬
ed by Pliny to the Greeks 5 followed in this by Virgil.
It rifes in Mount Vefulus, in the Alpes Cottiae, and di¬
viding the Cifalpine Gaul into the Cifpadana and Tranf-
padana, and fwelled on each hand wdth no inconfider-
able rivers from the other Alps and the Apennine,
falls at feven mouths into the Adriatic. Famous in
tnythology, from the llory of Phaeton 5 whofe filters,
the Heliades, wrere here changed into poplars, accord¬
ing to Ovid.
Eridanus, in AJlrotiomy, a conltellation of the
fouthern hemifphere, in form of a river.—The liars in
the conliellation Eridanus, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are
345 in Tycho’s, 19 j and in the Britilh catalogue,
84.
ERIE, a vaft lake to the weltw^ard of Pennfylvania,
in North America, fituated between 8o° and 87° W.
Long, and between 410 and 42° N. Lat.
ERIGENA, or Scotus, John, a famous fcholaltic
divine, born about the beginning of the ninth century j
but where, is a matter of difpute among authors. Bale
And Pits fays he w as born at St David’s in Wales j
Detnpller, Mackenzie, and Henry, that he was bom
at Ayr in Scotland j which they infer from his names
Erigena and Scotus, by the latter of which he was
generally dillinguilhed by his cotemporary writers. But
Du Pin and Sir James Ware affert that he w7as by birth
an Irilhman $ Ireland being in thofe days called Scotia,
L1 and
V
E R I [ 266 ] E R I
Erigena. and by the natives Erin. They agree, however, in re-
' lating that he travelled to Athens, where he acquired a
competent knowledge of the Greek and other oriental
languages j and that he afterwards refided many years
in the court of Charles the Bald, king of France, who,
on account of his fmgular abilities, treated him as his
intimate friend and companion. He flept frequently in
the royal apartment •, and was conftantly admitted to
the king’s table. “ We may judge (fays a modern
liiftorian) of the freedom which he ufed with Charles,
by the following repartee. As the king and Scotus
were fitting one day at table, oppolite to each other,
after dinner, drinking a cheerful glafs, the philofopher
having faid fomething that was not quite agreeable to
the rules of French politenefs, the king in a merry hum¬
our afked him, Pray what is between a Scot and a fot ?
To which he anfwered, “ Nothing but the table.” See
Henry's Hi/lory of Great Britain, vol. i. p. 344. who
quotes this ftory from llovedcniHnnal. ad an. 86. Quer.
What language wTere they talking when this bon mot
was uttered ?
During his reiidence with Charles, he wrote feveral
books of fcholaftic divinity} which, though abfurd
enough, were at that time not fufficiently fo to fecure
him from the imputation of heterodoxy 5 and on that
account the pope commanded Charles the Bald to fend
him to Rome; but the king had too great a regard for
his companion to truft him with his Holinefs, One of
the chief controverfies in which Scotus wras engaged,
and with which the pope was much offended, was con¬
cerning the real prefence and blood of Chrift in the
wafer. His opinion of this weighty matter is exprefs-
ed in thefe few words : “ What we receive corporally
is not the body of our Lord ; but that which feeds the
foul, and is only perceived by faith.” He was alfo en¬
gaged in two other controrerfies of equal importance,
but of a fomewhat lefs delicate nature. The firft was,
Whether any part of the eucharift be evacuated by
flool ? and the fecond, Whether Chrift was born of
the Virgin Mary aperta vulva •, Pafchafius was of opi¬
nion, that this could not be without fome injury to
her perpetual virginity; and therefore believed that
Chrift -came into the world per vulvam claufam, as he
eafae into the place w'here his difciples were affembled,
through the door and not through the wrall, without
opening the door. Concerning the firft of thefe deli¬
cate queftions, Scotus with feveral others declared, that
part of the eucharift wras certainly evacuated by ilool ;
for wThich they were honoured with the appellation of
Stercorifls. And as to the fecond queftion, he faid,
that the vulva claufa was a dangerous opinion : for it
would thence follow7, that he w7as not born, but
iffued j non ejl nafci, fed erumpi. See Mackenzie, vol.
j- P- 55-
Whether this John Scotus returned to England, or
ended his days in France, is a matter of doubt. Some
of our hiltorians tell us, that he left France in the
year 8643 and that, after refiding about three years
in Oxford, he retired to the abbey of Malmfbury, where
his fcholars ftabbed him with their pen knives. There
is no foundation for this ftory. Probably he died
about the year 874 } but whether in France or Eng¬
land, is uncertain,, and of little importance. Some
have related, that he was invited to England by King
t ' ' .
Alfred: but in this they confound him writh John, Erigcron
abbot of Etheling, who was afiaflinated in 895 5 and to , li
this miftake the various accounts concerning this au- ■ ^k'r7V^‘M•
thor are to be attributed. Regafdlefs of his hiftory, he
appears from his writings to have been a man of parts,
and, in point of learning, fuperior to any of his co¬
temporaries. He wTrote, I. De divifione naturce, lib. v.
2. He preedefinatione Dei. 3. Excerpt a de differentiis
<b' focietatibus Graci Lalinique verbi. 4. De corpore et
fanguine Domini. 5. Ambigua S. Maximi,feu fcholia
cjus in dffeiles locos S. Gregorii Naziant&em, Latinc
verfa. 6. Opera S. Dionyfii quatuor in Latinam ling,
converfa. All publhhed. 7. De vifone Dei, and fe¬
veral other works, in manufeript, preferved in different
libraries.
ER1GERON, flea-bake, a genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the fyngenefia clafs 5 and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany
Index.
ERIGONE, in fabulous hiftory, daughter to Ica-
rius, died of grief for her father’s death, wras tranfiated
into heaven, and makes the fign Virgo.
ERlNACEUS, or HEDGE-HOG, a genus of quadru¬
peds belonging to the order of feree, in the clafs mam¬
malia. See Mammalia Index.
ERINGO. See Eryngium, Botany Index.
ERIN US, a genus of plants belonging to the didy-
namia clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 40th order, Perfbiiatee. See Botany Index.
ERIOCAULON, a genus of plants, belonging to
the triandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking
W’ith the fixth order, Enfatee. See Botany Index.
ERIOCEPHALUS, a genus of plants, belonging,
to the fyngenefia clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compofitce. See Botany Index.
ERIOPHORUM, a genus of plants, belonging t6
the triandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the third order, Calamarice. See Botany Index,
ERITHALIS, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria clafs} and in the natural method ranking
xvith thofc of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
ERIVAN, a city of Perfia, in Afia, and capital of
Perfian Armenia. It is a large, dirty, ill-looking place,
in which are no handfome buildings, the houfes being
very mean, and raifed with earth or mud ; but it is full
of gardens and vineyards. It is fituated in a plain
wdiich is furrounded on all fides with mountains. Two
rivers pafs near it, the Zengui to the north-weft, and
the Queur Boulac to the fouth-w'eft. The fortrefs
may pafs for a town of itfelf 5 it is of an oval form, and
is four miles in circumference, containing about 800
houfes. It is inhabited by none but the native Perfians.
The Armenians have fhops in it, wdiere they w7ork and
trade in the day time, but at night return to their ha¬
bitations in the city. The fortrefs is furrounded with
three w7alls, made with bricks dried in the fun, which
have battlements, and are flanked with towers, and de¬
fended with ramparts. On the north-eaft there is a
dreadful precipice, above 200 yards in depth, at the
bottom of which the river runs. The garrifon ufually
confifted of 2000 men *, but how many there are lince
the ’■evolution is hard to fay. The palace of the go*
venor of the province is w’ithin the fortreft. The city
4
1
E R 3\r [ 267 ] E R P
Eriphyle is about a cannon’s (hot diftant from the fortrefs, and
II. the fpace between is full of houfes and markets. E.
]E'r"lln, Long. 44. 50. N. Lat. 40. 20.
ERIPHYLE, in fabulous hiftory, a filler of Adraftus
king of Argos, who married Amphiaraus. She was
daughter of Talaus and Lilimache. When her hufband
concealed himfelf that he might not accompany the Ar-
gives in their expedition againft Thebes, where he
knew he was to perifli, Eriphyle fuffered herfelf to be
bribed by Polynices with a golden necklace which had
been formerly given to Hermione by the goddefs Ve¬
nus, and file dilcovered where Amphiaraus was. This
treachery of Eriphyle compelled him to go to the war 5
but before he departed, he charged his fon Alcmseon
to murder his mother as foon as he was informed of his
death. Amphiaraus perifhed in the expedition ; and
his death was no fooner known than his lail injunctions
were obeyed, and Eriphyle was murdered by the hands
of her fon.
ERIS, the goddefs of difcord among the Greeks.
She is the fame as the Difcordia of the Latins.
ERISICHTHON, in fabulous hiflory, a Theffalian,
fon of Triops, who derided Ceres and cut down her
groves. This impiety irritated the goddefs, who afflicted
him with continual hunger. He fquandered all his pof-
fefflans to gratify the cravings of his appetite, and at
laft he devoured his own limbs for want of food. Some
fay that his daughter had the power of transforming
herfelf into whatever animal fhe pleafed, and that fhe
made ufe of that artifice to maintain her father, who
fold her, after which fhe aflumed another fhape, and be¬
came again his property.
ERMIN. See Mustela, Mammalia bidex.
Ermin, or Ermine, in Heraldry, denotes a rvhite
field or fur, powdered or interfperfed wdth black foots,
called powdering. It is fuppofed to reprefent the fkin
of an animal of the fame denomination. There is
however no animal whofe fkin naturally correfponds to
the herald’s ermin.
The animal is milk white j and fo far is it from ha¬
ving fpots, that tradition reports, that it wall rather die
or be taken than fully its whitenefs. Whence its fym-
bolical ufe.
But white fkins having for many ages been ufed for
the linings of the robes of magiilrates and great men j
the furriers at length, to add to their beauty, ufed to
few bits of the black tails of thofe creatures upon the
wfflite Ikins, to render them the more confpicuous.
Which alteration w'as introduced into armoury.
The fable fpots in ermin are not of any determinate
number, but they may be more or lefs at the pleafure
of the painter or furrier.
Ermin, an order of knights, inftituted in 1450 By
Francis I. duke of Bretagne, and formerly fubfflling in Ermine*
France. The collar of this order was of gold, compo- II .
fed of ears of corn in faltier ; at the end of wfflich hung
the ermin, with this infcription, a via vie. But the
order expired when the dukedom of Bretagne was an¬
nexed to the crown of France.
Ermines, in Heraldry, the reverfe of ermine, i. e.
white fpots on a black field.
ERMINITES, in Heraldry, fhould fignify little er¬
mines, but it is otherwife ; for it fignifies a wfflite field
powdered with black, only that every fuch fpot hath a
little red hair on each. Erminites alfo fignify a yellow
field powdered with black, which the French exprefs
much better by or fernee d"1 ermine de fable.
ERMINOIS, in Heraldry, fignifies the field or, and
the fpots black.
EROORO. See Alcedo, Ornithology Index.
EROS, (of sgaij “ love”), in Mythology, one of two
chiefs over all the other Cupids, being the caufe of
love. See Anteros.
EROTIA, a feftival in honour of Eros the god of
love. It w’as celebrated by the Thefpians every fifth
year with fports and games, wfflen muficians and o-
thers contended. If any quarrels or feditions had ari-
fen among the people, it was then ufual to oft’er facri-
fices and prayers to the god, that he would totally re¬
move them.
EROTIC (derived from “ love j” whence
riK»i), is applied to any thing wfflich has a relation to
the paffion of love.
In medicine we find the phrafe delirium eroticum ufed
for a kind of melancholy contradled through excefs of
love.
EROSION, among phyficians, denotes much the
fame with corrosion, only in a ftronger degree.
EROTESIS. See Oratory, N° 94.
ERPENIUS, Thomas, in Dutch Thomas of
Erfe, a celebrated profelfor of the Arabic language,
was born at Gorcum in Holland in 1584, and edu¬
cated at Leyden. He applied himfelf to the orien¬
tal languages at the perfuafion fcf Jofeph Scaliger j
and afterwards travelled into England, France, Italy,
and Germany, and everywhere obtained the efteem
of the learned. On his return to Holland, he was
made profeffor of Arabic in the univerfity of Leyden,
and died there in 1624. He publiffled a great many
excellent works, wfflich fpread his reputation through
the whole learned world. It is faid, that the king
of Morocco admired fo greatly the letters of Erpenius
wrote to him in Arabic in the name of the United
Provinces, that he could not ceafe reading them, and
fliowing them to thofe who fpoke that language natu¬
rally.
ERPETOLOGY.
INTRODUCTION.
nPHE animals of which w^e propofe, under the general
L title Erpetology, to give the claffification and na¬
tural hiilory, belong to the clafs Amphibia, and the or¬
der Rrptilia, in the Lmnaeon arrangement. The ?ni-
mals included under this clafs have obtained the deno¬
mination of amphibious, from the fuppofed circumftance
that they are equally capable of living, both on land
and in the water. But in this view, the application of
the term is inaccurate, for there are few, or perhaps no
animals belonging to this clafs which can always exiil,
L 1 2 or
♦
268 E R PET
or even perform tlie funflions of life for any confider-
able length of time, in the water. Many of them,
however, poffefs this faculty to a certain degree, and
therefore, the name has been extended to all which are
diftinguilhed by the fame peculiarity of external form,
and a fimilar ftruclure of internal organs.. .
Some naturalifts have denominated this .order of ani¬
mals oviparous quadrupeds, Phis denomination is un¬
doubtedly fulhciently charaaeriftic *, for although fome
fpecies are viviparous, and in this circumftance, as well
as being furnilhed with four feet, exhibit fome refemb-
lance with the higher order of quadrupeds, the linking
difference which is difcovered by the anatomift and the
phyliologift, affords unequivocal and decided marks of
diftinaion. From the ftruaure, habits., and general
economy of this order of animals, we derive charaaers
which are fufficiently diilinaive betwTeen it and the clafs
of birds, to which the term oviparous is ftriaiy appli¬
cable. This denomination, therefore, which is alfo em¬
ployed by the Count de la Cepede, is fufficiently
charaaeriltic of the clafs of animals which are included
under it.
The word reptile, by which this order of animals has
been diftinguilhed by Linnaius, feems not to be liable
to much objeaion. All the individuals of which it is
compofed have very fhort legs, and thefe are placed at
a great diltance from each other, and fo weak, that
they are unable to fupport the weight of the body. The
gray lizard, for inllance, which is one of the molt a£tive
of the tribe, is obliged to fupport itfelf on its. belly, as
foon as its progrellive motion is greatly diminilhed ; fo
that it employs its limbs rather for the purpofe of crawl¬
ing than that of walking. And indeed all the animals
of the order, from the peculiar llrufture and difpolition
of their limbs, when their motions are flow, mull drag
the body along on the belly, other modifications of their
locomotive powers depending only on the. great length
and relation of the inllruments of motion. In this
view, therefore, the Linnsean name of the order is not
improperly applied to almoft all the individuals which
it comprehends.
The term erpetologij, which wre have given to this
treatife upon the order reptilia, was formerly employed
by the Swediftr naturalift Klein, in a more extenfive
fenfe. Under this title he included the oxAex ferpentes,
as well as that of reptilia, thus comprehending the whole
clafs of amphibia. Here wTe have adopted it in a more
limited acceptation, and confined its meaning to the laft
order, purfuing the plan of M. Bonnaterre, in his ar¬
rangement of the fame order of animals in the Ency¬
clopedic Methodique.
Linnaeus has adopted as a mark of diftinclion of this
order of animals, the peculiar ftruclure of the heart,
which in the language of the anatomift is faid to be
unilocular, or furnifhed only with one ventricle or ca¬
vity. This doctrine has been admitted by eminent
anatomifts, as well as by fome of the greateft phyfio-
logifts, fuch as Boerhaave, Haller, and fome others •, and
called in queftion only when fome exceptions have oc¬
curred, of animals belonging to this tribe, which have
exhibited fomewhat of a different ftru£lure. One in-
itance of this is quoted in the heart of an Indian inland
tortoife, which was examined by the French academi¬
cians of the 17th century, and in which they difcovered
fhree ventricles inftead of one. But other phyfiologifts
O L O G Y. IntrocK
are of opinion, that the heart of this orcier of animals is
really furnilhed with two ventricles, having an immedi¬
ate communication between them they muft therefore
be confidered as having a double heart.
The lungs of the order reptilia are, in their ap¬
pearance and ftrudlure, widely different from thofe of
other animals. They are in general compofed of two
large bladders, or membranaceous bags, which, in the
different fpecies are divided into a greater or fmaller
number of cancelh, or lubdivifions j among which are
diftributed the pulmonary blood-vefiels. Thefe bear
but a fmall proportion to the veficular part through
which the ramifications are carried in this refpeft dif¬
fering greatly from the lungs of the higher order of
quadrupeds, or mammalia, in which the proportion of
the blood-veffels is fo much greater than that of the air-
cells, that the lungs have more of a flelhy than of a
membranaceous appearance. In this order of animals,
therefore, in which the blood is cold, the veficular
fyftem far overbalances the vafcular } but in the clafs
mammalia, which are warm-blooded animals, the vafcu¬
lar fyftem prevails over the veficular.
Of all the animals which occupy the furface of the
earth, and which the Almighty Creates: has difperfed
throughout his werks, to fill up the void of fpace, and
to produce motion, the tribe of reptiles feems at firft
fight to have been leaft the objefts of beneficence and
wifdom. In their ftrufture, habits, and mode of life,
when compared with other orders of animals, they ex¬
hibit marks of degradation and negledl. 'Ihe body in
general prefents only a rude inadtive mafs \ their fenfes
are extremely obtufe ; their inftincts are limited to the
groffeft fenfations, and the extent of their enjoyments
reaches only to the gratifications of appetite. On the
boundaries of land and water, in thofe vaft moraffes,
which are remarkable only for immenfe depofitions
of mud, few or fcarcely any poffefs the graces or ele¬
gance of other terreftrial animals 5 like the latter they
enjoy not the pleafure of affociating together for amufe-
ment or defence, or of indulging in fportlve tricks on
the land, or in the air. On the contrary, they crawl on
the earth, on the margin of extenfive lakes, furrounded
with unwholefome vapours 5 or they live in the cavi¬
ties of the rocks, or in the midft of barren deferts, undif-
turbed by other animals, and far retired from the habi¬
tations of man. Some delight in expofing themfelves
to the rays of the fun ; while others retire during th®
day to fhady, moift, and fequeftered places, proceeding
from their retreats only during the night, as it were to
conceal their deformity, and to fpare man thofe feelings
of fear, difguft, and horror, with which their prefence
infpires him. But as the ftudy of every part of the
long chain of beings is worthy of our attentive eon-
fideration and regard, thefe animals, in the eyes of the
careful obferver of nature, are far from being wanting
in exciting his intereft and curiofity. He cannot fail
to be highly gratified with contemplating the refources
which they derive from the peculiar ftru&ure of their
external form, as well as from the nature of their func¬
tions. Their manners, their habits, and the relations
which they bear to beings of a higher order, on the one
hand, and the diftance to which they are removed from
brute matter on the other, are obje<fts worthy of the
contemplation of the naturalift. This ftudy, properly
directed and applied, unveils to our eyes the beneficent
defign
ERPETOLOGY.
Chap. I.
defign and riches of creation, and raifes our admiration
to the wonderful and extenlive variety of animated
beings.
The ufes of fome of the animals belonging to this
clafs, as valuable articles of food in thofe regions where
they abound, or as furniihing the tables of the luxuri-i
ous in other countries with a rich delicacy -7 the pe¬
culiarities of external form, and of internal ftructure,
as well as of feveral of their functions, fuch as circula¬
tion and refpiration ; their great length of life ; the re¬
productive power of fome, and the long abftinence
which others can undergo, give additional intereft and
importance to the natural hiitory of thefe animals.
In the following treatife, we propofe to lay before
our readers a brief but comprehenfive view of the na¬
tural hiftory of this order of animals j and for the fake
of perfpicuity we (hall treat this fubjeft under two ge¬
neral heads. We lhall firft confider the claflification
and natural hiftory of the order reptilia ; and fecondly,
we lhall give a Ihort Iketch of their anatomy, with the
principal fadls connected with their phyfiology. Thefe
will form the fubjedts of the two following chapters.
CHAP. I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION AND NATURAL HISTORY OF REPTILES.
Ik the Linncean arrangement, the order reptilia is di¬
vided into four genera. Other naturalifts have adopted
a different arrangement. De la Cepede, in his hiftory
of oviparous quadrupeds, has divided this order into two
great claffes. The firft clafs includes thofe animals
which are furnilhed with a tail, and the fecond com¬
prehends thofe which have no tail. The following
table exhibits a view of the claflification of this eminent
naturalift.
Clafs I. Animals furniftred with a tail.
Genus x. Tortoifes, having the body covered with a
bony fliield.
Divifion i. The fingers very unequal, and
lengthened out in the form of fins.
Divifion 2. The fingers very Ihort, and almoft
equal.
Genus 2. Lizards : the body having no bony co¬
vering.
Divifion i. The tail flattened j five fingers on
the fore feet.
Divifion 2. The tail round j five fingers on each
foot, and elevated fcales on the back.
Divifion 3. The tail round; five fingers on the
fore feet \ fcaly bands under the belly.
Divifion 4. The tail round 5 five fingers on the
fore feet, without fcaly bands under the belly.
Divifion 5. The fingers fumifhed underneath with
large fcales, covering each other, like the
flates on the roof of a houfe.
Divifion 6. Three fingers on the fore and the
hind feet.
Divifion 7. Membranes in the form of wings.
Divifion 8. Three or four fingers on the fore
feet; four or five fingers on the hind feet.
Clafs II. Animals which have no tail.
Genus 1. Frogs : the head and the body length-.
ened out, and the one or the other angular.
Genus 2. Tree-frogs : the body long, with foft
vifcid tubercles under the toes.
Genus 3. Toads : the body thick and round.
Appendix. Biped reptiles.
Divifion 1. Two fore feet.
Divifion 2. Two hind feet.
Of this arrangement it may be obferved, that, although
it exhibits much minutenefs and ingenuity, the diftindlive
characters upon which fome parts of it are founded, are
not always conftant and fixed j for it has been found
that thefe characters vary in the different individuals in
which they have been obferved. This variety, it has
been conjeCtured, arifes from the difference of age, and
peculiarities in their food and modes of life.
M. Bonnaterre has adopted a different arrange¬
ment. He has alfo divided the whole order of reptiles
into two clafl.es, as will appear from the following
table.
Clafs I. Reptiles which have no tail.
Genus I. Frog.
Genus 2. Tree-Frog..
Genus 3. Toad.
Clafs II. Reptiles which are furnilhed with a tail.
Genus 1. Tortoife.
Genus 2, Chamelion.
Genus 3. Crocodile,.
Genus 4. Lizard.
Genus 5. Flying dragon.
Genus 6. Salamander.
Genus 7. Cholds.
This arrangement is undoubtedly, in many cafes,
convenient and proper } yet, as there feems to be in
others an unneceffary multiplication of genera, we lhall
ftill adhere to the Linnsean claftification, which, though
more Ample, will in general be found not to be much
lefs accurate ; and the objeCts which it comprehends
not being very numerous, it is fufficiently diftinCl. Lin¬
naeus divided this order into four genera. The follow¬
ing are the charaders of the genera, of which we give
a tranflation, for the accommodation of the Englilh
reader..
GENERIC CHARACTERS..
Genus I. Testudo. Corpus caudatum 5 lorica offea,
•aut coriacea fuperne et inferne, vel fquamis fuperne
obteftum. Oris mandibula fuperior inferiorem pyxidum
inftar claudens.
Genus I. Tortoise. Body having a tail j covered
above and beneath with a bony or coriaceous Ihell, or
fcales above. The upper jaw doling over the lower like
the lid of a box,.
269
Genus IT
27o E R P E T
Tortoifes Genus II. Raka. Corpus tetrapodum, nudum, ut-
' v 1 plurimum ecaudatum : pedibus pofterioribus longiori-
bus.
Genus III. Draco. Corpus tetrapodum, caudatum,
alatum : alis propriis.
Genus IV. Lacerta. Corpus tetrapodum, elonga-
tum, caudatum, nudum : pedibus ae(jualibus.
O L O G Y. Chap. I.
Genus II. Frog. Body four-footed, naked, generally Toitoifes.
without tail} the hinder feet longed, j and without any ' *
integument but the Jkin.
Genus III. Flying Dragon. Body four-footed,fur-
niflied with a tail, and on each lide with an expanlile
wing-like {kin.
Genus IV. Lizard. Body four-footed, elongated,
funiiihed with a tail, without any additional integu¬
ment : legs equal.
maarnamm
I. TESTUDO, or Tortoise.
From the great fimilarity which prevails among fe«
veral fpecies, and the variety in fize, colour, and other
circumftances, according to the different periods of their
age, confiderable difficulties have arifen in dlfcriminat-
ing them with precifion. The obfervations of later
naturalifts have ffiown, that the fpecific characters of
Linnaeus are not fufficient for the purpofe of accurate
diftindion ; nor have the defcriptions of the Count de
la Cepede been more ufeful in furniffiing proper cha-
raCterlftic marks. One fet of characters, which have
been ufually employed for this purpofe, it has been ob-
ferved by Mr Schoepff, ought not be trufted. They
are derived from the number of claws on the feet of
marine tortoifes, or turtles. Thefe, however, are found
to vary fo much, that they are not to be confidered as
affording uniform and conitant characters of diltinCtion.
As a proof of this obfervation, if different individuals of
the common green turtle {tejludo tnidas), be compared
together, it will appear that fome have only a {ingle
claw on each foot3 while others are furnifhed with twro,
and fometimes three 5 fometimes writh two on the fore
feet, and with one on the hind feet. Similar variations
have alfo been obferved in the number of claws of land
tortoifes, and particularly in thofe of the common tor-
toife, {tejludo grceca) ; in fome individuals of which the
fore feet have four, and in others five claws. Avoid¬
ing, therefore, thefe uncertain and varying charaders,
the ffiape, pattern, colours of the {hell, and form of the
head, Dr Shaw obferves, fumiffi the moft accurate
marks of diftindion.
Some of the fpecies belonging to this genus are na¬
tives of the ocean ; fome are confined to the land, or to
freffi water. This affords a natural divifion into land
and fea tortoifes. In following out this divifion, we
{hall treat of them in two feCHons, including under the
firft thofe that frequent frefh waters.
Sect. I. Land and Prejh^water Lortoifes.
I. Testudo Grail a. Lin. Common Land Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—The {hell is hemifpherical, and of a black
and yellow colour, and having a bunch behind 5 the
pieces of which the dilk is compofed are convex, and
the fides are obtufe.
Defcripticn. The length of the common tortoife is about fix inches,
and rarely exceeds eight : when full grown, it is about
forty-eight ounces weight. The fhell is compofed of
thirteen middle pieces, and about twenty-five marginal
ones;; is of an oval form, and very convex above. The
4
middle pieces, or thofe which conftitute the difk of the
fhield, are moftly of a fquare form, fomewmat oblong ;
their colour is blackiffi or dark brown, each having a
broad yellow band running along one fide, which is
continued half way along the upper part. The colours
vary in different individuals, and the ffiape of the pieces
is alfo iubjedt to occafional variations. The fulci or
furrows which appear on the furface of young animals are
obliterated as they grow old. The belly part of the
{hell is of a pale yellow colour; the head is rather fmall,
the upper part covered wfith irregular tough feales, and
the neck with fmaller pieces, which admit of the mo¬
tion of the head ; the eye is fmall and black, and the
mouth does not extend beyond the eyes. The legs are
ffiort; and the feet, wffiich are moderately broad, are
covered with ftrong ovate feales. The feet have ufu¬
ally four {lout clawTs, but their number is found to vary
in different circumftances. The tail is rather ftiorter
than the legs, is covered with fmall feales, and termi¬
nates in a naked, horny, pointed tip.
The land tortoife is a native of almoft all the coun- Native
tries round the Mediterranean ; but it has been fuppof- country-,
ed to be more frequent in Greece, from whence it has
derived its fpecific name. It is alfo found in the iflands
of the Archipelago, in Corfica, Sardinia, and in many
parts of Africa. From the account of the Daniffi na-
turalift Forlkal, it is employed in Greece for the pur¬
pofe of food. “ The inhabitants,” he fays^ “ often
fwallow the blood recent, and eat the eggs boiled,
which are about the fize of thofe of a pigeon, four or
five in number, and of a wffiite colour, In Septembefr
the animal hides itfelf under ground, and again emerges
in February laying its eggs in June, in a fmall hole,
which it fcratches in fome funny fpot, out of which, af¬
ter the firft rains of September, the young are hatched,
which are about the fize of a wralnut. The males of this
fpecies are faid to fight often, butting at each other writh
fuch force, as to be heard at a confiderable diftance.”
The land tortoife, when it is kept in gardens in Italy
and Germany, is commonly obferved to conceal itfelf
in O'ftober, and to reappear in April. The period of
retirement in England is about the end of Odlober, and
the time of its appearance is about the middle of April;
but it ought to be added, that thefe periods vary in
different countries, and according to the temperature of
the feafon.
The land tortoife lives to a very great age; Ini*e-Great
Veral inftances which feem to be w^ell authenticated, it ^
has confiderably exceeded the extraordinary period of
an hundred years. One inftance which is perhaps not
the leaft remarkable, is recorded of a tortoife which
was introduced into the archbiffiop’s garden at Lam-
betb,
*Very tena¬
cious of
life.
I. " E R P E T
belli, about the year 1633, anc^ bvsed till the year
1753 j the Ihell of which is if ill prcferved in the library
of the palace at Lambeth. Another remarkable cir-
cumftance refpeffing this individual is, that it was of a
larger fize than ufual. The ihell meafured 10 inches
in length, and fix and a half in breadth.
None of this orde of animals is more tenacious of
life than the tortoife. The experiments of Redi afford
a remarkable prool- of this fact:. In the beginning of
November he made a large opening in the ikull of a
land tortoife, extracted the whole of -the brain, waihed
cut the cavity, that no part might remain ; and having
left the hole open, let the animal go. It walked off
feemingly uninjured, excepting that it clofed its eye«,
which never afterwards opened. At the end of three
days, during which time the whole of the Ikull began
to clofe, the wound was covered with a complete Ikin ;
and thus -without brain it walked about as ufual, and
lived for fix months. The fame naturalilf cut off the
head of another tortoife, which lived for the fpace of
twenty-three days afterwards.
AMinence animal is not lels remarkable for its abftinence.
Blafius kept an individual of this fpecies for ten months,
during which time it tailed no kind of food whatever.
It died about the end of that time, but this was afcribed
•to the feverity of the feafon, rather than to the want of
food ; for the intefiines being examined, they were
found full of excrement of the natural colour.
Mr White, in his Natural Hiffory of Selborne, has
given fo full and diftindi an account of the natural hif-
tory of the land tortoife, founded on fadts drawn from
his own obfervation, that we lhall lay it before our
readers in his own words.
“ A land tortoife (fays he), which has been kept for
thirty years in a little walled court belonging to the
houfe where I now am vifiting, retires under ground
about the middle of November, and comes forth again
about the middle of April. When it firft appears in
the fpring it difcovers very little inclination towards
food ; but in the height of fummer grows voracious :
and then as the fummer declines, its appetite declines 5
■fo that for the laft fix weeks in autumn, it hardly eats
at all. Milky plants, fuch as lettuces, dandelions, fow-
thiftles, are its favourite dilh. In a neighbouring vil¬
lage one was kept, till by tradition - it was fuppofed to
be an hundred years old. An inftance of vail longevity
in fuch a poor reptile !
“ On the iff of November, I remarked that it be¬
gan firfi: to dig the ground in order to the forming its
hybernaculum, which it had fixed on juft befide a great
tuft of hepaticas. It fcrapes out the ground with its
fore-feet, and throws it up over its back with its hind j
but the motion of its legs is ridiculoufly flow, little ex¬
ceeding the hour-hand of a clock j and fuitable to the
compofure of an animal faid to be a whole month in
performing one feat of copulation. Nothing can be
more afliduous than this creature night and day in
fcooping the earth, and forcing its great body into the
cavity but, as the noons of that feafon proved unufual-
ly warm and funny, it was continually interrupted, and
called forth by the heat in the middle of the day; and
though I continued there till the thirteenth of Novem¬
ber, yet the work remained unfinifhed. Harfher wea¬
ther, and frofty mornings, would have -quickened its
White’s ac
Count of
one.
^ *3S-
O L O G Y. 271
operations. No part of its behaviour ever ft ruck me Tortoifes.
more than the extreme timidity it always exprelies with' ,~v~ ^
regard to rain; for though it has a ihell that would fe-
cure it againft the wheel of a loaded cart, yet does it
diicover as much folicitude about rain as a lady dreffed
in all her heft attirej ihuffiing away on the firft fprink-
lings, and running its head up in a corner. If attend¬
ed to, it becomes an excellent weather-glafs; for as fure
as it walks elate, and as it were on tiptoe, feeding with
great earneftnefs in a morning, fo lure will it rain be¬
fore night. It is totally a diurnal animal, and nevep
pretends to ftir after it becomes dark. The tortoife,
like other reptiles, has an arbitrary ftomach as well as
lungs} and can refrain from eating as well as breathing
for a great part of the year. When firft awakened it
eats nothing ; nor again in the autumn before it re¬
tires : through the height of the fummer if feeds vora-
cioufly, devouring all the food that comes in its way.
I was much taken with its fagacity in difeerning thofe
that do it kind offices: for, as foon as the good old lady
comes in fight who has waited on it for more than thirty
years, it hobbles towards its benefa£trefs with awkward
alacrity 5 but remains inattentive to ft rangers. Thus
not only “ the ox knoweth his owner, atid the afs his
majler's crib” but the moft abject reptile, and torpid of^^P* I4|5r
beings, diftinguifhes the hand that feeds it, atid is touch
ed with the feelings of gratitude !
“ The old.Sdbex tortoife, (he adds), that I have men¬
tioned fo often, is become my property. I dug it out
of its winter dormitory in March laft, when it was
enough awakened to exprefs its refentments by biffing j
and, packing it in a box with earth, carried it eighty
miles in poft-chaifes/ The rattle and hurry of the jour¬
ney fo perfectly roufed it, that, when I turned it out on
a border, it walked twice down to the bottom of my
garden ; however, in the evening, the weather being,
cold, it buried itfelf in the loofe mould, and continues-
flill concealed.”
“ As it will be under my eye, I ftiall now have an
opportunity of enlarging my obfervations on its mode of
life and propenfities j and perceive already that, to¬
wards the time of coming forth, it opens a breathing
place in the ground near its head, requiring, I conclude,
a freer refpiration as it becomes more alive. This crea¬
ture not only goes under the earth from the middle of‘
November to the middle of April, but fleeps great part
of the fummer j for it goes to bed in the longeft days-
at four in the afternoon, and often does not ftir in the
morning till late. Befides, it retires to reft for every
fliower 5 and does not move at all in wret days.’*
“ When one reflefts on the ftate of this ftrange be¬
ing, it is a matter of wonder to find that Providence
fliould beftow fuch a profufion of days, fuch a feeming
wafte of longevity, on a reptile that appears to reliih it
fo little as to fquander more than two thirds of its exift-
ence in a joylefs ftupor, and be loft to all fenfatioiv
for months together in the profoundeft of {lumbers.”
“ While I was writing, a moift and warm afternoon,-
with the thermometer at 50, brought forth troops of
fhell-fnails; and, at the fame juncture, the tortoife heav¬
ed up the mould, and put out its head j and the next
morning came forth, as it wTere raifed from the dead,
and walked about till four in the afternoon. This was
a curious coincidence ! a very amufing occurrence ! to
t1i E E f E T
Torto’fes, fee fucH a funllanty of feeling between tbe two
L v for io the Greeks called both the Ihell-fnail and t e
Ibid.'p. ^'tortoife.
« Becaufe we call this creature ah abjett reptile,
we are too apt to undervalue his abilities, and depre¬
ciate his powers of inilindl* Yet he is, as Mr hope
fays of his lord,
  Much too wife to walk into a well
and has fo xnuch difcernment as not to fall _ dowxi a
haha : but to flop and withdraw from the bnnK with
the readied precaution* •, i
“ Though he loves vlarm weather,- he avoids the
hot fun 5 becaufe his thick fhdl, win n once heated,
would, as the poet fays of folid armour, “ feald with
fafety.” He therefore fpends the more fultry hours
under the umbrella of a large cabbage-leaf, or amiaft
the wa\ing forefts of an afparagus-bed; t
“ But as he avoids heat in the fummer, fo, in the
decline of the year, he improves the faint autumnal
beams, by getting within the retfoaion of a fruit-wall:
and, though he never has read that planes inclining to
the horizon receive a greater (hare of warmth, he
inclines his fhell, by tilting it againlt the wall, to col-
lea and admit every feeble ray. , <r 4
“ Pitiable feems the condition of this poor embarralied
reptile: to be cafed in a fuit of ponderous armour,
which he canhot kyafidej to be imprifoned, as it were,
within his own (hell, miift preclude, we fliould fuppoie,
all aaivity and dlfpoiition for enterprife. Yet there is
a feafon of the year (ufually the beginning of June)
when his exertions are remarkable. He then walks on
tiptoe, and is ftirring by five in the morning 5 and,
traverfing the garden, examines every wicket and m-
terftice in the fences, through which he will etcape it
poffible : and often has eluded the care of the garden¬
er, and wandered to fome diftant field. ’Ihe motives
that impel him to undertake thefe rambles feem to be ot
the amorous kind : his fancy then becomes intent on
.ibid. p. 4^7.fexual attachments, which tranfport him beyond his
ufual gravity, and induce him to forget for a time his
ordinary folemn deportment.”
2. Testudo Marginata, Mafginated Tortoife*
Specif. Char.—The fhell is blackifh-brown, variegated
with yellow, oblong, and gibbofe, widened and de-
preffed on the hind part.
The length of this fpecies is nearly fourteen inches,
the breadth about ten, meafuring the curvature of the
fhell. The head which is flat and triangular above, is
nearly two inches long, above an inch broad, and one
inch deep. The eyes are furniftied with a nictitating
membrane*, but the lower eyelid only is moveable.
The mandibles are ftrong, notched, and internally befet
with protuberances which have been fometimes mif-
taken for teeth. The external orifices of the ears are
covered with the common fkin. The tail is very fhort.
The fore legs are about three inches and a half long ^ the
hind legs are about two and a half long. The fkin is
grainy, and covered with brown coloured, Unequal,
hard fcales, extending over the head, legs, and tail.
Some of thefe fcales <5n the ends of the feet are large,
hard, and pointed 5 fo that at firft fight they might be
fcik^n for claws. The feet are thick, and fo cover-
3
O t 6 G Y. Chap. I.
ed with the invefting membrane, 'that the toes ate only Tortoite,
diftinguifhed.
The difk of the fhell is compofed of thirteen pieces
which fire flriated on the margin. The border confifts
of twenty-four pieces } all of '(vhich, efpecially the poi-
terior ones, are proportionally larger than in the otner
fpecies. Trom the pofition of the latter, the circumfe¬
rence of the upper fhell appears tootned. . The upper
fhell is very convex, being more than four inches deep .
in confequence of this form, when the animal is placed
on its back, it can recover its former filtration.
The colour of this fpecies is generally dark, or
blackifh-bay. The convex part of the pieces which
Compofe the difk are irregularly _ varied with yellow.
The pieces are alfo variegated with the fame colour.
This prevails chiefly on the poiierior divifions, and thefe
are diltinaiy ilriated or furrowed. The width or dila¬
tation of thefe divifions, being greater than in other fpe¬
cies, conftitutes tbe principal chara&eriftic mark of the
prefent. The colour of the under ibell is pale yellow *,
each divifion is marked on its upper joining with a
tranfverfe blackifh band, which runs into a pair ot point¬
ed or triangular procefles, extending nearly to the in¬
ferior divifion. Another fpfecific difference between this
and the common tortoife is, that in the former the out¬
line of the fhell, feen from above, is proportionally long*
er, and has a flight finking or contra6iion on each
fide. . • r * •
It is fuppofed that this fpecies is a native of America,
blit this teems not to be certainly determined *, and
little, or fcarcely any thing, is known of its natural hif-
tory.
3. Testudo Geometrica, Geometrical Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—The fhell is black and ovate } the feu-
tella elevated, and radiated with yellow.
The number of pieces of which the difk is compofed,
is fubjedl to variation. Inftead of thirteen, fourteen
pieces’have been obferved in different fpecirUens. Thefe
pieces are very prominent, ftriated diftinctly with nu¬
merous lines on their fides, and terminated above by a
yellowifh coloured, flat, hexagonal roughened fpace,
from which proceed, in a radiated direaion, fome well
defined yellow ftreaks. towards the edge *, in this form¬
ing on the black ground colour, fometbing like geome¬
trical figures. The marginal pieces are commonly 24,
but fometimes 26. They alio are flreaked with yellow®
As in other fpecies, the brightnefs of the colours is lub-
jecl to variation, but their regular diflribution is never
entirely obliterated. #
This fpecies, it is faid, is a native of Afia, Africa,
and alfo of America) but this feems not to be fully
afeertained, which is rather furprifing, as its fhell is
oftener met with in Europe than that of any other fpe¬
cies. Thunberg fays that it is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, where it frequents fhrubby places. It is
faid aifo, that it is found on the coaft of the Pine iflands,
between the continent of America and Cuba, where
they frequent moift and marfhy places in the forefts.
They are very eafily taken, and are fought after as food.
It is ufual for the natives to put a mark on the flueld,
and then to allow' them to go about in the w oods, find¬
ing them again almoft as readily as any domefticated
animal, when they tranfport them to Cuba, ibis fpe-
cie$
Chap. I. E R P E T
Tortoifes. cies is iiippofed to be terrapin of Dampier, who
» gives the above account, and reprefents it as beautifully
variegated.
4. Testudo Radiata, Radiated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell ovate, black 5 fcutella flattifh, and
radiated with yellow.
This fpecies has fometimes been confounded with the
preceding ; it often however exceeds a foot in length,
and its outline is nearly fmooth. The fize of the geo¬
metrical tortoife is lefs, its outline is very much tu-
berculated, and the pieces of which it is compofed rife
greatly towards their centres’.
According to Grew, it is a native of Madagafcar ;
and its characters correfpond nearly with one defcribed
by Browne in his hiltory of Jamaica, fo that it muft alfo
be conhdered as a native of that illand. Grew has
given a very particular defcription of it.
5. Testudo Indica, Indian Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell brown, reflected above the neck ;
the three upper fcutella are marked with a tu¬
bercle.
This is a very large fpecies, wThich was firft defcribed
by Perrault in the hiltory of animals publilhed by the
Royal Academy of France. It meafured from the tip
of the nofe to the tail four feet and a half; the height
or convexity was about fourteen inches ; the Ihell itfelf
was in length three feet, and two in breadth; the co¬
lour was of a dull brown. The pieces compoflng the
fliield were large and diflimilar, of which the three
anterior were marked in the middle with a round knob
or tubercle, about half an inch wide. The Ikin of
fhe head, feet, and neck, was wrinkled and granulated 5
the fore legs were nine inches long, the feet undivided,
with five blunt claws: the hind legs were eleven inches
long, with four toes, each armed with a claw j the tail
fix inches thick at the bafe, fourteen inches in length,
and terminating in a horny bent procefs. This fpecies
is a native of the coaft: of Coromandel.
Var. 1. A variety of this fpecies brought from the
Cape of Good Hope, is defcribed by Vofmaer : it was
about 2\ feet long, i4 foot broad, one foot high, with
thirteen pieces in the difk, and twenty-five in the mar¬
gin. In this, the three tubercles on the anterior pieces
of the fhield are wanting.
Var. 2. Another variety of this fpecies, of a very
large fize, has been brought from the South Sea illands.
The Ihell, which is of a dull uniform brown, with a
fmooth furface, is of an ovate, oblong form, widening
at the bottom, and contratling confiderably on each
fide of the neck. It is at leaft three feet and a half
long ; the divifions are all even, but the whole furface
of the ftiell is marked with regular elevations and de-
preflions.
Testudo Rugosa, Wrinkled Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell black, wrinkled, mottled and varie¬
gated with yellow 5 the middle dorfal piece fubpan-
duriform.
This fpecies, of which a fpecimen is preferved in the
Yol. VIII. Part I.
O L 0 G Y. 273
Leverian mufeum, is defcribed by Dr Shawf. Tne Tortoifes. ^
colour is dark brown, or black, thickly mottled with
fmall confluent fpots of pale yellow, which are largeft vol ju_
on the fides of the (hell. The form of the (hell is long p. 28.
and oval, dilated or widened behind} the depth or con¬
vexity is very confiderable. The three middle divifions
of the row of fcutella on the back are fomewhat pandu-
riform, or fiddle-lhaped. The upper piece refembles
the outline of a pitcher ; the lowefi: approaches to, a-
hexagonal form. The number of the fide pieces is four,
of the ufual form j that of the marginal pieces is twenty-
five, the upper one very fmall. A carina or ridge uyns
down the dorfal row the upper furface of the (hell is
ftrongly wrinkled. The under (hell is fmooth, and of
a yellowilh white colour, mottled with black. The
length of the ftiell is nine and a half inches ; width
in the middle five inches. Its native country is un¬
known.
Var. A variety of this fpecies is alfo defcribed, con¬
fiding chiefly in the colours of the fliell, and owing, it
is fuppofed, to a fexual difference.
7. Testudo Europea, Speckled Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell oval, flattifh, fmooth, dark-brown,
marked with numerous yellowifti fpecks and ftreaks.
Tejludo orbicularis, Lin.
This fpecies is from four to five inches long j the
colour is blackifti or olive brown j the fliell flattifli,
but flightly convex, marked with numerous, oblong,
yellow fpecks, difpofed in a radiated form on each divi-
fion of the ftiell. The fkin of the neck and breaff is
fimilarly fpotted. The dilk confifts of thirteen, and
the margin of twenty-five pieces. The under fliell is
of a whitifti yellow, tinged with brown at the joints.
The head is ovate, fomewhat convex above, flattifti on
the fides and beneath. The Ikin of the neck is wrink¬
led and loofe. The legs are fliort, and covered with
fcales. The feet are webbed, the fore feet having five
toes, the hind only four. The claws are (harp point¬
ed and crooked j the tail is nearly half the length of the
body, and is thin and compreffed.
This fpecies is a native of Italy, Sardinia, France,
Hungary, and Pruflia, as well as other parts of Eu¬
rope. It inhabits lakes and muddy waters, feeding
on fmall fifli, infecls, fnails, and aquatic plants. The
flefli is efteemed and employed as food, and in fome
places brought to market for fale. It is fometimes
kept in ponds for the purpofe, and fed with lettuce
leaves, bread, &c. It may be kept in a cellar, and
fed with oats fcattered on the floor, which it eats as
foon as they begin to germinate. In the beginning of
fpring it depouts its eggs in fandy places, expofed to
the fun 5 and it has been faid, that thefe are not hatch¬
ed till the fpring following. The growth of this ani¬
mal is extremely flow, and it varies fomewhat in
colour, according to the climate wdiere it is found.
8. Testudo Lutaria, Mud Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—The (hell is flattifli, and the tail is half
the length of the body.
The length of this fpecies does not exceed feven Ur
eight inches from the tip of the nofe to the end of the tail,
The breadth is about three or four inches. The dilk
is coropofed of 1 3 pieces, which are ftriated and flight-
M m ly
274 E R P E T
Tortoifes. ly punctated in tlie centre. A longitudinal ridge runs
* ' v along the middle range. The margin confifts of 23
pieces {lightly ilriated on the edges. The (hell is blackifh,
as well as the {kin j the feet are webbed, and have five
toes before and four behind.
This fpecies is a native of many parts of Europe ; it
is alfo found in different parts of Alia, as in India and
Japan. It is very common in Fiance, particularly in
Tanguedoc, and in different parts of Provence. It is
faid that fuch numbers were found one time in a lake
half a league wide, in the plain of Durance, that the
Neighbouring peafantry were fupported by them for
more than three months.
This fpecies always lays its eggs on land, digging a
hollow in the ground, and covering the eggs with
earth. When the young are firfl hatched, they are
tmly about half an inch in diameter. The motions of
this fpecies are quicker than thofe of the land tortoife.
It continues to grow for a long time, and lives for up-
wards of 24 years. It has been found ufeful in gardens,
by deflroying fmall fnails, and other ammals which are
deftruftive to vegetables ; but it ought to be obferved,
that it is difpofed to attack and dellroy the fifh in
filh-ponds.
9. Testudo Carinata, Carinated Tortoife.
Specif Char.—Feet digitated ; {hell gibbofe j four fir ft
dorfal fcutella carinated j llernum entire.
The (hell of this fpecies does not exceed three inches
in length. The form is broad, and fomewhat orbicu¬
lar ; the colour is brown, and each fcutellum is marked
with a pale zone of confluent fpots, which furround the
centre part, the edges of each being furrounded with
three or four diftinftly marked furrows. Marginal
pieces 25 in number, including the uppermoft, which
is very fmall. Its native country is unknown.
10. Testudo Carolina Lin. Testudo Clausa
Shaw. Clqfe Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell blackifh, irregularly fpotted with
yellow; dorfal carina obtufe \ under {hell bivalve,
completely inclofing the upper {hell.
This fpecies is thus deferibed by Edwards. “ The
head is furnilhed with a hard or fheliy covering of a
dark brown colour on the top : on the fides and throat
it is yellow, with fmall black or dufky fpots: its
noftrils are near together, a little above the end of the
beak : the eyes are of a yellowilh colour : the neck is
covered with a loofe {kin of a dark purplifh fleflr colour,
which partly covers the head when it is net fully ex¬
tended : the hinder legs and parts about the vent are
covered with a Ikin of the fame dull fleth colour as the
neck : the fore-legs and feet are covered with yellow
hard feales : it hath five toes on each foot forwards,
ftnd four on each of the hinder feet, all armed with
pretty llrong ckrws : the {hell above rifes pretty much,
and is round, divided into feparate feales of the horny
fubfiance called tortoife {hell : each fcale is engraven,
as it were, with rings round its extremities, which leffen
inwards to its centre : the {hell above is of a dufky
brown colour, with yellowilh fpots of various forms :
Underneath it is llattilh, and of a yellow colour, with
O L O G Y. Chap. I.
black clouds and fpots : it has only the rudiment of a Tortoifes.
tail, on which the vent is placed : the lovrer fhell is di- " * ~
vided acrofs the middle of the belly, and joined to the
upper {hell by a tough though flexible Ikin, by which
means it can, when it draws in its head and legs, clofe
up its ftiell as firmly as an oyfter.” From this pecu¬
liarity in its fhmfture, this fpecies has derived its name ;
and this proves fo ftrong a defence to the little animal,
that it feems not only not to receive any injury, from
having a weight of five or fix hundred pounds laid up¬
on it, but to walk under the load without any incon¬
venience.
The length of this fpecies feldom exceeds four or
five inches. It is a native of North America, and is
chiefly found in marihy fituations ; but it alfo fome-
times appears in dry and warm places. It lives both
on vegetables and animals. Of the latter beetles, mice,
and fometimes ferpents, are its prey, Thefe it feizes,
drawrs them into its {hell, and cruflies them to death.
It is much in requeft on account of its eggs, which are
efteemed a great delicacy. They are about the fize of
a pigeon’s egg.
it. Testudo Sulcata, Sulcated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell brown, ovate ; fcutella furrowred,
and yellow on each fide.
This fpecies exceeds afoot in length, from the tip of
the nofe to the end of the tail ; fo that it is one of the
larger of the land tortoifes. The {hell is very convex.
The diik is compofed of 1 3 pieces, which are five and
fix-fided \ and each is traniverfely and ftrongly furrow¬
ed from the lower edge to the upper area 5 acrofs thefe
run three impreffed lines in an oppofite direftion : the
marginal pieces are furrowed in the fame manner. The
colour of the flieil is in general a dull yellow; but
both the Afield and marginal pieces have a brown and
yellow divifion. The bead is large and covered with
fix-fided feales of different fizes. The fore and hind leg^
are alfo fcaly ; on the former are five claws, on the
latter only four. The tail is very fliort.
This fpeexes is a native of the Weft Indies ; and it
is fuppofed to be the fame with the hicatee defciibed by
Browne in bis Hiltory of Jamaica.
.12. Testudo Tabulata, Tabular Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell brown, oblong, gibbous *, fcutella
of the dife reftangular and furrowed, having yel¬
low ith coloured centres.
The fliape and fize of the pieces of which the dife
is compofed,y are more uniform than in any other be¬
longing to this genus. This feems to be the principal
mark of diferimination. Each piece is {lightly convex,
and in general fix-fided, excepting fome of the pieces
towards the fides, which are five-fided. The central
part of each piece is large, and {lightly granulated,
and the fides are diftindlly fulcated. The whole has a
kind of flattened or tabular appearance : the colour is
a yellowifh chefnut; it is paler on the centre of each
divifion } the legs are thick, and fpotted with red ; the
number of pieces on the dife is 13, that of the margin
23. The length of the {hell is from five to fix inches.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Africa but according
to fome, it has been fouad in. Brazil.
Chap. T. E R P E T
Tortoifes. 13. TESTUDO CqNC.ENTS.ICA Tejludo Pa/’{/iris Lin.
'—""'v Concentric Tortofe^
Specif. Char.—Shell fomewhat deprelTed, (lightly ridged,
oval, of a yellow colour ; having the fcutella marked
with brown concentric zones.
The (hell of this fpecies is flatter than that of others;
in fome of the larger fpecimens nearly fmooth : the
middle row of pieces, of which the difc is compofed,
are five in number ; they are more elevated than thofe
of the fides, are fix-fided, and project behind into an
obtufe carina. There are four fide-pieces on each fide,
which are pentagonal. The ground colour of the whole
is pale, and marked with brown zones and centres. The
fliell is from four to fix inches long.
This tortoife is a native of North America, and is
met with in the markets at Philadelphia, where it is fold
under the name of terrapin. It is alio a native of
Jamaica, where it is very common. It is faid, by
Brown, who feems firlt to have defcribed it, to be a
wholefome and delicate food. In that ifland, it grows
to the length of eight or nine inches.
14. Testudo Picta, 'Painted Tortoife.
O L O G Y. 275
This is a very fmall fpecies, only about two inches Tortoifes.
long } the fliell is of a bright yellow colour, the furface v
apparently fmooth. At each of the joinings which
compofe the difc, there is a large, leaf-lhaped, dark
brown tranfverfe fpot. The marginal pieces are mark¬
ed with a tranfverfe black zone } the head is Ihort
and thick.
Nothing particular is known of its natural hiitory,
or to what country it belongs.
17. Testudo Areolata, Areolated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—The fliell is flightly convex j the fcu¬
tella are nearly four-fided, elevated, deeply furrowed,
and are fumiilied with deprefled rough areolae.
The length of this fpecics is from three to four inches.
The fcutella, which are nearly four-fided, are broader
than long, with a pretty large, depreffed, central
part, which is of a yellow colour, roughifli, and fur-
rounded by a pale zone. The margin is compofed
of 25 pieces j the difc, in fome individuals, of 15, and in
others of 14.
This tortoife, according to fome, is a native of Brazil,
according to others, of the Ealt Indies.
Specif. Char.—The fliell is oblong, and flightly convex,
fmooth, and of a brown colour 5 the fcutella are bor¬
dered with yellow.
This fpecies is well diftinguiflied from all others, by
the remarkable colours of the Afield, which confifts of
13 fegments nearly fquare, and deeply edged with pale
yellow. The marginal pieces are 25 in number. The
fliell is from four to fix inches long.
The painted tortoife frequents frefli wTaters, and in
particular, is found in the flow and deep rivers of North
America. In bright funfliine weather they leave the
water in great numbers, and balk themfelves on ftones,
pieces of wood, and the banks of the ftreams, fuddenly
retreating into the wnter, when they are difturbed.
T hey walk very flowly, but fvvim with great rapidity.
They cari remain for many hours together under the
■water, but live only a’few days in the open air. They
are extremely voracious, and are known to deftroy young
aquatic fowls, feizing them by the feet, and dragging
them under water. Sometimes they are employed for
the purpofe of food.
15. Testudo Guttata, Spotted Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell oblong, flightly convex, fmooth,
and of a brown colour, with fcattered yellow fpots.
This fpecies is alfo fufficiently diftinguiftied by its re¬
markable colour. The pieces both of the difc and
margin being marked with a few diftantly placed
round yellow' fpots. Thefe fpots vary, as well as the
ground, in different individuals. The young of this
fpecies, which itfelf is finall, are not larger than a
pigeon’s egg, are very black, and beautifully fpotted
with gold colour.
This tortoife is a native of North America, frequent¬
ing lakes and rivers.
16. Testudo Elegans, Elegant Tortoife.
Specif Char.—The fliell is round, convex, and of a
yellow colour, with tranfverfe, oval, brown fpots.
18. Testudo Serrata, Serrated Tortoife. Tefudo
Spengleri, Lin.
Specif. C/wx—Shell depreffed, of a yellow colour, and
minutely freckled with dulky fpecks. The fcutella
of the dilk are all ridged 5 the hinder margin of the
fliell ferrated.
This tortoife is confidered and defcribed by Dr Shaw
as a new fpecies ; it is fmall, only about three quarters
of an inch long, and about two inches and a half
broad. It is of an oval form, and flightly convex. The
colour is of a yellowilh brown, and when clofely ex¬
amined, appears thickly marked with minute, confluent,
dulky fpots. The under fliell is blackifli, wfith a yellow
margin.
The native country of this fpecies is unknown.
19. Testudo Pusxlla, Little Tortoife. African Land
Tortoife of Edwards.
Specif Char.—Shell hemifpherical, with convex, trape¬
zoidal fcutella, ftriated on the margin, and dotted on
the difc. Feet fubdigitated.
The fliell of this fpecies meafures only about four
inches in length. The whole animal, from the tip of
the nofe to the end of the tail, does not exceed fix.
This fpecies has a confiderable refemblance to the com¬
mon tortoife, or tejludo greeca. It is particularly de¬
fcribed by Edwards, who kept two of them which he
received from Weft Barbary for two years in the gar¬
den of the college of phyficians in London 5 but of its
natural hiftory, nothing farther is known.
20. Testudo TricaRINATA, Trie urinated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell oval, flightly convex ; margin en¬
tire j all the fcutella of the difc carinated.
This fpecies refembles a goad deal the tefudo orbicu~
laris, Lin. In fize it fcarcely exceeds that of a large
walnut} the colour- is blackifti; the (hell is compofed
Mm2 *f
2?6
Tortoifes. of 13 fcutella j the number of tlm marginal pieces is 23.
v' J^ach fcutella is marked in the middle with a longitudi¬
nal ridge, and wrinkled on the fides with feveral fur¬
rows and roughifh points.
Its native place, and its natural hiftory, are unknown.
21. Testudo Scabra, Rough Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell flattifh, the intermediate fcutella eleJ
vated on the back j feet palmated.
This tortoife is about two inches and a half in length,
and nearly two in breadth. Its form is fomewhat cor-
dated, of a light reddidi colour, finely variegated on the
head and {hell, with waved white lines and ipots. The
feet, each of which is furnifhed with five toes, with
lharp claws, are marked with red fpots. The head is
prominent, and the eyes are fmall.
It is confidered by fome naturalifls as a native of
Amboyna.
22. Testudo Scripta, Letter'd Tortoife. TeJIudo Sca¬
bra of Thunberg.
Specif. Char.—Shell depreffed, orbicular •, fcutella mark¬
ed with various figured characters j marginal pieces
fpotted underneath.
This fpecies is either very fmall, or the fpecimen
from which the defcriptions have been taken were very
young, as it did not exceed the fize of a half-crown
piece. It is flattifh, of a round form, and. whitifh
colour tinged with yellow’. The upper furface is mark¬
ed with various figures, having fomewhat the appear-
. ance of written characters. The pieces of the mar¬
gin, which are 25 in number, are marked with fimi-
lar characters as thofe of the fcutella. The feet are
large, webbed, and have five toes furniftied with
{harp claws.
* It is not mentioned to what country it belongs.
23. Testudo Galeata, Galeated Tortoife.
,Specif. Char.—Shell depreffed, oval 5 the three middle
fcutella Iharply ridged } marginal pieces 24.
This is a fmall fpecies, not exceeding two inches and
a half long, and about two broad. T he colour of the
fhell is pale brown, and the difc is compofed of 13 fcu¬
tella, of which the middle row is very broad, and
Itrongly ridged in the middle. Marginal pieces 24 in
number, and fimilar in colour to the difc, but having
white edges. The head is fmooth, furniftied with
a kind of Ihield, from whence it derives its fpecific
name.
Jts native place is unknown; but an individual of this
fpecies, brought from India, lived two years. It w^as
kept in frelh water, and could occafionally remain for
a few hours in the open air. Its food was bread and
flies. It continued in a kind of dormant ftate during
the winter, taking no food from the beginning of Octo¬
ber till the middle of May, and fcarcely ever raifing
its head above the furface of the water.
24. Testudo Denticulata, Denticulated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell roundifti, and heart-fhaped 5 mar«
ginal fegmeats denticulated ) feet fubdigitated.
Chap. I.
This fpecies is about four inches long and three broad. Tortoife.
The {hell is of a pale yellowifh brown colour ; the difc » '
is compoled of broad five and fix fided fcutella. They,
are flattifti, and have a large diftinCt fpace in the
middle, granulated with fmall tubercles. T he other
part of the fcutellum is marked with five furrows } the
marginal pieces are 23 in number, and projeCt in a
ferrated form.
It is fuopofed to be a native of North America.
25. Testudo Pennsylvanica, Pennfylvanian Tortoife.
Small Mud Tortoife of Edwards.
Specif Char.—Shell brown, fmooth, elliptic 5 back flat-
tilh ; the middle row of fcutella fomewhat rhom-
boidal and imbricated. The firft is fubtriangular.
This is a fmall tortoife j the length of the {hell, at
its full growth, does not exceed three or four inches.
In this fpecies, the middle row of dorfal pieces are longer
than in others, and are fo arranged as to overlap each
other at the tips. The marginal pieces are 23 in num¬
ber, the upper one being very fmall. The edges of the
{hell are tinged with dull yellow. In the joinings of
the pieces, this fpecies refembles the ftru&ure of
the clofe tortoife, fo that the animal has the power
of concealing itfelf almoft entirely, by clofing up its'
{hell.
It is a native of North America, and is particularly
found in Pennfylvania, where it frequents muddy waters,
and hence its trivial name of mud tortoife. When alive„
it is faid that it gives out a ftrong mulk fmell.
Several varieties of this fpecies have been noticed by
naturalifts.
26. Testudo Longicollis, Long-necked Tortoife.
Specif Char.—Smooth, ovate ; neck very long.
This fpecies is about five inches and a half long, and
four and a half broad. The . ftiell is of an oval form,
of a dark olive brown colour, refembling in fome parts
of it the grain of common black leather. The difc is
compofed of 13, and the margin of 25 pieces. The.
under ftiell is of a yellowilh colour, marked with black
brown at the joinings. The claws on the feet, which
are four in number, are like thofe of birds.
It is a native of New Holland.
27. Testudo Caspica, Cafpian Tortoife.
Specif. GW.—Shell orbicular, head fcaly, tail naked j
five claws on the fore feet, four on the hind.
This fpecies of tortoife grows to fuch a fize, that
feveral men can {land together on its ftiell. The pieces
of which the difc is compofed are nearly four-fided,
and fquare; thofe of the margin are in the form of
a parallelogram. The colour is variegated with
black and green j the under {hell is blackifti, fpotted
with white.
It is a native of Hyrcania, and frequents frelh waters.
28. Testudo Ferox, Fierce Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell ovate, cartilaginous j three claw's
on the feet, which are tubular 5 noitrils promi¬
nent.
erpetology.
This
Chap I.
E R P E T
Tortoifes. This fpecies is about one foot and a half in length,
 ' and about 15 inches in breadth. The Ihield, which is
hard or olfeous in the middle only, while the edges be¬
come gradually flexible and coriaceous, is a fufficiently
charadteriitic mark of diilinftion. The head is fmall,
and fomewhat trigonal, with the fnout much elongated.
The colour of this fpecies is brownifh j olive above *,
and on the under parts white.
This fpecies is a native of Pennfylvania, Carolina,
and other parts of America. It is_ extremely vigorous
and fwift in its motions, and when it is diiturbed or at¬
tacked, it fprings forward towards its enemy with great
fiercenefs. Some which have been found m the rivers
and lakes of Eaft Florida, weighed from 30 to 40 lbs. •,
and it is faid that they even grow to fuch a fize as to
weigh 70 lbs.
A fpecies defcribed by Thunberg, under the name of
tejludo rqftrata, is fuppofed by Dr Shaw to be an indi¬
vidual belonging to the above, not yet arrived at its full
growth. The lejludo triunguis of Forfkal feems alfo
to be a variety of this fpecies.
29. Testudo Granulata, Shagreened Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell granulated, orbicular, flattifti; bor¬
der cartilaginous.
The fliield of this fpecies meafures about finches
in length, and 34" i1* breadth. It appears as if it were
compofed of two fhields, the upper of which is the fmal-
left and fliorteft. This is of a bony fubftance, roughened
all over like the furface of ftiagreen. It is compofed^ of
23 pieces, eight of which are placed on each fide. The
borders of this Ihield are cartilaginous and fomewhat
tranfparent, through which may be feen the ribs of the
animal. . _ _. , c
This fpecies is faid to be a native of India j but of
its habits and natural hiftory nothing is known.
30. Testudo Fimeriata, Fimbriated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell oval, a little convex, and having a
triple ridge ^ neck fimbriated on each fide ^ fiiout
cylindrical, and feet fubdigitated.
The length of the (hell of this fpecies is above 15
inches, and the breadth 11. The length of the animal,
from the tip of the nofe to the end of the tail, is two
feet three inches. The head is large and flat, edged
on the fides with wrinkled membranaceous appendages,
and covered behind with a three-lobed prominence.
The ngfe is cylindrical, and fomewhat refembles a pro-
bofcis. It is 10 lines long, truncated, and pierced at
the tip by the nofirils. T he difk of the {hell is a little
convex, and compofed of J 3 femicircular pieces, which
are nearly conical. They are all wrinkled, and irre¬
gularly notched at the hinder part. The marginal
pieces are 25 in number, nearly fquare, radiated on the
furface with oblique wrinkles, and toothed on the inner
edge. The colour is brown, and fomewhat paler be-
neath. . ,
This fpecies is faid to be a native of Guiana,_ and was
once common in the rivers of Cayenne j but it is now
rarely to be met with, having been much fought after
as a nourifhing food. Its food is aquatic plants j and it
is faid that it leaves the river, and wanders about in
the night, to fome diftance from the banks, in fearch Q*
o l o G Y.
pafture. The individual from which the defcription is
taken by M. Bruguierre, was brought to him alive, and
lived for fome time on herbs, bread, and fome other
fubftances. It laid feveral eggs, one of which produ¬
ced a young tortoife in the box where it wTas kept.
31. Testudo Serpentina, Snake Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell ovate, depreffed, triply carinated,
and fliarp fcaled j rounded and acutely ferrated at the
pofterior margin.
This fpeciss grows to the weight of 15 or 20 lbs.
The general colour is of a dull chefiiut brown, but
lighter or paler underneath. The head is large, tri¬
angular, and covered with a warty Ikin. The neck is
alfo covered with fcaly warts. The toes, which are
five in number on the fore feet, and four on the hind
feet, are all diftina, but conneded by means of a web.
They are armed with long claws. The tail is ftraight,
two-thirds the length of the {hell, compreffed, and creft-
ed on the upper part with {harp bony fcales, pointed
backwards. .
This Ipecies is a native of North America j inhabit¬
ing ftagnant waters, wfliere it preys on fifli, ducklings,
&c. feizing its prey with great force. And indeed,
whatever it feizes with its mouth, it holds with fuch
force, that it will fuffer itfelf to be raifed out of the
water rather than quit its hold. The more cafily to
catch its prey, it is faid too, that it conceals itfelf in
muddy waters, leaving out only part of its back, \\ Inch
has the appearance of a {tone.
32. Testudo Squamata, Scaly Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Body ovate, fmooth beneath •, but the
upper part with the neck, feet, and tail, covered with
numerous fcales.
The head of this fpecies is fmall, refembling that of
a fnake j the eyes are fmall and moveable, the teeth
(harp. All the upper part of the body is covered with
fcales j the under parts are foft, fmooth, and tender >
the tail is pretty long.
It is faid to be a native oi China and Java. Ihe
flefli is accounted a great delicacy, and the fcales, pul-
verifed and diffolved in water, are given by. the Chi-
nefe as a remedy in cafes of dyfentery and colic.
Sect. II. Turtles, or Sea Tortofes*
The large and long fin-lhaped feet, which inclofe.the
bones of the toes, are the moft obvious characleriitic
marks of diftinaion between the fea tortoifes, and the
fpecies included under the preceding fedion. In the
fea tortoifes the Afield is alfo compofed of a Arong bony
covering, which is coated externally with hard horny
plates, which in fome of the fpecies are much thicker
and Aronger than thofe of the land tortoifes.
33. Testudo Coriacea, Coriaceous Turtle.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown, paler beneath 5 Aiell co¬
riaceous, marked with five longitudinal, tuberculate
ribs.
This fpecies, in the form of its body, which is pro¬
portionally longer, and in its outer covering, wthc
E R P E T
rtles. not of a horny fubftance, but refembles ftrong leather,
is fufficiently diftinguilhed from others. Five diinnct,
prominent, tuberculated ridges run along the whole
length of this covering. This fpecies is not furnifhed
with an under or thoracic {hell. The head is large,
and the upper mandible is notched at the tip, which
gives it the appearance of having two large teeth.
The fins are large and long, and covered with a tough
leathery {kin. The general colour is dulky brown, but
paler beneath.
The coriaceous turtle is a native of the European
feas. It is alfo found on the courts of South America
and Africa. It frequents the Mediterranean fea, and
has been occalionaUy met with on the coafts of France
and England. This fpecies, of all the turtles, grows to
the largeit fize. Some have been taken eight feet in
length, and weighing no lefs than looolbs. One was
taken in the month of Auguft 17 29, not far from the
mouth of the Loire in France, which meafured feven
feet one inch in length, three feet feven inches in
breadth, and two in thicknefs. It is reported that it
uttered fo hideous a noife when it was taken, that it
might be heard at the diftance of a quarter of a league.
At the fame time it foamed at the mouth, feemingly
with rage, from which it emitted a noifome vapour.
Another was t^ken in 1778, on the coalt of Langue¬
doc, which meafured feven feet five inches in length.
One taken on the coaft of Cornwall in July 1756, naea-
fured, from the tip of the nofe to the end of the fhell,
fix feet nine inches, and the weight was fuppofed to be
near 800 lbs.
The Greeks, it is fuppofed, were acquainted with
this fpecies of turtle, which they employed in the con-
ilrucfion of the ancient lyre or harp. The flefh of this
fpecies is extremely fat, but coarfe and ill-flavoured 5
but the religious order of Carthufians prefer it to that
of every other.
34. Tkstudo Mydas, Green Turtle.
Specif. Chqr.—Of a brownifli colour, with 13 fcales on
the difc.
This is the efculent, or common green turtle; the
latter name being derived from the colour of the fat.
This is fuppofed to be owing to the vegetable matters
on which the animal feeds, and efpecially the %q/lera
marina, or turtle grafs, of which it is faid to be ex¬
tremely fond. This fpecies is one of the largeft of the ge¬
nus, often (Exceeding five feet in length, and weighing
500 or 600 lbs. The fliell is fomewdiat heart-Ihaped,
pointed at the extremity, and compofed of 13 dorfal divi-
fions, with 25 marginal pieces. The colour is of a dull
pale brown, more or le{s variegated with deeper undu¬
lations, but lefs ftrong and beautiful colours, than the
Jiawkfbill turtle, which yields the tortoife {hell.
The ‘green turtle is a native of all the feas within the
torrid zone.
This fpecies of turtle has been long efieemed a de¬
licious food by the inhabitants of many of the iflands
and continents within the torrid zone. In the time of
O L O G Y. Chap. I.
Sir Hans Sloane, the inhabitants of Port Royal in Ja- Turtles,
maica employed 40 Hoops for the purpofe of catching '-'—w——^
them. The markets were at that time, as they are at
prefent, fupplied with turtle in the fame way as thofe of
Europe are with butcher’s meat. Many of them, ac¬
cording to Catefby, are carried from the Bahama iflands
to Carolina, wdiere they are eiteemed as a great delica¬
cy. “ They feed,” he adds, on a kind of grafs, grow¬
ing at the bottom of the fea, commonly called turtle
grafs. The inhabitants of the Bahama illands, by fre¬
quent pra£Hce, are very expert at catching turtles, ef¬
pecially the green turtle. In April they go in boats
to Cuba, and other little neighbouring iflands, where,
in the evening, efpecially on moon-light nights, they
watch the going and returning of the turtle, to and from
their nefts, at which time they turn them on their
backs, where they leave them, and proceed on, turn¬
ing all they meet, for they cannot get on their feet
again when once turned. Some are fo large, that it
requires three men to turn one of them (a). The way Mode of
by which the turtle is molt commonly taken at the Ba- taking the
hama iflands, is by ftriking them with a fmall iron pegturt^e*
of two inches long, put in a focket at the end of a
ilaif of 12 feet long. Two men ufually fet out for this
work in a little light boat or canoe, one to row and
gently fleer the boat, while the other {lands at the head
of it with his {friker. The turtle are fometimes dif-
covered by their fwimming with their head and back
out of the wTater ; but they are ofteneil found lying at
the bottom, a fathom or more deep. If a turtle per¬
ceive he is difeovered, he ftarts up to make his efcape;
the men in the boat purfuing him, endeavour to keep
fight of him, which they often lofe, and recover again,
by the turtle putting his nofe out of the water to breathe.
Thus they purfue him, one paddling or rowing, while
the other Hands ready with his linker. It is fometimes
half an hour before he is tired j then he finks at once
to the bottom, which gives them an opportunity of
ftriking him, which is by piercing him with an iron
. peg, flipping out of the focket, but. is faftened with a
firing to the pole. If he is fpent and tired by being long
purfued, he tamely fubmits when {truck, to be taken
into the boat, or hauled afliore. There are men who,
by diving, wall get on their backs, and by prefling
down their hind parts, and raifing the fore part of them
by force, bring them to the top of the water,, while
another flips a noofe about their necks”.
“ The turtle never go on Ihore, except to lay thc.’r
eggs, which is in the month of April, They then crawl
up from the fea above high-water mark, where they
dig a hole two feet deep in the fand, into wFich in a
Angle night they drop above 100 eggs. At this time
they are fo little liable to be diilurbed, that they have
been known to drop their eggs into a hat held by a
perfon under them. If, however, they happen to be
difturbed before they begin to lay, they forfake the
place, and feek another. They lay their eggs at three, Eggs hatch-
and fometimes at four different times, a period of four-ecl by th*
teen days elapfing between each time. When theyilin'
have laid their complement of eggs, they fill the hole
with
_ (A) ^ e have feen the fame mode of watching and turning the turtle praflifed in Jamaica, and the phrafe there
js not to take or feize the turtle, but to turn it%
Chap. I. E R P E T
Turtles, with fand, and leave them to be hatched by the heat
v ' of the fun. This is ufually accomplithed in about three
weeks”. The eggs are round, white, covered with a
fmooth parchment-like (kin, and about the (ize of tennis
balls.
Although the gteen turtle be a native of the feas
within the torrid zone, it is fometimes found on the
coaifs of Europe, where it has probably been driven by
dorms, or has fallen overboard from (hips from the
Weft Indies. A turtle of this kind, of the enormous
(ize of fix feet long, by four broad, and of the weight
of 800 or 900 pounds, was taken at Dieppe in France in
1752; and two years afterwards, another ftill larger
was taken on the fame coaft.
Introduced The fkih of the green turtle is not only highly ef-
into Eu- teemed in thofe countries of which it is a native, but
roPe' alfo fo much fought after in Europe, that the importa¬
tion of it now forms a con fide r able article of trade, few
(flips returning from the Weft Indies without bringing
fome turtle. But the turtle which now forms a dilh, by
no means uncommon at the tables of the luxurious,
feems to have been little known in Britain previous to
the middle of the 18th century 5 and indeed it was fo
rare an occurrence, that when one was eaten, it was
announced to the public as a piece of news. This ap¬
pears from the following articles of intelligence. “ Fri¬
day, Auguft 31. a turtle weighing 350 pounds was eat¬
en at the King’s Arms tavern, Pallmall; the mouth of
an oven was taken down to admit the part to be baked.”
Gent. Mag. for 1753. “ Saturday, September 29. the
Turtler, Capt. Crayton, lately arrived from the illand
of Afcenfton, has brought in feveral turtles of above
300 pounds weight, which have been fold at a very high
price. It may be noted, that what is common in the
Weft Indies, is luxury here.” Ibid. i753» “ Satur¬
day, July f 3th, the Right honourable Lord Anfon
made a prefent to the gentlemen of White’s chocolate
houle, of a turtle which weighed 300 pounds weight,
and which laid five eggs fince it was in their pofieilion.
Its (hell was four feet three inches long, and about
three feet wide. When its head was cut off, at leaft
five gallons of blood iflued from it, and fo full was it of
life, that the mouth opened and Hurt for an hour after
it was cut oft’.” Ibid. 1 754.
35. Tkstudo Caretta, Loggerhead Turtle.
Specif. Char. — Vanegated with 13 dorfal fcales, of
w'hich thofe of the middle row are gibbous toward
the tip.
This fpecies moft refembles in general appearance
the laft fpecies, or green turtle. The larger fize of
the head, the proportional breadth of the (hell, the
deeper and more variegated colours, are marks of diftinc-
tion fufficiently characteriilic 5 but the number of dorfal
fegments amounting to 15, affords the principal char-
acber ; for not only the middle row, but thofe of the
(Ides contain five pieces $ and this number is almoft al¬
ways uniform and conftant. There is a confiderable
protuberance on each of the pieces of the middle row,
which conftitutes a range of tubercles along the back of
the ftueld ; the fore feet are very large and long 5 the
hind feet are broad, but much (horter.
This fpecies frequents the fame feas with the green
turtle, but it is alfo found occafionally in very diftant
- i
O L G G Y. 279
latitudes, as in the Mediterranean, and particularly Turtles-
about the coafts of Italy and Sicily. v
Excepting the coriaceous turtle, this fpecies is the
largeft in fize which has yet been difeovered. In the
Leverian mufeum, there is a (kull which feems to be¬
long to this fpecies. It meafures above a foot in length,
and it is faid that it was taken from a turtle, the weight
of which exceeded 1600 pounds.
In a commercial point of view the loggerhead turtle
is of little importance j for the flefti is coarfe and rank,
and the plates of the (hell are too thin to be applied to
the ufual purpofes of tortoife (hell. It yields, however,
a confiderable quantity of oil, which is fit for burning
in lamps.
This fpecies is very ftrong and fierce •, it can defend Great
itfelf very vigoroufly with its legs, and with its mouth ftrength of
it is able to break the ftrongeft (hells and other fob- PecieV
(lances. One which vTas exhibited at Bologna, in an
inftant bit in two a thick walking (lick which was of¬
fered to it.
The following is the account of this fpecies of turtle
which is given by Catefby. “ The loggerhead turtles, and fie'rc#
fays he, are the boldeft and moft voracious of all others j nefs.
their fiefh is rank, and therefore little fought for, which
occafions them to be more numerous than any other kind.
They range the ocean over j an inftance of which, a-
mong many others that I have known, happened in A-
pril 1725, in N. Lat. 3 oc. when our boat was hoifted out,
and a loggerhead turtle (truck as it was deeping on the
furface of the water. This, by our reckoning, appear¬
ed to be the mid wray between the Azores and the Ba¬
hama iflands, either of which places being the neareft
land it could come from, or that they are known to
frequent, there being none on the north continent of
America farther north than Florida. It being amphibi¬
ous, and yet at fo great a diftance from land in tb*
breeding time, makes it the more remarkable. They
feed moilly on (hell fi(h, the great ftrength of their
beaks enabling them to break very large (hells, as the
large buccihum and trochil''
36. Testudo Imbricata •, Imbricated or IlavjhJhill
Turtle.
Specif. Char.—Variegated, and having thirteen imbri¬
cated fcales on the di£k.
In this fpeoies the outline of the (hell exhibits more
of a cordated form than any other •, and the termination
of the fnell is more acute. Each of the middle row of
fcales on the back is alfo of a lharpened form at the tip,
and a ridge runs down the middle. The head is pro¬
portionally fmaller than in other turtles } and the neck
is longer, narrower, and more curved, thus refembling
the bill of a hawk j hence deriving its trivial name.
The fpecific name of imbricated is taken from the pe¬
culiarity in the difpofitkm of its fcales, which overlap
each other at the extremities like the tiles on the roof
of a houfe.
The length of this fpecies is about three feet from
the tip of the bill to the end of the (hell 5 but fome in¬
dividuals have been found which meafured five feet in
length, and weighed from five to fix hundred pounds §'
and it is faid that fome have been met with in the In¬
dian ocean, of enormous magnitude.
The hawkibill turtle b a native both of the Ante-
rican-
E R P E T
Tortoife
fliell.
Mode of
obtaining
•and pre¬
paring it.
rican and Afiatic feas _ fometlmes, but more rarely, it
is met witb in the Mediterranean. .
The ancients employed the ihell of this fpecies oi
turtle for the purpofe of a fhield j and even at the pre-
fent day it is ufed for a Mar purpofe among rude na¬
tions. The fleQi of the animal is not held m any eiti-
mation as a food *, but the plates of the (hell being
thicker, ftronger, and clearer, than thofe of any other
fpecies, render it of great importance as an article oi
trade. Thefe plates conftitute the fubftance which is
well known under the name of tortoife Jheh. Being fe-
mitranfparent and finely variegated with many beauti¬
ful colours, they afford, after proper preparation and
polifhing, numerous elegant ornaments.
To obtain the tortoife fliell, the external coating is
feparated from the bony part by means of heat.. A
fire is placed under the ftiell, the effeft of which is to
make the plates ftart, and then they are eafily detach¬
ed from the bone : the thicknefs of the plates varies ac¬
cording to the age and fize of the animal. 1 hey
fure from one-eighth to a quarter of an .inch in thick¬
nefs. Eight pounds of tortoife ftiell, it is faid,. may be
obtained from a large turtle. Some even yield, ac¬
cording to other accounts, fifteen or twenty pounds }
but unlefs the weight of the animal itlelf be equal to
150 pounds, the ftiell is worth little..
It may, perhaps, not be uninterefting to our readers,
to mention the method which is employed by the artift,
to give to tortoife fliell the particular forms which are
wanted for the different purpofes to which.it is applied.
The firft part of the procefs is to foften it fufficiently.
This is done by fteeping it in boiling water, after which
It Is Introduced Into a ftrong metallic mould of the form
wanted, and to this great preffure is applied. When, a
confiderable extent of furface is required, different pie-
ces muft be joined together. I his is done by fcrapmg
the edges of the pieces to be united, thin, and laying
them over each other, while they are in the heated and
foftened flute. Srong preffure being then applied, they
become completely agglutinated. It is in this way that
gold, filver, and other metals, for different ornaments,
are made to adhere to tortoife fhell.
This fubftance was greatly fought after by the Greeks
and Romans for ornamental purpofes. It was not unu-
fual, among the latter people, to fee their beds, the
doors, and pillars of their houfes, decorated with tor-
toife Ihell; and efpecially in the reign of Auguftus,
ivhen this kind of luxury reached its greateft height.
“ The Egyptians, according to Mr Bruce,. dealt
very largely with the Romans in this elegant article of
commerce. Pliny tells us, that cutting them ror."ve¬
neering or inlaying, was firft praftiied by Carvilius
Pollio, through which we ftiould prefume that the Ro¬
mans were ignorant of the art of feparating the laminae
by a fire placed in the infide of the ftiell when the meat
is taken out •, for thefe fcales, though they appear per-
feftly diftindl and feparate, do yet adhere, and oftener
break, than fplit, where the mark of feparati.on may be
feen diftinclly. Martial fays that beds were inlaid with
it. Juvenal, and Apuleius in his tenth book, mentions,
that the Indian bed was all over fhining with tortoife
(hell on the outfide, and fwelling with fluffing of down
within. The immenfe ufe made of it in Rome may be
guefied at by what we learn from "V elleius Paterculus,
•who fays, that when Alexandria was taken by Julius
I
O L O G Y. Chap. 1/
Ccefar, the magazines or warehoufes were fo full of this Frog. <
article, that he propofed to have made.it the principal *
ornament of his triumph, as he did ivory afterwards,
when triumphing for having happily fimflied the African
w'ar. This too, in more modern times, was a great ar¬
ticle in the trade to China, and I have always been ex¬
ceedingly furprifed, fince near the whole ot the Ara¬
bian gulf is comprehended in the charter of the. Eait
India Company, that they do not make an experiment
of filhing both pearls and tortoifes, the former or which
beinu fo long abandoned, mull now be in great plenty
and excellence 5 and a few fiffiers put on board each
ffiip trading to Jidda, might furely find very lucraUve
employment, with a long-boat or pinnace, at the time
(he veffels were felling their cargo in the port •, and.
While bufied in this gainful occupation, the coafts ot
the Red fea might be fully explored.”
^ y. Testudo  —, Green-Jhelled Turtle. To Tor-
tue Ecaille Verte of Cepede.
Specif. Char.—Shell green and variegated.
This fpecies, in general, refembles the common greeit
turtle, both in appearance and manners •, but is diftin-
guithe’d from it in having a fmall rounded head, and
never growdng to fo large a fize. It derives its name
from the colour of the {hell, which is of a fine green,
beautifully tranfparent, and although it is thin, may be
applied to many ornamental purpoies.
The green-ffielled turtle is a native of the fouth feas,
and is found near the American rivers within the torrid
zone. It is found particularly in great abundance near
Cape Blanco in New Spain. The fleffi is in great efti-
mation, and is even preferred by fome to that of the
green turtle.
38. Trunk Turtle.
This fpecies is mentioned by Catefliy, who fays that
he never faw it 5 but from information he has deferibed
the upper fhell as being more convex than in any other
fpecies. It is faid that it grows to a very large fize.---
The fteffi is rank 5 but it yields a great quantity of oil,
on w hich account only it is valued.
39. Rhinoceros Turtle. Cepede.
This fpecies alfo bears a ftrong refemblance to the
common turtle •, but it is diftinguiftied from it in having
a large foft tubercle on the tip of the fnout, and in this
are placed the noftrils.
This turtle is faid to be a native of the American
feas, within the torrid zone, and is eaten in the fame
way as the common turtle.
II. RANA, Frog.
This genus has been divided by fome naturalifts into
three genera •, and undoubtedly there is fome foundation
for this diftinaion, both from the form and ftruaure of
their bodies, and from their manners and habits. 1. 1 he
ranee or frogs, properly fo called, and by the French
grenouilles, have light adive bodies, and are furniftie.d
with ftrong limbs, which enable them to perform their
motions by leaping. 2. The hylce, in French ramettes,
or tree-frogs, have flender limbs, and have foft tubercles
on the toes, by which they can adhere to fmooth fur-
faces,
Chap. T. E R P E T
Frogs- faces, as to the leaves of trees on which many of them
u.y • refide. 3. The toads or bufones, in French, crapauds,
which conftitute the third genus or divilion, have large
heavy bodies, thick fljort limbs, and a ilow crawling mo¬
tion. But without multiplying genera, we fliall conli-
fider the whole under one, diftributing. them into three
fedtions, according to the diviiion which we have juft
mentioned,
Sedl. I. R A N or Frogs.
I. Rana Tei.IPORARIA, Common Frog.
.Specif. 67/ar.—Colour yellowifti brown, fpotted with
black j a lengthened brown patch beneath the eyes.
Of all the European Ipecies this is the moft common.
The general colour is of an olive brown, variegated on
the upper parts of the body, with irregular blackiih
fpots. The patch beneath each eye, which reaches to
the fetting on of the fore legs, feems to conftitute one
of the principal fpecific diltinclions. The under part of
the body is of a pale greeniflr colour, and but obfcurely
fpotted. But it ought to be obferved, that the colour
of the frog varies at different feafons of the year, and
perhaps in different places. Towards the end of fum-
mer, for inftance, the colours are much brighter j and
as this fpecies frequently calls its £kin, the cuticle fall¬
ing off irregularly from different parts of the body,
produces confiderable variations in the intenlity of the
colours.
The frog has a light elegant form, and a lively ap¬
pearance j the limbs are well calculated for its peculiar
motions, and the hind feet being ftrongly webbed,
enable it to fwim well. The frog, it is fuel, does not
reach its full fize till it is five years old, and it lives
from 12 to 15 years. It retires during the heat of fum-
mer to the water, and in winter it becomes torpid, and
is generally found in the foft mud ft the bottom of ftag-
nant waters, or in the cavities beneath their banks,
where it remains till the return of fpring.
The frog, as well as many other of the reptile tribe,
is extremely tenacious of lile. It furvives for a confi¬
derable time, the lofs even of fome of its effential or¬
gans, and it has been found to exifl: for leveral days
when entirely confined under water.
H'ft of The frog depofits its fpawn in the month of March,
the ud jole. This iscompofed of a gelatinous tranfparent mafs, includ¬
ing the ova or eggs, in each of which is imbedded the
embryo or tadpole, -which has then the appearance of a
round black globule. The period of hatching varies
according to the temperature of the feafon, but it is
commonly about a month or five weeks. In its progrefs the
egg becomes gradually larger, and before the tadpole
is°excluded, it is feen in motion within the fur rounding
gluten. When they are firft hatched, their only food
is the remains of the gluten in which they were includ¬
ed. A few days afterwards, if they are minutely exa¬
mined, a pair of ramified branchiae, or temporary or¬
gans, may be obferved on each fide of the head, which
after a fhiort time difappear. The tadpole, which is fo
extremely unlike the animal in its perfeft ftate, feems
to confift only of a head and tail. The head is large,
black, and roundifh •, the tail is ilender, and margined
with a broad tranfparent fin. The motions of the tad¬
pole are verv livelv. Its food confifts of duckweed
Vol, VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y. 281
and other finall water plants, with different kinds of Frags,
animalcula. The mouth is furnifhed with very minute " v—
teeth, and when the tadpole has reached a certain lize, it
may fometimes be heard gnawing the edges ot the leaves
on which it feeds. By means of a fucker placed be¬
tween the lower jaw, wdth which the animal in this ftate
is furnifhed, it can attach it elf at plealure to the under
furface of aquatic plants. When it is very young, it
fometirnes hangs from this part by means of a glutinous
thread, limilar to fome fmall Hugs.
The internal ftructure of the organs of the tadpole "mnfture
is very difterent from that of the future animal. Iu and changes
no refpeft is this difference greater than in the difpoli-
tion of the inteftines, which are coiled in the form o a
flat fpiral, like a cable. The firit change which appears
on the tadpole is at the end of five or fix weeks after it
is hatched. It is about this time that the hind legs firft:
appear j and gradually increafirig in length and fize,
they are fucceeded about two weeks afterwards by the
fore legs. Thefe latter, indeed, are formed at an ear¬
lier period beneath the fkin, and are fometimes protru¬
ded and again drawn back by the animal, through a
fmall hole on each fide of the breaft, before their com¬
plete evolution. The tail now gradually decreafes, and
afterwards more rapidly, fo that in the fpace of a day
or two it is quite obliterated. After this change, the
animal leaves the water, and covers the banks in my¬
riads. The hidden appearance of fuch multitudes of
young frogs, has probably induced the groundlefs but
popular belief, of their having fallen from the clouds
in fhowars. The frog having now arrived at its perfect
form, it changes entirely the nature of its food. It lived
formerly on vegetables, now it depends iolely for its ex-
iftence on animal food. It lives chiefly on fmall fnails,
worms, and infedls. To feize its prey, the ftruflufe
and pofition of the tongue are remarkably well fitted.
It is of confiderable length, and it is attached to the
fore part of the'mouth, and when at reft: it lies back¬
wards. The extremity is bifid, and fecretes a gluti¬
nous matter, fo that in this ivay it can fecure its prey,
by darting out its tongue with great celerity, and to
fome diftance from the mouth. This it does with fo in-
ftantaneous a motion, that it is fcarcely perceptible to
the eye.
2. Rana Esculenta, Green Frog, or Edible Frog of
Pennant.
Specif Char.—Olive colour, fpotted with black, with
three yellowifti lines on the back j abdomen wdiitifh.
This is the largeft fpecies of the European frogs.
The general appearance refembles that of the preceding 5
but it is larger in fize, and of an olive-green colour,
ftrongly marked on the upper part of the body with
roundilh black fpots. The limbs are elegantly marked
with tranfverfe bands of the fame colour. Three dif-
tindt pale yellow ftripes run from the tip of the nofe
down the wdiole length of the back, the middle one be¬
ing (lightly depreffed j but the twTo lateral ones are con-
fiderably elevated. The head is proportionally larger
than that of the common frog,
T he green frog is rare in England, but is very com¬
mon in France, Italy, and Germany, where it is em¬
ployed as an article of food.
This ipecies, it is obferved by naturalifts, does not
N n leavft
2g2 n E R P K T
Frogs, leave its winter retirement till a much later period than
u—~v ' the common frog} and hr thofe countries where it is
ufed as food, it is worth while to attend to this laft,
for if they are pretended to be brought to market at an
earlier period, the common frog, and fometimes even
toads, rnuft be fubftituted. During the breeding feafon,
the croaking of the male is fo loud, that it may be heard
at a great dlftance } ,£nd in thole places where they are
numerous, it becomes’ fo intolerable to thole who are un-
accuftomed to hear them, that they are often deprived
of deep. At this time, too, a large indexed globular
veficle is protruded from each lide ot the head of the
male. 1 he globules of fpawn in the green frog are
proportionally finaller than in the former fpecies. I hey
have fomewhat of a yellowifh call. 'I he progrefs of the
tadpole, towards the evolution of the perfeft animal, is
ccnfiderably flower in this fpecies. 1 he fore legs do
not appear before Oftober, and the animal docs not af-
fume its perfefl lhape till the beginning of November.
The tail at this time begins to decreafe, and in the
fpace of four days entirely diiappears.
' This fpecies is extremely voracious, feizing, it is
laid, on young birds of different kinds, mice, and even
ducklings, and, as it does with the reft of its prey,
fwallowing them whole. At the age of four yeais it
has reached its full growth. It begins to breed the
year following, and the period of its life is lomelimes
extended to fixteen years.
3. Rana Pipiens, Piping Frog.
Specif. Char.—Olive-coloured, with ovate black fpots,
edged with yellow.
This fpecies is fmaller than the green frog, but in its
general habit bears a coniiderable refemblance to that
animal. From the nofe to the tips of the hind feet, it
meafures only five or fix inches. The body and limbs
are of a dulky green, fpotted with black. Two yellow
lines run from the eyes to the rump, and two white
lines from each eye to the nofe. In the living animal
the ears have a bright golden colour.
It is a native ot North America. It frequents rivu¬
lets and ditches of water, and is fo ftrong and vigorous,
that it is faid it can leap to the diftance of five or fix
yards. In the fpring and beginning of fummer, it is
fuppofed to indicate the approach of rain, by a peculiar
found which it emits.
4. Rana Catesbeiana, Bull Frog.
Specif. Char.—Olive brown, fpotted with black ; large
ocellated fpots near the ears •, hind feet palmated.
This fpecies grows to a' very large fize, meafuring,
it is faid, more than 18 inches from the tip of the nole
to the end of the hind feet. The upper part off the
body is brownifti, and fomewhat irregularly marked
with numerous fpots of a deeper brown. The under
parts are of a whitifti caft, with a (hade of yellowifh
green. They are alfo marked with numerous fpots j
but thefe are lefs bright than thofe of the upper part.
The bull frog is a native of many parts of North A-
merica. It derives its name from the found of its voice,
which refembles the diii ant lowing of cattle. It ufually
frenuents fprings \ and in Virginia, where thefe abound
in the Tides of the hills, a pair of thefe frogs are ufually
O L O G Y. Chap. 1
feen fitting on the edge of the fmall pond formed by frogs. ^
the running of the water from the fpring 5 and vv h 11
they happen to be furprifed, they retreat to the mouth
of the fpring, and, entering it, find themfelves in kne-
ty. In Virginia, too, a popular opinion prevails, tiiat
they are ufeful in purifying the ■water of the fpring. ,
This opinion is greatly in their favour, and faves them
from that perfecution with which the frog and other
reptiles are wantonly and unneceffanly ha railed in othet
countries. But the bull frog being extremely voraci¬
ous, and fometimes devouring young ducks and goilings,
is occafionally devoted to deiiruclion.
5. Rana Ocellata, Argus Frog.
Specif. Char.—Feet having each five toes, and umveb*-
bed ; toes tuberculated beneath j back iafeiated, and
fides ocellated.
This is one of the latgeft 'of the genus, exceed¬
ing, perhaps, the bull frog in the fixe of its body
but having limbs proportionally thicker and itronger.
It has fometimes been confounded with the bull frog }
but it is diltinguifhed from it in its general appearance,
and particularly in the form 01 the feet.
This frog is a native of Pennfylvania, Carolina, and
other parts of North America, frequenting moift places
in the vicinity of fprings and rivulets. In its manners
and habits it is fuppoied to be nearly the fame with the
bull frog.
6. Rana Virginica, Lineated Frog.
Specif. Char.—Cinereous, fpotted with red j beneath
yellowifh} back angular, and marked with five pale
ftripes.
This fpecies, in fhape, fize, and ftruaure of the feet,
refembies the common frog. It is greenifh above, and
paler beneath. The back and limbs are variegated
with dark-brown marks of different fizes.
It is a native of Virginia.
7. Rana Ovalis, Oval Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownifli, beneath yellowifh ; the
head beaked, and icarcely diftindh from the globofe
body.
The fnout projecting beyond the lower jaw, confti-
tutes the fpecific character. The hind legs are ihcrt,
the feet unwebbed, and there is a callus at the bale of
the inner toe. Its native country is unknown.
8. Rana Cyanophlyetis, Studded Frog.
Specif. Char.—Brownifti blue, having a tuberculated
line on each Tide j beneath whitifln, fpotted with,
brown.
In this fpecies the legs are banded with blackifli blue
and white. In the upper jaw the e is a row of thickfet
conical teeth, refembling thofe of lizards. The hind feet
ate webbed, and furnilhed with a callus like a fixth toe.
It is a native of India.
9. Rana Spinipes, Spiny footed Frog.
Specif. Char.—Brown, beneath bluiih > fides fpeckled
r with
Chap. I. E U P E T
Frogs. with an ochreous colour j toes of the fore feet fur-
niihed with fpines.
This fpecies is larger than the common frog. The
feet are unwebbed, and in its habit it approaches to the
toad.
It is a native of New Holland.
10. Ran a Cerulea, B/ue Frog.
Specif. Char.—Blue, fpeckled, with grayiih beneath j
feet divided into four toes j hind feet webbed.
The blue frog is of the fize of the common one.
The toes are not orbiculated ■, but in its habit and flen-
der limbs it approaches fomewhat to the tree frogs.
It is a native of New South Wales.
II. Rana Vespertina, Vefper tine Frog.
Specif. -Cinereous, and tuberculated above; a
tranfverfe fpot between the eyes, and forked behind $
marked with longitudinal, fubconfluent, brown doffal
fpots, which vary into green.
In this fpecies the head is ihort, and the body is co¬
vered with warts or papillte. It is about the fize of a
toad, having the habit of a frog. It can fcarcely be
faid to leap.
It is a native of Siberia.
12. Rana Ridibunda, Laughing Frog.
Specif. C/W.—Cinereous, the body fpotted with brown,
the thighs dufky, with milk-white fpots.
This fpecies is of a very large fize, weighing half a
pound. It has the habit of the common frog, but is
broader.
It is very frequent about the rivers Wolga and Ural,
and the Cafpian fea. It never leaves the wrater. In
the evening it emits a found, fomewhat refembling a
hoarfe laugh, whence it derives its fpecific name.
13. Rana Sitibunda, Thirjly Frog.
Specif CW.—Glaucous gray, variegated with blackifh
green fpots ; beneath whitiih ; the hind feet femipal-
mated, and having the appearance of feven toes.
The body is waited, the head ftiort, and has the ge¬
neral habit of a toad, but is larger. There are two cu¬
rious toes on the hind feet.
It is a native of defert places about the river Ural.
It conceals itfelf during the day.
14. Rana Leveriana, Leverian Frog.
Specif. Char.—Dulky blue, whitiih beneath 5 hind feet
palmated, body marked above, with two long and
two ihort wdiite ftripes.
Excepting that the body is plumper, and the limbs
proportionally ihorter, this fpecies has the habit of the
common frog. On the back of the head there is a
fmail trifurcated fpot, two upper divjfions of which point
forwards. The lower furface of the body is yellowiih
white and granulated. The fore feet have four toes,
which are (lightly orbiculated at the tips.
Its native country is unknown.
O t O G Y. 283
15. Rana Ignea, Fire Frog. Rana Bombina, Lin. Frogs
Specif. Char.—Olive brown, orange colour beneath,
fpotted with blue.
This is the fmail eft of the European frogs, and is not
equal even to the tree frog in lize. It derives its name
of fire frog from the peculiar colour of the under fur-
face of the body \ but this is fuojeft to coniiierable va¬
riation.
It is a native of Germany, Italy, and other parts of
Europe, but has not been found in England. It fre¬
quents turbid ftagnant rvaters, and fcarcely ever appears
on land. It breeds at the age of three years, and
may therefore be fuppofed to live about ten. It depo-
fits its fpawn in the month of June, and the ova are
proportionally larger than thofe of others. The tad¬
poles, which are of a pale yellowiih brown colour, are
hatched towards the end of June. When young, they
have been frequently obferved to hang from the furface
of leaves by means of a glutinous thread, iffuing from
the fmall tube near the lower lip. About the end of
September they are at their full fize. At that time the
tail appears more ilefhy and mufcular, and therefore pro¬
portionally ftronger than in other tadpoles. In the begin¬
ning of October they affume their perfect form.
This is one of the moft active and lively of the whole
genus. It leaps and fwims even with greater celerity
than the common frog. When it is furpriled on the
land, and finds that it cannot efcape, it fquats down
clofe to the ground, turning back its head and limbs in
a fingular manner. If it be farther difturbed, it emits
from the hinder part of the thighs a frothy kind of fluid
which has no difagreeable fmell, but fome degree of a-
crimony when it comes in contact with the eyes and
noftrils. The found emitted by the male of this fpecies
is iharper than that of other frogs, and foraewrhat re-
fembles a kind of laugh, or according to fome, the note
of a cuckoo or the tone of a bell. Hence the Linntean
fpecific name, rana bombina.
16. Rana Salsa, Saline Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour olive brown, whitiih beneath,
with duiky variegations: all the toes are unweb¬
bed.
When this fpecies is firft taken out of the watefr, the
browrn colour has a (hade of blue j the back is befet
with tubercles; the legs are fafeiated with brown, and
the infides of the feet are yellow.
It is a native of the fait marihes of fome parts of Ger¬
many.
17. Rana ParaDOXA, Faradoxical Frog.
Specif Char.—Yellowiih and olive-coloured; variegated
with rufous bands j hind legs obliquely ilriated.
This fpecies refembles in its general form the com¬
mon frog. The oblique longitudinal ftripes on the hind
legs conftitute the principal mark of diilinclion. There
are four toes on the fore feet, and they are unwebbed.
The hind feet have five toes, and are deeply palmated
to the very ends of the toes. Near the ihorteft toe
there is an oblong callus, forming a fpurious one. The.
upper iaw is befet with a row of fmall denticulations.
N n 2 This
erpetology.
This fpecies is a native of South America, and
is more common in Surinam than in other places.
Naturalifts have been extremely puzzled with regard
to the real nature of what has been taken for the tad¬
pole of this frog. At one time it was confklered by
Linn ecus as a Ipecies of lizard, and therefore arranged
by him under the genus Lacerta. At another time he
has placed it under the prefent genus, with the fpecific
name pifcis. It was defcribed by Edwards under the
denomination of the frog fijh of Surinam. The ftru&ure
of the animal, which has been the fubjeft of fo much
difcuffion, {hews clearly that it is the larva or tadpole of
a frog •, and it is fuppofed, with no fmall degree of pro¬
bability, that the differences in the accounts given of
this animal by naturalifts have ariferi from the different
ftages of its progrefs in which it has been found. But
as this tadpole is fo much larger in fize, in proportion
to the perfect animal, than any other fpecies yet known,
it may be the larva or tadpole of fome of the larger
fpecies, and not that of the rana paradoxa, which is but
a fmall frog.
Se&. II. Tree Frog s..
Tree frogs have {lender bodies, long limbs, and
the tips of the toes are flat, orbicular, and dilated.
The fpecies included under this leftion have been form¬
ed, according to the arrangement of fome naturalifts,
into a feparate genus, under the name of Hy/a ; and no
doubt the peculiar ftruaure of the toes, which enables
them to adhere to fmooth bodies, affords a very ftriking
cbarafter, and in fome meafure warrants the arrange¬
ment.
18. Rana Zebra, Zebra Frog. Rana Maxima, Linn.
Specif. Char.—Yellowifti and rufous, fpotted and fafci-
ated. with brown. There are double bands on the
legs, and the feet are palmated.
This fpecies is the largeft of the whole of this fe&ion,
mealuring about five inches from the nofe to the end of
the body. The colour is an elegant, pale, rufous
brown, beautifully marked on the back and limbs, and
even to the very ends of the toes, with tranfverfe chef-
nut-coloured bands. The head is large, the eyes pro¬
tuberant, and the mouth wide.. The fore feet have four
toes, and the hind ones five.
It is a native of Carolina and Virginia.
Two other fpecies have been defcribed by naturalifts,
which more accurate obfervation has fliewn to be nearly
allied to the preceding. The firft is the rana boansy
Linn, in which the difference is fo flight, that as Dr
Shaw obferves, it may depend on a fexual diftinftion.
The other is the rana venulofa, which is fuppofed to be
the fame animal as the zebra frog, before it has arrived
at its full fize.
19. Rana Bicolor, Bhie-and-Yellow Frog.
Specf. Char.—Colour blue, ochreous beneath ^feet un-
weDbed } toes flattened and orbicular.
This elegant fpecies is of a moderate fize pit meafures
more-than four inches in length. The whole of the up¬
per fnrface is of a beautiful blue, while the under
parts axe oi a pale orange or ochre colour, Xhe head
Chap.
is large, the mouth wide, and the tip of the nofe trun- Frog
cated. All the toes are furniftied with a large orbicu-
lar tip j and beneath each of the joints there is a pro-
cefs or tubercle. L he upper parts of the female have
a deeper {hade of violet than thofe of the male.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Surinam.
20. Rana Leucophyllata, White-Leaf Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour rufous, variegated above, with
fnow-white fpots of different ftiapes.
The variegated fpots on the body and limbs are milk-
white, and are obferved to vary greatly in different in¬
dividuals, in number, form, and difpofition. The toes
of the fore feet are {lightly webbed at the bafe.
It is a native of America.
21. Rana Quadrilineata, Four-Lined Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour blue, having a double, longitudi¬
nal, yellow7 line on each fide of the body.
This fpecies bears a near refemblance to the preced¬
ing, but the blue colour above, and the double yellow
line, which runs along each fide of the body, from the
eyes to the vent, fufhciently diftinguifh it.
Its native country is unknown.
22. Rana Castanea, Chefnut Frog.
Specif. Char.—Chefnut-coloured and granulated ; whit-
' ilh beneath, with a white line on each fide of the
body.
In this fpecies, the whole of the upper furface, both
of body and limbs, is fcatteied over with minute warts
or tubercles. On each {boulder there is a large, long,
white fpot; the fore arms, hind legs and thighs are bar¬
red tranfverfely with wdiite } the feet are unwebbed, the
toes rounded, and all the joints tuberculated beneath.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Surinam.
23. Rana Fasciata, Fafdated Frog.
Specif Char.—Colour rufefeent, with whitiih tranf¬
verfe bands.
In this fpecies the colour is pale rufous $ the head,
body, and upper parts of the limbs, are marked with
pale, tranfverfe bands ; the eyes are blue, with a filvery
luftre j the outfide of the arms and legs are of a black-
ilh brown colour.
Its native place is unknown.
24. Rana Arborea, Tree Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour green, whitifti beneath, with a
blackifti lateral line and granulated abdomen $ feet
unwebbed.
This fpecies is of a fmaller fize than any other of the
European frogs. The colour of the upper part of the
body is green j the abdomen is whitiih, and marked with-
numerous granules. The under furface of the limbs is
reddilh, and on each fide of the body there is a longi¬
tudinal blackilh or violet-coloured ftreak, which fepa>
rates the green of the upper parts from the white of the
lower. The lower edge of the dark lateral ftripe is^
{haded with yellow. The hind legs are long and {Un¬
der, There are four toes on the fore feet, and five on
70
y> rXj
.1. R P E T
the hind feet. All of the toes terminate in flat, round,
and dilated tips. It is by means of this peculiar ftruc-
ture that the animal is enabled to hang from the leaves
of trees, or from any fmooth lubftance , for the under
furface of thefe tips or tubercles on the toes is foft and
glutinous. There is a fimilar ftrudture on the fldn of
the abdomen.
The tree-frog is a native of France, Germany, Italy,
and other parts of F.urope. It has never been found
in the Britifli iflands. During the fummer months, it
chiefly frequents the upper parts of trees, and wandering
among the leaves in feecrch of infects, it feizes them with
extreme celerity. It fteals foftly towards its prey, and
when it has reached the proper diftance, it makes a hid¬
den fpring of more than a foot in height. I‘ or this it
is peculiarly fitted, from its nimble and aflive move¬
ments. It conceals ittelf beneath the fliade of the
leaves, by attaching itfelf to their under furface by
means of the feet, or abdomen.
On the approach of winter, the tree frog leaves the
woods, and retires to the waters, where it buries itfelf
in the loft mud, or conceals itfelf beneath the banks,
where it remains torpid till the fpring, when it depolits
its Ipawn in the water. At this time the throat of the
male is greatly inflated, and the loud iharp croak which
it then emits, is heard at a very confiderable diftance.
The fpawn is depofited in fmall cluttered maffes, about
the end of April, and the tadpoles alTume the form of
the perfect animal about the beginning of Auguft, at
which time they begin to afcend the neighbouring trees,
where they reiide while the warm feafon continues. It
has been obferved that they are more noify on the ap¬
proach of rain } and the males particularly, if kept in
gla'Tes, and furniihed with iood, afford certain indica¬
tions of the changes of the weather.
25..RANA Meriana, Merian Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowifh green, variegated with
brown, with conically fhaped, auricular veflcles.
This fpecies is three times the fize of the common
tree frog, and on each tide of the neck there is a re¬
markable protuberance like an obtufely conical, inflat¬
ed pouch.
This fpecies is fometimes found on trees, and fome-
times in the water, according to the different periods
of its growth. According to IMadame Merian’s delcrip-
tion, thefe frogs are found in ftagnlnt waters. They
have, ftie obferves, ears in their heads, and knobs or
balls on their feet, which have been given them by
nature to enable them to pafs eafily over the moraffy
places which they inhabit.
26. Rana Aurantia, Orange Frog.
Specif Char,—Orange-coloured 5 body and limbs very
flender.
This fpecies is entirely of a reddifh orange colour,
long-limbed and flender-bodied. It is imaller than the
European tree frog.
It is a native of South America, inhabiting trees.
27. Rana Tinctoria, Tinging Frog.
Specif Char.—Of a reddiih colour } the body fafciated
with white.
O L O G Y. 285
It is of a bright red or ferruginous colour above, Toads,
marked longitudinally with a pair of white ftripes. v
Thefe at an early age are often croffed with a traniverfe
ftripe ; and indeed the individuals of this fpecies have
been found to vary greatly in the difpofition of the
colours.
It is a native of South America, and inhabits trees.
The Indians employ this fpecies of frog to change
the colour of green parrots. For this purpofe they
pluck the feathers from that part of the parrot on which
they wilh the new colour to be introduced. They rub
the fldn with the blood of the animal, and the renovated
feathers, inftead of being green as formerly, are yellow
or red.
28. Rana Alba, White Frog.
Specif Char.—Entirely of a white colour.
On the upper part of the body there are fome fpots
or patches, which are of a brighter white than the
ground. It is, however, fubjedt to fome variations.
It is a native of the woods in the warmer parts of
North America.
29. Rana Bilineata, Bilineated Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour green, with a ftraight yellow line
on each fide of the body.
The only difference between this fpecies and the
common tree frog is, in the yellow line on each fide of
the body of the former being fomewhat ftraighter, and
without undulations.
It is a native of the warmer parts of North America,
inhabiting the woods.
Sedl. III. Toads.
30. Rana Bufo, Common Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown, with reddiih brown tu¬
bercles, pale beneath.
The common toad is too well known to require any
detailed defcription. The colour is generally of aa
oblcure brown above, but much paler, and irregularly
fpotted beneath. It is, however, fubjedl to confider¬
able variations, being fometimes found of an olive call $
and in the earlier part of fummer, the Ihoulders and
limbs are marked with reddiih fpots, while the under,
parts of the body have a, yellowilh. tinge. The body is
always covered with puftules or tubercles of a darkilh.
green, or bright red colour, and .they are of different
fizes in different individuals... The common toad is not
only a native of Europe, but of other countries of the
world.
The common toad ufually frequents lhady places, in Hiftory of •*
gardens or fields \ is found under ftones, or makes its the toad..
way into cellars or other obfcure receffes, anxious, as it
would feem, ,to conceal itfelf, or, that it may lie pro-
teifted from excefllve cold, and find a fupply of food.
The toad, like the common frog, becomes torpid in
winter ; and it would appear, that they fometimes col-
left together in numbers, and take up their habitation
in the fame hole or. cavity, with the view of preferying
and retaining their heat for a greater length of time.
At the return of fpring, the toad leaves its lurking
place, and retires to the waters, where it depofits its
fpawn..
286 E R P E T
T atl=. fpawn. The ova are included in a tranfparent gluten,
" v — which is in the fmm of chains or firings, fe mew hat re-
fembling a necklace. The length of thefe firings is
from three to four feet; and through the whole length
the ova, which have the appearance of black globules
or beads, are difpofed in a double feries. ' he tadpole
is- hatched at the end of 14 or 15 days, according to the
temperature of the feafon 5 and having bunt from the
furrounding gluten, they fvum about in the water, feed¬
ing on different animalcules, and leaves of water plants.
Early in the autumn they ailume the form of the perfect
animal, when they retire from the water, and art feme-
times found in fuch numbers on the ground in its vici¬
nity, that it has probably given' rife to the common opi¬
nion of their having fallen from the clouds in fiiou ers.
Age. The age of the toad is fuppofed to be about 15 or
20 years, but fometiroes they exceed this period. One,
of which Mr Pennant has given an account in his Ikhilu
Zoology, lived to the great age of 40 years, d his in¬
dividual had been known for chat time in a domeffxcat-
ed ftate. It was kept by a Mr Afcot in Devonlhire,
and had become fo tame, that it left its hole at the ap¬
proach of its mafter, to receive food. It grew to a very
large fize, and had become an objedl of fo much curio-
fity, that in fpite of the averfion and horror which this
animal ufually infpires, it was vifited by all, and even
by ladies, who came to the houfe. 'It was frequently
brought to table, and fed with infects, and without any
degree of embarraffment, or feeming defire to get away,
it feized them with great celerity. Its ufual place of
refdence was under the fteps of the door of the houfe
which led to the garden. It was unfortunately feized
by a raven, and feverely wounded, before it could retreat
to its hole 5 and although it w7as liberated from its ene¬
my, and lived for more than a year afterwards, it never
recovered its ufual health and vigour, otherwife the
period of its life might have been greatly extended.
It has been long fuppofed that the toad, when it is
irritated, fecretes a fluid from its fkin which is of a poifo-
Not po’fon- nous quality. This fluid, how’ever, has no effefl wdiat-
cuis to large ever^ excep^ producing a little irritation, on larger ani-
jaima.s. mals. A dog, it has been obferved, carrying a toad for
a fliort time in his mouth is affefted with a flight fuel¬
ling of the lips, and an increafed difeharge of faliva.
This fluid undoubtedly anfwers fome purpofe in the
economy of the animal, and it is probably intended for
its protection againfi the troublefome attacks of fmaller
animals. This feems to be in fome meafure proved
from the experiments of Laurenti. In thefe experi¬
ments it appeared that fmall lizards which had bitten
the common toad, became difordered, and paralytic,
and even apparently dead. They were, however, com¬
pletely recovered in the fpace of a few hours.
Error con- Many wonderful ftories have been related of the toad
cerning its having been found inclofed in the folid fubftance of wood
being found an(j fione, or marble ; and what is ftill more wonder-
cloferfin that it has been in fuch circumfiances without any
folid fub- 'vifible outlet, o* the fmalleft paffage for the accefs of
fiances. air, alive, and feemingly uninjured. It is not indeed a
little furprifing, that a fuppofed faft of this kind, fo con¬
trary to the nature of animal exifience, fliould even for
a moment have gained any degree of belief; yet many
fuch Rories have been currently reported, and readily,
we might almoft fay, ur.iverfally admitted to be true; for
being eflablilhed on what was faid to be the mofi un-
4
O T, O 0 Y. Chap. L
doubted teftimony, they were received and acknowledg- Toads.'
ed as fully authenticated. But on clofer invefiigation,1 ' ' v
in all cafes where inquiry could be made, it was found
that fome links in the chain of evidence were always
wanting. In no inftance whatever^ it may be aflerted,
has the fa Cl been afeertained from direCt information,
founded on any credible or refpeClable authority. It
has always been firfi communicated by report, or from
a diftanee; circumfiances which always give room for
miftake and error. Toads may have been found inclof¬
ed in wood, or even in ftone, perhaps without having
received any material external injury •, but that they
Ihould have remained in fuch fituations for any great
length of time, as for years, nay, in fbme cafes, for
hundreds of years, totally deprived of food, and com-'
pletely excluded from all accefs of air, is not only
highly incredible, but impoffible. But if farther evi¬
dence wrere neceffary, this fuppofed faCt is fully difprov-
ed by the experiments of Heriffant, wrhich he perform¬
ed in prefence of the French Academy. It had been
afferted that a living toad was found in the year 1771,
in a wall at a feat belonging to the duke of Orleans.
The wall, which was then pulled down, had been built
40 years ; and its hind feet wrere found imbedded in the
mortar. In Heriffant’s experiments, three toads were
inclofed in feparate boxes, and' thefe wTere immediately
covered with a thick coat of mortar, and kept in the
apartments of the academy. At the end of I 8 months
the boxes wTere opened, and two of the toads wrere
found living. They weie again enclofed •, but being
re-opened after fome months had elapfed, they were
found dead.
31. Rana Alliacea, Alliaceous Toad.
Specif. Char.— Colour pale gray, marked with browm,
and having a whitifh dorfal line j pupils perpendi¬
cular.
This fpecies-, excepting in a greater proportional
length of the head, has a confiderable relemblance to
the common toad. It differs from it alfo in being near¬
ly fmooth. The colour above is a brownifli gray, with
fpots of deep brown, which on the fides are difpofed in
a reticular form. The eye has a very pecufiar ftruc-
ture. The form of the pupil, -when the eye is contradl-
ed, is perpendicular, as in the eyes pf cats. On the
hind feet there is a fpurious claw, or horny callus, fi~
tuated beneath the heel.
This animal gives out, w-hen irritated, a peculiar
odour, W'hich refembles that of onions or garlic, and
produces a fimilar acrid effeft on the eyes. A fmell
like that of the fmoke of gunpowder is alfo fometimes
combined with the garlic fmell.
This fpecies is a native of Germany. It is found in
the neighbourhood of Nuremberg.
It has been already mentioned, that the fpawn of the
common toad is depofited in the form of a double firing 5
but in this fpecies there is only onef,firing, which is of
confiderable thicknefs, and the numerous ova are dif¬
pofed, not in a double row, as in the formerT but in a
confluent manner through the length of the fpawn,
which is fometimes found nearly two feet long.
I he tadpole of the alliaceous toad, like the fuppofed
one of the rana paradoka, is confiderably larger in fize
than the young frog wEen it has firrt affumed its perfedl
form.
Chap. I. E R P E T
Toads form. Indeed it is fo large, that in the vicinity of the
places where it is found, it is employed as food by the
country people, who confider it as a kind of tith. It
feems alfo to be one of the mod voracious tadpoles.
The alliaceous toad, contrary to the habits of the
common toad, remains almoft conftantly in water,
and but very rarely appears on land. It is alfo more
lively and active in its nature, and its motions are per¬
formed by a kind of leaping, rather than by the crawl¬
ing fluggiih pace of the latter.
32. Rasa MepHITICA, Mephitic Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour olive, fpotted with brown y warts
on the llun reddiih j dorfal line fulphur-coloured.
Excepting in the colour, and being of a fmaller fize,
this fpecies greatly refembies the common toad. The
body and limbs are lliort and thick ; the fore feet are
furnifhed beneath with a pair of bony proceiTes, by
means of which it is enabled to climb up the fides of
walls. The hind feet have no webbed ftru&ure. In
its motions it runs fomewhat like a moufe. It comes
out only in the night, from the cavities of walls and
rocks, where it conceals itfelf by day.
This fpecies is a native of Germany, in Tome parts of
which it is, known by the name of roerhliag, or reed
frog, becaufe in the fpring it frequents places which are
overgrown with reeds. At this feafon, too, it is well
known by the ftrong and peculiar note or croak which
it utters.
In the month of June, when this fpecies breeds, it
reforts to the water, to depofit its ova. Thefe are emit¬
ted, as is the cafe with the common toad, in double
rows, in a pair of long glutinous firings; and fo rapid,
is the progrefs of hatching, that the tadpoles appear in
the fpace of five or fix days, having feparated themfelves
from the fpawn. The hind legs appear about the end
of Augufl, are foon fucceedcd by the fore legs, and by
September or October the animal has affumed its com¬
plete form.
The niephitic toad has derived its name from a moll
offenfive fmell which it dITufes when it is irritated. This
odour proceeds from a white acrid fluid which exfudes
from the pores of the fkin. The animal has the power
of emitting this fluid to the dillance of three or four
feet, and it is faid that if it fall on any part of the room
where the animal is kept, it will fcarcely be entirely
di Tipated for two months afterwards. This odour re¬
fembies the fmoke of gunpowder, but is confiderably
flronger ; or that of the fumes of arfenic..
Var. The natter-jack of Pennant is, according to
fome, a variety of the above fpecies. It is not, how¬
ever, faid, that, like the mephitic toad, it emits any
peculiarly offenfive odour; but its running motions
bear a near refemblance j for it does not leap, nor
does it crawl with the fluggilh pace of the common toad.
It is a native of England, and is found in Pul-
teney common, and near Reevefley abbey in Lincoln-
fliire, frequenting dry and fcndy places.
33. R vna Viridis, Green Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour nale, varied with greenifii fpots j
tubercles reddiih. Rena variabilis, Linn.
In this fpecies the green fpots or patches are bounded
O L O G T. 287
with a blue kith margin, and the whole has fomewhat of Toads,
the appearance of a map. The fpots on the legs and
thighs are tranfverfe, forming a kind of bars j the eyes
are remarkable for a beautiful golden colour, and when
the animal is irritated, feem to emit a kind of phofpho-
ric light.
This fpecies is a native of Germany and other parts
of Europe, and is not unfrequently found about Vienna,
where it inhabits the cavities of walls.
T his fpecies, like the mephitic toad, emits a very
ftrong odour, which refembies that of garden night-
ihade. It is fo powerful, that it diffufes itfelf through
a large room.
During the breeding feafon this fpecies frequents the
waters, and in winter it retires under ground. Its
croaking is faid to referable the creaking of the hinge
of a door. It would appear, that the iluid which ex-
fades from the fkin of this toad, and probably alfo from
that of others, is poifonous to fmall animals; for it is
faid that the fmaller kinds of the gray lizard, on biting
this toad, became immediately ftrongly convulfed, and
died in a few minutes.
34. Rana Marina, Marine Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowifh brown, with a large
porous prominence over each Ihoulder j very large
fize.
This fpecies even exceeds the bull frog in fize. On
each fhoulder there is a protuberance of a light-brown
colour, which is marked with many pores. Thefe
are the parotid glands, which are peculiarly confpicu-
ous. The feet have no webs, and there are four
toes on the fore feet, and five on the hind. The
toes are furnifhed wfith claws, fomewhat refembling the
human hair. There are fome tubercles at the extremi¬
ty of the body, which are faid to be owing to the fold¬
ing of the fkin, when the animal is placed in a particu¬
lar attitude j for thefe difappear when the attitude is-
changed.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of America; and, ac¬
cording to fome, is calculated to live both by land and fea.
35. Rana Duma, Doubtful Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowifb brown, warty, having
a large porous prominence over each ihoulder } hind
feet lubpalmated and fubhexadadlyle.
In fize this fpecies comes near that of the common
toad \ but it is different in fhape, as it tapers from the
fhou’ders to the hind legs like the tree frogs. The up¬
per furface of the body is covered with oval tubercles,
and there are protuberances on the fboulders like the
rana marina. T he under parts of the body arfralfo be-
fet with fmaller tubercles. T he joints of the toes of
the fore feet are tuberculated beneath, and there are
tvro remarkable protuberances under the foot.
Of the native country of this fpecies, or of its man¬
ners and habits, nothing is yet known.
36. R ana Typhonev, Mitred Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown, dorfal line whitiih j head *
triangular.
T his fpecies is about the fize of the common toad 5
the
/
288 ■ " E R P E T
ads. the thighs are barred with brown, and the fldn of the
—Y-—-' whole body is covered with numerous fmall protuberan¬
ces of a pearly colour. 1 he fides of the head beyond
each eye have fomewhat of an angular appearance, and
from this it has derived the name of mitred toad,
37. Ran a Braziliana, Brazilian Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour rufous, with numerous brown
fpots on every part of the body.
In its general appearance this fpecies refembles the
common toad, but is much larger, and the head is pro¬
portionally fhorter. The fpots or ftripes on the body
are red brown, placed tranfverfely, and are fomewhat
waved.
It is a native of South America; but, accord¬
ing to fome, has been found in the iilartd of Cuba.
38. Rana Ventricosa, Granulated Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour pale brown} abdomen dilated,
and marked on the fides with blackifh fpots.
In this fpecies the head and eyes are large, the month
wide, the body fomewhat depreffed j the abdomen is
very broad ; the limbs are rather ihort. The upper
furface of the body and limbs is covered with tubercles
of different fizes, pretty diftinftly arranged.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Brazil.
39. Rana Cornuta, Horned Toad.
Specif. Colour cinereous, banded with brown}
eyelids conical.
In this fpecies a broad white band runs along the
back, from the head to the extremity of the body, and
becoming gradually narrower. It is covered with fmall
fpecks like pearls* The reft of the body, excepting
the head, is rough, with fharp points. The head is
large and thick, and a broad thick tongue appears when
the mouth is opened. It is covered with papillae, and
•faftened to the anterior part of the lower jaw. The
gape of the mouth extends almoft half the length of the
body $ the eyes are rather fmall, and are placed nearer
than in other frogs. Each of the upper eyelids rifes up
into a large conical callus, or horn. From this extra¬
ordinary width of the mouth, and fmgular ftructure of
the upper eyelids, this fpecies exhibits the moft deform¬
ed and hideous afpeft of any of the whole tribe. ‘
It is a native of South America.
40. Rana Pipa, Blpa, or Surinam Toad.
-Specif Char.—Colour brown ; toes of the fore feet qua-
drif.d at the extremities.
O L O G Y. Chap. I.
the extremity of the body. The nofe in both fexes is < 'loads. _
truncated, and the eyes very fmall.
This lingular fpecies is a native of Surinam.
The economy and habits of the pipa greatly occupied
the attention of naturalifts for a l<5ng time iffter it was
firft knowm to Europeans, wrhich w7as about the end of Ova hatch-
the 17th century. It was then fuppofed that the ova e<l in a fin-
were produced in cells on the back of the animal, with-spmu man-,
out being firft excluded, as in the other Ipecies of this
tribe, in the form of fpawn. But future obfervers have
added new fadls, and greater accuracy to the natural
hiftory of this fpecies j and it is now found, that the
fpawm being excluded in the ulual manner, is received
into a number of open cells on the back of the animal,
and is there retained till the young have reached fome
degree of maturity. This difeovery is owing to Dr
Fermin, wdio made his obfervations on the Ipot, during
a relidence at Surinam. The fe uale pipa, he obferves,
depolits her lpawrn near ftagnant water. Fhe male col-
lecls the ova, and places them carefully on the back o£
the female, where, after being impregnated, they are
preffed into the cedi-, which are then open to recei\^
them. The cCs dole over them, and retain them for
near three month-, when The young animals, having at-
rived at their perteet it: emerge from the back of
the parent. IIur g tms pcric.i of concealment, it has
been difeovered by other urturalifts, that the ova under¬
go the fame chuisge as in these which are hatched out
of the bodv } firft ahuiriug tl 1 form of the tadpole, and
then Requiring the complete fhape berore tbey are ex¬
cluded from the c, hs. in this mode of hatching its
young, lome natural.7fts have obferved an analogy in
this nrocefs of nature between the Surinam toad and the
opoffum.
This animal, from the uncouthnefs of its fhape, and
its general appearance, will, by many, be confidered
at firft view ao little lefs hideous and deformed than the
horned toad.
41. Rana Breviceps, Short-headed Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown, pale beneath ;. body o-
vate, convex, and marked with a longitudinal, afh-
coioured, dentated band. Rana gibbofa, Linn.
This is a fmaft fpecies, and fcarcely exceeds half the
fize of the common toad. The head is very fmall, ob-
tufe, and funk in the thorax. The toes of the fore feet
are vu..webbed, have no claws, and are furmfhed with
tubercles beueath the joints. The hind feet are fur-
niflied with fix toes.
It is a native of Senegal, and fome other parts of
Africa.
42. Rana Systoma, IndiJlinB Toad.
Specif Char.—Body fomewhat globofe } head indiftin£t>
and mouth fmall.
In its general appearance this fpecies greatly re¬
fembles the preceding. I he body is thick and round-
ifh, and the head is fo little diftinguifhed from the bo¬
dy, that the mouth is fcarcely perceptible. 1 he legs
are very fhort, and the thighs feem enclofed in the
wrinkled fkin of the fides. 1 he whole body is fmooih.
It is a native ot the Eaft Indies.
43*
This fpecies is confiderably larger than the common
-toad. The body is tlattifti 5 the head fomewhat trian¬
gular •, the mouth wide, and the comers are furniflied
with a kind of rugged appendage. There are four
long thin toes on the fore feet, and each of the toes is
divided into four diftinct proceffes •, and thefe, when
minutely examined, are found to be ftill farther divid¬
ed. The hind feet have five toes, and are webbed to
the tips. The male is larger than the female, meafu-
rfing fometimes feven inches from the tip of the nofe to
, ■ 3
\
E R P E T
43. Rana Acephala, Headlefs Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownifh, marbled with white $
head indiitiudl, and mouth very fmall, bending
downwards.
Excepting in the colour, which is very different, and
in the head being dill lefs diftinguifhed from the body,
this fpecies in appearance comes very near the two for¬
mer. The mouth alfo is fmaller, and is curved down¬
wards at each comer. Its native country is un¬
known.
44. Rana Lentiginosa, Carolina Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray, freckled with brown j head
fomewhat pointed.
This fpecies in its general appearance greatly re-
fembles the common toad, excepting that the head is
fmaller, and the fnout fharper. The colour is of a
dufky brown, mottled with minute blackifh or dark-
brown fpots. In its motions this fpecies is different
from the common toad, for it leaps rather than crawls.
It is a native of North America, and particularly of
Carolina and Virginia. It is faid to be moft com¬
mon in wet weather, and frequents the higher grounds,
appearing not only in the evening, but even in the hot¬
ted part of the day.
This fpecies, like others of the fame tribe, feeds on
infects, and feems to be extremely fond of luminous in-
feds, as fire-dies, glow-wTorms, &c. It is faid that it
will feize a piece of live wood coal, miftaking it for a
luminous infed, and fwallow it, feemingly with impu¬
nity.
45. Rana Semilunata, Crefcent Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour blackifb, paler beneath ; a white
crefcent-fhaped fpot at each ear.
This fpecies is larger than the common toad, and is
particularly didinguifhed by a large, round, white fpot
behind the parotids. The body is covered above with
tubercles.
46. Rana Melanosticta, Blach-lipped Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour yellowifh browm 5 warts black,
fpeckled j upper lip and eyelids edged with black $
hind feet fubhexadadylous and femipalmated.
This fpecies is nearly the fize of the common toad,
and refembles it in its general appearance. The fpace
between the eyes is depreffed and fmooth. The
edges of the projeding orbits of the eyes are black $
the upper jaw is furrounded with a fimilar border, and
the tips of the 'toes and the two tubercles of both hind
and fore feet are alfo black.
It is fuppofed to be a native of China.
47. Rana Arunco, Arunco.
Specif. Char.—Body warted 5 all the feet webbed.
This fpecies is nearly of the fame colour as the com¬
mon frog, but it is larger in fize. The body is wart¬
ed, and sll the feet are palmated.
-It is a native of Chili.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y.
48. Rana Lutea, Tellovo Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellow j feet fubpalmated.
In its general habit this fpecies refembles the com¬
mon frog, but is fmaller in fize. The fkin js covered
with warts, and all the feet are fubpalmated.
It is alfo a native of Chili, and frequents the waters.
III. DRACO, Dragon.
Gen.' Char.—The body is four-footed, and is fumilhed
with a tail: on each fide there is an expanfile, radi¬
ated, wing-like fkin.
I. Draco Volans, Flying Dragon.
Specif. Char.—The fore legs are unconneded with the
wings.
The flying dragon, in many refpeds, both in its
ftrudure and habits, refembles the tribe of lizards ;
but on account of the expanfile cutaneous proceffes
with which the fides are furnifhed, Linnaeus has arran¬
ged it under a diftind genus.
The body of this animal is about four inches in length;
but from the tip of the nofe to the extremity of the tail,
it is commonly about nine or ten inches, and fometimes
a foot. The form of the head is very Angular ; it is
fumifhed beneath with a large triple pouch or procefs,
one part of which hangs beneath the throat, while the
other two projed on each fide. They are all fharp-
pointed, and are more confpicuous, in proportion to the
fize of this animal, than the fame procelfes in lizards.
The mouth is wide j the tongue large and thick at the
bafe 5 the teeth are fmall and numerous ; the neck is
alfo Imall j the body and limbs are flender, and entirely
covered with fmall pointed fcales. On the upper part
of the body the colour is pale blue, or bluiih gray \ but
the back and tail are marked writh tranfverfe dufky bars.
The wings are elegantly fpotted with patches of black,
deep broxvn, and white, of different forms. The under
furface is of a whitiih-brown colour.
The flying dragon is a native of Afia and Africa,
where it is found frequenting trees; and for this it is
peculiarly adapted, from the cutaneous proceffes with
which it is furnifhed on each fide. For by means of
thefe lateral membranes, it is enabled to ipring with
more facility from branch to branch, and even to fup-
port itfelf for fome time in the air, like the bat or fly¬
ing fquirrel. Like the lizard, it feeds on infeffs.
2. Draco Praipos, American Flying Dragon.
Specif. Char.—Wings united with the arms.
7 his fpecies is confidered by fome naturalifls on¬
ly as a. variety of the former. The circumftances in
which it differs are, that the body and neck are more
flender, and the pouch at the throat is Angle.
It is faid to be a native of America.
The real dragon of modern naturalifts, it may be ob-
ferved, is not that terrible and deftrudlive monfler, the
mere creature of imagination, which exifted only in the
defcriptions of romance, and the older poetry; nor is it
O o the
Chap. L
Toads.
289
Dragons.
£ VO
o
zards.
E R P E T
the animal which we find defcribed and figured in fome
of the writings of the older natural!fts. _ hor thele, it is
now well known, are either entirely fi&itious beings, or
have been prepared artificially, by joining toget ex t e
limbs of different animals j and thus producing a mon-
ffer, under the name of dragon, unknown m nature.
This has been done by warping fome fpecies of the
fkate tribe, into what was fuppoled to be the ihape of a
dragon, and having raifed the fins, and dried them in
this pofition, by adding the legs of birds or other ani¬
mals; Hence have originated the monffrous reprelenta-
tions, which are found in fome of the older naturaliffs,
of many-headed dragons, having necks and tails like
thofe of fnakes, and feet like thofe of birds. Deceptions
of this kind, it would appear, have been often fuccefs-
fully praftifed, by which means, not^ only the vulgar,
but alfo men of fcience, have been milled and impoled
upon. The following is an inftance of this kind, which
happened about the end of the 17th century. It is
quoted by Dr Shaw, and he obfervts, is thus comme¬
morated by Dr Grainger from a note of Dr Grey, m his
edition of Hudibras, vol. iff. page 1 25.
“ Mr Smith of Bedford obferves to me on the word
dragon, as follows: Mr Jacob Bobart, botany profeffor
^or rather fuperintendant of the garden) ot Oxford, did
about 40 years ago, find a dead rat in the phyfic gar¬
den, which he made to refemble the common piftme of
dragons, by altering its head and tail, and thruning in
taper fharp flicks, which dillended the Ikin on each
fide, till it mimicked wings. He let it dry as hard as
poffible. The learned immediately pronounced it a
dragon, and one of them lent an accurate defcription of
it to Dr Magliabechi, librarian to the grand duke of
Tufcany. Several fine copies of verfes were wrote on
fio rare' a fubjecl 5 but at laid Mr Bobart owned the
cheat y however, it was looked upon as a malferpiece
of art, and as fuch depofited in the mufeum or anatomy
ichool, where I faw it fome years after.
We fliall relate another inffance of an artificial
dragdn, with which a iimilar deception was prabided,
and which was detebled by Linnaeus. Ihis cragon v as
in the poffeflion of a merchant at Hamburgh, and was
valued by the proprietor at 10,000 florins. Lin¬
naeus, while he was on a viiit to that city, detebled the
cheat, and (hewed that it was entirely an artificial ani¬
mal, compoled of the (kins of fnakes, the teeth of
weafels, the clawTs of birds, &c. It is even faid, that
Linnaeus having made this difcovery, was obliged to
make a precipitate retreat from Hamburgh, to avoid a
profecution which was threatened by the proprietor on
the fcore of the reputation and value of his property be¬
ing injured by this difcovery.
IV. LACERTA, Lizard.
Gen. Char.—The body is four-footed, elongated, and
furniflied with a tail 5 there is no fecondary in¬
tegument.
The numerous genus Lacerta includes a great variety
of animals which, although they poffefs many charafters
in common, yet they exhibit confiderable differences,
not only in their economy and habits, but alfo in (Iruc-
ture and external form. On this account this genus has
been divided by feme naturalifis into a number of dv-
O L O G Y. Chap. I.
flinbt genera. We have here, however, according to _
the Linnsean arrangement, retained the whole under 1 " '
the fame genus} but wre (ball divide the fpecies com¬
prehended under it, as other naturalifts have done, into
different feclions, as follows: 1. Crocodiles j 2. Guanas j
3. Cordyles ; 4. Lizards proper j 5. Chamelions y 6.
Geckos j 7. Scinksj 8. Salamanders, Newts, or Efts j
9. Snake Lizards.
SpA T C. rc n o r> r> t r. e S.
The charabler of the animals included under this
fe&ion is, that they are fumifhed with very ftrong folks*
1. Lacerta Crocodilus, Common Crocodile, or Croco¬
dile of the Nile.
Specif. Char.—Head mailed ; neck carinated j tail -
^ furniflied on the upper part with two lateral crelh-
ed proceffes.
The crocodile fometimes arrives at a very great fize.
Individuals of 20 feet long have frequently been ken,
and inftances arc mentioned of foroe whicb have exceed¬
ed the length of 30, and even 40 feet. When it is full
growm, the colour of the upper part of the body^ is
blackifli brown-, beneath it is yellowifli white. The
upper parts of the legs and (ides are varied with deep
yellow, and in feme parts_ tinged with green. The
colour of the younger animal is different j for th. t
of the upper parts is a mixture of brown and pale yel¬
low, while the under parts are nearly white. f he
opening of the mouth is of great width, and exhibits
fomewhat of a flexuous outline. Loth jaws are furnifli¬
ed with numerous (harp-pointed teeth 3 thok in the
middle part of the jaw being larged, and rekindling
the canine teeth of viviparous quadrupeds. ^ Each jaw
contains 30 teeth or more, for the number is found t<s
vary in different individuals, perhaps from the dif¬
ference of age. The difpofltion of the teeth is fuch,
that when the mouth is fhut, they alternate with eacli.
other. When the teeth have been taken cut, and the
alveoli examined, it has appeared that (mall teeth were
forming beneath, to fupply the lofs of the others when
filed. Tire external openings of the ears are placed on
the top of the head, above the eyes 5 they are of mode¬
rate fize, of an oval form, and covered with a mem¬
brane, in which there is a longitudinal flit, giving them
the appearance of clokd eyes. The eyes are furrufhed
with a nidfitating membrane, or tranfparent moveable
pellicle, fimilar to that of birds. The legs of the cro¬
codile are fliort, ftrong, and mukular. There are five
toes on the fore feet, and they are unwebbed. On the
hind feet there are only four toes, which, towards the
bafe, are united by means ot a ftrong membrane. T he
two anterior toes on etich of the fore feet, and the in¬
terior one of the hind feet, have no claw-s j but the
other toes are furnilhed with claws, which are ftrong,
fharp and curved. The tail is long, compreffed on
the lides, and furnifhed above with an upright proceis,
formed by the gradual approach of two elevated crefts
which proceed from the lower part of the back. The
upper part of the body of the crocodile is covered with
ftrong armour j which, in its ftrudfure exhibits the ap¬
pearance of a regular and curious carved work, and is
indeed a moft elaborate piece of saechanifm. It is fo
ftrejag
Chap. I, E R P E T
Lizard?, ftrong and tliick, when the animal has reached its full
growth, that it eafily refills the force of a mulket-ball.
On the lower parts of the body, it is more pliable, and
much thinner, fo that it is in thefe parts only that
wounds can be inflidted.
The crocodile depofits its eggs in the fand or mud,
in the banks of the rivers which it inhabits 5 and as foon
as the young are hatched, they proceed to the water.
When the young are firfl excluded, the head is pro¬
portionally much larger than that of the full grown ani¬
mal. The egg of the common crocodile is about the
fize of that of a goofe, and refembles greatly that of a
bird. It is covered with a calcareous Ihell, which is
lined with a membranous fubllance. Various birds,
the ichneumon and other animals, make great havock
among the eggs of the crocodile during the period of
hatching, thus diminilhing the numbers which would
otherwife be produced. The eggs of the crocodile,
and indeed the lleih itfelf, are regarded as delicacies
among fome African nations, and compofe a part of
their favourite repafts.
The crocodile is a native of Aha and Africa, but it
feems to be more common in the latter than in the for¬
mer country. It inhabits the large rivers, as the Nile,
the Niger, &c. frequenting the low fand illands of thefe
rivers j and preys chiefly on filh, although, being ex¬
tremely voracious, it feizes any other animal that comes
within its reach.
The crocodile has been long regarded as one of the
moil formidable animals of the countries which it in¬
habits 5 but from the accounts of later naturalifts, it
appears, that it is by no means fo ferocious as has
been pretended. Denon, who viflted Egypt along
with the French army, obferves, that many llories are
related of crocodiles, but .that lie had not any oppor¬
tunity of verifying a Angle one. “ Daring, (fays he)
even to imprudence, our foldiers fet them at defiance.
Even I myfelf bathed daily in the Nile ; for the tran¬
quil nights that I thus obtained, rendered me regard-
lefs of dangers, which we had not as yet verified by a
Angle fadl. If the crocodiles had devoured a few of
the carcafes which the war left at their difpofal, fuch a
food, it might be imagined, would only excite their
appetite, and engage them to purfue, when alive, fo
favourite a prey. And yet we w ere never once attack¬
ed by them, nor did we ever meet with a Angle croco¬
dile at a alliance from the water. Hence it appears
probable, that they find in the Nile itfelf .-a fufficient
quantity of eafily procurable food, which they digeft
ilowly, being like the lizard and ferpent, cold-blooded,
and of an inadlive ilomach. Ecfides, having in the
Egyptian part of the Nile no enemies but each other
and man, they would be truly formidable ) if, covered
as they are, with an almolt impenetrable defenfive ar-
, mour, they were alert and Ikiiful in making ufe of thofe
* Travel), which nature has given them for attack
vol. iii. The fame author obferves, that no crocodiles were
♦>. 310. feen at Syene on the river Nile, but that they are to be
met with above the cataracts. “ They feem (he fays)
to prefer certain reaches of the river, and particularly
from Tentyra to Ombos ; they abound moil of all near
Herraontes. We here faw three of them 5 one much
larger than the reft, was nearly 25 feet long: they were
ail alleep, fo that we could approach them within 20
piaces, and we had time to diilinguiih all the peculiarities
o L o G Y. 291
which gave them fuch a hideous ^fpe£l. They re- lizards.
fembled difmounted cannon. I fired on one with a '' v 
heavy muiket \ the ball ilruck him, and rebounded from
his fcales. He made a leap of 10 feety and dived into
the river f.” _ _ f Uid. 186.
In the large rivers of Africa, vail ihoals of croco¬
diles are feen fvvimming together, when they exhibit
the appearance of the trunks of large trees floating on
the water. It is faid that the negroes venture to at¬
tack, and often fucceed In killing a Angle crocodile,
by fiabbing it with a (harp inftrument under the belly,
wrhere the ikin is foft and vulnerable. In fome coun¬
tries, we are told, the hunting of the crocodile with
flrong dogs, is praftifed for amufement. For this pur-
pofe the dogs are properly trained and inftrufted j and
to proteft them againft the attack of the crocodile, they
are armed with collars furniflied with fpikes.
It is even faid, that crocodiles are occafionally tamed
in fome parts of Africa, and that they eonftitute an ar¬
ticle of royal magnificence with fome of the African
monarchs, in which cafe, they are kept in large ponds
or lakes. It is well known that crocodiles wrere ex¬
hibited by the ancient Romans during their public fpec-
tacles*. In the edilefiup of Scaurus, he prefented the peo¬
ple with a fight of five crocodiles in a temporary lake ;
and one was introduced by Auguftusinhis triumph over
Cleopatra, for their entertainment.
Var.—A variety of the common crocodile, it is faid,
has been found in the river Senegal *, according to M.
Adanfon, it has a longer fnout, and is almoft entirely
black. It is faid that it is very rapacious, and has only
been obferved in the above river, where the common
crocodiles are very numerous.
2. La.certa Alligator, the Alligator or American
Crocodile.
Specif. Char.—Head flat, imbricated ; neck naked, or
uncarinated j tail furniflied above with twro lateral
lines.
The alligator is confidered by fome naturalifis only
as a variety of the crocodile \ any differences which are
obfervable, they fupppfe, njay be afcribed to the effe<9:
of climate. They have the fame number of teeth, and
their manners and habits are nearly fimilar m the old
and new7 wTorld \ but the difference, although not at firft
fight obvious, feems to be fully eftablifiied from the
more accurate obfervations of others. The head of the
alligator is fmooth, and is not furnilhed with the rugofi-
ties and hard carinated fcales which appear on the head
of the crocodile 5 and befides, the fnout of the alligator
is flatter, wider, and more rounded at the extremity.
The fize of the alligator is little inferior to that of the
crocodile. Individuals have been often feen from 18
to 20 feet long.
Catefby, in his hiftory of Carolina, has given a ful¬
ler account of the economy and habits of the alligator,
than any other author. “ Though the largefl, fays he,
and greateft numbers of alligators, inhabit the torrid
zone, the continent abounds with them io° more
north, particularly as far as the river Neus in North
Carolina. In the latitude of about 33*, beyond wrhich
I have never heard of any, which latitude nearly an-
fwers to the northermoft parts of Africa, where they are
likewife found, they frequent not only fait rivers near
O o 2 the
292
Lizards.
E R P E T
the Tea, but ftreams of frefli water in the upper parts of
the country, and in lakes of fait and frelh water j on the
banks of which they lie lurking among reeds, to fur-
prife cattle and other animals. In Jamaica, and many
parts of the continent, they are found about 20. feet in
length. They cannot be more terrible in their afped
than they are formidable and mifchievous in their na-
tures, fparing neither man nor beaft they can furprife,
pulling them down under water •, that being dead, they
may with greater facility, and without llruggle. or re¬
finance, devour them. As quadrupeds do not lo otten
come in their way, they almoil iubliit on filh 5 but as
providence, for the prefervation, or to prevent the ex-
tindlion of defencelefs creatures, hath in many. in-
ilances reftrained the devouring appetites of voracious
animals by fome impediment or other j fo this deltruc-
tive moniter, by the clofe conneflion of his vertebrae,
can neither fwipi nor run any way but ftraight forward,
and is confequently difabled from turning with that
agility requiiite to catch his prey by purluit j therefore,
they do it by furprife in the water, as well as by land }
for effedting which, nature feems in fome meafure to
have recompenfed their want of agility, by giving them
a power of deceiving and catching their prey by a fa-
gacity peculiar to them, as well as by the outer form
and colour of their body, which on land refembles an old
dirty log or tree, and in the water frequently lies float¬
ing on the furface, and there has the like appearance ;
by which, and his lilent artifice, filh, fowl, turtle, and
all other animajs are deceived, fuddenly catched, and
devoured.
Carnivorous animals get their food with more diffi¬
culty and lefs certainty than others j and are often ne-
ceflitated to faff a long time, which a flow concoftion
enables them to endure : reptiles particularly, by fwal-
lowing what they eat whole, digeff llowly, eat feldom,
and live long without food. Wolves are laid to gorge
themfelves with mud, to fupply the want ol better food.
For the like caufe, many alligators fwallow Hones and
other fubftances to diftend and prevent the contraftion
of their inteffines when empty, and not to help digel-
tion, which they feem in no need of. For in the great¬
er number of many which I have opened, nothing has
appeared but lumps of light wrood and pieces of pine-
tree coal, fome of which weighed eight pounds, and
were reduced and worn fo fmooth from their firft an¬
gular roughnefs, that they feemed to have remained in
them many months. They lay a great number of eggs
at one time on the fandy banks of rivers and lakes,
which are hatched by the heat of the fun without fur¬
ther care of the parents. The young, as foon as they
are difengaged from their {hells, betake themfelves to
the water, and Ihift for themfelves j but while young,
they ferve as a prey not only to ravenous filh, but to
their own fpecies. It is to be admired, that fo vaft an
animal Ihould at firft be contained in an egg no better
than that of a turkey.
In South Carolina they are very numerous 5 but the
northern fituation of that country occalions their being
of a fmaller fize than thofe nearer the line j and they
rarely attack men or cattle, yet are great devourers of
hogs. In Carolina they lie torpid from about Oftober
to March in caverns and hollows in the banks of rivers;
and at their coming out in the fpring, make a hideous
bellowing noifc. The hind part of their belly and tail
O L O G Y. Cliap. 1.
are eaten by the Indians. The flelh is delicately white, Lizard?,
but has fo perfumed a tafte and fmell, that I never v '
could relilh it with pleafure.
The alligators of South America, like the turtles,
depofit their eggs at two or three different periods, at
the diftance of feveral days, and from 20 to 24 eggs
each time. They have been obferved to raife a fmall
hillock near the banks of the river ; and, after hollow¬
ing it out in the middle, to coliecf a quantity of leaves
and other vegetable matters, in which they depofit
their eggs. Thefe are covered -with the leaves, and
are hatched by means of the heat extricated during
their putrefaclion, along with that of the atmofphere.
The alligators about Cayenne depofit their eggs in the
month of April.”
To the account of the alligator which we have now’
given, we add the following particulars concerning its
natural hiffory by Don Ulloa, in his voyage to South
America. The obfervations were made on the river
Guayaquil; and we {hall detail them in his own words.
“ The increafe of fifli, fays he, in this river is greatly
hindered by the prodigious numbers of alligators, an
amphibious creature, living both in the rivers and the
adjacent plains, though it is not often known to go. far
from the banks of the river. When tired with filhing,
they leave the water to batk themfelves in the fun, and
then appear more like logs of half-rotten wood thrown
afiiore by the current, than living creatures.; but upon
perceiving any veffel near them, they immediately throw
themfelves iirto the water. Some are of fo monftrous
a fize as to exceed five yards in length. During the
time they lie balking on the Ihore, they keep their
huge mouths wide open, till filled with mufquetoes,
flies, and other infeSs, when they fuddenly fhut their
jaws and fwallow their prey. Whatever may have
been written with regard to the fiercenefs and rapacity
of this animal, I, and all our company know from ex¬
perience, they avoid a man, and on the approach of any
one, immediately plunge into the water. Its whole
body is covered with fcales impenetrable to a mufket
ball, unlefs it happens to hit them in the belly near the
fore legs, the only part vulnerable.
“ The alligator is an oviparous creature. The fe¬
male makes a large hole in the fand near the brink of a
river, and there depolits her eggs, which are nearly
equal to thofe of an oftrich, and as white as thofe ol a
hen, but much more folid. She generally lays about
a hundred, continuing in the fame place till they are
all depofited, which is about a day or two. She then
covers them with the fand; and the better to conceal
them, rolls herfelf net only over her precious depofitum,
but to a confiderable didance. After this precaution
Ihe returns to the water, till natural inftindl informs
her, that it is time to deliver her young from their
confinement; when fhe comes to the fpot, followed
by the male, and tearing up the fand, begins break¬
ing the eggs, but fo carefully, that Icarce a {ingle one
is injured ; and a whole fwarm of little alligators are
feen crawling about. The female then takes them on
her neck and back in order to remove them into the
water ; but the watchful gallinazos make ufe of this
opportunity to deprive her of fome ; and even the male
alligator, which indeed comes for no other end, devours
what he can, till the female has reached the water with
the few remaining; for all thofe which either tall from
her
Chap. I. E R P E T
Lizards, back, or do not fwim, ihe herfelf eats 5 fo that of fuch
‘ '' v a formidable brood, happily not more than four or five
efcape.
“ The gallinazos mentioned in our account of Car-
thagena, are the moll inveterate enemies of the alli¬
gators, or rather extremely fond of their eggs, in
finding which they make ufe of uncommon addrefs.
Thefe birds often make it their whole bulinefs to
watch the females during the fummer, the feafon when
they lay their eggs, the fands on the lides of the river
not being then covered with water. The gallinazo
perches in fome tree, where it conceals itfelf among
the branches, and there filently wratches the female al¬
ligator till fhe has laid her eggs and retires, pleafed
that (he has concealed them beyond difcovery. But
Ihe is no fooner under the water, than the gallinazo
darts down on the repofitory, and with its beak,
clawTs and wings, tears up the land, and devours the
eggs, leaving only the Ihells. This banquet would
indeed richly reward its long patience, did not a
multitude of gallinazos, from all parts join the fortu¬
nate difcoverer and lhare in the fpoil. I have often
been entertained with this llratagem of the gallinazos,
in palling from Guayaquil to the cuflom-houfe of
Babahoyo j and my curiofity once led me to take fome
of the eggs, which thofe who frequent this river, par¬
ticularly the mulattoes, make no difficulty of eating
when frelh. Here we mult remark the methods ufed
by providence in diminilhing the number of thefe de-
Itru&ive creatures, not only by the gallinazos, but
even by the males themfelves. Indeed neither the
river nor the neighbouring fields would otherwife be
fufficient to contain them 5 for, notwithllanding the
ravages of thefe two infatiable enemies, their numbers
can hardly be imagined.
“ Thefe alligators are the great deltroyers of the
filh in this river, it being their moll fafe and general
food j nor are they wanting in addrefs to fatisfy their
defires, eight or ten, as it were by compa£l, draw up
at the mouth of a river or creek, whilll others of the
fame corps go a conliderable dillance up the river,
and chafe the filh dowmvards, by wffiich none of any
bignefs efcape them. The alligators, being unable
to eat under water, on feizing a filh, raife their heads
above the furface, and by degrees draw the filh from
their jaws, and chew it for deglutition. After fatisfy-
ing their appetite, they retire to relt on the banks of
the river.
“ When they cannot find filh to appeafe their hun¬
ger, they betake themfelves to the meadows border¬
ing on the banks of the river, and devour calves and
colts 3 and in order to be more fecure in feizing their
prey, take the opportunity of the night, that they may
furprife them in their fleep 3 and it is obferved that
thofe alligators which have once tailed llelh, become
fo fond of it, as never to take up with fiffi but in cafes
of neceffity. There are even too many melancholy
inllances of their devouring the human fpecies, efpeci-
ally children, wffio, from the inattention natural to
their age, have been without doors after it is dark 3
and though at no great dillance, thefe voracious animals
have dared to attack them, and having once feized
them with their mouth, to make fure of their prey
agaiml that affiilance which the cries of the vidlim never
fail to bring, hallen into the water, where they imrae-
o L o G Y.
diately drown it, and then return to the liirface and de¬
vour it at leifure.
“ Their voracity has alfo been felt by the boatmen,
who, by inconfiderately lleeping with one of their arms
or legs hanging over the fide of the boat, thefe animals
have feized, and drawn the whole body into the wa¬
ter. Alligators wrho have once fealled on human
flelh are known to be the moll dangerous, and be¬
come, as it were, inflamed with an infatiable defire of
repeating the fame delicious repall. The inhabitants
of thofe places where they abound are very indullrious
in catching and deftroying them. Their ufual me¬
thod is by a cafonate, or piece of hard wood lharpencd
at both ends, and baited with the lungs of fome ani¬
mal. This cafonate they fallen to a thong, the end of
which is fecured on the ffiore. The alligator, on fee¬
ing the lungs floating on the waters, fnaps at the bait,
and thus both points of wood enter his jaws in fuch a
manner, that he can neither Ihut nor open his mouth.
He is then dragged alhore, wffiere he violently en¬
deavours to refcue himlelf, while the Indians bait
him like a bull, knowing that the greatell damage he
can do is to throw dowm fuch, as for wTant of care or
agility do not keep out of his reach.
“ The form of this animal fo nearly refembles that
of the lagarto or lizard, that here they are common¬
ly called by that name 3 but there is lome difference in
the fliape of the head, which in this creature is long,
and towards the extremity flender, gradually form¬
ing a fnout, like that of a hog, and, when in the ri¬
ver, is generally above the furface of the wrater 3 a fuf¬
ficient demonltration that the refpiration of a purer
air is neceffary to it. The mandibles of this creature
have each a row7 of very llrong and pointed teeth, to
which fome writers have attributed particular virtues 3
but all I can fay to this is, that they are fuch as I and
my companions, notwithftanding all our enquiries to
attain a complete knowledge of every particular, could
never hear any fatisfaclory account of
3. Lacerta Gangetica, Gangetic or Indian Croco¬
dile.
293
Lizards.
* Vol. i.
20c.
Specif. Char.—Jaw fomewhat cylindrical, elongated 3
tail furnifhed above with twro crefts uniting in one
towards the extremity.
In this fpecies the jawrs are long, narrow7, and ffraight 3
and the upper mandible is terminated above by an
elevated tubercle. This ftrublure of the fnout is more
remarkable in the young animal. The teeth of this
fpecies are more numerous than in the common croco¬
dile, being nearly double the number, and they are
of equal fize through the whole length of the jdws.
Excepting that the third and fourth toes, both on the
fore and hind feet are connebted together by a web 3
the ftrufture of the feet is the fame as that of the com¬
mon one. The eyes are extremely prominent 3 and it
has been obferved, are fo conftrubled, that they may be
raifed above the water, when the reft of the body is un¬
der the furface 3 by which the animal is enabled to fee
its prey either on the furface of the water, or on the
banks of rivers. In the general form and colour of
the body and limbs, this fpecies refembles the common
crocodile, only the number of tranfverfe bands formed
by the rows of fcales on the back, is greater.
I
1
E R P E T
It is a native of India, and is chiefly found in the
Ganges, where it is nearly equal in flze to the common
crocodile.
Se£h II. Guanas.
The animals belonging to this fedlion have the back
and tail ferrated or carinated.
4. Lacerta Iguana, Common or Great American
Guana.
Specif. Char.—Tail long and round j back ferrated 5
gular creft denticulated.
The guana, which of all the lizard tribe is of the
moft peculiar form, grows to a confiderable flze. It is
often feen, three, four, and fometimes five feet long.
The general colour is green, fliaded with brown. The
backus ftrongly ferrated ; which, as well as the denti-
culations of the pouch at the throat, gives it a formi¬
dable appearance.
The guana is a native of many parts of America,
and the Weft Indies. It is faid alfo that it has been
found in foxne parts of the Eaft Indies. It frequents
rocky and w-oody places, and feeds chiefly on infedts
and vegetables.
The guana itfelf is reckoned very nouriftiing and de¬
licate food. The ufual method of taking it, is by call¬
ing a noofe over its head, and then drawing it from its
place •, for without making any attempt to efcape, it
llands with its eyes fixed ftedfaftly at its difcoverer,
while at the fame time it inflates its throat to a very
large fize.
Cateiby has given a good account of the guana,
which wTe lhall detail in his own words. “ They are,”
he fays,” of various fizes, from two to five feet in
length 5 their mouths are furnilhed with exceeding
fmall teeth, but their jaw is armed with a long beak,
with which they bite with great ftrength. They inha¬
bit warm countries only, and are rarely to be met with
anywhere north or fouth of the tropics. Many of the
Bahama iflands abound with them, where they neftle
in hollow rocks and trees. Their eggs have not a
hard Ihell, like thofe of alligators, but a ficin only like
thofe of a turtle, and are efteemed a good food. They
lay a great number of eggs at a time in the earth, which
are there hatched by the fun’s heat. Thefe guanas are
a great part of the i'ubfiftence of the inhabitants of the
Bahama iflands, for which purpofe they vifit many of
the remote keys and iflands in their Hoops to catch
them, which they do by dogs trained up for that pur-
'■‘pofe, which are fo dexterous as not often to kill them }
which, if they do, they ferve only for prefent fpending1,
it otherwife, they few up their mouths to prevent their
biting, and put them into the hold of their Hoop till
they have catched a fufficient number ; which they ei¬
ther carry alive for fale to Carolina, or fait and barrel
up for the ufe of their families at home. Thefe guanas
feed wholly on vegetables and fruit, particularly on a
kind of fungus growing at the roots of trees, and on the
fruits of the different kinds of anonas. Their fleih is
eafy of digeftion, delicate, and well tafted. They are
fometimes roafted, but the more common way is to boil
them, taking out the leaves of fat, which are melted
and clarified, and put into a calabalh or difh, into which
- 2
O L O G Y. Chap. I.
they dip the flefti of the guana as they eat it. It is re- Lizards,
markable that this fat, which adheres to the infide of
abdomen, imbibes the colour of the fruit the animal
eats laft, which I have frequently feen tinged of a pale
red, yellowq or fometimes of a purple colour; which laft
was from eating the primus maritime, which fruit at
the fame time I took out of them. Though they are,
not amphibious, they are faid to keep uuder wrater
above an hour. When they fwim, they ule not their
feet, but clap them clofe to their body, and guide them-
felves with their tails. They fwallow all they eat
whole ; they camlot run fall, their holes being a great¬
er fecurity to them than their heels. They are lo im¬
patient of cold, that they rarely appear out of their
holes but wrhen the fun fhines.”
Dr Brown, in his natural hiftory of Jamaica, gives
the following particulars of the guana. “ Like moft
of the tribe, he obferves, it lives a very confiderable
time without food, and changes its colour with the
weather, or the native moifture of its place of refidence.
I have kept a grown guana about the houfe for more
than two months : it rvas very fierce and ill-natured at
the beginning ; but after fome days it grew more tame,
and would, at lengtlt, pafs the greateft part of the day
upon the bed or couch, but it went out always at night.
1 have never obferved it to eat any thing, except what
imperceptible particles it had lapped up in the air ; for
it frequently threw out its forked tongue, like the cha-
melion, as it walked along. The fleih of this creature
is liked by many pedple, and frequently ferved up in
fricafees at their tables; in which ftate they are often
preferred to the bell fowls. The guana may be eafily
tamed while young, and is both an innocent and beauti¬
ful creature in that ftate.”
Var. Horned gnana. This is confidered as a va¬
riety of the former. It is nearly the fame in fize and
general proportion ; the back is alfo ferrated, and the
form of the feales is the fame. It wants, however, the
gular pouch, and there are in front of the head, be¬
tween the eyes and noftrils, four pretty large fcaly
tubercles, behind which there is a bony conical pio-
cefs, which is covered with a Angle feale.
It is a native of St Domingo, where it is faid to Lc
very common.
5. Lacerta Amboinensis, Amboina Guana.
Specif. Char. Variegated, tail long, tail fin radiated,
dorfal future dentated.
This fpecies, wdiich grows to the length of three
feet, and fometimes more, is at once diftinguilhed by
the Angularity of its appearance, and the beauty of its
colours. The head and neck are green, and variegated
with white tranfverfe undulations. The back and tail
are brown, ■with a ftiade of purple. The fides and
belly are grayilh, or pale brown ; the head is tuber-
culated above, and covered with fmall roundilh feales ;
the mouth is wide, and the teeth are fliarp and numer¬
ous.
This fpecies is a native of the Eaft Indies, but is
moft frequent in the ifland of Amboina, frequenting
the neighbourhood of rivers and other frelh waters. It
is often feen on the banks of riling grounds, and oft
lowr Ihrubs which grow near the water. It does not
afeend tall trees* Whenever it m difturbed by the ap¬
proach
Chap I. • E R P E T
Lizards.
proach of men or any animal, it plunges into the water,
and conceals itfelf beneath the rocks or ftones under
the banks. It may be eafily taken, as it does not at¬
tempt to bite or defend itfelf, but feems in fome mea-
fure flupified.
This fpecies, like others of the tribe, depofits its
eggs in the land, on the banks of the rivers which it
frequents. The eggs in the body of the animal are
difpofed^ in two long groups or cluflers, and are of a
yellow’ colour ; but when they are excluded, they are
white, and of an oblong lhape. The Amboina guana is
reckoned a more delicate food than the common one •,
its flefh is faid to be white, fwreet, and of a penetrating
odour.
6. Lacerta Basiliscus, Bafilifk.
Specif. Char.—Tail long ; dorfal and caudal fins radiat¬
ed ; occipital creft pointed.
The bafilifk is about cue foot and a half in length,
of a pale afh-brown colour, with fome darker Variega¬
tions about the upper part of the body. In the young
animal, the dorfal or caudal procefs, and the pointed
occipital creft mentioned in the fpecific defcription, are
lefs diftin£t.
The bafilifk is chiefly a native of South America.
It refides principally among trees, and feeds on in¬
fers.
It is faid to be a very aflive animal, and by means
of its dorfal creft or fin, it is enabled to fpring from
tree to tree. It can alfo fwim ivith great eafe.
This animal has a very formidable appearance, but
is quite harmlefs j but in the poetical defcriptions of
the ancients, we find that it was confidered to be the
mofl: malignant of all poifonous animals j even its look
was regarded as fatal. The terrific glance of the bafi¬
lifk in the African deferts, according to the poetical re-
prefentation of Lucan, obliged the reft of the poifonous
tribe to keep at a diftance.
7. Lacerta Calotes, Galeot Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long and round *, back dentated on
the fore part, and the head on the hind part.
This fpecies feldom exceeds a foot and a half in
length, from the tip of the nofe to the extremity of the
tail j but otherwife in its general habit and appearance,
it. refembles the common guana. It wants, however,
the gular pouch •, in its place there is only a flight
enlargement of the throat. The colour, wLich occafion-
ally varies, is moft commonly of an elegant bright blue,
variegated with broad, irregular, white, tranfverfe bands
on each fide of the body and tail. The limbs are flen-
der, and this is particularly the cafe with the toes.
This fpecies is a native of the warmer regions of Af¬
rica, Afia, and many of the Indian iflands. It is very
common in Ceylon. It is faid alfo to be a native of
Spain, where it wanders about the tops of houfes, in
fearch of fpiders. According to fome, it preys on rats,
and, like fome other lizards, attacks fmall ferpents.
8. Lacerta Agama, .American Galeot.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round ; neck above, and head
behind, aculeated j fcales of the hind head reverfed,
o l o G Y.
295
This fpecies in fome refpects refembles the calotes •,
but it wants the ftrong ferratures on the back, in
place of which it has only a fmall denticulated Cari¬
na. The head is proportionally larger, and on the back
part is furniihed with (harp-pointed icales, fome of w’hich
are reverfed at their extremities. The colour is brown-
iih, and varioully clouded. In the male, the creft on
the back is compofed of longer fpines, and extends to
the lower part.
It is a native of South America, and fome of the
iflands of the Weft Indies.
Var. Lacerta Muricata, Muricated Lizard. Tail
long, round ; body grayifti j fcales carinated and (harp-
pointed.
This lizard, which is confidered as a variety of the
preceding, meafures more than a foot in length, and has
even been fometimes found to exceed that fize. The
want of the reverfe fcales on the back part of the head,
conftitutes the principal difference between this and the
former fpecies.
It is a native of New South Wales.
Lizards.
9. Lacerta Bicarinata, Bicarinated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail of moderate length ; four rows of
ftrong carinated fcales on the back.
In its general habit, this fpecies bears fome refemb-
lance to a fmall crocodile, on account of the hard tu-
berculated and carinated fcales on the upper parts of
the body, two rows of which are more prominent than
the reft, and extend from the upper part of the back to
the tail, where they coalefce and form a ferrated creft to
the extremity.
The head is fmall, the mouth wide, and the fnout
fomewhat (harp. The colour is. reddiflr-brown, tinged in
fome parts with various (hades of green.
. It is a native of South America, where it is fome¬
times ufed as food. The eggs, it is faid, are alfo greatly
efteemed for the fame purpofe. Woody and marfhy re¬
gions are the ufual places of its refort. One of this-
Ipecies which was kept alive for fome time by M. de la
Borde, was obferved to remain for hours together in the
w’ater, and when it was difturbed or alarmed, it conceal¬
ed itfelf, but delighted to come out oecafionally and
balk in the fun.
Var. A lizard known by the name of ignaruca, and
faid to be a native of Brazil, is confidered as a variety
of the preceding, differing only in the colour, which is
darker, and the claws which are (horter} but, like it, it
has fome refemblance to the crocodile, and readily
climbs trees.
10. Lacerta Monitor, Monitory Lizard.
Specif. Char Colour black ; tail very long, compref-
fed, carinated ; body marked with tranfverfe rows of
white, ocellated.
This is one of tire largeft of the whole tribe of lizards.
From the tip of the nofe to the extremity of the tail, it
fometimes meaftires no lefs than four or five feet. It is
alfo one of the moft beautiful. The head is fmall, the
fnout gradually tapers, the limbs are (lender, and the
tail which is laterally comprefl'ed, gradually decreafes
towards the extremity. Indeed the lhape altogether is
flender and elegant, and although the colours are Ample,
296 ' E R P E T
Lizards, tliey are lb dlfpofed as to produce an agreeable and
pleading effeft. This fpecies is a native of South
America, inhabiting woody and marfhy places.
It is faid that the monitory lizard from the gentle-
nefs of its difpofition, is remarkable for its attachment
■to mankind, warning them of their danger from the alli¬
gator by emitting a peculiar and (brill found.
Var. Laccrta Varia, Variegated Lizard.—Although
this lizard is fomewhat different in colour, and in the
difpofition of its variegations, which are rather of a pale
yellow than white, yet it is confidered only as a variety
of the preceding. It is a native of New Holland.
11. Lacerta Acanthura, Spine-tailed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Throat plaited beneath j body covered
with minute fcales •, tail long and verticillated with
carinated triple-fpined fcales.
The length of this fpecies is about a foot and a half.
The head is covered with fcales, which are fmall and
nearly fix-fided ; it is quite diftinft from the body. The
whole fkin about the neck, throat, and beginning of the
fides, is quite loofe, which in the fpecimen defcribed,
may have had a pouched appearance. All the other
parts of the body are covered with very fmall fcales.
The tail is very long, and ftrongly marked into nume¬
rous rings, which are compofed of long and flrongly
carinated fcales, each of which terminates in a lengthen¬
ed point, and produces the fpiny appearance. There
are five long toes on each foot \ the claws are ftrong
and fharp. The colour on the upper parts of the body
is glaucous, variegated with fmall whitifh clouds and
marblings.
It is defcribed by Dr Shaw from a fpecimen in the
Britiflb Mufeum.
12. Lacerta Lophura, Sharp-tailed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body covered with diffimilar fcales}
back ferrated; tail long, and fomewhat compreffed.
This is a very large fpecies \ there are large, rounded,
and oval fcales fcattered here and there among the
fmaller ones. The tail is long and (harp-pointed j the
back and tail are ferrated throughout their whole
length.
This fpecies is alfo defcribed by Dr Shaw from a fpe-
cimen in the Britilh Mufeum.
13. Lacerta Dracaena, Dracaena Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Large tail} long and denticulated along
the upper part.
This is one of the larged fpecies belonging to the
tribe. Not only in the fize of the body, but in the pro¬
portion of the limbs and tail, it exceeds that of the
guana. The colour is brown, with a flight (hade of
chefnut. On the out fides of the limbs there are nume¬
rous fmall pale yellowifh fpots. The head is fmall, and
the fnout tapering.
It is a native of South America, and fome of the
Indian illands} and it is faid that in fome countries it is
preferred as an article of food to the guana.
14. Lacerta Superciliosa, Supercilious Lizard.
O L O G Y.
Chap. T,
The general appearance of this fpecies bears fome re-
femblance to the guana, and dill more to the horned
guana, in having the appearance of a pair of (harp
pointed hom-like precedes above and beyond each eye j
between thefe are placed ifome aculeated fcales. The
fize of one which has been defcribed, meafures from
12 to 16 inches, from the tip of the nofe to the extre¬
mity of the tail.
It is a native of Alia, and of fome of the Indian iflands.
Lizard1-
15. Lacerta Scutata, Scutated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail of moderate length, comprelfed •,
dorfal future dentated 5 two pointed procedes on the
back of the head.
This fpecies is didinguiflied from the former by hav¬
ing a proportionally larger head, and a row of fcales
more elevated than the red, pading over each eye j and
from thefe a ridge is continued towards the back of the
head, where they unite and extend down the middle of
the back, in form of a (hort denticulated cred, to the
beginning of the tail. The body is covered with acu¬
minated fcales which are but fmall; the limbs and tail
with larger ones.
It is a native of the illand of Ceylon.
16. Lacerta Principalis, Smooth Crejled Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail fubcarinated 5 gular cred plain edge 5
back fmooth.
This fpecies is in general of a dender form, and fmall,
rarely exceeding eight or nine inches in length, includ¬
ing both the body and tail. The colour is blue, the
'head fmall, and the fnout taper.
It is a native of South America.
Var. I^acerta bimaculata, Linn.
This is confidered as a variety of the former j tfiffco¬
lour is blue, (potted here and there with black, wdth twro
larger black fpots over the (houlders.
It is a native of St Eudatia, and is found alfo in Penn-
fylvania.
Var. Le Roquet, of Cepede, is confidered by Dr
Shaw alfo as a variety of the fimpoth-creiled lizard, as
it refembles it both in fize and habit j it is however
deditute of the gular cred.
It frequents gardens, moving nimbly among trees,
and devours great multitudes of fmaller infects.
17. Lacerta Strumosa, Strumous Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail long, round; bread gibbofe, pro-
jedting.
This is of a fmall fize, has no dorfal ferratures, but is
furnidied with a large flat gular cred, of a pale red co¬
lour j the red of the animal is of a pale bluilh gray, with
fome flight (hades of a more dulky hue. The limbs are
(lender.
It is a native of South America.
18. Lacerta Marmorata, Marbled Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail long, round j throat fuberedated,
back fmooth.
Specif Char .—Tail carinated ; back and eyebrows ci- This fpecies is of a (lender and elegant form, ami
feted, with upright lanceolated fcales. meafures, including the tad, about a foot in length.
1 The
4
Chap. I. E R P E T
, 1 he head Is fmall, the fnout taper. The colour is pale
blue, variegated with undulating tranfverfe bands of a
whitifh lhade. The belly is of a pale rofe colour.
It is a native of America and the Weft Indies.
19. Lacerta Umbra, Umber Li’zard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round ; neck fubcreftated a-
bove j hind head callous ; back ftriated.
This is a fmall fpecies j the body is covered with
fcales, which are carinated and pointed ; the head is
obtufe, and marked on the hind part with a large cal¬
lous bare fpot.
It is a native of North America.
Se£l. III. Cordyles.
Having denticulated or fpiny fcales on the body or
tail, or both.
20. Lacerta Pelluma, Pelluma Lizard.
Specif. Char.—I ail long, and verticillated with rhom-
boidal fcales.
This lizard is about two feet in its total length, and
is diftinguiihed on the upper parts of its body by a beau¬
tiful variety of green, yellow, blue, and black colours.
1 he under parts of the body are of a glofly yellowifh
green.
It is a native of Chili.
21. Lacerta Azurea, Azure Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail ftiort, verticillated with mucronated
fcales.
• . This is of a fine blue colour, tranfverfely banded
with black or blue. It is fometimes only a few inches
long, but others are found of a larger fize.
The larger variety is a native of South America, the
fmaller of fome parts of Africa.
22. Lacerta Cordylus, Cordyle Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body fmooth 5 tailftiort and verticilla¬
ted with denticulated fcales.
’I his fpecies, at firft fight, bears a confiderable re-
femblance to the former j but the fcales which cover
the body are of an oblong-fquare form, and larger, and
the tail is verticillated with rows of large fcales of the
lame form. The colour is fometimes blue, fome¬
times a livid brown, and the total length is about ten
/ inches.
23. Lacerta Stellio, Rough Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail verticillated, with denticulated
fcales j body and head muricated.
The whole upper furface of the body is remarkably
rough, from being covered with projefling pointed
fcales. It is of a pale bluifti brown colour, with fome
deeper and lighter tranfverfe variegations. It is about
eight inches long.
This fpecies is a native of many parts of Africa.
Voe. VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y.
24. Lacerta Angulata, Angulated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, hexagonal, and furniftied
with carinated and mucronated fcales.
This is a fmall fpecies of a brown colour. Beneath
the throat there are two large rounded fcales. The tail
is longer than the body, and ftrongly marked with fix
longitudinal ridges.
It is a native of America.
25. Lacerta Orbicularis, Orbicular Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body brown, round j tail fliort, round;
fcales muricated.
Ihe colour of this fpecies is dufky brown, variegated
with different (hades 5 the body is large and ventricofe,
and in this refpeft it refembles the toad.
This is a native of South America, but is a rare
fpecies.
Seft. IV. Lizards Proper.
The furface of the body is fmooth, and they are ge¬
nerally furniflied with broad fquare plates or fcales on
the abdomen.
26. Lacerta Agilis, Green Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Of a green colour, with minute dufky
variegations. There is a collar of large fcales be¬
neath the neck ; tail long, verticillated.
The length of this fpecies is from 10 to 15 inches j
but it fometimes arrives at fuch a fize as to meafure
more than two feet to the end of the tail. The colour
confifts of a mixture of different (hades of green, with
fpots of yellow, brown, black, and fometimes red. The
head is covered with angular fcales, and the reft of the
upper parts of the body with fmall ovate ones. The
tail is longer than the body, and is marked with nu¬
merous rings of oblong fquare fcales.
This fpecies is a native of all the warmer parts of
Europe. It is found in gardens about warm walls,
buildings, &c. It is a very a&ive animal, and purfues
its prey, which confifts of infefts, with great celerity.
When it is caught, it foon becomes familiar, and may
even in fome meafure be tamed.
Var. The gray lizard, or little brown lizard, which
is alfo a native of many parts of Europe, is confidered
as a variety of the former. It is about fix or eight
inches long, of a greenifti brown, or pale grayilh co¬
lour.
This variety is a native of Britain, and is found on
the (ides of dry banks, or fand hills, where it is occa-
fionally feen balking during the heat of fummer. It is
alfo found about the roots of trees, old walls, &c.
27. Lacerta Teguixin, Variegated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round 5 (ides fomewhat wrink¬
led ; plate under the throat triple.
This fpecies is fometimes larger than the guana.
The head is covered with large fcales or plates, and
the body with fmaller and fquare fcales. The colour is
extremely beautiful; it confifts of an elegant variega-
P p tion
8 E R P E T
Lizards, tion of black, brown, and purple fpots, on a pale blu-
 v 1 ifh, white, and yellowiih ground.
It is a native of South America.
28. Lacerta ErytHROCEPHALA, Red-headed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackiflr green, undulations tranf-
verfe and black-, abdomen longitudinally banded
with black, white, and blue ; bread; black j top ot
the head red.
This fpecies is of a moderate fize ^ the fcales on the
head are larged, and there is a row of tubercles be¬
neath the thighs.
It is a native of the idand of St Chridopher.
o L O G Y. Chap. I.
a double plate, and a row of tubercles beneath the
thighs. The legs are long and the feet dender_; the
tail is carried curved over the back, from which it has
been called the lion lizard. ,
It is a native of the Wed Indies, where it frequents
the rocks on the fea coad.
*
34. Lacerta Fasciata, Fafciated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour of the body brown j _ tail blue and
rather long. There are five yellowiih lines down the
back.
This is a fmall fpecies, rarely exceeding eight inches
in its whole length. The head is diort.
It is a native of Carolina, inhabiting hollow trees.
29. Lacerta Cerulea, Atneiva Lizard.
Specif. a*r.—Colour blue, with black and white va¬
riegations ; tail long, verticillated ; abdominal icu-
ta 30.
The ameiva greatly refembles the green lizard, but
it wants the fcaly collar. The fcales on the upper part
of the body are not diftinftly vifible } thofe of the ab¬
domen are compofed of Iquare plates, and there is a
row of tubercles beneath each thigh.
It is a native of South America, and it is faid that it
is fometimes found in Africa and Afia.
30. Lacerta Lemniscata, Striped Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour dufky blue;, eight white lines
' down the back j limbs fpotted with white ', tail long,
round.
This is of a fmaller fize than the lad fpecies, but in
its general appearance bears a confiderable refemblance.
The white dripes on the back vary in breadth, and
fometimes in number.
It is a native of Guinea, but is alfo found in fome
parts of India and South America.
31. Lacerta Quadrilineata, Four-JiripedLizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackidi blue ; four white or yel-
lowilh lines down the back ; tail long, round ) fore
feet tetrada&ylous.
This is a fmaller fpecies than the lad, but refembles
it greatly. The claws are very fmall.
It is fuppofed to be a native of North America.
32. Lacerta Teniolata, Ribband Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body marked above with black and
white dripes} beneath white ; tail long and round.
This is a fmall fpecies -, the colour above is chefnut
brown, and the fcales on every part of the body are
fmooth, round, and imbricated. From the head to the
middle of the tail there are fix white linear dripes.
The limbs are ftriped longitudinally with black.
It is a native of New Holland.
33. Lacerta Sexlineata, Six-lined Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray brown -, fix white lines
down the back j tail long, verticillated.
This is a fmall fpecies. Beneath the throat there is
35. Lacerta QuinquElineata, Five-lined Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour dufky j five whitifh lines down
the back 5 tail round, and of a moderate length.
This is a fmall fpecies. The tail is twice the length
of the body. There are fix dripes on, the head, ihe
abdomen is imbricated with driae.
It is a native of Carolina.
36. Lacerta Interpunctata, Pundated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round -, dorfal lines two, and
yellow, having black fpecks interfperied.
This is a fmall fpecies -, the body is fmooth and glof-
fy, and the head is covered with large fcales.
It is a native of Afia.
37. Lacerta Bullaris, Red-throated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour green -, gular pouch red •, tail
long, round.
This fpecies is about fix inches long, of a finning
grafs-green colour. When it is approached, the throat
fwells into a globular form, and the protruded fkin be¬
comes of a bright red colour. This is fuppofed to be
a threatening afpeft, but probably without foundation.
This fpecies is a native of Jamaica, where it is com¬
mon about hedges and trees.
Var. Green Carolina lizard.—This refembles the
former in every refpeft, except in the appearance of the
gular pouch. In dry hot weather it appears of a bright
green colour j but in cold weatner this changes to a
brown.
It is a native of Carolina, where it is very common
about houfes.
38. Lacerta Cruenta, Red-tailed Lizard.
Specif Char,—Colour brown j on the neck there are
feven white dripes, and four on the back. . Undei
the throat there is a plate 5 the tail is verticillated
and red beneath.
This is a very fmall fpecies, refembling the lacerta
velox, but differs from it in having a fharper fnout. I he
limbs are marked with white round fpots -, the tail is
red beneath and white at the tip. There is a row of
tubercles on the thighs. ,
It is a native of the fouthern parts of Siberia, and is
found about the fait lakes.
39-
Chap. I. E R P E T
Lizards. 39. LaCERTA Lobata, Lobe-cheeked Lizard. La-
_ v 1 1 cert a Slur at a, Linn.
Specif Char.—Colour brownifh, with a round! Qr denti¬
culated lobe on each fide of the neck.
This fpecies is of moderate fize, and in appearance is
fomewhat thick or ventricofe. Body rather deprefled ;
the head rounded on each fide. From the corner of the
mouth extending to the fhoulders, there is a flat fe-
miorbicular lobe of a red colour, with ferrated edges.
The whole of the body is rough, with fmall pointed
granules.
It is a native of the fouthern deferts of Siberia, and
is found among the fand hills.
40. Lacerta Helioscopa, Sun-gassing Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownifh •, head rough, with
calli ; a tranfverfe plate beneath the throat j tail im¬
bricated, thick at the bafe, and fharp at the tip.
This is a fmall fpecies, fcarcely exceeding a finger’s
length. The colour of the upper parts of the body is
gray, writh brown and bluifh fpots and linear ftreaks.
The neck is often marked above with a red fpot. The
tip of the tail is red beneath.
It is a native of the fouthern parts of Siberia, where
it balks in funny fituations, with its head turned up to¬
wards the fun.
41. Lacerta Turcica, Turkifh Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown ; body roughilh ; tail of
moderate length, and fomewhat verticillated.
This is a fmall fpecies 5 the head is rather large, and
the body thickilh j the tail ftiort, thick at the bafe, and
pointed at the tip.
It is a native of eaftern countries.
42. Lacerta Platura, Broad-tailed Lizard.
Specif Char.—Colour gray brown, paler beneath j bo¬
dy rough } tail depreffed, lanceolated, and fpiny on
the margin.
This fpecies is from four to fix inches long, and is
remarkably diftinguifhed by the lingular form of its tail.
The feet are pentada&ylous j the toes flender, and the
claws curved.
It is a native of New Holland.
43. Lacerta Plica, Plica Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Hind head callous; eyebrows excoriated
above ; neck plated beneath, and warted at the fides 5
tail long and round.
This is a fmall fpecies, not exceeding a finger’s
length. It is entirely covered with conical fcales •,
there is a double plate beneath the throat.
It is a native of South America and India.
44. Lacerta Japonica, Japanefe Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round •, feet unguiculated •,
fore feet tetrada&ylous ; a fingle ftripe on the back.
This is a fmall fpecies •, the colour above is livid
brown, and the yellow ftripe from the hind head to the
O L O G Y. . 299
beginning of the tail is broad and dentated. The claws Lizards,
are black. v’ '
45. Lacerta Nilotica, Nilotic Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail lofig and triquetrous •, body fmooth,
with four lines of fcaies down the back.
This likewife is a fmall fpecies.
It is a native of Egypt.
46. Lacerta Tiliguerta, Tiliguerta Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail verticillated, twice the length of
the body, and having eighty abdominal fcuta.
This, like the former, is a fmall fpecies, meafuring
not more than feven or eight inches long. The female
is of a brown, and the male of a green, colour, with
black fpots. It feems to bear fome relation to the green
lizard.
It is a native of Sardinia, where it is to be met with
in fields, about walls, &c.
47. Lacerta Deserti, Defert Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail round, longifh ; feet pentada&y-
lous; body black above, and marked with fix longi¬
tudinal white lines.
This is a very fmall fpecies; the body is w’hite be¬
neath, and the ftripes on the back are compofed of ob¬
long fpots.
It is a native of the Uralian defert.
48. Lacerta Arguta, Argute Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail ftiort, verticillated} thick at the
bafe and filiform at the tip •, collar marked with ob-
feure fcales. There is a remarkable double plate
under the neck.
This fpecies is fomewhat fimilar to the green lizard,
but is fliorter and more ventricofe, and has a (harper
fnout.
It is a native of the fouth of Siberia.
49. Lacerta Algira, Algerine Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, verticillated j two yellow
lines on each fide of the body.
This fpecies is about a finger’s length, brown above,
and yellow!fli beneath.
It is a native of Algiers.
50. Lacerta Velox, Swift Lizard.
Specif Char.—7'ail longifli, verticillated j fcaly collar
beneath the neck ; body cinereous, with five longitu¬
dinal paler bands, variegated with black fpecks j the
fides fpotted with black, and fpeckled with blue.
This fpecies is much fmaller and more (lender, but in
other refpefts comes very near to the lacerta agilis.
The hind feet are marked wdth orbicular fpots.
It is a native of Siberia.
51. Lacerta Uralensis, Ural Lizard.
Specif Char.—The tail is long and roimd ; the neck
P p 2 plated
300 E R P E T
Lizards. plated beneath j the feet are pentadadlylous, and the
' v back is livid, rugofe, and fubverrucofe.
The length of this animal is about four inches ; the
head is round!{h ; the colour of the upper parts is livid
brown, and the Ikin is wrinkled and {lightly tubercu-
lated.
It is a native of the defert of Ural, and moves about
with great fwiftnefs.
52. Lacerta Seps, Seps Lizard.
Specif. C/W.—Colour bluifh brown ; tail longifh, ver-
ticillated ; lateral future reflexed 5 fcales fquare.
This is a fmall fpecies, and is eafily known from the
thin lengthened form of its body, and long {lender tail,
as well as from the fquare fcales with wThich it is en¬
tirely covered. The tail is marked with about 50 di-
vilions.
It is a native of the fouthern parts of Europe.
Se£h V. Chameleons.
Thefe are diftinguifhed by having a granulated {kin,
a large head, a long miflile tongue and cylindrical tail.
53. Lacerta Chameleon, Common Chameleon.
Specif. Char.—Crown flat; tail cylindrical and incur-
vated 5 toes united by two and three.
The length of the chameleon, from the tip of the
nofe to the beginning of the tail, is about ten inches.
The tail is nearly of the fame length. The {kin on
every part of the animal is granulated. A feries of ob-
fcure denticulations runs down the back, and forms a
ridge on that part. There are five toes on each foot,
two and three of which are united by a common {kin,
as far as the claws ; the two outward and three inward
toes of the fore feet are united, and the two inward and
three outward of the hind feet. I'he ftru&ure of the
tongue of the chameleon is very peculiar; it is very
long, and furniflied with a dilated fomewhat tubular tip,
by which means it is enabled eafily to feize infefts,
which are its prey, by darting it out and fecuring them
on the tip.
The chameleon, like others of the amphibia, has the
power of inflating its lungs, and retaining the air for a
long time. It is in this way that it fometimes appears
plump and flelhy, wdiile at other times, when the air is
ejedfied, and the lungs in a collapfed ftate, it exhibits
nothing but Ikin and bone. The natural colour of the
{kin of the chameleon is of a bluifli afh, and the ufual
changes are from this to a green or yellowifh colour,
fpotted unequally with red. When the animal is expo-
led to full funfhine, the darkened fide appears in a few
minutes of a pale yellow, with large roundilh fpots of
ted brown } but when the animal is turned round, the
reverfe takes place. The fide formerly in the {hade ap¬
pears of a brown or afli colour, and the other fide yel¬
low and red. T hele changes, however, vary greatly,
both with regard to the difpofition of the fpots and the
intenfity of the colours.
The chameleon is a native of Europe, Africa, and
Afia, It is indeed chiefly found in tropical regions)
O L O G Y.
Chap. I.
but it is alfo fometimes met with in the warmer parts
of Spain and Portugal.
No animal has been more celebrated than the cha¬
meleon, and particularly on account of the power which
it w~as fuppofed to poflefs of changing its colour. This
Lizards.
account was greatly exaggerated when it was aflerted,
that it could produce this change at pleafure, and aflimi-
late it to that of any particular objedf. But the more ac¬
curate obfervations of modem naturalifts have {hewn, that
this change of colour varies greatly, and feems to de¬
pend on the Hate of the animal’s health, the tempera¬
ture of the weather, and probably fome other unknown
caufes. Another erroneous affertion with regard to the
chameleon was, that it could live entirely on air. This
no doubt arofe from the long abltinence which this ani¬
mal, as well as many others belonging the clafs amphi¬
bia, can endure.
54. Lacerta Aericana, African Chameleon.
Specif. Char.—-Colour blackifli; crown carinated.
This is one of the largefl: yet difcovered. Along the
back to the end of the tail there runs a pure white
ftripe, bounded by a broad blackifli band. The other
parts of the animal are variegated with pale alb-colour¬
ed undulations.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Barbary.
55. Lacerta Pumila, Little Chameleon.
Specif. Char.—Body bluifli on each fide, and marked
with two yellowilh lines.
The head of this fpecies is fomewhat flatter than the
former, but ftill elevated in the middle, and edged on
each fide with a denticulated margin.
By fome the two latter feem to be confidered mnly
as varieties.
Seft. VI. Geckos.
In the animals of this divifion the {kin is granulated
or tuberculated ; the feet are lobated, and the toes la-
mellated beneath.
56. Lacerta Gecko, Common Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Livid, with brown variegations j upper
part of the body warted, and the lamellae of the feet
not divided.
This animal is faid to have received the name of
gecko from the peculiar found of its voice, which bears
fome refemblance to that word when uttered in a flirill
tone. Its length, in general, is about a foot or more,
and therefore it ranks among the middle-fized animals
of the lizard tribe. Its form is thicker and ftronger
than the greater part of lizards. Its head is flattifli,
fomewhat triangular and large, with a covering of mi¬
nute fcales; its mouth is wide, eyes large, teeth fmall,
and its tongue is broad and flat. The limbs of this ani¬
mal are moderately long, with broader feet than the
reft of the tribe 5 the toes are dilated on the margins,
and beneath are divided into a number of tranfverfe la¬
mellae parallel to each other, without any longitudinal
furrow. The general colour of the gecko is a pale
brown,
Chap. T. E R F E T
Lizards, brown, with fome irregular dulky or bluifh variega-
tions 5 but this colour becomes much more brilliant in
warmer regions.
It is a native of Alia and Africa, and fome of the
warmer parts of Europe, inhabiting obfcure recefles, ca¬
verns, old walls, &c. It has been fuppofed to be of a
poifonous nature. A fluid exfudes from the lamellae of
the feet, which is faid to be extremely acrid ; and when
any of it has remained on fruit, when it is eaten, it is
faid that it produces tjroublefome fymptoms. The pe¬
culiar flru&ure of the feet enables the animal to attach
itfelf to the fmoothefl; furfaces.
Var. Tokai.—This, which is confidered as a variety
of the former, is about a foot long. The body is co¬
vered above with a granulated Ikin, varied with red
and blue undulations •, the belly is aih colour, and in-
terfperfed with red fpots j the head is large and trian¬
gular.
This is a native of Siam, where it occafionally en¬
ters the houfes, and is confidered as a poifonous animal.
The Indian falamander, defcribed by Bontius, feems
to be of the fame kind •, the length is about a foot •, the
colour fea-green, fpotted with red •, the head large,
and like that of a toad; the body is broad and the tail
long.
It is a native of Java. It is faid that the inliabitants
hold up the animal by the tail to make it difcharge fa-
liva from its mouth, which is colle&ed for the purpofe
of poifoning their arrows.
57. Lacerta Dubia, Gechotte.
Specif. Char.—Livid colour; upper furface covered with
pointed warts ; no femoral papillae.
This fpecies bears fome refemblance to the gecko •,
but differs from it in being thicker and Ihorter, and in
wanting the papillae under the thighs. The tail in the
young animal is divided into ftrongly marked aculeated
rings. Thefe become gradually lefs confpicuous with
the age of the animal, and are at laft totally oblite¬
rated.
It is a native of the fouth of France, where it is
known by the name of tarente, and is regarded as an
innocent animal. It frequents ruins, walls, houfes 5
delights greatly in funlhine, and avoids damp fliady
fituations. It remains concealed In the hollows of walls
during winter, not, however, in a torpid, but in an in¬
ert ftate.
58. Lacerta Perfoliata, Perfoliated Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownilh, fmooth above 5 lamel¬
lae of the feet divided by a furrow j tail frequently
turbinated.
This fpecies is of a thicker form, has fhorter limbs,
and the tubercles on the back are lefs di ft in 61 than the
common gecko. It is alfo different in wanting the pa¬
pillae under the thighs. The tail is remarkably fwelled
immediately beyond its origin, and then tapers to the
extremity, fomewhat refembling a young turnip root,
from whence it has been denominated lacerta rapi-
cauda.
Its native country is not mentioned.
O L O G Y.
59. Lacerta Mauritanica, Mauriianic GecSo.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown, covered above with fharp
warts j tail flat, and furnilhed with fcuta beneath j
lamellae of the feet Emulated and divided.
This fpecies refembles the common one, but is dif¬
ferent from being covered with fpiny or fharp-pointed
warts on the upper furface. The toes are lamellated
beneath, but are not divided by a middle fulcus.
60. Lacerta Sinensis, Chinefe Gecko.
Specif Char.—Tail flat, all the toes unguiculated j face
perforated with feveral pores.
The head is broad and flat; the teeth fmall j the
tongue flat, and emarginated at the tip. About the
fides of the nofe and eyes there are feveral fcattered pores.
It is a native of China, and is frequently feen in
houfes, running about the walls, and climbing readily
on the fmootheft furfaces. It preys chiefly on the fmall-
er kind of cock-roach. It is confidered as an innocent
animal. #
61. Lacerta Vitt at a, White-flriped Gecko.
Specif. Char.— Colour yellowiftv brown, with a white
dorfal band, which is forked over the head.
This is a fmall fpecies, not exceeding feven or eight
inches in length ; the head is large in proportion to the
body 5 the toes are lamellated beneath, divided by a ful¬
cus, and terminated by curved claws. The upper furface
is covered with extremely fmall tubercles : they are fo
minute as to be fcarcely perceptible.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of India.
62. Lacerta FiMBRlATA, Fimbriated Gecko.
Specif. Char.—A membranaceous fimbriated border on-
each fide of the body $ tail flat j lamellce of the feet
divided by a furrow.
This is a very remarkable fpecies, wftiich, as the
count de Cepede, who defcribes it, obferves, feems in
fome degree to connect the chameleon, the gecko, and
the water-newts. The largeft individual which he
examined meafured about eight inches and a half in
length. The head is large and flattened, and its out¬
line feen from above is nearly triangular, as in the cha¬
meleon } but the triangle is of a longer form, and there
is no rifing creft. The moft remarkable part of its
ftru6ture is the fringed procefs which commences on
each fide of the head, and is continued along the fides
of the body. The colour of this animal varies as in the
chameleon, exhibiting different ftiadfs of red, yellow,
green, and blue.
It is a native of Madagafcar, where it is pretty com¬
mon. It is a harmlefs animal, and yet is regarded with
great abhorrence by the natives, who confider it as of a
poifonous nature, and run from it with great precipita¬
tion. This popular prejudice is fuppofed to have arifen
from a peculiar habit of the animal, of running with
open mouth towards the fpe6lator, inftead of making its
efcape when it is difcovered. It appears chiefly in rainy
weather, moving about with great agility, and fpring-
Lizards.
E R P E T
ing from one brancli of a tree to another in fearch of
infects, which are its proper food.
63. Lacerta Tetradactyla, Four-toed Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellow, varied with green 5 tail
flat j feet tetradaftylous.
This fpecies is about 1 2 inches long, and is nearly
allied to the preceding fpecies, except that it wants the
fimbriated margin, and the number of the toes on the
fore feet being only four.
It is alfo a native of Madagafcar, and is not held in
lefs abhorrence by the inhabitants than the former. It
lives in the wroods, appearing in the rainy feafon during
the night.
64. Lacerta Caudiverbera, Sco/iop-tailed Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Tail flat, pinnatifid j feet palmated.
This fpecies, which is a very Angular one, is about
16 inches long, and of this the tail meafures above one
half. The head is large and flat, the body thick, and
the limbs fhort. The fore feet are like the reft of the
fpecies, but the hind feet are flrongly palmated. The
tail tapers gradually to the tip, but through its whole
length is edged with a broad deep fcolloped fin : this
gradually widens towards the tip, and is confiderably
broader than on the fides. The back is marked with
numerous diftant red tubercles, each of which is fur-
rounded by a circle of fmall white fcales. The webs
of the hind feet, and the finny part of the tail, are of a
bright red.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of Arabia ; but be¬
ing a very rare animal, its natural hiftory is not well
known.
65. Lacerta Schneideriaka, Schneiderian Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray ; tail convex above and flat
below ; a black band on each fide of the head 5 la¬
mellae of the feet lunulated and divided.
The colour of this fpecies is cinereous, with a brown
band on each fide of the head ; on each fide of the
body there is a future or w rinkling of the Ikin *, the
tail is edged with a row7 of fnarper and longer fcales
than on the other parts.
66. Lacerta SfarmaXNIANA, Spartnannian Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Body papillated above ; tail lanceolated \
fore feet tetradaftylous.
This is a fmall fpecies, meafuring not more than three
inches in total length. The colour on the upper part
of the body is Variegated wuth darker and lighter lhades}
on the under part it is whitifh.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, where it
is regarded as a poifonous animal. It is faid that the
fluid fecreted from its pores, as well as the faliva, pro¬
duces inflammatory tumors, and fometimes even gan¬
grenes.
67. Lacerta Sputator, Spitting Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray, marked above with brown
tranfverfe bands j tail round, fumilhed with feuta be¬
neath.
O L O G Y. Chap. 1.
The total length of this fpecies does not exceed four Lizards,
inches, and fometimes it is Imaller. ihe fcales on the v "
wdiole animal are fmooth and gloiTy.
It is a native of the ifland of Euftatia, where it is
found about houfes, walls, See. When it is alarmed,
it is faid to ejeft from its mouth a black acrid fluid,
which occafions flight inflammation of the Ikin, and is
ufually removed by rubbing the part with camphorated
fpirit of wine.
Se&. VII. Sc inks.
The animals of this divifion are covered with round¬
ed fiih-like fcales.
68. Lacerta Scincus, Officinal Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour a yellowifli brown, with tranf¬
verfe brown bands on the upper part of the body j
tail fhort, comprefled at the tip ) upper jaw7 longeft.
The feink is from fix to feven inches long, and
fometimes more. The head is rather imall, the body
thick and round, and the tail in general Ihorter than
the body. The furface of the body has a gloffy ap¬
pearance.
This fpecies is a native of many of the eaftern coun¬
tries. It is very common in Libya, Syria, Egypt, and
Arabia, frequenting dry and fandy loils.. It was once
in confiderable eflimation as a medicine, in leprous and
fimilar difeafes.
This animal is deferibed under the name of el adda,
by Mr Bruce, and is reprefented as very common in
the province of Atbara in Abyffinia. “ It burrows,
fays he, in the fand, and performs this operation fo
quickly, that it is out of fight in an inftant, and ap¬
pears rather to have found a hole than to have made
one •, yet it comes out often in the heat of the day and
balks itfelf in the fun, and, if not very much frighten¬
ed, wall take refuge behind ftones, or in the withered
ragged roots of the abfinthium, dried in the fun to nearly
its own colour. Its length is rather more than fix inches 3
though its legs are long it does not make ufe of them
to Hand upright, but creeps w7ith its belly almoft clofe
to the ground. It runs, however, with very great ce¬
lerity. It is very long from its fhoulder to its nofe,
being nearly two inches : its body is round, having
fcarce any flatnefs in its belly 3 its tail, too, is perfeftly
round, having no flatnefs in its lower part 3 it is ex¬
ceedingly fharp-pointed, and very eafily broken. Yet I
have feen leveral, where the part broken oft has been
renewed, fo as fcarcely to be difcernible. It is the fame
length between the point of the tail and the joint or the
hinder leg, as w’as betwTeen the nole and the (houlder ot
the fore leg 3 its forehead from the occiput is flat 3 its
fliape conical, not pointed, but rounded at the end, in
Ihape of fome (hovels or fpades : the head is darker than
the body, the occiput darker dill. Its face is covered
with fine black lines, which crofs one another at right
angles like a net ; its eyes are fmall, defended with a
number of (trong black hairs, or eyelafties. Its Up¬
per jaw is longer, and projefts confiderabiy over the
under. Both its jaws have a number of fliort, fine, but
very feeble teeth 3 and wdien holding it in my hand,
though it firuggled violently to get loofe, it never at¬
tempted to make ufe of its teeth: indeed it feems to
turn
2
Chap. I. E R P E T
Lizards, turn its neck \vith great difficulty. Its ears are large,
-~v " open, and nearly round. Its body is a light yellow, bor¬
dering on draw colour, croffed with eight bands of black,
almoft equally diilant, except the two next t%e tail.
All thefe decreafe both in breadth and length, from
the middle towards each extremity of the animal. T. he
fcales are largeft along the back. They are very clofe,
though the divifions are diffidently apparent. Their
furface is very poliffied, and feems as if varnilhed over.
Its legs, from the Ihoulder to the middle toe, are near¬
ly an inch and three quarters long. Its feet are com-
pofed of five toes, the extremity of which is armed with
a brown claw of no great ftrength, whofe end is tipped
with black.”
The fame author, fpeaking of the immenfe multi¬
tudes of lizards which are found in eaftern countries,
adds, “ I am pofitive that I can fay, without exagge¬
ration, that the number I faw^ one day in the great
court of the temple of the fun at Balbec, amounted to
many thoufands. I'he ground, the walls, and the
Hones, were covered with them } and the vaiious co¬
lours of which they confifted, made a very extraordina¬
ry appearance, glittering under the fun, in which they
lay ileeping and balking.”
69. Lacerta Rufescens, Greater Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowilh, rufous; feet ffiort}
tail of moderate length.
This fpecies fometimes exceeds 15 inches in total
length. The head is covered in front wnth large angu¬
lar fcales; the legs are Ihort and thick; the feet penta-
daclylous, and furnilhed with fmall claws.
It is a native of Arabia and Egypt, living both on
land and in water. It is frequent on the Ihores of the
Nile. It is alfo met with in fome European iflands,
and particularly in the illand of Cyprus.
70. Lacerta Longicauda, Long-tailed Scinh.
Specif. Char.—Colour olivaceous yellow j tail very
long.
The great length of the tail in this animal forms the
fpecific diftin&ion •, the colour, which is greeniffi yellow,
varies in the lhade in different individuals.
It is faid to be a native of America, and frequents
the fea coafts, where it feeds on fmall crabs and fpi-
ders.
71. Lacerta Mabouya, Mabouya Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour golden yellow ; fides browniffi 5
jaws equal $ tail of middling length.
The length of this fpecies is about eight inches ; it
greatly refembles the common fcink, but differs from it
in the length of the legs,, and the jaws being equal.
It is a native of America, of .Tamaiea, and fome other
Weft India iilands. It is alfo found in the illand of
Sardinia.
72. Lacerta Occidua, Ga/lixvajp.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownifli ; tranfverfe bands fome-
what waved j legs Ihort; tail of middling length.
Except being larger, fomewhat thicker, and having
O L O G Y.
a tail proportionally ftiorter, this fpecits comes very
near the greater fcink. It is about ttvo feet in total
length. The teeth are fmall in front; but as they ap¬
proach the back part of the jaws, they gradually increafe
in fize, like the mo lares teeth of the mammalia.
The galliwafp is a native of the American iflands. It
is very common in woody and marlhy places in Jamaica,
and has been reckoned, but without foundation, a poifo-
nous reptile.
Var. Lacerta fcincoides, auftralafian galliwafp.—
This, although it is of a darker colour, has a longer
tail, and larger fcales, is confidered only as a variety of
the former. On each fide of the neck there is com¬
monly a longitudinal brown fpot.
It is a native of New Holland.
73. Lacerta Guttata, Spotted Sank.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray, fpotted with white 5 tail
long, marked with four tranfverfe black bands, and
black tip.
This fpecics does not exceed three inches in length.
It is a native of the Ural defert.
74. Lacerta Ocellata, Ocellated Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour greenifti gray, white beneath,
marked above with roundiftv ocellated brown Ipots,
which have white reftangular dilks.
This fpecies is about a fpan long. The body is de-
preffed ; the feet are ftiort and pentadatlylous. It has ■
no femoral warts.
It is a native of Egypt, and frequents houfes.
Se&. VIII. Salamanders, Newts or Efts.
The fpecies included under this fedlion have foft
Ikins, and fome of them are water lizards.
75. Lacerta Salamandra, Salamander.
Specif Char.—Colour black, fpotted with golden yel¬
low ; tail round, and of moderate length.
The colours of the falamander afford fufficient marks
of diftin&ion. It is of a deep fhining black, variegated
with large oblong and irregular fpbts of bright orange
yellow. The fides are marked with many large tranf¬
verfe wrinkles. The parotid glands form protuberances
on each fide of the head. On the back and fides cf the
body there are feveral large open pores, from which is
exfuded a peculiar fluid, which ferves to lubricate the
fkin. This fluid is of an acrid nature $ and when the
animal is irritated, is copioufly fecreted, and even it is
fuppofed, ejected to fome diftance for its defence. It is
in general from feven to eight inches in length. Some¬
times it is feen entirely black.
The falamander is a native of many parts of Germany, ^
Italy, France, and other parts of Europe, delighting in
moift fhady places, woods, &c. During the winter it
.conceals itfelf in receffes under ground, in the cavities of
old v^alls, or about the roots of old trees.
This fpecies lives chiefly on infefts, fmall fnails, See.
It is capable of living in waters as well as on land, and
fometimes reforts to ftagnant pools. It is flow in its mo¬
tions, and.torpid in its manners.
_ 303:
Lizards.
The
304 < E R P E v T
Lizards. The falamander is viviparous. The young are pro-
‘ v 1 duced perfedlly formed in the fame way as the viper.. It
is faid that it retires to the water to depofit its young,
the number of which at one birth amounts to 30 or 40,
and when they are firlt excluded, they are furnilhed
with branchial fins on each fide of the neck, which are
temporary organs, and are afterwards obliterated like
thofe of the tadpole.
Many popular errors concerning the falamander have
long prevailed. One of thefe was, that it was a veno¬
mous animal, and that its poifon is of fo malignant a
nature, as fcarcely to admit of any remedy. It is now,
however, found from the obfervations of later naturalifts
to be perfeftly innocent, and although the fluid fecreted
from the Ikin may be noxious to fmaller animals, it is in¬
capable of inflidling either wound or poifon on any large
animal. In an experiment made on purpofe, a gray lizard,
which had bitten a falamander, and (wallowed fome of
the fluid fecreted from the fkin, was almoft immediately
feized with convulfions, and foon after ‘died. It was
another popular error that the falamander could exift un¬
injured in the fire, and that it could even extinguifh it
by means of the fluid fecreted from its Ikin. This fluid,
it is probable, is fecreted in greater abundance when
the animal is expofed to heat, and thus it is protec¬
ted for a fhort time againft the aftion of the fire, which
can produce no effeft till the moifture on the fltin is
evaporated ; and from this circumftance, and hafty ob-
fervation,has arifen the improbable ftory of its being able
to refift the adlion of fire.
76. Lacerta Vulgaris, Common Newt.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowifli brown j dorfal line
double j abdomen orange coloured, fpotted with
brown.
This fpecies is the fmalleft of the Britifli lizards,
the general length not exceeding three inches and a
half.
It is a native of Europe, and is found in gardens in
the neighbourhood of dunghills, &c. Like the flug
and toad, it makes its way into cellars. It is altogether
a land Ipecies, and it feems to be viviparous j for fome
of a very fmall fize, yet perfectly formed, have been dif-
covered at a very great diftance from any water.
77. Lacerta Palustris, Great Water Newt.
Specif Char.—Colour blackifli; fides fpeckled with
white j abdomen orange, with irregular black fpots.
This fpecies isr fmaller in fize, and marked with a
different diftribution of colours, but in its general ap¬
pearance it bears a confiderable refemblance to the fala¬
mander. It is from five to fix inches in length. The
tail is flat, with thin (harp edges, and terminating in a
point j on each fide of it in the male there is a filvery
white broad band, accompanied with a bluiih tinge.
This fliipe and the dorfal creft are fometimes wanting
m the female. 0
It is a native of Europe, but is rare in Britain. It
frequents ftagnant waters in cool fhady places, and lives
pntirely on infecls. . It is to larger animals quite in¬
noxious ; but the fluid exfuded from its Ikin feems to aft
£s a poifon on fmall animals.
O L O G Y. Chap I.
78. Lacerta Aqitatica, Common Water Newt, Lizards.
Specif. Char. Colour olive brown, fpotted with black 5
abdomen orange-coloured} tail fliarp-edged and finu-
ated. *
The general length of this fpecies is from three to
four indies. The male is readily diftinguilhed from
the female by a confpicuous dorfal creft, which is more
elevated, and more regularly finuated than that of the
former fpecies. This broad creft is very tranfparent,
and when examined with a magnifying glafs, fliews the
ramifications of the blood veft'els and the circulation
of the blood. In the female the dorfal creft is near¬
ly wanting. The colour of the male is olive brown,
marked with numerous round black Ipots, which are
largeft on the fides and tail. The female is of a pale
yellowilh brown, and the fpots are much lefs diftinft.
'i'he fore feet are tetradaftylous j the hind feet penta-
daftylous, and in all the claws are wanting; but with
regard to the colour, the breadth of the tail, and that
of the toes, it ought to be obferved, that the water
newt, at different times of the year, different ftates of the
weather, and even in the courfe of the fame day, is fub-
jeft to confiderable variation.
This fpecies is a native of Europe, and is met with in
Britain in all foft ftagnant waters.
This animal breeds early in the fpring, and depofits
fmall oblong firings or clufters of fpawn. The ova,
according to Spallanzani, are of a kidney fhape, and
the larva are ready formed, becaufe long before they
leave the gluten, their motions are brifk and frequent.
In about 10 days they extricate themfelves from the
gluten. When they are firft excluded, the branchial fins
are diftinftly feen, and foon after the fore legs appear.
After a fortnight the hind legs are' vifible, and about
the beginning of September the branchial fins become
obliterated, and the animal affumes its perfeft form.
While the animal remains in the larva ftate, fit is fur-
niflied with a triple pair of ramified branchial fins on
each fide of the neck, which gives it the appearance of
a fmall fifh.
The water newt frequently calls its fkin, which
may be occafionally feen floating on the waters which
they frequent, and is fometimes fo perfeft as to reprefent
the whole form of the complete animal. The repro¬
ductive power of the water newt is a linking circum-
flance in its natural hiftory. They have been known
to have their legs, tails, and even the eyes, according to
fome, completely reftored, after they were cut off or de-
ftroyed. This animal is alfo remarkable for its tenacity of
life. Cafes have occurred in which the water newt has
been found completely inclofed in a mafs of ice, in
wdiich it mull have remained for weeks, or even months,
and yet, when the ice is melted, the animal was reftored
to its former health and vigour. Yet it is very readily
deftroyed by the application of certain fiibftances. The
water newt immerfed in fait water, foon dies j or even
by having common fait rubbed on the back for a
fhort time.
79. Leverian Water Newt.
This is a very large fpecies of the water newt, de-
fcribed by Dr Shaw, and of which there is a fpecimen in
the Leyerian mufeiun. The total length is 174 inches,
and
1
Chap. T. E R P E T
L-zarcK *and of this the tail meafures 61 inches. The head is
'" v flattened, the mouth moderately wide, and the upper
jaw is furnifhed in front with two concentric rows of
numerous, fmall, briftly teeth. The under jaw has on¬
ly a Angle row. The eyes are fmall, round, and fltuat-
ed on each flde of the front of the head, fo that they
are very remote from each other. The colour is pale
brown, marked in a confluent manner with darker va¬
riegations. The legs are about one inch in length, and
they are all furnilhed, along their whole length be¬
hind, with a dilated Ikin or crefl:. The tail is like that
of the common water newt, but is ftiorter, and lefs deep¬
ly Anned.
Its native country, and farther particulars of its na¬
tural hiftory, are unknown.
80. Lacerta Maculata, Spotted Water Newt.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackifli j a double row of white
fpots down the back.
The length of this fpecies is about Ave inches. The
head is large j there are four toes on the fore feet, and
Ave on the hind. The colour is deep brown, and the
double row of white fpots, which begins at the top of
the head and continues to the tail, becomes a Angle row
to the end.
It is a native of Carolina, and inhabits ponds, ditches,
and ftagnant waters.
Se&. IX. Snake Lizards.
The fpecies belonging to this fe&ion have very long
bodies, and Ihort legs.
81. Lacerta Chalcides, Chakides Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour ferruginous •, feet tetradaclylous;
body long, and marked with Ax brown dorfal lines.
The ufual length of this animal is about eight or nine
inches*, but it is fometimes found only a few inches long,
and fometimes exceeds a foot. The head is anteriorly co¬
vered with large feales 5 the fnout is tapering j the eyes
are fmall, and the openings of the ears are very diftinft.
The colour is ferruginous or chefnut brown above, and
yellowilh brown beneath.
This animal is a native of Africa and the warmer
parts of Europe, frequenting moill fliady places. It is
quite inoffenAve, and feeds on infefts, fmall wTorms, &c.
The motions of the chalcides are rather flow. It is vi¬
viparous, and is faid to produce a great number of
young.
82. Anm/Iated Chalcides. Chalcide Cepede.
This is nearly allied to the former, but differs from
it in having fquare feales, and in being marked through
its whole length with a continued feries of annuli or
rings, to the number of 48. The length of the body is
about inches, and is fomewhat fhorter than the tail.
The feet are Ihorter than in the former fpecies, and are
all tetradaftylous.
I he native country of this fpecies is unknown.
83. Lacerta Serpens, Serpent Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Head, body, and tail cylindrical 5 feet
fmall, remote, oentadadtylous.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y. 30-
The length of this fpecies is about 5-I- inches. The Lizards,
colour is cinereous or pale ferruginous above, marked v~*“
with from 15 to 20 dufky lines } beneath it is afh co¬
loured, with a fllvery glofs. It is entirely covered with
imbricated feales.
This animal is a native of Java.
84. Lacerta Anguina, Snake Lizard.
Specif Char.—Body long j tail very long j feet oval-
Ihaped, and without toes.
The body of this fpecies meafures four, the whole
length 15 inches. The colour is brown above, afh-co-
loured on the Ades, yellowifh beneath, and the upper
furface is marked throughout its whole length with fe-
veral dark ftripes. The head is fmall ; the legs very
fhort, and placed near the head and vent, and feemingly
terminated in one undivided procefs. The whole body
is covered with ovate feales.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and is fre¬
quently found in the water, and about the rocks in.
Table bay.
85. Lacerta Apus, Apodal Lizard.
Specif. Char.—This fnake-formed lizard is ferruginous,
has no fore feet, and its hind feet are very fhort and
monodaftylous.
The chalcides itfelf does not approach fo near to
the fnake tribe as this large and Angular fpecies of the
lizard. It meafures almoft three feet in length, and its
general appearance bears fuch a ftriking refemblance to
a large fnake, that it requires a very attentive examina¬
tion to afeertain the difference j as it has only a pair of
extremely fhort pointed proceffes by way of feet, at a
great diltance from the anterior parts of the body, al¬
moft on either Ade of the vent, and without toes. The
head is rather large, and covered with large feales \ the
fnout is tapering 5 the upper jaw projects a little over
the lower 5 the mouth is of a moderate widenefs, and the
ears are very viAble. There is no appearance of a neck,
as the body gradually tapers from the head to the ex¬
tremity of the tail, which is longer than the body, and
terminates in a point. The whole animal is covered
with rows of feales of a moderately large Aze, in a lon¬
gitudinal direftion, and emarginated at the tips. From
the head to nearly half the length of the tail, a deep
continued channel runs along each Ade of the body. Its
colour is a pale chefnut, and beneath a pale yellow-
brown.
Two fpecimens of this lizard were brought from
Greece by Dr John Sibthorp, profeffor of botany in the
univerAty of Oxford. It is rather a Angular circum-
flance that an animal of fuch magnitude fhould have re¬
mained fo long unknown to the inquiAtive naturalifl.
It is a native of Greece, of the fouthern parts of
Siberia, and unqueflionably of many other parts both
of Europe and AAa, although the knowledge of it has
been but lately acquired, the Aril deferiber of it being
Dr Pallas, by whom it was found in the fouth of Siberia.
It frequents moift and lhady places, and, as far as is yet
known, is an innocent animal.
86. Lacerta Bipes, Biped Lizard.
Specif Char.—Long bodied, cylindrical, pale yellow,
q fpeckled
%o6 I’. 15 PET
Anatomy. fpeckled with brown, having no fore feet; bind feet
very ftnall, and didattylous.
This fpecies, which is not larger in diameter than that
bf a goofe quill, meafures about fix inches in length j
its colour is a pale yellow, fpotted with brown *, the head
is imall, body cylindrical, tail ftiort and taper j on each
fide of the vent there is a fmall Tubulated loot, which
is furniihed with two fmall unequal toes.
It is a native of India and South America.
87. Lacerta Lumbricoides, Lumbricform Lixard.
, Specif. Char.—Body cylindrical, two-footed and annu-
lated with fquare fcales, having a lateral furrow, and
no hind feet.
This is about eight inches long, and half an inch in
diameter. The whole body, including head and tail,
O L O G Y. Chap. IT.
is of the fame diameter, and is covered with rings of Anatomy,
fquare fcales. Along each fide there is a continued ' v
furrow, which feparates the upper and lowTer fin faces.
The legs are two, very ftiort, and placed near the head.
They are divided into five minute toes, wThich ure fur-
nifired with claws. The colour of the living animal is
fuppofed to have been green, and paler beneath.
It is a native of Mexico.
Number of fpecies in each genus, included under the
order Reptilia.
Testudo, 39
Rana, 48
Draco, 2,
Lacerta, 87
Total 176
CHAP. II. OF THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF REPTILES.
HAVING in the former chapter 'taken a brief and
qomprehenfive view of the claflification, and fuch pai-
ticulars of the natural hiftory of reptiles, as were con-
nedled with the different fpecies, we now proceed to
give a flight flcetch of the anatomy and phyfiology of
this order of animals. rJ hefe fhall be the fubjeefs of the
two following left ions. In the full we fliall treat of
the anatomy, in the fecond ol the phyfiology of reptiles.
Sect. I. Of the Anatomy of Reptiles.
Between this order of animals, and the quadrupeds
belonging to the clafs mammalia, there are many points
of reiemblance, making allowrances for the diffeience of
fize j and hence they have been denominated ovipa¬
rous quadrupeds. This relemblance, however,only ex¬
tends to external appearance.
The body of reptiles is fupported by four feet, and
thefe form the principal external charafter. They are
difpofed like thofe of the mammalia, two before and
two behind. With the exception of fome animals which
have been arranged under this order, and which have
only tw-o feet, all reptiles are furniftied with four
feet.
The body is furnilhed with a tail, which is different
from that of quadrupeds, in having no hair. This is
common to the tortoifes and the whole of the lizard
tribe. The genus rana is an exception to this. All
the fpecies included under it are unprovided with a
tail.
The body is either lengthened, that is, when it is
confiderably longer than broad, as is the cafe with
lizards $ or rounded, that is, when the body, feen from
above, exhibits an orbicular form, as in the tortoife and
fome toads.
With regard to the furface of the body, it is never
covered with hairs, but fometimes with fcales •, fuch are
reptiles without a tail, the falamanders and fome lizards.
Jt is fometimes covered with inequalities or afperities,
the whole furface being rough with elevated points,
which refemble warts or puftules. This is the cafe with
fome lizards, and feveral frogs and toads. The body is
covered fometimes with a (hell both above and below 3
this bony covering protefts the animal from external in¬
jury. With fuch a covering the genus tortoife is fur-
nilhed. . ,
In the fketch which we propole to give ot the
anatomy of reptiles, the parts of the body may be di¬
vided into external and internal 3 the external parts
comprehend the head,* the trunk, the tail, and the feet.
Under the internal parts are included the fkeleton, the
mufcles, and the vifeera.
External Parts of the Body.
I. The Head.—The head is that part of the body
which is articulated with the firft vertebra of the neck.
It is rounded, that is, when its external furface is round
in every direftion, as is the cafe with tortoifes 3 or flat¬
tened or depreffed, when it is compreffed above and be¬
low, which is the cafe with almoft the whole order 3 or
triangular, when the head, feen from above, reprefents
a triangle, as in fome toads and frogs.
The mouth is femicircular, when the outline forms a
femicircle, as in the genus rana, and in almoft all the
lizard tribe 3 or inferior, when the upper jaw comes
over the lower, fo that the mouth naceffarily occupies
the lower part of the head. This is the cafe with the
tadpole.
The beak or fnout either forms an inclined plane
from the top of the head to the end of the jaws, as in
the chameleon, and many lizards 3 or conical, when the
two jaws gradually diminifti, as in the crocodile 3 or
reflefted upwards, wTien both jaws are flattened and
turned upwards towards the extremity of the beak 3
or rounded, when they are thick and ventricofe to¬
wards the extremity, as in feveral tortoifes 3 or point¬
ed, when the upper jaw terminates like the beak of a
bird.
The jawrs are either equal, as in moft part of the
genus rana, in many of the lizards, and falamanders 3
or unequal, as is the cafe with many of the tortoifes and
lizards, in wfiiich cafe, the upper jaw is always the
longeft. Among the whole order of reptiles, there is
/
Chap. II. E R P E T
Anatomy, no inftance of the contrary j that is, of the lower jaw
-‘v'——' being longeft, and perhaps this ftrutture would be in¬
convenient, or incompatible with the nature of the ani¬
mal, or its habits and mode of life.
A common error long prevailed with regard to the
motion of the jaws of the crocodile. It was afferted,
that this animal only moved its upper jaw ; but the
more accurate obfervations of later anatomifts have
proved the contrary, and that the articulations of the
head and jaws of this animal are precifely the fame
as in other quadrupeds. The head is articulated with
the laft vertebra of the neck, and the lower jaw is arti¬
culated with the upper, fo that the former, namely the
lower jaw, only has the power of motion.
All the animals belonging to the order of reptiles,
are not furniihed with teeth. The tortoifes and fome
lizards, have none. All the fpecies belonging to the
genus rana may be confidered alfo as having none, Jthe
jaws being only crenulated or notched j but in other
tribes belonging to this order, the teeth are conical,
as thofe of the crocodile, which are hollow, and filled
with a foft fubftance j or recurved, wdien the extremity
of the tooth turns backward towards the throat, as in the
Indian crocodile •, or ftraight, as in moll of the lizard
tribe ; compreffed at the fides, as in the guana j or notch¬
ed, when the fummit of the tooth is truncated and cre¬
nulated, as in the homed lizard.
Tongue.—In almoft all the tribes of animals belong¬
ing to this order, the tongue is peculiarly fitted for
feizing their prey. The form of it varies in all the
families. Another error has prevailed with regard
to the tongue of the crocodile. It was faid that it had
no tongue, but in place of it is furnifhed with a ftrong
membrane, which adheres to the two edges of the lower
jaw. Even the obfervations of later naturalifts tend to
confirm this error. Denon, who had numerous oppor¬
tunities of feeing the crocodile both dead and alive, in
its native haunts on the borders of the Nile, believes in
this opinion, that the crocodile has no tongue; but it
does not appear that any accurate anatomical infpe&ion
was made, to afcertain this point, or indeed that he was
accompanied by any anatomilf at all, by whom alone
the truth or falfehood of the opinion could be invefti-
Tongue of gatech This organ of the crocodile, however, is very
the croco- large, and even proportionally larger than that of the
‘file. ox, but it is ftrongly conne&ed with the fides of the
lower jaw, and being thus fixed or tied down, can¬
not be ftretched forwards, as is the cafe with other
animals.
In fome of the animals belonging to this order, the
tongue is nearly of equal length and breadth. This is
the cafe with the tongue of frogs, tortoifes, the falaman-
der, and the guana.
In fome it is very narrow at the bafe, and divided in
two at the extremity, as in moll of the lizard tribe,
which are thus furniihed with a bifid tongue.
Of the cha- the ftru&ure of the tongue of the chameleon, is
meleon. perhaps the mod Angular of any belonging to the order.
It is compofed of a white folid flelh, 10 inches long,
and about three broad. It is round, and flattilh to¬
wards the end ; hollow and open, fomewhat refembling
the termination of the trunk of the elephant. The
tongue is attached to the os hyoides by a kind of tmnk,
of the lhape of an inteftine, about fix inches long, and a
o L o G Y.
3°?
Anatomy.
line in breadth. This trunk is fumilhed externally
with a membrane, and internally with a loft, but lolid
and compaft, nervous fubilance, v\hich is with dif¬
ficulty divided into fibres. It is by means of this trunk
that the tongue, which is attached to it, is projected
from the mouth. This is done by the extenfion of the
trunk, and it is again drawn back by its contractile
power. Thefe motions are performed by a kind of
cartilaginous itilus, to which the invefting membrane
is attached, and over which it is plaited like a iilk
flocking on the leg. This ftilus is an inch long, and
originates from the middle of the bafe of the os hyoides.
In confequence of this extenlile and retractile powers
which the tongue of the chameleon poffefles, it has ob¬
tained the epithet of vermiform, becaufe in thofe motions
it refembles thofe of an earth-worm.
There is no great peculiarity about the noftrils oi 'No n
any of this order of animals. In general, they are al-
molt always of a round form. In fome, however,
they are lunulated, or lhaped fomewhat like a crelcent,
the horns of which are turned backwards. This is the
cafe with the noltrils of the crocodile.
The eyes, as in molt other animals, are placed on Eyes-
the fides of the head •, but in fome they are vertical, or
placed on the top of the head, as in feveral ot the toads
and the crocodiles; approximating, when the diltance
between the eyes is very fmall j or protuberant, when
the globe of the eye on each fide forms a cofifiderable
projection, as in thofe belonging to the genus rana, the
crocodiles, and the falamanders.
The nictitating membrane, which is peculiar to fome
birds, belongs alfo to fome of the animals of this order.
By means of extending this membrane over the eye, the
excellxve brightnefs of funlhine, to which many of them,
being natives of warm climates, are expofed, is greatly
moderated, and perhaps this membrane may be ufe-
ful to thofe animals of this order which frequent the
water.
The iris of the eye is differently coloured in the ani¬
mals of this order. In many it is red 5 in the chameleon
it is of a golden yellow colour.
Externally, the ears of reptiles do not exhibit any Ear£i
remarkable peculiarity. The opening is more or lefs
round, and it is ufually covered with a membrane.
There is no external ear, by which the vibrations of
the air might be collected, and conveyed to the fenfe
of hearing j from which it has been concluded, that
this fenfe is more obtufe than in quadrupeds. " *
2. The Trunk.—The trunk of the body includes
the neck, the breaft, the back, the ribs, the abdomen,
and the anus; and fome of thefe parts in different rep¬
tiles, preient confiderable varieties.
The neck, which unites the head with the trunk, is ^eck‘
very different in the different tribes belonging to this
order. In all thofe included under the genus Rana,
the head is fo clofely attached to the trunk, that the
neck is fcarcely to be dittinguithed. In others, how¬
ever, it is conliderably elongated, and quite diitinCt, as
in the crocodile and the falamander. The neck is alfo
pretty long in fome of the tortoifes. Sometimes it is
covered with wrinkles or folds, when the ikin forms
feveral tranfverfe wrinkles, as in the neck of fome of
the tortoifes.
The breaft or thorax is fituated on the anterior part Taorax.
£) q 2 of
3o8
Anatomy.
Calipafli of
the turtle.
Ribs.
Abdomen.
Calipee,
E R P E T
of tlie trunk j it forms a clofe cavity which is covered
beneath by the fternutn, on the lides by the ribs, and
above by the vertebrae at the back bone. 1
The back is the upper part of the trunk, extending
from the laft vertebra of the neck to the fiift of the
tail. In reptiles it is fometimes convex, fometimes
more or lefs flattened. It is either furnflhed with fcales,
when there extends along the luperior furface a low of
fcales from the neck to the extremity of the tail, as m
the guana and horned lizard j or it is furniihed with a
toothed future, when the upper extremity of the trunk
terminates in a notched ridjge, as in the chameleon of
the Cape ^ or is lupplied with a Kind of ladiated fin,
fomewhat refembhug the fin of a fifb, as in the baiilnkj
or it is protected with a ftrong bony covering, known
by the name of calipajh. TL his is the name by which
the bony covering of the turtle is diftinguiflied. Tnis
covering is compofed of different pieces clofely united
to each other, and they are fometimes fmooth and con¬
vex, fometimes ftriated and flat, difpofed in three rowsj
and there are about 24 pieces fituated on the edges of
this covering.
The ribs include the lateral parts of the trunk, from
the neck to the anus. In the tortoifes, the ribs are de¬
fended by the edges of the calipafh, which is here unit¬
ed with the inferior fhell, or bony covering.
The abdomen or belly conftitutes the inferior part of
the body, and extends from the extremity of the breaft
or thorax to the anus. In the tortoiles, this part is
compofed of a bony covering } and in fome fpecies be¬
longing to this tribe, there are openings in thofe places
which correfpond to the head, the four feet, and the
tail; but in fome other fpecies, as in the tejludo claufa,
there is no opening whatever, but the bony covering is
tranfverfely divided into two parts, which play on a
kind of hinge, fo that when the animal wifhes to move,
it opens the anterior divifion to put out the head and
the fore feet} and in the fame way for the opening be¬
hind. This inferior bony covering is united with the
upper one by means of a cartilage placed near the
middle of the body. This is ufually known by the
name of calipee. Sometimes the abdomen is covered
with plates or fcuta, which is the cafe with moft of the
lizards, which have on the inferior furface of the body,
very large plates regularly arranged.
The anus is not only the paffage for the evacuation
of the excrement, but is befides the canal in which are
contained the parts of generation of the male lizards
and tortoifes. The males of the animals belonging to
the genus Rana, which are deftitute of thefe parts, ejed
by this opening the fluid which impregnates the ova of
the female.
3. The Tail.—This part terminates the trunk. Many
reptiles, as thofe belonging to the genus Rana, have no
tail whatever •, but the animals belonging to the other
genera of this order are furniihed with a tail of differ¬
ent lengths. The tail is covered with fcales, as in al-
mofl: all the lizards 5 and thefe fcales are fometimes dif¬
pofed in rings or circular bands, as in feveral lizards •,
or they are fomewhat elevated, forming a kind of
notched appearance on the upper furface of the tail, as
in the guana.
4. The Feet. The feet of the animals belonging
to this order greatly refemble thofe of quadrupeds j
their pofition and articulations are nearly the fame, but
O L O G y. Chap. II.
they are much fhorter, and placed at a greater difiance Anatomy.^
from each other. T he feet terminate in a certain num- —y—'
ber of toes, and thence, according to the number
of the toes, affume different names 5 as tridadylous.,
tetradadylous, &c. The ftrutture of the toes is fimi-
lar to that of other animals. They are feparated from
each other, as in lizards *, palmated, when united by
means of an intermediate membrane, as in the hind feet
of the frog; furnifhed with nails or claws at the extre¬
mity, which are fometimes flat, as in the frogs j or hook¬
ed, as in the lizards j or destitute of nails or claw s, as in
the falamander.
Internal Parts.
Under the internal parts are imcluded the fkeleton,
the mufcles, and the vifcera.
1. The Skeleton.—With regard to the fkeleton of
reptiles, it may be obferved, that the ftrudure of the
bones is lefs complicated than that of quadrupeds, and
the texture is lefs compad. They poffefs at the fame
time fomewhat of the tranfparency of cartilages. The
bones may be divided into thofe of the head, the neck,
the thorax, the fpine, the tail, and the feet.
The bones of the head are compofed of thofe of the Bones of
cranium, and thofe of the lower jawT. In the greateftt1,ie
number of reptiles, the cranium confifts of a Angle bone.
The bone of the upper jaw, and that of the forehead,
are completely united in the crocodile, the chameleon,
and fome others. They do not feem to be feparated
by any diftind future. The lower jaw of the chame¬
leon terminates on each fide in a feparate bone, w'hich
unites on one hand with the region of the temples, and
forms on the other an angular articulation with the
jaw.
The bones of the neck are compofed of a feries of Of the
vertebrae, the number of which varies in the differentnecli’
tribes of this order. The fpecies belonging to the genus
Rana have no cervical vertebrae j but in the other tribes
the number varies, as has been mentioned, as will ap¬
pear from the following table.
Number of vertebrae.
Chameleon, 2
Moft of the Lizards, 4
Crocodile, 7
Tortoife, 8
The number of proceffes with which the vertebrae
are fumifiled, alfo varies. In thofe of the chameleon
there are feven*, but in thofe of the crocodile, there are
nine, viz. five above, and four below.
The bones of the thorax comprehend thofe of the Of the tho-
vertebral column, correfponding to this cavity, the ribs,rax>
and the fternum. The vertebrae, which correfpond to
the cavity of the thorax, are not the fame in all the in¬
dividuals belonging to this order. In the crocodile
there are only 12, but in the chameleon, the number
amounts to 18. Each of thefe vertebrae is in general
furnifiied with feven proceffes, which are fometimes
Ample, and fometimes fpiny.
The ribs are wanting in the reptiles belonging to Mbs.
the genus Rana : the falamander alfo is deftitute of ribs.
In the other tribes they are always found, but unequal
in number. In the tortoife there are eight on each
fide j in the crocodile 12 j in the chameleon 18. The
ribs
Sternum.
Spine
Chap. II. E R P E T
Anatomy, ribs are articulated with one vertebra only ; 1 uc in the
ftru&ure and articulations of thefe bones there is a pe¬
culiarity in the crocodile and chameleon. The two
firft and the two laft ribs of the crocodile do not termi¬
nate in the iternum. The cartilages which attach the
other eight are broken, fo that each rib from the verte¬
bra to the Iternum is compofed of three parts, one of
which is bony, the other two Cartilaginous. In the
chameleon the two firlt anterior ribs are not fupported
by the fternum $ the four following are attached to it
by means of appendages which form at the point of
junction an angle with the ribs, and which are not
compofed of a fubftance purely cartilaginous, but as
hard as that of the ribs. The i o other following ribs
do not reach the fternum. Each is joined to that which
is oppofed to it by a bony appendage, forming an arch
on the middle of the thorax and abdomen. The three
laft are loofe, feparated, and as it were truncated in the
middle.
The fternum or breaft-bone is a flat bone, placed on
the anterior part of the thorax, the figure and dimen-
fions of wdiich vary confiderably. In the crocodile
this bone reaches to the third rib ; it is compofed of a
Angle piece, having at its upper part a kind of carti¬
lage which forms a point towards the throat, and w7hich
enlarging at the fides covers the clavicles. The fternum
of the chameleon and the frog is compofed of four
bones, the firft of which is very large.
The back-bone comprehends the vertebras which
occupy the upper part of the back, including thole of
the loins. In the chameleon there are 22} in the cro¬
codile 19, and in the gray lizard 22.
The vertebrae of the tail form the poftericr extremi¬
ty of the fpiral column. Their number is always pro¬
portional to its length. The tail of the chameleon is
furnifhed with 50 vertebrae } that of the crocodile 33.,
and that of the gray lizard 60. All thefe vertebrae
are furnifhed with tranfverfe, oblique, and fpinous pro-
celTes, excepting thofe towards the end of the tail,
w'hich are ufually deftitute of the oblique procefles.
The bones of the feet bear a confiderable refem-
blance to thofe of other animals. The fore feet are
compofed of the fcapuia, the humerus, the- cubitus and
radius, the bones of the carpus and metacarpus, and
the joints of the toes.
The fcapuia or fhoulder-blade is fometimes fingle,
and fometimes double, in the animals belonging to this
order. The frog, the chameleon, and the falamander, have
only one } but it is of fuch a length that it extends from
the dorfal fpine to the fternum, vrith wftuch it is articu¬
lated, anfwering the purpofe of a clavicle. In the tor-
toifes and crocodile, there are two fhoulder-blades,
viz. one on the back, and one placed anteriorly, and
articulated wuth the fternum. Thefe alfo perform the
fundlions of the clavicle. The humerus is articulated
on the one hand with the fcapuia, and wuth the two bones,
the cubitus and radius of the arm, on the other. The two
latter bones, the cubitus and radius, are placed parallel
to each other, between the humerus and the bones of
the carpus and metacarpus. Thefe latter are fituated
between the two bones of the fore-arm, and the phalan¬
ges or joints of the toes.
The hind feet are compofed alfo of the femur or
thigh-bone, the tibia, and the peronea of the leg ; the
bones of the tarfus and mctatarfus, and the phalanges
y. 309
Thefe, excepting that they differ Anatomy.
Feet
Scapula.
O L O G
or joints of the toes.
fomewhat in ftnnfture, bear fo near a refemblance to y—
thofe of the fore feet, that it wTould be quite unnecef-
fary to enumerate or defcribe them particularly.
2. The Muscles.—The mufcles are the inftrumentsMufclcs of
of motion. The mufcles of the back of the crocodiletne bac^‘
take their origin from the vertebrse and ribs, and they
are attached by means of their tendons, to the bands or
rings which are formed by the tubercles of the back.
Thefe tendons aft in different directions} fome of them
pull thefe bands from above downwards, while others
pull them from below upwards. The ufe of thefe
mufcles is apparently to lock together more ftrongly
the rings of which the tubercles of the back are com-
pofed.
The mufcles of the abdomen in the fame animal, 3
which are four in number, one external, and one in¬
ternal on each fide, are not only different from thofe of
other quadrupeds in number, but alfo in their fituation
and ftrufture. The external mufcle is placed upon the
ribs, and the internal under them, immediately above
all the vifcera, which it embraces in the manner of a
peritoneum. The internal mufcle is attached on one
fide to the bones of the pelvis, and to the tranfverfe
proceffes of the lumbar vertebrEe } and on the other it
terminates in a broad tendon, which envelopes all the
inteftines in the form of a membrane. The fibres of
thefe two mufcles are difpofed lengthwife.
3. The Viscera.—The parts contained in the three
great cavities of the body are the vifcera. Thefe are
the brain, the heart, the lungs, the ftomach, the intef¬
tines, the liver, the fpleen, and the kidneys.
The brain is fituated within the cavity of the fkull. Brain.
This organ in reptiles, is in general of fmall fize. The
brain of the chameleon, which is of a reddifh or gray-
ilh red colour, is not more than a line in diameter. The
fame orgaA in the crocodile is very fmall, and fimilar to
that of fifties. The cavity within which it is contained,
does not exceed 14 lines in length, and about 1 2 in
breadth and depth.
ft'he heart is a ftrong mufcular body, from which pro-Heart;
ceed the great arteries, and in which the great veins
terminate. From the contraftile force of this organ,
the blood receives its firft impulfe. The heart in this
order of animals is fmall. It has in general been con-
fidered as having only one. ventricle and two auricles }
differing from the heart of the more perfeft animals,
which is furniftied with two ventricles and two auricles.
But from the obfervations of later natural ills, it woukl
appear that the ftrufture of the heart of reptiles has not
been accurately deferibed} for, according to fome ana-
tomifts and phyfiologifts, the heart of this order of ani¬
mals is really double } that is, confifting of twTo au¬
ricles which have a direft communication with each
other, and two ventricles, as in other animals.
The lungs which conftitute the principal organ of Lungs,
refpiration, are fpongy cellular bodies, in wThich the
bronchia or air-veffels are ' ramified. The fubftance of
which the lungs of reptiles are compofed, is not fleftry
and parenchymatous like thofe of quadrupeds, but they
confift of a bundle of veficles divided into two lobes.
The lungs of the turtle are remarkable for a veficle
which adheres to their furface on the left fide, and
which may be contrafted and dilated at the pleafure of
the animal. It is conjeftured, that it is by means of
this
3,0 E R P E T
Phyfio!o?y this organ, like the fwimming bladder in hflres, that the
    ' turtle raifes itfelf to the furface of the water.
Stomach. The llomach which is deftined to receive, the food,
is fituated between the gullet and the intefhnal canal.
'This organ in reptiles is very like that of birds. The
flomach of a crocodile four feet long is not larger than
four inches in length, and the fame in breadth; and al¬
though the fibres of which it is compofed are neither
fo ftrong, nor fo numerous, as thofe of the ftomach of
birds, they form a body which is incapable of extenfion
or enlargement. This renders it extremely disHcult to
believe what is faid of the crocodile, of its prodigious
voracity, fwallowing animals of fo confiderable a fize,
iince it is neither furnilhed with teeth fit for the mafti-
cation of its food, nor a ftomach of fufticient capacity
to receive fo great a quantity.
Inteftines. The inteftines form a canal compofed of different
convolutions, extending from the ftomach to the anus.
It is quite unneceffary to enter into a minuter defcrip-
tion, than merely to ftate, that they are divided, as in
other animals, into great and fmall. In the crocodile
and other reptiles, the inteftines going out from the fto
mach, form two great convolutions fimilar to thofe of
birds. They are afterwards convoluted in different
ways, till they reach the bottom of the cavity and ter¬
minate in the anus.
Liver. The liver is the organ deftined for the fecretion of
bile. In this order of animals it is large, and divided
into two unequal lobes, between which the heart is fitu¬
ated. The right lobe is fomewhat larger, and the gall
bladder occupies the middle of this lobe.
spleen. The fpleen is an organ placed on the left fide. In
this fituation it is expofed to the preffure of the dia¬
phragm and the abdominal mufcles. The fpleen of
frogs is double, and of an oblong form. In the croco¬
dile it is oval, fomewftiat oblong and equal at the two
extremities. The fubftance of which this organ is com¬
pofed, confifts of a great number of large whitiih points
on a dark red ground.
Kidneys, The kidneys are bodies of an oval lengthened form,
6cc. fituated within the abdomen, and deftined for the fecre¬
tion of urine. In the frog, between the kidneys and
the tefticles, there are certain appendages which re-
femble fome kind of leaves. The kidneys are attached
to the back, having at their pofterior extremity the fe-
minal veffels. The urinary bladder is fituated near the
orifice of the anus. N
Sect. II. Of the Physiology, Manners, and Habits
of Reptiles.
We fhall now, according to the arrangement pro-
pofed, make a few obfervations on the phyfiology, man¬
ners and habits of reptiles. <
From the fmall proportion of brain, and dull habits
of reptiles, it feems to be juftly concluded that their
fenfes are not very acute.
Sense of Sight.—Of all the fenfes, that of fight is
probably the moft perfe6l among reptiles •, but as their
moft common haunts are on the ihores of the ocean, on
the margin of lakes, and of ftagnant waters, and on the
.banks of rivers, where the r:iys of the fun are ftrongly and
inceffantly reflefted, it was neceffary that the eyes of
thefe animals (hould be protected from the too powerful
impreftions of light. For this purpofe the moveable
O L O G Y. - Chap. II.
eye-lids, and the niftitating membrane, are peculiarly Phvfiology.
fitted ; as by their means the animal is enabled to di- peculiarj_
minilh the quantity of light received into the eye. The ties
peculiar power which many of them poflefs alfo of con- fenfe.
traeding and dilating the pupil at pleafure, like the cat,
and fome other animals, which feek their prey in the
dark, extends the utility of this organ, and renders it
more fenfible and delicate. From this peculiar ftruc-
ture of the eye, the animal is enabled to lee objects at
a confiderable diftance, and is thus fitted to purfue its
prey in the dark, or at great depths under the furface
of the water } circumftances which are highly neceffary
for the fituation in which many of the tribes of reptiles
are placed, and exadlly accommodated to their habits
and mode of life.
Sense of Hearing.—This fenfe in reptiles is pro-Not very
bably not very acute. I he ftrudlure of the internal acute,
ear is confiderably different from that of the more per¬
fect animals. Indeed fome of the parts which feem to
render perception more acute, are wanting in thefe
animals. There is neither cochlea nor fene/lra ovahs,
and the femicircular canals are deftitute of extremities.
The membrane of the tympanum is very thick, and the
bone immediately connected with it is of a very irre¬
gular figure. But, befides, thefe animals have no ex¬
ternal ear whatever, by which means the vibrations of
the air might be collefled, and condenfed in the feat
of fenfation. In place of thefe external parts, there are
only very narrow openings, which can admit but a
fmall number of vibratory undulations. As a farther
proof of the dulnels of this fenfe in thefe animals, few
of them emit any found, excepting a harlh croaking,
whence it may be concluded, that their perception of
found is very indiftindt, or they are deftitute of the or¬
gans neceffary to exprefs it j otherwife, with thefe re-
quifites, the habit of hearing diftin£lly would very foon
improve the power of expreflion.
Sense of Smelting.—-Almoft all reptiles are ^fur- Suppofed t*
niftied with the external organs of this fenfe. Thebe more
noftrils of the crocodile are placed in a round fpace,PeitR
filled with a black, foft, and fpongy fubftance; thofe
of the tortoife and lizard occupy the extremity of the
fnout, and confift of twm very diftinfl openings. It ap¬
pears, indeed, from anatomical infpeflion, that the
nerves which terminate in thefe organs are of a very
large fize, which circumftance leads us to conclude,
that the fenfe of fmelling muft be pretty acute. But
when it is confidered that a great proportion of reptiles
have their abode in the midft of putrid marfties, it
would incline us to fuppofe, that the fenfe of fmelling is
not very acute.
Dr Townfon, in feme experiments which he made
with the w'ater lizard, very juftly concludes, that their
fenfe of fmell is extremely acute. “ I kept, fays he, a
confiderable number of wTater lizards, in a jar, which I
fed from time to time with worms j if they were in the
greateft ftillnefs, and I dropt in a worm ever fo gent¬
ly, they all immediately began to fight, each attacking
its neighbour and feizing it by the foot or tail. This
w'as not a contention for the worm, which often lay for
a ftiort time unnoticed, but it originated rather from
the acutenefs of their fenfe of fmell, W'hich immediate¬
ly infbrrced them of the prefence of their food, and in
the dullnefs of their diferiminating powers. T his is fi¬
milar to what I have invariably obferved in frogs and
toads,
Chap. II. E R P E T
phy iology. toads, which will fuffer their natural food to remain be-
11 fore them untouched, yet feize it inllantly on the fmall-
eft motion it makes. It was from a knowledge of this
inftinft that I was able in winter to feed my conftant
companion and favourite pet, Mufidora.
“ Before the flies, which were her ulual food, had
disappeared in autumn, I collected a great quantity as
provifion for winter. When I laid them before her, Ihe
took no notice of them •, but the moment I moved them
with my breath Ihe fprung and ate them. Once when
flies were fcarce, I cut fome flefh of a torcoife into fmall
pieces, and moved them by the fame means, fhe feized
them, but inftantly reje&ed them from her tongue.
After I had obtained her confidence, flie ate from my
fingers dead as well as living flies.
“ Frogs wall fly at the moving fhadow of any fmall
obje&s, and both frogs and toads will foon become fo
tame as to fit on one’s hand and be carrwd- from one
fide of the room to the other, to catch the flies as they
fettle on the wall. At Gottingen, I made them my
guards for keeping thefe troublqfome creatures from my
defert of fruit/and they acquitted themfelves to my fa-
tisfa&ion. I have feen the fmall tree-frogs eat humble
bees, not indeed without a battle j they are in general
obliged to rejedf them, being incommoded by their
flings and hairy roughnefs} but at each attempt the bee
is further covered with the vifcid matter from their
tongue, and is then eafily fwallowed.
“ Nothing appears more awkward and ludicrous than
a frog engaged with a large worm or little fnake 5 for
nature feems to have put a reftraint upon their voracity,
by forming them very inapt to feize and hold their lar¬
ger prey. One of my largeft frogs, whether the rana
temporaria, or efculenta, I forget, fwallowed in my
prefence an anguis fragilis near a fpan long, which, in
its ftruggles, frequently got half its body out again •,
* on when completely fwallowed, its contortions were very
JVai. HiJI. yjgjjjg in the flaccid fides of the conqueror
Ver/fee- Sense OF Taste.—If the perception of tafte is to
file. be taken in proportion to the fenfibility of the organ
which is the feat of it, this fenfe in reptiles mull be
confidered as the feeblefl of the whole, ihe tongue of
mofl reptiles is rather to be confidered as an inllrument
for feizing its prey, than as an organ deflined for the
perception of tafte *, and for the former purpofe it is re¬
markably fitted, both from its flrufture and mechanifm,
by which means the animal can project it. inflanta-
neoufly from its mouth, and alfo from the vifcid fluid
which is fecreted on its furface. We have already de-
fcribed, in fpeaking of the anatomy of reptiles, this
peculiarity of flru£ture in the tongue of the chame¬
leon.
Sense of Touch.—This fenfe cannot be fuppofed to
be very acute in this order of animals. Mofl of them
have the body covered with hard fcales, with large tu¬
bercles, or with a ftrong bony fubflance. In a great
number belonging to this order, the extremities of the
feet even are furnifhed with fcales j and the toes are
fo united together, that they can only be applied with
difficulty to the furface of bodies. And if in fome
lizards it is found that the toes are long, and diftinftly
feparated from each other, the inferior furface is co¬
vered, either with a hard Ikin, or with very thick
fcales, which mull undoubtedly deprive this part of all
O L O G Y.
fenfibility. The fenfe of touch, therefore, in reptiles, Phyfioiogy.
may, in general, be confidered as dull and imperfedt. '_v~ *
Circulation of the Blood.—In animals which
have been ufually dignified with the name of pcrfecl,
and which are fumifhed with a double heart, the blood
which has been collefted from all parts of the body,
returns to the right fide of the heart 5 is thence con¬
veyed to the lungs 5 from the lungs it palfes to the left
fide of the heart, and thence is again diftributed through
the body. But this courfe of the blood can only go on
when the function of refpiration continues without in¬
terruption j becaufe on the ceffation of the adlion of the
lungs, the circulation through them is interrupted, j and
therefore, without fome other ftrufture of the heart, the
circulation through the body mull flop, and the death
of the animal enfae.
Many of the animals included under the order of rep- Peculiari-
tiles are diftinguilhed by a peculiarity of itructure, Z//1/■/.,
which allows the circulation to go on during the necef-
fary interruption of the function of refpiration to which
they are fubjefted. The blood therefore, inltead of
palfing through the lungs, is conveyed through an ob- ^
long opening called foramen ovale, lituated betwreen the
two auricles, and is difcharged directly from the pul¬
monary artery into the aorta. Hence it is that thefe
animals come under the denomination of cold-blooded.-
This diminiffied temperature of the blood is afcribed to
the lefs complicated circulation w’hich goes on in their
fyftem. For the blood in the courfe of the circulation,
being lefs expofed to the action of the air in the lungs,
undergoes fewer of thefe changes, on which, according
to the prefent chemical theory of refpiration, the tem¬
perature of the body, or animal heat, depends.
Respiration.—The function of refpiration exhibits Refpiraiior..-
one of the greatell peculiarities in the animals belonging
to the order of reptiles. For, as in thefe animals the o/mhe/
ftrufture of the thorax, and the other parts neeeffary to animals.
the procefs of refpiration in other animals are quite dif¬
ferent, the means alfo by wffiich it is conduced in them
mult alfo be different. It is to Dr Townfon that we
are indebted for the elucidation of this part of the phy-
fiology of reptiles. This naturalift, as he himfelf ob-
ferves, at leafl: revived a dodrine which had been ac¬
knowledged by former phyfiologifts, to whom it leems
to have been diilindly known. Among thefe he mentions
Laurenti, who, in his Synopfs Reptihum, has derived the
charader of his clafs from the peculiar mode of refpira¬
tion of thefe animals, of which he fays that they are
furniflied with lungs, but are deltitute of diaphragm
and ribs, but by means of the gular pouch the air is al¬
ternately drawn into this refervoir, and by its contrac¬
tions propelled to the lungs.
In quadrupeds, Dr Towmfon obferves, there are no
perceptible motions in the throat, excepting thofe which
accompany the procefs of deglutition j but in the frog
tribe, whether they are awake or afleep, if they are not
excluded from the air, there are fome remarkable mo¬
tions of the throat which are quick and conftant : thefe
are the motions which are fubfervient to infpiration.
The bony and mufcular parts, which in hot-blooded Procers of
animals are the mechanical inftruments of refpiration " hJl at;lonj
are entirely wanting in this order of amphibia. It muft
then be by means of fome other contrivance, that they
are enabled to fill the lungs with air. In the hot-
- blooded
4
ST2 E R P E T
Phy lology. blooded animals tbe alternate contraftion and dilatation
of the thorax effecls this, but in this tribe the lame pur-
pofe is accomplhhed by the dilatations and contractions
of the throat. When the cavity of the throat is enlarged
the air rufhes through the noltrjls and fills it •, the noitrils
being clofed by their proper mufcles, the glottis is open¬
ed • the mufcles defigned for this office contraft, diminiffi
the cavity of the throat, and impel the air which is con¬
tained in it into the lungs ; and in this way, he adds, is
infpiration performed in thefe animals.
“ When the lungs, fays he, were laid bare, I have ob-
ferved that thefe did not inflate, if the frog, exhaufted
with pain and lofs of blood, or when the noftrils were
covered with it, opened its mouth to take in a greater
fupply of air, till the throat contracted ; this, then, was
the immediate confequence. Likewnfe, if I put a
tube down the throat, the glottis and mouth being by
this kept open, the lungs collapfed, and in this ftate re¬
mained ) but as foon as the tube wTas removed, refpira-
tion immediately recommenced : nothing fimilar to this
is to be obferved in hot-blooded animals
Of expiva- “ Expiration is very ealily accompliffied ; for, the
tion. glottis and the noftrils being open, the lungs by their
own contraction from a ftate of diftention, and by their
own weight, aided by that of fuperincumbent parts, will
gradually expel the air ; but the mufcles which cover
the fides aCt alfo on this occalion, and in their croakings,
(which, in the time of their amours, are heard to a great
diftance), with great force. But in the ordinary ex¬
pirations of thefe animals, no more than in quadrupeds,
do the lungs wholly collapfe ; if not viewed with at¬
tention, no motion is ever perceived in their fides,
though there is a regular contraction and diftention.
T. hey likewife have the faculty of compreffing one lobe
of the lungs fingly, by the contraction of the mufcles
of that fide ; this is eafily induced by touching them
gently on the fide with a pin or other iharp body.
“ As thefe animals are known to be able to live a
much longer time without air than thofe with hot blood,
it has been feid by many that they refpire flower. But
although probably they do not vitiate fo much air, they
refpire very rapidly. Man refpires about twenty times
in a minute : and, according to Forgaro, birds, wffiich
breath the quickeft of all hot-blooded animals, from
25 to 50 } but the efculent frog (rana efculenta'), re¬
fpires about 70 times in a minute j the rana variabilis
(a fpecies of toad), about 100, and the tree frog
{rana arborea), fo rapidly that I -could not reckon the
number of the motions of its throat* The contractions
the throat I have confidered as infpirations; yet, as
the noftrils do not clofe with each contraction, I cannot
venture to affirm that at each the wffiole contents of the
throat are driven into the lungs. As there is frequently
one contraction in four or five greater than the reft, it
may be then that the greateft quantity of air is driven
into them. W hen theffi animals fleep, and in cold wea¬
ther, thefe motions are flower and more feeble.
“ According then to the doCtrine which I have ad¬
vanced on the mechaniim of refpiration in the frog tribe,
which may eafily be fubjeCted to experiment, and then
Q L O G Y. Chap. 71.
thrown afide, if it bears not this teft, but candidly re- pl v y,
ceived if it does, their lungs poifefs no lecret power ofv——
dilatation, any more than thole of hot-blooded animals.
In both, this organ is inactive in refpiration, which pro-
cefs principally differs in this, that, whilit in the hot-
blooded the air ts fucked into the lungs by the expanfon
of the thorax; it is driven into them, in the frog tribe, by
the motions of the throat.
“ Let us nowT proceed to examine anatomically the Mechanifn#
mechanifm fubfervient to refpiration j and when, for0 'tfpira-
the fake of brevity, in fpeaking of the throat, 1 make^011,
ufe of the terms of mufcles of infpiration and expiration,
I mean by the former thofe mulcles wffiich ferve for
forming a vacuum in the throat, and by the latter thofe
which ferve to diminiffi it.
“ Instruments of Respiration.—When the fkin
is ftripped off from the throat, a broad mufcle comes
into view, which is the mylo-hyoideus. It covers the
whole throat, being extended from the end of the
maxilla to the condyles ; its fibres run tranfverfely, and
are inferted into the maxilla through its whole length.
In the middle, from the point of this bone, it becomes
thin and membranous, but at the condyles thicker j it
is not united w ith the os hyoides, as in man, but (light¬
ly connefted with the (kin. When the cavity of the
throat is diminiffied, its mufcular fibres are feen evi¬
dently to contraCl, but chiefly at the condyles, where
the mufcle is thickeft* Thus, this mufcle feefns well
adapted to affift in driving the air from the throat
into the lungs ; neverthelefs, if it be cut away, re¬
fpiration continues.
“ The mylo-hyoideus being cut away, the genio-
hyoidei appear ; and, under thefe, in the middle, is the
mufcle of the tongue •, the mufcle at the point of the
maxilla, the fterno-hyoidei and the coraco-hyoidei are
likewife feen. The genio-hyoidei, which are flit where
the fterno-hyoidei are iifterted in the os hyoides, from
their direftion and connection, ought, one would think,
greatly to affift in drawdng the os hyoides forwards, and,
by this means diminiffi the cavity of the throat} yet thefe
being cut aw^ay, refpiration continues.
“ The fterno-hyoidei are ftrong and powerful; they
rife from the whole length of the laft bone of the fter-
num, and are inferted all along the os hyoides. As the
os hyoides is not in the fame direction as the fternum,
but higher, and its cornua, which are faftened by the
ftylo-hyoidei, likewife higher and oblique, thefe mufcles
in their contractions draw this bone downwards and
backwards, and thus form a cavity in the throat.
Thefe are the principal mufcles ufed in forming this
cavity, and when they are cut refpiration ceafes.
“ The coraco-' yoidei rife from the inferior fide of
the neck of the fcapula, and are inferted into the os
hyoides near the infertions of the fterno-hyoidei. They
direCt the movements of the os hyoides, and draw7 it
downwards ; one being cut, this bone lofes its natural
direction and inclines to-the other fide.
“ If wre fearch deeper, we find the ftylo-hyoidei
mufcles. otherwife the conflmdiores medtipharyngis, ( r)
of which there are three pairs (c). One pair, which is
ftronger
Either the ftylo-hyoidei or thefe conftriCtors are wantin'/.
tc) In the common toad {Rana Bufoi), and in the Rana variabilis, I only found two pairs,
3
Chap. II. E R P E T
Phyfiology. ftronger than the reft, rxfes from the pofterior region of
L‘. the ear, and is inferted into the points of the cornua of
the os hyoides. The other two pairs have the fame
origin, and are likewife inferted into the cornua of the
fame bone, but more forward. Thefe muicles are like¬
wife of great moment in contrafting the cavity of the
throat, by elevating the os hyoides, and drawing it for¬
ward. I have obferved lome mufcular fibres in the
vicinity of the ftylo-hyoidei, upon the membrane which
lies immediately under the muicles now defcribed, and
which forms the interior part of the throat ; thefe may
aflxft likewife as conltrihtors.
“ If we take away the mufcles and the membrane of
the throat, leaving only the fterno-hyoidei mufcles, al¬
though re%)iration is now totally deftroyed, the motions
ufed in refpiration continue. The os hyoides is ftill
drawn backwards and forwards, and the glottis opens
and Ihuts, but the lungs remain collapfed j if even
all the mufcles which move the os hyoides, are cut a-
way, the glottis, whofe mufcles remain untouched, con¬
tinues to open and Ihut, juft as in hot-blooded animals,
whofe refpiration is deftroyed by a large wound in the
thorax, efforts to refpire continue, though ineffec¬
tual, to remove the painful fenfation of incipient fuffo-
cation.
“ On expiration little is to be faid j I have always
found the lungs of thefe animals, whether alive or dead,
to collapfe as foon as the glottis is open j yet, as I have
already obferved, the oblique mufcles, which extend
from the glottis to the os pubis, and thus envelope the
lungs through their whole extent, have a great power
to comprefs them, and thus produce expiration. Whether
I have properly applied the name of obliques to thefe
mufcles I will not contend, as I have not examined
them with particular care j they may probably be com-
pofed of feveral mufcles, but thus much I have ob¬
ferved that their fibres run more or lefs tranfverfe-
ly, and are therefore well adapted to produce this
^ Yrcth * «
Nat Hiji. Propagation of Reptiles.—Although reptiles,
from their fenfes being lefs acute than thofe of other ani¬
mals, feem in general dull and ftupid \ on the return of
fpring, they exhibit a very different character. As the
warm leafon advances, they become lively and a£tive,
and thus fhew that they are actuated by a new. fet of
defires. It is at this time that the frbg tribe, which at
no other feafon of the year emits the Imalleit found, be¬
come remarkable for the croaking and difagrfeeable
noife, by means of which they exprefs thefe new or
once dormant feelings. When thefe feelings acquire
force, even fome of the external parts of fome of the
frog tribe undergo a change. The fore feet of the male
are then furniihed with a kind of wart, wdiich is fup-
plied with papilla?, that it may more firmly attach itfelf
to the female. The male then places itfelf on the back
of the female, and embraces her fo ftrongly with the
fore feet, that it can only be feparated by a confiderable
force. In this fituation the two remain together for
about a month. About the end of this time, or fooner
or later, according to the temperature of the feafon, the
female begins to exclude the ova. The eggs form a
kind of firing, and are united together by a vifcid mat¬
ter, and included in a thick glairy fubftance. At the
moment that the ova are excluded by the female, the
male eie.fts. a fluid with which they are impregnated,
Vol. VIII. Part I.
Change on
the male
frog.
O L O G Y. 313
at the fame time giving a peculiar cry during the courfe Phyfiology.
of this procefs. So ftrongly is the male attached to *
the female, that nothing can diliurb or interrupt his
operations. Nay, what will appear ftill more fur-
prifing, in an experiment by Spallanzani, in wThich the
head of a male frog was cut off in this fituation, the
animal continued for lome time to impregnate the
ova as they were excluded, and died only at the end of
four hours.
When the ovum of the frog is examined with the Ova of the
microlcope, a imall point is diltinguilhed, black on the r'roS*
one fide and white on the other, placed in the centie of
a globule, whofe glutinous and tranfparent fubftance is
furrounded with two concentric membranes, which are
analogous to the ftiell of the egg. At the end of a cer¬
tain time, which is longer or ftiorter, according to the
temperature of the feafon, the embryo begins to be de¬
veloped, and is afterwards known by the name of tad¬
pole. Spallanzani has obierved, that the proc^fs of in¬
cubation or hatching in the ova of the toad goes on, al¬
though the temperature of the atmolphere does not ex¬
ceed 6° above zero oi Reaumur’s thermometer, which
is equal to about 390 of Fahrenheit.
It is unneceffary to mention, that the ova of the frog
are depofited and hatched in wrater. It may be obferved
allb that this procefs is interrupted in the ova of the
toad, which happen to be dropt on the earth, unlefsthey
are fupplied with moifture.
The tadpole, as the procefs of incubation proceeds, pro^refs of
and the organs which are deftined to perform the func-the tadpole,
tions of life are developed, exhaufts the glutinous mat¬
ter with which it is lurrounded ; this gradually dilates j
and the more it increafes in volume, the lefs is the quan¬
tity of its mafs. It becomes at length only a light and
aJmoft invifible fubftance, from which the tadpole makes
a ihort occafional excurfion in the water, in making its
firft efforts in fwimming ; but returns again, finding
itfelf either unable to procure its food, or to fupport itfelf
long in the water on account of the ftiortnefs of the fins,
which have not yet attained their full fize. But as the
little animal advances in its growth, the glutinous mat¬
ter, its former habitation, being entirely diflipated, it
roams at large in the waters.
According to the obfervations of Swammerdam, a
tadpole is about fix lines in length at the end of 15 days
after it has been depofited by the female. The firft
traces of the hind feet may then be feen ; and the place
of the toes is marked witlx fo many fmall protuberances.
In this ftage of its progrefs the little animal exhibits a
very different appearance from that which it affumes
after the change it is to undergo. The mouth is not
placed at the anterior part of the head, but on the lov er
lurface j and when it wifties to ieize any object for its
prey, or to expel the air from its lungs by expiration,
its motion in turning its body is fo rapid and inftantane*
ous, that the eye can fcarcely follow it.
In a tadpole of 36 days old the hind legs are pro¬
truded ; but the fore legs are fome days later, fo that
to fee them at the fame period the animal muft be open¬
ed, at leaft the external covering which veils in fome
meafure, or difguifes its future form. At laft, at the
end of about two months of confinement, which is about
the middle of June, the young frog having reached its
perfect form, and acquired fufficient ftrength, burfts
from its prifbn. It contrives at firft to contraft its
R r covering
Time of
the turtle
breeding
Wits,
314 E R P E T
Phyfiology. covering by elevating its back ) by this the ikin is torn
‘■"' “v 1 near the head of the animal, which paifes through the
opening. That part of the membrane which formed
the mouth of the tadpole is retraced over the body j
the fore-legs are fucceffively unfolded } and the ikin
pulhed to the pofterior extremity of the body, leaves
the whole of it, as well as the hind-legs and the tail, un¬
covered. The tail then gradually diminifhing in
volume, at laft entirely difappears, fo that the fmalleft
trace of it no longer remains in the perfeft animal.
According to the fituation of the countries in which
they are found, the temperature of the climate, and the
period and duration of the rainy feafons in tropical re¬
gions, the time of the turtle depofiting its eggs is regu¬
lated. At this feafon the female quits the ocean, and
often, it is faid, makes a voyage of 300 leagues to find
a fafe and convenient fpot for the reception of the em-
bryons of her future offspring. The male, according
to the accounts of fome naturalifts, accompanies the
female in this expedition, with the view of reconducl-
ing her to their former haunts. We are informed that
they arrive in fuch multitudes on the banks of the
Oroonoko about the beginning of March, that there
is not fufficient fpace on the fhore to contain them, fo
that vaft numbers are feen with their heads above
water, waiting the departure of thofe on land, that they
may occupy their place. When the turtle has reached
the fliore, fhe fixes on a fpot covered with fand or
gravel 5 digs with her fins, in a place beyond the reach
of the tide, one or more holes of about a foot broad and
two feet deep •, and there depofits her eggs to the num¬
ber of more than a hundred. She then covers them
with a little fand, but fo lightly, that the action of the
rays of the fun may not be interrupted hatching them.
The turtle depofits her eggs commonly at three different
times, a period of fourteen days intervening between
each time. The dangers to which thefe animals are ex-
pofed, when the light of day favours the purfuit of their
enemies, and perhaps alfo, it has been conjedlured, the
fear of fuffering from the burning rays of the fun, make
them almoft always prefer the darknefs and temperate
coolnefs of night to come on fliore for this purpofe.
The period of hatching is longer or Ihorter accord¬
ing to the temperature of the climate. In more tem¬
perate regions, it continues about 20 or 25 days. At
the ifland of St Vincent, (one of the Cape de Verd
iflands), this procefsis completed in 17 days ; and Gu-
milla the hiftorian of the river Oroonoko afferts, that
three days only are required for hatching on the banks
of this river. He placed, he fays, a flick near the
place w'here the turtle depofited her eggs, and at the
end of three days, fo great is the influence of the fun
upon the fand, the fmall turtles had made their appear¬
ance.
Travellers who have had opportunities of obferving
the^ fmall turtles fbon after they are hatched,.when they
are only about an inch long, inform us, that in this
ftate they do not quit their holes during the day, being
inftin&ively warned to protefl themfelves in this man¬
ner from, the heat of the fun, and the voracity of birds
of prey* but they wait till night to make their wray to
the ocean. “ I have been often aftoniflied, (fays Gumil-
la,) when I have obferved that the place where they
have been hatched, being fometimes half a league dis¬
tant from the river, they direct their couxfe towards it
o l o G Y.
Chap. II.
without any deviation by the fliortefl poflible way. I Phyfiology.
have fometimes carried the young turtle to a great dif- * ’
tance from the water. I have covered them up and
made feveral holes for them that they might wander.
But I no fooner left them at liberty, than they took the
direct courle to the river, without turning either to the
right hand or to the left.” The inflinft with which thefe
little animals are impreffed, condufts them towards the
neareft waters, where they find fafety and proper food.
They move on very flowly, and as yet too feeble to re¬
fill the force of the waves, great numbers are thrown
back by the furge on the fea Ihore, where fea fowd, cro¬
codiles, tigervs, and other animals are in waiting to de¬
vour them, fo that but a fmall number efcapes the nu¬
merous dangers to which they are conftantly expofed.
It is alfo at the return of the fpring feafon that the Of the alU-
alligator depofits its eggs. It lays about 100 in the g110-1*
fpace of one or two days j and in the fame way as the
turtle, covers them with fand, and it is faid, rolls itfelf
round the place, that it may be the better concealed
from its enemies. Having thus fecured its future off-
fpring, it returns to the water, when the procefs of
hatching goes on by the heat of the fun. About tbe
time that the neceffary period has elapfed for the evolu¬
tion of the young animal, it is faid that the female re¬
turns, accompanied by the male, fcrapes up the fand,
and uncovering the eggs, breaks the fhell, to allow the
young animal to efcape. It is faid that the young' alli¬
gator, before it leaves the eggs, is at lealt fix inches
long, and that it is rolled up, having its head placed in
the centre. When the fhell is broken with a flick, they
bite it fiirioufly, and fink their teeth in this fubfiance.
This feems not improbable, fince it is recorded by dif¬
ferent naturalifts, that the teeth of the young alligator
are completely formed before it leaves the egg.
The mode of propagation, fo far as it has been ob¬
ferved among the tribe of lizards, is fimilar to that of
the frog. The male remains for fome time on the back
of the temale, embracing her clofely. This does not
prevent them from running about, or leaping from
branch to branch. WTien the female is about to depo-
fit her eggs, fhe makes a hole in the earth, of about
two inches deep, at the foot of a tree or a wall j in that
the egg is dropped and covered with the earth, and, as
in the other tribes, the procefs of incubation is accom-
pliflied by the heat of the fun.
But fome fpecies of lizards are viviparous. This is
confidered by naturalifts as exadlly the fame mode of
propagation as in the others which are produced from
eggs, with this difference only, that the procefs of in¬
cubation goes on in the former within the body of the
female, and the young are excluded completely form¬
ed.
The Eggs of Reptiles.—The fize of the eggs ofsize of tfo
this order of animals is always proportioned to that of eggs-
the female by whom they are produced. From the
$nalleft fpecies of lizard to the huge crocodile, they;
may be found of every fize. The fmalleft are fcarcely.
more than two lines in diameter, while the largeft are
three inches long.
The covering of thefe eggs is different in the differ-,
ent tribes. In the greateft number, but efpecially in
the eggs of the turtle, it is flexible, loft, and iimilar to
moiftened parchment. The eggs of the crocodile, and .
of fome large lizards, are covered with a ftiell of a hard,
calcareous
Ufed as
food.
Reptiles
feeci vura-
cio ufly.
Chap. II. E R P E T
Phyfiology. calcareous fubftance, like that of the eggs of birds. It
  is however, confiderably thicker, and confequently lefs
brittle.
In India and America, thefe eggs are very much
fought after, and are efteemed by the natives a very
rich and delicate food. About the time that the turtle
depolits its eggs on the banks of the Oroonoko, the
neighbouring inhabitants repair to the banks of that
river with their families, for the purpofe of collecting
them } and they not only live upon them at this time
of the year, but dry them, that they may carry them
home to be laid up in (tore for their future fuften-
ance.
It is faid that the Indians are extremely fond of the
eggs of the alligator, which they fearch out with great
indullry, and rejoice when they difcover the place
where they have been depofited. They bake them when
they prepare them for food, and although the young
animal has begun to be evolved, or is nearly formed,
they are not lefs fcrupulous in eating them.
Food ok Reptiles.—It is only in extraordinary
cafes that reptiles abftain from food for any length of
time. When they are at perfect liberty, and find that
kind of food which is fuited to their nature, they in ge¬
neral indulge in it voracioutly. Frogs and lizards feed
on leeches, worms, fnails, beetles, and different fpecies of
winged infects. Some of the toads live on aquatic plants 5
the turtles find in the water or on the land, vegetables
and Ihell-filh 5 the crocodile is carnivorous, and devours,
greedily, filhes, fea-fowl, and turtles ; and when pref¬
led by hunger, attacks men, but efpecially, it is faid,
the negro race, whom he prefers to others. This lat¬
ter fact has probably no foundation whatever. The
very largeft crocodiles, which are more ealily feen and
avoided, it is faid, employ fome artifice in feizing their
prey. They watch about the margin of ilagnant wa¬
ters, and lie there covered with mud, like a fallen tree,
remain immoveable, and patiently wait the favourable
moment to feize iome unfufpetiing animal. Sometimes
when they fwim down any large river, they flop at the
molt frequented places, and raife only the upper part of
their head above the furface of the water. In this atti¬
tude, which leaves the eyes at liberty, they furprife the
animals which come to cool themfelves, or to drink in
the river. As foon as they perceive any one, they
plunge under the water, fwim towards it, and feize it
by the limbs, drag it along to drown it, and afterwards
make it their prey.
Abode of Reptiles.—-Reptiles, like plants, are
profufely diftributed over the whole furface of the
globe •, but from their nature and habits are more abun¬
dant and numerous in fome places than in others. Some
tribes live entirely on dry land, wdiile others are con¬
fined to the bottom of the water. Others may be con-
fidered as intermediate tribes, living on the confines of
the two elements, exhibiting in them the degrees and
fhades of different habits, which refult from the diver-
Different ^7 forms* Among thofe which have their abode on
character ^r>r as many of the tortoifes, moft of the lizards,
of reptiles the chameleons, fome prefer dry and elevated fituations,
in ciiffere, t while others dwell in caverns or in the holes of rocks j
fituations. an[j as thefe are different in their economy and habits,
fo wTe find that they are different in their motions j
WThile the one is lluggifh and inactive, moving flowly,
the others fpring or cr^ep rapidly among the branches
O L O G Y. 315
of trees. Almoft all of them, however, take the water, Phyfiology.
and fwim with great facility j but they are obliged, as ' *
well as the reptiles which remain conllantly in the wa¬
ter, to come to the furface from time to time to refpire
the air of the atmofphere. The intermediate tribes, or
fuch as have their ufual haunts on the limits of the land
and water, can only exift in climates which correfpond
to their temperament. And thus they are found in in¬
numerable multitudes in the immenfe extent of morafs
in the deluged favannahs of the new continent, where
the moifture of the atmofphere and the temperature of
the climate are favourable to their reproduction.
In Kamtfchatka, where the cold of winter is fo rigo
rous, no fpecies of toad, of frog, or even of ferpent, is
ever feen. Lizards, however, are very numerous,
which are regarded by the inhabitants with a fuperlti'
tious horror. They fuppofe that they are fent by fome
evil deity, as fpies on their aCtions, or to predict their
death $ and hence it is that they ufe every precaution
to fecure themfelves againit their mifehievous effects.
Wherever they find them they cut them to pieces, that
they may not be able to return to the malignant being
by whom they have been fent, to witnefs agaiidl them.
Should the animal accidentally make its efcape, they
are feized with the moft violent grief and defpair. They
expeift every moment the approach of death, and fome-
times bring on, by their fears and terror, what they fo
much dread. All this contributes ftill more to in-
creafe and ftrengthen this ridiculous and groundlefs fu-
perftition.
Reproductive Power of Reptiles.—Many of the
animals belonging to the order of reptiles undergo very
conliderable changes, in the reproduftion of different
parts of the body, either in the ordinary proceffes of
nature, or when they are deprived of them by accident.
The calling of the fkin, and its reproduction in differ¬
ent reptiles, as in the toad and newt, may be regarded
as a natural operation, in fome way neceffary to the
economy of thefe animals. It is obferved, that the
water-newts frequently call their Ikins •, and thefe are
occafionally feen floating in the waters which they in¬
habit. The Ikin is fometimes fo perfeCt, that it exhi¬
bits the whole form of the complete animal.
The following account of this procefs by Bonnet
will, we doubt not, be interefting to the reader.
“When, fays he, the period of change approaches, Calling the
the fine Ikin is obferved detaching from the body. The ikin.
head firft lofes it; then the reft of the anterior part 5
next the middle, and the pofterior part. Sometimes
the fpoil, call by the head, forms like a gauze collar or
cravat around the neck ; or it is adjufted on the head,
like a capuchin or head-drefs.
“ The commencement of reparation, from the back
and belly, is difeovered by viewing the newt obliquely
from one fide, in a ftrong light. The Ikin of the
belly is further detached, becaufe it falls down by its
own weight.
“ Approaching fpoliation is recognifed by confpicu-
ous and unequivocal fymptoms. The back, viewed
obliquely, appears wThitifh, and as if covered with a
fpider’s web. . This is the effeCt of the fpoil beginning
to feparate. If clofely examined with the naked eye,
or a magnifier of fmall power, it feems compofed of
minute feales covering the callofities or tubercles, which
fhaereen the body of the newt. But, wrhen examined
R r a with
3ifi
E R P E T
Phyfiology. with more attention, and in a favourable light, this
v *-epidermis is difcovered to be a beautiful reticulation,
the meflies of which are vifible to the naked eye.
“ Many obfervations could be made on the texture
of this delicate membrane 5 and thefe might greatly
tend to elucidate the nature and origin of the epider¬
mis, which, notwithftanding all the refearches of phy-
iiologilfs, are fo little known $ and newts would afford
frequent opportunities for deeply inveftigating the
point.
“ From particular attention to the newts in my pof-
feffion, I have obferved, that there is not the fmalleft
refemblance between this operation and what is exhi¬
bited by caterpillars, and many other infefts. The
fkin is detached here and there, and often in different
fized plates •, and the change is flow, for it occupies
one or two days, and I have even known it take three.
During fpoliation, the newt continues moving about in
the water, with all the ufual motions of newts that un¬
dergo none ■, therefore it is no difeafe, and it does not
affeft them as it does infefts. While the change is
going on, the animal darts on its prey, holds and de¬
vours it.
“ Sometimes fpoliation is difficult to be accomplifh-
ed •, but, in thefe cafes, the newt knows to praftife
certain manoeuvres, to facilitate the operation, which I
have often beheld with pleafure. It alternately raifes
and depreffes the right arm and left leg at the fame
time, with gentle vibrations of the whole body. It fre¬
quently darts fuddenly towards the furface of the water,
and the next moment precipitates itfelf to the bottom $
and thefe manoeuvres I have feen continued above half
an hour. But the hidden exertion, in all its motions,
indicated that the newt was impatient at the tedioufnefs
of the change.
“ When mofl of the fpoil is thrown off, and the ani¬
mal, to difengage itfelf from the reft, rapidly rifes to
the furface, it feems carried along in a cloud ; for the
whitenefs, finenefs, and femitranfparency of the fpoil,
floating aroimd it, is no imperfect reprefentation of a
cloud.
“ I never obferved the fingers employed in detach¬
ing the fpoil. Both young newts and thofe full grown
eaft feveral fucceflive fkins : fome of large lize are in
my poffeflion, that have done fo before me. Reprodu¬
cing limbs throw off the epidermis as well as the ori¬
ginal.
“ I have feen the fkin of the head, which formed
like a collar or cravat round the neck, gradually come
down the belly of a large newt that had loft the arms,
and fallen like a tight girdle.
“ Nothing can accurately be faid of the number and
interval of mutations. Between the 14th of July and
the 7th of September, a newt has changed its ikin 11
times.
* Sfallan-
xanis
1 ft change, 14th July. 6th change,
2d 17th 7th
3d 20th 8 th
4th 24th 9th
5 th 30th loth
nth
9th Auguft.
19th
24th
26th
6th Sept.
"* TOClSy 11* # * « • _ B
368. Dal- “ Spoliation fometimes makes a‘flight change in the
yctt't Trav, colour,”*
O L. 0 G Y. Chap. II.
The manner in which toads throw off the old cuticle Phyfiology.
is quoted by Dr Shaw, as related by Mr Schneider,' v—^
from Grignon, who was an eye witnefs of it. “ The
Ikin fplits or cracks in a longitudinal direction, both
above and below, and the animal pulls off that of the
left fide with its left foot, and, delivering it into the
right foot, applies it to its mouth and fwallows it. It
then performs the fame procefs on the right fide, and,
delivering the cuticle into the left foot, fwallows it like
the former.”
But the moft remarkable circumftance in the econo¬
my of thefe animals is the reproduction of mutilated limbs,
fuch as the legs, the tail, and even the eyes. The com-
pleteft fet of experiments to afcertain thefe curious fadls,
were made by Spallanzani and Bonnet. The folknv-
ing is an account of fome of thefe experiments in the
words of the author..
Experiment. T/ie right arm and left leg of a newt
amputated.—On the 6th of June, I cut the right arm
and left leg off a large newt, very near the body. A
ftream of florid blood fpouted a minute and a half from
each wound j however, the veffels foon clofed, and the
newt was apparently as well as thofe unmutilated. But
it will eafily occur that it did not fwim with equal fa¬
cility.
“ When about a month had elapfed, I began to per¬
ceive a papilla, of a violet gray colour, near the edge of
the trunk or feftion. This was the origin of a new
arm and leg, which gradually increafed j and, from the
14th of July, the two papillae continued growing on the
fubfequent days, but more in • length than thicknefs.
They became minute flumps $ and, on the firft of Au¬
guft, were about two lines long. A kind of cleft, hard¬
ly perceptible, announces the appearance of two toes,
which nature labours to produce, or rather to expand,
on the new foot. No cleft appears on the originating
arm.
“ The two toes were eafily recognifed on the 7th.
They were real miniatures, and truly moft minute. The
flump of the arm continued nearly as it was on the firft
of the month, but is now fomewhat larger $ but as yet
there is no indication of fingers.
“ It is pleafing to obferve the little hand fully un¬
folding, while only three fingers of unequal length are
vifible : the middle one is the longeft. The arm has
made no fenfible progrefs. The new foot had four toes
alfo of unequal length, the firft and fecond of which
are longeft j other two only begin to appear j the fourth
is fcarcely perceptible. One can never tire contem¬
plating thefe miniatures, and admiring the wonders of the
organic kingdom.
“ Evolution advanced every day. On the 22d ofLeg and
Auguft, the regenerated members began to deepen inarm repro¬
colour, fo that the line, difcriminating the old parts^uce^’
from the new, was no longer fo confpicuous j but the
black fpecks on the toes of unmutilated newts were flill
imperceptible.
“ I continued my obfervations on the daily evolution
of the members $ and the following were their dimen-
fions in length, on the 20th of September.
Old Members.
New Members.
Arm*
Cubit,
Thigh,,
4 lines.
34
3
Arm,
Cubit,
Thigh,
Chap. II.
Phyfiology. Leg,
'■—v Longeft finger,
Longeft toe,
E R P E T
Leg,
Longeft finger,
Longeft toe, i-f
Even in the beginning of October, the fifth toe of the
new foot was not vifible.
« Experiment.—A newt deprived of the right arm
end left hand. On the I2th of June, I cut the left hand
and right arm off a newt: my chief objeft in this ex¬
periment was to verify Sig. Spallanzani’s aflertion, that
nature reproduces exactly the portion amputated, which
was a fact of the utmoft importance in the theory of
animal reproductions, and could not be too well eitab-
lilhed.
“ Towards one fide of the feclion, a little conical
nipple began to appear about the 7th or 8th of July, of
a violet gray colour. An incipient cleft, indiitinCHy
feen with the naked eye, was perceptible near the mid¬
dle of July : the papilla feemed ready to ditide in two $
and the cleft was the origin of two fingers.
“ In two or three days, I remarked a new cleft at
the upper extremity of the papilla, which was the be¬
ginning of a new finger : the third, in its turn, appeared
on the 19th. The conical papilla had then difappear-
ed j and in its place was feen a fmall open hand with
four fingers, ftill very minute, but quite well lhaped.
“ On the 3d of Auguft, the cone began to divide,
that is, two fingers became evident.
“ On the 9th, a hand extremely minute, but the moft
beautiful objeCl imaginable, was obferved at the ex¬
tremity of the arm. The fingers, all of unequal length,
were diftinguiftted, the fmalleft being juft perceptible^
The trunk, or part of the original arm, connected to the
body, may be recognifed by the ]jrown colour, and
from being covered with white points. The new arm
is of a lighter and uniform colour. Four fingers of the
hand are vifible : the largeft not above half a line in
length.
“ The hand of the left arm had made confiderable
progrefs on the 21ft : it had expanded, and nearly ac¬
quired the figure peculiar to the newt’s hand. Fhe
fingers alfo had extended, and become thicker in pro¬
portion. The whole hand began to colour, and brown
fpecks were diftinguiftiable on different parts ; they were
more evident on the back of the hand than on the
fingers.
“ On the 21ft, the hand has already affumed its na¬
tural ftiape, and the rapid progrefs of evolution is fuf-
pended. Colouring of the arm begins near the trunk :
but all the reft is of a mixed gray and violet colour.
“ Though I have not hitherto exprefsly faid fo, it
will obvioufiy be prefumed, that there is a kind of femi-
tranfparency in- the reproduced parts, which the origi¬
nal members have not. This continues long, and chan¬
ges llowly as the reproductions colour. The tranfpa-
rency is evidently greater on the edges of the fingers
than elfewhere j il examined with a magnifier, they feem
inclofed in a fine diaphanous envelope : but nothing of
this is evident in the old fingers. Parts beginning to
unfold naturally have a degree of tranfparency wanting
in thofe further advanced, or fully expanded, becaufe,
with the progrefs of evolution, the calibre of the veffels
increafes, which allows admiffion to more grofs and co¬
louring particles. Whitenefs and tranfparence appa-
rently^conftitute the primitive ftate of organic bodies.
O L O G Y. si-;
It is this primitive ftate which we defign by the word Phyfiology.
germ; and which we can comprehend, when the orga- v—
nic whole is expanded to a certain extent. But there
is here a term beyond which we cannot afcend j for the
organic whole either becomes fo minute or fo tranfpa-
rent, that it efcapes all refearch and our moft perfeCl in-
ftruments.
“ The dimenfions of the old and new members, in
length, were as follows, on the 2d of September.
Old Members.
New Members.
Arm, 3^ lines Arm, a-y
Cubit, 31- Cubit, 2^
Longeft finger, Longeft finger, l\lhid. ii. 373.
“ Experiment.—The tail of a newt amputated tranf-
verfely. Something important would have been want¬
ing, had I negleCled amputation of the tail, which is a
very intricate great organic fubftance. It is formed of
a feries of minute vertebrae, with arteries, veins, and
nerves 3 and it is covered with mufcles and flelh.
“ The tail of a large newt is more than two inches
long, and about half an inch thick, formed like an oar,
and terminated by a foft point. Much might be faid
of the figure, proportions, and pofition of this organ,
and with refpeft to the fundtions it has to exercife 3 but
thefe would be details foreign to any purpofe : I only
mean to confirm what Sig. Spallanzani has advanced
concerning the admirable reprodudtion of the mem¬
bers.
“ When the tails of large newts were amputated near
the origin, I never fuceeeded in obtaining reproduction 3
the whole died in a certain time 3 and for feveral weeks
preceding death, a kind of whitilh cotton mould grew
on the wounds, the filaments of which were feveral lines
in length. Neverthelefs, I cannot think that this af-
fetited the animal’s life, for I had feen fimilar mould, or
cottony filaments, on wounds occafioned by amputating
the arms and legs. Thefe filaments gradi^lly difap-
peared, and unequivocal figns of reproduction loon be¬
came vifible. Thus a good obfervation was never ob¬
tained, unlefs the tail was divided about the middle,
and by a fedtion perpendicular to the axis. A ftream
of blood, as thick as a hog’s brittle, always fpouted from
the wound. The large veffel, from which it flows, is
fituated near the vertebrae, and its orifice is vifible by
the naked eye 5 it immediately clofes 3 and the orifice is
diftinguilhed by a reddiftr or brownilh point.
“ The tail of newts is very fenfible, which is particu¬
larly evident in the flendereft part. A portion cut off
will retain life, and move whole hours 3 and when life
feems entirely extindt, we have only to prick the point¬
ed extremity, that motion may be renewed 3 it rifes and
falls alternately, and with greater force, according to^
the period that has elapfed fince the operation. The
motion of this feparated part bears great refemblance
to tjiat which is peculiar to certain apodal worms 3 it
is undulatory, and evidently depends on irritability,
which is extremely adtive in fo mufcular an organ.
“ Immediately after the pperation, the area ol the cut
exhibits a very long ellipfe 3 the two extremities almoft
terminating in a point. The fmalleft diameter is a-
bout a line acrofs, and the largeft five or fix. In tlje
centre are the vertebrae, or blood-veffels ; the reft of
the area feems full of fmall oblong clear white fub-
ftanccs^
3i8 E R P E T
Phyfiology. fiances, which one would fuppofe pieces of hit, or
—v glands. The furface llovvly contrails •, the oppohte
lides approach j the colour pf the fubitances becomes
fainter, and in a certain time, which is according to
the lea ion, new tieih appears, and it daily increales.
Then we obferve one or two crofs brown lines, occupy¬
ing the middle of the new tail, wdrich indicate the fite
of the vertebrae and the veffels. In a tail which had
been divided on the nth of July ) on the 14th of Au-
guft: the reproduced part wras about three lines and a
half long, and four and half in diameter, at the bafe.
“ The new portion was ten lines in length, 20th
neratecf " September, and (haped exactly like the tail of a newt.
I could obferve no difference between the motions of
this regenerated tail, and thofe of tails unmutilated.
Thofe of the regenerated part only had a peculiar tranf-
* Ibid ii. parency, wanting in the reft of the tail.*
3Si. “ Experiment.—-Whether reproduced memberspof-
fefs the fame fources of reprodu&ion as thofe amputated.
I cut the left arm and right thigh off a large newt, 2d
June 1778. In the beginning of July, a new arm and
thigh began to reproduce. They were ftill in minia¬
ture, but the fingers and toes fufficiently formed, and
very diftindl.
“ On the nth of July, I made an experiment, which
was moft important in the theory of animal repro-
dudtions. The object was to difcover whether the mem¬
bers now reproducing, w hich in reality were miniatures,
contained the fame fources of reparation as the original j
that is, wdiether they were, in new limbs, germs contain¬
ing members in miniature, fimilar to thofe amputated.
With this view, I cut off the regenerated hand and foot.
“ At the extremity of the reproduced leg, on the
3,1 ft, appeared two new toes extremely minute, but eali-
ly recognifable by the naked eye : and, on the 24th,
an originating hand, with three well-lhaped fingers, ap¬
peared at the extremity of the new arm.
“■ The foot, now reproduced, exhibited four very dif-
tin<El toes. Both thefe and the fingers wrere yet only
one fourth, or one-third, of a line long.
“ Therefore it is proved, by this firft experiment,
. that the reproduced limbs of a newrt can make new pro¬
ductions, in the fame manner as the old ones can, and
give birth to members which, in their effential parts re-
femble thofe amputated, and are different only in fize,
confiftence, and colour : for, as wras remarked in my for¬
mer memoir, the new, members are of more delicate
texture, and of a much lighter colour than the old.
“ It was undoubtedly moft interefting to afcertain
how far the refources of nature extended ; and whether,
after feveral fucceftive mutilations of the reproduced
member, a new one would ftill regenerate.
“ On the 31ft of July, for the fecond time, I cut off
the reproduced hand and foot of my new t j the fingers
rand toes being then about a line long.
f Two new fingers and toes appeared at the extre¬
mity of the limbs, 13th Auguft, therefore, a hand and
foot had begun to regenerate. On the 15th, there were
three fingers and toes already well formed, though very
fmall.
Kfproduc- “ BmE the hand and foot feemed quite repaired on the
ed mem. 24^, thdugh ftill. pf extreme minutenefs. All the fin-
bers alfo g$rs had grown, but only four toes. And it may now
•regenerated be obferved, that the appearance of the fifth toe is con-
ftantly later j often it does not unfold,
4
O L O G Y. Chap II.
“ On the fame day, 24th Auguft, I amputated the Phyfiology.
reproduced hand and arm the third time; and on the 13th * " ^
October, performed the fourth operation : the limbs be¬
ing then in the fame ftate as thofe mutilated by the third
amputation.
“ Thus it is fully eftabliihed, that every member,
fucceflively reproduced, contains new fources of repara¬
tion ; and that they are actually emitting, though the
member is extremely minute.
‘‘ From thefe fucceflive mutilations of reproduced
members, I have thought the extremity of the leg and
arm became a little thicker than ufual, as if from a re¬
flux of the nutritive fluids into the extremity, by fuch
repeated amputations.
“ This feafon was particularly favourable to my expe¬
riments, being always dry and warm. A mercurial
thermometer, in the lhade, completely ifolated, on a
large terrace, flood at 90° and 930, on the 14th and 15th
of Auguft. Moft of fummer it flood between 790 and
810 $ and the temperature of the apartment, W’here the
newt was kept, differed very little from that of the op¬
en air.
“ Experiment.~When a large newt was treated as
has juft been related, I made another experiment on
one of ftmilar fize, to obtain comparative refults.
“ The left arm and thigh were fevered 2d June 1778.
Reproduction of new members commenced in the be¬
ginning of July: two well lhaped toes were then on
the foot. On the 1 ith, new limbs had replaced the
pld ; they feemed completely repaired : ftill they were
only miniatures of moft delicate texture. This day I
amputated the reproduced hand and foot.
“ A new foot, with two diltinCt toes, was perceptible
on the 2 2d; and three were vifible on the 24th. But the
new hand had not appeared ; at leaft there was no evi¬
dence of originating fingers. The thermometer now flood
about 84°. However, a new hand, with three perfeCt
fingers, was feen on the 29th.
“ The reproduced hand and foot being a full line long
on the 31ft, I then cut them off. Both appeared again,
Auguft with three well lhaped fingers and toes.
On the 24th, the hand had acquired its four fingers*
and the foot five toes, all vifible, though exceffively
fmall.
“ I then cut off the hand and foot for the third time.
The fingers and toes were a full line long 13th OClober ;
four of each appeared, but the fifth toe was yet imper¬
ceptible.
“ Next I performed a fourth amputation : it alfo
was followed by reproductions. Various occupations
having interrupted me, a fifth amputation was not made
before 26th Auguft 1779.
“ The longeft finger was then about one line and a third,
the longeft toe one and a half in length, deep coloured,
and very flender. The hand had four fingers ; the firft;
and fourth imperfeCt. The foot had only three toes,
more diftant from each other than ufual. Both the
fingers were as imperfeCl 30th OClober 1780 : the fourth
fcarcely vifible, and confifting only of a ftiarp point ;
and no more than three toes on the foot. The newt
had then diminifhed greatly in fize, and was very brown.
It ate little, and leldom : it remained long at the fur-
face, unable to get to the bottom of the water; and its
belly was almoft always very much inflated.
“ Thefe are two experiments, therefore, which concur
In
Chap. II.
Phvfioiogj in eflaVKlTilng the fame faft, viz. that the reproduced
members of a newt, though ftill in miniature, are equal¬
ly provided with reparatory germs as the old limbs \
and that they begin to unfold after the new members
* Ibid. li. are cut off.”*
394- To thefe curious experiments we (hall only add the
account of another, concerning the reproduction of the
eyes of newts.
“ Experiment.—On the eyes of newts. This is a cruel
experiment; and fenlible minds will hardly pardon the
obferyer’s cruelty, though it arifes from an evident delire
to difcover new faCts and enlarge our knowledge of the
animal economy. Therefore, I fear the compaflionate
reader will revolt further ftill at what is yet to be re¬
lated, But I beg he will confider, that animals, which,
after lofmg one, or even feveral limbs, continue greedi¬
ly devouring the prey prefented, undoubtedly cannot
experience the fenfation of pain to the excefs which our
own fenfations lead us to imagine. We are very infuffi-
cient judges of what paffes within an animal fo remote
from us in the fcale of living beings. Let it not be
thought, that by thefe reflections, I mean to leffen the
natural repugnance of every humane mind to make ani¬
mals fuffer. The benignity of nature itfelf will infpire
man with this precious fentiment to prevent the enor¬
mous abufe that his power might exert over the animals
which ihe has fubjeCted to his dominion. Yet let me
afk, whether a rational perfon abufes his empire over
animals, by making them fuffer only for his own in-
ftruCtion, or that of his fellow' creatures.
“ With a fcalpel, I extrafted the right eye of a large
newt, September 13. 1779; but I did not obtain the
globe wuthout much injury to the tunics. It was the
firft time of performing the operation, and before I had
acquired the peculiar dexterity neceffary for fuccefs, and
afterwards learned by experience. Thus the utmoft
diforder enfued in the eye, and the cryftalline lens ftart-
ed out on my nail. This is a beautiful objecl ; no
larger than a millet feed, and quite tranfparent. I
thought that I beheld one of the fpherical lenfes with
which Leeuwenhoeck difcovered fo many wonders. But
contaCt of the air foon tamilhed the minute lens j it
dried and became disfigured..
“ A deep bloody wound in the focket of the eye was
the confequence of this cruel operation. And the read¬
er will not be furprifed if I hardly expeCled any thing
from it, and that the newt would probably remain blind
for ever. How great was my aftonifliment, therefore,
when, on the 31ft of May 1780, I faw a new eye
formed by nature. The iris and cornea were already
well fhaped, but the latter wanted its peculiar tranfpa-
rency, which is very confiderable in thefe animals. Im¬
patience to arrive at the mod important part of the pro¬
digy has induced me to omit the progrefs of it; and
obferve that nature certainly began with clofing the
wound.
Eye-rege- “The eye was completely repaired ill Septembe'r.
aerated. The cornea was nearly as tranfparent as that of the
other eye, with which it was frequently compared. The
iris had alfo acquired the yellow gilded colour, which
charafterifes this fpecies of newt. In Ihort, the eye
was fo perfedly renewed, that no veftige exifted of the
uncommon operation that the animal had undergone.
.During the remainder of this and the following month,
the cornea always became more tranfparent 5 and nbw,
319
when I write thefe remarks, 8th November 1780, it is Physiology,
equally perfeCt as the other $ but the reproduced eye -“-V—
feems a little fmaller than the entire one \ and the iris,
or golden circle, goes only half round the ball.
“ It would ftill be neceffary to extraCl the reprodu¬
ced eye, to afcertain, by diffeClion, whether it contains
a cryftalline lens fimilar to the original. But I confefs,
that, as yet, I have not had relolution to fubjeCl the
newt to the moft barnarous of all operations j and 1
fhall probably await its death for fatisfying my cu-
riofity.”* *
Hibernation or Torpidity of Reptiles.—The43i.
heat of the atmofphere is neceffary to animals, that
when the periodical return of the feafons reduces the
heat of the countries in the neighbourhood of the equa¬
tor to the cool temperatures of places fituated in higher Places to
latitudes, reptiles lofe their aCHvityj the heat of theirwhl h. they
blood diminiftiesj their ftrength decreafes; they retirerenre in
into obfcure retreats, in holes of rocks, m the mud at "
the bottom of lakes, or elfe they feek Ihelter among
the roots of plants which grow' on the banks of rivers :
but the cold increaiing, they fall into a ftate like that of
proftmnd fleep $ and this torpor is fo great, that no nqjfe
difturbs or awakens them. They feem alike infenfibie
to violent blows or fevere wounds. Reptiles are fub¬
jeCl to tlris ftate of torpidity only in thofe countries
where the variations of temperature at different feafons
of the year is confiderable ; and indeed it feems to be
a wife regulation of nature, that fome of the animals
funclions fhould be fufpended during that period of the
year when the fupply of food is cut off. This is the
cafe with reptiles which inhabit countries diftant from
the equator, whofc food confifting of infeCls, worms,
&c. can only be obtained in the warmer feafon of the
year. Accordingly, about the end of autumn, the rep¬
tiles which have been vigorous and aClive in the fum-
mer, conceal themfelves in the earth,, or under the wa¬
ter, where they remain in the torpid ftate till the re¬
turn of the genial warmth of fpring. In Britain, frogs
are found at the bottom of ftagnant water, or in marftiy
places,, where the water of fprings iffues from the earth,
the temperature of which continues uniform through the
whole year.
In this ftate of torpor and inadion, nothing of the
animal remains but the form, and thofe funCfions only
go on, which are effentially neceflary to exiftence dur¬
ing this long period of torpidity, which fometimes con¬
tinues more than fix months. The total mafs of the
body of reptiles fuftains only fmall lofs of fubftance, but
the external parts, fuch as are expofed to the aClion of
the cold, and more diftant from the centre of heat,
undergo in the moft of animals a confidcrable change.
But even in countries where the change of feafons
is fo great, and the diminution of temperature fuch as'
to oblige the animals ' belonging to this order to retire
during that feafon, there are in particular circumftances
lotne remarkable exceptions. One of thefe is mentioned
by Townfon in his Travels in Hungary. “ The towiv
of Gran (he fays) is favoured with a fine fpririg of
tepid water, of more ufe, I believe, to the frogs than to
its other inhabitants. My Ciceroni affured me that this
atimal is not torpid here during the winter, but is then
feen in numbers in the pond in the town which receives
its water from this fpring. This is uncommon (eon-
tiruie's the fain* author), but nof fuiprlfirig. For thefe •
three
erpetology.
j!20
E R P E T
Hvberna-
tion iiif«
ferent irom
deep.
* p. 60.
Abftinence
of the cro
Phyiiology. tKree y-ears, I have kept a favourite tree frog, which is
1—^—v— oS gay in winter as in fummer, provided fhe has warmth
and enough to eat. The German itoves, which keep
the room warm all night, have been very favourable to
her. In this, hybernation difters from deep, that, where¬
as the latter admits of little variation, and can never be
laid afide, or through art receive a fubftitute ; the
former greatly varies, and may be fupplied by warmth
-and food. The Alpine marmot, in fome high vallies
in Savoy hybernates, I am told, eight or ten months in
the year. Ift other parts of the Alps, it does not hy-
bernate half that-time 5 and when kept warm, and well
fed, its annual deep entirely forfakes it, but not its diur¬
nal. The fame warmth that keeps alive the frog, keeps
alive the infects on which it feeds, which in their turn
will find food from the vegetable world, the mediate or
immediate fupport of every living being kept in vegeta¬
tion by the fame caufe
Abstinence of Reptiles.—The fingular inllances
°f abllinence which have been recorded of many of the
di!e and the animals belonging to this order, ate not the lealt of the
turtle. peculiarities by which they are diftinguilhed. It is
conjectured by fome phyfiologifts, that the texture of
the Ikin, which has few pores, and from which confe-
quently the wafte by perfpiration is very fmall, enables
them to endure long abftinence. Tt he turtle and the
crocodile can live two months without any kind of nou-
rilhment. It is no unufual circumftance to keep turtle
on the decks of fhips, during a paffage of feven or eight
weeks, from the Weft Indies, without any food what¬
ever, only occafionally moiftening the eyes with fait
water.
©f the toad. The toad has lived eighteen months entirely deprived
of food, and excluded from the air ) fo that the func¬
tions of digeftion and refpiration, fo neceffary and ef-
fential to animakexiftence in general, muft have been
totally fufpended. We have already mentioned, in the
-natural hiftory of the toad, Heriffant’s experiments on
this fubjedt before the French academy j and it would
be fuperfluous to repeat the account of them here.
In the fame place we have alfo given our opinion of
the extreme improbability of toads, or indeed, it may
be added, any animal whatever, having exifted for any
length of time inclofed in wood or ftone, according to
the vague ftories which have been propagated of fuch
having been difcovered. The experiments of Herif-
fant, above alluded to, afford a diredt proof of the con¬
trary.
Tenacity of Life.—Many of the tribes of reptiles
are not lefs remarkable for being extremely tenacious
of life. They not only live when deprived of their
limbs and are otherwife mutilated, but abfolutely feem to
be little injured when fome of the organs effential to
life in other animals, and without which they could not
exift for a moment, have been removed. The experi¬
ments of Red! on the land tortoife, winch we have re¬
lated in the natural hiftory of that animal, in p. 271. are
a proof of this fadt.
Age of Reptiles.—Of the age of reptiles not
much is known. But, from the few well-authenticated
inftances which are recorded, it may be fairly pre¬
fumed, that the period of the life of many tribes is very
long. This, indeed, might have been concluded to
be the cafe with cold-blooded animals, which can fuf-
fcain total abftiaence for fuch a length of time, are fo
O L O G Y. Chap. II.
extremely tenacious of life, and repair fo eafily the lofs rhjfiology.
of different parts of the body : but, on the other hand, ^ ' J
when it is confidered that they have no fixed haunts
where they can remain always undifturbed, that from,
their amphibious nature they live alternately on the land
ahd in the water, and that they are conftantly expo fed
to the viciflitudes of the feafons, it is not poflible to
conceive but thefe changes from wet to dry, and
from hot to cold, muft greatly affeft the animal frame,
and limit the period of exiitence.
But without entering into any train Of reafoning on
the fubjeift, the fafts which have been recorded, and
fome of which wre have related, clearly fhew, that indi¬
viduals among reptiles arrive at a very great age. 1 he ^
age of the land tortoile which w’as kept in Lambeth^*^^111
gardens, and which we have mentioned in p. 27\vas
at leaft 1 2G years. The common toad, of wrhich the
hiftory of one kept by Mr Afcot in Devonftftre, that
lived to the age of 40 years, is given in p. 286. is an
inftance of the remarkable length of life ot lo imall an
animal.
Some fpecies of the turtle do not reach their full fize rhe turtle!
till they are 20 years old •, and it is faid that they live
more than a century.
The age of the crocodile can only be conjectured. It Of the
is fuppofed that this animal, which does not reach its^rocodilft
full fize of 25 feet long in lefs time than 32 years, may
live feven times this period, fo that the age of the cro¬
codile has been calculated at 200 years.
Manners, &c. of Reptiles.—There are probably
few animals which difeover fo much tranquillity and
compofure in their manners and habits, in general, as
reptiles. Lefs agitated within by violent paflions, and
lefs affeCted from external objects than other ani¬
mals, they are calm, mild, and peaceable. And if the
crocodile, which of all the ,animals belonging to this
order is the moft voracious and deftruCtive, is to be re¬
garded as an exception, the ferocious habits for which
he is diftinguilhed, are ow ing to the great fize of body
which he muft fupport $ and, befides, how many tribes
may be oppofed to this fanguinary family, whofe cha¬
racter is quite the reverfe. Let us only compare the
character of the crocodile with the gentle habits of the
fmall gray lizard, or with the manners of the frog.
But notwithftanding this favourable character of rep¬
tiles, which may be confidered in fome meafure as ne¬
gative, it is to be obferved, that, in their manners and
habits, they never difeover that choice of means, that
feries of combinations, or that kind of forefight, which
in many other animals we behold wfith wonder and ad¬
miration. If fometimes they affemble together in great
numbers, this by no means exhibits the character of
that focial union which takes place among gregarious
animals, for it difeovers no forefight or order. This
bond of union is founded on no connection with each
other, on providing no means for their mutual fafety or
protection. They produce no common wmrk j they do not
join together in fearch of prey, nor are they united in
making any general attack on their enemies. Like the
beaver, birds, or bees, they conltruct no permanent
afylum; but when they fix on any particular place of
abode on the ftiores, in the clefts of rocks, or in the
hollow of trees, it is not a commodious habitation
which they prepare for a certain number of individuals,
and which they endeavour to appropriate to different
purpofes,
Chap. II.
E R P E T O L O G Y.
Phyfiology. purpofes, it is rather a retreat for concealment on which
a——y—' they make no change, and which they occupy equally,
whether it be only fufficient for a fingle individual, or
contain an extent of fpace to admit many. If they
affociate together, it has been obferved, for the pur-
pofe of purfuing their prey either on the land or in the
water, it is becaufe they are equally attracted by the
fame objefl j if they make a joint attack, it is becaufe
they have the fame prey in view. If they feem to unite
for the common defence, it is becaufe they are attacked
at the fame time 5 and if any individual among them
has ever faved the whole party, by warning it by its
cries, it is not as has been faid of monkeys and lome
other quadrupeds, that they have been left to watch for
the common fafety, but only proceeds from the impref-
lions of fear which every animal poffeffes, and which
renders it conftantly attentive to its own prefervation.
It has been commonly fuppofed that reptiles have
none of thofe tender affeftions, with wThich the care for
the prefervation of their offspring infpires other ani¬
mals. Their whole concern about their progeny, it is
thought, extends no farther than depoliting their eggs
in proper places, and covering them with fand and
leaves. The offspring is not indebted to the parent for
its food, for any of its habits, or for afliftance or pro¬
tection of any kind. It is true, that in general, the
moral affeCtions owe much of their force to the repeat¬
ed impreffions on the fenfes, and that thefe imjjreflions,
recurring diftinCtly to the memory, and modified by
the imagination, cherilh thefe feelings ; whence it fol¬
lows, that the females of reptiles, which do not hatch
their young, and which never fee them till after the
procefs of incubation is completed, muff have very feeble
impreffions of maternal tendernefs, or perhaps none at
all. The few obfervations, however, which have been
made with regard to the attachment of the crocodile
to its offspring, ffiew that fome of them are not entirely
deftitute of that feeling, which almoft univerfally per¬
vades the animated creation. “ At Surinam (fays M.
de la Borde) the female of the crocodile remains always
at a certain diflance from her eggs, wffiich fhe watches
and protefts with a kind of fury when any animal ap¬
proaches them. On the banks of the Oroonoko, when
the alligators are hatched, the mother places them on
her back and returns to the river. “ But, adds Gu-
milla, the male eats as many as he can, and the fe¬
male herfelf devours all thofe which feparate from her,
or which are unable to follow her ; fo that fcarcely five
or fix, of the whole number, remain.” This fa£l, which
is by no means probable, even in fo voracious an ani¬
mal as the crocodile, is not incompatible with what is
certainly known of many other animals devouring their
own offspring. But it feems extremely doubtful, that
what is mentioned above of the crocodile watching its
eggs, as recorded by de la Borde, is an obfervation
founded in truth.
Enemies of Reptiles.—The earth wrould foon be
covered with immenfe fwarms of reptiles, if nature had
not made fome provifion to retard their increafe, and
raifed up a crowd of enemies which deftroy their eggs
and their offspring, and preferve the proper balance
321
which is eftabliffied among the different orders of ani- Pfiyaology.
mals. Fortunately, a great number of frogs, toads, “
lizards, and crocodiles are deftroyed before they are
hatched. Many quadrupeds, as feveral fpecies of
monkeys, the ichneumon, and other animals, as well as
feveral fpecies of aquatic birds, fearch for their eggs on
the Ihores, and feed on them with avidity. All the
fmall reptiles, which live in the water, which crawl in
the mud of marfhes, or creep on the earth, become
the prey of fiihes, of ferpents, of birds, and of qua¬
drupeds.
The tiger attacks the crocodile, and is fometimes
fuccefsful in feizing its prey. The hippopotamus is a
terrible enemy to the fame animal j and is the more to
be dreaded, as from his habits, he is enabled to purfue
it to the bottom of the water. The cougar, al¬
though a lefs ferocious animal than the tiger, deftroys
many alligators. He waits in ambulh on the banks of the
great rivers for the approach of the young ones, and at
the moment they raife their head above the wrater, he
feizes them and tears them to pieces. But when he
attacks thofe that are large and vigorous, he often
meets with a bold and effedlual refiftance. It is in vain
that he faftens his talons in their eyes ; thefe huge rep¬
tiles drag him to the bottom of the water and de¬
vour him.
But man is perhaps the moft dangerous enemy of the
crocodile 5 fometimes he attacks him by open force, and
fometimes by means of ftratagem. The Africans, as
foon as they perceive one of thefe animals on the bank
of a river advance towards him, having only in their
hand a flick of very hard wood, or an iron rod about
eight or ten inches long, and well fharpened at the ends 5
they hold this feeble inftrument By the middle, and when
the reptile, which advances towards them, opens his
wide mouth, they introduce the rod of iron, which they
turn wdth dexterity, fo that the monfter finds that he is
unable to clofe his jaws. The pain from the w7ound,
and inftinft to reach a place of fafety, make him retreat
into the water, where he foon perifhes by fuffocation
and the lofs of blood. It is faid, that fome negroes are
fo bold and dexterous, as to fwim under the body of the
crocodile, and to pierce him in the fkin of the belly j
which is almoft the only place on which a wound can
be inflifted.
In fome countries the natives employ ftratagem to take
this dreaded animal. In Egypt, they dig a deep ditch in
the path wffiich he follows in proceeding from the river.
This is covered with branches of trees, and with a fmall
quantity of earth •, they then fet up loud fhouts, at
which the crocodile is terrified, and returning the fame
way to the water, he paffes over the ditch, falls into it,
and is either killed or taken in fnares.
The Indians fuccefsfully employ another mode of de-
flroying the crocodile. They introduce into the body
of a fmall animal, newly killed, a quantity of arfenic or
quicklime, fo fecured, that the moiflure cannot reach it $
and this animal is expofed to the view of the crocodile.
This is undoubtedly the moft certain, and the leaft dan¬
gerous expedient.
S f
Vol. VIII. Part I.
EXPLANATION
322
Index.
erpetology.
EXPLANATION of PLATES.
Plate CCVII.
Fig. i. Teftudo Grasca, Common land Tortoife,
page 270.
Fig. 2. Teftudo Mydas, Green Turtle, page 278.
Fig. 3. Rana Efculenta, Green or Eatable Frog,
page 281.
Fig. 4. Rana Arborea, Tree Frog, page 284.
Fig. 5. Rana Pipa, Surinam Toad, female, page
288.
Fig. 6. Draco Volans, Flying Dragon, page 289.
Plate CCVIII.
Fig. 7. Lacerta Crocodilus, Common Crocodile,
page 290.
Fig. 8. Lacerta Alligator, Alligator or American
Crocodile, page 291.
Fig. 9. The Young Alligator proceeding from the
egg.
Fig. 10. Lacerta Chamasleon, Common Chameleon,
page 300.
Fig. 11. Lacerta Salamandra, Salamander, page 303.
Plate CCIX.
Fig. I 2. Skeleton of the Turtle.
Fig. 13. Skeleton of the Frog.
Fig. 14. Skeleton of the Crocodile.
Fig. 15. Skeleton of the Gray Lizard.
Fig. 16. Skeleton of the Chameleon.
INDEX.
■d-BDOMEN, p. 308
Aljlinence of reptiles, 3 20
of the toad, ib.
Age of reptiles, ib.
toad and tortaife, ib.
turtle, ib.
crocodile, ib.
Alligator, 291
hiftory of, by Catelby, ib.
by Ulloa, 29 2
Anatomy of reptiles, 306
Anus, 308
includes the parts of genera¬
tion, ib.
Apodal Vizard., 301;
Arms of newt regenerated, 316
B
Bajilijk, fpecies of lizard, 295
error concerning, ib.
Biped Vizard, 305
Breeding time of frog, 313
turtle, 314
alligator, ib.
Bullfrog, 282
lingular for the found of
its voice, ib.
popular notion of, ib.
C
Calipafh of the turtle, 308
Calipee, ib,
Cha/cides lizards, 305
annulated, ib.
Chameleon, divifion of, 300
hiftory of, ib.
tongue, ftrufture of, pe¬
culiar, ib.
changes of colour, ib.
Chameleon, errors concerning this
change, and its abfti-
nence, p. 300
CharaSers, generic, 269
Circulation of the blood in reptiles, 311
its peculiarity, ib.
Clarification of different naturalifts, 269
Common frog, 281
hiftory of, ib.
Cordyles, divifion of, 297
lizard, ib.
Crocodile, common, 290
hiftory of, ib.
lefs formidable than repre-
fented, 291
hunted with dogs, ib.
kept by the African mo-
narchs, il.
exhibited by the Romans, ib.
American, or alligator, ib.
hiftory of, ib. and 293
Gangetic or Indian, 291
D
Draco, 289
volans, ib.
prsepos, ib.
Dragon, flying, 289
hiftory of, ib.
American, ib.
a fictitious monfter, 290
hiftory of an artificial one,
at Oxford, ib.
one at Hamburgh, ib.
Ears of reptiles, 307
Eatable iroo, 281
hiftory ofj ib.
Eft, divifion of, p. 303
Eggs, fize of, 314
coverings, ib.
of turtle ufed as food, 315
of alligator alfo as food, ib.
Enemies of reptiles, 321
Erpetology, introduction to, 267
ftudy of, important, 268
Expiration, procefs of, 312
Eyes of reptiles, 307
newts regenerated, 319
F
Feet of reptiles referable thofe of
quadrupeds, 308
are furniihed with toes, ib.
bones of, 309
Frog, common, 281
hiftory and changes of, ib.
tadpole, the larva of, ib.
ftructure of, ib.
food of, ib.
green, or eatable, ib.
employed as food, ib.
bull, 282
remarkable for the founds
it emits, ib,
popular notion of, in Ame¬
rica, ib.
paradoxical, 283
tadpole, lingular appearance of, 284
tree, ib.
peculiar ftrufture and eco¬
nomy, 285
changes on, and habits of, in
breeding feafon, 313
ova, defcription of, ib.
G
Galeot lizard, 295
Galea:,
lEH r E T OL O (x Y
.
>
vv w
/
/
EKPE TOX, O Cr Y.
f ''rf/.Sr-// ?r . ////f £rrr
Plate CC1X.
/3.
Index. E
Ga/eoty American, p. 29 5
Gecko, divifion of, 300
Green or efculent turtle, Iriftory of, 278, 279
frog, 281
employed as food, il.
hitfory of, 28 2
Guana, divillon of, 294
great American, ib.
hiftory of, ib,
H
Hawkjbt/l turtle, hlfto, v of, 279
yields tortoife fliell, 280
method of obtaining
and preparing, ib.
Head, form of, 306
Heart, ilru&ure of, not a difcrimina-
ting chara&er, 268
Hybernation of reptiles, 319
different from fleep, 3 20
Jaw, lower, never longeft,
Jaws of reptiles equal,
Infpiration, procefs of,
3°7
3°6
311
K
Karntfchatka, no reptiles but lizards in, 315
fuperftition of natives in, ib.
Lacerta,
crocodilus,
alligator,
gangetica,
iguana,
amboinenfis,
bafilifcus,
calotes,
agama,
bicarinata,
monitor,
acanthura,
lophura,
dracaena,
fuperciliofa,
fcutata,
principalis.
ftrumofa,
xnarmorata,
umbra,
pelluma,
azurea,
cordylus,
ftellio,
angulata,
orbicularis,
agilif,.
teguixin,
erythrocephala,
cerulea,
lemnifcata,
quadrilineata,
teniolata,
290
ib.
291
293
294
ib.
295
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
296
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
297
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
298
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
K P E T O
Lacerta fexlineata,
fafciata,
quinquelineata,
interpunclata,
bullaris,
cruenta,
lobata,
heliofcopa,
turcica,
platura,
plica,
japonica,
nilotica,
tiliguerta,
deferti,
arguta,
algira,
velox,
uralenfis,
feps,
channel eon,
africana,
pumila,
gecko,
dubia,
perfoliata,
mauritanica,
finenfis,
vittata,
fimbriata,
tetradaftyla,
caudiverbera,
fchneideriana,
fparmanniana,
fpe£lator,
fcincus,
rufefcens,
longicauda,
mabouya,
occidua,
guttata,
ocellata,
falamandra,
vulgaris,
paluftris,
aquatica,
maculata,
chalcides,
ferpens,
anguina,
apus,
bipes,
lumbricoides,
Legs of newt regenerated,
Life, tenacity of, in reptiles,
Lizards proper, divifion of,
green,
monitory,
prodigious number of, at
Balbec,
fbme viviparous,
fuperftition of the natives of
Kamtfchatka concerning,
Loggerhead turtle,
L o G Y. 323
Loggerhead turtle, great ftrength and
fiercenefs of, p. 279
yields lamp oil, ib.
3l6>
p. 298
ib,
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
299
ib.
ib.
ib,
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib,
300
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
301
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
' ib.
3°2
ib.
ib.
ib,
ib.
ib.
3?3
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
394
ib.
ib.
395
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
306
317
3 20
297
ib.
295
303
314
3*5
279
M '
Manners of reptiles, 3 20
calm and compofed, ib.
Monitory lizard, 295
extremely beautiful, ib.
N
Natterjack, a fpecies of the toad, 287
Newt, divifion of, 303
common, hiftory of, 304
is viviparous, ib.
great water, ib.
common water, ib.
hiftory of, ib.
calls its fkin, ib.
fpotted water, 305
hiftory of calling its fkin, 3 r 6
number of times, ib.
arm. and leg, regenerated, ib,
progrefs of, ib.
another experi- .
ment, 317
tail of, regenerated, ib.
eyes of, regenerated, 319
O
Oviparous quadrupeds, reptiles fo de¬
nominated, 268
Pipa, or Surinam toad, 288
hiftory of, lingular, ib.
Phyjiology of reptiles, 306
R
Rana, 280
divided into three fe&ions, ib.
temporaria, 281
efculenta, ib.
pipiens, 282
catelheiana, ib.
ocellata, ib,
virginica, ib.
ovalis, ib.
oyanophlyetis, ib.
fpinipes, ib.
cerulea, 283
vefpertina, ib.
ridibunda, ib.
fitibunda, ib.
leveriana, ib.
ignea, ib.
falfa, ib.
paradoxa, ib.
zebra, 284
bicolor, ib.
leucophyllata, ib.
quadrilineata, ib.
caftanea, ib.
fafciata, ib.
arborea, ib.
S 1 2 Ranee
5 24
Rana meriana^
aurantia,
tinftoria,
alba,
bilineata,
^ bufo,
alliacea,
mephitic a,
viridis,
marina,
dubia,
typhonia,
braziliana,
ventricofa,
cornuta,
pipa,
breviceps,
fyftoma,
acephala,
lentiginofa,
lemilunata,
melanoftidla,
arunco,
lutea,
Reproduced members regenerated,
Reproductive power of reptiles,
Reptile properly applied to thefe animals, 268
Reptiles, anatomy of, 3°^
have not all teeth, 307
claflification, 269
generic charafters, ib.
abftinence of, 320
the toad, ib.
food of, _ 315
are extremely voracious, ib.
habits in watching for prey, tb.
chara&er of, in different fi-
tuations, ib.
none but lizards in Kamtf-
chatka, ib.
fuperftition of the natives
concerning, ib.
abode, ib.
reproduflive power of, ib.
enemies of, 321
Rcfpiration, procefs of, 311
infpiration, ib.
expiration, 312
mechanifm, ib.
Ribs, 308
S
Salamander, divifion of, 303
hiftory of, ib.
is viviparous, 304
popular errors concerning, ib.
Scapula, 309
Scinks, divifion of, 302
hiftory of, ib.
Serpent lizard, 305
Skin of reptiles renovated, 315
hiftory and progrefs of, ;b.
Snake lizards, divifion of, 305
hiftory of, ib.
Species, number of, in the order, 306
Tadpole, _ p. 281
hiftory of, ib.
ftrudture and changes of, ib.
lingular one, 284
changes and evolution of, 313
Tail of reptiles, 308
not in all, - ib.
of newt regenerated, 317
Tejludo, clarification of, 270
from number of claws
infufficient, ib.
into land and fea tortoifes, ib.
graeca, ib.
marginata, 27 2
geometrica, ib.
radiata, 273
indica, tb.
rugofa, ib.
europea, ib.
lutaria, ib.
carinata, 274
Carolina, ib.
fulcata, tb.
tabulata, ib.
concentrica, 275
pi&a, ib.
guttata, ib.
elegans, ib.
areolata, ib.
ferrata, ib.
pufilla, ib.
tricarinata, ib.
fcabra, 276
fcripta, ib.
galeata, ib.
denticulata, ib.
pennfylvanica, ib.
longicollis, ib.
cafpica, ib.
ferox, ib.
granulata, 277
fimbriata, ib.
ferpentina, ib.
fquamata, ib.
coriacea, ib.
mydas, 278
caretta, 279
imbricata, ib.
Toad, common, 285
hiftory of, ib.
age, 286
not poifonous, ib.
error concerning, ib.
alliaceous, ib.
emits a peculiar fmell, ib.
tadpole of, voracious, 287
ufed as food, ib.
Surinam, 288
economy of, in hatch¬
ing ova, ib.
cafts its fkin, 316
Tongue, an inftrument for feizing the
Prey> • 3°7
Y. Index.
Tongue, error fuppofing the crocodile
, has none, p. 307
ftrufture of the chameleon, ib.
Torpidity of reptiles, 319
Tor/oj/i’,common land, 270
defcription of, tb.
native country, ib.
great age, ib.
tenacious of life, 271
abftinence, ib.
hiftory of one, ib.
marginated, 27 2
geometrica, ib.
terrapin of Dampier, 273
radiated, ib.
Indian, ib.
wrinkled, ib.
fpeckled, ib.
employed as food, ib.
mud, ib.
carinated, 274
clofe, ib.
peculiar ftruclure of, ib.
of prodigious ftrength, ib.
fulcated, ib.
tabular,' ib.
concentric, 275
is a delicate food, ib.
painted, ib.
fpotted, ib.
elegant, _ ib.
areolated, ib.
ferrated, ib.
little, ib.
tricarinated, ib.
rough, 276
lettered, ib.
galeated, ib.
denticulated, ib.
pennfylvanian, ib.
long-necked, ib.
Cafpian, ib.
fierce, ib.
fhagreened, 277
fimbriated, ib.
fnake, ib.
fcaly, ib.
fhell got from the hawkfbill
turtle, 280
mode of obtaining and
preparing, ib.
employed as ornaments
by the Greeks and
Romans, ib.
an article of trade, ib.
Townfon, Dr, on refpiration, 311
illuftration or proof, 312
Tree-frog, _ ' 284
peculiar ftrufture and eco¬
nomy, 285
Trunk of the body, 307
Turtle diftinguifhed from tortoifes, 277
coriaceous, ib.
prodigious fize of, 278
Turtle.
Index. E
Turtle, green, p. 278
moft commonly eaten, ib.
a very delicious food, ib.
mode of taking, ib.
eggs depoiited in the
fand, ib.
hatched by the fun, 279
introduced into Europe, ib.
loggerhead, a large fpecies, ib.
flelh coarfe and rank, ib.
R' FETOLOGY.
325
Turtle, loggerhead, yields lamp oil, p. 279
very ftrong and fierce, ib.
hawkfbill, or imbricated, ib.
yields tortoife fhell, 280
mode of obtaining it, ib.
procefs of its prepa¬
ration, ib.
ufed by the Greeks
and Romans for
ornaments, ib.
Turtle, havvkfbill, trade with the Egyp¬
tians, p. 280
and to China, ib.
green-lhelled, ib.
trunk, ib.
rhinoceros, ib.
breeding feafon of, 314
varies according to circumftan-
ces, ib.
ERR
Erratic ERRATIC, in general, fomething that wanders,
|1 or is not regular : hence it is the planets are called er-
Error‘ ratic Jlars.
ERRHINES, in Pharmacy, medicines which when
fnuffed up the nofe promote a difcharge of mucus from
that part. See Materia Medica Index.
Errhines prepared of cephalic herbs are of fingular
fervice in oppreflive pains of the head, a hemicrania,
lethargic diforders, weakneffes of memory, ftuffings of
the head, and coryza, mucous defiuxions of the eyes,
drowfinefs, vertigoes, and in cafes where the malignant
humours generated by the lues venerea are lodged in the
membranes of the noftrils.
ERROR, in Philofopky, a miilake of our judgment,
giving affent to that which is not true.
Mr Locke reduces the caufes of error to thefe four;
firft, want of proofs j fecondly, want of ability to ufe
them $ thirdly, want of will to ufe them j and, fourth¬
ly, wrong meafures of probability.
He obferves upon the firfl: of thefe caufes of error,
that the greateft part of mankind want conveniences
and opportunities of making experiments and obferva-
tions themfelves, or of collefting the teftimony of o-
thers, being prevented by the neceflity of their condi¬
tion. Upon the fecond of thefe caufes, he obferves,
that there are many, who, from the ftate of their con¬
dition, might bellow time in collefting proofs, but yet
are not able to carry a train of consequences in their
heads, nor weigh exaftly the preponderancy of con¬
trary proofs and tellimonies, merely from the diffe¬
rence in men’s underltandings, apprehenfions and rea-
fonings. Thirdly, he remarks, that though fome have
opportunities and leifure enough, and want neither
parts, learning, nor other helps, that they never come
to the knowledge of feveral truths within their reach,
either upon account of their attachment to pleafure or
bufinefs ; or otherwife becaufe of their lazinefs or a-
verfion to Itudy. The fourth caufe of error, viz. wrong
meafures of probability, he imputes, 1. To the prac¬
tice of taking for principles propofitions that are not
in themfelves certain and evident, but, on the contrary,
doubtful and falfe. 2. To received hypothefes. 3-To
predominant paffions or inclinations. And, 4. To au¬
thority, or the giving up our alfent to the common re¬
ceived opinions either of their friends or party, neigh¬
bours or country.
The caufes of error in philofophy, or the reafons
why all former philofophers have through fo many ages
erred, according to Lord Bacon, are thefe following.
E R U
I. Want of time fuited to learning. 2. The little Error
labour bellowed upon natural philofophy. 3. Few en- ||
tirely addifted to natural philofophy. 4. The end of Ervutn
the fciences wrong fixed. 5. A wrong way chofen.
6. The negleft of experiments. 7. Regard to anti¬
quity and authority. 8. Admiration of the works in
ufe. 9. The artifice of teachers and writers in the
fciences. 10. Ollentatious promifes of the moderns.
II. Want of propofing worthy talks. 12. Superlti-
tion and zeal being oppofite to natural philofophy, as
thinking philofophy dangerous, on account of the
fchool theology •, from the opinion that deep natural
inquiries fhould fubvert religion. 13. Schools and aca¬
demies proving unfavourable to philofophy. 14. Want
of rewards. And, 15. Defpair, and the fuppolition of
impollibility.
Error Loci. Boerhaave is faid to have introduced
the term, from the opinion that the veffels were of
different fizes for the circulation of blood, ferum, and
lymph j and that when the larger-fized globules were
forced into the leffer veffels by an error of place, they
were obllrufted. But this opinion does not feem well
grounded.
ERUCA, in general, denotes caterpillars of all kinds.
The caterpillar ftate is that through which infedfs
pafs before they arrive at perfeftion. See Larva En¬
tomology Index.
ERUDITION, denotes learning or knowledge j
and chiefly that of hiftory and antiquity, of languages
and of books, which is the refult of hard ftudy and ex-
tenfive reading. The Scaligers were men of deep eru¬
dition : the writings of M. Launoy, a prieft of the Ora¬
tory, are full of erudition.
Mr Locke fays, it is of more ufe to fill the head
with refleftions than with points of erudition. If the
mind be not juft and right, ignorance is better than
erudition, which only produces confufion and obfcurity. •
M. Balzac calls a heap of ill-chofen erudition the lug¬
gage of antiquity.
ERUPTION, in Medicine, a hidden and copious
excretion of humours, as pus or blood : it fignifies alfo
the fame with exanthema, any breaking out, as the pu-
ftules of the plague, fmall-pox, meafles, &c.
Eruption of Volcanoes. See y£tna, Vesuvius,
Volcano, &c.
ERVUM, the LENTIL : A genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the diadelphia clafsq and in the natural method
ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionacece. See Botany
J 11 fl P Y ~
ERYMANTHUS,
E K Y [ 326 ] ESC
Eryman* ERYMANTHUS, a mountain, river, and town of
thus Arcadia, where Hercules killed a prodigious boar,
'I ^ which he carried on his Ihoulders to Euryilheus 5 who
was fo terrified at the fight, that he hid fumfelf in a
brazen veffel.
ERYNGIUM, sea-holly, or Eryngo: A genus
of plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs j and in the
natural method ranking under the 45th or&tr,Umbel/ata?.
See Botany Index.
ERYSIMUM, HEDGE-MUSTARD : A genus of
plants, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs, and in the
natural method ranking under the 29th order, Siliquofcc.
See Botany Index.
ERYSIPELAS, in Medicine, an eruption of a fiery
or acrid humour, from which no part of the body is
exempted, though it chiefly attacks the face. See Me¬
dicine Index.
' ERYTHEA, or Erythia, an ifland adjoining, ac¬
cording to the ancients, either to or a part of Gades j
nowhere now to be found by the defcription given of
it by ancient authors. The poets feign this to be the
habitation of the fabulous Geryon, difarmed by Her¬
cules, who drove aw’ay his cattle.
ER YTHR/E, in .Ancient Geography, a port-town of
/Etolia, on the Corinthian bay. Another Erythra# of
Boeotia, near Plataea and Mount Cithaeron. A third
Erythrae, a town of Ionia in the Hither Afia, fituated
in the peninfula, at its extremity, with a cognominal port.
The Erythraeans laid claim to the Sibyl Herophile, as
their countrywoman, furnamed thence Erythrcea. Ery¬
thrae was famous for an ancient temple of Hercules.
ERYTHRiEA, a town of Crete, fituated in the
fouth-eafl: of the ifland, at the promontory Erythraeum.
ERYTHRAEUM MARE, erroneoufly called Rubrum
by the Romans. Thus the ocean that waflies Arabia
and Perfia, and extends a great wray farther, is denomi¬
nated. Hence it is, Herodotus fays, that the Euphrates
and Tigris fall into the Mare Erythneum. He alfo
calls it the South Sea, on which the PerfianS dwTell. It
takes its name, not from its colour, the error of the
Romans, who tranflated Enythrceum “ Rubrum $” but
from Erythras, fon of Perfeus and Andromeda, whofe
kingdom lay on the confines of that fea j wEence its
name Erythrceum.
ERYTHRINA, CORAL tree : A genus of plants,
belonging to the diadelphia clafs j and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under 3 2d order, Papilionacece. See
Botany Index.
ERYTHRINUS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Spa-
rus. See Ichthyology Index.
ERYTHROIDES, in Anatomy, the firft of the pro¬
per tunics or coats which cover the tefticles.
ERYTHRONIUM, dog’s-tooth violet : A ge¬
nus of plants, belonging to the hexandria clafs ; and in
the natural method ranking under the nth order, Sar-
mentacece. See Botany Index.
ERYT HR OX Y LON, a genus of plants, belonging
to the decandria clafs. See Botany Index.
ERT X, a fon of Butes and Venus, who relying up¬
on his ftrength, challenged all ftrangers to fight wdth
him in the combat of the ceflus. Hercules accepted
his challenge after many had yielded to his fuperior
dexterity 5 and Eryx was killed in the combat, and
buried on the mountain, where he had built a temple
to Venus. Virg. ALn. 5. v. 402. A mountain of Sicily
2
near Drepanum, which received its name from Eryx, Erzerutn
who was buried there. This mountain was fo deep, that I!
the houfes which were built upon it feemed every mo- , £f'aIa^e-
ment ready to fall. Daedalus had enlarged the top,
and inclofed it with a ftrong wall. He alfo confecra-
ted there to Venus Erycina a golden heifer, which re-
fembled life fo much, that it feemed to exceed the power
of art.
ERZERUM, or Erzeron, a city of Turkey in Afia,
and capital of Armenia, or Turcomania. It is a pretty
large town, five days journey from the Black fea, and
ten from the frontiers of Perfia. It Hands in a delight¬
ful plain, at the foot of a chain of mountains, which
hinder the Frat, or Euphrates, from falling into the
Black fea. A neighbouring hill fupplies very fine
fprings, which not only water the fields, but the ftreets
of the town. Erzerum is furrounded with double
walls, defended by pentagonal towers 5 but the ditches
are neither deep nor well kept up. The beglerbeg, or
bafliaw of the province, lives in the feraglio, which is
very ill built. They reckon that there are 18,000 Turks
at Erzerum, 6000 Armenians, and 10,000 Greeks.
The Armenians have a bifliop and two churches j and
the Greeks have alfo a bilhop, but the church is a mi-
ferable place. The laft are moftly braziers, inhabiting
the fuburbs, who work the copper brought from the
neighbouring mountain. They drive a great trade in
copper utenfils and furs, particularly martins Ikins.
Five or fix days journey from the town there are oaks
that produce plenty of gall-nuts, which are brought
hither. This place is the thoroughfare and reding
place of all the merchants trading to the Indies, efpe-
cially when the Arabs are watching for their prey
round Aleppo and Bagdad. E. Long. 40. 50. N. Lat.
29. 46.
ESARHADDON, the fon of Sennacherib, and his
fucceflbr in the kingdom of Aflyria. He is faid to
have reigned 29 years at Nineveh, from the year 3294
to 3322; befides which he reigned 13 years at Baby¬
lon, in all 42 years. He died in the year of the world
3336, and was fucceeded by Saofduchinus. Efarhad-
don, in the opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton, feems to be
the Sardanapalus who died, as Cletdarchus fays, of old
age, after the revolt of Syria; the name Sardanapalus
being derived from Ajferhadon Pul.
ESCALADE, or Scalade, a furious attack of a
wall or a rampart ; carried on with ladders, to pafs the
ditch or mount the rampart 5 without proceeding in
form, breaking ground, or carrying on regular works
to fecure the men.
When the troops are prepared to pafs the ditch,
either with the aflifiance of boards, hurdles, and faf-
cines, when it is mudy, or with fmall boats of tin, or
bafkets covered with duns or oil-cloth, when it is deep
and filled with water, a party mud be placed on the
counterfcarp, oppofite to the landing-place, ready to
fire at the garrifon if they are alarmed, and oppofe the
mounting on the rampart. If the ditch is dry, the
ladders are fixed in fome place farthed didant from the
eentry j and as foon as they get upon the rampart,
they put themfelves in order to receive the enemy j if
the centry fliould be furprifed and filently overcome,
the detachment hadens to break open the gate, and to
let in the red of the party. If the ditch is wet, the
rampart high, and provided with a revetement, it will
be
ESC
Efcallonia be difficult to furprife the town in this way, but if
Eiclleat t^lere no revetement, the troops may hide themfelves
■ t - along the outiide of the rampart till all are over.
Since the invention and ufe of gunpowder, and the
walls of cities have been flanked, they are feldom taken
by efcalade.
ESCALLONIA, a genus of plants, belonging to
the pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
ESCAPE, in Law \ a violent or privy evafion out of
fome lawful reftraint, without being delivered b) due
courfe of law. There are two forts of efcapes, volun¬
tary and negligent. Voluntary, when a man arrelts
another for felony, or other crime, and afterwards lets
him go freely by confent 5 in which cafe, the party
that permits fuch efcape is held guilty, committed,
and mull anfwer for it. Negligent efcape, on the con-
trary, is where one is arrefted, and afterwards efcapes
againil the will of the perfon that arrefted him, and is
not purfued with frelh fuit, and retaken before the
perfon purfuing hath loft fight of him. By flat. 8 and
9 Will. III. c. 26. the keepers of prifons conniving
at efcapes ftiall forfeit 500I. \ and in civil cafes the Ihe-
rift is anfwerable for the debt.
ESCHALOT, or Shallot. See Allium.
ESCHAR, in Surgery, the cruft or fcab occafioned
by burns or cauftic medicines.
ESCHARA, in Natural Hi (lory, the name of a fpe-
eies of coralline, &c. the characters of which are thefe:
they are of a ftony or coral-like hardnefs, and referable
a woven cloth in their texture j and the microfcope
informs us, that they confift of arrangements of very
imall cells, whofe furfaces appear much in that form.
Linnaeus makes it a fpecies of millepora, in the clafs
of lithophytes.
ESCHEAT, in Law, fignifies any land or tene¬
ments that cafually fall to a lord within his manor.
It is one oi the confequences of tenure in chivalry :
(See Fsodal Syjlem, KuiGHT-fervice, and Tenure).
It is the determination of the tenure or diffolution
of the mutual bond between the lord and tenant, from
the extinction of the blood of the latter by either na¬
tural or civil means : if he died without heirs of his
blood, or if his blood was corrupted and ftained by
commiftion or treafon or felony 5 whereby every inhe¬
ritable quality was entirely blotted out and abolifhed.
In fuch cafes the land efcheated or fell back to the
lord of the fee j that is, the tenure w'as determined by
breach of the original condition, expreffed or implied
in the feodal donation. In the one cafe, there were
no heirs fubfifting of the blood of the firft feudatory
or purchafer, to which heirs alone the grant of the
feud extended: to the other, the tenant, by perpe¬
trating an atrocious crime, ftiowed that he was no
longer to be trufted as a vaflal, having forgotten his duty
as a fubjeCf j and therefore forfeited his feud, which he
held under the implied condition that he fhould not be
a traitor or a felon. The confequence of'which in both
cafes was, that the gift being determined, refulted back
to the lord who gave it.
The word efcheat is fometimes ufed for the place or
circuit within which the king or other lord is intitled
to efcheats *, alfo for a writ to recover the fame from
the perfon in poffeflion after the tenant’s death.
Escheat, in Scots Law, is that forfeiture which is
1 327 1
ESC
Efculi
incurred upon a perfon’s being denounced a rebel. See Efche
Law, Part III. N° clxvi. 12.
ESCHEVIN,or EcHEviN^.SVtfZ'ZtfKj'), in the French
and Dutch polity, a magiftrate elected by the inhabi¬
tants of a city, to take care of their common concerns,
the good order, conveniency, and decoration of the
city, &c.
At Paris there wrere formerly a prevbt and four efche-
inns; in molt other cities a mayor and efchevins. In Lan¬
guedoc, Provence, and Dauphine, they were called con-
fuls ; at Fouloufe, capitouls ; and jurats at Bourdeaux.
Anciently the efchevins w'ere the affeffbrs and coun-
fellors of the comites or judges of cities ; on which ac¬
count they wrere called in fome places pairs, pares ; they
even took cognizance of petty caufes themfelves.
Du-Cange obferves, that the judges and their af-
feflors, who wrere chofen by the inhabitants, were call¬
ed “ efchevins,” and their college fcabinagium or
“ efchevinage.”
In Holland, the /cabins or efchevins judge of all
civil affairs at firft hand. They alfo take cognizance
of criminal matters: and if the criminal confefs himfelf
guilty, they can fee their fentence executed without
appeal.. They can even give torture. The number
is not the fame in all cities 5 at Amfterdam there are
nine, at Rotterdam feven, &c.
ESCHRAKITES, or Esrakites, a fedl of philo-
fophers, among the Mahometans, who adhere to the
do&rines and opinions of Plato. The word is derived
from the Arabic pntiz fchraca, which in the fourth con¬
jugation pur n afchraca, fignifies “ to Ihine, glitter like the
lun ” fo that EJchrakite feems to import “ illumined.”
The Efchrakites, or Mahometan Platonifts, place
their higheft good and happinefs in the contemplation
of the Divine Majefty j defpifing the grofs imagina¬
tions of the Alcoran touching paradife. They are
very careful in avoiding all vice ; they preferve an
equal and eafy temper, love mulic, and divert them¬
felves wath compofing little poems or fpiritual fongs.
The fliaeicks or priefts, and the chief among the preach¬
ers of the imperial mofques, are Efchrakites.
ESCL AIRCISSEMENT, a French term adopted
into our language, fignifying the explaining or clear¬
ing up of fome difficulty or obfcurity.
ESCORT, a French term, fometimes ufed in Eng-
liffi authors to denote a convoy or company of armed
men, attending fome perfon or thing, in a journey or
voyage, to defend or fecure it from inlults. Some de¬
rive the word from the Latin cohors.
ESCOUADE, or Squad, is ufually the third or
fourth part of a company of foot: fo divided for
mounting guards, and for the more convenient re¬
lieving of one another. It is equivalent to brigade
of a troop of horfe. See Brigade.
ESCUAGE, in our old cuftoms, a kind of kniglit-
fervice, called fervice of the Jhield, by which the tenant
was bound to follow his lord to the wars at his own
charge. See the articles Chivalry, Feodal Sr/feni,
and KniGHT-Service.
ESCULAPIUS. See JEsculapius.
ESCULENT , an appellation given to fuch plants,
or the roots of them, as may be eaten : fuch are beets,
carrots, artichokes, leeks, onions, parfnips, potatoes,
radiffies, fcorzoneha, &c.
ESC UR IA L7.
ESC [ 328 ] E S D
Efcuiial. ESCURIAL, a royal refidence of Spain, fituated
v about 15 miles north-weft of Madrid. It is the largeft
and moft fuperb Itrutfure in the whole kingdom, and
perhaps one of the fineft in Europe. The word is A-
rabic, meaning “ a place full of rocks.” It is built in
a dry barren tpot, furrounded with rugged mountains,
infomuch that every thing which grows there is owing
to art. This place was chofen, it is faid, for the fake
of the ftone wherewith the fabric was built, which is got
from a mountain juft by, and is very durable } and
the defign of erecting it was to commemorate a victory
which Philip II. obtained over the French (but by the
afliftance of the Engliih forces) at St Quintin, on
St Laurence’s day, in the year I557- "^'ie Spanifti
defcription of this ftruclure forms a fizeable quarto
volume, and it is faid that its founder expended upon
it fix millions of ducats. The apartments are deco¬
rated with an aftonifhing variety of paintings, fculp-
ture, tapeftry, ornaments of gold and filver, marble,
jafper, gems, and other curious ftones, furpaffing all
imagination. This building, beftdes its palace, con¬
tains a church, large and richly ornamented *, a maufo-
leum j cloifters j a convent •, a college ; and a library,
containing about 30,000 volumes 5 befides large apart¬
ments for all kinds of artifts and mechanics, noble wralks,
w'ith extenfive parks and gardens, beautified with foun¬
tains and coftly ornaments. The fathers that live in
the convent are 200, and they have an annual revenue
of 12,oool. It was begun by Philip in 1562, five
years after the battle 5 and completed in 22 years. It
confifts of feveral courts and quadrangles, which alto¬
gether are difpofed in the fliape of a gridiron, the in-
ftrument of the martyrdom of St Laurence ; the
apartments where the king refides form the handle.
The building is a long fquare of 640 by 580, and the
height up to the roof is all round 60 feet, except on
the garden fide, wdiere the ground is more taken away.
At each angle is a fquare tovrer 200 feet high. The
number of windows in the weft front is 200 ; in the
eaft front 366. The orders employed are Doric and
Ionic. There are three doors in the principal front.
': Over the grand entrance are the arms of Spain, carved in
ftone ; and a little higher in a niche, a ftatue of St Lau¬
rence in a deacon’s habit, with a gilt gridiron in his right
hand, and a book in his left. Direftly over the door
is a baffo-relievo of two enormous gridirons in ftone.
This vaft ftrufture, however, with its narrow high
towers, fmall windows^and fteep Hoping roof, exhibits
a very uncouth ftyle of architecture : at the fame time
that the domes, and the immenfe extent of its fronts,
render it a wonderfully grand objeCt from every point
of view. The church, which is in the centre of all, is
large, awful, and richly but not affeCtedly ornamented.
The cupola is bold and light. The high altar is com-
pofed of rich marbles, agates, and jafpers of great
rarity, the produce of this kingdom. Twro magnifi¬
cent catafalques fill up the fide arcades of this fan Cili¬
ary : on one the emperor Charles V. his wife, daugh¬
ter, and two fifters, are reprefented in bronze, larger
than life, kneeling; oppofite are the effigies of Philip II.
and of his three wives, of the fame materials, and in
the fame devout attitude. Underneath is the burial-
place of the royal family, called the Pantheon. Twenty
five fteps lead down to this vault, over the door of which
is an infeription, denoting, that
1
Hie locus, facer mortalitatis exuviis Catholicorum Re- ||
gu?n, rb'c. Efdras.
was intended by Charles the emperor, refolved upon V
by Philip II. begun by Philip III. and completed by
Philip IV. The maufoleum is circular, 36 feet dia¬
meter, incrufted with fine marbles in an elegant tafte.
The bodies of the kings and queens lie in tombs of
marble, in niches, one above the other. I'he plan of
thefe fepulchres is grand, and executed with a princely
magnificence; but, as a modern traveller obferves,
in a ftyle rather too gay, too light, and too deli¬
cately fitted up for the idea we are apt to form of
a chapel -deftined for the reception of the dead. The
colleftion of piftures difperfed about various parts of
the church, facrifty, and convent, has been confider-
ed as equal, if not fuperior, to any gallery in Europe
except that of Drefden. Formed out of the fpoils of
Italy, and the wafted cabinet of that unfortunate di¬
lettante Charles I. of England, it contains fome of the
moft capital works of the greateft painters that have
flouriffied fince the revival of the art. In the facrifty
is an altar called La fanta Forma : this is a kind of ta¬
bernacle or cujlioda of gems, marbles, woods, and other
precious materials, inlaid in gilt bronze ; in which,
rather than in the excellence of the workmanffiip or
tafte of the defign, confifts the merit of this rock of
riches. Before it hangs a curtain, on which Coello
has reprefented Charles II. and all his court in pro-
ceflion, coming to place this Forma. I his is efteena-
ed one of the moft curious colle&ions of portraits in
the world ; for all the perfons are drawn with the
greateft ftrength of colour and truth of impreffion, and
are faid to be perfect refemblances not only of the mo¬
narch and grandees, but even of the monks, fervants,
and guards. The ftatues, bufts, and medallions of the
Efcurial, are not in any great number, or very re¬
markable for their excellence: but the library contains
a moft precious colleftion of manuferipts, many fine
drawings, and other curiofities. Notwithftanding the
coldnefs of the expofure, the late king, for the fake of
hunting, ufed t@ pafs here feveral months of the year ;
and to make the place lefs inconvenient to his attend¬
ants and the nobility, he built an entire new town
adjoining to it.
ESCUTCHEON, or Scutcheon, in Heraldry, is
derived from the French efcujfon, and that from the
Latin feutum, and fignifies the ffiield whereon coats of
arms are reprefented.
Moft nations of the remoteft antiquity were wont
to have their Ihields diftinguiftied by certain marks
painted on them ; and to have fuch on their fhields wTas
a token of honour, none being permitted to have them
till they had performed fome honourable adtion.
** The efcutcheon, as ufed at prefent, is fquare, only
rounded off at the bottom.
ESDRAS, a Jewiffi prieft, and dodlor of the law.
Artaxerxes Longimanus fent him with rich prefents
for the ufe and ornament of the temple at Jerufalem,
rebuilt under Zerubbabel; the king alfo ordered the
neighbouring governors to provide him with what con¬
duced to the pomp of the Jewiffi religion, and to ex¬
empt the priefts from paying taxes. He is fuppofed to
be the colleftor of the Canon of Scripture; and that,
by divine infpiration, he added fome things which hap¬
pened
£tk
Elbe.
* Trcj. ii
103.
ESN
gened after the deaths of the authors,
he wrote the Chronicles, belides thofe books which
bear his name, the twTo lalt of which are exploded even
by the church of Rome.
ESK, the name of feveral rivers both in England
&nd Scotland, particularly of one which forms part of
the boundary between the two kingdoms. It runs from
north-ealt to fouth-weit, and gives name to the diitrid
of Eikdale
ESKI-HISSAR. S
E KIMAUX. See
ESNE, or EsNeh, a
ee STB ATONICEA.
Esquimaux,
conliderable fea-port town of
Upper Egypt. It is governed by an Arabian prince,
and by a cachef, dependant on the bey of Girze. The
Mahometans have feveral molques here, and the. Coptis
a church ferved by two prielts, “ Elbe (fays Abul-
feda), remarkable for its public baths and its com¬
merce, is built on the weflward of the Nile, between
Affouan and Cous, but nearer to this latter. It ac¬
knowledges, adds the geographer of Nubia, the Coptis
for founders. Its wTell cultivated territory abounds in
grain and palm-trees. It is furrounded by gardens
filled with fruit-trees. One admires here leveral an¬
cient monuments conftru&ed by the Coptis, and fu-
perb ruins.” This defcription anfwers to Efne in our
time, which is lituated on the edge of a rich country,
and lhaded by groves of orange trees, loaded with fruits
and flowers. This town, formerly called Latopolis, re¬
vered Minerva and the fifh L,atus (Strabo). It con¬
tains within its boundary an antique temple y thick
walls inclofe it on three lides. Six large fluted columns,
crowmed by a capital ornamented with the palm leaf,
form the facade of it 5 18 others fupport the roof, which
is compofed of large fquares of marble j the building is
furrounded by a frieze, and innumerable hieroglyphics
cover its exterior afpeefts.
A little to the fouth of the town are feen the ruins
©f a monaftery founded by St Helena, and near it the
buryirig-place of the martyrs, adorned with tombs
crowned by cupolas, fupported by arcades. The inha¬
bitants of Efne having revolted againft the perfecution
©f Dioclefian, that emperor deftroyed this towm and
put them to the fwTord. T his place, confecrated by re-
ligion, is become a celebrated pilgrimage among the
Coptis. They repair thither from the moll diftant pro¬
vinces of the kingdom. In the chain of mountains which
ftretches to the eaitward of the Nile, and nearly oppo-
fite Efne, are quarries of a foft ftone, called Bar am. It
is made ufe of for kitchen utenlils. It hardens in the
fire, and forms excellent kettles and pans, which give
no bad taite to the victuals. This ftone is probably the
/■apis o!/aris, or pot-Jlone.
“ Efne (fays Denon*) is the ancient Latopolis. Some
remains are ftill vifible of its port or quay on the bank
of the Nile, which has been often repaired 5 but, not-
withftanding all that has been done for it, ftill remains
in a very miferable condition. This town alfo contains
the portico of a temple, which appears to me to be the
moft perfect monument of ancient architecture. It is
fituated near the bazar in the great fquare, and would
make an incomparable ornament to this fpot, if the in¬
habitants had any idea of its merit; but inftead of this
they have deformed it by the moft miferable ruined ho¬
vels, and have devoted it to the vileft purpofes. The
portico is very well preferved, and poffelTes a exeat
VOL. VIII. Part I.
[ 329 ] ESP
It is guefled richnefs of fculpture : it is compofed of eighteen co- Elbx
lumns with broad capitals j thefe columns are noble and .. II ,
elegant, though they now appear in the moft difadvan- E!PQuLii^
tageous light : the rubbilh ihould be cleared to find if V
any part of the Celia remains.
“ The hieroglyphics in relief, with which it is co¬
vered w ithin and without, are executed With great care
they contain, among other fubjeCts, a zodiac, and large
figures of men with crocodiles heads: the capitals,
though all different, have a very fine tffedl; and as an
additional proof that the Egyptians borrowed nothing
from other people, we may remark, that they have ta¬
ken all the ornaments, of which thefe capitals are com¬
pofed, from the produftions of their own country, fuch
as the lotus, the palm-tree, the vine, the rufti. &c.
&c.”
ESOX, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of
abdominales. See Ichthyology Index.
ESPALIERS, in Gardenings are rowrs of trees
planted about a whole garden or plantation, or in
hedges, in fuch a manner as to enclofe quarters or fe-
parate parts of a garden $ and are trained up regularly
to a lattice of wood-work in a clofe hedge, for the de¬
fence of tender plants againft the injuries of wind and
weather. They are of admirable ufe and beauty in a
kitchen-garden, ferving not only to ftielter the tender
plants, but fereen them from the fight of perfons in
the walks.
The trees chiefly planted for efpaliers, are apples,
pears, and fome plums: fome plant apples grafted up¬
on paradife flocks } but as thefe are of ftiort duration,
it is better to plant thofe grafted upon crabftock, or
upon what the gardeners call Dutch Jlocks ; w hich will v-
both caufe them to bear fooner, and prevent their grow¬
ing too luxuriant. The beft kinds of apple for this pur-
pole, are the golden pippen, nonpareil, renette, &c.
and the beft forts of pear, are the jargonelle, blanquett,
&c. Thefe laft, if defigned for a itrong moift foil,
fhould be grafted upon quince flocks; but if for a dry
foil, upon free flocks.
While the trees are young, it will be fufficient to
drive a few flakes into the ground on each fide of them j
faftening the branches to thefe in a horizontal pofi-
tion, as they are produced. This method will do for
the three firft years; after which an efpalier ihould be
made of aih-poles, whereof there muft be two forts,
larger and fmaller; the former to be driven upright
into the ground a foot afunder, and the latter, or flen-
oer poles, to be nailed acrofs thele, at about nine
inches. Some prefer to this another fort of efpalier
made of fquare timber cut to any fize ; thefe are, in¬
deed, more lightly, but withal vaftly more expenfive.
When the efpalier is thus framed, the branches are
to be faftened to it with ofier-tvrigs ; obferving to train
them in a horizontal pofition, and at equal diftances.
Fruit trees thus managed are preferable to any others •
not only as bearing better-tafted fruit, but as taking up
very little room in a garden, fo as to be lefs hurtful to
plants which grow in the quarters.
ESPLANADE, in Fortification, the Hoping of the
parapet of the covered-way towards the champaign.
ESPLEES, in LanX), the general produfts which
lands yield, or the profit or commodity that is to be
taken or made of a thing.
ESPOUSALS, in Law, fignify a contract or pro-
F t milh
ES Q, [ 3j>
mife made between a man and a woman to marry each
other} and in cafes where marriages may be conl'um-
mated efpoufals go before. Marriage is termed an ef-
poufal de prefenti.
The efpoufals among the Jews rvere either by wth¬
ing, or by a piece of filver given and received, or by
cohabitation. Amongfl the Greeks, after the parents
and friends of the young couple had finilhed their nego-
ciation, the couple themfelves pledged their faith to
each other, the man fwearing that he would be con-
ilant and true, the woman that Ihe would marry him,
and make him mailer of all Ihe had. Then they rati¬
fied their agreement by a kifs and joining right hands.
Amongft the Romans the efpoufals confided in an
engagement of friends on both fides, whether abfent, or
prefent, in public or without witneffes. But the com¬
mon way was by writings drawm up by common con-
fent, and fealed by both parties: befides this, the man
fent a ring to the wmman, confiding of iron and with¬
out a done.
JsSflUILIfE, in Ancient Geography, one of the feven
hills of Rome, which Varro will have to be two, viz. Cif-
pias and Oppius ; alfo Mons Efquilinus, foftened from
Exquilinus; and this again from Excubinus, the watch
or guard Romulus kept here, from a jealoufy he enter¬
tained of his colleague Titus Tatius. On the ead fide it
reached the city walls*, on the fouth, the Via Lavicana ;
on the'wed, the wide valley between Mount Coelius and
the Palatine \ on the north, the Mons Viminalis *, on
the ead fide was the Porta Efquilina. This hill by
fome of the ancients was called Suburranus, from the
dreet Subarea to the north of it: by the poets, Efqm-
lius.
ESQUIMAUX, a people of North America inha¬
biting all that vad traft of land known by the name of
Labrador, or New Britain. They differ very confider-
ably, both in afpe£t and manners, from the other
American nations j agreeing in mod refpe£ls with the
inhabitants of Wed Greenland. See New Britain
and Greenland.
ESQUIRE (from the French efeu, and the La¬
tin feutum, in Greeks c-jcuto?, which fignifies a hide,
of which fhields wTere anciently made, and after¬
wards covered j for, in the time of the Anglo-
Saxons, the fhields had a covering of leather), was
originally he who, attending a knight in time of war,
did carry his fhield *, w’hence he was called efeuier
in French, and feutifer, or armiger, i. e. armour-
bearer, in Latin. Hotoman fays, that thofe whom the
French call efquires, wrere a military kind of vaffals,
having jus feuti, viz. liberty to bear a fhield, and in
it the enfigns of their family, in token of their genti¬
lity or dignity. But this addition hath not of long
time had any relation to the office or employment of
the perfon to whom it hath been attributed, as to car¬
rying of arms, &c. but hath been merely a title of
dignity, and next in degree to a knight. For thofe
to whom this title is now due, fee the article Com¬
monalty. Officers of the king’s courts, and of the
king’s houfehold, counfellors at law, juftices of the
peace, are only efquires in reputation *, and he who is
a juftice of peace has this title only during the time he
is in commiffion, and no longer, if he is not otherwife
qualified to bear. A fheriff of a county being a
fuperier officer, bears the title of efquire during his
o ] - ESS
life • in refpefl of the great trufl he has in the com¬
monwealth. The chiefs of fome ancient families are
efquires by prefeription ; and in late acts of parliament s
for poll money, many wealthy perfons commonly re¬
puted to be fuch, were ranked among the efquires of
this kingdom.
There is a general opinion, that every gentleman of
landed property who has 300I. a-year, is an efquire j
which is a vulgar error : for no money whatfoever, or
landed property, will give a man properly this title, un-
lefs he comes within one of the above rules : and no
perfon can aferibe this title where it is not due, unlefs
he pleafes 5 there being no difficulty in drawing the line
by the accounts given above and in the article Com¬
monalty : but the meaner ranks of people, who know
no better, do often bafely profiitute this title j and,
to the great confufion of all rank and precedence, every
man who makes a decent appearance, far from think¬
ing himfelf any way ridiculed by finding the fiuperlcrip-
tion of his letters thus decorated, is fully gratified by
fuch an addrefs.
Esquires of the king, are fuch as have that title by
creation, wherein there is fome formality ufed, as the
putting about their necks a collar of SS. and beftowfing
on them a pair of filver fpurs, &c.
ESRAKITES. See Eschrakites.
ESSAY, a trial or experiment for proving the qua
lity of any thing j or an attempt to learn, whether or
not any invention will fucceed.
Essay, in literature, a peculiar kind of compofi-
tion, the chara&er whereof is to be free, eafy, and na¬
tural ; not tied to ftri£l order or method, nor worked
up and finifhed like a formal fyftem.
ESSAYING, or Assaying, in Chemiftry and Me¬
tallurgy, fignifies the examination of a fmall quantity
of any ore or mineral by fire, in order to difeover the
quantiiy of metal it contains. This is very neceffary for
thofe who intend to deal largely in metallurgic opera¬
tions, in order to avoid unneceffary expence, by be¬
coming previoufly acquainted with the nature of the
ore. See Chemistry and Mineralogy Index.
EssAr-Hatch, is the miners term for a little trench or
hole, which they dig to fearch for fhoad or ore.
ESSEDARII, a fort of gladiators, mentioned by
Seneca, Suetonius, and Tully, who on fome occafions
engaged one another out of chariots called ejfeda. The
ejfedum was a fort of heavy chariot from which the
Gauls and Britons engaged the Romans. See Gla¬
diator.
ESSENCE, in Metaphydcs, that which conftitutes
the particular nature of each genus or kind, and
diftinguilhes it from all others : being nothing but
that abftraft idea to wdiich this name is affixed, fo
that every thing contained in it is effential to that par¬
ticular kind.
This Mr Locke calls the nominal ejfence ,* in contra-
diflinftion to the real effence, or conftitution of lub-
ftances on which this nominal effence depends. Thus
the nominal effence of gold is that complex idea the
word gold ftands for ; let it be, for inllance, a body,
yellow, weighty, malleable, fufible, and fixed : but its
real effence is the conflitution of its infenfible parts, on
which thefe qualities and all its other properties de¬
pend, wdiich is wholly unknown to us.
ESSENES, or Essenians, in Jewifh antiquity,
one
Efquires
II
EffeneS.
ESS [ 33i 1 E S T
EiTcntia!, one of the three ancient fe£ls among that people.
£fex They allowed a future ftate, but denied a refurre&ion
from the dead. Their way of life was very Angular :
they did not marry ; but adopted the children of others,
whom they bred up in the inftitutions of their fed;:
they defpifed riches, and had all things in common,
and never changed their clothes till they were entirely
worn out. When initiated, they were Itridly bound
not to communicate the myfteries of their fed to
others $ and if any of their members were found guilty
of enormous crimes, they were expelled.
Pliny tells us, that they dwelt on the weft fide of
the lake of Afphaltites j and that they were a folitary
kind of men, living without women or money, and
feeding upon the fruit of the palm-tree: he adds, that
they were conftantly recruited by new comers, whom
the furges of ill fortune had made weary of the world :
in which manner the fed was kept up for feveral
thoufands of years, without any being bom among
them. The reafon why we find no mention made of
them in the New Teftament, may be their reclufe and
retired way of life, not lefs than their great fimplicity
and honefty, whereby they lay open to no cenfure or
reproof.
ESSENTIAL, fomething neceffarily belonging to
a thing, from which it cannot be conceived diftind :
thus the primary qualities of bodies, as extenfion, figure,
number, &c. are effential or infeparable from them in
all their changes and alterations.
Essential Oils are fuch as are really contained in a
plant, and are drawn from it by diftillation in an
alembic with water : they are thus called, in contra-
diftindion to empyreumatic oils, which are raifed by a
naked fire without water.
ESSEX, a county of England, bounded on the north
by the Stour, which feparates it from Suffolk and
Cambridgefhire ; on the eaft, by the German fea; on
the weft, by Hertfordfhire and Middlefex j and on the
fouth by the river Thames. It extends 46 miles in
length from eaft to weft and about 42 in breadth from
north to fouth, and 200 in circuit. This county is in the
diocefe of London, and gives the title of earl to the
family of Capel. The county of Effex is divided
into nineteen hundreds, and contains twenty-feven
market-towns, 415 parithes, 125 vicarages, and 1100
villages. It fends eight members to parliament •,
namely, two for the county, and two for Colchef-
ter, Harwich, and Malden. The air in the inland
parts is healthy j but in the marfhes near the fea it
produces agues, particularly in the part called the
Hundreds. However, the fertility of the unwhole-
fome part is very great, and even the higher grounds
of this county are very fruitful. About Saffron Wal¬
den, the earth, after bearing faffron three years, it is
faid, will produce good barley for 18 years fucceffively
without any manure. Its produce, which is very plen¬
tiful, confifts of com, moft excellent faffron, cattle,
fowl, fifh, and particularly oyfters. The chief manu-
facfures of this county are cloth, fluffs, and particularly
baize. The principal rivers, befides the Thames,
are the Stour, which falls into the German fea at Har¬
wich ; the Lea, its weftern boundary, falls into the
Thames below Stratford 5 the Blackwater runs through
the heart of the county, and paffmg by Chelmsford is
joined by the Chetmer, and from thence runs into the EfUtt
German fea ; the Coin runs by Halfted to Colchefter, II .
and fo into the fea. The Roding which rifes north- E^°nia'
wards, near Dunmow, runs into the Thames near
Barking. All thefe rivers abound in mail forts of
fifh.
In the year 1801, the total number of inhabitants in
the county of Effex amounted to 226,437 perfons. Of
thefe 111,356 are males, and 115,081 are females. They
are divided into 46,784 families,' occupying 38,371
houfes. The number employed in agriculture is 65,174 ;
and in trade, manufadlures, &c. 25,283.
ESTATE, in Law, fignifies the title or intereft that
a perfon has in lands, tenements, or other elfedls 5 com¬
prehending the whole in which a perfon hath any pro¬
perty, and will pafs the fame,
Eflates are either real or perfonal; otherwife diftin-
guifhed into freeholds, which defeend to heirs} or
chattels, that go to executors or adminiftrators.
A fee-fimple is the ampleft eftate our law admits of.
See Fee.
Eftates are obtained feveral ways j as, by defeent
from a father to a fon j by conveyance or grant from
one perfon to another) by gift or purchafe j or by deed
or will. See Descent, Succession, Tenure, &c.
Estates, in a politicaTfenfe, is ufed either to de¬
note the dominions of fome prince, or the general claffes
into which the people are divided.
In Britain, the eftates are the king, lords, and com¬
mons j or rather the lords and commons, who meet
the king in parliament, for reforming abufes, and enadl-
ing good and wholefome laws.
ESTHER, a canonical book of the Old Tefta¬
ment j containing the hiftory of a Jewifh virgin, dwell¬
ing with her uncle Mordecai at Shufhan, in the reign
of Ahafuerus, one of the kings of Perfia.
The great beauty of this maid raifed her to the
throne of Perfia *, whereby fhe had an opportunity to
fave her countrymen, whofe deftrutlion was plotted by
Haman, a favourite of that prince.
The learned are not agreed who this Ahafuerus wyas.
Archbifhop Ulher fuppofes him to be Darius Hyflafpes,
and Artyftona to be Efther. Scaliger makes him
the fame with Xerxes, and his queen Haneftris to be
Efther. Jofephus, on the contrary, pofitively aflerts,
that the Ahafuerus of the feriptures, is the Artaxerxes
Longimanus of profane ftory j and the Septuagint,
throughout the whole book of Efther, tranflate Aha¬
fuerus by Artaxerxes. Moft people fubferibe to this
laft opinion 5 and indeed the extraordinary kindnefs
fliowed by Artaxerxes to the Jews, can fcarcely be
accounted for otherwife than by fuppofing that they
had lo powerful an advocate as Efther to folicit for
them.
ESTOILE'E, or Cross Estoille'e, in Heraldnj, a
ftar with only four long rays in form of a crofs ; and,
accordingly, broad in the centre, and terminating in
fharp points.
ESTONIA, is a province of the Ruffian empire,
and part of Livonia. It is bounded on the eaft by the
Baltic fea, on the north by the gulf of Finland, on
the wreft by Ingria, and on the fouth by Lettonia. It
is divided into fix diftri&s : 1. Harrien j 2. Wh eland $
3. Alentakin j 4. Wich ; 5. Jerven j and, 6. Odepoa.
T t 2 The
E S T
Eftoppel The principal towns are, Revel, Weifenberg, Borch-
II holm, Narva, Nyflot, Habfal, Derpt, St Elin, Pernau,
^diiraa" and Roderfwick.
■ * ^ i .1 In former times the inhabitants of this country car¬
ried on a good trade in corn, which was dried in ftoves:
but wars have much depopulated the country, infomuch
that not a fourth part of it is inhabited, and a great num¬
ber of gentlemen’s feats lie in ruins.
ESTOPPEL (formed of the French ejlouper, oppi-
lare, objtipare, “ to hop, or block up”), in Law, an
impediment or bar of action, arifmg from a man’s
own a£t or deed j againft which a man is forbidden,
by law, to fpeak, though it be to fay the truth.
ESTOVERS, in Law, is ufed, by Bra&on, for that
fuftenance which a man, committed for felony, is to
have out of his lands or goods for himfelf and his
family during imprifonment. In flat. 6 Edw. I. it is
ufed for an allowance in meat or clothes. In fome
manors, the tenants have common of ejiovers 5 that is,
neceffary botes or allowances out of the lord’s wood :
in which laft fenfe, eftovers comprehends houfe-bote,
hay-bote, and plow-bote j fo that if a man have in
his grant thefe general words, de rationabili ejioverio in
bofcis, &c. he may thereby claim all three.
Ellovers is alfo ufed for alimony, which, if the huf-
band refufes to pay, there is, befides the ordinary pro-
cefs of excommunication, a writ at common law, de ejio-
veriis habendis, in order to recover it.
ESTRAY, or Stray, fignifies any tame beaft, as
fheep, oxen, fwine, and horfes, or Twans, found with¬
in a lordfhip, and not owned by any man j in which
cafe being cried, according to law, in the church, and
two market towns adjoining, if it be not claimed by
the owner within a year and a day, it. becomes the
lord’s of the foil where found. If the owner claims
it within the year and day, he muft pay the charges of
finding, keeping, and proclaiming them ; and he may
feize it, without telling the marks or proving his proper¬
ty, which may be done at the trial if contefted. If the
beaft ftray within the year to another lordfhip, the firft
lord cannot retake it. An eftray muft be fed and kept,
uninjured, and without labour, till it is reclaimed or the
limited time expires.
ESTREAT, Extractum, in Law, is ufed for the
true copy or duplicate of fome original writing, efpe-
cially of amercements or penalties fet down in the rolls
of a court, to be levied by the bailiff or other officer, on
every offender.
ESTREMADURA, a province of Spain, has New
Caftile on the eaft, Leon on the north, Andalufia on
the fouth, and Portugal on the weft. It is 175 miles
in length, and 100 in breadth 5 and its principal towns
are, Calatrava, Menda, and Badajoz, on the river
Guadiana j Alcantara, on the Tajoj and Cona and
Placentia, to the north of this river.
I his province enjoys a very pure and healthful air,
and its mountains are full of wild and tame animals ;
they having woods and forefts for the one fort, and pa-
ftures for the other. The fields are planted with fruit-
trees, which bear all kinds of delicious fruit. The vine¬
yards produce excellent wines of all colours, and the
fields yield plenty of corn.
Estremadura, a province of Portugal, near the
mouth of the Tagus or Tajo, bounded on the north
by Berra, on the eaft and fouth by Alentejo, and on
ETC
the weft by the Atlantic ocean. It is about 88 miles Etchin
in length, and 45 in bre,adth. This province is di-
vided into fix comarcas, viz. Litria, Lilbon, Tomar,
Santaren, and Alanquar, to the north of the Tagus 5
and that of Setubal, to the fouth of this river. Thefe
are likewife the principal towns. Eftremadura is
equal, if not preferable, to any other province in Spain
or Portugal. The diftridft of Santaren produces fuch
plenty of corn, and feeds fo many flocks of ffieep,
that it may enter into competition with Sicily. The
fruits and the wines are all excellent; and it was here
that the fweet oranges brought from China were
firft planted, and of which there are large quantities
tranfported to foreign parts, with the wines and other
fruits. The fields are covered with flowers almoft all
the year, from which the bees colleft large quantities
of fine honey. The olive-trees are numerous, from
which they have excellent oil. The rivers abound
with good filh, and the mountains have quarries of feve-
ral kinds.
ETCHING, a method of engraving on copper, in
which the lines or ftrokes, inftead of being cut with a
tool or graver, are eaten in with aquafortis. See En¬
graving.
Etching is of a later invention, though not very
modern, than engraving with the tool j of which it
was at firft only an imitation, that was praclifed by
painters and other artifts, who could much fooner
form their hands to, and attain a faculty of, working
in this way, than with the graver. But being then
neverthelefs confide red as a counterfeit kind of engra¬
ving, and therefore inferior to the other, it was culti¬
vated in a very confined manner ; the clofenefs of the
refemblance of the work to that performed by the
tool, being made the teft of its merit, and confequent-
ly the principal object of aim in thofe who purfued it.
This fervile confinement of the art of etching to the
imitation of the original kind of engraving, was a
great caufe of retarding its advancement towards per-
fehlion, as many of the moft able mafters cramped
their talents with the obfervance of it: which may be
feen in the inftances of Sadelers, Swaneberg, Villa-
mena, and particularly Le Boffe $ who, in his treatife
on engraving, has laid down as a principle, that the
perfection of this kind confifts in the clofe fimilitude
of the work with that done by the tool. This abfurd
prepofleffion has been fince worn out: and the method of
working with aquafortis has been fo far improved, that
inftead of being now deemed a fpurious kind of engra¬
ving, it evidently appears the foundation of an excel¬
lence in many modern works, that could never have
been produced without it : fince, though the neatnefs
and uniformity of the hatches, which attend the ufe of
the tool, is more advantageous with refpeft to por¬
traits j yet the liberty and facility of the other manner
give a much greater opportunity to exercife the force
of genius and fancy in hiftory-engraving j where the
effeft of the whole, and not the minute exaftnefs in
finiffiing all the parts, conftitutes the principal value.
There are two methods pra&ifed of engraving in this
way j the one with a hard varnilh or ground, the other
with a foft. The firft was formerly much ufed, being
better accommodated to the intention of imitating the
engraving with the tool; as the firmnefs of the body
of the varniffi gave mote opportunity of retouching the
lines.
C 332 1
ETC
Etching, lines, or enlarging them with the oval-pointed needles,
v ' called by the French echoppes as was pradlifed by Le
BoiTe and others for that purpofe. The latter has now
almofl wholly fuperfeded the ufe of the other, by the
free manner of working it admits of j which affords
a power of expreffion incompatible with the great¬
er inflexibility of the hard varnith, that confines the
lines and hatches to fuch a regularity and famenefs, as
gives a ftiffnefs of manner and coldnefs of effedl to the
work.
The mixture of the ufe of the tool and aquafortis,
which are now both employed in many cafes, has, how-
ever, given that perfection to engraving which it pof-
feffes at prefent. The truth and fpirit of the outline
that the method of working with aqiiafortis affords,
and the variety of fhades which the different kinds of
black produce in this way, as well as other means
of exprefling the peculiar appearance and charadter of
particular fubjedts, furniflv what was defedtive in the
foie ufe of the tool; while, on the other hand, the ex-
adtnefs and regularity of the lines, which are required
for finifhing many kinds of deligns, are fupplied by the
graver j and. by a judicious application of both, that
complete finifhing is obtained, which either of them
alone muff neceffarily want.
1 he manner by which this art is performed, is the
covering the furface of the plate with a proper varnifh
or ground, as it is called, which is capable of refilling
aquafortis 5 and then fcoring or fcratching away, by
inflruments refembling needles, the parts of this var-
niih or ground, in the places where the flrokes or
hatches of the engraving are intended to be 5 then,
the plate being covered with aquafortis, the parts
that are laid naked and expofed by removing the
ground or varnifh, are corroded or eaten away by itj
while the reil, being fecured and defended, remain un¬
touched.
There are two methods of etching, as has been al¬
ready obferved $ the difference of which from each o-
ther confifts., as well in the difference of the varnifh or
ground, as in that of the aquafortis, adapted to each
kind 5 but the general methods of performing them
are alike in both. Thefe varnifhes or grounds are di-
ffinguifhed by the names of hard and foft: for in their
confluence, or the reflflance they give to the needles,
lies their effential variation from each other. The
hard varnifh, it is with good reafon conjedlured, was
not the Aril in ufe : but foon took place of the other 5
and was, for fome time, the moll received in pradlice,
on account of its admitting the work to be made more
like that of the graver : the foft has, however, fince,
in its turn, prevailed to the exclufion of it in fome de¬
gree, except in the cafe of particular fubje£ls ; but not
fo entirely as to take away the expedience of fhowing
how it is. performed. The manner of etching with the
foft varnifli is now, however, one of the mofl import-
ant objects, of the art of engraving ; and it is at pre¬
sent m univerfal ufe, fometimes alone, but more fre¬
quently intermixed with the work of the tool, and
m fome cafes with great advantage, even where the
.vhole is intended to pafs for being performed by the
graver. J
Preparation of the foft varnifh; according to Mr Law¬
rence, an eminent Englifh engraver at Parit. “ Take
of virgin wax and afphaltum, each two ounces; of
C 333 1
ETC
black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each half an ounce.
Melt the wax and pitchin a new earthen-ware plazed
pot } and add to them by degrees, the afphaltum
finely powdered. Let the whole boil till fuch time as
that, taking a drop upon a plate, it will break when it
is cold, on bending it double two or three times be¬
twixt the fingers. I he varnilh being then enough boil¬
ed, mult be taken off the fire j and letting it cool a
little, muff be poured into warm water, that it may
work the more eafily with the hands, fo as to be form¬
ed into balls ; which mull be rolled up, and put into a
piece of taffety for ufe.”
. It mull be obferved, firll, that the fire be not too
violent, for fear of burning the ingredients; a flight
fimmering will be.fufficient : fecondly, that while the
afphaltum is putting in, and even after it is mixed
with.them, the ingredients fliould be flirred continual¬
ly with the fpatula 5 and thirdly, that the water, in¬
to which this compofition is thrown, Ihould be near¬
ly of the fame degree of warmth with it, to prevent a.
kind of cracking that happens when the -water is too
cold.
T. he varnifli ought always to be harder in fummer
than in winter j and it wall become lo if it be fuffered
to boil longer, or if a greater proportion of the afphal ¬
tum or brown refin be ufed. The experiment above-
mentioned, of the drop fuffered to cool, will determine
the degree of hardnefs or loftnels that may be fuitable
to the feafon when it is ufed.
Preparation of the hard varnifh ufed by Callot, common -
ly called the Florence varnilh. Take four ounces of fat
oil very clear, and made of good linfeed oil, like that
uled by painters : heat it in a clean pot of glazed
earthen-ware, and afterwards put to it four ounces of
mallich well powdered j and ftir the mixture brilkly till
the whole be well melted ; then pafs the whole mafs
through a piece of fine linen into a glafs bottle with a
long neck, that can be Hopped very fecurely j and keep
it for the ufe that -will be below explained.
Method of applying the foft varnifh to the plate, and of
blackening it. I he plate being well polilhed and bur-
nilhed, as alfo cleanfed from all greafinefs by chalk or
Spanilh white, fix a hand-vice on the edge of the plate
where no work is intended to be, to ferve as a handle
for managing it when warm : then put it upon a chaf^
ing-dilh, in which there is a moderate fire ; obferving
to hold it fo that it may melt: then cover the whole
plate equally with a thin coat~ of the varnifh j and
while the plate is warm, and the varnilh upon it in a
fluid Hate, beat every part of the varnilh gently with a
fmall ball or dauber made of cotton tied up in taffety j
which operation fmoothes and diftributes the varnilh e-
qually over the plate.
When the plate is thus uniformly and thinly cover¬
ed with the varnilh, it mull be blackened by a piece of
flambeau, or of a large candle which affords a copious
fmoke j fometimes two, or even four, fuch candles are
ufed together for the fake of difpatch, that the vamiflr
may not grow cold : which if it does during the ope*
ration, the plate muff then be heated again, that it may
be in a melted Hate when that operation is performed :
but great care muff be taken not to bum it j which,
when it happens, may be eafily perceived by the varniflt
appearing burnt and lofing its glofs. The following
expedient is made ufe of for the more commodioufly
blackening
Etchirg.
ETC [ 334 I ETC
V I'/clv-'.?. blackening the varniih, being particularly neceffary
—' where the plates are large : Fix a ftrong hook in the
roof of the room, through which pafs four pieces of
cord of equal length, at the end of which are fixed four
iron rings of about four inches diameter, for fupport-
ing the comers of the plate. '1 he plate being thus fuf-
pended in the air, with the varnilhed fide downwards,
may be blackened with great convenience : but this is
not, however, abfolutely requilite, except in the cafe
of large plates that could not, without difficulty, be
held up, unlefs this or fome other fuch contrivance
were made ufe of.
It is proper to be very cautious in keeping the flam¬
beau or candle at a due diffance from the plate, left the
wick touch the varnifh, which would both fully and
mark it. If it appear that the fmoke has not penetra¬
ted the varnifti, the plate muft be again placed for fome
little time over the chatmg-difti; and it ivill be found,
that, in proportion as the plate grows hot, the varnilh
will melt and incorporate with the black which lay a-
bove it, in fuch a manner that the whole will be equal¬
ly pervaded by it.
Above all things, the greateft caution fhould be ufed
in this operation, to k eep all the time a moderate fire j
and to move frequently the plate, and change the place
of all the parts of it, that the varnifh may be alike
melted everywhere, and kept from burning. Care
muft alfo be taken, that during this time, and even till
the varnifh be entirely cold, no filth, fparks, or dull, fly
on it •, for they would then flick fall, and fpoil the
work.
Method of applying the hard varnifh. This is precifely
the fame as for the foft *, being fpread equally over the
warm plate with the taffety-ball, and fmoked in the fame
manner : only after it is fmoked, it muft be baked, or
dried over a gentle fire of charcoal, till the fmoke from
the varnifh begins to decreafe ; taking care not to over¬
heat the plate, which would both foften it and bum
the varnifh.
The plate being thus prepared, and an exa£l draw¬
ing of the outlines of the defign made upon thin pa¬
per, the other fide of the paper muft: be well rubbed
with chalk or Spanifh whitening, or, which is bet¬
ter, with red chalk fcraped to a powder ; and the
loofe chalk is cleared off with a linen rag : then the
ftained fide of the paper is laid upon the varnifh, fix¬
ing the comers to the plate with wax or wafers, to
prevent its fhuffling •, and with a blunted needle or
pointer the drawing is flightly traced, and communi¬
cates to the vamifh an exa£t outline of the defign to be
etched.
A variety of pointers is neceffary for the work.
Thofe ufed for the broad large ftrokes ought to be
very blunt, exceeding round, and well poliftied at the
pointthe foie of a fhoe anfwers very well for polifh-
ing the points. The fineft ought to be as (harp as a
needle. If any fcratches or falfe ftrokes happen in the
working, they are to be flopped up with a hair-pencil
dipped in Venetian varnifh, mixed with lamp-black, by
which means thefe places will be defended from the ac¬
tion of the aquafortis.
The next operation is that of eating or corroding
the plate with aquafortis *, in order to which, a border
of foft w^ax (being a compofition of bees wrax melted
and. tempered with a little Venice turpentine and tal-
4
low) muft be faftened round the plate about an inch Etching-
high, in the form of a little wall or rampart, to contain II
the aquafortis. At one of the comers of this border. teoc es'
a gutter is ufually made, which ferves for pouring com-
modioufly the aquafortis off the plate. T he plate be¬
ing thus bordered, take a due quantity of the refiners
aquafortis j mix it with half its quantity of common
water •, and pour it gently on, till it rife above a fin¬
ger’s breadth above the furface of the plate} when, if all
things have been rightly condufled, it wall be feen that
the aquafortis wall foon exert its aftion in the hatches
which have been ftrongly touched } but thofe more
weakly engraved will appear at firft clear, and of the
colour of the copper. The menftruum muft therefore
be fuffered to continue on the plate till its effects be¬
come vifible on the more tender parts : then the aqua¬
fortis fhould be poured off, the plate wafhed with clean
water, and dried before the fire: then take a fmall
pencil dipped into the Venetian varnilh, and cover with
it the lighter parts of the plate. This being done, the
aquafortis muft again be poured on, and fuffered to
continue a longer or fhorter time, according to the
ftrength of the menftruum, or the nature of the en~
graving j when it muft be again poured off as before
and the plate immediately wafhed with water.
It may not be improper to obferve, that, when the
aquafortis is on the plate, a feather fhould be ufed to
cleanfe away the foulnefs of the verdegris that gathers
in the hatches when the aquafortis operates on them,
and to give it more room to exert its action} for by
moving the aquafortis to and fro on the plate by the
feather, and brufhing away the black faline matter
where it appears to be formed, the hatches will be
cleanfed, and the aquafortis exert its whole force equal¬
ly on every part.
The plate being thus fufficiently corroded by the
aquafortis, and well wafhed with water, it muft be
warmed at the fire, and the border of wax removed j
after which, it muft be made hotter till the vamifh
melt ; then it muft be well wiped with a linen cloth,
and afterwards rubbed heartily with oil of olives } when
it will be ready to be retouched and finifhed by the
graver. See the article Engraving.
ETEOCLES, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of CEdipus
and Jocafta. After his father’s death, it was agreed
between him and his brother Polynices, that they fhould
both fhare the royalty, and reign alternately each a
year. Eteocles by right of feniority firft afeended the
throne •, but after the firft year of his reign was expired
he refufed to give up the crown to his brother, accord¬
ing to their mutual agreement. Polynices, refolved to
punifh fuch an open violation of a folemn engagement,
went to implore the affiftance of Adraftus king of Ar¬
gos. He received that king’s daughter in marriage,
and wns foon after aflifted with a ftrong army headed
by feven famous generals. Thefe hoftile preparations
were feen by Eteocles, who on his part did not remain
ina&ive. He chofe feven brave chiefs to oppofe the fe¬
ven leaders of the Argives-, and ftationed them at the
feven gates of the city. He placed himfelf againft his
brother Polynices, and he oppofed Menalippus to Ty-
deus, Polyphonies to Capaneus, Megareus to Eteoclus,
Hyperbius to Parthenopaais, and Lafthenes to Amphia-
raus. Much blood was fhed in light and unavailing
fkirmifhes, and it was at laft agreed between the two
brothers
E T F
[
* Trav ii.
377-
brotlaers that the war (hould be decided by Angle com¬
bat. They both fell in an engagement condudled with
the moft inveterate fury on either lide j and it is even
laid that the aihes of thefe two brothers, who had been
fo inimical one to the other, feparated themfelves on the
burning pile, as if fenfible of refentment, and hoftile to
reconciliation.
ETERNITY, an attribute of God, expreffing his
infinite or endlefs duration. See Logic and Meta¬
physics.
Eternity, in Mythology, a divinity among the Ro¬
mans, who had neither temples nor altars. They re-
prefented it under the figure of a woman, who held the
dun in one hand and the moon in the other ; her fym-
bols were a phoenix, globe, and elephant.
ETESIiE, or Etesian winds, are fuch as blow at
Rated times of the year, from what part foever of the
compafs they come. They are fo called from the Greek
word £?•?, “ year,” being yearly or anniverfary winds,
fuch as our feamen call rnonfoons and trade-winds, which
in fome parts of the world continue confiantly blowing
for certain Rated feafons of the year. Thus, the north
winds, which, during the dog-days, conllantly blow
upon the coafts of Egypt, and hinder all ftiips from
failing out of Alexandria for that feafon, are called
etefise in Ccefar’s Commentaries. In other authors, the
weft and eaft winds are called etejicv, when they conti¬
nue blowing for certain feafons of the year.
Cellarius endeavours to prove that thbfe winds are
properly etefian which blow from that part of the hori¬
zon which is between the north and weft about the time
of the folftice. In ancient writers, they are reprefent-
ed as of a very mild and gentle nature j and were cal¬
led by mariners fomniculoji and delicati, from their fieep-
ing or ceafing to blow in the night.
ETFU, a town of Upper Egypt, celebrated on ac¬
count of the fublime temple of Apollinopolis, which,
Denon obferves,* is “ the moft beautiful of all Egypi,
and, next to thofe of Thebes, the largeft. Being built
(he adds) at a period when the arts and fciences had ac¬
quired all their fplendour, the workmanlhip of every
part is equally beautiful, the hieroglyphics are admira¬
bly executed, the figures more varied, and the archi-
teclure of a higher order than in the Theban edifices,
the building of which muft be referred to an earlier
age.. My firft care was to take a general plan of the
building.
“ Nothing can be more fimply beautiful than thefe
outlines, nothing more pifturefque vthan the effect pro¬
duced in the elevation, by the various dimenfions be-
Ipnging to each member of the harmonious whole.
This fuperb edifice is feated on a rifing ground, fo as to
overlook not only its immediate vicinity, but the whole
valley ; and at the foot of this greater temple, but on
a confiderably lower level, is a fmaller one, at prefent
almoft buried. The only part ftill vifible is in a hol¬
low furrounded with rubbilh, where may (?e feen a little
portico of two columns, and as many pilafters, a peri-
ftyle, and the fan&uary of the temple inclofed within
a pilaftered gallery. A fingle column, with its capital
rifing from the ruins, to the height of forty feet above
the portico, and the angle of a wall 100 feet beyond,
ftiew that there formerly exifted a court in the front of
the temple. It is remarkable of this monument, not-
withftanding the flsill difplayed in its conft.ruction; that
003
]
E T H
Ethics.
( kings of J
r England,
See
(Hiftory of)
England.
the gates are not exactly in the middle of the fides. It Ethelba'.d
feems to have been dedicated to the evil genius, for the
figure of Typhon is feen in relief on the four fides of the v
plinth, which furmounts each of the capitals. The
whole frieze, and all the paintings within, appear de-
feriptive of Ifis defending herfelf againft the attacks of
this monfter.”
ETHELBALD,
ethelbert,
ETHELRED,
ETHELWOLF,
ETHER, 7 Q
ETHERIAL, j See
R1 HERIDGE, Sir George, a celebrated wit and
comic genius in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.
defeended from an ancient family in Oxfordlhire, and
born in 1636. He travelled in his youth ; and, not
being able to confine himfelf to the ftudy of the law,
devoted himfelf to the gayer accomplifhments. His
firft dramatic performance, the Comical Revenge, or
Love in a Tub, appeared in 1664, and introduced him
to the leading wits of the time : in 1668, he produced
a comedy called She would if (he could j and, in 1676,
he publiihed his laft comedy, called the Man of Mode,
or Sir Fopling Flutter ; which is perhaps the moft ele¬
gant comedy, and contains more of the real manners
of high life than any one the Englifh ftage was ever
adorned with. This piece he dedicated to the beauti¬
ful duchefs of York, in whole fervice he then was ; and
who had fo high a regard for him, that when, on the
acceffion of James II. ihe came to be queen, lire procu¬
red his being fent ambaffador firft to Hamburgh, and
afterwards to Ratifbon, where he continued till after
his majefty quitted the kingdom. Our author being
addifled to certain gay extravagances, had greatly im¬
paired his fortune ; to repair which, he paid his ad-
dreffes to a rich widow: but ftie, being an ambitious
woman, had determined not to condefcend to a mar¬
riage with any man who could not beftow a title upon
her j on which account he was obliged to purchale a
knighthood. None of the writers have exactly fixed
the period of Sir Gserge’s death, though all feem to
place it not long after the Revolution. Some fay, that
on this event he followed his mafter King James into
France, and died there j but the authors of the Bio-
graphia Britannica mention a report, that he came to
an untimely death by an unlucky accident at Ratilbon;
for that after having treated lome company with a libe¬
ral entertainment at his houfe there, where he had ta¬
ken his glafs too freely, and being, through his great
complaifance, too forward in waiting on his guefts at
their departure, fluftied as he was,' he tumbled down
flairs and broke his neck, and fo fell a martyr to mirth
and jollity. As to Sir George’s literary character, he
certainly was born a poet, and feems to have been pof-
feffed of a genius whofe vivacity needed no cultivation ;
for we have no proofs' of his having been a fcho.m.
His xvorks, however, have not efcaped cenfure on ac¬
count of that licentioufnefs which in general runs throu h
them, which renders them dangerous to young un¬
guarded minds 5 and the more fo, for the lively and ge¬
nuine wit with which it is gilded over, and which (ms
therefore juftly banilhed them from the purity of the
prefent ftage.
ETJJICSj the doftrine of manners? or the fcience
of
3Krti!opia
tl
Etmuller.
E T M [336
ot moral pliilofopliy. The word is formed from rfiai,
mores, “ manners by reafon tire fcope or object
thereof is to form the manners. See Moral Philofophy,
ETHIOPIA, an extenlive region of Africa. See
Abyssinia.
ETHIOPS, ANTIMONIAL, MARTIAL, and MINE¬
RAL. See Chemistry Index.
ETHMOIDESj in Anatomy, a bone fituated in the
middle of the baiis of the forehead or os frontis, and at
the top of the root of the nofe, filling aimoft the whole
cavity of the noitrile. It has its name from efy«ej, cn-
brum, “ fieve”, and “ form,” becaule all Ipongy
and porous. See Anatomy' Index.
ETHNARCHA, Ethnarch, (formed ofciboj, ‘•na¬
tion,” and c/.pyji, “ command),” a governor or ruler of
a nation.
Thexe are fome medals of Herod I. furnamed the
Great, on one fide whereof is found 'H^»oev, and on the
other Efoxgxov, q. d. Herod tbie Ethnarch. After the
battle of Philippi, we read that Antony, pafiing over
into Syria, conllituted Herod and Phafael his brother
tetrarchs, and in that quality committed to them the
adminiftration of the affairs of Judea, (Jof. Ant. lib.
xiv. cap. 23.) Herod therefore had the government of
the province before ever the Parthians entered Syria,
or beiore Antigonus’s invafion, which did not happen
till fix or feven years after Herod was commander in
-Galilee, (Jof. lib. xiv. cap. 24, ij.) Confequently,
Herod was then truly ethnarch, for he can be no other-
wife denominated; fo that it muff have been in that
fpace of time that the medals were ffruckj which only
give him this title : which medals are a confirmation
of what we read in hirtory of the government which
that prince was intrufted with before he was railed to the
royalty.
Jofephus gives Herod the appellation of tetrarch in
lieu of that of ethnarch ; but the two terms come fo near
to each other, that it is eafy to confound them together.
Though Herod the Great left by will to Archelaus
all Judea, Samaria, and Idumeaj yet Jofephus tells us
he was then only called ethnarch^
ETHNOPHRONES, in antiquity, a feft of here¬
tics in the feventh century, who made a profellion of
Chriftianity, but joined thereto all the ceremonies and
follies of Paganifm, as judicial aftrology, fortileges* au¬
guries, and other divinations.
ETIQUETTE, a French term, primarily denoting
a ticket or title affixed to a bag or bundle of papers,
expreffing its contents. It is alfo ufed* when applied
to the Spaniffi and fome other courts, to fignify a par-
icular account of what is to be done daily in the king’s
houfehold, and in the chief ceremonies relating to it.
It likewife denotes thofe forms that regulate the deco¬
rum of conduft towards perfons of various ranks and
Rations.
ETMULLER, Michael, a moft eminent phyfi-
cian, bom at Leipfic in 1646. After having travelled
through the greateft part of Europe, he became profef-
for of botany, chemiftry, and anatomy, at Leipfic,
where he died in 1683. He was a very voluminous
writer, his works making no lefs than 5 vols folio, as
printed at Naples in 1728. His fon Michael Erneft
Etmuller was alfo an ingenious phyfician, who publiffi-
ed feveral pieces, and died in 173 2.
3
] E T O
ETNA, or yEtNA, a famous burning mountain of
Sicily, and the largeft in Europe. See ./Etna,
ETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, compre-,
bending all that traft now called the Dejpctat, or Little
Greece. It was parted on the eaft by the river Evenus,
now the Fidari, from the Locrenfes Ozolee $ on the
w eft, from Acarnania by the Achelous; on the northy
it bordered on the country of the Dorians and part of
Epirus ; and, on the fouth, extended to the bay of
Corinth.
The Etolians wrere a reftlefs and turbulent people ;
feldom at peace among themfelves, and ever at war
with their neighbours 5 utter ftrangers to all fenfe of
friendffiip or principles of honour •, ready to betray
their friends upon the leaft prolpeef of reaping any ad¬
vantage from their treachery : in ffiort, they were look¬
ed upon by the other Rates of Greece nootherwife than
as outlaws and public robbers. On the other hand,
they wTere bold and enterprifing in war j inured to la¬
bour and hardfhips j undaunted in the greateft dan¬
gers ; jealous defenders of their liberties, for which
they were, on all occafions, willing to venture their
lives, and facrifice all that was moft dear to them.
They diftinguiffied themfelves above all the other na¬
tions of Greece, in oppofing the ambitious defigns of
the Macedonian princes 5 who, after having reduced
moft of the other Rates, were forced to grant them a
peace upon very honourable terms. The conftitution
of the Etoliah republic was copied from that of the
Achgeans, and with a view to form, as it were, a coun¬
ter alliance j for the Etolians bore an irreconcileable
hatred to the Achteans, and had conceived no fmall
jealoufy at the growing powrer of that Rate. The
Cleomenic war, and that of the allies, called the facial
'war, were kindled by the Etolians in the heart of Pe-
loponhefus, with no other view but to humble their
antagonifts the Acheeans. In the latter, they held out,
with the affiftance only of the Eleans and Lacedemo¬
nians, for the fpace of three years, againft the united
forces of Achaia and Macedon j but were obliged at
laft to purchafe a peace, by yielding up to Philip all
Acarnania. As they parted with this province much
againft their will, they watched all opportunities of
wreiling it again out of the Macedonian’s hands ; for
which reafon they entered into an alliance with Rome
againft him, and proved of great fervice to the Ro¬
mans in their war -with him: but growing infolent
upon account of their fervices, they made wrar upon
the Romans themfelves. By that warlike nation they
were overcome, and granted a peace on the following
fevere terms : 1, The majefty of the Roman people
ffiall be revered in all Etolia, 2. Etolia ffiall not fuf-
fer the armies of fuch as are at war with Rome to pafs
through her territories, and the enemies of Rome ffiall
be likewife the enemies of Etolia. 3. She ffiall, in
the fpace of 100 days, put into the hands of the ma-
gittrates of Corcyra all the prifoners and deferters ffie
Has, whether of the Romans or their allies, except
fuch as have been taken twice, or during her alliance
with Rome. 4> T he Etolians ffiall pay doivn in ready
money, to the Roman general in Etolia, 200 Euboic
talents, of the fame value as the Athenian talents, and
engage to pay 50 talents more within the fix years fol¬
lowing. 5. They ffiall put into the hands of the con-
ful
Etnfl
Ftolia.
E T O r 337 ] E T O
Etolia.
ful 40 fucli hoftages as he fhali choofe j none of whom
(hall be under 12, or above 40 years of age : the pre-
tor, the general of the horfe, and fuch as have been
already hoftages at Rome, are excepted out of this
number. 6. Etolia ihall renounce all pretenfions to
the cities and territories which the Romans have
conquered, though thofe cities and territories had
formerly belonged to the Etolians. 7. The city of
Oenis, and its diilricl, fhall be fubjedf to the Acar-
nanians.
After the conqueft of Macedon by Paulus iEmilius,
they were reduced to a much worfe condition j for not
only thofe among them, who had openly declared for
Perfeus, but fuch as were only fufpected to have fa¬
voured him in their hearts, were fent to Rome, in or¬
der to clear themfelves before the fenate. There they
were detained, and never afterwards fuffered to return
into their native country. Five hundred and fifty of
the chief men of the nation were barbaroully affaffi-
nated by the partifans of Rome, for no other crime
but that of being fufpe£led to wilh well to Perfeus.
The Etolians appeared before Paulus ALmilius in
mourning habits, and made loud complaints of fuch
inhuman treatment *, but could obtain no redrefs : nay,
ten commiffioners, who had been fent by the fenate to
fettle the affairs of Greece, enabled a decree, declaring,
that thofe w7ho were killed had buffered juitly, fince it
appeared to them that they had favoured the Macedo¬
nian party. From this time thofe only were raifed to
the chief honours and employments in the Etolian. re¬
public who were known to prefer the interefl of Rome
to that of their country $ and as thefe alone were
countenanced at Rome, all the magiftrates of Etolia
were the creatures and mere tools of the Roman fenate.
In this date of fervile fubjedlion they continued till the
deilruftion of Corinth, and the dilfolution of the A-
chtean league j when Etolia, with the other free Hates
of Greece, was reduced to a Roman province, com¬
monly called the province of Achaia. Neverthelefs, each
Hate and city vcas governed by its ovm laws, under the
fuperintendency of the praetor -whom Rome fent annual¬
ly into Achaia. The whole nation paid a certain tri¬
bute, and the rich were forbidden to polfefs lands any¬
where but in their own country.
In this Hate, with little alteration, Etolia continued
undet the emperors, till the reign of Conflantine the
Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of
the empire, divided the wTeftern parts of Greece from
the reft, calling them AV10 Epirus, and fubje&ing the
whole country to the prcefe&us prcetorii for Illyricum.
Under the fucceffors of Conflantine, Greece was par¬
celled out into feveral principalities, efpecially after
the taking of Conftantinople by the Weflern princes.
At that time, Theodorus Angelus, a noble Grecian,
of the imperial family, feized • on Etolia and Epirus.
The former he left to Michael his fon j who maintain¬
ed it againft Michael Paleologus, the firlt emperor of
the Greeks, qfter the expulfion of the Latins. Charles,
the laft prince of this family, dying in 1430 without
lawful 'Miie, bequeathed Etolia to his brother’s fon,
named alfo Charles j and Acarnania to his natural fons,
Memnon, Turnus, and Hercules, But, great difputes
ariiing about this diviiion, Amurath II. after the reduc¬
tion of Theflalonica, laid hofd of fo favourable an op¬
portunity, and drove them all out in 143 2. The Ma-
Vcxl. VJII. Part I.
hometans were afterwards difpoffeiTed of this country by Eton,
the famous prince of Epirus, George Caftriot, common--v"“
ly called Scanderbeg ; who, with a fmall army, oppoled
the whole power of the Ottoman empire, and defeated
thofe barbarians in 22 pitched battles. That hero, at
his de^th, left great part of Etolia to the Venetians;
but, they not being able to make head againli luch
a mighty power, the whole country was loon re¬
duced by Mahomet II. whofe fucceffors hold it to this
day.
ETON, a town of Bucks, lituated on the river
Thames, acrofs which there is a bridge leading to
"Windfor. Eton has been long celebrated for its fchool
and college, which were founded by Henry VI.; and
King’s college in the univerfity of Cambridge admits
none into the number of its fellows, wrho have not been
brought up at Eton. It lies welt from London, at the
diitance of about 20 miles.
The fcholars of Eton fchool have a feltival which
has been celebrated from time immemorial, called the
Montem, the obfervance of wdrich was at firlt biennial,
but is now triennial, on the Whit Tuefday iii every third
year. It commences by a number of the plder boys
taking poll on the bridges, and guarding every other
avenue around Wxndfor and Eton, as foon as the day
begins to dawn.
They are generally fele&ed on account of their fine
figures and fuperior adtivity. Their dreffes are all fan¬
ciful, compofed of filks, latins, &c. fome of them very
richly embroidered, and chiedy in the appearance of
running footmen, having poles in their hands, and de¬
nominated falt-bearers, who demand fait of every paf-
fenger they meeet, by which they mean a contribution,
and peremptorily infilt on receiving it. The contribu¬
tion being given, which confifts of whatever the perfoft
pleafes to bellow, a printed paper is delivered, contain¬
ing their motto, together with the date of the year;
and this being produced to any other falt-bearer, ex¬
empts the paffenger from the payment of any farther
contributions during that day. The motto is,
“ Pro more et monte.
Vivant rex et reginaP
They continue levying contributions in this manner
from the dawm of day till about three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon, at which time the proceflion clofes. It com¬
mences at noon, and confilts of the queen’s and other
bands of mufic j—feveral ftandards carried by different
iludents j—all the boys of Eton, two and two, dreffed in
the uniform of officers ; thofe belonging to the king’s
foundation, wear blue, the reft fcarlet uniform, fwords,
&c.—the grand ftandard bearer j—the captain, or head
boy of Eton fchool}—the lieutenant, or fecond boy;—.
his majefty, attended by the prince of Wales, and other
male branches of the royal family on horfeback, wdth
their fuite;—the queen and princeffes in coaches, attend¬
ed by their fuite ;—band of mufic, followed by a great
concourfe of the nobility and gentry in their carriages,
and on horfeback.
The proceffion begins in the great Iquare at Eton,
proceeding through Eton to Slough, and round to Salt-
hill, where the whole of the boys pafs in review before
the king and queen, and afcend the montem,- where an
oration is delivered, and the grand ftandard is difplay-
ed with much activity and grace by the ftandard-bear-
U u er*
E T Y .[ 338 ] EVA
Strum, er, who. is commonly felefled from among the elder
EtymoJogy. j3oySt ]'wo extraordinary falt-bearers are chofen to
wait upon their majelties, dreffed in fanciful habits, and
decorated in the moil fuperb manner, carrying an em¬
broidered bag, not only for the purpofe of receiving
what is denominated the royal fait, but alfo what may
be colle&ed by the other falt-bearcrs in different quar¬
ters. The donation of the king is 50 guineas, the
queen’s is the fame fum j that of the prince of Wales
is 30, and that of the other princes and princeffes is 20
guineas each. This ceremony being over, the royal
family return to Windfor. A fumptuous entertainment
is provided for the boys at the tavern at Salt-hill, and
the beautiful gardens arc laid out for ladies and gentle¬
men to take refrefhments, where bands of mufic are
conlfantly performing.
At fix o’clock in the evening, the boys return in the
fame order of proceffion as in the morning (but without
the royal family), and after marching round the great
fquare, are difmiffed. After this the captain pays his
refpecls to the royal family at the queen’s lodge, Wind¬
for, prior to his departure for King’s college, Cam¬
bridge \ to defray the expences of which, he is prefent-
ed with the produce of the montem, which in the year
1796 amounted to more than icoo guineas.
This joyful day is terminated by a brilliant exhibi¬
tion of beauty, rank, and fafhion j a promenade on the
terrace of Windfor j bands of mufic performing, &c. :
and the fcene is rendered ftill mere interefting and de^
lightful by the humble, affable deportment of the royal
family, who readily mingle with the company, and
walk on the terrace till it is almoll dark.
ETRURIA. See Hetruria.
ETYMOLOGY, that part of grammar which con-
fiders and explains the origin and derivation of words,
in order to arrive at their firft and primary fignifica-
tion, whence Quintilian calls it originatio.—The word
is formed of the Greek, ilvfioi, verus, “ true,” and
Aiya, dico, “ I fpeak j” whence difcourfe, &c.
and thence Cicero calls the etymology notatio and
veriloquium; though Quintilian choofes rather to call
it originatio.
A judicious inquiry into etymologies is thought
by feme of confiderable ufe ; becaufe nations, who va¬
lue themfelves upon their antiquity, have always look¬
ed on the antiquity of their language as one of the bell
titles they could plead j and the etymologill, by feek-
ing the true and original reafon of the notions and
ideas fixed to each word and expreffion, may often
furnilh an argument of antiquity, from the traces re¬
maining thereof, compared with the ancient ufes. Add,
that etymologies are neceffary for the thorough under-
ftanding of a language. For, to explain a term pre-
cifely, there feems a necellity for recurring to its firll
impofition, in order to fpeak juftly and fatisfa&orily
thereof. The force and extent of a w-ord is generally
better conceived when a perfon knows its origin and
etymology.
It is objefted, however, that the art is arbitrary, and
built altogether on conjectures and appearances j and
the etymologifts are charged with deriving their Words
from where they pleafe. And indeed it is no eafy
matter to go back into the ancient Britilh and Gaulilh
ages, and to follow, as it were, by the track, the va¬
rious imperceptible alterations a language has under¬
gone from age to age j and as thofe alterations have Evacirants
fometimes been merely owing to caprice, it is eafy to H
take a mere imagination or conjeCiure for a regular a. Evangelifts.
nalogy : fo that it is no wonder the public Ihould be y
prejudiced againft a fcience which feems to Hand on fo
precarious a footing. It mull certainly be owned, that
etymologies are frequently fo far fetched, that one can
fcarcely fee any refemblance or correfpondence therein.
Quintilian has fiiowm, that the ancient etymologills,
notwithffanding all their learning, fell into very ridi¬
culous derivations.
The etymologies of our Englilh wmrds have been de¬
rived from the Saxon, Welch, Walloon, Danilh, La¬
tin, Greek, &cv
In the prefent wrork the etymologies of terms are
generally noted, where their obvioulnefs does not ren¬
der it unneceffary, or their dubiety or unimportance
ufelefs.
EVACUANTS, in Pharmacy, are properly fuch
medicines as diminilh the animal fluids, by throwing
out fome morbid or redundant humour ; or fuch as
thin, attenuate, and promote the motion and circula¬
tion thereof.
EVACUATION, in Medicine, the art of diminilh-
ing, emptying, or attenuating, the humours of the
body.
EVAGRIUS SCHOLASTICUS, a famous hiltorian,
born at Epiphania, about the year 536. He praCli-
fed the profeffion of an advocate, from which he was
called Scholafticus, which name was then given to the
pleaders at the bar. He was alfo tribune and keeper
of the prefedl’s dilpatches. He wrote an ecclefiaftical
hiltory, which begins where Socrates and Theodoret
ended theirs; and other works, for which he w as re¬
warded by the emperors Tiberius and Mauricius. M.
de Valois publifhed at Paris a good edition of Eva-
grius’s ecclefiaftical hittory, in folio 5 and it was re-
publiftied at Cambridge in 1620, in folio, by William
Reading, with additional notes of various authors.
EVANDER, a famous Arcadian chief, called thq
fon of Mercury, on account of his eloquence, brought
a colony of his people into Italy, about 60 years be¬
fore the taking of Troy j when Faunus, who theft
reigned over the Aborigenes, gave him a large extent
of country, in which he fettled with his friends. He
is fard to have taught the Latins the ufe of letters, and
the art of hufbandry. He kindly received Hercules
when he returned from the conqueft of Geryon, and he
was the firft who raifed him altars. He gave iEneas
afliftance againft the Rutuli, and diftinguifhed himfelf
by his hofpitality. It is faid that he firft brought the
Greek alphabet into Italy, and introduced there the
worfhip of the Greek deities. He was honoured as a
god after death, and his fubje&s raifed him an al¬
tar on Mount Aventine.
EVANGELISTS, the infpired authors of the go-
fpels. The word is derived from the Greek
formed of tv, bene, “ well,” and “ angel or
meffenger.”
The denomination evangelijfs was likewife given in-
the ancient church to fuch as preached the gofpel up
and down, without being attached to any particular
church, being either comjmflioned by the apoftles to
inftrudt the nations, or of their own accord abandoning
every worldly attachment, and confecrating themfelves
to
E U C t 339 1 E U C
Evanld to the facred office of preaching the gofpel. In which
il . fenfe fome interpreters think it is that St Philip, who was
Eucharif^ one o£ t|ie £even (jeacons> is called the evangeli/l, in the
2ift chapter of the Atts of the Apoftles, ver. 8. A-
gain, St Paul writing to Timothy, ep. ii. cap. iv.
ver. 5. bids him do the work of an evangelift. The
fame apoftle, Eph. iv. it. ranks the evangelifts after
the apoftles and prophets.
EVANID, a name given by fome authors to fuch
colours as are of no long duration, as thofe in the
rainbow, in clouds before and after funfet, See.
Evanid colours are alfo called fantajlical and empha-
lical colours.
EVANTES, in antiquity, the priefteffes of Bac¬
chus, thus called, becaufe in celebrating the orgia they
ran about as if diftra&ed, crying, Evan, evan, 0J16 evan.
See Bacchanalia.
EVAPORATION, in Natural Philofoplnj, fignifies
the converfton of fluids, principally water, into vapour,
fo that it becomes fpeciftcally lighter than the atmo-
fphere. See Chemistry and Meteorology Index.
EVASION, in Zcw, is ufed for any fubtle endea¬
vour to fet afide truth, or to efcape the puniihment of
the law, which will not be endured. Thus, if a per-
fon fays to another that he will not ftrike him, but will
give him a pot of ale to ftrike him firft, and according¬
ly he ftrikes, the returning of it is punilhable; for no
man lhall evade the juftice of the law by fuch a pretence
to cover his malice.
EVATES, a branch or divifion of the druids, or
ancient Celtic philofophers. Strabo divides the Britifh
and Gauliih philofophers into three fe61s •, bards, evates,
and druids. He adds, that the bards were the poets
and muftcians; the evates, the priefts and naturalifts 5
and the druids were moralifts as well as naturalifts;
But Marcellus and Hornius reduce them all to two
fcdls, viz. the Bards and Druids.
EUBAGES, an order of priefts or philofophers
among the ancient Ceitae or Gauls : fome will have the
cubages to be the fame with the druids and faronidae
of Diodorus ; and others, that they were the fame with
what Strabo calls Evates.
E U RGE A, in Ancient Geography, an oblong ifland,
ftretching out between Attica and Theffaly, oppolite to
Bceotia; from which it is feparated by a narrow ftrait
called Euripus. This ifland, never exceeding 40, nor
ever falling Ihort of two miles in breadth, is in length
1 miles, and in compafs 365, according to Pliny.
Now N EGROFONT, from its principal town, which was
anciently called Chalets.
EUCHARIST, the facrament of the Lord’s fupper,
properly ftgnifi.es giving thanks.—The word in its original
Greek, literally imports thankfgiving ; being
formed of tv, bene, “ well,” and ^1, gratia, “ thanks.”
This facrament was inftituted by Chrift himfelfj and
the participation of it is called communion.
As to the manner of celebrating the eucharift a-
msng the ancient Chriftians, after the cuftomary obla-
tions were made, the deacon brought water to the bi-
flrops and prelbyters, Handing round the table, to wafii
their hands j according to that of the pfalmift, “ I will
walh my hands in innocency, and fo will I compafs
thy altar, O Lord.” Then the deacon cried out aloud,
“ Mutually embrace and kifs each other j” which be¬
ing done, "the whole congregation prayed for the uni-
verfal peace and welfare of the church, for the tran- Euchite*
quillity and repofe of the world, for the profperity of ^ jj ^
the age, for wholefome weather, and for all ranks and „
degrees of men. After this followed mutual faluta- y—™
tions of the minifter and people \ and then the biihop
or prelbyter having fanclified the elements by a folemir
benediction, he brake the bread, and delivered it to the
deacon, who diftributed it to the communicants, and
after that the cup. Their facramental wine was ufual-
ly diluted or mixed with water. During the time of
adminiftration, they fang hymns and pfalms •, and hav¬
ing concluded with prayer and thankfgiving, the people
faluted each other with a kifs of peace, and fo the af-
fembly broke up.
EUCHITES, or Euchit^e, a fe£t of ancient he¬
retics, who were firft formed into a religious body to¬
wards the end of the fourth century, though their doc¬
trine and difeipline fubfifted in Syria, Egypt, and o-
ther eaftem countries, before the birth of Chrift *, they
were thus called becaufe they prayed without ceafing,
imagining that prayer alone was fufficient to lave them.
Their great foundation were thofe words of St Paul,
(Theflalonians v. 17.), Pray without ceajing. The word
is formed of the Greek, prayer, whence tv^flcet, the
fame with the Latin, precatorcs, “ prayers.” They
were alfo called Enthufiajls and Mejfalietns; a term of
Hebrew origin, denoting the fame as Euchites.
The Euchites were a fort of myftics, who imagined,
according to the oriental notion, that two fouls refided
in man, the one good and the other evil j and who
were zealous in expelling the evil foul or demon, and
haftening the return of the good fpirit of God, by
contemplation, prayer, and flinging of hymns. They
alfo embraced the opinions nearly refembling the Ma-
nichean doftrine, and which they derived from the te¬
nets of the oriental philofophy. The fame denomina¬
tion was ufed in the 1 2th century, to denote certain
fanatics who infefted the Greek and eaftern churches,
and who were charged with believing a double Trinity,
rejecting wedlock, abftaining from flelh, treating with
contempt the facraments of baptifm and the Lord’s
fupper, and the various branches of external worlhip,
and placing the effence of religion folely in external
prayer, and maintaining the efficacy of perpetual fup-
plications to the fupreme Being for expelling an evil
being or genius, which dwelt in the breaft of every mor¬
tal. This feft is faid to have been founded by’a per-
fon called Lucopetrus, whofe chief difciple was named
Tychicus. By degrees it became a general and invidious
appellation for perfons of eminent piety and zeal for
genuine Chriftianity, who oppofed the vicious pra<!fti-
ces and infolent tyranny of the priefthood j much in
the fame manner as the Latins comprehended all the
adverfaries of the Roman pontiff under the general
terms of Waldenses and Albigenses.
St Cyril of Alexandria, in one of his letters, takes
occafion to cenfure feveral monks in Egypt, who, un¬
der pretence of refigning themfelves wholly to prayer,
led a lazy, fcandalous life. A cenfure likewife appli¬
cable to monafteries in general.
EUCHOLOGIUM, Ev^eAiyw, a Greek term, fig-
nifying literally a difeourfe on prayer. The word is form¬
ed of ivy#, prayer, and Any#;, difeourfe.
The Euchologium is properly the Greek ritual,
wherein are preferibed the order and manner of every
U u 2 j thing
E U D t 34° ] EVE
Euclid thing relating to the order and adminiftration of their
II ceremonies, facraments, ordinations, &c.
, F. Goar has given us an edition of the Greek Eu-
ehologium in Greek and Latin, with notes, at Paris.
EUCLID o/'Megara, a celebrated philofopher and
logician, flourilhed about 400 B. C. -The Athenians
having prohibited the Megareans from entering their
city on pain of death, this philofopher difguifed him-
felf in women’s clothes to attend the ledlures of So¬
crates. After the death of Socrates, Plato and other
philofophers went to Euclid at Megara, to flicker
themfelves from the tyrants who governed Athens. Eu¬
clid admitted but one chief good; which he fometimes
called GW, fometimes Spirit, and fometimes Providence.
Euclid of Alexandria, the celebrated mathemati¬
cian, flouriflied in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, about
277 B. C. He reduced all the fundamental principles
of pure mathematics, which had been delivered down
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and other mathe¬
maticians before him, into regularity and order, and
added many others of his own difcovering j on which
account he is faid to be the firft who reduced arithme¬
tic and geometry into the form of a fcience. He like-
wife applied himfelf to the ftudy of mixed mathema¬
tics, and efpecially to aftronomy, in which he alfo ex¬
celled. The molt celebrated of his works is his Ele¬
ments of Geometry, of which there have been a great
number of editions in all languages; and a fine edition
of all his works was printed in 1703, by David Gre¬
gory, Savilian profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford.
EUCRASY, (of iv, well, and temperature'),
in Medicine, an agreeable well-proportioned mixture
of qualities, whereby a body is faid to be in good or¬
der, and difpofed for a good ftate of health.
EUDIOMETER, an inflrument for afcertaining the
purity of the atmofpherical air, or the quantity of pure
oxygen or vital air contained in it, chiefly by means of
its diminution, or the abforption of it by expofing cer¬
tain fubftances to its aftion. Several kinds of thefe
have been invented. See Chemistry Index.
EUDOSIA, (Athenia, before her converfion to
Chriftianity), a celebrated lady, the daughter of Leon¬
tius, a philofopher of Athens ; who gave her fuch a
learned education, that at his death, he left her only a
fmall legacy, faying fhe was capable to make her own
fortune : but pleading at Athens without fuccefs againft
her two brothers, for a {hare in her father’s eftate, {he
carried her caufe perfonally by appeal to Conftanti-
nople ; recommended herfelf to Pulcheria, the lifter of
the emperor Theodoftus the younger ; embraced Chri¬
ftianity, was baptized by the name of Eudofa, and
foon after married to the emperor. Their union lafted
a confiderable time : but a difference at laft taking
place, on account of the emperor’s jealoufy, excited by
Chryfapius the eunuch, (he retired to Jerufalem, where
ihe fpent many years in building and adorning church¬
es and in relieving the poor. Dupin fays, that ftie
did not return thence till after the emperor’s death :
but Cave tells us, that Are was reconciled to him, re¬
turned to Conftantinople, and continued with him till
his death ; after which fhe went again to Paleftine,
where Ihe fpent the remainder of her life in pious
Works. She died in the year 460, according to Du¬
pin ; or 459, according to Cave : the latter obferves,
that on her deathbed fhe took a folemn oath, by which
{he declared herfelf entirely free from any ftains of un-Eudoxian?
chaftity. She was the author of a paraphrafe on the H
eight firft books of the Old Teftament in heroic verfe ;, Eveyn-
and of a great number of poems, which are loft.
EUDOXIANS, a party or fe£t of heretics in the
fourth century, fo denominated from their leader Eu-
doxius, patriarch of Antioch and Conftantinople, a
great defender of the Arian doflrine. The Eudoxi-
ans adhered to the errors of the Arians and Euno-
mians, maintaining, that the Son was created out of
nothing ; that he had a will diftinfl and different from
that of the Father, &c.
EVE. See Vigil.
Eve, the mother of all mankind ; who being deluded
by the ferpent, occaftoned the fall, and all its difmal
confequences. See Ada-M.
EVELYN, John, a moft learned and ingenious
writer and natural philofopher, was born at Wotton in
Surry, the feat of his father, in 1620. After making
the tour of Europe, he returned to England about the
year 1651, and lived very retired at his rural retreat.
Say’s Court, near Deptford in Kent; where his difguft
at the violence and confufion of the times operated fo
far upon his ftudious difpofition, that he aiftually pro-
pofed to Mr Boyle the eftablfthing a kind of college
for perfons of the fame turn of mind, where they
might aflociate together without care or interruption.
It was owing to Mr Evelyn’s gratitude to the place
of his education, that Oxford became pofl'effed of the
famous Arundelian marbles ; which he perfuaded the
Lord Henry Howard to beftow on that univerftty.
He was very afliduous in tranfmitting to the Royal So¬
ciety whatever fell within the compafs of his inquiries ;
and ufed humbly to ftyle himfelf a pioneer in the fervice.
When the number of books he publilhed is confidered,
the many he left behind him unfmiftied and unpublifti-
ed, and the variety of fubjefts on which he employed
his time, his induftry and application are aftoniflring.
“ His life (fays the honourable Mr Walpole) was a
courfe of inquiry, ftudy, curiolity, inftrudtion, and be¬
nevolence. The works of the Creator, and the mimic
labours of the creature, were all objefts of his purfuit.
He unfolded the perfedions of the one, and aflifted the
imperfedions of the other. He adored from examina¬
tion ; was a courtier that flattered only by informing
his prince, and by pointing out what was worthy for
him to countenance ; and was really the neighbour of
the Gofpel, for there was no man that might not have
been the better for him. He was one of the firft pro¬
moters of the Royal Society, a patron of the ingenious
and indigent, and peculiarly ferviceable to the lettered
world; for, befides his writings and difcoveries, he ob¬
tained the Arundelian marbles for the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, and the Arundelian library for the Royal Society:
nor is it the leaft part of his praife, that he who pro-
pofed to Mr Boyle the eredion of a philofophic col¬
lege for retired and fpeculative perfons, had the honefty
to write in defence of adive life againft Sir George
Mackenzie’s Efl'ay on Solitude. He knew that retire¬
ment in his own hands was induftry and benefit to man¬
kind ; but in thofe of others, lazinefs and inutility.”
T here are five fmall prints of this gentleman’s journey
from Rome to Naples, drawn and etched by him ; and
among his publiihed works are, 1. A Charader of
England; The State of France; 3. An Effay on
the
E U G
I 34i ]
E V 1
Evefham.
Evergetes the firft book of Lucretius De reruin natura : 4. The
French gardener} 5; A Panegyric on King Charles IPs
^ coronation ; 6. Fumifugum, or the inconvenience of
the air and fmoke of London diilipated ; 7. The Hi-
ftory and Art of Engraving on Copper 5 8. A parallel
between the ancient architedlure and the modem $
9. Sylva, or a difcourfe of foreft trees ; and feveral
others. This amiable gentleman died, full of age and
honour, in 1706. His Ion John Evelyn, born in 1654,
diftinguiflied himfelf by his elegant tranilations and
poems : He was one of the commiflioners of the revenue
in Ireland ; but died early in life, in 1698.
EVERGETES, a furname fignifying benefactor, gi¬
ven to Philip of Macedon, and to Antigonus Dofon,
and Ptolemy of Egypt. It ■was alfo commonly given
to the kings of Syria and Pontus, and we bften fee
among the former an Alexander Evergetes, and among
the latter a Mithridates Evergetes. Some of the Ro¬
man emperors alfo claimed that epithet of Benevolent
and Humane.
EVERGREEN, in Gardening, a fpecies of peren¬
nials, which continue their verdure, leaves, &c. all the
year: fuch are hollies, phillyreas, lauriftinufes, bays,
pines, firs, cedars of Lebanon, &c.
EVERLASTING pea. See Lathyrus, Botany
Index.
EVES-droppers. See EArEs-Droppers.
EVESHAM, or Evesholm, commonly called E-
fam, a town of Worcefterfhire, feated on a gentle afcent
from the river Avon, over which there is a bridge of
feven arches. It is 95 miles from London, 14 miles
from Worcefter, and has a harbour for barges. It is
an old borough, reckoned the fecond ii\ the county ;
and fends two members to parliament. It had former¬
ly an abbey with a mitred abbot ; which abbey when
ilanding was one of the largeft and moll ftately of any
in the kingdom. It was governed by a bailiff, till
King James I. at the requell of his fon Prince Henry,
gave it a charter for a mayor, 7 aldermen, 1 2 capital
burgefles, a recorder, and chamberlain, who are all of
the common council, with 24 other burgeffes called
affillants. Four of the aldermen, and the mayer for
the time being, are jullices of the peace 5 and of oyer
and terminer, and of gaol delivery, for all offences in
the corporation, except high treafon 5 and the corpo¬
ration has power to try and execute felons within the
borough. Here are two parifh-churches $ but the bells
of both have been removed to a beautiful old tower
which was one of the gates of the abbey. The town
is noted for the great victory obtained near it by Prince
Edward, afterwards King Edward I. over Simon Mont-
fort, the great earl of Leieefler, who was killed in the
battle. There is an open profpefl from hence of the
fpacious valley called the vale of Evefham or vale of
Gloucefer, which fo abounds with the bell of corn, as
well as paflure for flieep, that it is reckoned the gra¬
nary of all thefe parts. The vale runs all along the
banks of the Avon, from Tewkelbury to Perlhore,
and Stratford in Warkwicklhire, and the river is fo
far navigable. It has a weekly market and four fairs.
The market-houfe built by Sir Edward Hobby has its
upper apartments ufed by the corporation for a fellions-
houfe, and formerly for the aflizes of the county. There
are confiderable garden grounds around the place, the
produce of which fupplies the adjacent towns.
Evil.
EUGENE, Francis, prince of Savoy, deicended Eugene
from Carignan, one of the three branches of the houfe
of Savoy, and fon of Eugene Maurice, general of the <
Swifs and Grifons, governor of Champagne, and earl
of Soiffons, was born in 1663. Louis XIV. to whom
he became afterwards fo formidable an enemy, thought
him fo unpromifing a youth, that he refufed him pre¬
ferment both in the church and the Hate, thinking him
too much addidled to pleafure to be ufeful in either.
Prince Eugene, in difgult, quitted France j and, retir¬
ing to Vienna, devoted himfelf to the Imperial fervice.
The war between the emperor and the Turks afforded
the firll opportunity of exerting his military talents;
and every campaign proved a new Hep in his advance¬
ment to the highell offices in the army. He gave
the Turks a memorable defeat at Zenta ; commanded
the German forces in Italy, where he foiled Marlhal
Villeroy in every engagement, and at length took him
prifoner. Our limits do not allow a detail of his cam¬
paigns } but Prince Eugene diftinguiffied himfelf great¬
ly, when the emperor and Queen Anne united againil
the exorbitant power of Louis XIV. He died at Vienna
in the year 17365 and was as remarkable for his modelly
and liberality, as for his abilities in the field and the cabinet.
EUGENIA, the yamboo : A genus of plants, be¬
longing to the icofandria clafs 5 and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 19th order, Ilcfperidece. See
Botany Index.
EVICTION, in Law, fignifies a recovery of lands
or tenements by law.
EVIDENCE, that perception of truth which arifes
either from the teilimony of the fenfes or from an in-
duftion of reafon.
Evidence, in iaru, fignifies fame proof by tellimony
of men upon oath, or by writings or records. It is
called evidence, becaufe thereby the point in iflfue in a
caufe to be tried is to be made evident to the jury 5
for probationes debent effe evidentes et perfpicuce. The
fyftem of evidence, as now eltabliffied in our courts of
common law, is very full, comprehenfive, and refined y.
far different from, and fuperior to, any thing known
in the middle ages 5—as far fuperior in that as in all
other improvements and refinements in fcience, arts,
and manners..
The nature of evidence during tlie ages of ignorance
was extremely imperfedl, and the people were inca¬
pable of making any rational improvement. Thus it
was the imperfeflion of human reafon that caufed the
invention and introduftion of the ordeal, as an appeal
to the Supreme Being. As men are unable to com¬
prehend the manner in which the Deity carries on the
government of the univerfe, by equal, fixed, and ge¬
neral laws, they are apt to imagine, that in every cafe
which their paffions or intereft render important in
their own eyes, the Supreme Ruler of all ought vifibly
to difplay his power in vindicating innocence, and pu-
niftiing vice. ' ; .
EVIL, in Philofophy, &c. is either moral or natu¬
ral. Moral evil is the difagreement between the ac¬
tions of a moral agent, and the rule of thofe actions
whatever it is *.—Natural evil is, whatever ddlroys or * see
any way diilurbs the perfection of natural beings : luch ml Philo.
as blindnefs, difeafes, death, &c. fifty-
King's Evil, or Scrophula. See Medicine Index.
EyiL-Merodach, the fon and fuccedbr of Nebuchad¬
nezzar
E U L [ 342 ] E U L
•Euler, nezzar the great, king of Babylon, fucceeded to. the
crown- in the year of the world 3443 j but governed
the kingdom during the indifpoiition of his father,
who, after feven years, having recovered his underftand-
ing, once more afcended the throne ; and, as fome be¬
lieve, imprifoned his fon Evil-Merodach. In this con¬
finement it is fuppofed that Evil-Merodach made an
acquaintance and friendfiiip with Jehoiachim king of
Judah, who had been carried to Babylon by Nebu¬
chadnezzar. However that was, it is certain, that,
•ibon after his fucceffion to the throne, he delivered the
king of Judah out of prifon, after a confinement of 37
years, heaped many favours on him, and placed him
above all the other kings who were at the court
of Babylon, ^2 Kings xxv. 27. Jer. Hi. 31.) Evil-
Merodach reigned but one year, according to the
chronology of Archbifliop Ufher j but Dr Prideaux
will have him to have reigned two years ; and was fuc¬
ceeded by NerigHffar his filler’s hulband, who having
been at the head of a confpiracy that put him to
death, reigned in his Head. Others will have it, that
this prince was immediately fucceeded by his fon Bel¬
shazzar.
EULER, LeONARD, profeflbr of mathematics,
member of the imperial academy of Peterlburgh, an¬
cient director of the royal academy of Berlin, and fel¬
low' of the royal fociety of London, as alfo correfpond-
ent member of the royal academy of fciences at Paris,
was born at Bafil, April 15. 1707, of reputable pa¬
rents. The years of his infancy wrere palled in a rural
retreat at the village of Richen, of which place his
father was minifter.—Being fent to the univerfity of
Bafil, he attended regularly the different profelfors.
As his memory was prodigious, he performed his aca¬
demical talks with uncommon rapidity 5 and all the
time he gained by this was confecrated to geometry,
which foon became his favourite Itudy. The early pro-
grefs he made in this fcience, only added new ardour
to his application 5 and thus he obtained a diftinguifhed
place in the attention and efteemof Profelfor John Ber-
nouilli, who was at that time one of the fir If mathe¬
maticians in Europe. In 1723, M. Euler took his de¬
gree as mailer of arts •, and delivered on that occafion
a Latin difcourfe, in which he drew a comparifon be¬
tween the philofophy of Newton and the Cartefian fy-
ftem, which was received with the greatell applaufe.
He afterwards, at his father’s defire, applied himfelf
to the Itudy of theology, and the oriental languages.
Though thefe Itudies were foreign to his predominant
propenfity, his fuccefs was confiderable eyen in this
line : however, with his father’s confent, he returned
to geometry as his principal object. He continued to
avail himfelf of the counfels and inftruftions of M.
BernouilH 5 he contracted an intimate friendlkip with
his two Ions Nicholas and Daniel4 and it was in con-
fequence of thefe connexions that he became after¬
wards the principal ornament of the academy of Peterf-
burg. The projeft of ereCling this academy, which had
been formed by Peter the Great, was executed by
Catherine I,; and the twm young Bernouillis being in¬
vited to Peterlhurg in 1725, promifed Euler, who was
defirous of following them, that they would ufe their
utmoft endeavours to procure for him an advantageous
fettlement in that city. In the mean time, by their
advice, he appHed himfelf with ardour to the lludy of
4
phyfiolcgy, to which he made a happy application of Euler,
his mathematical knowledge j and he attended the me-—y—*
dical leftures of the moll eminent profeffors of Bafil.
This lludy, howrever, did not wholly engrofs his time :
it did not even relax the activity of his vail and com-
prehenfive mind in the cultivation of other branches of
natural fcience. For while he was keenly engaged in
phyfiological refearches, he compofed A Difiertation on
the Nature and Propagation of Sound, and an anfwer
to a prize quellion concerning the malting of Ihips j
to which the academy of fciences adjudged the accejjitt
or fecond rank, in the year 1727. From this latter
difcourfe, and other circumitances, it appears that
Euler had early embarked in the curious and important
lludy of navigation, wdiich he afterwards enriched with
fo many valuable difcoveries.
M. Euler’s merit would have given him an eafy ad-
milfion to honourable preferment, either in the magi-
ftracy or univerfity of his native city, if both civil and
academical honours had not been there diilributed by
lot. The lot being againll him in a certain promo¬
tion, he left his country, fet out for Peterlburg, and
was made joint profeffor with his countrymen Meflrs
Hermann and Daniel Bernouilli in the univerfity of
that city. At his firil fetting out in his new career,
he enriched the academical colledlion with many me¬
moirs, which excited a noble emulation between him
and the Bernouillis: and this emulation always con¬
tinued, without either degenerating into a felfilh jea-
loufy, or producing the leait alteration in their friend-
Ihip. It was at this time that he carried to new' de¬
grees of perfection the integral calculus, invented the
calculation of finufes, reduced analytical operations to
a greater fimplicity, and thus was enabled to throw
new light on all the parts of mathematical fcience. In
1730, he was promoted to the profefforfhip of natural
philofophy j and in 1733 he fucceeded his friend D.
Bemouilli in the mathematical chair. In 1735, a pro¬
blem was propofed by the academy which required
expedition, and for the folution of which feveral emi¬
nent mathematicians had demanded the fpace of Ibnie
months. The problem was folved by Euler in three
days, to the great aftonifhment of the academy j but
the violent and laborious efforts it coft him threw hirr>
into a fever, which endangered his life, and deprived
him of the ufe of his right eye. The academy of
fciences at Paris, which in 1738 had adjudged the prize
to his memoir Concerning the Nature and Properties
of Fire, propofed for the year 1740 the important fub-
ject of the fea tides j a problem whofe folution required
the moll arduous calculations, and comprehended the
theory of the folar fyftem. Euler’s difcourfe on this
queilion was adjudged a mailerpxece of analyfis and
geometry 5 and it was more honourable for him to fhare
the academical prize with fuch illuflrious competitors
as Colin Maclaurin and Daniel Bemouilli, than to have
carried it away from rivals of lefs magnitude. Rarely,
if ever, did fuch a brilliant competition adorn the an¬
nals of the academy ; and no fubjeft, perhaps, propo¬
fed by that learned body was ever treated with fuch
accuracy of invefligation and force of genius, "as that
which here difplayed the philofophical powers of thefe
three extraordinary men.
In the year 1741, M. Euler wras invited to Berlin
to augment the luitre of the academy, that was there
rifio.g-
E U L [ 343 ] E U L
Euleh nfing into fame. He enriched the !aft volume of
"■v the mifcellanies (melanges), of Berlin with five memoirs,
which make an eminent, perhaps the principal, fi¬
gure in that colle&ion. Thefe were followed with an
aftoniIhing rapidity by a great number of important
refearches, which are fcattered through the memoirs
of the Pruflian academy j of which a volume ha* been
regularly publiflied every year fince its eftablifiiment
in 1744. The labours of Euler will appear more efpe-
cially aftoniftiing, when it is confidered, that while
he was enriching the academy of Berlin with a prodi¬
gious number of memoirs, on the deepeft parts of ma¬
thematical fcience, containing always fome new points
of view, often fublime truths, and fometimes difcose¬
ries of great importance ; he did not difcontinue his
philofophical contributions to the academy of Peterf-
burgh, which granted him a penfion in 1742, and
whole memoirs difplay the marvellous fecundity of Eu¬
ler’s genius. It was with much difficulty that this
great man obtained, in 1766, permiffion from the king
of Pruffia to return to Peterfburgh, where he defired
to pafs the reft of his days. Soon after his return,
which was gracioufiy rewarded by the munificence of
Catherine II. he was feized with a violent diforder,
which terminated in the total lofs of his fight. A ca-
tara6>, formed in his left eye, which had been elfen-
tially damaged by a too ardent application to ftudy,
deprived him entirely of the ufe of that organ. It was
in this diftreffing fituation that he didlated to his. fer-
vant, a tailor’s apprentice, who was abfolutely devoid
of mathematical knowledge, his elements of algebra ;
which by their intrinfical merit, in point of perfpicuity
and method, and the unhappy circumftances in which
they were compofed, have equally excited applaufe and
aftonilhment. This work, though purely elementary,
difcovers the palpable characteriftics of an inventive ge¬
nius j and it is here alone that we meet with a com¬
plete theory of the analyfis of Diophantus.
About this time M. Euler was honoured by the
Academy of Sciences at Paris with the place of one of
the foreign members of that learned body 5 and, after
this, the academical prize wras adjudged to three of
his memoirs, Concerning the Inequalities in the Motions
of the Planets. The two prize queftions propofed by
the fame academy for 1770 and 1772 were defigned to
obtain from the labours of aftronomers a more perfect
theory of the moon. M. Euler, affifted by his eldeft
fon, was a competitor for thefe prizes, and obtained
them both. In this laft memoir, he referved for far¬
ther confideration feveral inequalities of the moon’s
motion, which he could not determine in his firft theo¬
ry, on account of the complicated calculations in which
the method he then employed had engaged him. He
had the courage afterward to review his whole theory,
•with the affiftance of his fon and Meffrs Krafft and
Lexell, and to purfue his refearches until he had con-
ftrudled the new tables, which appeared, together with
the great work, in 1772. Inftead of confining him-
felf as before, to the fruitlefs integration of three dif¬
ferential equations of the fecond degree, which are
furniffied by mathematical principles, he reduced them
to the three ordinates, which determine the place of
the moon 5 he divided into claffes all the inequalities
of that planet, as far as they depend either on the elon¬
gation of the fun and moon, or upon th$. ecceatri*
city, or the parallax, or the inclination of the lunar Euler,
orbit. All thefc means of inveftigation, employ- '““'Y—
ed with fuch art and dexterity as could only be ex¬
pelled from analytical genius of the firft order, were
attended with the greateft luccefs ; and it is impof-
fible to obferve, without admiration, fuch immenfe
calculations on the one hand, and on the other the
ingenious methods employed by this great man to a-
bridge them, and to facilitate their application to the
real motion of the moon. But this admiration will
become aftoniffiment, when we confider at what period
and in what circumftances all this was effectuated by
M. Euler. It was when he was totally blind, and con-
fequently obliged to arrange all his computations by
the foie powers of his memory and his genius. It
was when he was embarraffed in his domeftic circum¬
ftances by a dreadful fire, that had confumed great
part of his fubftance, and forced him to quit a ruined
houfe, of which every corner wns known to him by-
habit, which, in fome meafure, fupplied the place of
fight. It was in thefe circumftances that Euler com¬
pofed a work, which, alone, was fufficient to render his
name immortal. The heroic patience and tranquillity
of mind which he difplayed here, needs no defcrip-
tion : and he derived them not only from the love of
fcience, but from the power of religion. His philo-
fophy was too genuine and fublime to ftop its analyfis
at mechanical caufes ; it led him to that divine philo-
fophy of religion which ennobles human nature, and
can alone form a habit of true magnanimity and patience
in fuffering.
Some time after this, the famous Wenzell, by
couching the cataraft, reftored M. Euler’s fight; but
the fatisfablion and joy that this fuccefsful operation
produced, were of ftiort duration^ Some inftances of
negligence on the part of his furgeons, and his own
impatience to ufe an organ, whole cure was not com¬
pletely finilhed, deprived him of his fight a fecond
time y and this relapfe was accompanied with torment¬
ing pain. He, however, with the affiftance of his fons,
and of Meffrs Krafft and Lexell, continued his labours j
neither the lofs of his fight, nor the infirmities of
an advanced age, could damp the ardour of his genius.
He had engaged to furniffi the academy of Peterf¬
burgh with as many memoirs as would be fufficient to
complete its adl-s for 20 years after his death. In
the fpace of feven years he tranfmitted to the acade¬
my by Mr Golfwin, above 70 memoirs, and above
200 more, which were revifed and completed by the
author of this paper. Such of thefe memoirs as were
of ancient date were feparated from the reft, and form
a colledtion that was publifhed in the year 1783, un¬
der the title of Analytical Works.
Euler’s knowledge was more univerfal than could be
well expedled in one who had purfued with fuch un¬
remitting ardour mathematics and aftronomy as his
favourite ftudies. He had made a very confiderable
progrefs in medical, botanical, and chemical fcience..
What was ftill more extraordinary, he was an excel¬
lent fcholar, and poffeffed what is generally called eru¬
dition in a very high degree. He had, read with at¬
tention and tafte, the moft eminent writers of ancient
Rome j the civil and literary hiftory of all ages and all
nations was familiar to him ; and foreigners, who were
only acquainted with his works, were aftoniihed to.<
fiudi
E U M r '344 ] E U M
Eirlogy fmd in the converfation of a man, whofe long, life
II feemed folely occupied in mathematical and phyiical
Kumenes j-gfea^gg an(] difcoveries, fuch an extenfive acquaint-
v ance with the molt interefting branches of literature.
In this refpeiSt, no doubt, he was much indebted to a
very uncommon memory, which feemed to retain every
idea that was conveyed to it, either from reading or
from meditation. He could repeat the zEneid of
Virgil, from the beginning to the end, without hefh
tation, and indicate the firit and lalt line of every page
of the edition he ufed.
Several attacks of a vertigo, in the beginning of
September 1783, wdrich did not prevent his calculating
the motions of the aeroltatical globes, were, neverthe-
lefs, the forerunners of his mild and happy paffage
from this fcene to a better. While he was amunng
himfelf at tea with one of his grandchildren, he was
flruck with an apoplexy, which terminated his illus¬
trious career at the age of 76. His conlfitution wras
uncommonly ftrong and vigorous ; his health wras good;
and the evening of his long life was calm and lerene,
fweetened by the fame that follows genius, the public
efteem and relpedl that are never withheld from ex¬
emplary virtue, and feveral domeftic comforts which
he was capable of feeling and therefore delerved to
enjoy.
EULOGY, eulogia, in church hillory. When
the Greeks have cut a loaf or piece of bread to con-
fecratt it, they break the reft into little bits, and diftri-
bute it among the perfons who have not yet communi-
eated, or fend it to perfons that are abfent j and thefe
■pieces of bread are what they call eulogies. I he word
is Greek, formed of ty, bene, “ well,” and Asy<y,
.dico, “ I fay, fpeak 5” q. d. benedi&um, “ blefl'ed.”
The Latin church has had fomething like eulogies
for a great many ages j and thence arofe the ufe of their
holy bread.
The name eulogy W'as likewife given to loaves or cakes
brought to church by the faithful to have them blefled.
Laftly, The ufe of the term pafl'ed hence to mere pre-
fents made to a perfon without any benediflion. See
the .lefuit Gretfer, in his treatife de BenedtElionibus et
Malediciionibus, lib. ii. cap. 22, 24, &c. where he
treats of eulogies thoroughly.
From a paffage in Bolandus, on the life of St Me-
laine, cap. 4. it appears, that eulogies wTere not only
of bread, but any kind of meat bleffed and hallowed
for that purpofe. Add, that almoft every body blef¬
fed and diftributed eulogies; not only bilhops and
prifts, but even hermits, though laymen, made a
praftice of it. Women allb would fometimes fend
eulogies.
The wine fent as a prefent was alfo held an eulogy.
Bolandus remarks farther, that the eucharift' itfelf was
alfo called eulogy.
Eulogy, likewife means an encomium on any pep-
fon, on account of fome virtue or gocd quality.
EUMARIDES, of “ eafy,” among the an-
cents, a kind of Ihoes common to men and women.—
The eumarides were ufed for pomp and delicacy, being
neat, and painted wdth various colours.
EUMENES, a Greek officer in the army of Alex-
a’ der, fon of a charioteer. He was the moft worthy
of all the officers of Alexander to fucceed after the
death of his mafter. He conquered Paphlagonia, and
3
Cappadocia, of which he obtained the government, till Eumene*,
the power and jealouiy of Antigonus obliged mm to ~v "
retire. He joined his forces to thole of Perdicns,
and defeated Craterus and Neoptolemus. Neoptole-
mus perilhed by the hands of Eumenes. When Cra¬
terus had been killed during the war, his remains re-
ceiveft an honourable funeral ft'm the hand of the con¬
queror ; and Eumenes, after weeping over the allies of a
man who wras once his deareft friend, fent his remains
to his relations in Macedonia. Eumenes fought againft
Antipater and conquered him 5 and after the death of
Perdiccas his ally, his arms were direfted 'againft Au-
tigonus, by whom he wras conquered A. U. C. 433,
chiefly by the treacherous conduct of his officers. This
fatal battle obliged him to dilband the greateft part of
his army to fecure himfelf a retreat ; and he fled w ith
only 700 faith Sul attendants to a fortified place on the
confines of Cappadocia, called Nora, where he was loon
belieged by the conqueror. He fupported the liege
for a year with courage and refolution, but fome tlif-
advantageous ikirmilhes fo reduced him, that his fol-
diers, grown defperate, and bribed by the offers of the
enemy, had the infidelity to betray him into the hands
of Antigonus. The conqueror, from ftrame or re-
morfe, had not the courage to viiit Eumenes $ but when
he was alked by his officers, in what manner he wiihed
him to be kept, he anfwered, keep him as carefully as
you would keep a lion. I his fevere command was
obeyed ; but the afperity of Antigonus vanilhed in a
few days, and Eumenes, delivered from the weight of
chains, was permitted to enjoy the company of his
friends. Even Antigonus helitated whether he fhould
not reftore to his liberty a man with whom he had
lived m the greateft intimacy while both fubfervient to
the command of Alexander j and thefe fecret emotions
of pity and humanity were not a little increafed by the
petitions of his fon Demetrius for the releafe of Eu¬
menes. But the calls of ambition prevailed j and
when Antigo *us recollected what an adive enemy he
had in his power, he ordered Eumenes to be put
to death in the prifon. His bloody commands were
executed 315 years before the Chriiiian era. Such was
the end of a man who raifed himfelf to power by merit
alone. His Ikill in public exercifes firft recommended
him to the notice of Philip y and under Alexander, his
attachment and fidelity to the royal perfon, and
particularly his military accompliftunents, promoted
him to the rank pf a general. Even his enemies re¬
vered him ; and Antigonus, by whofe orders he pe¬
ri ihed, honoured Kis remains with a fplendid funeral,
and conveyed his aihes to his wife and family in Cap¬
padocia. It has been obferved, that Eumenes had
fuch a univerfal influence over, the fuccefiors of ,Alex¬
ander, that none during his lifetime dared to affume the
title of king. , ...
Eumenes I. king of Pergamus, who fucceeded his
uncle Philetaerus about 264 yrars before Chrift. Fie
made war againft Antiochus the fon of Seleucus, and
enlarged his poffeffions by feizing upon many of the
cities of the kings of Syria. He lived in alliance w'ith
the Romans, and made war againft Prufias king of
Bithynia. He was a great patron of learning } but
being much given to wine, he died of an excefs in
drinking, after a reign of 22 years. He was fucceed-
'ed by Attains.
Eumenes
E U M [ •
Eumenes Eumenes II. fucceeded his father Attalus on the
l{ . throne of Aha and Pergamus. His kingdom was fmall
..umopi es aTTCj p00r> but he rendered it powerful and opulent j and
his alliance with the Romans did not a little con¬
tribute to the increafe of his dominions after the vifto-
ries obtained over Antiochus the Great. He carried
his arms againft Prufias and Antigonus 5 and died 160
years before Chrift, after a reign of 40 years, leaving
the kingdom to his fon Attalus II. He has been ad¬
mired for his benevolence and magnanimity 5 and his
love of learning greatly enriched the famous library of
lYrgamus, which had been founded by his predeceffors
in imitation of the Alexandrian collection of the Ptole¬
mies. His brothers were fo attached to him and de¬
voted to his intereft, that they enlifted among his body
guards to fliow their fraternal fidelity.
Eumenes, a celebrated orator of Athens about the
beginning of the fourth century. Some of his harangues
and orations are extant. An hiftorical writer in Alex¬
ander’s army.
EUMENIDES, a name given to the Furies by the
ancients. They fprang from the blood of the wound
which Coelus received from his fon Saturn. According
to others, they were daughters of Earth, and conceived
from the blood of Saturn. Some make them daugh¬
ters of Acheron and Night, or Pluto and Proferpine.
According to the more received opinions, they were
three in number, Tifiphone, Megara, and AleCto, to
which fome add Nemefis. Plutarch mentions only one
called Adrafta, daughter of Jupiter and Neceffity.
1 hey were fuppofed to be the mimlfers of the vengeance
of the gods. They were ftem and inexorable j and
were always employed in punching the guilty upon
tartly as well as in the infernal regions. They inflict¬
ed their vengeance upon earth by wars, peftilence, and
diflenfions, and by the fecret flings of confcience 5 and
in hell they puniihed the guilty by continual flagella¬
tion and torments. They were alfo called Furia: and
Erinnys. Their worlhip was almoft: univerfal 5 and
people dared not to mention their names or fix their
eyes upon their temples. They were honoured with fa-
crifices and libations ; and in Achaia they had a temple,
which when entered by any one guilty of a crime, fud-
denly rendered him furious and deprived him of the ufe
of his reafon. In the facrifices the votaries ufed branch¬
es of cedar and of alder, hawthorn, faffron, and juni¬
per j and the victims were generally turtle doves and
flieep, with libations of wine and honey. They w^ere
ufually reprefented with a grim and frightful afpeCt,
with a black and bloody garment, and with ferpents
writhing round their heads inftead of hair. They held
a burning torch in one hand, and a whip of fcorpions
in the other ; and were always attended by Terror,
Rage, Palenefs, and Death. In hell they were feated’
around Pluto’s throne, as the minifters of his ven¬
geance.
EUMENIDIA, feflivals in honour of the Eumeni-
des, called by the Athenians <riy.vou Sixi, u venerable
goddefles.” Fhey were celebrated once every year,
with facrifices of pregnant ew'es, with offerings of cakes
.made by the moft eminent youths, and libations of ho¬
ney and wine. At Athens none but freeborn citizens
were admitted, fuch as had led a life the moft virtuous
and unfullied.
EUMOLPIDES, the priefts of Ceres at the cele-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
45 ] E U N
bration of her feftivaiS at Eleufis. They were defend¬
ed. from Eumolpus, a king of Thrace, who was made
pneft of Ceres by Erechtheus king of Athens. He
became fo powerful after his appointment to the prieft.
hood, that he maintained a war againft Erechtheus.
This war proved fatal to both. Erechtheus and Eu¬
molpus w'ere both killed, and peace was re-eftablifhed
among their defendants, on condition that the prieft
hoed ever remained in the houfe of Eumolpus, and the
regal power in the family of Erechtheus. The prieft-
hood remained in the family of Eumolpus for x 203
years j and this is ftill more remarkable, becaufe he who
was once appointed to the holy office was obliged to
remain in perpetual celibacy.
EUMOLPUS, a king of Thrace, fon of Neptune
and Chione.. He was throwm into the fea by his^ mo¬
ther, who wilhed to conceal her lhame from her father.
Neptune faved his life and carried him into ASthiopia,
where he was brought up by a woman, one of whole
daughters he married. An aft of violence to his fifter-
in-law obliged him to leave ./Ethiopia, and he fled to
1 hrace with his fon Ifmarus, where he married the
daughter of Tegyrius the king of the country. This
connexion to the royal family rendered him ambitious 5
he confpired againft his father-in-law, and fled, when
the.confpiracy was difeovered, to Attica, where he was
initiated in the myfteries of Ceres of Eleufis, and made
hierophantes or high prieft. He was afterwards recon¬
ciled to Tegyrius, and inherited his kingdom. He
made war againft Erechtheus king of Athens, who had
appointed him to the office of high prieft, and periftied
in battle about 1380 years before the Chriftian era.
His defendants were alfo invefted wuth the prieft-
hood, which remained for about 1200 years in that fa¬
mily.
EUNAPIUS, a native of Sardis in Lydia, a cele¬
brated fophift, phyfician, and hiftorian, who flouriflied
in the 4th century, under the emperors Valentinian,
Valens, and Gratian. He wrrote “ The Lives of the
Philofophers and Sophifts,” in wffiich he frequently
Ihows himfelf a bitter enemy to the Chriftians : alfo a
“ .Hiftory of the Cadars,” which he deduced from the
reign of Claudius where Herodian left oft', down to that
of Arcadius and Honorius. The hiftory is loft 5 but
we have the fubftance of it in Zofimus, who is fuppo¬
fed to have done little more than copy it.
EUNOMIANS, in church hiftory, Chriftian here¬
tics in the 4th century. They w’ere a branch of A-
rians, and took their name from Eunomius biffiop of
Cyzicus, whofe confeffion of faith here follows, extra£l-
ed from Cave’s Hifloria Literaria, vol. i. p. 223.
11 There is one God, uncreated and without beginnino- j
who has nothing exifting befo^ him, for nothing can
exift before what is uncreated ; nor with him, for what
is uncreated muft be one 5 nor in him, for God is a
Ample and uncompounded being. This one fimple and
eternal being is God, the creator and ordainer of all
things ; firft indeed and principally of his only-begot¬
ten Son 5 and then, through him, of all other things.
For God begot, created, and made, the Son, only, by
his direct operation and power, before all things, and
every other creature ; not producing, however, any be-
mg like himfelf, or imparting any of his own proper
lubftance to the Son : For God is immortal, uniform,
mdivifible j and therefore cannot communicate any part
X x of
E U N [ ^
Eunomiu?, of his own proper fubflance to another. He alone is
Eunuch, unberotten •, and it is impoflible that any other being
' ' (hould be formed of an unbegotten fubftance. He did
not ule his own fubjfance in begetting the Son, but
his will only : nor did he beget him in the likenefs of
his fubflance, but according to his own good pleafure.
He then created the Holy Spirit, the firft and greatefl
of all fpirits, by his own power indeed and operation
mediately, yet by the immediate pofver and operation
of the Son. After the Holy Spirit he created all other
things in heaven and in earth, vilible and inviiible, cor¬
poreal and incorporeal, mediately by himfelv, by the
power and operation of the Son,” &c.
EUNOM1US, a famous hereiiarch of the 4th cen¬
tury, the difciple of Elius, but abundantly more fubtile
than his mailer, as well as more bold in propagating
the opinions of his fe£l, who after him are called Eu-
nomians. hie was ordained bifhop of Cyzicus j but
gave fo much difturbance by the intemperance of his
zeal, that he was depofed more than once. At laid,
tired with being tolled about, he petitioned to retreat
*0 the place of his birth, Dacora in Cappadocia } v.drere
he died very old about the year 374> after experiencing
a variety of fufferings. The greateil part of his works
are loft. There is, however, befides two or three fmall
pieces, a confeflion of his faith remaining, which Cave
inferted in his HiJIoria Liter ana, from a manufcript in
Archbilhop Tennifon’s library. See the preceding article.
EUNUCH, a caftrated perlbn. See the article Ca-
STRATION.—The word is formed from £vv>i» lyju, c|. d.
leBi curam habet, “ guardian or keeper of the bed.”
In Britain, France, &c. eunuchs are never made but
upon occafion of fome difeale, which renders fuch an
operation neceffary j but in Italy they make great num¬
bers of children, from one to three years of age, eu¬
nuchs, every year, to fupply the operas and theatres of
all Europe with fingers. M. de la Lande, in his E??/-
c^e d'Italic, aflerts, that there are public (hops at Na¬
ples where this cruel operation is performed, and that
over the door of thefe (hops is infcribed E^uiji cajlrano
ra'^a%%i. But Dr Burney informs us, that he was not
only utterly unable to fee or hear of any fuch (hops du¬
ring his refidence in that city, but was conftantly told,
both by the natives and Englith fettled there, that the
laws againft fuch a praflice were fo numerous and fe-
vere, that it wras never performed but with the utmoft
fecrecy.
In the eaftern parts of the world, they make eunuchs
in order to be guards or attendants on their women.
The feraglios of the eaftern emperors are chiefly ferved
and guarded by eunuchsand yet, from good autho¬
rity, we learn, that the rich eunuchs in Perfia and
other countries keep feraglios for their own ufe. Thofe
who, out of an imprudent zeal to guard themfelves from
fenfual pleafures, made themfelves eunuchs, were, by
the council of Nice, condemned and excluded from holy
orders. There are feveral fevere prohibitions in Ger¬
many againft the making of eunuchs •, and in France
an eunuch muft not marry, not even with the content
of the woman.
Though the practice of caftration is deteftable in
every point of view ; yet there appears no real founda¬
tion for the injurious opinion generally entertained of
eunuchs, viz. that they are all cowards, and devoid of
genius for literature or any folid ftudy. “ As to genius
46 ] e v o
(fays the author laft quoted), I never found thofe ol the
firft clafs in mufic deficient in intellectual aoilities for
more ferious ftudies. Indeed I have feen real genius
and difpofitions for literary purfuits, in more than one
great opera fingerand as for compoution, and the
theory of mufic, not only the belt lingers of the pope’s
chapel ever fince the beginning of the laft century, but
the belt compofers, are among the foprani in that fer-
vice.” With refped to the operation affeftmg the mind
fo much as to deprive it of all fortitude in tunes of dan¬
ger, there is great reafon to doubt the fadl : moll of the
generals of eaftern monarchs having been at all times
Eiwucli
I!
Evocati.
of this clafs ", and the braveft Hand that ever w^as made a-
gainft Alexander the Great w'as at Gaza, under the com¬
mand of one of Darius’s generals, who w'F.s an eunuch,
Ammianus Marcellinus gives an account of Menophilus,
a eunuch, to whom Ivlithridates intrufted his daughter ;
which proves the poffibility of fuch unfortunate perfons
poffefhng a hgroifm equal to that of the moft determi¬
ned Stoic.
It is very certain, that the ancients never fuppoied
eunuchs to have been men of inferior mtehecls, or that
they poffeffed lefs vigour of mind than other men. At
leaf! the Perfians were not of this opinion j for Hero- .
dot us * relates, that when they had taken pofleftion °f ^ ^
fome Ionian cities, ttcc^ois ts tx; £v uoeLdiets ucteytfwoi Ecj Wcilel-
t|£r*tt»av, inoiivv ufli tivtu It is cei-jng.
tain, how’ever, Herodotus •f, in relating the melancholy | Lib. viii.
ftory of Plermotimus, fays, that rosm (ZufiaSoart rep-^68*
picS!t£0i «« U ivyHftti, TTidUiii HVixct TS-ao-K,
“ among the barbarians, the eunuchs are more valued
than other men, on account of their univerfal fidelity.”
It appears from this paiTage of Herodotus, taat in Per¬
fia eunuchs were far from being objects of contempt }
and were even frequently promoted to the higheft ho¬
nours. This wTas indeed the cafe with Hermotimus.
We find in Agathias, who was one of the Byzantine
hiftorians, that a general in the Roman army, named
Narfes, was a eunuch. This was in the latter ages*
In Plutarch’s Life of Ariftides, Themiftocles is related
to have chofen an eunuch* whofe name was slrnaccs,
from among his prifoners, to lend on a fecret embaily
to Xerxes. This furely may ferve to fhow, that mental
imbecility was not fuppofed by the Greeks to be the
chara&eriftic of eunuchifm. The fame ftory of the con¬
fidence placed in Arnaces, who was one of the Perfian
king’s eunuchs, is related alfo in the life of Phemifto-
cles? Ariftotle paid fuch high refpeft to Hermias, who
was a eunuch and governor of Atamea, which is in
Myfia, that he even offered facrifices in honour of him j
as Lucian informs us in his Dialogue entitled Eunuchus.
This regard of Ariftotle for Hermias has been often ce¬
lebrated, and is mentioned by Suidas, Harpocration^
and others.
Eunuchs, in church hiftory, a feft of heretics in the
third century, who wxre mad enough to caftrate, not
only thofe of their owm perfuafion, but even ^ all others
they could lay hold of. Ihey took their rile from tne
example of Origen, who, mifunderftanding the follow¬
ing words of our Saviour, “ and eunuchs who made
themfelves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven,” caftra¬
ted himfelf.
EVOCATI, foldiers among the Romans, who Hav¬
ing lerved their full time in the army, went afterwards
volunteers at the requeft of fome favourite general •, on
E U P [ 347 ] E U P
Evocation wliicli account they were called by the honourable
II naraes*of Emeriti and Benejiciarii.
..upauk ,c. EVOCATION (Evocatio), among the Romans, a
religious ceremony always obferved by them at the un¬
dertaking a fiege, ■wherein they folemnly called upon
the gods and goddefl'es of the place to fotfake it and
come over to them. Without the performance of this
ceremony, they either thought that the place could not
be taken, or that it would be a facrilege to take the
gods prifoners. They always took it for granted that
their prayer was heard, and that the gods had deferted
the place and come over to them, provided they were
able to make themfelves mafters of it.
EUODIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the te-
trandria clafs. See Botany Index.
EVOLUTION, in ^4/gebra, the unfolding or open¬
ing of a curve, and making it deferibe an evolvent.-—
The word evo/utw is formed of the prepohtion c, “ out
and volvOj “ I roll, or wind p1 q. d. an unwinding, or
unrolling.
The equable evolution of the periphery of a circle,
* or other curve, is fuch a gradual approach of the cir¬
cumference to reclitude, as that its parts do all concur
a*nd equally evolve or unbend •, fo that the fame line
becomes fucceffively a lefs arc of a reciprocally greater
circle ; till at lall they change into a ftraight line. In
the Phil. Tranf. N0 260, a new quadratrix to the circle
is found by this means, being the curve deferibed by the
equable evolution of its periphery.
Evolution, is alfo ufed for the extraflion of roots
out of powers 5 in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to in¬
volution. See Algebra.
Evolution, in the art of Avar, the motion made by
a body of troops, when they are obliged to change their
form and difpolition, in order to preferve a poft or oc¬
cupy another, to attack an enemy with more advantage,
or to be in a condition of defending themfelves the
better.
It conlifts in doublings, counter-marches, converlions,
&c. A battalion doubles the ranks, when attacked in
front or rear, to prevent its being flanked or furround-
ed ; for then a battalion fights with a larger front. The
files are doubled, either to accommodate themfelves to
the neceffity of a narrow ground, or to refift an enemy
that attacks them in flank. But if the ground wdll al¬
low it, converfion is much preferable \ becaufe, after
converlion, the battalion is in its firfl form, and oppofes
the file-leaders, which are generally the beft men, to
the enemy 5 and like wife, becaufe doubling the files in
a new or not well-difciplined regiment, they may hap.
pen to fall into diforder. ’ See Doubling.
EVOLVULUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking
under the 29th order, Campanacece. See Botany
Index.
EUONYMUS, the spindle tree •, a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria clafs 5 and in the
natural method ranking under the 43 d order, Dumofce.
See Botany Index.
EUPATORIUM, hemp agrimony ; a genus of
plants belonging to the fyngenefia clafs } and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 49th order, Compojitce.
See Botany Index.
EUPATRIDyE, in antiquity, a name given by
Thefeus to the nobility of Athens, as diftinguithed from
the Geomori and Demiurgi. The Eupatridre, by The- Euphony
feus’s eftablifhment, had the right of choofmg magi- , II
ftrates, teaching and difpenfing the laws, and interpre-
ting holy and religious myfleries. The whole city, in
all other matters, wras reduced to an equality. The
Geomori were hufhandmen, and inferior to the Eupa-
tridae in point of fortune ; the Demiurgi were artificers,
and fell fiiort of the Eupatridae in number.
EUPHONY, in Grammar, an eafinefs, fmoothnefs,
and elegance of pronunciation. The word is formed,
of sv, bene, “ welland vox, “ voice.” Quin¬
tilian calls euphonia, “ vocalitasScaliger, il facilis
pronunciation
Euphonia is properly a kind of figure whereby we
fupprefs a too harfli letter, or convert it into a fmooth-
er, contrary to the ordinary rules. There are examples
enough in all languages.
EUPHYMISM. See Oratory.
EUPHORBIA, spurge ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the dodecandria clafs ; and in the' natural
method ranking under the 38th order, Tricocccc. Sec;
Botany Index.
EUPPIORBIUM, in the Materia Medico, a gum.
mi-refinous fubftance, which exfudes from a large orien¬
tal tree, (Euphorbia See Materia Me-
DICA Index.
EUPPIORBUS, a famous Trojan, fon of Panthbus.
He wras the firfl: who wounded Patroclus, whom Hec.
tor killed. He periflied by the hand of Menelaus, who
hung his Ihield in the temple of Juno at Argos. Py¬
thagoras, the founder of the doftrine of the metemp-
fychofis or tranfmigration of fouls, affirmed that he had
been once Euphorbus, and that his foul recolle&ed
many exploits which had been done while it animated
that Trojan’s body. As a further proof of his ailertion,
he fliowed at firfl: fight the ftiield of Euphorbus in the
temple of Juno.
EUPHORION !?/'Chalcis, a poet and hiftorian,
born in the 126th Olympiad, Suetonius fays that Ti¬
berius compofed verfes in imitation of Euphorion, Ria-
nius and Parthenius ; with whom he was charmed to
fuch a degree, that he ordered their writings and their
pi£fures to be kept in all the public libraries, among the
ancient and celebrated authors.
EUPHRASIA, eye-bright ; a genus of plants
belonging to the didynamia clafs 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the 40th order, Perfonatce. See
Botany Index.
EUPHRATES, a river univerfally allowed to take,
its rife in Armenia Major •, but in what particular fpot,
or in what direftion it afterwards fliapes its courfe, there
is the greateft difagreement. Strabo fays, that the Eu¬
phrates rifes in Mount Abus, wdiich he joins with, or
accounts a part of, Mount Taurus •, that its beginning
is on the north fide of Mount Taums j and that run¬
ning, firfl: w»efl:ward through Armenia, then flriking off
to the fouth, it forces its way through that mountain :
and thus it rifes in the fouth of Armenia, Mount Tau¬
rus being the boundary on that fide ; and runs through
its fouth part, quite to Cappadocia, conterminal with
Armenia Minor 5 or quite to this laft, or to its fouth
limit; to reach which, it mult bend its weft courfe a
little north ; becaufe Taurus, from which it rofe, lies
lower, or more to the fouth, and almoft parallel with
Melitene : and that then it turns to the fouth) in order
X x 2 to
E V R [
Eupolis, to break through Taurus, and efcape to Syria, and then
Evremond. a new bend to Babylonia. T o this account of
1 ”' v J Strabo, Pliny runs quite counter •, adducing eye-witnef-
fes, who carry the Euphrates from north to fouth in a
right line, till it meets Mount Taurus j placing the
fprings to the eaft, as Strabo does *, whence, he fays, it
runs in a long courfe weltward, before it bends fouth j
and that it rifes not from Mount Taurus, but far to the
north of it ; and he makes it run ftraight weft from its
rife, then turn fouth fpontaneoufly, without any inter-
poling obftacle, in a manner quite different from Strabo,
Mela, and others, who make Taurus the caule of this
turn. The Euphrates naturally divides into tw*o chan¬
nels, one through Babylon, and the other through Se-
leucia, befides the feveral artificial cuts made between it
and the Tigris about Babylon : and thefe cuts or trench¬
es are what the Pfalmift calls the rivers of Babylon, on
the willows of which the captives hung their harps. It
is probable, that the Euphrates naturally poured into
the fea at one particular mouth, before thefe cuts were
made. A thing appearing fo evident to the ancients,
that Pliny has fet down the diftance between the
mouths of the Euphrates and the Tigris *, and he fays,
fome made it 25, and others 7, miles j but that the
Euphrates being for a long time back intercepted in its
courfe by cuts, made for watering the fields, only the
branch called the Pqfitigris fell into the fea, the reft of
it into the Tigris, and both together into the Perfian
gulf. Overflowing the country through which it runs,
at ftated times of the year, like the Nile, it renders it
fertile.
EUPOLIS, an Athenian comic poet, flouriihed a-
bout the 85th Olympiad. He took the freedom of the
ancient comedy in lafhing the vices of the people. He
loft his life in a fea fight between the Athenians and
Lacedemonians $ and his fate was fo much lamented,
that after his death it wras enafted that no poet fhould
ierve in the w'ars. Some fay Alcibiades put him to
death for his fatirical freedom.
EVREMOND, Charles de st Denis, a polite
fcholar and foldier, wras born at St Denis le Guaft in
Lower Normandy in 1613. He was intended for the
profeffion of the law, and entered on the ftudy j but
he foon quitted it, and was made an enfign before he
was 16. A military life did not hinder him from cul¬
tivating polite literature j and he lignalized himfelf by
his politenefs and wit as much as by his bravery. The
king made him a marefchal de camp, and gave him a
penfion of 3000 livres per annum. He ferved under
the duke of Candale in the war of Guienne 5 and in
Flanders, till the fufpenfion of arms was agreed on be¬
tween France and Spain; he afterwards accompanied
Cardinal Mazarine when he wrent to conclude the
peace with Don Lewis de Haro, the king of Spain’s
firft minifter. He wrote, as he had promifed, a long
letter to the marquis de Crequi, of this negotiation j
in which he fhowed, that the cardinal had facrificed
the honour of France to his own private intereft, and
rallied him in a very fatirical manner. This letter fall¬
ing into the hands of the cardinal’s creatures fome time
after his death, was reprefented as a ftate crime, and he
was obliged to fly to Holland. He had too many
friends in England (whither he had taken a tour the
year before with the count de Soiffons, fent to com¬
pliment Charles II. upon his reftoration) to make any
348 ] EUR
long ftay in Holland j and therefore puffed over into Evr?mort<k
England, where he was received with great refpeft, and Eunpules.^
admitted into intimate friendlhip with feveral perfons v *
of diftimftion. The king gave him a penlion of 300I.
a-year. He had a great defire to return to his native
countrv j and, after the peace of Nimeguen, wrrote a
letter in verfe to the king of France to alk leave, but
in vain. Upon the death of King Charles, he loft his
penfion. Fie did not rely much on King James, though
that prince had Ihown himfelf extremely kind to him.
The Revolution was advantageous to him. King Wil¬
liam, who had known him in Holland, gave him iub-
ftantial marks of his favour. He died of a ftran-
gury in 1703, aged 90 ; and was interred in Weft-
minfter abbey, where a monument is erefled to his me¬
mory. His behaviour was engaging, his humour
cheerful, and he had a ftrong dilpolition to fatire : he
profeffed the Roman religion, in which he was born J
but at the bottom was certainly a freethinker. He
always fpoke of his difgrace with the refolution of a
gentleman j and whatever ftrong defire he had to re¬
turn to his country, he never folicited the favour w7ith
meannefs : therefore, when this leave w7as fignified to
him unexpefledly in the decline of his life, he re¬
plied, that the infirmities of age did not permit him to.
leave a country where he lived agreeably. There have
been many editions of his works : but the beft is that
of Amfterdam in 17 26, in 5 vols. 12mo, to vrhich is
prefixed his life by Doflor Des Maizeaux j who has
alfo given an accurate Englifh tranflation of them in
3 vols. 8vo.
EURIPIDES, one of the Greek poets who excel¬
led in tragedy, was born about 468 B. C. in the ifle
of Salamis, whither his father and mother had retired
a little before Xerxes entered Attica. He learnt rhe¬
toric under Prodicus, morality under Socrates, and na¬
tural philofophy under Anaxagoras j but at 18 years
of age abandoned philofophy, in order to apply him¬
felf to dramatic poetry. He ufed to fhut himfelf up
in a cave to compofe his tragedies, which were ex¬
tremely applauded by the Greeks. The Athenian ar¬
my, commanded by Nicias, being defeated in Sicily,
the foldiers purchafed their lives and liberties by re¬
citing the verfes of Euripides j fuch efteem and vene¬
ration had the Sicilians for the pieces wrote by this ex •
eellent poet. Socrates, the wifeft of the philofophers,
fet fuch a value upon them, that they were the only
tragedies he went to fee adted j and yet his perform¬
ances feldom gained the prize. Euripides frequent¬
ly interfperfes through them moral fentences, and fe-
vere refledlions on the fair fex ; whence he was called
the Woman-hater. He was, neverthelefs, married : but
the fcandalous lives of his two wives drew upon him the
raillery of Ariftophanes, and other comic poets •, which
occafioned his retiring to the court of Archelaus, king
of Macedon, where he wasvcell received. That prince
was fond of learned men, and drew them to him by his
liberality. If we may believe Solinus, he made Euri¬
pides his minifter of ftate, and gave him other extra¬
ordinary proofs of his efteem. He had, however, paf-
fed but a few years there, when an unhappy accident
put an end to his life. He was walking in a wood, and,
according to his ufual manner, in deep meditation j
when, unfortunately happening upon Archelaus’s hounds,
he was by them torn in pieces. It is not certain whe¬
ther
EUR [349 ] EUR
r«iipus tlier his death happened by chance, or through envy of
Euro. Iydon fome of the great courtiers. However, Archelaus bu-
"v ried him with great magnificence ; and the Athenians
were fo much afflifted at his death, that the whole city
went into mourning. Of 92 tragedies which he com-
pofed, only 19 are remaining : the moft valuable edi¬
tions of which are thofe of Aldus, in 1503, 8vo ; of
Plantin, in 1570, fexefimo $ of Comelin, in 1597, 8voj
of Paul Stevens, in 1604, 410 ; and of Jofhua Barnes,
1694, folio.
E.URIPUS, a canal or ftrait which divides the
illand of Euboea, now Negropont, from the continent
of Greece. In one place it is fo narrow, that a galley
can fcarcely pafs through it. The agitations of the Eu-
ripus were much fpoken of by the ancients. Some fay
that the canal has a flux and reflux fix times in 24 hours;
others, that it ebbs and flows feven times a day; but
Livy does not allow this flux and reflux to be fo re¬
gular. Father Babin, a Jefuit of great learning, who
made many obfervations on the fpot during his long
abode in the ifland of Negropont, tells us, that the
Euripus is regular in its ebbing and flowing the firfl:
eight days of the moon : the fame regularity he ob-
ferved from the 14th to the 20th day inclulive, and
in the three laft days : but in the other days of the
lunar month, it is not fo regular; for it fometimes ebbs
and flo-ws n, 12, 13, and 14 times in the fpace of a
natural day. In this place, as the ilory commonly goes,
Ariftotle drowned himfelf out of chagrin, for not being
able to account for fo unufual a motion.
Euripus has fince become a general name for all
ftraits, where the water is in great motion and agi¬
tation.
The ancient circufes had their euripi, which were
no other than pits or ditches on each fide of the courfe,
into which it was very dangerous falling with their
horfes and chariots as they ran races. The term eu¬
ripus was more particularly applied by the Romans to
three canals or ditches which encompaffed the circus
on three fides, and which were filled occafionally to
reprefent naumachiae or fea battles. The fame people
called their fmaller fountains or canals in their gardens
euripufes ; and their largeft, as cafcades, &c. niles.
EUROCLYDON, (of eajl wind, and
wave^) is a fpecies of wind, of wflrich we have an ac¬
count only in A6ts xxvii. 14. and concerning the nature
of which critics have been much divided. Bochart,
Grotius, Bentley, and others, fubftitute another read¬
ing, fupported by the Alexandrian MS. and the Vul¬
gate, viz. or Euro-aquilo ; but Mr Bryant
defends the common reading, and confidersthe Euroc/y-
don, i. e. Engo; as an call wind that caufes a deep
fea or vafl: inundation. He maintains, in oppontion
to Dr Bentley’s reafoning, who fuppofes that the ma¬
riners in the Ihip, the voyage of which is recited in
this paflage, were Romans, that they were Greeks of
Alexandria, and that the Ihip was an Alexandrian fhip
employed in the traffic of carrying corn to Italy •, and
therefore, that the mariners had a name in their own
language for the particular typhonic or llormy wind
here mentioned. He always ffiows from the paffage itfelf,
that the tempeftuous wind called Euroclydon, beat (xxt5
avlsjs) upon the ifland of Crete j and therefore, as this
is a relative expreffion, referring to the fituation of the
perfon who fpeaks of it, who was at that time to the
windward or fouth of it, the wind blew upon fliore, and Europi,
mult have come from the fouth or fouth-eafl;} which,, £uroPe-
he adds, is fully warranted by the point where the ffiip
was, and the direftion it ran in afterwards, which was
towards the north and north-well.
EUROPA, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of Age-
nor king of Phoenicia and Telephalfa. She was fo beau¬
tiful that Jupiter became etramoured of her ; and the
better to feduce her, he aflumed the fliape of a bull and
mingled with the herds of Agenor, while Europa, with
her female attendants, [were gathering flowers in the
meadows. Europa careffed the beautiful animal j and
at lalt had the courage to fit upon his back. The god
took advantage of her fituation j and with precipitate
Heps retired towards the fhore, croffed the fea with Eu¬
ropa on his back, and arrived fafe in Crete. Here he
aflumed his original drape and declared his love. The
nymph confented, though flie had once made vows of
perpetual celibacy •, and die became mother of Minos^
Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus. After this dillinguiflr-
ed amour with Jupiter, fire married Afterius king of
Crete. This monarch feeing himfelf without children
. by Europa, adopted the fruit of her amours with Ju¬
piter, and always efteemed Minos, Sarpedon, and Rha¬
damanthus, as his own children. Some fuppofe, that
Europa lived about 1552 years before the Chriftian era.
EUROPE, one of the four quarters of the world.
This is confiderably the fmallelt of the four grand
divifions of the terraqueous globe. Its length,
from ealt to weft, according to the moft authentic
accounts, meafures about 3300 miles Britiffi mea-
fure, and its breadth 2350. The continental part pf
it is bounded on the fouth by the Mediterranean fea,
on the weft by the Atlantic ocean, comprehending the
mod: diftant ifle of Europe, viz. that of Iceland, for
Greenland is now confidered as conftituting a part of
North America. Many geographers of eminence have
given the Azores to Europe, from their greater proxi¬
mity to Portugal than to any other continental coun¬
try, and have confidered the Madeiras as a conftituent
part of Africa for a fimilar reafon. Europe is bounded
on the north by the Arflic ocean and the new land j
wdiile its eaftern limits appear to be more uncertain in
the eftimation of geographers. It appears evident, how¬
ever, that a very natural limit might be afeertained by
tracing the river Oufa from its fource to its confluence
with the Belaia; and thence from the Kama to the Volga,
which would make its divifion extremely natural to the
town of Sarepta; it requiring only an imaginary line of
very fmall extent from that place to the river Don,
which would fatisfa&orily afeertain its weftern boun¬
dary.
The wTeftern and fouthern parts of Europe anciently-
confifted of the people called Celts; the Fins occupied
the north-eaft, and the Laplanders, a people equally di¬
minutive with the Samoieds of Afia, polfefled its remot-
eil parts towards the north, who rendered their owm
language lefs uncouth and barbarous by aflimilating it
to that of the Fins. The Goths from Afia feem to ■
have driven thofe ancient inhabitants towards the eaft
and north, whofe defendants occupy the greater part
of Europe. From the Sclavonic tribes, who alfo came
from Afia, the Poles, Ruffians, &c. -were defended,
Thefe were accompanied by the Heruli, who made ufe
of what is now denominated the Lettic fpeech, to be-
met
E U Vl [ 35o 1 EUR
Europe, met •vvltli in Couvland, Livonia, Litliuania, Pruffia, and
Samogitia, and nearly allied to the Sclavonic language,
according to the account of Tooke in his view of Ruf-
ha. At an early period the colony of Iberi and nor¬
thern Mauritani, came over into Spain ; and at a later
period both the Hungarians and Turks emigrated from
Alia.
Notwithftanding the high character of d’ Anville as a
geographer, we believe that his opinion refpecting the
geographical knowledge of the ancients is greatly ex¬
aggerated. It appears evident that nothing more of
Scandinavia was known to the ancients than the iouth-
ern part as far as the lakes ofWeter and Wener. It is
no doubt true that the Romans, by means of their (hip¬
ping, even in the imperfect (late of navigation at that
period, traverfed the fouthern (bores of the Baltic, as
far as to the river Rubo, afcertaining the names of va¬
rious tribes along that coaft ; but if the maps of Ptole¬
my are admitted as decifive proofs in this cafe, it is cer¬
tain that thty were wholly unacquainted with the inte¬
rior of Germany ; and confequcntly the tribes of which
he makes mention, may rather be confidered as having
dwelt along the northern (hores of the Baltic, or the
foathcrn parts on the left of the Danube. They tvere
no doubt acquainted with the Carpathian mountains 5
but their knowledge of Europe towards the north-eaft
■was undoubtedly circumfcribed by the 50th or 5 2d de¬
gree of north latitude.
In many barbarous languages, the fame wrord was often
ufed indifcriminately either for a mountain or a foreit,
the want of attention to which has frequently been the
prolific (ource of error, and placed mountains of the
greatell confequence where the hand of nature had
planted trees. It has been fuppofed that the Riphaean
mountains were the Uralian chain, of w'hich the an-*
cients knew nothing, inllead of a foreft of prodigious
extent from call to weft. It is alfo well known that the
Venedici Montes of Ptolemy have no exiftence upon
earth, and therefore muft once have been a very exten-
five foreft with which the moderns are unacquainted,
and perhaps no traces of it are now anywhere to be met
with.
Chriftianity is the predominant religion all over Eu¬
rope, except in Turkey \ and even there it has been
computed, that about one-half of the inhabitants are
members of the Greek church. The Chrifban religion
has always been accompanied in its progress with the
diftufion of knowledge, the extenfion of induftry, and
the civilization of manners, whereas the barbarous tribes
in the northern parts of Europe advanced by very (1owt
degrees, and the Scandinavians continued in a (late of
pagan ignorance till the eleventh century. Some tribes
of Sclavonia to the fouth of the Baltic, were not con¬
verted to Chriftianity till the thirteenth century, and
of courfe were for many ages in a ftate little fuperior to
brutality ; and the people of Lapland were not convert¬
ed to the Cnriftian faith till about a century ago, by
means of miffionaries fent from Denmark. The people
of Europe, as to matters of religion, are divided into
catholics and proteftants, the former being chiefiy con¬
fined to the fauthern parts of it, where the imagination
requires the gratifications arifing from external pornp
and parade ; and the latter in the northern parts of it,
the fimplicity of which is much better calculated to
plenle the predominant exercise of the judgment. Tie
Chriftian religion being thus diffufed all Over Europe, Europe
that divifton of the globe has hence become a kind of ^«
republic in refpeift of literature, every fcientific inven¬
tion and difcovery being tranfmitted from one portion
of it to another with the utmoft difpatch. For this
reafon Europe has been fometimes compared to ancient
Greece, and it is to be hoped that Ruftia will never
prove another Macedon.
The greater part of this quarter of the globe lies
within the northern temperate zone, a diftinction which
is now nearly annihilated by the interefting difcoveries
of modern geography. Climate is found to depend
very frequently on cautes which are purely local, fince
the Alps in a fouthern latitude, exhibit mountains of
ice which are not known even in Lapland, while the
torrid zone is plentifully fupplied with water and habi¬
tations, and for any thing which can be determined to
the contrary, it may contain mountains which are cover¬
ed with fnow. As it is happily delivered from thole
intenfe heats which are peculiar to Alia and Africa, the
inhabitants are in general bleffed with greater bodily
vigour and intelleftual ftrength.
One of the mod ftriking features of Europe In a ge¬
neral point of view is its inland feas, which give it a
decided fuperiority over the other more extenfive divi-
lions of the earth, and contribute powerfully to the ex¬
tenfion of its induftry, commerce, and civilization. It
fuch bleftings had been enjoyed by Africa, it is more
than probable that the confequences of her induftry
would have been diffufed far and wide. Of theie in¬
land feas, the Mediterranean holds the moft diftinguifh-
ed place, as the centre of civilization both to the an¬
cient and modern inhabitants of Europe. It is about
2000 miles in length to its fartheft extremity in Syria,
but the maps of antiquity made it 500 more. The
gulfs of Venice and the Archipelago open on its nor¬
thern fide, formerly denominated the Adriatic and E-
gean feas, from the laft of which there is a communica¬
tion with the fea of Marmora, or the Propontis, by
means of the Hellefpont; and the ftrait of Conftanti-
nople leads Into the Black fea, to the north of which is
the fea of Azof, (Palus Moeotis), or utmoft maritime
boundary of Europe in that direction. This vaft ex-
panfe of water is beautifully ornamented with numerous
iflands and an opulent fea coaft, exhibiting delightful
fpecimens of almoft every thing in nature which is fub-
lime and beautiful. Tides cannot be perceived except
in ftraits of very froall dimenfions, although naturalifts
have obferved, that a current fets along the (bores of
Italy from weft to eaft, while its direftion is from eaft
to weft towards the coaft of Africa. In the gulf of
Venice the current runs along Dalmatia in a north-well
dire£tion, and returns by the oppofite (hore of Italy.
There is abundance of fifti to be met with in the Me¬
diterranean, feme of which are but rarely to be found
in more northern latitudes. This fea in particular
abounds with coral, now certainly known to be the pro-
duftion of marine infefts. This imaginary plant is
tri-coloured, compofed of red, vermilion and white, and
does not exceed eleven inches in height. It is hard in
the fea, and in this refpefl undergoes not the fmalleft
change by expofure to the air j and the nets made ufe
of for procuring it, meafure from 60 to 125 feet. From
the colour of its rocks or perilous navigation, the Black
jea is faid to have derived its name. As the fea of
Azof
I
Plate C CX.
*
/ /Art'll. /A//.^ Srti/f>f<*r/<‘-r</.
EUR [ 351 ] ' EUR
Europs. Azof almoft always exhibits a muddy appearance, it
“ ''r ^ was for that reafon denominated Palus by the ancients,
and it is united to the Euxine or Black lea by the ftrait
of Caffa.
The next inland fea of Europe is the Baltic, to which
the Germans have given the name of the Eaftern fea,
which accounts for the people denominated Eq/ierlings
in the hiftory of England, who undoubtedly came from
the Ihores of the Baltic. It opens from the German
fea by a gulf trending north-call, known bv the name
of the Stager Rack, from whence it paffes routlrsvard in
the Cattegat, to the fouth-eall of which we meet with
the found of Ellinore, where velfels become in feme de¬
gree tributary to the king of Denmark. It is after¬
wards divided into two branches of great extent, called
the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, both of which are
covered with ice for nearly five fnonths in the year.
The greateft depth of the Baltic is faid not to exceed
50 fathoms 5 and according to the opinion of naturalifts,
its extent fuffers a diminution of four feet every century.
It has been affirmed that its waters do not contain above
one-thirtieth of fait, while other fee-waters frequently
contain one-tenth, which has been aferibed to the vail
quantity of ice j and when the north wind blows, thefe
waters, it is alfo faid, may be employed for the purpofes
of domellic economy. There are no tides in the Bal¬
tic, and but very few fiffi.
The White fea, in the northern parts of Ruffia, is
the laft inland fea of Europe, which was wrell known to
the Englilh in particular, before the commerce of Arch¬
angel wras transferred to Peterlhurgh. It went by the
name of ^uen fea in the reign of Alfred the Great j and
the writers of Iceland called it the fea of Ganviick, on
the Ihores of which Hood their Biarmia. There are a
number x>f iflands in the White fea, but the accounts
which geographers have hitherto given us, are neither
circumliantial nor fatisfadlory.
The German lea deferves to be mentioned among
the other maritime divifions of Europe, which has re¬
ceived this appellation becaufe it waters the wellem
Ihores of ancient Germany, from the Rhine to the far-
thell boundary of Jutland. It may properly be regard¬
ed as conlfituting a part of the Atlantic ocean, ending
at the Unfits of Dover, from whence the Britilh chan¬
nel extends to the weft. Another extenfive inlet of the
Atlantic is the bay of Bifcay ; for the Britilh channel
is rather to be conlidered as the wide frith of the Se¬
vern. St George’s channel lies on the fouth between
Great Britain and Ireland, and the Irifti fea leading to
the North channel, is fituated in the centre. What the
ancients called the Deucaledonian fea, lies to the north
of Scotland, which was likewife denominated the Sar-
matian, as extending throughout the Baltic.
The Arfilic ocean lies to the north of Europe, the
difmal receptacle of countlefs miles of ice, piled up in
mountains, the hoary majefty of wffiich, while it capti¬
vates the eye, can fcarcely fail to ftrike terror into the
heart of the mariner. Yet from thofe dreary regions,
which at firft appear only as a prodigious wafte in the
wmrks of creation, the benevolent Parent of the univerfe
dift'ufes innumerable millions of herrings for the ufe of
man. This is worthy of the divine being whofe good-
nefs is wffiifpered to us in every breeze, which gkws in
the Harry firmament of heaven, and is diffufed through
the whole creation.
The Goodwin fands in the vicinity of the Kentilh Europe
coaft, are as dangerous to the mariner as uninviting to 1!
the filher; but excellent filh are to be found on many fur^riC*ra‘
banks on the coaft of Holland, among which may be
ranked the cod, the foal, and the plaice. What are
called the filverpits of the mariners, lying between the
Dogger and Well bank, fupply the London market
with cod, vffiich difeovers a predileftion for the deep
waters in the vicinity of the banks. The Hornriff, a
narrow ftrip extending to Jutland, is iituated towards
the north eaft of the Dogger bank. The Juttfriff ex¬
tends from the mouth of the Baltic to the German fea,
in the form of a crefcent.
The Mar bank takes its rife oppofite to Berwick,
which is little more than 15 miles in length. To the
eaftward of this lies the Long Forties, extending from
Buchannefs to Newcaftle, and from between 40 and
100 miles from the fhore •, and a bank reaches acrofs
the German fea towards JuttfrifF, from the coaft of Bu¬
chan. It was thought neceifary, in this couofie account
of Europe, to mention fome of the moil conliderable
banks or comparative fhoals, which have often been re¬
garded as the iummits of lofty mountains beneath the
liirface of the deep } and which, as the haunts of fiihes
of different fpecies, have arrefted the attention of nation¬
al induftry.
A defeription of the principal rivers of Europe will
be given in our account of the countries through which
they refpeflively flow. The greater part of the Wolga
is conlidered as belonging to Europe ; the next highly
celebrated river is the Danube, after which we may
rank the Nieper, the Rhine, and the Elbe. The Alps
are the loftieft mountains 5 next the Pyrenees j and that
vail ridge by -which Norway is divided from Sweden.
The Carpathian mountains, the chain called Etnineh,
and the Apennines, are of inferior magnitude.
The European ftates and kingdoms may properly be
divided into three claffes j 1. Defpotic monarchies, of
which Ruffia and Turkey may ferve as fpecimens. 2. -
Abfolute monarchies, fuch as Spain and Denmark. And
3. Thofe of a limited nature, as the Germanic empire,
and the kingdom of Great Britain. Since the govern¬
ments of Venice, Switzerland and Holland were lub-
verted by the French, few, if any traces of a perma¬
nent ariitocracy are to be met with, or any government
in the hands of hereditary nobility. In fome of the
Swifs cantons wre may perhaps find the lhadow of de¬
mocracy 5 and France is at prefent a military defpotifm
called-an empire, the right of fucceffion being hereditary
indefeafible.
It is cuftomary with fome geographers to divide the
conftituent parts of Europe into firft, fecond, and third
orders,.according to their political importance 5 the firft
order including the united kingdoms of Great Britain
and Ireland, France, Ruffia, the Auftrian dominions,
Pruffia, Spain, Turkey, In the fecond order Hand the
United Provinces,, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal and
Switzerland 5 and the chief ftates of Germany and Italy
conftitute the third, a detailed account of which our
readers wall find in this work under their proper names. -
EURYALE, in Mythology, one of the Gorgons, <
daughter of Phorcys, and lifter of Medufa } Ihe was
fubjeft neither to old age nor death.
EURYANDRA, a genus of plants belonging to
the polyandria clafs. See Botany Index.
EURYDICE*.
E U S [ 352 ] E U S
EURYDICE, in fabulous hillory, tbe wife of Or¬
pheus, who, flying from Ariftoeus that endeavoured to
ravifliher, was flain by a ferpent. Her hufband went down
to the fhades, and by the force of his muflc perfuaded
Pluto and Proferpine to give him leave to carry back
his wdfe ; wEich they granted, provided he did not look
on her till he came to the light : but he breaking the
condition, was forced to leave her behind him. See
Orpheus.
EURYMEDON, in Ancient Geography, a noble river
running through the middle of Pamphylia ; famous for a
fea and land fight on the fame day, in which the Atheni¬
ans under Cimon the fon of Miltiades, defeated the Per-
fians. The fea fight happened firfl; in the fea of Pam¬
phylia, towards Cyprus •, the land engagement, the fol¬
lowing night on the Eurymedon. Cimon, after de¬
feating the Perfian fleet, armed his men with the ar¬
mour of the captives, and fet fail for the enemy, who
lay on the banks of the Eurymedon, in the fliips taken
from the Perfians; who on feeing their own (hips and
their owm people in appearance, were off their guard,
and thus became an eafy conqueft.
EURYSTHEUS, a king of Argos and Mycenae,
fon of Sthenelus and Nicippe the daughter of Pelops.
Juno haflened his birth by two months, that he might
come into the world before Hercules the fon of Alcme-
na, as the younger of the two wTas doomed by order of
Jupiter to be fubfervient to the will of the other. (See
Alcmena.) This natural right was cruelly exercifed by
Euryftheus, who was jealous of the fame of Hercules ;
and who to deftroy fo powerful a relation, impofed up¬
on him the mofl: dangerous and uncommon enterprifes,
well known by the name of the twelve labours of Her¬
cules. The fuccefs of Hercules in atchieving thofe
perilous labours alarmed Euryllheus in a greater degree,
and he furnifhed himfelf with a brazen velfel, wdtere he
.might fecure himfelf a fafe retreat in cafe of danger.
After the death of Hercules, Euryftheus renewed his
cruelties againft his children, and made war againft
Ceyx king of Trachinia, becaufe he had given them
fupport, and treated them with hofpitality. He was
killed in the profecution of this war by Hyllus the fon
of Hercules. His head was fent to Alcmena the mo¬
ther of Hercules ; who, mindful of the cruelties which
her fon had fuffered, infulted it, and tore out the eyes
with the moft inveterate fury. Euryftheus was fucceed-
ed on the throne of Argos by Atreus his nephew. The
death of Euryftheus happened about 30 years before
the Trojan wTar.
EURYTHMY, in ArchiteBure, Fainting, and Sculp¬
ture, is a certain majefty, elegance, and eafinefs, ap¬
pearing in the compofition of divers members or parts
of a body, painting, or fculpture, and refulting from
the fine proportion of it.
EUSDEN, Laurence, an Irifh clergyman, re£lor
of Conefby in Lincoln ftiire, and poet laureat after the
death of Mr Rowe. His firft patron was the eminent
Lord Halifax ; whofe poem, on the battle of the Boyne,
he tranflated into Latin, and dedicated to his lordfliip.
He was efteemed by the duke of Newcaftle, who re¬
warded an epithalamium he wrote on his marriage with
the place of poet laureat. He was the author of many
poetical pieces, though but little known before his pre¬
ferment : he died in 1730.
EUSEBIANS, a denomination given to the fed! of
1
Arians, on account of the favour and countenance Eufebius
which Eufebius, bilhop of Csefarea, ftiowred and pro- II
cured for them at their firft rife. See Arians andEuftatll!an?
Eusebius. ——y—
EUSEBIUS, furnamed PamphiluS, a celebrated
biftiop of CaTarea in Paleftine, and one of the moft
learned men of his time, was born in Paleftine about
the latter end of the reign of Gallienus. He was the
intimate friend of Pamphilus the Martyr j and, after his
death, took his name in honour to his memory. He
was ordained bifhop of Caefarea in 313. He had a con-
fiderable lhare in the conteft relating to Arius ; whofe
caule he, as well as feveral other bilhops of Paleftine,
defended, being perfuaded that Arius had been un-
juftly perfecuted by Alexander bifhop of Alexandria.
He aflifted at the council of Nice in 3 25 j when he
made a fpeech to the emperor Conftantine on his coming
to the council, and was placed next him on his right
hand. He was prefent at the council of Antioch, in
which Euftathius bifliop of that city wTas depofed j but
though he was chofen by the bilhop and people of
Antioch to fucceed him, he abfolutely refufed it. In
335, he aflifted at the council of Tyre held againft
Athanafius 5 and at the affembly of bilhops at Jerufa-
lem, at the time of the dedication of the church there.
By thefe bilhops he was fent to the emperor Conftan¬
tine to defend what they had done againft Athanafius j
when he pronounced the panegyric made on that em¬
peror during the public rejoicings in the beginning of
the 30th year of his reign, which was the laft of his
life. Eufebius furvived the emperor but a fhort time,
for he died in 338. He wrote. 1. An Ecclefiaftical
Hiftory, of which Valetius has given a good edition in
Greek and Latin-, 2. The life of Conftantine ; 3. A
treatife againft Hierocles 5 4. Chronicon; 5. Prepara-
tiones Evangelicce ; 6. De demon]}rationc Evangelica, of
which there are but 10 books extant out of 20 } and
feveral other works, fome of which are loft.
EUSTACHIUS, Bartholomew, phyfician and
anatomift at Rome, flourilhed about the year 1550.
His anatomical plates were difeovered there in 1712,
and publiflied in 1714.
EUSTATHIANS, a name given to the Catholics
of Antioch in the 4th century, on occafion of their re-
fufal to acknowledge any other bilhop befide St Eufta¬
thius, depofed by the Arians.
The denomination was given them during the epif-
copate of Paulinus, whom the Arians fubftituted to St
Euftathius, about the year 330, when they began to
hold their aflemblies apart. About the year 350,
Leontius of Phrygia, called the eunuch, who was an
Arian, and was put in the fee of Antioch, defired the
Euftathians to perform their fervice in his church ;
which they accepting, the church of Antioch ferved
indifferently both the Arians and Catholics.
This, we are told, gave occafion to two inftitutions,
which have fubfifted in the church ever fince. The firft
was pfalmody in two choirs; though M. Baillet thinks,
that if they inftituted an alternate pfalmody between
two choirs, it was between two Catholic choirs, and
not by w7ay of refponfe to an Arian choir. The fe-
cond was the doxology. Glory be to the Father, and the
Son, and the Holy Ghof. See Doxology.
This conduft, which feemed to imply a kind of com¬
munion with the Arians, gave great offence to abun¬
dance
E U 3
Enltatia.
Eruiatliiaas dan'ce of CatKolics, who began to hold fcparate meet¬
ings j and this formed the fchifm of Antioch* Upon
thisj the reft, who continued to meet in the church,
ceafed to be called Eujiathians, and that appellation be¬
came reftrained to the diifenting party. St Flavianus,
bilhop of Antioch in 381, and one of his fucceftbrs,
Alexander, in 482, brought to pafs a coalition, or re¬
union, between the Euftathians and the body of the
church of Antioch, defcribed with much folemnity by
Theodoret, EccL lib. iii* c. 2.
Eustathians were alfo a fe£l of heretics in the
fourth century, denominated from their founder Eu-
ftathius, a monk fo foolilhjy fond of his own profeffion,
that he condemned all other conditions of life* Whe¬
ther this Euftathius was the fame with the biftiop of
Sebaftia and chief of the Semi-Arians, is not eafy to de¬
termine. A
He excluded married people from falvation; pro¬
hibited his followers from praying in their houfes ; and
obliged them to quit all they had, as incompatible
with the hopes of heaven. He drew them out of the
other aftemblies of Chriftians to hold fecret ones with
him, and made them wear a particular habit: he ap¬
pointed them to faft on Sundays 5 and taught them,
that the ordinary fafts of the church were needlefs, after
they had attained to a certain degree of purity which
he pretended to. He fliowed great horror for chapels
built in honour of martyrs, and the affemblies held
therein. Several women feduced by his reafons, forfook
their hufbands, and abundance of Haves deferted their
mailers houfes. He was condemned at the council of
Gangra in Paphlagonia, held between the years 326
and 341.
EUSTATHIUS, biftiop of Theffalonica, in the
I 2th century, under the reigns of the emperors Ema¬
nuel, Alexander, and Andronicus Comnenus. He was
a very eminent grammarian ; and wrote commentaries
upon Homer, and Dionyftus the geographer. The
beft edition of his Commentaries on Homer is that of
Rome, printed in Greek, in 1542, in four volumes
folio. His Commentaries on the Periegefis of Diony-
fius were printed by Mr Hudfon at Oxford, in 1697,
8vo. Euftathius appears to have been alive in the
year 1194.
EUSTATIA, St Eustatia, or EuJIatius^ one of the
Caribbee iftands, belonging to the Dutch, and fituated
in W. Long. 62. ,56. N. Lat. 17. 29. It is little elfe
than a huge mountain, which formerly has, in all pro¬
bability, been a volcano. Its fituation is fo ftrong, that
it has but one landing place j and that is fortified in
fuch a manner as to be almoft impregnable. Tobacco
is the chief produdl of the ifland •, and it is culti vated to
the very top of the pyramid, which terminates in a
large plain fur rounded with woods, but having a hol¬
low in the middle, which ferves as a large den for wild
beafts. No fewer than 5000 white people and 15,000
negroes fubiift on this fpot, where they rear hogs, kids,
rabbits, and all kinds of poultry, in fuch abundance, that
they can fupply their neighbours, after having ferved
themfelves.
The firft Dutch colony fent to this ifland confifted
of about 1600 people. They were difpolfefled by the
Englifti from Jamaica in 166 c. Soon after, the Dutch
and French becoming confederates, the Englifti were
expelled in their turn. The French continuing to hold
Vol. VIII. Part I.
1 353 1
E U S
a garrifon in the ifland till the treaty of Breda, when Euft'Jtia.
it was reftored to the Dutch. Soon after the revolu- —-
tion, the French drove out the Dutch, and were in
their turn driven out by the Englifti under Sir Timo¬
thy Thornhill, with the lofs of no more than eight men
killed and wounded, though the fort they took mount¬
ed 16 guns, and was in every other refpedl very ftrong*
Sir limothy found it neceffary for the protection of
the Dutch, to leave a fmall Engliih garrifon in the
fo-rt j but he granted the French no terms of capitula¬
tion, except for their lives and baggage. By the peace
of Ryfwick, the entire property of this ifland was reftored
to the Dutch.
I his ifland was reduced by the Britifti in the year
1781* Though not 20 miles in circumference, it
abounded at that time with riches, by reafon of the
vaft conflux of trade from every other ifland in thefe
feas. Being a free port, it was open to all the fub-
jedls of the belligerent powers j and thus a communi¬
cation was eftablilhed among them, through which
they were enabled to carry on a commercial corre-
fpondence, which greatly mitigated the inconveniences
of war. The greateft benefit, however, was reaped by
the Dutch ; who, by tranfadfing all trading bufinels
for other nations, were thus intrufted with numberlefs
commiflions, and likewife enjoyed vaft profits from
the fale of the merchandifes to which they were en¬
titled. At the time the attack was made upon them,
they were fo little under the apprehenfions of fuch an
event, that their warehoufes tvere not fufficient to con¬
tain the quantity of commercial articles imported fof
fale, and the beach and tlreets were covered with
hogfheads of tobacco and fugar* In this fituation,
Admiral Rodney having received orders to commence
hoftilities againft the Dutch, fuddenly appeared before
the ifland with fuch an armament of fea and land
forces, as in its defencelefs fituation wTas not only ufe-.
lefs but ridiculous. The governor could fcarcely credit
the officer who fummoned him to furrender •, but be¬
ing convinced how matters flood, the only poffible
ftep was taken, namely, to furrender the whole ifland.
and every thing in it, at difcretion* Along with the
ilknd there fell into the hands of the captors a fhip of
60 guns, with 250 fail of merchantmen, while the va¬
lue of property on the ifland was eftimated at no lefs
than four milhons fterling* This capture became af¬
terwards a fubjedft of difcuffion in parliament, where
the condudt of the Britilh commanders was feverely
fcrutinized by Mr Burke. The admiral and general
made their defence in perfon : but the minority at
that time were far from being fatisfied ; and it ft as fup-
pofed that on the change of miniftry a rigid inquiry
would have been fet on foot, had not the fplendour of
Admiral Rodney’s victory ovejr de Gralfe put an end
to all thoughts of that nature.
The ifland of St Euftatius is naturally of fuch dif-
ficiilt accefs, as already oblerved, that it is almoft impof-
fible for an enemy to effeift a landing if proper care is
taken by thofe who are in poffeffion of it* vThis very
circumftance proved the ruin of the new poflefibrs. The
Britifli, fecure in their inacceffible fituation, conduced
themfelves in fuch a manner as induced the Marquis de
Bouille to make an attempt to regain it. Having fail¬
ed from Martinico at the head of 2000 men, he arrived
on the 26th of November 1781, off one of the landing
Y y places
Euftatia
II .
Erttropius.
E U T [ 354 ]
places of the iflaftd, which wa« deemed fo inacceflible that Hidory, from the
it had been left without a guard. With much lofs and
difficulty, however, he landed here with four or five
hundred of his people during the night. T. he appear¬
ance of day put an end to his landing any more 3 and
he now faw himfelf obliged either to relinqudh tne en-
terprife or to attack the garrifon, which was almoft
double the number of thofe he had on the ifland. He
chofe the latter : and was favoured in his enterprife by
the extreme negligence ox his antagortiits. A difficult
pafs, which a few men might have occupied with fuc-
cefs againlf a great number, was left unguarded, which
the marquis fecured in time, and then pufhed forward
with the utmoft expedition. The Britifh, miftaking
a- body of Irifh troops which attended the French
commander for their own comrades, fuffered them to
approach without thinking of oppoling them. They
were then exercifing on the parade j but were foon
made fenfible of their fatal miftake by a clofe difcharge
from their fuppofed friends, by which many were killed
and wounded. The furprife occafioned by this fudden
attack was fo great, that no refiftance could be made j
efpecially as their commanding officer, Colonel Cock-
bum, who happened at that inllant to come upon the
parade, was made prifoner. A number of them, howr-
ever, haftened to the fort with a view of making head
againft the> enemy j but the French had already taken
poileffion of the gate, and prevented the drawbridge
from being raifed. They entered the fort j w’hich,
being furrendered by thofe who had taken {belter in it,
the relt of the garrifon, difperfed in various places, and
imagining the number of the enemy to be much greater
than it really was, fubmitted without any oppofition.
The French commander took this opportunity of
ffiowing his difintereftednefs in pecuniary matters. A-
mong the fpoils that fell into his hands a large fum of
money was claimed by the Bntilh commanding officer
as being his private property, which was generoufly
reilored to him : in like manner the property of the
Hutch inhabitants was referved to them, and nothing
was allowed to be feized but the produce arifing from
the fale of prizes that had been taken by the Englifh
wffien they captured the ifland.
EUSTYLE, in ArchiieBure, a fort of building in
which the pillars are placed at the moft convenient di-
itance one from another, the intercolumniations being
juft two diameters and a quarter of the column, except
thofe in the middle of the face, before and behind,
which are three diameters diftant.
EUTERPE, one of the Mufes, daughter of Jupiter
and Mfiemofyne. She prefided over mufic, and was
looked upon as the inventrefs of the flute. She is repre-
fented as crowned with flowers and holding a flute in
her hands : Some mythologifts attributed to her the
invention of tragedy, more commonly fuppofed to be
the pxoduftion of Melpomene.
EUTHYMIA, among the Greeks, fignified fuch a
difpofition or flate of the mind, as could not be ruffled
either by good or bad fortune, by ficknefs or health,
good or evil.
EUTROPIUS, Flavius, a Latin author, in the
4th century, was fecretary to Conftantine the Great,
and afterwards bore arms under the emperor Julian,
and followed that prince in his expedition againft the
Perfians. He wrote an Abridgement of the Roman
e U T
foundation of Rome to the reign Euty
of Valens •, the belt edition of which is that of Mil's
Le Fevre, afterwards Madame Hacier, publiffled at
Paris for the ufe of the Dauphin, in 410, in the year
1683.
EUTYCHIANS, ancient heretics, who denied the
duplicity ol natures in Chrift 5 thus denominated from
Eutyches, the archimandrite, or abbot of a monaftery
at Conftantinople, who began to propagate his opinion
A. D. 448. He did not, however, feem quite fteady
and confiftent in his fentiments : for he appeared to al¬
low of two natures, even before the union ; wfflich was
apparently a confequence he drew from the principles
of the Platonic philofophy, which fuppofes a pre-exifl-
ence of foulst accordingly, he believed that the foul of
Jefus Chrift had been united to the divinity before the
incarnation j but then he allowed no diftindlion of na™
tures in Jefus Chrift fince his incarnation. This herefy
w7as firft condemned in a fynod held at Conftantinople
by Flavian, in 448, approved by the council of Ephe-
fus, called conventus latronum, in 449» an<^ re-exami¬
ned, and fulminated, in the general council of Chalce-
fion in 451. The legates of Pope Leo, who affifted at
it, maintained, that it was not enough to define, that
there xvere two natures in Jefus Chrift } but infifted ftre-
nuoufly, that, to remove all equivocations, they muft
add thefe terms, without being changed, or confound¬
ed, or divided.
The herefy of the Eutychians, which made a very
great progrefs throughout the eaft, at length became
divided into feveral branches. Nicephorus makes men¬
tion of no fewer than twelve : fome called Schematic'^ or
Apparentes, as only attributing to Jefus Chrift a phantom
or appearance of fteffl, and no real flelh : others, Theo-
dqfians, from Theodofius bifflop of Alexandria : others,
Jacobites, from one James {Jacobus), of Syria ; which
branch eftablifhed itfelf principally in Armenia, where
it ftill fubfifts. Others were called Acephah, q. d.
without head 5 and Severinus, from a monk called Se¬
ver us, who feized on the fee of Antioch in 513" J^hefe
laft were fubdivided into five factions, viz. Agnoetce,
who attributed fome ignorance to Jefus Chrift j the fol¬
lowers of Paul 5 MiXxiyai, that is, the black Angelites,
thus called from the place where they were affembled j
and laftly, Adrites and Cononites.
Eutychians was alfo the name of another fe£t, half
Arian half Eunomian 5 which arofe at Conftantinople
in the fourth century.
It being then a matter of mighty controverfy among
the Eunomians at Conftantinople, whether or not the
Son of God knew the laft day and hour of the world,
particularly with regard to that paffage in the gofpel
of St Matthew, chap. xxiv. ver. 36. or rather that in
St Mark, xiii. 3 2. where it is expreffed, that the Son
did not know it, but the Father only ; Eutychius made
no fcruple to maintain, even in writing, that the Son
did not know it 5 which fentiment difpleafing the lead¬
ers of the Eunomian party, he feparated from them,
and made a journey to Eunomius, who was then in
exile. That heretic acquiefced fully in Eutychius’s
doctrine, and admitted him to his communion. Euno¬
mius dying foon after, the chief of the Eunomians at
Conftantinople refuted to admit Eutychius ; who, up¬
on this, formed a particular fe<ft of fuch as adhered to
him, called Eutychians, ,
' This
E X
[ 355 1
E X A
Ex.
Eulyehius 'This fame Eutychius, with one Theopronius, as was
faid in Sozomen’s time, were the occahons of all the
, changes made by the Eunomians in the adminiitration
of baptifm j whic)t confiited, according to Nicephorus,
in only thing one immerlion, and not doing it in the
name of the Trinity, but in memory of the death of
Jefus Chrift. Nicephorus calls the chief of that fe&,
not Eutychius, but Eupfychius, and his followers Euno-
jpiaupfy chians.
EQTYCHIUS, patriarch of Alexandria, lived a-
bout the ninth age ; and wrote annals in the Arabic
language, printed at Oxford in 1658, with a Latin ver-
fion by Mr Pococke. Selden had printed fomethiug of
his before.
EUXINE or Black Sea, forms part of the boun¬
dary betwixt Europe and Alia. It receives the Nieper,
the Danube, and other large rivers ; and extends from
28 to 40 degrees of E. Long, and from 40 to 46 of
N. Lat. The ancients imagined this fea to have been
originally only a lake or Handing pool which broke firft
into the Propontis, and then into the Egean, walhing
away by degrees the earth which firft kept it within
bounds, and formed the two channels of the Bofphorus
Thracius and Hellefpont, now the Dardanelles.—It
was anciently called the Axenus, fuppofed to be from
Aihkenaz the fon of Gomer, who is faid to have fettled
near it. This original being forgot in length of time,
the Greeks explained it by inhofpitable, which the word
Axenos literally lignifies j and therefore, when they
came to confider the inhabitants of thefe coafts as more
civilized and hofpitable, they changed the name into
Euxinus, which it ftill retains.
EWE, the Englifh name of a female fheep. See
Ovis, Mammalia Index.
EWERY, in the Britifh cuftoms, an office in the
king’s houfehold, to which belongs the care of the table-
linen, of laying the cloth, and ferving up water in ftl-
ver ewers after dinner.
EX, a river that rifes in a barren tra6t of land, cal¬
led Exmore, in Somerfetfhire ; and after being joined
by feveral little ftreams, runs by Tiverton, where there
is a ftone brifige over the river. About nine miles be¬
low Tiverton, it is joined by a pretty large ftream cal¬
led the Colornbton ; and about two miles lower, by an¬
other ftream formed by the jumflion of the Horton
and Credy, With thefe additions, it wafties the walls
of Exeter. At Topfham, above four miles below Exe¬
ter, it receives another considerable addition to its
ftream •, two miles farther, it is joined by the Ken ;
and falls into the ocean at Exmouth, after a courfe of
about 40 miles. Ships of great burden go up to
Topfham, from whence veffels of 150 tons are convey¬
ed to the quay at Exeter, by means of an artificial ca¬
nal. The Ex is navigable for veffels of coniiderable
burden to Topfham. The paffage, however, at the
mouth of the river, is but narrow, having rocks on the
eaft fide and broad fands on the weft j nor is the water
on the bar more than fix or feven feet deep at low wa¬
ter, but the tide rifes 14 or 15 feet, fo that it is deep
enough at high water. When fhips are within the
bar they may ride afloat at a place called Starcrofs, a-
bout a mile and a ^ half from the river’s mouth ; but
thofe that go to Topfham lie aground on the ooze at
low water.
EX OFFICIO, among lawyers, figuiiies the power
a perlon has, by virtue of his oftice, to do certain a&s <’acert>a-
without being applied to. Thus a juftice of peace n
may, ex officio, at his difcretion, take furety of the EKait^r;ctn.
peace, without complaint made by any perfon whatfo- ' y *'
ever.
There was formerly an oath ex officio, whereby a fup¬
pofed offender was compelled in the ecclefiaftical court
to confefs, accufe, or clear himfelf of a crime j but this
law is repealed.
Ex Poffi FaSio, in Law, fomething done after ano¬
ther : thus an eftate granted may be good by matter
ex pojifacio, that was not fo at firft, as in cafe of elec¬
tion.
EXACERBATION. See Paroxysm.
EXACTION, in Law, a wrong done by an officer,
or a perfon in pretended authority, in taking a reward
or fee that is not allowed by law.
A pqrfon guilty of exaction may be fined and impri-
foned. It is often confounded with Extortion.
EXACUM, a genus of plants belonging to the fee-
trandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 20th order, Rotacece. See Botany Index.
EXAiRESIS, in Surge>-y, the operation of extra£i-
ing or taking away fomething that is hurtful to the hu¬
man body.
EXAGGERATION, in Rhetoric, a kind of hy
perbole, whereby things are augmented or amplified
by faying more than the truth, either as to good or
bad.
Exaggeration, in Painting, a method by which
the artift, in reprefenting things, changes them too
much, or makes them too ftrong, either in refpefl of
the deiign or colouring. It differs from caricaturing,
in that the latter perverts or gives a turn to the fea¬
tures of a face, &c. which they had not, whereas ex-
aggeration only heightens or improves what they had.
EXALTATION, or Elevation, is chiefly ufed
in a figurative fenfe, for the railing or advancing a
perfon to fome ecclefiaftical dignity j and particularly
to the papacy.
Exaltation of the Crofs is a feaft of the Romifh
church, held on the 14th of September ; in memory,
as is generally fuppofed, of this, that the emperor Hera-
clius broug’t back the true crofs of Jefus Chrift on
his fhoulders, to the place on Mount Calvary from
which it had been carried away 14 years before by
Cofroes king of Perfia, at his taking of Jerufalem, un¬
der the reign of the emperor Phocas. The crofs was
delivered up by a treaty of peace made with Siroe,
Cofroes’s fon. The inftitution of this treaty is com¬
monly faid to have been fignalized by a miracle ; in
that Heraclius could not ftir out of Jerufalem with the
crofs while he had the imperial veftments on enriched
with gold and precious ftones, but bore it with eafe in
a common drefs.
But long before the reign of Heraclius there had
been a feaft of the fame denomination obferved both
in the Greek and Latin churches, on occafion of what
our Saviour faid in St John xii. 32. And I, if I be ex¬
alted, or lifted up, will draw all men unto me. And
again, in chap. viii. ver. 28. When you have exalted,
or lifted up the Son of Man, then Jhall ye know that I
am he.
The feaft of the dedication of the temple built by
Conftantine was held, fays Nicephorus, on the 14th of
Y y 2 September,
E X A [ 356 1 E X A
Exaltation September, the day on which the temple had been con-
, fecrated, in the year 335 •, and this feaft was alfo cal-
■ 'a ‘'1 ', led the exaltation of the crofs, becaufe it was a ceremony
therein, for the bifhop of Jerufalem to afcend a high
place, built by Conifantine for that purpofe, in man¬
ner of a pulpit, called by the Greeks the facred my-
f cries of God, or the holinefs of God, and there hoift up
the crofs for all the people to fee it.
Exaltation, in Phyfcs, denotes the aft, or ope¬
ration, of elevating, purifying, fubtilizing, or perfect¬
ing any natural body, its principles and parts 5 alfo
the quality or difpolition which bodies acquire by
fuch operation. The term exaltation has been pecu¬
liarly aft’efted by the chemiits and alchemifts ; who
imagining it to have fome extraordinary emphafis, are
employing it on every occafion.
Exaltation, in fjlrology, is a dignity which a
planet acquires in certain figns or parts of the zodiac 5
which dignity is fuppofed to give it an extraordinary
virtue, efficacy, and influence. The oppofite fign, or
part of the zodiac, is called the deieftion of the pla¬
net. Thus the 15th degree of Cancer is the exalta¬
tion of Jupiter, according tp Albumazor, becaufe it
was the afcendant of that planet at the time of the
creation 5 that of the fun is in the 19th degree of Aries,
and its dejeftion in Libra; that of the moon is in
Taurus, &c. Ptolemy gives the reafon of this in his
firft book De Quadrup.
EXAMINATION, a« exaft and careful fearch or
inquiry, in order to difcover the truth or falfehood of
a thing.
Self-Examination, is a point much infilled on by di¬
vines, and particularly the ancient fathers, by way of
preparation to repentance. St Ignatius reduces it to
five points } viz, 1. A returning thanks to God for
his benefits. 2. A begging of grace and light, to
know and diftinguiffi our fins. 3. A running over all
our aftions, occupations, thoughts and words, in or¬
der to learn what has been offenfive to God. 4. A
begging of pardon, and conceiving a fincere forrow
for having difpleafed him. And, 5, Making a firm
refolution not to offend him any more and taking the
neceffary precautions to prelerve ourfelves from it.
EXAMINERS, in chancery, two officers of that
court, who examine, upon oath, witnefles produced in
caufes depending there, by either the complainant or
defendant, where the witnefles live in London or near
it. Sometimes parties themfelves, by particular order,
are examined. In the country, above 20 miles from
London, on the parties joining in commiffion, witneffes
are examined by commiffioners, being ufually coun-
fellors or attorneys not concerned in the caufe.
EXAMPLE, in a general fenfe, denotes a copy or
pattern.
Example, in a moral fenfe, is either taken for a
type, inftance, or precedent, for our admonition, that
we may be cautioned againft the faults or crimes which
others have committed, by the bad confequences which
have enfued from them 5 or example is taken for a
pattern for our imitation, or a model for us to copy
after.
That examples have a peculiar power above the naked
precept, to difpofe us to the praftice of virtue and ho¬
linefs, may appear by confidering, 1. That they moll
clearly exprefs to us the nature of our duties in their
fubjefts and fenfible effefts. General precepts form Example
abftraft ideas of virtue j but in examples, virtues are H
moll vifible in all their circumilances. 2. Precepts l Exarch.
inllruft us in what things are our duty} but examples
affure us that they are poffible. When we fee men
like ourfelves, who are united to frail fleffi, and in the
fame condition with us, to command their paffions, to
overcome the moil glorious and glittering temptations,
we are encouraged in our fpiritual warfare. 3. Ex¬
amples, by fecret and lively incentive, urge us to imi¬
tation. We are touched in another manner by the
vifible praftice of good men, which reproaches our de-
fefts, and obliges us to the fame zeal which laws,
though wife and good, will not effeft.
The example of our Saviour is molt proper to form
us to holinefs; it being abfolutely perfeft, and accom¬
modated to our prefent Hate. There is no example of
a mere man that is to be followed without limitation :
But the example of Chrift is abfolutely perfeft; his
converfation was a living law: “ He wras holy, harm-
lefs, undefiled, and feparate from finners.”
Example, in Rhetoric, denotes an imperfeft kind
of induftion or argumentation •, whereby it is proved,
that a thing which happened on fome other occafion
wall happen again on the prefent one, from the fimili-
tude of the cafes. As, “ The war of the Thebans,
againil their neighbours the Phocians, wTas ruinous j
confequently, that of the Athenians againff their neigh¬
bours, will likewife be fatal.”
EXANTHEMA, among Phyfcians, denotes any
kind of efflorefcence or eruption, as the meafles, pur¬
ple fpots in the plague, or malignant fevers, &c.
EXARCPI, in antiquity, an appellation given, by
the emperors of the eaft, to certain officers fent into
Italy, in quality of vicars, or rather prefefts, to de¬
fend that part of Italy wffiich was yet under their
obedience, particularly the city of Ravenna, againff:
the Lombards, who had made themfelves mafters of
the greateft part of the reft.
The refidence of the exarch was at Ravenna j which
city, with that of Rome, wTas all that was left the
emperors. The firft exarch was the patrician Boetius,
famous for his treatife, De Confolatione Philofophias $
appointed in 568 by the younger Juftin. The ex¬
archs fubfifted about 185 years, and ended in Euty-
chius: under whofe exarchate the city of Ravenna
was taken by the Lombard king Aftulphus, or Aftol-
phus.
The emperor Erederic created Heraclius, archbifhop
of Lyons, a defeendant of the illuftrious houfe of
Montboiflier, exarch of the whole kingdom of Bur¬
gundy j a dignity till that time unknown anywffiere
but in Italy, particularly in the city of Ravenna.
Homer, Philo, and other ancient authors, give like¬
wife the name exarchus to the choragus or mafter of
the fingers, in the ancient chorufes, or him who fung
firfl: : the word or ugfcOfMu, fignifying equally to
begin, and to commend.
Exarch of a Diocefe was, anciently, the fame with
primate. This dignity was inferior to the patriarchal,
yet greater than the metropolitan.
Exarch alfo denotes an officer, ftill fubfifting in
the Greek church ; being a kind of deputy or legate
a latere of the patriarch, whofe office it is to vifit the
provinces allotted him, in order to inform himfelf of
the
E X C [ 357 J E X C
lx arch the lives and manners of the clergy j take cognizance
II . of ecclefiaftical caufes j the manner of celebrating di-
Exccption. vjne {-ervjce . adminiftration of the facraments,
particularly confeflion j the obfervance of the canons ;
monaftic difcipline ; affairs of marriages, divorces, &c.
but above all, to take an account of the feveral reve¬
nues which the patriarch receives from feveral churches j
and, particularly, as to what regards the collefting the
fame.
The exarch, after having greatly enriched himfelf
in his poll, frequently rifes to the patriarchate itfelf.
Exarch is alfo ufed, in the eaffern church antiqui¬
ty, for a general or fuperior over feveral monalteries j
the fame that we otherwife call archimandrite j being
exempted, by the patriarch of Conftantinople, from
the jurifdiftion of the bilhops $ as are now the gene¬
rals of the Romiih monaffic orders.
EXAUCTORATIO, in the Roman military dif-
cipline, differed from the miffio, which was a full dif-
c'harge, and took place after they had ferved in the
army 20 years j whereas the exauftoratio was only a
partial difcharge : they loft their pay indeed, but ftill
kept under their colours or vexilla, though not under
the aquila (or eagle), which was the ftandard of the
legion : whence, inftead of Legionarii, they were cal¬
led Subjignaniy and were retained till they had either
ferved their full time or had lands affigned them.
The exauftoratio took place after they had ferved 17
years.
EXCALCEATION, among the Hebrews, was
a particular law, whereby a widow, whom her huf-
band’s brother refufed to marry, had a right to fum-
mon him to a court of juftice ; and, upon his refufal,
might excalceate him, that is, pull off one of his (hoes,
and fpit in his face ) both of them actions of great igno¬
miny.
EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings
and emperors, but now to ambaffadors, generals, and
other perfons who are not qualified for that of high-
neTsy and yet are to be elevated above the other infe*
rior dignities.
EXCENTRIC, in Geometnjy a term applied to
circles and fpheres which have not the fame centre,
and confequently are not parallel ; in oppofition to
concentric, where they are parallel, having one com¬
mon centre.
EXCENTRICITY, in AJlronomy, is the diftance
of the centre of the orbit of a planet from the centre
of the fun ; that is, the diftance between the centre of
the ellipfis and the focus thereof.
EXCEPTION, fomething referved, or fet afide,
and not included in a rule.
It is become proverbial, that there is no rule with¬
out an exception •, intimating, that it is impofiible to
comprehend all the particular cafes, under one and the
fame maxim. But it is dangerous following the ex¬
ception preferably to the .rule.
Exception, in Law, denotes a flop or ftay to an
aftion ; and is either dilatory or peremptory, in pro¬
ceedings at common law j but in chancery it is what
the plaintiff alleges againft the fufticiency of an an-
fv/er, &c.
An exception is no more than the denial of what
is taken to be good by the other party, either in point
of law or pleading. The counfel in a caufe arc to take
all their exceptions to the record at one time, and be- Excerpt
fore the court has delivered any opinion of it. II
EXCERPT, in matters of literature. See Ex- ^xcliange.j
TRACT. '"'r
EXCESS, in Arithmetic and Geometry, is the dif¬
ference between any two unequal numbers or quanti¬
ties, or that which is left after the lefler is taken from
or out of the greater.
EXCHANGE, in a general fenfe, a contradt or
agreement, whereby one thing is given or exchanged
for another.
Exchange, in commerce, is the receiving or paying
of money in one country for the like fum in another,
by rheans of bills of exchange.
The fecurity which merchants commonly take from
one another when they circulate their bufinefs, is a bill
of exchange, or a note of hand : thefe are looked upon
as payment. See Bill, and Mercantile Laws.
The punctuality of acquitting thefe obligations is ef-
fential to commerce j and no fooner is a merchant’s
accepted bill protefted, than he is confidered as a bank¬
rupt. For this reafon, the laws of moft nations have
given very extraordinary privileges to bills of exchange.
The fecurity of trade is effential to every fociety ; and
were the claims of merchants to linger under the for¬
malities of courts of law when liquidated by bills of
exchange, faith, confidence, and punctuality, would
quickly difappear, and the great engine of commerce
would be totally deftroyed.
A regular bill of exchange is a mercantile contradl,
in which four perfons are concerned, viz. 1. The
drawer, who receives the value : 2. His debtor, in a
diftant place, upon whom the bill is drawn, and who
muft accept and pay it: 3. The perfon who gives va¬
lue for the bill, to whofe order it is to be paid : and,
4. The perfon to whom it is ordered to be paid, credi¬
tor to the third.
By this operation, reciprocal debts, due in two di¬
ftant parts, are paid by a fort of transfer, or permuta¬
tion of debtors and creditors.
(A) in London is creditor to (B) in Paris, value
look (C) again in London is debtor to (D) in Paris
for a like fum. By the operation of the bill of ex¬
change, the London creditor is paid by the London
debtor j and the Paris creditor is paid by the Paris
debtor 5 confequently the two debts are paid, and no
money is fent from London to Paris nor from Paris
to London.
In this example, (A) is the drawer, (B) is the ac¬
cepter, (C) is the purchafer of the bill, and (I)) re¬
ceives the money. Two perfons here receive the mo¬
ney, (A) and (D) and two pay the money, (B) and
(C) ; which is juft what mtift be done when two debt¬
ors and two creditors clear accounts.
This is the plain principle of a bill of exchange.
From which it appears, that reciprocal and equal debts
only can be acquitted by them.
When it therefore happens, that the reciprocal debts
of London and Paris (to ufe the fame example) are
not equal, there arifes a balance on one fide. Suppofe
London to owe Paris a balance, value 1 ool. How can
this be paid ? Anfwer, it may either be done with or
without the intervention of a bill.
With a bill, if an exchanger, finding a demand for
a bill upon Paris for the value of look when Paris
owes
V
E X C f
Ex^har.tre OWCsno more to London fends loo!, to Ins correfpond-
i m .. ent at Paris in coin, at the expence (fuppoie) of ll.
and then, having become creditor on Paris, he can
give a bill for the value of tool, upon his being repaid
his expence, and paid for his rilk and trouble.
Or it may be paid without a bill, if the London
debtor fends the coin bimfelf to his Paris creditor, with¬
out employing an exchanger.
This lad example {hows of what little ufe bills are in
the payment of balances. As far as the debts are equai,
nothing can be more ufeful than bills of exchange j but
the more they are ufeful in this eafy way of tunnels, the
lei's profit there is to any perfon to make a trade of ex¬
change, when he is not himfelf concerned either as
debtor or creditor.
When merchants have occafion to draw and remit
bills for the liquidation of their own debts, adlive and
paffive, in diilant parts, they meet upon Change j where,
to purfue the former examples, the creditors upon Paris,
when they want money for bills, look out for thofe who
are debtors to it. rlhe debtors to Paris again, when
they want bills for money, feek for thofe who are credi¬
tors upon it.
This market is conflantly attended by brokers, who
relieve the merchant of the trouble of fearching for
thofe he wants. To the broker every one communi¬
cates his wants, fo far as he finds ^it prudent *, and by
going about among all the merchants, the broker dil-
covers the fide upon which the greater demand lies,
for money or for bills.
He who is the demander in any bargain, has con-
flantly the difadvantage in dealing with him of wdiom
he demands. This is nowhere fo much the cafe as in
exchange, and renders fecrecy very effential to indivi¬
duals among the merchants. If the London merchants
want to pay their debts to Paris, when there is a ba¬
lance again ft London, it is their intereft to conceal
their debts, and efpecially the neceflity they may be
under to pay them j from the fear that thofe who are
creditors upon Paris wrould demand too high a price
for the exchange over and above par.
On the other hand, thofe who are creditors upon
Paris, when Paris owTes a balance to London, are as
careful in concealing what is owing to them by Paris,
from the fear that thofe who are debtors to Paris would
avail themfelves of the competition among the Paris cre¬
ditors, in order to obtain bills for their money, below
the value of them, when at par. A creditor upon Pa¬
ris, who is greatly preffed for money at London, will
willingly abate fomething of his debt, in order to get
one who will give him money for it.
From the operation carried on among merchants up¬
on ’Change, we may difcover the confequence of their
feparate and jarring interefts. They are conftantly in-
terefted in the ftate of the balance. Thofe who are
creditors on Paris, fear the balance due to London j
thofe who are debtors to Paris, dread a balance due
to Paris. The intereft of the firft is to diffemble what
they fear ; that of the laft, to exaggerate what they
wiih. The brokers are thofe who determine the
courfe of the day } and the moft intelligent merchants
are thofe who defpatch their bufinefs before the fa£l is
known.
Now, how is trade in general interefted in th
358 1 E X C
ftion, Who (hall outwit, and who (hall be outwitted, Exchange*
in this complicated operation of exchange among mer- " ~ *
chants ?
The intereft of trade and of the nation is principal¬
ly concerned in the proper method of paying and re¬
ceiving the balances. It is alfo concerned in preferv-
ing a juft equality of profit and lofs among all the
merchants, relative to the real ftate of the balance.
Unequal competition among men engaged in the fame
purluit, conftantly draws along with it bad confequen-
ces to the general undertaking *, and fecrecy in trade
will be found, upon examination, to be much more ufe¬
ful to merchants in their private capacity, than to the
trade they are carrying on.
Merchants endeavour to fimplify their bufinefs as
much as poiiible ; and commit td brokers many opera¬
tions which require no peculiar talents to execute. T his
of exchange is of fuch a nature, that it is hardly pof-
fible for a merchant to carry on the bufinefs of his bills,
without their affiftanee, upon many occafions. When
merchants come upon ’Change, they are lo full of fear
and jealoufies, that they will not open themfelves to one
another, left they ftiould difcover what they want to
conceal. The broker is a confidential man, in fome de¬
gree, between parties, and brings them together.
Befides the merchants who circulate among them¬
felves their reciprocal debts and credits arifing from
their importation and exportation of goods, there is
another fet of merchants wTho deal in exchange j
which is the importation and exportation of money and
bills- ,
W^re there never any balance on the trade 01 na¬
tions, exchangers and brokers wTould find little employ¬
ment : reciprocal and equal debts would eafily be tranf-
acted openly betw7een the parties themlelves. No man
feigns and diflembles, except when he thinks he has an
intereft in fo doing.
But when balances come to be paid, exchange be¬
comes intricate ; and merchants are fo much employed
in particular branches of bufinefs, that they are obliged
to leave the liquidation of their debts to a particulai
fet of men, who make it turn out to the belt advantage
to themfelves.
Whenever a balance is to be paid, that payment
cofts, as we have feen, an additional expence to thofe
of the place wTio owTe it, over and above the value of
the debt.
If, therefore, this expence be a lofs to the trading
man, he muft either be repaid this lofs by thofe whom
he ferves, that is, by the nation } or the trade he car¬
ries on w'ill become lefs profitable.
Every one will agree, that the expence of high ex¬
change upon paying a balance is a lois to a people,
no way to be compenfated by the advantages they reap
from enriching the few individuals among them who
gain by contriving methods to pay it oft } and if an ar¬
gument is neceftary to prove this propolition, it may
be drawn from this principle, viz whatever rei tiers
the profit upon trade precarious or uncertain, is a
lofs to trade in general ^ this lofs is the coniequence
of high exchange ; and although a profit does re~
fult from it upon one branch of trade, the exchange
bufinefs, yet that cannot compeniate the lofs upon.
que- every other.
We
4
»
E X C E 359 3 E X C
Exchange. We may, therefore, here repeat what we have faid
"’—v—'' above, that the more difficulty is found in paying a ba¬
lance, the greater is the lofs to a nation.
The CoUrfe of Exchange.
The courfe of exchange is the current price betwixt
two places, which is always liactuating and unfettled,
being fometimes above and fometimes below par, ac¬
cording to the circumftances of trade.
When the courfe of exchange rifes above par, the
country where it rifes may conclude for certain, that
the balance of trade runs againft them. The truth of
this will appear, if we fuppofe Britain to import from
any foreign place goods to the value of I GO,cool, at Exchange
par, and export only to the value of 8o,oool. In this —-v““-
cafe, bills on the faid foreign place will be fcarce in
Britain, and confequently will rife in value 5 and after
the 80,000!. is paid, bills mull be procured from other
places at a high rate to pay the remainder, fo that per¬
haps 12D,oool. may be paid for bills to difcharge a
debt of ioo,oool.
Though the courfe of exchange be in a perpetual
flux, and rifes or falls according to the circumftances of
trade $ yet the exchanges of London, Holland, Ham¬
burgh, and Venice, in a great meafure regulate thofe
of all other places in Europe.
I. Exchange with Holland.
MONEY TABLE.
8 Pennings, of 2 duytes,
2 Groats, or 16 pennings,
6 Stivers, or 12 pence,
SO Schillings,
20 Stivers, or 40 pence,
6 Guilders, or florins,
Guilders, or florins,
Ear in Sterling. s. a.
' 1 groat or penny ~ o O.54
I ftiver = o 1.09
1 fchilling = o 6.56
< I pound Flemiffi rz: 10 II.18
1 gilder or florin = I 9.^6
1 pound Flemiffi rr 10 u.18
1 rixdollar “ 4 6.66
In Holland there are two forts of money, bank and
current. The bank is reckoned good fecurityj de¬
mands on the bank are readily anfwered j and hence
bank money is generally rated from 3 to. 6 per cent.
better than the current. The difference between the
bank and current money is called the agio.
Bills on Holland are always drawn in bank money y
and if accounts be fent over from Holland to Britain in
current money, the Britiffi merchant pays thefe accounts
by bills, and in this cafe has the benefit of the agio.
Prob. I. To reduce bank money to current money.
Rule. As 100 to 100-fagio, fo the given guilders
to the anfwer.
Examp. What will 2210 guilders in bank money
amount to in Holland currency, the agio being 3^ per
cent. ?
Guild.
As IOO: I03-|:: 2210
8 8 825
800 825 11050
44-0
17680
—— Guild. Jl. pen.
8|oo)-8232)50(2279 1 4 cur.
16... 20
22 io|oo(
16 8
63 2
56 16
7232
72 33
Or, by pra&ice.
50)2210
44.2 r± 2 per cent.
22.1 — I per cent.
2.7625 zz -y per cent.
2279.0625
If the agio only be required, make the agio the
middle term, thus:
Guil.Ji. pen*
As 100 : 3! :: 22 10 -.69 14 agio. Or work by
pradlice as above.
Prob. II. To reduce current money to bank money.
Rule. As 100-f-agio to 100, fo the given guilders
to the anfwer.
Example. What will 2279 guilders 1 ftiver 4 pen¬
nings, Holland currency, amount to in bank money,
Che agio being 3^ per cent. ?
Guild. Guild. Guild, ft. pen.
As 103! : 100 :: 2279 1 4
8 8 20
825 800 45581
20 16
16500 273490
16 • 4558i
990 729300
165 800
8)264)000 8)383440(000
3)33 3) 729-30
11 31)24310(2210 bank,
Ao
E X C [ 360
Exchange. An Amfterdam, Rotterdam, Middleburgh, &c( books
^—v ' and accounts are kept by fome in guilders, ftivers, and
pennings, and by others in pounds, fliiilings, and pence
Flemilh. .
Britain gives il. llerling for an uncertain number
of {hillings and pence llemilh. ihe par il. Her-
ling for 36.59s. Flemifh 5 that is, il. 16s. y^Sd*
Flemilh.
When the Flemifh rate rifes above par. Britain gains
and Holland lofes by the exchange, and vice verfa. .
Sterling money is changed into Flemifti, by faying,
As il. iferling to the given rate,
So is the given llerling to the Flemifh fought.
Or, the Flemifh money may be cart up by pra&ice.
Dutch money, whether pounds, fhillings, pence Fle-
snifh, or guilders, flivers, pennings, may be changed in¬
to llerling, by faying.
As the given rate to il. flerling.
So the given Dutch to the flerling fought*
Example I. A merchant in Britain draws on Am-
llerdam for 782I. llerling : How many pounds Flemilh,
and how many guilders, will that amount to, exchange
at 34s. 8d. per pound fterling ?
Decimally.
L. s. d. L.
if I : 34 8 :: 782
12
416
782
832
3328
291 2
12)325312
.d.
2]o)27io]9 4
L. 1355 9 4 Flem.
L. s. L.
If 1 : 34.$ : : 782
782
69^
243^66
210)271019.3
13S5 9 4
1 os. ±=
4s.
8d.
By pradlice.
L. s.
782
391
156 8
26 1
— T
—— I
 ^
d.
I355 9 4
14s. —
8d. —-yo
Or thus:
L.
782
547
26
d.
I355
1 4
9
Multiply the Flemifh pounds and fhillings by 6, and
the product will be guilders and llivers ; and if there
be any pence, multiply them by 8 for pennings : or,
divide the Flemifh pence by 40, and the quot will be
guilders, and the half of the remainder, if there be any,
wall be flivers, and one penny odd will be half a River,
or 8 pennings, as follows:
£■
1355
s. d.
9 4
6
Tlem. pence.
4l°)3253Ilz(32 rem'
E
Flem. Ster.
s. d. L.
If 37 6 : 1
2
5)7$
4)lS
3
X G
Flem*
L. x.
591 5
20
•Rxcliange*
11825
2
5)23650
5) 473'°
3) 946
L. s. d.
315 5 8 Ster *
S)L.
If 1.875
5) -375
5) •°75
.015
Psi
Decimally^
L. 5) L.
1 :r 591.25
5)118.2^
5) z3-65
•015) 4-73(3I3-3
45
23
15
80
IS
5®
45
Holland exchanges with ether nations as follows^
Viz* with.
Flem. d.
Hamburgh, on the dollar, =: 664
France, on the crown,
Spain, on the ducat,
Portugal, on the crufade,
Venice, on the ducat,
Genoa, on the pezzo,
Leghorn, on the piaflre,
Florence, on the crown,
Naples, on the ducat,
Rome, on the crown,
Milan, on the ducat,
Bologna, on the dollar,
Exchange between Britain and Antwerp, as alfo the
Auflrian Netherlands, is negotiated the fame way as
with Holland ; only the par is fomewhat different, as
will be delcribed in article 2d, following.
= 54
= 1C9#
-- 50
= 93
— 100
rr IOO
= 120'
= 74t
— 136
or 102
= 94l
Guild. 8131 16 Jliv. Guild. 8132 \6Jiiv.
2. Change 591k 5s. Flemifh into fterling money,
exchange at 37s. 6d. Flemifh per 1. Sterling.
3
12 Phenning
16 Schilling-lubs
2 Marks
3 Marks
64 Marks
II. Exchange with Hamburgh.
Money Table.
Far 'in Sterling.
') f 1 fchiiling-lub
C3
s
I mark
1 dollar
1 rixdollar
I ducat
d>
6
o
6
4
Books
fetchan^e.
E X C [ :
Books and accounts are kept at tke bank, and by
molt people in the city, in marks, fchilling-lubs, and
phennings ; but fome keep them in pounds, fchillings,
and groots Flemifh.
The agio at Hamburgh runs between 20 and 40
per cent. All bills are paid in bank itioney.
Hamburgh exchanges with Britain by giving an un¬
certain number of fchillings and groots Flemilb for the
pound fterling. The groot or penny Flemilh here, as
allb at Antwerp, is worth of a penny fterling j and
fo fomething better than in Holland, where it is onlv
TSo%d. fterling.
Ct ]
E X C
6 Phennings '! T
6 Schilling-lubs | J
1 Schilling-lub makes <
1 Mark
7^ Marks J
Flemijh.
1 groot or penny
1 fchilling
2 pence or groots
32 pence or groots
1 pound.
The par with Hamburgh, and alfo with Antwerp, is
35s. 6yd. Flemilh for ih fterling.
Examples, t. How many marks muft be received
it Hamburgh for 300I. fterling, exchange at 35s. 3d,
Flemilh pei' 1. fterling ?
L. s. d. L.
If 1 :35 3 :: 300
12
423
3°°
  M. fch.
32)126900(3965 10
96 •• *
309
288
210
192
180
160
(2°)
16
)32o
32
(0>>
Decimally.
FUm. u Marks. Flem. s.
If 20 : 7.5 t: 35.25
4: 1.5 :: 35.25
 V5
17625
3525
Marks m jl. fterling
Marks ih 300I. fterling
4)52.875
13.21875
30b
3965.62500
16
3750
625
Schilling-lubs 10.00©
Voi. VIII. Part I.
2. How much fterling money will a bill of 3965 Exchange’
marks io fchilling-lubs amount to, exchange at 35s. 3d.
Flemilh per pound fterling ?
Fl.s. d. L.St. Mks. fch.
If35 3 : 1 : : 3965 i®
12 322
423
7930 20d.
H897
423)126900(300!. fter.
1269
Decimally.
4 : 1.5 :: 35.25
i-5
17625
2225
4)52.875(13.21875
13.21875)3965.62500(3001. fter.
3965625
III. Exchange with France.
Money Table.
Par in Stef'. s. d.
12 Deniers
20 Sols
3 Livres
7 f1
> make < 1 li
J 11 ci
fol
livre
crown
= o o h-
= 0 9i
= 2 5t
At Paris, Rouen, Lyons, &c. books and accounts
are kept in livres, fols, and deniers j and the exchange
with Britain is on the crown, or ecu, of 3 livres, or 6«
fols Toumois. Britain gives for the crown an uncer¬
tain number of pence, commonly between 30 and 34r
the par, as mentioned above, being 29 yd.
Example x. What fterling money muft be paid in
London to receive in Paris 1978 crowns 25 fols, ex¬
change at 3i4(I. per crown ?
Sols. d.
If 60
Cr. fols*
25
31I :: 1978
  60
253   
118705
253
356u5
593525
237410
6)0)3003 236)5 Rem.
8)5°°539 3
12)62567 11
2)0)521(3 13
L. 260 13 w\ Anf.
Z z
By
E
d.
3o =
■S'—Tz
Sols. 20 —— -5-
5 — ^
X c
By Prafticc,
Qr, Sols.
1978 25, at 3i|d.
247 5 o
12 7 3
I O 7ir
Q O I Ox
0 0 2^-
[ 362 3
260 13 Il^r
If you work decimally, fay,
Cr. d. Ster. Cr d. Stcr.
As 1 : 31.625 :: 1978.41^ : 62567.427083:
2. How many prench livres will L.x 21 : 1816 ftef'
ling amount to, exchange at 32gd. per crown ?
d. Liv.
32i : 3 :
8
865 —
24
L.
121
20
2438
12
s.
18
d.
6
29262
 H
117048
58524
Liv. fols. den.
263)702288(2670 5 11 Anf.
Rem. (78=5 fols 11 deniers..
jy. Exchange with Portugal.
Money Table.
400 rees
1000 rees
^j- make |
Par in Ster.
1 ree ~
crufade—
millree rr;
r. d. /.
o o 0.27
2 3,
5 7^
in Lifbon, Oporto, &c. books and accounts are ge¬
nerally kept in rees and,, millrees j and the millrees
are dillinguhlied from the rees by a mark fet between
them thus, 485 372 j that is, 485 millrees and 372
rees.
Britain, as well as other nations, exchanges with
Portugal on the millree y the par, as in the table,, be-.
ing 67xd. fterling. The courfe with Britain runs from
63d. to 68d. fterling per millree.
Example i. How much fterling money will pay a
hill of 827 ■* 160 rees, exchange at 63-^h fterling per
millree ?
Rees. d. Rees.
If 1000 : 63^ :: 8;a7.i6o
8  507
8000 507 579012
413580
     Rem,
8000)419^370.120 2
12)524217 —• 58.
20) 4368 — 8s.
218 8 5'a'
E X C
By Praftice.
Rees.
Exchange.
d.
60= i
3 —
2   I
T  TT
827.160, at 63|d.
206.790
10-3395
.861625
.4308125
218.4219375
The rees being thoufandth-parts of the millrees, are
annexed to the integer, and the operation proceeds ex-
actly as in decimals.
2. How many rees of Portugal will 500I. fterling £t-
mount to, exchange at 5s. 4|d. per millree ?
d. Rees. Z.
If 64I : 1000 500
  8 20
51?
8000
loooo
I 2
X 20000
8000
Rees.
517)960000000(1856.866 Ahf^
V. Exchange with Spain.
Money Table,
35 mervadiesT
8 rials > make
375 mervadies j
Par in Ster.
{I rial
1 piaftre
1 ducat
J5.
d:
5I
= 3 T
= 4
In Madrid, Bilboa, Cadiz, Malaga, Seville, andmoft
of the principal places, books and accounts are kept in
piaftres, called alfo dollars, rials, and mervadies j and
they exchange with, Britain generally on the piaftre,
and fometimes on the ducat. The courfe runs from
35d. to 45d. fterling for a piaftre or dollar of 8 rials.
Examp. i. London imports from Cadiz, goods to the
value of 2163 piaftres and 4 rialsHow much fterling
will this amount to, exchange at 38^ fterling per
piaftre ?
Piaji. Rials.
2163 4, at 3844.
d.
24
12
2
v
s
I
¥
— 7
2i6
I08
l8
2
1
Rials..
4 =
d:
3 8I eacft
*9tV
6
oi
345 l7
1 7^7
L.345 18 8TV Anf.
2. London remits to Cadiz 345I. 18s. 8TV How
much Spanilh money will this amount to, exchange at
38{do fterling per piaftre ?
Exchange.
If38|
3°7
2
i
E X
L* St dt
345
T*
6l4
20
691 s
12
83024
16
498149
83024
Carriedup 1328389
Piaft. Rials*
Anf. 2163 4
6^4)1328389(2163 piaftres.
1228* ••
1003
614
3^3 1 E X C
2. How many ducats at Venice are equal to 3 8|li Exchange*
12s. 6d. fterling, exchange at 4s. 4d. per ducat > u—y-—.
Z. Due. L.
If .2i{S : I : : 3851625
.216)385.625
21 385.625
• Due.
195)347o62.5(i779.8 Arff
3898
3684
2149
1842
307
 8
614)2456(4 rials#
2456
20 Sols d’or
make
j (_ 1 ducatr^o^d. fterling#
The courfe of exchange is from 45d. to 55d. fterling
per ducat.
Examp. i. How much fterling money is equal to
1459 ducats 18 fols 1 denier, bank money of Venice,
exchange at 52^ fterling per ducat ?
Due. d. Due. fol. den.
if i:52|
1459 18
S2z
2918
7295
d. 75868
i = 729^
? — 364l
den.
So/s.
io=4
5 — 4
2=4-
I = 4
I ~ r r
d.
5 24 rate.
264
*34
5t
2|
Of
47 s'
769624
47-g-
Rem.
12)770io(6d.
2|o)64i|7(i7s.
L. 3 20 17^6 fterling. AnJ,
VI. Exchange with Venice.
Money Table.
54 Soldi! . n gros
24 Gros J 1 ducat=5046. fterling.
The money of Venice is of three forts, viz. two of
bank money, and the picoli money. One of the banks
deals in banco money, and the other in banco current.
The bank money is 20 per cent, better than the banco
current, and the banco current 20 per cent, better than
the picoli money. Exchanges are always negotiated
by the ducat banco* the par being 4s. 2^d. fterling, as
in the table.
Though the ducat be commonly divided into 24 gros,
yet bankers and negotiators, for facility of computation,
ufually divide it as follows, and keep their books and
accounts accordingly.
12 Deniers d’orl f 1 fbl d’or
1912
*755
..A
*575
1560
(*5)
Bank money is reduced to current money, by allow¬
ing for the agio, as wras done in exchange with Hol¬
land j viz. fay,. As loo to 120, or as 10 to 12, or as
5 to 6, fo the given bank money to the current fought.
And current money is reduced to bank money by re-
verfing the operation. And in like manner may picoli
money be reduced to current or to bank money, and the
contrary.
100 ducats banco of Venice.
In Leghorn rr 73 pezzos I In Lucca nr 77 crowd's
In Rome nr 684crowns J In Ifrancfort = 1394 florins
12 D enari
2o Soldi
1 ^ make ^ j
VII. Exchange with Genoa.
Money Table.
foldi s. d.
pezzo =4 6 fterling.
Books and accounts are generally kept in pezzos,
foldi, and denari ; but fome keep them in livres* foldi,
and denari; and 1 2 fuch denari make 2 foldi, and 20
foldi make 1 lire.
The pezzo of exchange is equal to 54 lires j and*
confequently exchange money is 54 times better than
the lire money. The courfe of exchange runs from 47d.
to 58d. fterling per pezzo.
Examp. How much fterling money is equivalent to
3390 pezzos 16 foldi of Genoa, exchange at fter¬
ling per pezzo ?
Soldi, di Pez. foldi.
If 20 : 514: : 3390 16
8 —— 20
160
4*5
67816
4*5
339080
07816
271264
d.
L.
160)28143640(1758974=732 18
Z z 2
d.
If
E X C [ 364
Exchange, If fterling money be given, it may be reduced or
,|"1 v ' ' changed into pezzos of Genoa, by reverfing the former
operation.
Exchange money is reduced to lire money, by being
multiplied by 5^, as follows :
E X C
Par in Sterling.
Fez.
339°
foldi.
16
-
16954
1695
847
o
8
*4
Lires 19497 2
Decimally.
3390-8
5-75
169540
237356
169540
Lires 19497.100
And lire money is reduced to exchange money by
dividing it by 5^.
In Milan, 1 crown =r 80
In Naples, 1 ducat = 86
In Leghorn, 1 piaftre ~ 20
In Sicily, 1 crown I 27I-
VIII. Exchange ’with Leghorn.
Money Table.
Augfburgh, i
Francfort,
Bremen,
Breflau,
Berlin,
Stetin,
Embden,
Bolfenna,
Dantzic,
L. s. d:
6
3
5
4
4
5
4
3
3
3
3
4
EnchangA
Rome, 1 crown
Naples, 1 ducat
Florence, I crown
Milan, I ducat
Bologna, 1 dollar
Sicily, 1 crown
Vienna, 1 rixdollar
florin
florin
rixdollar
rixdollar
rixdollar
mark
rixdollar
rixdollar
13^ florins
Stockholm, 344- dollars
Ruflia, 1 ruble
Turkey, I afper
The following places, viz-. Switzerland, Nurem-
burgh, Leipfic, Drefden, Ofnaburgh, Brunfwic, Co-
logn, Liege, Stralburgh, Cracow, Denmark, Nor¬
way, Riga, Revel, Narva, exchange with Britain, when
diredl exchange is made, upon the rixdollar, the par
being 4s. 6d. fterling.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I
1
o-
o
If
4v
48-
7
o
o
8
o
6
3
o
6
6
8
o
o
5'
6
r°ldfti d;S“r-
20 Soldi 3 (_i piaitre rr 4 6
Books and accounts are kept in piaftres, foldi, and
denari. The piaftre here confifts of 6 lires, and the lire
contains 20 foldi, and the foldi 12 denari 5 and confe-
quently exchange money is 6 times better than lire mo¬
ney. The courfe of exchange is from 47d. to 58d. fter¬
ling per piaftre.
Example. What is the fterling value of 731 piaftres,
at 554 each ?
s. d.
4 or 48=4-
731 piaftres, at 55t<1*
146 4
18 5 6
4 11 44
L. 169 o 104 rinf.
Sterling money is reduced to money of Leghorn, by
reverfmg the former operation 5 and exchange money is
reduced to lire money by multiplying by 6, and lire
money to exchange money by dividing fey 6.
100 piaftres of Leghorn are
In Naples =: 134 ducats J In Geneva = 185^ crowns.
Soldi of Leghorn.
In Sicily, 1 crown 133^
In Sardinia, I dollar = 95-g-
The above are the chief places in Europe with which
Britain exchanges dire&ly j the exchanges with other
places are generally made by bills on Hamburgh, Hol¬
land, or Venice. We ftiall here, however, fubjoin the
par of exchange betwixt Britain and moft of the other
places in Europe with which Ihe has any commercial in-
tetcourfe.
IX. Exchange with America and the Wejl Indies.
In North America and the Weft Indies, accounts,
as in Britain, are kept in pounds, ftiillings, and pence.
In North America they have few coins circulating
among them, and on that account have been obliged to
fubftitute a paper currency for a medium of their com¬
merce 5 which having no intrinfic value, is fubjedted to
many difadvantages, and generally fuffers a great dif-
count. In the Weft Indies coins are more frequent,
owing to their commercial intercourfe with the Spa-
yiifh lettlements.
Exchange betwixt Britain and America, or the Weft
Indies, may be computed as in the following examples :
1. The neat proceeds of a cargo from Britain to
Bofton amount to 845I. 17s. 6d. currency : How
much is that in fterling money, exchange at 80 per
cent ?
If 180 : 100
18: 10 L. s. d.
9 : 5 :: 845 17 6
5
9)4229 7 6
L. 469 18 74 Ster. Anf.
2. Bofton remits to Britain a bill of 469I 18s. 7-}d.
fterling: How much currency was paid fgr the bill at
Bofton, exchange at 80 per cent. ?
If ioo : 180 L. s. d.
5 : 9 :: 469 18 7-f
9
5)4229 7 6
845 17 6 currency. Anf.
3. How much fterling money will 1780I. Jamaica
currency amount to, exchange to 40 per cent. ?
E X C
Exchange.
If 140
H
7
[ 365 ]
E X C
IOO
IO
5
L.
: : 1780
5
7)8900
1271
5? Ster.
Bills of exchange from America, the rate being high,
is an expenfive way of remitting money to Britain ; and
therefore merchants in Britain generally choofe to
have the debts due to them remitted home in fugar,
rum, or other produce.
X. Exchange with Ireland.
At Dublin, and all over Ireland, books and accounts
are kept in pounds, Ihillings, and pence, as in Britain j
and they exchange on the 100I. fterling.
The par of one fhilling fterling is one fliilling and
one penny Iriftij and fo the par of 100I. fterling is
108I. 6s. 8d. Irilh. The courfe of exchange runs
from 6 to 15 per cent.
Examp. i. London remits to Dublin 586I. 10s.
fterling : How much Irifti money will that amount to,
exchange at 9I per cent. .
If 100
8
109!
Z.
586.5
877
800 : 877 41055
41055
46920
800)514360.5
642.950625
Anf. 64 2I. 19s. Irifti.
By pra£tice.
586-5
p. cent.
JO —
2 = T
8 =
58.65
11.75 fub..
46.92
5.865
2.9325
•733I2S
56.450625 add.
642.950625
2. How much fterling will 625I, Irifti amount to,
exchange at 10-g- per cent. ?
: 100 : : 625
If iio4
100
8
800
Z.
883 800 883)500000(566 5 o| Ster. Anf.
XI. Exchange betwixt London and other places in
Britain.
The feveral towns in Britain exchange with London
for a fmall premium in favour of London; inch as, Exchange.
1, i|-, &c. per cent. The premium is more or lefs, ac- —v—«
cording to the demand for bills.
Examp. Edinburgh draws on London for 860I. ex¬
change at 1^ per cent.: How much money muft be
paid at Edinburgh for the bill ?
Z.
860
per cent
Too
I
T
I 2
3
ii 16 6 premium.
871 16 6 paid for the bill.
To avoid paying the premium, it is an ufual prac¬
tice to take the bill payable at London a certain
number of days after date : and in this way of doing,
73 days is equivalent to 1 per cent.
XII. Arbitration of Exchanges.
The courfe of exchange betwixt nation and nation
naturally rifes or falls according as the circumftances
and balance of trade happen to vary. Now, to draw
upon and remit to foreign places, in this fluctuating
ftate of exchange, in the way that will turn out moft
profitable, is the defign of arbitration. Which is
either Ample or compound.
I. Simple Arbitration.
In fimple arbitration the rates or prices of exchange
from one place to other two are given; whereby is
found the correfpondent price between the faid twTo
places, called the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration;
and hence is derived a method of drawing and remit¬
ting to the beft advantage.
Examp. i. If exchange from London to Amfter-
dam be 33s. 9d. per pound fterling ; and if exchange
from London to Paris be 3 2d per crown j what muft
be the rate of exchange from Amfterdam to Paris, in
order to be put on a par with the other two ?
Ster. Flem. Ster.
s. s. d. d.
If 20 : 33 9 :: 32
12 12
230 405
32
810
1215
24o)i296o(54d. Flem. per crown. Anf.
2. If exchange from Paris to London be 32d. fter-
ling per crown j and if exchange from Paris to Amfter¬
dam be 54d. Flemifti per crowm: what mqft be the rate
of exchange between London and Amfterdam, in order
to be on a par with the other two ?
u
4 .
Esclunge.-
E
Stc)-. Flem.
d. d.
If 32- : 54 : :
240
X c
Ster.
d.
24.O
216
108
12 s.
32)12960(405 (33
From thefe operations it appears
9 Flem. per 1. Ster. Anf.
that if any fum of
money be remitted, at the rates of exchange mention¬
ed, from any one of the three places to the fecond, and
from the fecond to the third, and again from the third
to the firft, the fum fo remitted will come home entire,
without increafe or diminution.
From the par of arbitration thus found, and the
cburfe of exchange given, is deduced a method of
drawing and remitting to advantage, as in the follow¬
ing example.
3. If exchange from London to Paris be 32^*
ling per crown, and to A.mfterdam 405^* Flemilh per
pound fterling : and if, by advice from Holland to
France, the courfe of exchange between Paris and Am-
fterdam is fallen to 5 2d. Flemilh per crown ; what may
be gained per cent, by drawing on Paris, and remitting
to Amfterdam ?
The par of arbitration between Paris and Amfter¬
dam in this cafe by Fx. I. is 54d. Flemifh per crown.
Work as under.
d. St. Cr. L. St. Cr.
If 32 : 1 : :
Cr. d.Fl.
If I : 52 : :
d.Fl. L.St.
If 405 : 1 :
100
C.
75°J.39oco
96
d.Fl.
39000
750 debit at Paris.
d.Fl.
credit at Amfterdam.
s. d.Ster.
366 ] E X C
in order to find how much a remittance pafling through Exchange,
them all will amount to at the laft place j or to find v'****
the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration, between the
firft place and the laft. And this may be done t>y the
following
Rules. I. Diftinguifti the given rates or prices in¬
to antecedents and confequents; place the antecedents
in one column, and the confequents ii> another on the
right, fronting one another by way of equation.
II. The firft antecedent, and the laft confequent t»
which an antecedent is required, muft alwrays be of the
fame kind.
III. The fecond antecedent muft be of the fame kind
with the firft confequent, and the third antecedent of
the fame kind with the fecond confequent, &c.
IV. If to any of the numbers a fraftion be annexed,
both the antecedent and its confequent muft be multi¬
plied into the denominator.
V. To facilitate the operation, terms that happen to
be equal or the fame in both columns, may be dropped
or rejefted, and other terms may be abridged,
VI. Multiply the antecedents continually for a divi-
for, * and the confequents continually for a dividend,
and the quot will be the anfwer or antecedent re¬
quired.
Examp. 1. If London remit 1000I. fterling to Spain,
by way of Holland, at 35s. Flemifti per pound fterling j
thence to France, at ySd. Flemilh per crown; thence
to Venice, at 100 crowns per 60 ducats : and thence
to Spain, at 360 mervadies per ducat 5 how many
piaftres, of 272 mervadies, will the 1000I. fterling a*
mount to in Spain ?
5 il g to be remitted.
100
3 14
But if the courfe of exchange between Paris and
Amfterdam, inftead of falling below, rife about the par
of arbitration, fuppofe to fbd. Flemifh per crown j in
this cafe if you propofe to gain by the negotiation, you
muft draw on Amfterdam, and remit to Paris. The
computation follows:
L.St. d.Fl.
40 500 debit at Amfterdam.
Cr.
: 723-rV credit at Paris.
L.St. d.Fl.
If I : 405
d.Fl. Cr.
If 56
Cr.
If I :
: l :
d.St.
32 :
: 100 :
d.Fl.
40500
Cr.
7*3vV
L.
: 96
100
8
d. Ster.
6t to be remitted.
Antecedents.
ll. Sterling
jSd. Flemifti
100 crowns France ~
i ducat Venice
272 mervadies
Abridged.
1=210
29= I
1= 30
1= 45
17= 1
= 10
3 H5v gained per cent.
In negotiations of this fort, a fum for remittance is
afforded out of the fum you receive for the draught j
and your credit at the one foreign place pays your debt
at the other.
II. Compound Arbitration.
In compound arbitration the rate or price of ex¬
change between three, four, or more places, is given,
4
Confequents.
35s. or 42od. FI.
I crown France
60 ducats Venice
360 mervadies Spain
I piaftre
How many piaftres =r 1 cool, fterling
In order to abridge the terms, divide 58 and 420 by
2, and you have the new antecedent 29, and the new
confequent 25 0 j rejeft two ciphers in 100 and 1000 ;
divide 272 and 360 by 8, and you have 34 and 45 :
divide 34 and 60 by 2, and you have 17 and 30 j and
the whole will ftand abridged as above.
Then, 29 X 17 = 493 divifor •, and 210 X 3° X 45
X 10=2835000 dividend j and, 493)2835000(5750^-
piaftres. Anf.
Or, the confequents may be conne&ed with the fign
of multiplication, and placed over a line by way of nu¬
merator j and the antecedents, connected in the fame
manner, may be placed under the line, by ivay of de¬
nominator 5 and then abridged as follows :
210 X 60 X 360 X 10
29x1 X 272
_ 210 x 30 X 45 XIO
‘ 29 X 17
.420X60X360X ioo_
58 x‘00x 272 ~
210X60X45X io_
29X34
^2835000^
493
And, 493)28350oo(575°^
piaftres. Anf.
The placing the terms by way of antecedent and con-
fcquest^
E X C f 367
E)tcha*ge. fcquent, and working as the rules dire&, faves fo many
ftatings of the rule of three, and greatly Ihortens the
operation. The proportions at large for the above
queftion would be dated as under.
: 420
Cr.
L. St. d. FI.
If 1
d.Fl.
If 58
Cr.
If 100
Due.
If 1 :
Mer.
If 272
: I
Due.
: 60 :
Mer.
560 :
L.St.
1000
d FI.
420000
Cr.
72414-g-:
Due.
4344^5:
Mer.
d. FA
420000
Cr.
724i‘2-|-
Due.
43 44 ^
Mer.
1564137^
Piqfl.
If we fuppofe the courfe of direct exchange to Spain
to be 42sd. flerling per plaftre, the loool. remitted
tvould only amount to 56474 piaftres j. and, conffequent-
ly, 103 piaftres are gained by the negotiation j that is,
about 2 per cent.
2. A banker in Amfterdam remits to London 400I.
Flemhh j firft to France at 56d. Flemifh per crown j
from France to Venice, at 100 crowns per 60 ducats j
from Venice to Hamburgh, at lood. Flemilh per du¬
cat ; frpm Hamburgh to Lifbon,. at yod. Flemifti per
crufade of 400 rees y and, laftly, from Lifbon to Lon¬
don at 64d. fterling per millree : How much fterling
money will the remittance amount to ? and how much
will be gained or faved, fuppofing the direft exchange
from Holland to London at 36s. jrod.. Flemilh per
pound, fterling ?
^Antecedents. Conferjucnts.
36d. Flem. rr 1 crown.
100 crowns ~ (jo ducats.
1 ducat — lood. Flem*
yod. Flem. = 400 rees.
IOOO rees 64d. fterling..
How many d. fter. =.■ 400I. or qboood. Flemilh ?
This, in the fractional form, will ftand as follows^
and
60 X.«00 X 400 X 64 X 96000 368640
6yx 100x50x1000 ~ 7 ’
7)368640(52662^. fter.=:2i9l. 8s.-64d. fter. Anf.'
To find how much the exchange from Amfterdam
direCtly to London, at 36s. tod. Flemilh per 1. fterling,
will amount to,, fay,.
/.
36
12
d.
IO
d. FA L.
If 44,2 :
St.
d.FA
96000
L.
217
219
d. St..
104
442
84
Gained or faved; 2 4;
In the above example, the par of arbitration, or the
arbitrated price, between London and Amfterdam,
viz. the number of Flemilh pence given for il. fterling*
may be found thus :
Make 64ft. fterling, the price of the millree, the
Srft antecedent; then all the former confequents will
become antecedents, and all the antecedents will be¬
come confequents. Place 240, the pence in il. fter¬
ling, as the laft confequent, and then, proceed as taught
above, viz.
Antecedents.
64d. fter.
e x c
Confequents.
Exchange;
r= iqoo rees.
400 rees = yod. Flem.
rood. Flem. = 1 ducat.
60 ducats =100 crowms.
I crown — y6d. Flem.
How many d. Flem. rr 240 fter. ?
1000 x 50-X 100 X 56 X 240 873
64x400x100x60 2 ’ an
2)875(437ic1-—36s. yid. Flerti. per 1. fter.
Anf
Or the arbitrated price may be found from the anfwer
to the queftion, by faying
d.Ster. d.Flem. d.St.
If JS8S40
960OO
7
672000
240
240
2688
I344
d. s. d. Flem.
368640)161280000(4374=36 yi as before.
The work may be proved by the arbitrated price
thus: As il. fterling to 36s. y^d. Flemilh, fo 219I. 8s.
6%d. fterling to 400!. Flemilh.
The arbitrated price compared with the diretft courfe
ftiow'S whether the dire£l or circular remittance will be
moft advantageous, and how much. Thus the banker
at Amfterdam will think it better exchange to receive
il. fterling for 36s. y^-d. Flemilh, than lor 36s. lod.
Flemilh.
Exchange, fignifies alfo a place in moft confiderable
trading cities, wherein the merchants,. negotiants, a-
gents, bankers,,brokers, interpreters, and other perfons
concerned in commerce, meet on certain days, and at
certain times thereof, to confer and treat together of
matters relating to exchanges, remittances, payments,
adventures, afi'urances,.freightments, and other mercan¬
tile negotiations, both by lea and land.
In Flanders, Holland, and feveral cities of France,
thefe places are called burfes; at Paris and Lyons, places
de change ■, and in the Hanfe towns, colleges of merchants.-
Thefe alfemblies are held with fo much exaflnefs, and
merchants and negotiants are fo indifpenfably required
to attend at them, that a perfon’s abfence alone makes
him be fufpe&ed of a failure or bankruptcy. The
moft confiderable exchanges in Europe, are that of
Amfterdam 3 and that of London, called the Royal
Exchange.
Even in the time of the ancient Romans, there were
places for the merchants to meet, in moft of the confi¬
de r able cities of the empire.- That faid by fome to
have been built at Rome in the year of the city 259,
493 years before our Saviour, under the confulate of
Appius Claudius and Publius Servilius, was called col¬
legium mere atorium ; whereof it is pretended there are
ftill fome remains, called by the modern Romans loggiat
the lodge ; and now ufually the place of St George.
This notion of a Roman exchange is fuppofed to be
founded
E X C [ 36% 1 E X C
founded on the authority of Livy, whole words are
■as follows: viz. Certanicn confulibus mciderat, liter o.edica-
ret Mercurii erdem. Sen at us afe rem ad populum rejlcit:
utr i corum dedicatio ju/fii populi data ctfet, eumprceejje an-
nonev^ mercatorum collegium injlituere jujjit. Liv. lib. ii.
But it mud be here remarked, that collegium never dig¬
nified a building for a fociety in the purer ages of the
Latin tongue •, fo that collegium mercatorium injlituef-e
mull not be rendered to build an exchange for the mer¬
chants, but to iheorporate the merchants into a company.
As Mercury was the god oftraffick, this cedes Mercurii
deems to have been chiefly defigned for the devotions of
this company or corporation.
fexcHANGE, Bills of. The following information con¬
cerning the origin of bills of exchange is extratfed from
Beckmann’s Hiftory of Inventions.
“ I {hall not. here repeat (fays he) what has been
collefted by many learned men refpccling the important
hiftory of this noble invention, but only lay before my
readers an ordinance of the year 1394, concerning the
acceptance of bills of exchange, and alfo two bills of
the year 1404, as they may ferve to illuftrate farther
what has been before faid on the fubject by others.
Thefe documents are, indeed, more modern than thofe
found by Raphael de Turre in the writings of the jurift
Baidus," which are dated March the 9th 1328; but
they are attended with fuch circumftances as fuftkiently
prove that the method of tranfafting bulinefs by bills
©f exchange was fully eftabliftred fo early as the four¬
teenth century} and that the prefent form and terms
were even then tifed. For this important information
I am indebted to Mr Von Martens, who found it in a
book which, as far as I know, has never been noticed
in any literary journal, though it is much more deferv-
ing of attention than many others better known. It is
a hiftory, written in Spanilh, of the maritime tradg
and other branches ol commerce at Barcelona, taken
entirely from the archives of that city, and accompanied
with documents from the fame fource, which abound
with matter highly interefting (a).
“ Among thefe is an ordinance iffued by the city of
Barcelona in the year 1394, that bills of exchange
fliould be accepted within twenty-four hours after they
were prefented} and that the acceptance Ihould be
written on the back of the bill.
“ In the year 1404, the magiftrates of Bruges, in
Flanders, requefted the magiftrates of Barcelona to in¬
form them what was the common praftice, in regard to
bills of exchange, when the perfon who prefented a bill
raifed money on it in an unufual manner, in the cafe of
its not being paid, and by thefe means increafed the ex-
pences fo much that the drawer would not confent to
fuftain the lofs. The bill which gave occafton to this Exchar g*.
queftion is inferted in the memorial. It is written in
the ftiort form {till ufed ; which certainly feems to irm
ply great antiquity. It fpeaks of ufance ; and it ap¬
pears that firft and fecond bills were at that time drawn,
and that when bills were not accepted, it Was cuftomaiy
to proteft them.
“ As this article is of great importance I fhall here
tranferibe it, from vol. ii. p. 203 : “ Cum de menfibus
Aprilis et Maii ultimo elapfis Antonius £)uarti, merca-
tor Lucanus refidfcns in villa Burgenfi, a Joanne Colom,
mercatore civitatis Barchinonse, etiam reiidente in prae-
difta villa Brugenfi, duo millia feutorum Philippi, quo*'
libet feuto pro xxii groflis computato, folvendi per Fran-
eifeum de Prato mercatorem Florentine, more folito, in
Barchinona, mediatim Petro Gilberto et Petro Olivo,
et mediatim Petro Scorp, et fupradiflo Petro Gilberto,
mercatoribus Cardonse : prout de diflis cambiis ap-
paret quatuor litteiis papireis, quarum tenores fub-
fequuntur.
“ Superfcriptio autem primse litterae fuit talis : Franc,
do Prato et comp, a Barfelona. Tenor vero eiufdem ad
intra fuit talis : Ml name di Dio, Amen, a di xxvhi.
Aprile 1404. Pagate per quefa pnma di camb. a ufarvzd
a Piero Gilberto, e Piero Ohvd Jcuti tnille a fold. x. Bar-
felonef pei' feuto, i qualifeuti nulle fono per cambio die
con Giovani Colombo a grojji xxii. di g. feuto : et pag. d
nofro conto, et Chrifo A guar di. Subtus veroerat ferip-
tum : Antonio -puarti Sal. de Bruggias.
“ Superfcriptio vero fecundae litterae fuit talis : Fran-
eifeo de Prato et comp, d Barfelona. Et ab intra lie
habebatur : Al nome de Dio, Amen, d di xviii. di Magio
1404. Pagate per quefa prima di camb. d ufan^a a
Piero Gilberto et d P. de Scorpo feuti mille de Felippo d
fold. x. Barfelonef per feuto : i quali feuti mille fono per
camb. die con Giov. Colombo d grofi xxii. di g. feuto : et
pag. d nofro conto : et Chrifo vi guardi. Subtus vero
erat fie feriptum : Ant. gpuadri Sal. de Bruggias”* * Vol. iii
Bills of exchange are juftly conftdered as of the great-P-^0*
eft importance to the intereft of commerce } but feveral
queries have been propofed refpefting them, which do
not as yet appear to have received a fatisfadlory folu-
tion. It {till feems to be a difputed point, whether the
law ought to confider them as nothing more than a de-
pofit belonging to the drawer, and fucceffively con*
ftded to the remittees; or as property capable of being
transferred, and entirely velted in the holder at all times,
who ftiould be alone refponfible for neglecling it, when
its value is vitiated.
Profeflor Bufch of Hamburgh thought that bills of
exchange fhould always be viewed as the exclufive pro¬
perty of the perlon holding them, which, in a work
publilhed
(a) “ Memories hiforicas fobre la marina commercio y antes de la antigua ciudadde Barcelona,por D. Antonio de
Capmany y de Montpalau. Madrid 1779, 2 vol. qto. As a proof of what I have faid above, I {hall mention the
following important articles, which may be found in this work. A cuftom-houfe tariff, written in Latin, of the
year 1221, in which occur a great number of remarkable names and articles of merchandift not explained.
Another of the like kind of the year 1 252. Letters of power to appoint confuls in diftant countries, fuch as Syria,
Egypt, &.c. dated in the years 1266, 1268, and 1321. An ordinance of the year 1458, refpeCling infurance,
which required that under-writing fhould be done in the prefence of a notary, and declared polices 0 feripttires pn-
vades to be null and void. A pnvilegium of the emperor Andronicus II. to the merchaHts of Barcelona, written
in Greek and Spanifh, in 1290. Account of the oldeft Spanifti trade with wool, filk, fait, and faffron 5 and.of the
<«ldeft guilds or incorporated focieties of tradefmen at Barcelona, &c.”
3
E X C [369
Exchequer, publiilied in 1792, is defended by a number of plaufible
—V"”—' arguments. This theory was applied to the difficult
and fluctuating cafe of the holder of a bill which has
feveral indorfements, where the drawer, the drawee,
and perfons early indorfing it, have all become bank¬
rupts. Should the perfon holding it under each bank¬
ruptcy prove the entire amount of faid bill, it is mani-
feft that he muft receive much more than he can in
juftice claim as his due. It feems molt equitable that
he fhould be forced to prove his debt againft none but
his immediate predeceffor, the affignees of fuch prede-
ceffor being allowed a fimilar proof up to the drawer.
To fuch as are frequently in the habit of difcounting
bills, from their commercial fituations in life, this be¬
comes a matter of the utmoft confequence 5 for farther
information concerning which, we refer our readers to
the ingenious work of Profeffor Bufch already alluded
to, and to Additions to the Theoretical and Practical
Delineation of Commerce, publiffied in 1798 (b).
EXCHEQUER, in the Britiffi jurifprudence, an
ancient court of record, in which all caufes concern¬
ing the revenues and rights of the crown are heard
and determined, and where the crown revenues are re¬
ceived. It took this name from the cloth that covered
the table of the court, which was party-coloured, or
chequered.
This court is faid to have been erected by William
the Conqueror, its model being taken from a like court
eftablilhed in Normandy long before that time. An¬
ciently its authority was fo great, that it was held in
the king’s palace, and the a£ts thereof were not to be
examined or controlled in any other of the king’s
courts; but, at prefent, it is the laft of the four courts
at Weftminfter.
In the exchequer, fome reckon feven courts, viz.
thofe of pleas, accounts, receipts, exchequer-chamber
(which is an affembly of all the judges on difficult mat¬
ters in law), errors in the exchequer, errors in the
king’s bench, and, lallly, the court of equity in the
exchequer.
But the exchequer, for the defpatch of bulinefs, is
generally divided into two parts; one of which is chief¬
ly converfant in the judicial hearing and deciding of all
caufes relating to the king’s coffers, formerly termed
the exchequer of accounts : the other is called the receipt
of the exchequer, as being principally employed in re¬
ceiving and paying of money.
VOL. VIII. Part I.
]
E X C
Officers of the receipt may take one penny in the Exchequer-
pound, as their fee, for fums iffued out 5 and they are ’ ^—'
obliged, without delay, to receive the money brought
thither ; and the money received is to be put into chefts
under three different locks and keys, kept by three fe¬
veral officers. All ffieriffs, bailiffs, &c. are to account
in the exchequer 5 and in the lower part, termed the
receipt, the debtors of the king, and perfons in debt to
them, the king’s tenants, and the officers and miniffers
of the court, are privileged to fue one another, or any
ftranger, and to be fued in the like aftions as are
brought in the courts of king’s bench and common
pleas.
The judicial part of the exchequer, is a court both
of law and equity. The court of law is held in the
office of pleas, according to the courfe of common
law, before the barons: in this court, the plaintiff'
ought to be a debtor or accountant to the king : and
the leading procefs is either a writ of fubpcena, or quo
minus, which laft goes into Wales, where no procefs
out of courts of law ought to run, except a capias utla-
gatum.
The court of equity is held in the exchequer cham¬
ber, before the treafurer, chancellor, and barons $ but
generally, before the barons only: the lord chief ba¬
ron being the chief judge to hear and determine all
caufes. The proceedings of this part of the exche¬
quer are by Engliffi bill and anfwer, according to the
praftice of the court of chancery j with this difference
that the plaintiff" here muft fet forth, that he is a debt¬
or to the king, whether he be fo or not. It is in this
court of equity that the clergy exhibit bills for the re¬
covery of their tythes, &c. Here too the attorney-
general exhibits bills for any matters concerning the
crown 5 and a bill may be exhibited againft the king’s
attorney by any perfon aggrieved in any caufe profe-
cuted agai’ift him on behalf of the king, to be relieved
therein : in which cafe, the plaintiff is to attend on the
attorney general, with a copy of the bill, and procure
him to give an anfwer thereto } in the making of which
he may call in any perfon interefted in the caufe, or
any officer, or others, to inftruft him, that the king be
not prejudiced thereby j and his anfwer is to be put in
without oath.
But, befides the bufinefs relating to debtors, farm¬
ers, receivers, accountants, &c. all penal puniffiments,
intrulion, and forfeitures upon popular aQions, are mat-
3 A ters
(b) In VoL. III. p. 613. under the article Bill, the old duty on ftamps is mentioned, and the new entirely
omitted.
The following are the duties on fuch ftamps for the year 1805. The duty on promiffory notes for the payment
of money to the bearer on demand, for a fum not exceeding il. is. is 3d. For a fum exceeding il. is. and not
al. 2s. 5 6d. For a fum exceeding al. 2s. and not 5I. 5s. j qd. For a fum exceeding 5I. 5s. and not 20I. j is.
Promiffory notes by the Bank or Royal Bank of Scotland, or the Britiffi Linen Company, payable to the bearer
on demand, which may within three years after the date be reiffued after payment, when the fum amounts to, and
ffiall not exceed 100I.; 5s.
Bill of exchange, draft, order, or promiffory or other note, payable to the bearer on demand, for 40s. and not
exceeding 5I. 55.5 8d.—Otherwife than to the bearer on demand, when the fum ffiall amount to 40s. and ffiall not
exceed 5I. 5s. ; is.
Bills of exchange, draft, order, or promiffory note for the payment of money, where the fum ffiall exceed 5I. ys.
and not 30I. j is. 6d. Exceeding 30I. and not 50I. ; 2s. Above 50I. and not 100 j 3s. Above 100I. and not
200I j 4s. Above 200I. and not 500I. j js. Above 500I. and not 1000I.; 7s. 6d.
Foreign bills of exchange drawn in fets, where the fam ftiall not exceed 100I. for each bill in each fet, is.
Exceeding tool, and not 200I. $ 2s. Exceeding 200I. and not 500I. j 3s. Exceeding 500I. and not loool.} 4s,
E X C
i
Exchequer, ters likewife cognizable by this court j where there
Exdfe. aif0 flts a puifne-baron, who adminifters the oaths to
v n""1' high Iherifts, bailiffs, auditors, receivers, collectors,
comptrollers, furveyors, and fearchers of all the cuf-
toms, &c. .
The exchequer in Scotland has the fame privileges
and jurifdiftion as that of England ; and all matters
competent to the one are likewife competent to the
other. . ,
Black Book of the Exchequer, is a book under the
keeping of the two chamberlains of the exchequer ,
faid to have been compofed in 1175 by Gervais of
Tilbury, nephew of King Henry II. and divided into
feveral chapters. Herein is contained a defcription of
the court of England, as it then Hood, its officers, their
ranks, privileges, wages, perquilites, power, and jurif-
di£!ion } and the revenues of the crown, both in money,
grain, and cattle. Here we find, that for one {hilling,
as much bread might be bought as would ferve ico
men a whole day; that the price of a fat bullock was
only I 2 {hillings, and a ffieep four, &c.
Chancellor of the Exchevver. See Chancellor.
Exchequer Bills. By llatute 5 Ann. c. 13• the loid
treafurers may caufe exchequer bills to be made of any
fums not exceeding 1,500,000!. for the ufe of the war;
and the duties upon houfes were made chargeable with
4I. 10s. per cent, per annum to the bank for circulating
them. The bank not paying the bills, adtions to be
brought againft the Company, and the money and da¬
mages recovered : and if any exchequer bills be loft,
upon affidavit of it before a baron of the exchequei, and
certificate from fuch baron, and fecurity to pay the fame
if found, duplicates are to be made out: alio when bills
are defaced, newT ones {hall be delivered. Ihe king,
or his officers in the exchequer, by former ftatutes,
might borrow money upon the credit of bills, payable
on demand, wuth intereft after the rate of *rl. per diem
for every 100I. bill. And by 8 and 9 W. III. c. 20.
an intereft of 5d. a day was allowTed for every tool.
But 12 W. III. c. 1. lowered the intereft on thefe bills
to 4ft. a-day per cent. And by I 2 Ann, c. 1 / . it is
funk to 2d. a-day. Forging exchequer bills, or the in-
dorfements thereof, is felony.
EXCISE, (from the Belgic acciife, tributum, “ tri¬
bute,”) an inland duty or impofition, paid fometimes
upon the confumption of the commodity, or frequently
upon the wholefale, which is the laft ftage before the
confumption. This is doubtlefs, impartially fpeaking,
the moft economical way of taxing the fubjeft ; the
charges of levying, collefting, and managing^ the ex-
cife duties, being confiderably lefs in proportion than
in other branches of the revenue. It alfo renders the
commodity cheaper to the confumer, than charging it
with cuftoms to the fame amount would do ; for the
yeafon juft now given, becaufe generally paid in a much
later ilage of it. But, at the fame time, the rigour
and arbitrary proceedings of excife laws feem hardly
compatible with the temper of a free nation. For the
frauds that might be committed in this branch of the
revenue, unlefs a ftrid! watch is kept, make it neceffary,
wherever it is eftabliftied, to give the officers a power
' of entering and fearching the houfes of fuch as deal
in excifeable commodities, at any hour of the day,
and, in many cafes, of the night likewife. And the
proceedings, in cafe of tranfgreffions, are fo fummary
370 3 E X C
and hidden, that a man may be convifted in two days
time in the penalty of many thoufand pounds, by two '
commiffioners or juftices of the peace ; to the total ex-
clufion of the trial by jury, and difregard of the com¬
mon law. For which reafon, though Lord Clarendon
tells us, that to his knowledge the earl of Bedford
(who was made lord treafurer by King Charles I. to
oblige his parliament) intended to have fet up the ex¬
cife in England, yet it never made a part of that un¬
fortunate prince’s revenue ; being firft introduced, on
the model of the Dutch prototype, by the parliament
itfelf after its rupture with the crowm. Yet fuch was
the opinion of its general unpopularity, that wffien in
1642 “ afperfions were call by malignant perfons upon
the houfe of commons, that they intended to introduce
excifes, the houfe for its vindication therein did de¬
clare, that thefe rumours wTere falfe and fcandalous,
and that their authors flrould be apprehended and
brought to condign punilhment.” Its original efla-
bliftiment was in 1643, antl its P«>grefs was gradual;
being at firft laid upon thofe perfons and commodities
where it rvas fuppofed the hardlhip wrould be leaft per¬
ceivable, viz. the makers and venders of beer, ale,
cyder, and perry; and the royalifts at Oxford foon
followed the example of their brethren at Weftminfter,
by impofing a fimilar duty : both fides protefting that
it ffiould be continued no longer than to the end of the
wTar, and then be utterly aboiilhed. But the parlia¬
ment at Weftminfter foon after impofed it on flelh,
wine, tobacco, fugar, and fuch a multitude of other
commodities, that it might be fairly denominated gene¬
ral : in purfuance of the plan laid down by Mr Pymme
(who feems to have been the father of tne excife), in
his letter to Sir John Hotham, fignifying, ^ that they
had proceeded in the excife to many particulars, and
intended to go on farther; but that it wrould be ne¬
ceffary to ufe the people to it by little and little.
And afterwards, when the nation had been accuiiomed
to it for a feries of years, the fucceeding champions of
liberty boldly and openly declared “ the impoft of ex¬
cife to be the moft eafy and indifferent levy that could
be laid upon the people and accordingly continued
it during the whole ufurpation. Upon King Charles’s
return, it having then been long eftablilhed, and its
produce well known, fome part of it wras given to the
crowm, in 12 Car. II. byway of purchafe for the feudal
tenures and other oppreffive parts of the hereditary re¬
venue. But, from its firft original to the prefent time,
its very name has been odious to the peopie. It has,
neverthelefs, been impofed on abundance of other com¬
modities in the reigns of King William HI. and every
fucceeding prince, to fupport the enormous expences
occafioned by our wars on the continent. Thus bran¬
dies and other fpints are now excrfed at the diftillery ;
printed filks and linens, at the printers ; ftarch and
hair powder, at the makers; gold and filver wire, at.
the wiredrawers; all plate whatfoever, firft in the hands
of the vender, who pays yearly for a hcenfe to fell it,
and afterwards in the hands of the occupier, who alfo
pays an annual duty for having it in his cullody ; and
coaches and other wheel-carriages, for which the occu¬
pier is excifed; though not with the lame circumftances
of arbitrary ftri&nefs with regard to plate and coaches
as in the other inftances. To thefe wTe may add coffee
and tea, chocolate and cocoa pafte, for which the du¬
ty
ExcTfe.
E.X C... . t 3
E*cifion ty is paid by the retailer ; all artificial wines, common¬
ly called /iweAr; paper and pafteboard, firit when
nicafionU'ma^e? au^ again if ftained or printed j malt, as before
i  ; mentioned •, vinegars j and the manufacture of glafs j
for all w'hich the duty is paid by the manufacturer j
hops, for which the perfon that gathers them is an-
fwerable j candles and foap, which are paid for at the
makers; malt liquors brewed for fale, which are ex-
cifed at the brewery 5 cyder and perry at the ven¬
ders j leather and ikins, at the tanner’s j and, lately,
tobacco, at the manufacturer’s: A lift, which no
friend to his country would wifh to fee farther in-
creafed.
The excife wras formerly farmed out : but is now
managed for the king by commiffioners in both king¬
doms, who receive the whole produCt of the excife,
and pay it into the exchequer. Thefe commiffioners
are nine in number in England, and five in Scotland.
The former have a falary of 1000I. a-year, the latter
600I. They are obliged by oath to take no fee or re¬
ward but from the king himfelf ; and from them there
lies an appeal to five other commiffioners called commif¬
fioners of appeals.
EXCISION, in Surgery, the cutting out, Or cutting
off, any part of the body.
Excision, in afcripture fenfe, means the cutting off
of a perfon from his people, by way of punifhment for
fome fin by him committed. The Jews, Selden in¬
forms us, reckon 36 crimes, to which they pretend
this punifhment is due. The Rabbins reckon three
kinds of excifion ; one, which deftroys only the body ;
another, which deftroys the foul only ; and a third,
which deftroys both body and foul. The firit kind of
excifion they pretend is an untimely death ; the fecond
is an utter extinction of the foul 5 and the third, a
compound of the two former: thus, making the foul
mortal or immortal, fays Selden, according to the de¬
grees of mifbehaviour and wfickednefs of the people.
EXCLAMATION. See Oratory, N° 85.
EXCLUSION, or Bill of Exclusion, a bill pro-
pofed about the clofe of the reign of King Charles II.
for excluding the duke of York, the king’s brother,
from the throne, on account of his being a Papift.
EXCLUSIVE, is fometimes ufed adjeCtively, thus j
A patent carries with it an exclufve privilege. Some¬
times adverbially : as, He fent him all the numbers from
N° 145 to N° 247 exclufve ; that is, all between thefe
two numbers, which themfelves were excepted.
EXCOECARIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the dioecia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 38th order, Tricoccee. See Botany Index.
EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclefiaftical penal¬
ty or cenfure, whereby fuch perfons as are guilty of
any notorious crime or offence, are feparated from the
communion of the church, and deprived of all fpiritual
advantages.
Excommunication is founded on a natural right
which all focieties have, of excluding out of their body
fuch as violate the laws thereof j and it was originally
Inftituted for preferving the purity of the church j but
ambitious ecclefiaftics converted it by degrees into an
engine for promoting their own power, and inili&ed it
on the molt frivolous occaiions.
The power of excommunication, as well as other
«cls of ecclefiaftical difcipline, was lodged in the hands
71 1 E x c
of the clergy, who diftinguifhed it into the greater and Excommu-
leffer. The leffer excommunication, fimply called a/i/zor//^ nicatiotl-
mas, “ feparation or fufpenfion,” confided in excluding
men from the participation of the eucharift, and the
prayers of the faithful. But they were not expelled
the church j for they had the privilege of being pre-
fent at the reading of the Scriptures, the fermons, and
the prayers of the catechumens and penitents. This
excommunication was inllicfed for lefler crimes j fuch
as neglecling to attend the fervice of the church, mif¬
behaviour in it, and the like.
The greater excommunication, called panteles apho-
rifnos, “ total feparation and anathema,” confifted in
an abfolute and entire exclufion from the church and
the participation of all its rites. When any perfon was
thus excommunicated, notice of it was given by circu¬
lar letters to the moft eminent churches all over the
world, that they might all confirm this ’aft of difcipline,
by refufing to admit the delinquent to their commu¬
nion. The confequences of this latter excommunica¬
tion were very terrible. The excommunicated perfon
was avoided in civil commerce and outward converfa-
tion. No one was to receive him into his houfe, nor
eat at the fame table with him; and -when dead, he
was denied the folemn rites of burial.
The Romifh pontifical takes notice of three kinds of
excommunication. 1. The minor, incurred by thole
who have any correfpondence with an excommunica¬
ted perfon. 2. The major, which falls upon thofe who
difobey the commands of the holy fee, or refufe to fub-
mit to certain points of difcipline j in confequence of
which they are excluded from th^church militant and
triumphant, and delivered over to the devil and his an¬
gels. 3. Anathema, which is properly that pronoun¬
ced by the pope againft heretical princes and countries.
In former ages, thefe papal fulminations were moft ter¬
rible things $ but at prefent, they are formidable "to
none but a few petty ftates of Italy.
Excommunication, in the Greek church, cuts off the
offender from all communion with the 318 fathers of
the firft council of Nice, and with the faints j configns
him over to the devil and the traitor Judas 5 and con¬
demns his body to remain after death as hard as a flint
or piece of fteel, unlefs he humbles himfelf and makes
atonement for his fins by a fincere repentance. The
form abounds with dreadful imprecations j and the
Greeks aflert, that if a perfon dies excommunicated,
the devil enters into the lifelefs corps ; and therefore,
in order to prevent it, the relations of the deceafed cut
his body in pieces, and boil them in wine. It is a cu-
ftom for the patriarch of Jerufalem annually to excom¬
municate the pope and the church of Rome j on which
occafion, together with a great deal of idle ceremony,
he drives a nail into the ground with a hammer, as a
mark of malediftion.
The form of excommunication in the church of Eng¬
land anciently ran thus : By the authority of God
the Father Almighty, the Son and Holy Ghoft, and
of Mary the bleffed mother of God, we excommuni¬
cate, anathematize, and fequefter from the pale of
holy mother church, &c.” The caufes of excommu¬
nication in England are, contempt of the bifhop's
court, herefy, neglefl of public workup and the facra-
ments, incontinency, adultery, fimony, &c. It is de-
feribed to be twofold. The lefs. is an ecclefiaftical c%n-
3 A a fure,
E X C
t 372 ]
E X C
Excommu-fure, excluding the party from the participation of the
nication. facraments : the greater proceeds farther, and excludes
^ him not only from thefe, but from the company of all
Chriftians. But if the judge of any fpiritual court
excommunicates a man for a caufe of which he hath
not the legal cognizance, the party may have an ac¬
tion againit him at common law, and he is alfo liable
to be indi&ed at the fuxt of the king.
Heavy as the penalty of excommunication is, confi-
dered in a ferious light, there are, notwithftanding,
many obftinate or profligate men, who would defpife
the bnitum fulmen of mere ecclefiaftical cenfures, efpe-
cially when pronounced by a petty furrogate in the
country, for railing or contumelious words, for non¬
payment of fees or colls, or other trivial caufe. . The
common law, therefore, compaffionately fteps in to
their aid, and kindly lends a fupporting hand .to an
otherwife tottering authority. Imitating herein the
palicy of the ancient Britons, among whom, according
to Caefar, whoever were interdicted by the druids from
their facrifices, “ In numero impiorum ac fceleratorum
habentur : ab iis omnes decedunt, aditum eorum fermo-
nemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi
accipiant : neque eis petentibus jus redditur, neque ho-
nos ullus communicatur.” And fo with us, by the com¬
mon law, an excommunicated perfon is difabled to do
any act that is required to be done by one that is probus
et leqalis homo. He cannot ferve upon juries ; cannot be
a witnefs in any court 5 and, which is the word of all,
cannot bring an aftion, either real or perfonal, to reco¬
ver lands or money due to him. Nor is this the whole:
for if, within 40 days after the fentence has been pub-
lifhed in the church, the offender does not fubmit and
abide by the fentence of the fpiritual court, the bifhop
may certify fuch contempt to the king in chancery.
Upon which there iffues out a writ to the flierift of the
county, called from the bifhop’s certificate a fignifica-
vit; or from its effeft, a writ de excom?nunicato capi¬
endo : and the fherifT {hall thereupon take the offend¬
er and imprifon him in the county jail, till he is re¬
conciled to the church, and fuch reconciliation certifi¬
ed by the bifhop 3 upon which another writ de excom¬
municato deliberando, iffues out of chancery to deliver
and releafe him.
Excommunication was alfo pra&ifed among the
Jews, who ufed to expel from their fynagogue fuch as
had committed any grievous crime. See. the Gofpel
according to St John, ix. 22. xii. 42. xvi. 2. And
Jofeph. Antiq. Jud. lib. ix. cap. 22. and lib. xvi. cap. 2.
Godwyn, in his Mofes and Aaron, diilinguifhes three
degrees, or kinds, of excommunication among the
Jews. The firff he finds intimated in John ix. 22.
The fecond in 1 Cor. v. 5. And the third in 1 Cor.
xvi. 22. See Niddui.
The rule of the Benedictines gives the name excom¬
munication to the being excluded from the oratory, and
the common table of the houfe, in our inns of court
called difeommoning. This was the punifhment of fuch
monks as came too late.
Excommunication, or a being fecluded from a
participation in the myfteries of religion, was alfo in
mfe under paganifm.
Such as were thus excommunicated were forbidden to
affift or attend at the facrifices, or to enter within the
temples 3 and were afterwards delivered over to the
Excoria¬
tion,
Excrement.
demons and furies of hell, with certain imprecations 3
which was called among the Romands dins devovere.
See Execration.
The Druids among the ancient Britons and Gauls,
likewife, made ufe of excommunication againft rebels 3
and interdifted the communion of their myfteries to
fuch as refufed to acquiefce in their decifions. See
Druids.
EXCORIATION, in Medicine and Surgery, the
galling, or rubbing off the cuticle, efpecially of the
parts between the thighs and about the anus. In adults,
it is oecafioned by riding, much walking, or other ve¬
hement exercife, and may be cured by vulnerary ap¬
plications. In children there is often an excoriation,
not only of the parts near the pudenda, chiefly of the
groin and ferotum, but likewife in the wrinkles of the
neck, under the arms, and in other places 3 proceeding
from the acrimony of urine and fweat 3 and occafioning
itching pains, crying, watching, reftleffnefs, &c. To
remedy this, the parts affe&ed may be often wafhed
with warm water, and fprinkled with drying powders,
as chalk, hartfhorn, but efpecially tutty, lapis calami-
naris, and cerufs, which may be tied loofely in a rag,
and the powder (hook out on the parts.
EXCREMENT, whatever is difeharged out of the
body of animals after digeftion 3 or the fibrous part of
the aliment, mixed with the bile, faliva, and other fluids.
Urine and the feces are the grofs excrements that are
difeharged out of the bladder or belly. Other excre¬
ments are the various humours that are fecreted from
the blood through the different ftrainers in the body,
and which ferve for feveral ufes 3 fuch as the faliva,
fweat, bile, the pancreatic juice, lymph, the femen,
nails, the hair, the horns and hoofs of animals.
Alchemifts, who have fought everywhere for their
great work, as they called it, have particularly operat-
ed much on the excrements of men and other animals 3
but philofophical chemiftry has acquired no know¬
ledge from all thefe alchemical labours, from the ob-
feurity with which their authors have deferibed them.
The philofophic chemifts have not much examined ani¬
mal excrements. Of thefe, Homberg is the only one
who has particularly analyzed and examined human
ordure 3 and this was done to fatisfy an alchemical
project of one of his friends, who pretended that from
this matter a white oil could be obtained, without
fmell, and capable of fixing mercury into filver. The
oil was found by Homberg, but mercury was not fix¬
ed by it.
The labours of this able chemift were not, however
ufelefs, like thofe of the alchemifts j becaufe he has
clearly related the experiments he made on this matter,
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. Thefe
experiments are curious, and teach feveral effential
things concerning the nature of excrements. The re-
fult of thefe experiments is as follows: Frefh human
feces, being diftilled to drynefs in a water bath, fur-
nifti a clear, watery, infipid liquor, of a difagreeable
fmell, but which contains no volatile alkali 3 which is
a proof that this matter, although nearly in a putre¬
factive ftate, is not however putrefied 3 for all Jubilan¬
ces really putrid furnilh with this degree of heat a ma-
nifeft volatile alkali *. The dry refiduum of the fore-# See Pa-
going experiment, being diftilled in a retort with a trtfaSUon.
graduated fire, furnifhes a volatile alkaline fpirit and
Excref-
cence
II
Exeat.
EXE [
fait, a fetid oil, and leaves a refiduous coal. Tbefe are
the fame fubftances which are obtained from all animal
matters.
i Human feces, diluted and lixiviated in water, fur-
nilh by filtration and evaporation of the water an oily
fait of a nitrous nature, which deflagrates like nitre
upon ardent coals, and which inflames in clofe veflels
when heated to a certain degree. The fame matter
yielded to Homberg, who treated it by a complete
fermentation or putrefaction, excited by a digeltion
during 40 days, in a gentle water-bath heat, and who
afterwards diflilled it, an oil without colour, and with¬
out bad fmell, and fuch as he endeavoured to find ;
but which did not, as we faid before, fix mercury into
filver.
EXCRESCENCE, in Surgery, denotes every pre¬
ternatural tumour which anfes upon the fkin, either in
the form of a wart or tubercle. If they are born with
a perfon, as they frequently are, they are called ruevt
jnaterni, or marks from the mother *, but if the tu¬
mour is large, fo as to depend from the fkin, like a
flefhy mafs, it is then called z far coma. See Surgery.
EXCRETION, or Secretion, in Medicine, a fe-
paration of fome fluid, mixed with the blood, by means
of the glands. Excretions, by which we mean thofe
that evacuate fuperfluous and heterogeneous humours,
purify the mafs of blood : the humours which are ge¬
nerated in the blood are excreted by the glands, and
are replaced by a fufticient quantity of aliment.
EXCRETORY, in Anatomy, a term applied to
certain little dufts or veflels, deftined for the recep¬
tion of a fluid, fecreted in certain glandules, and other
vifcera, for the excretion of it in the appropriated
•places.
EXCUBIiE, in antiquity, the watches and guards
kept in the day by the Roman foldiers. They are
contradifiinguiflied from the vigiiice which were kept
in the night. The excubice were placed either at the
gates and intrenchments or in the camp } for the lat¬
ter there was allowed a whole manf ulus to attend be¬
fore the prcetonum, and four foldiers to the tent of
every tribune, d he excubiec at the gates of the camp,
and at the intrenchments, were properly calledyfo/zcwr.
One company of foot and one troop of horfe were ai-
figned to each of the four gates every day. To de-
fert their poll, or abandon their corps of guards, was
an unpardonable crime.
The triarii, as the mofl: honourable order of foldiers,
were excufed from the ordinary watches} yet being
placed oppofite to the equites, they were obliged to have
an eye over them
Letters q^EXCULPA’I ION, in Scots Law, a
writ or fummons iflued by authority of the. court of
jufticiary, at the in 'ance of a pannel, for citing wit-
nefles to prove his defences, or his o je£tions to any of
the jury or witnefles cited againfi: him.
EXCUSA * I, in church hiftory, a term ufed to de¬
note {laves, who flying to any church for lancfuary,
were excufed and pardoned by their mafters } but thefe
were obliged to take an oath to that purpofe before
they could have them again •, and, if they broke the
oath, they were puniflied and fined as perfons guilty
of periury. ,
EXEAT, in church difcipline, a Latin term, uled
for a permiflion which a bifliop grants a prieft to go
Execfa
tion
373 1 EXE
out of his diocefe ; or an abbot to a religious to go
out of his monaftery. _ ..
EXECRATION, in antiquity, a kind* of punifti-Exec “t;on>
ment, confifting of direful curfes and marks of infamy : u—y—)
fuch was that ufed againfl: Philip king of Macedon
by the Athenians. A general aflembly of the people
being called, they made a decree, that all the ftatues
and images of that king, and of all his ancertors, fhould
be demoliflied, and their very name razed ; that all
the feftivals, facred rites, priefts, and whatever elfe had
been inftituted in honour of him, ftiould be profaned ;
that the very places where there had been any monu¬
ment or infcription to his honour, ftiould be deteftable ,
that nothing fhould be fet up, or dedicated in them,
which could be done in clean places and, laftly, that
the priefts, as often as they prayed for the Athenian
people, allies, armies, and fleets, fhould as many times
deteft and execrate Philip, his children, kingdom, land
and fea forces, and the whole race and name of the
Macedonians.
At the taking and demolifliing of cities, it was
ufual amongft the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, to pro¬
nounce curies upon, and load with direful execrations,
the rebuilders of them.
EXECUTION, in a general fenfe, the aft of ac-
complilhing, finiihing, or achieving any thing.
Execution, in Law, the completing or finiihing
fome aft, as of judgment, deed, &c. and it ufually fig-
nifies the obtaining pofleffion of any thing recovered
by judgment of law.
Sir Edward Coke obferves, that there are two forts
of executions : the one final} and the other a quoufque,
that tends to an end. An execution final, is that which
makes money of the defendant’s goods j or extends to
his lands and delivers them to the plaintiff, who ac¬
cepts the fame in fatisfaftion } and this is the end of
the fuit, and the whole that the king’s.writ requires to
be done. The writ of execution with a . quoufque,
though it tends to an end, yet is not final, as in the cafe
capias adfatisfac. where the defendant’s body, is to be
taken, in order that the plaintiff may be fatisfied for
his debt. ^See Capias.
Executions are either in perfonal, real, or mixed ac¬
tions. In a perfonal aftion, the execution may be made
three ways, viz. by the writs of capias ad jatisfaciendam,
againft the body of the defendant ^ fieri Jacias, againlt
his goods •, or clegit, againft his lands. See Fieri Facias'
and Elegit.
In a real and mixed aftion, the execution is by writ
of habere facias fafinam, and habere poffejfionem*. Writs * See //*.
of execution bind the property of goods only from the^rf*
time of delivery of the writ to the flieriff 5 but the
land is bound from the day of the judgment obtained :
and here the fale of any goods for valuable confidera-
tion, after a judgment, and before the execution award¬
ed, will be good. It is otherwife as to lands, of which
execution may be made, even on a purchafe after the
judgment, though the defendant fell fiich land beioie
execution. Likewife, fheriffs may deliver in execution
all the lands whereof others fhall be leized in truft for
him againft whom execution is had on a judgment,
&c.
When any judgment is figned, the execution may
be taken out immediately thereon j but if it be not if-
fued within a year and a day after, where there is no
fault
E X E [ 374 ] E X E
Execution, fault In the defendant, as in the cafe of an injunftion,
' ' “ Writ of error, &c. there muft be a fcire facias, to re¬
vive the judgment; though, if the plaintiff fues out
any writ of execution within the year, he may continue
it after the year is expired. After judgment againft
the defendant, in an adlion wherein fpecial bail is given,
the plaintiff is at liberty to have execution againft fuch
defendant, or againft his bail: but this is underftood
where the defendant does not render himfelf, accord¬
ing to law, in fafeguard of the bail : and execution
may not regularly be fued forth againft a bail, till a
default is returned againft the principal: alfo if the
plaintiff takes the bail, he fhall never take the principal.
It is held that an execution may be executed after the
death of the defendant : for his executor, being privy
thereto, is liable, as well as the teftator. The execu¬
tor is an entire thing, fo that he who begins muft end
it ; therefore, a new ftieriff may dirtrain an old one, to
fell the goods feized on a diftringas, and to bring the
money into court.
Execution, in criminal cafes, the completion of
f See human punifhment. This follows judgment fj and
went. mull in all cafes, capital as well as otherwife, be per¬
formed by the legal officer, the ffieriff or his deputy;
whofe warrant for fo doing was anciently by precept
under the hand and feal of the judges, as it is ftill prac-
tifed in the court of the lord high fteward, upon the
execution of a peer: though, in the court of the peers
Bladjl. hi parliament, it is done by writ from the king. Af-
tiommtnt. terwards it was eftabliftied, that in cafe of life, the
judge may command execution to be done without any
writ. And now the ufage is, for the judge to fign the
kalendar or lift of all the prifoners names, with their
feparate judgments in the margin, which is left with
the ffieriff. As, for a capital felony, it is written op-
polite to the prifoner’s name, “ let him be hanged by
the neck formerly, in the days of Latin and abbre¬
viation, “ fuf. per colly for “ fafpendatur per collumy
And this is the only warrant that the ffieriff has for
fo material an aft as taking away the life of another.
It may certainly afford matter of fpeculation, that in
civil caufes there ffiould be fuch a variety of writs of
execution to recover a trifling debt, iflued in the king’s
name, and under the feal of the court, without which
the ffieriff cannot legally ftir one ftep ; and yet that the
execution of a man, the moft important and terrible
talk of any, fliould depend upon a marginal note.
The ftieriff, upon receipt of his warrant, is to do
execution within a convenient time ; which in the coun¬
try is alfo left at large. In London, indeed, a more fo-
lemn and becoming exaftnefs is ufed, both as to the
warrant of execution and the time of executing there¬
of : for the recorder, after reporting to the king in
perfon the cafe of the feveral prifoners, and receiving
his royal pleafure, that the law muft take its courfe,
iffues his warrant to the ffieriffs, direfting them to do
execution on the day and at the place affigned. And
in the court of king’s bench, if the prifoner be tried
at the bar, or brought there by habeas corpus, a rule
is made for his execution j either fpecifying the time
and place, or leaving it to the diferetion of the ffieriff.
And, throughout the kingdom, by ftatute 25 Geo. II.
c. 37. it is enafted that, in cafe of murder, the judge
lhall in his fentence dire ft execution to be performed
on the next day but one after fentence palled. But,
2
otherwife, the time and place of execution are by law Execution,
no part of the judgment. It has been well oblerved,
that it is of great importance that the punilhment
fhould follow the crime as early as poffible ; that the
profpeft of gratification or advantage, which tempts a
man to commit the crime, Ihould inftantly awake the
attendant idea of puniffiment. Delay of execution
ferves only to feparate thefe ideas j and then the exe¬
cution itfelf affefts the minds of the fpeftators rather
as a terrible fight, than as the neceffary confequence
of tranfgreffion.
The Iheriff cannot alter the manner of the execution,
by fubftituting one death for another, without being
guilty of felony himfelf. It is held alfo by Sir Ed¬
ward Coke and Sir Matthew Hale, that even the king
cannot change the punifhment of the law, by altering
the hanging or burning into beheading j though, when
beheading is part of the fentence, the king may remit
the reft. And, notwithftanding fome examples to the
contrary, Sir Edward Coke ftrongly maintains, that ju-
dicandum ejl legibus, non exemplis. But others have
thought, and more juftly, that this prerogative, being
founded in mercy, and immemorially exercifed by the
crown, is part of the common law. For hitherto, in
every inftance, all thefe exchanges have been for more
merciful kinds of death j and how far this may alfo
fall within the king’s power of granting conditional
pardons (viz. by remitting a fevere kind of death, on
condition that the criminal fubmits to a milder) is a
matter that may bear confidefation. It is obfervable,
that when Lord Stafford was executed for the popiffi
plot in the reign of King Charles II. the then Iherifts
of London, having received the king’s writ for behead¬
ing him, petitioned the houfe of lords, for a command
or order from their lordffiips, how the faid judgment
ffiould be executed : for, he being profecuted by im¬
peachment, they entertained a notion (which is faid to
have been countenanced by Lord Ruffel), that the king
could not pardon any part of the fentence. The lords
refolved, that the fcruples of the ffieriffs were unnecef-
fary ; and declared, that the king’s wnit ought to be
obeyed. Difappointed of raifing a flame in that affem-
bly, they immediately fignified to the houfe of com¬
mons by one of the members, that they were not fiitis-
fied as to the power of the faid writ. That houfe took
two days to confider of it} and then fullenly refolved,
that the houfe was content that the ffieriff do execute
Lord Stafford by fevering his head from his body. It
is farther related, that when afterwards the fame Lord
Ruffel was condemned for high treafon upon indiftment,
the king, while he remitted the ignominious part of the
fentence, obferved, “ That his lordffiip would now fin'd
he was poffeffed of that prerogative, which in the cafe
of Lord Stafford he had denied him.” One can hardly
determine (at this diftance from thofe turbulent times),
which moft to difapprove of, the indecent and fangui-
nary zeal of the fubjeft, or the cool and cruel farcafm
of the fovereign.
To conclude : It is clear, that if, upon judgment to
be hanged by the neck till he is dead, the criminal be
not thoroughly killed, but revives, the ffieriff muft hang
him again. For the former hanging was no execution
of the fentence j and, if a falfe tendernefs were to be in¬
dulged in fuch cafes, a multitude of collufions might
enfue. Nay, even while abjurations were in force, fuch
a
EXE [ .375 ] EX E
Execution a criminal, fo reviving, was not allowed to take fanc-
II t tuary and abjure the realm •, but his fleeing to fanftuary
Exemplar. was an efcape }n t.he officer.
Execution, in the law of Scotland. See Law Index.
Execution, in the French mufic, is ufed to denote
the manner of finging, or of the performance of a fong.
“ As to the manner of finging, called in France execu¬
tion, no nation may, with any probability difpute it
with the French. If the French, by their commerce
with the Italians have gained a bolder compofition,
the Italians have made their advantage of the French,
in learning of them a more polite, moving, and exqui-
fite execution.” St Evremond.
EXECUTIVE power. The fupreme executive
power of thefe kingdoms is veiled by our laws in a
fingle perfon, the king or queen for the time being.
See the article King.
The executive power, in this ftate, hath a right to
a negative in parliament, i. e. to refufe affent to any
afts offered j otherwife the two other branches of legi-
llative power would, or might, become defpotic.
» EXECUTOR, a perfon nominated by a teflator, to
take care to fee his will and tellament executed or per¬
formed, and his effedts difpofed of according to the te¬
nor of the will. See Law.
Executor, in Scots Law, fignifies either the perfon
Entitled tofucceed to the moveable eflate of one deceafed,
or who by law or fpecial appointment is intruffed with
the adminiftration of it.
EXECUTORY, in Law, is where an eftate in fee,
that is, made by deed or fine, is to be executed after¬
wards by entry, livery, or writ. Leafe for years, an¬
nuities, conditions, &c. are termed inheritances exe¬
cutory.
EXECUTRY, in Scots Law, is the moveable eflate
falling to the executor. Under executry, or moveables,
is comprehended every thing that moves itfelf, or can
be moved j fuch as corns, cattle, furniture, ready mo¬
ney, &c.
EXEDRAl, in antiquity, denoted halls with many
feats, where the philofophers, rhetoricians, and men of
learning, met for difcourfe and deputation. The word
occurs in ecclefiaflical writers as a general name for
fuch buildings as were diflindl from the main body of
the churches, and yet within the limits of the church
taken in its largefl fenfe. Among the exedrae the chief
was the Baptistery.
EXEGESIS, a difcourfe by way of explanation or
comment upon any fubjeft. In the Scotch univerfities,
there is an extfrcife among the ftudents in divinity, call¬
ed an exegejis, in which a queflion is Hated by the re-
fpondent, who is then oppofed by two or three other
fludents in their turns j during which time the profef-
Ibr moderates, and felves the difficulties which the re-
fpondent cannot overcome.
EXEGETES, (formed of “ I explain,”)
among the Athenians, perfons learned in the laws,
whom the judges ufed to confult in capital caufes.
EXEGETICA, in Algebra, the art of finding, ei¬
ther in numbers or lines, the roots of the equation of a
problem, according as the problem is either numerical
or geometrical.
EXEMPLAR, a model, or original, to be imitated,
or copied. See Model.
Exemplar alfo denotes the idea, or image, conceived
or formed in the mind of the artift, whereby he con- Exemplif.-
du6ls his work. Such is the idea of Cmfar, which a cation
painter has in his mind when he goes to make a picture ExJcife
of Caefar. i . * *’
EXEMPLIFICATION of Letters Patent, denotes
an examplar, or copy of letters patent, made from the
enrolment thereof, and fealed with the great feal of
England. Such exemplifications are as effedlual to be
ffiowed or pleaded, as the letters patent themfelves. «
EXEMPTION, in Law, a privilege* to be free from
fome fervice or appearance : thus, barons and peers of
the realm are, on account of their dignity, exempted
from being {worn upon inquefls j and knights, clergy¬
men, and others, from appearing at the flieriff’s turn.
Perfons of 70 years of age, apothecaries, &c. are alfo
by law exempted from ferving on juries 5 and jutfices of
the peace, attorneys, &.c. from pariffi offices.
EXERCISE, among phyficians, fuch an agitation
of the body as produces falutary effe£ls in the animal
economy.
Exercife may be faid to be either aflive or paffive.
The adlive is walking, hunting, dancing, playing at
bonds, and the like ; as alio fpeaking, and other la¬
bour of the body and mind. The paffive is riding in
a coach, on horieback, or in any other manner. Ex¬
ercife may be continued to a beginning of wrearine£s,
and ought to be ufed before dinner in a pure light
air; for which reafon, journeys, and going into the
country, contribute greatly to preferve and re-eltabliih
health.
Exercife increafes the circulation of the blood, atte¬
nuates and divides the fluids, and promotes a regular
perfpiration, as well as a due fecretion of all the hu¬
mours 5 for it accelerates the animal fpirits, and facili¬
tates their diflribution into all the fibres of the body,
ftrengthens the parts, creates an appetite, and helps di-
geflion. Whence it arifes, that thofe who accuftom
themfelves to exercife are generally very robutl, and fel-
dom fubjefl to difeafes.
Boerhaave recommends bodily exercife in difeafes of
a wreak and lax fibre. By riding on horfeback, fays
his commentator, the pendulous vifeera of the abdo-
med are ffiaken every moment, and gently rubbed as
it wrere one againfl another, while in the mean time the
pure air adls on the lungs with greater force. But it is
to be obferved that a weak man fhould not ride with a
full flomach, but either before dinner, or after the di-
geflion is nearly finifhed ; for when the flomach is di-
itended, wreak people do not bear thefe concuffions of
the horfe without difficulty } but when the primae viae
are nearly empty, the remaining feces are difeharged by
this concuffion. Sailing in a ffiip is alfo an exercife of
great ufe to weak people. If the veffel moves with an
even motion, by increafing perfpiration it ufually ex¬
cites a wonderful alacrity, creates an appetite, and pro¬
motes digellion. Thefe exercifes are more efpecially
ferviceable to weak people •, but, in order to {Lengthen
the body by mufcular motion, running and bodily ex*-
ercifes are to be ufed. In thefe wTe Ihould begin with
the moll gentle, fuch as walking, and increafe it by de¬
grees till we come to running. Thofe exercifes of the
body are more efpecially ferviceable which give delight
to the mind at the fame time, as tennis, fencing, &c.;
for which reafon, the wifdom of antiquity appointed
rewards for thofe who excelled in thefe gymnaflic ex¬
ercifes,*.
E X E
[ 376 ]
E X E
Exercife. crciks, that by tbis means the bodies of their youth
might be hardened for warlike toils.
As nothing is more conducive to health than mode¬
rate exercife, fo violent exercife diflipates the Ipirits,
weakens the body, deftroys the elafticity of the fibies,
and exhaufts the fluid parts of the blood. No wonder,
then, that acute and mortal fevers often arife from too
violent exercife of the body j for the motion of the
venous blood towards the heart being quickened by the
contraftion of the mufcles, and the veins being thus
depleted, the arteries more eafily propel their contain¬
ed humours through the fmalleft extremities into the^
now7 lefs refilling veins } and therefore the velocity oi
the circulation will be increafed through all the vellels.
But this cannot be performed without applying the
humours oftener, or in a greater quantity, to the lecre-
tory organs in the fame time, wdience the more fluid
parts of the blood will be diflipated, and wyhat remains
will be infpiffated *, and by the greater aftion of the
vefiels upon their contained fluids, and of the readling
fluids upon the veflels, the blood acquires an inflamma¬
tory denfity. Add to this, that by the violent attri¬
tion of the folids and fluids, together with the heat
thence arifing, all the humours will incline to a greater
acrimony, and the falts and oils of the blood wall be¬
come more acrid and volatile. Hence, fays Boerhaave,
thofe fevers which arife from too much exercife or mo¬
tion, are cured by reft of body and mind, with fuch ali¬
ments and medicines as moiilen, dilute, and foften or
allay acrimony.
The exercife of a foldier in camp, confidered as con¬
ducive to health, Dr Pringle diltinguilhes into three
heads: the firlt relating to his duty, the fecond to his
living more commodioufiy, and the third to his diver-
fionsf - The firft, confining chiefly in the exercife of
his arms, will be no lefs the means of preferving health
than of making him expert in his duty : and frequent
returns of this, early, and before the fun grows hot,
will be made more advantageous than repeating it fel-
dom, and flaying out long at a time $ for a camp af¬
fording little convenience for refrelhment, all unnecef-
fary fatigue is to be avoided. As to the fecond article,
cutting boughs for fhading the tents, making trenches
round them for carrying off the water, airing the ftraw,
cleaning their clothes and accoutrements, and aflilting
in the bufinefs of the mefs, ought to be no difagreeable
exercife to the men for fome part of the day. Laftly,
As to diverfions, the men mull; be encouraged to them
either by the example of their officers, or by fmall pre¬
miums to thofe who (hall excel in any kind of fports
as ffiall be judged moft conducive to health : but herein
great caution is neceffary, not to allow them to fatigue
themfelves too much, especially in hot weather or fick-
ly times} but above all, that their clothes be kept dry,
wet clothes being the moft frequent caufes of camp dit-
eafes.
Exercise, in military affairs, is the ranging a body
of foldiers in form of battle, and making them perform
the feveral motions and military evolutions with different
management of their arms, in order to make them ex¬
pert therein. See alfo Words of Command.
Exercise, in the royal navy, is the preparatory
pra&ice of managing the artillery and fmall arms, in
prder to make the ffiip’s crew perfe&ly fkilled therein,
fo as to direct its execution fuccefsfully in the time of Exercife.
battle. V“
The exercife of the great guns was formerly very
complicated, and abounding with fuperfluities, in our
navy, as well as all others. The following method was,
it is faid, fuccefsfully introduced by an officer of diftin-
guiftied abilities.
I ft, Silence.
2d, Caft loofe your guns.
3d, Level your guns.
4th, Take out your tompions.
5th, Run out your guns.
6th, Prime.
7th, Point your guns.
8th, Fire.
9th, Sponge your guns.
1 oth, Load with cartridge.
nth, Shot your guns.
12th, Put in your tompions.
13th, Houfe your guns.
14th, Secure your guns.
Upon beat to arms (every body having immediately
repaired to their quarters) the midfhipman command¬
ing a number of guns, is to fee that they are not with¬
out every neceffary article, as (at every gun) a fponge,
powder horn, with its priming wires, and a fufficient
quantity of powder, crow, handfpike, bed, quoin,
train tackle, &c. fending without delay for a fupply of
any thing that may be amiffing \ and for the greater
certainty of not overlooking any deficiency, he is to
give ftridl orders to each captain under him, to make
the like examination at his refpedlive gun, and to take
care that every requifite is in a ferviceable condition,
which he is to report accordingly. And (befides the
other advantages of this regulation) for the ftill more
certain and fpeedy account being taken upon thefe oc-
cafions, the midfhipman is to give each man his chaige
at quarters (as expreffed in the form of the monthly re¬
port), who is to fearch for his particular implements,
and, not finding them, is immediately to acquaint his
captain, that, upon his report to the midlhipman, they
may be replaced.
The man who takes care of the powder is to place
himfelf on the oppofite fide of the deck from that
where we engage, except when fighting both fides at
once, when he is to be amid fhips. He is not to fuf-
fer any other man to take a cartridge from him but
he who is appointed to ferve the gun with that article,
either in time of a real engagement oc at exercife.
Lanthorns are not to be brought to quarters in the
night, until the midffiipman gives his orders for fo do¬
ing to the perfon he charges with that article. Every
thing being in its place, and not the leaf! lumber in the
way of the guns, the exercife begins with,
1. “ Silence.” At this word every one is to ob-
ferve a filent attention to the officers.
2. “ Caft loofe your guns.” The muzzle laffiing
is to be taken off from the guns, and (being coiled up
in a fmall compafs) is to be made faft to the eye-bolt
above the port. Fhe laflnng tackles at the fame time
to be caft loofe, and middle of the breeching feized to
the thimble of the pomillion. The fponge to be taken
down, and, with the crow, handfpike, &c. laid upon
the deck by the gun. N. B. When prepared for en¬
gaging
I
E X E [ 377 ] E X E
•Etertife* paging an enemy, the feizing within the clinch of the
  breeching is to be cut, that the gun may come fuffi-
ciently within board for loading, and that the force of
the recoil may be more fpent before it adls upon the
breeching*
3. “ Level your guns.” The breech of your me¬
tal is to be raifed fo as to admit the foot of the bed’s
being placed upon the axletree of the carriage, with
the quoin upon the bed, both their ends being even one
with the other. N. E. When levelled for firing, the
bed is to be lafiied to the bolt which fupports the inner
end of it, that it may not be thrown out of its place
by the violence of the gun’s motion when hot with fre¬
quent difcharges*
4. “ Take out your tompions.” The tompion is
to be taken out of the gun’s mouth, and left hanging
by its laniard* »
3. “ Run out your guns.” With the tackles hook¬
ed to the upper bolts of the carriage, the gun is to be
bowfed out as clofe as poflible, without the afliftance
of crows or handfpikes 5 taking care at the fame time
to keep the breeching clear of the trucks, by hauling
it through the rings j it is then to be bent fo as to run
clear when the gun is fired. When the gun is out,
the tacklefalls are to be laid alongfide the carriages in
neat fakes, that, when the gun by recoiling overhauls
them, they may not be fubjed to get foul, as they
would if in a common coil.
6. “ Prime.” If the cartridge is to be .pierced
with the priming wire, and the vent filled with powder,
the pan alfo is to be filled j and the flat fpace having a
fcore through it at the end of the pan, is to be covered,
and this part of the priming is to be bruifed with the
round part of the horn. The apron is to be laid over,
and the horn hung up out of danger from the flafti of
the priming.
7. “ Point your guns.” At this command the gun
is, in the firfl: place, to be elevated to the height of
the objed, by means of the fide fights 5 and then the
perfon pointing is to dired bis fire by the upper fight,
having a crow on one fide and a handfpike on the other,
to heave the gun by his diredion till he catches the
objed.
N. B. The men who heave the gun for pointing are
to ftand between the ihip’s fide and their crows or
handfpikes, to efcape the injury they might otherwife
receive from their being ftruck againft them, or fplin-
tered by a (hot ; and the man who attends the captain
with a match is to bring it at the word, “ Point your
guns,” and kneeling upon one knee oppbfite the train*
truck of the carnage, and at iuch a diftance as to be
able to touch the priming, is to turn his head from the
gun, and keep blowing gently upon .the lighted match
to keep it clear from aihes. And as the milling of an
enemy in adion, by negled or want of coolnefs, is
moil inexeufable, it is particularly recommended to
have the people thoroughly inftruded in pointing well,
and taught to know the ill confequences of not tak¬
ing proper means to hit their mark } wherefore they
fhould be made to elevate their guns to the utmoft
nicety, and then to point with the fame exadnefs. Hav¬
ing caught the objed through the upper fight, at
the word,
8. “ Fire,” The match is inftantly to be put to the
bruifed part of the priming j and when the gun is dif-.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
charged, the veut is to be clofed, in order to fmother Exerdft.
any fpark of fire that may remain in the chamber of the —v—*“
gun} and the man who fponges is immediately to place
himfelf by the muzzle of the gun in readinefs ; when,
at the next wTord,
9. “ Sponge your guns,” The fponge is to be ram¬
med down to the bottom of the chamber, and then
twafted round, to extinguifti effedually any remains of
fire y and, when drawn out, to be ftruck againft the
outfide of the muzzle, to ftiake off any fparks or fcraps
of the cartridge that may have come out wdth it j and
next, its end is to be Ihifted ready for loading; and
while this is doing, the man appointed to provide a
cartridge is to go to the box, and by the time the
fpunge is out of the gun, he is to have it ready $ and
at the wrord,
10. “ Load with cartridge,” The cartridge (with
the bottom-end firft, feam downwards, and a wad after
it) is to be put into the gun, and thruft a little way
within the mouth, when the rammer is to be entered :
the cartridge is then to be forcibly rammed down ;
and the captain at the fame time is to keep his priming -
wire in the vent, and, feeling the cartridge, is to give
the word home, when the rammer is to be drawn, and
not before. While this is doing, the man appointed
to provide a (hot is to provide one (or twro, according
to the order at that time) ready at the muzzle, wdth a
wad likewife \ and when the rammer is drawn, at the
word,
11. “ Shot your guns,” The (hot and wad upon it
are to be put into the gun, and thruft a little way down,
when the rammer is to be entered as before. The (hot
and wTad are to be rammed down to the cartridge, and
there have a couple of forcible ftrokes j when the ram¬
mer is to be drawn, and laid out of the way of the guns
and tackles, if the exercife or a&ion is continued j but
if it is over, the fponge is to be fecured in the place it
is at all times kept in.
12. “ Put in your tompions.” The tompions to be
put into the muzzle of the cannon.
13. “ Houfe your guns.” The feizing is to be
put on again upon the clinched end of the breeching,-
leaving it no flacker than to admit of the gun’s being
hQufed°with eafe. The quoin is to be taken from un¬
der the breech of the gun, and the bed, ftill refting
upon the bolt within the carriage, thruft under, till
the foot of it falls off the axletree, leaving it to reft
upon the end which proje&s out from the foot. The
metal is to be let down upon this. The gun is to be
placed exactly fquare ; and the muzzle is to ba clofe
to the wood, in its proper place for palling the muzzlc-
laihings.
14. “ Secure yftur guns.” The muzzle-laftiings
muft firft be made fecure, and then with one tackle
(having all its parts equally taught with the breech¬
ing the gun is to be laflied. I he other tackle is to
be bowfed taught, and by itfelf made faft, that it may
be ready to call off for lathing a fecond breeching.
N. B. Care muft be taken to hook the firft tackle to
the upper bolt of the carriage, that it may not other-
wife obftrmft the reeving of the fecond breeching, and
to give the greater length to the end part of the fad.
No pains muft be fpared in bowfing the lalhing very
taught, that the gun may have the leaft play that is
poflible, as their being loofe may be pjrodu&iye of very
^ B dangerous
E X E t 378 ] EXE
£sercife, dangerous confequences. The quoin, crow, and hand-
Exercifes- fpi^e are to be put under the gun, the powder-horn
“ hung up in its place, &.c.
Being engaged at any time when there is a large
fwell, a rough fea or in fqually weather, &c. as the
fhip may be liable to be fuddenly much heeled, the
port-tackle fall is to be kept clear, and (whenever the
working of the gun will admit of it) the man charged
with that office is to keep it in his hand } at the fame
time the muzzle-lafhing is to be kept fall to the ring
of the port, and being hauled taught, is to be faften-
ed to the eye-bolt over the port-hole, fo as to be out
of the gun’s way in firing, in order to haul it in at any
time of danger.
This precaution is not to be omitted, when enga¬
ging to the windward, any more than when to the lee¬
ward, thofe fituations being very fubjecl to alter at too
ffiort a warning.
A train tackle is always to be made ufe of with the
lee guns j and the man ilationed to attend it is to be
very careful in preventing the guns running out at an
improper time.
Exercise, may alfo be applied with propriety to
the forming our fleets into orders of failing, lines of
battle, &.c. an art which the French have termed evo-
/utions, or tacliques. In this fenfe exercife may be de¬
fined, the execution of the movements which the dif¬
ferent orders and difpofition of fleets occafionally re¬
quire, and which the feveral fhips are direfled to per¬
form by means of fignals. See Tactics.
Exercises, are alfo underftood of what young
gentlemen learn in the academies and riding fchools,
fuch as fencing, drawing, riding the great horfe, &c.
How ufeful, how agreeable foever, fludy may be to
the myid, it is very far from being equally falutary to
the body. Every one obferves, that the Creator has
formed an intimate connexion between the body and
the mind ; a perpetual aftion and rea&ion, by which
the body inftantly feels the diforders of the mind, and
the mind ’ thofe of the body. The delicate fprings of
our frail machines lofe their activity and become ener¬
vated, and the veffels are choked by obflruclions, when
we totally defift: from exercife, and the confequences
neceffarily affeft the brain 5 a more ftudious and fe-
dentary life is therefore equally prejudicial to the body
and the mind. The limbs likewife become ftiff 5 we
contraft an awkw ard conftrained manner; a certain
difguftful air attends all our aflions, and w’e are very
near being as difagreeable to ourfelv.es as to others. An
inclination to ftudy is highly commendable \ but it
ought not, however, to infpire us with an averfion to
fociety. The natural lot of man is to live among his
fellows: and whatever- may be the condition of our
birth, or our fituation in life, there are a thoufand oc-
cafions where a man muft naturally defire to render
himfelf agreeable} to be aflive and adroit; to dance
with a grace y to command the fiery fteed j to defend
himfelf againft a brutal enemy 5 to preferve his life by
dexterity, as by leaping, fwimming, &c. Many ra¬
tional caufes have therefore given rile to the praftice of
particular exercifes 3 and the moll fagaeious and bene¬
volent legillators have inftituted, in their academies and
univerfitieS', proper methods of enabling youth, who
devote themfelves to ftudy, to become expert alfo in
^udable exerci&3:
EXERCITOR, in Scots Law, be who employs a Esercitor
{hip in trade, whether he be owner, or only freights
u f .u J s Exeter,
her irom. the owner.
EXERGESIA. See Oratory, N° 90. v
EXERGUM, among antiquarians, a little fpace
around or without the figures of a medal, left for the
infcription, cipher, device, date, &c.
EXETER, the capital city of Devonlhire, fituated
on the river Ex, ten miles north of the Britilh chan¬
nel: W. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 50. 44. Anciently the
name of this city was Ifcx, and Ijia Dumnoniorum. '1 he
prefent name is a contraction of Exccjler, that is, a
city upon the Ex. It is large, populous, and wealthy,
with gates, walls, and fuburbs: the circumference of
the whole is about three miles. It is the lee ol a bi-
Ihop, transferred hither from Crediton, by Edward
the Confeffor 3 and is one of the principal cities in the
kingdom, for its buildings, wealth, and number of its
inhabitants. It had fix gates, befides many turrets,
feveral of which are now pulled down. It had
formerly fo many convents, that it Was called Monk-
tow?!, till King Athelftan changed its name to Exeter,
about the year 940 3 at which time he alfo fortified
the city (which had before been only enclofed with a
ditch and a fence of timber) with circular walls, em-
battlements, towers, and turrets of fquared-ftone, en¬
circling the whole, except the weftern fide, with a
deep moat. Befides chapels and five large meeting hou-
fes, there are now 15 churches within the walls, and
four without. St Peter’s, the cathedral, is a magnificent
pile 3 though little now remains of the ancient fabric
of the church, except that part which is called Our
Ladifs Chapel. It has a ring of 12 bells, reckoned
the largeft ring of the largeft bells in England 3 as is
alfo its organ, whofe largeft pipes are 15 inches in dia¬
meter. In 1763 the cathedral was repaired, beauti¬
fied, and new paved 3 when, in removing the old pave¬
ment, was found the leaden coffin of Bilhop Bitton,
who died in 1307 3 the top of which, being decayed,
afforded an opportunity of viewing the ikeleton lying
in its proper form : near the bones of the finger was
found a fapphire ring fet in gold 3 the ftone con-
fiderably large, but of no great value, on account
of feveral flaws in it. Near this flood a fmall neat
chalice and patten of filver gilt, but the damp had de-
ftroyed the greateft part of the gilding. In the centre
of the patten was engraved a hand, with the two fore¬
fingers extended in the attitude of benedi&ion. The
top of the crozier was alfo found, but totally decayed.
A moft beautiful modern painted glafs window has been
lately ereffed at the weftern end of the cathedral, the
eaftern end having before a remarkable fine antique one.
In the other windows there is much fine ancient paint¬
ed glafs. The altar is remarkable for its beautiful de-
fign and execution. On the left hand fide of it there
yet exifts the feat where Edward- the Confeffor and
his queen fat and inftalled Leofricus, his chancellor, the^
firft biffiop of Exeter 3 and in the fourth crofs aifle is
the monument of the fame Leofricus, who died 1073,
which at the time of his interment was a part of the,
churchyard, but by the enlarging of the church by
his fucceffors, became nearly the middle of the build¬
ing. The grand weftern end of the church is moflt
magnificently adorned with the ftatues of the pa¬
triarchs, &c. The chapter houfe was built in 1439*,
The.;
EXE
E£eter.
The beautiful throne for the biiTiop was conftrucled a-
bout 1466, and is faid to be the grandeft of the kind in
Britain. The great north tower was completed in
1485, w’hich contains a bell, that weighs 1 2,500 pounds j
and exceeds the great Tom of Lincoln by 2500 pounds.
This city has had divers charters granted, or con¬
firmed by moft of our kings •, but it w-as made a mayor
town in the reign of King John, and a county of itfelf
by King Henry VIII. It is governed by a mayor, 24
aldermen, four bailiffs, a recorder, chamberlain, fheriff,
towm-clerk, &c. They have a fw^ord-bearer, and four
Itewards, four ferjeants at mace wearing gowns, and ftaff-
bearers in liveries with filver badges. It had anciently
a mint j and in the reigns of King William III. and
Queen Anne, many pieces of filver money were coined
here, which have the letter E under the buft. Here
are 12 or 13 incorporate city companies. All pleas
and civil caufes are tried by the mayor, recorder, al¬
dermen, and common council; but crin>inal caufes,
and thofe relating to the peace, are determined by eight
aldermen, who are juflices of the peace. Here are four
principal ftreets, all entering in the middle of the city,
which is therefore called Carfoxy from tire old Norman
word ^uatre voix, i, e. the four w7ays. Near it is a
conduit, lately removed from the centre to the fide of
the principal llreet, which was firft erebted by Wil-
liajn Duke, mayor of the city, in the reign of Ed¬
ward IV. and there are others w’ell fupplied with wa¬
ter brought in pipes from the neighbourhood. There
is an old caftle in the north-ealf part of the city, call¬
ed Rougemont, from the red foil it Hands on j from
thence there is a pleafant profpedl from the walls.
It is fuppofed to have been built by the Weft Saxon
kings, and that they refided here, as did afterwards
the earls and dukes, of Cornwall. This caftle was re¬
markably ftrong both by nature and art. The gate
which originally led into it, was walled up by order
of William the Conqueror, in token of his having re¬
duced it to his obedience after a very obftinate refift-
ance •, and clofe by it an inferior gate was made in the
wall in which 'date they both remain. 'The outward
ftone facing is kept in tolerable repair *, but the infide
being but earth, is gradually crumbled down. Here
yet remains the ancient chapel, built in 1260, and
kept in good repair, where prayers are read, and a
fermon preached in feftions weeks. The city itfelf
is healthy, and pleafantly fituated on the fides of a
hill, having other hills to its N. W. and S. by which
it is fheltered from the force of ftorms. The bank
which fuftained the ditch that in a great part furround-
ed the caftle, is planted and gravelled, and accommo¬
dated with feats, it being the place of refort for walk¬
ing for the inhabitants *, and the ditch between it and
the caftle being filled up, is now thickly planted with
elms, which form a delightful grove. The old palace
Is now entirely demoliftied, and an elegant feftions
houfe ere£ted, where the aftizes, quarter-fefiions, and
county courts are held. In the city and fuburbs are
prifons both for debtors and malefailors ; a workhoufe,
alms houfes, and charity fchools j an hofpital for the
fick and lame poor of the city and county, upon the
model of the infirmaries of London and Weftminfter j
and two free grammar-fchools. It has markets on
Wednefdays and Fridays ; and four fairs in the year.
Great trade is carried on here in ferges, perpetuanas,
1 379 1
EXE
long ells, and other woollen goods, in which it is com- Exeter,
puted that at leaft 600,000!. a year is traded for ; yet no —Y—
markets were eredted here for wool, yam, and kerfeys, till
the 30th of Henry VIII. Before that time the mer¬
chants drove a confiderable trade to Spain and France :
they were incorporated in the reign of Queen Mary I.
by the name of “ The Governor, Confuls, and Society
of Merchant-adventurers, trading to France.” Here is
alfo a weekly ferge market, the greateft in England,
next to the Brigg market at Leeds in Yorklhire. It is
faid that fome weeks as many ferges have been Ibid here
as amount to 8o,oool. or ioo,oool. j for befides the
vaft quantities of their woollen goods fhipped for Portu¬
gal, Spain, and Italy, the Dutch give large commiflions
for buying up ferges, perpetuanas, &c. for Holland and
Germany. It is particularly remarked of this city, that
it is almoft as full of gentry as of tradefmen j and that
more of its mayors, and bailiffs have defcended from, or
given rife to good families, than in any other city of its
bignefs in the kingdom: for the great trade and flourilh-
ing ftate of this city tempted gentlemen to fettle their
fons in it, contrary to the praftice of many of the in¬
land as well as northern counties, •where, according to
the vain and ruinous notion of the Normans, trade was
defpifed by the gentry, as fit for only mechanics and
the vulgar. This city was under the jurifdi&ion of the
Romans, whofe coins have been frequently dug up in.
and about it. After they left England, the Saxons
drove the Britons out of it into Cornwall, and en-
compaffed it with a ditch, befides bulwarks. The
Danes attacked and fpoiled it in 875 5 and afterwards
in revenge of the general maffacre of the Danes by the
Engliih, Sweyn one of their kings, came hither with
a great force, put the men to the fword, raviftied the
women, maffacred the children, burnt the city, and
defaced the walls. A long time after this, juft as it
was reviving, William the Conqueror befieged and took
it $ and it was again befieged in the reigns of King
Stephen and Edward IV. In the reign of Henry VII.
it was again befieged by Perkin Warbeck, and batter¬
ed furioufly : but the citizens forced him to raife the
fiege ; which fo pleafed the king, that he came hither,
and prefented a cap of maintenance to the city, and
gave the very fword from his fide to be borne always
before the mayor. In the reign of Edward VI. in
July 1544, it was fmartly cannonaded by the rebels of
Cornwall and Devon, who almoft ftarved it by break¬
ing down its bridges, cutting off its water, and flop¬
ping up all paffages j but it held out till the lord John
Ruffel came with a force and raifed the fiege on the
6th of Auguft, which was then appointed as an anni-
verfary day of thankfgiving by the city, and is ftill ob-
ferved as fuch. King Charles I.’s queen, to whom this
city gave Ihelter in the civil wars, was here delivered
of Henrietta, afterwards duchefs of Orleans 3 whofe
pifture is in its guildhall, as are alio General Monk’s
and George I.’s, &c. In the fouth-eaft quarter of the.
city was a houfe called Bedford houfe, wherein the above
queen was delivered of the princefs. This having lately
been taken down, an elegant circus is built on the
fpot, with a theatre adjoining it j and for the con-
veniency of the inhabitants, a paffage has been made
through the town wall to Southern Hay, on which
green Hands the county hofpital, already fpoken of,
befides a confiderable number of new buildings. I here
3 B 2 are
E X H
Exeter afe remains of feveral ancient ftructures,
1! daily giving way to modem erections j among the reft,
Kxhauftionsan ^ building, faid to have been a palace of King
Athelftan. The guildhall is a fpacious and convenient
building, whofe front or portico projefts a great way
into the ftreet, and was fir ft erefted in 1330, to which
its prefent front was rebuilt in 1593’ an<^ mpaimd in
1720. An arm of the fea formerly flowed nearly up
to the city’s wall, till 13x6, when Hugh Courtenay
earl of Devon, in revenge for an affront, ruined the
navigation, by ctmftrucling wears and dams in the river ;
but to .remedy it, in I539» an a<^- parliament palled
for making a navigable canal, for the better convey¬
ance of goods in barges to and from the city to lop-
ftiam. This was carried into execution in 1581, but
not completed till 1673 5 nor was ^ a^er found
fufficient, till the prefent haven was conftrudted in 1697,
when it was rendered capable of bringing fliips of 150
tons quite to the quay, conftru&ed near the walls of
the city. In fhort, Exeter, by a conftant adherence
to its motto, Semper fidelis, has been applauded by all
hiftorians for its inviolable fidelity to its fovereigns,
whether they held their crown by hereditary or parlia¬
mentary right. T he city fends two members to par¬
liament } and gives title of earl to the Cecils. Ehe
fee of Exeter was once one of the moft wealthy in the
kingdom ; but its revenues wrere moft ftiamefully wafted
by Bifhop Voyfey, who alienated its lands. What
little he left was fo much encumbered, that the fee has
never been able to recover its former grandeur j and fo
fmall are its prefent revenues, that it has been found
neceffary for the bifhop to hold fome other preferment
for the better fupport of his dignity and rank. This
fee hath yielded to the nation three lord chancellors,
two lord treafurers, one lord prefident of Wales, and
one chancellor to the univerfity of Oxford. The dio-
cefe contains the entire counties of Devonfhire and
Cornwall, wherein are 604 pariflies, whereof 239 are
impropriate. It hath four archdeacons, viz. of Corn¬
wall, Exeter, Barnftable, and Totnefs. The diocefe
was formerly valued in the king’s books at 1556k 14s-
6d.; but, fince Biihop Voyfey’s time, it is lowered to
(fool, and is computed to be worth annually 2700I.
The clergy’s tenth is 1 200I. 15s. 2^d. To the cathe¬
dral belong a biihop, a dean, four archdeacons, a chan¬
cellor, a treafurer, a chantor, 24 prebendaries, and
other inferior officers and fervants.
EXFOLIATION, a term ufedby furgeons for the
fcaling of a bone, or its rifing and feparating into thin
laminae or fcales.
EXHALATION, a general term for all effluvia or
fleams raifed from the furface of the earth in form of
vapour.
EXHAUSTIONS, in Mathematics. Method of
exhauftions, is a way of proving the equality of two
magnitudes, by a reduBio ad ahfurdum ; fhowing, that
if one be fuppofed either greater or lefs than the other,
there wall arife a contradiction.
The method of exhauftions wras of frequent ufe a-
mong the ancient mathematicians •, as Euclid, Archi¬
medes, &c. It is founded on what Euclid fays in his
tenth book j viz. that thofe quantities vvhofe difference is
lefs than any affignable quantity, are equal •, for if they
were unequal, be the difference never fo fmall, yet it
may be fo multiplied, as to become greater than either
[ 380 ] E X I
which are of them j if not fo, then it is really nothing. This he Exhereia-
affumes in the proof of Prob. I. book x. which imports, t*™
that if, from the greater of two quantities, you tiike £xjgenterSi
more than its half, and from the remainder more than 1—^ 
its half, and fo continually, there will, at length, remain
a quantity lefs than either of thofe propofed. On this
foundation it is demonftrcted, that if a regular polygon
of infinite lides be inicribed in, or circumicribed about,
a circle ; the fpase, which is the difference between
the circle and the polygon, will, by degrees, be quite
exhaufted, and the circle become equal to the poly-
gon.
EXHEREDATION, in the civil law, with us or¬
dinarily called difmheriting, is the father’s excluding his
fons from inheriting his eftate.
There are 14 caufes of exheredation expreffed in
Juftinian’s Novelise j without fome one of which caufes,
he decrees the exheredation null, and the teftament
inofficious, as the civilians call it. Indeed, by the an¬
cient Roman law, the father might pronounce exhere¬
dation without any caufe } but the rigour of this law
was reftrained and moderated by Juftinian.
EXHIBIT, in Law, is where a deed, or other writ¬
ing, being produced in a chancery fuit to be proved
by witneffes, the examiner, or commiffioner appointed
for the examination of any fuch, certifies on the back,
of the deed or writing, that the fame was ftiown to th*
witnefs at the time of his examination, and by him
fworn to.
EXHIBITION, in Law, a producing, or fhowdng,
of titles, authorities, and other proofs, of a matter in
conteft.
Anciently they ufed the phrafe, exhibition of a tra¬
gedy, comedy, or the like > but now we fay reprefenta-
tion in lieu thereof.
Exhibition, in our old w riters, is ufed for an al¬
lowance of meat and drink, fuch as was cuftomary a-'
mong the religious appropriators of churches, who
ufually made it to the depending vicar. ' The benefac¬
tions fettled for the maintaining of fcholars in the imi-
verfities, not depending on the foundation, are alfo call¬
ed exhibitions.
EXHORTATION, in Rhetoric, differs only from >
fuajion, in that the latter principally endeavours to con¬
vince the underftanding, and the former to work ©n the
affections.
EXHUMATION, (of ex “ out of,” and humus
“ ground”), the a£t of digging up a body interred in
holy ground, by the authority of the judge. In
France, the exhumation of a dead body is ordered, up¬
on proof that he was killed in a duel. By the French
law's, a parfon has a right to demand the exhumation
of the body of one of his parifflioners,vwhen interred
out of the pariffl without his confent.
EXIGENCE, or Exigency, that which a thing re¬
quires, or which is expedient and fuitable thereto.
EXIGENT, in Law, a writ which lies where the de¬
fendant in a perfonal aftion cannot be found, nor any
effects of his wdthin the county, by which he may be
attached or diftrained.
EXIGENTERS, four officers in the court of com¬
mon pleas, who make all exigents and proclamations,
in all actions where proceTs of outlawry lies. Writs of
fuperfedeas, as well as the prothonotaries, upon exi¬
gents, are drawn up in their office.
EXILE,
' E X O [
Exile EXILE. See Banishment.
II. Among the Romans, the word exilium properly ftg-
Exorcifin. n-ge^ an interdiftion or exclufion from water and fire ;
t]le neCeffary confequence of which was, that the inter-
dicled perfon mutt betake himfelf into fome other
country, fince there was no living without fire and
water.—Thus Cicero^ ad Herenn. obferves, that the
form of the fentence did not exprefs exilium, but only
aqiue et ignis interdiBio. The fame author remarks,
that exile was not properly a puniftiment, but a volun¬
tarily flying or avoiding the punilhment decreed : Kxi-
lium non ejje fupplicium, fed perfugium, partufque fup-
plicii. He adds, that there was no crime among the
Romans, as among other nations, puniflied with exile j
but exile was a refource to which people flew voluntari¬
ly, in order to avoid chains, ignominy, ftarving, &c.
The Athenians frequently fent their generals and
great men into exile, out of envy of their merits, or
diftruft of their too great authority. See Ostracism.
EXISTENCE, that whereby any thing has an ac¬
tual effence, or is laid to be. See the article Meta¬
physics.
EXIT, properly expreffes the departure of a player
from off the ftage, when he has afted his part. The
word is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe, to exprefs any
kind of departure, even death.
EXITERIA, in antiquity, oblations or prayers to
any of the gods for a profperous expedition or journey.
There were alfo feafts under this denomination, which
were celebrated by the Greeks wdth facrifices and
prayers, when their generals undertook expeditions a-
gainft an enemy.
EXOCOETUS, the Flying Fish, a genus of fifhes
belonging to the order of abdominales. See Ichthyolo¬
gy Index.
EXODIARY, in the ancient Roman tragedy,, was
the perfon who, after the drama or play was ended,
fung the Exodium.
EXODIUM, in the ancient Greek drama, one of
the four parts or divifions of tragedy, being fo much
of the piece as included the cataftrophe and unravel¬
ling of the plot, and anfwering nearly to our fourth
and fifth afts.
Exodium, among the Romans, confifted of certain
humorous verfes rehearfed by the exodiary at the end
of the Fabulae Atellanae.
Exodium, in the Septuagint, fignifies the end or
eonclufion of a feaft. Particularly it is. ufed for the
eighth day of the feaft of tabernacles, wdiich, it is faid,.
had a fpecial view to the commemoration of the exodus
or departure out of Egypt.
EXODUS, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment ■, being the fecond of the Pentateuch, or five
books of Mofes.
It is fo called from the Greek the “ go¬
ing out” or departure of the children of ifrael from the
land of Egypt j the hiftory of which is delivered in this
book, together with the many miracles wrought on
that occafion.
EXOMPHALUS, in Surgery, called alfo omphalo¬
cele, and hernia umbilicahs, is a preternatural tumor of
the abdomen, at the navel, from a rupture or djftenfion
of the parts which inveft that cavity.
EXORCISM, the expelling of devils from perfons
poffeSTed, by means of conjurations and prayers. I he
381 ] E X O
Jews made great pretences to this power. Jofephus Ksorcilts
tells feveral wonderful tales of the great fuccefs of feve- II .
ral exorcifts. One Eleazer, a Jew, cured many daemo- ,
niacs, he fays, by means of a root fet in a ring. This
root, with the ring, was held under the patient’s nofe,
and the devil was forthwith evacuated. The moft part
of conjurors of this clafs were impoftors, each pretend¬
ing to a fecret nortrum or charm wrhich was an over¬
match for the devil. Our Saviour communicated to
his difciples a real power over daemons, or perhaps over
the difeafes faid to be occafioned by Haemons. See
Demoniac.
Exorcifm makes a confiderable part of the fuper-
ftition of the church of Rome, the rituals of which for¬
bid the exorcifing any perfon without the biftiop’s leave.
The ceremony is performed at the lower end of the
church, towards the door. The exorcift firft figns the
poffeffed perfon with the fign of the crofs, makes him
kneel, and fprinklei him with holy water. Then fol¬
low the litanies, pfalms, and prayer ; after which the
exorcift afks the devil his name, and adjures him by
the myfteries of the Chriftian religion not to afflift the
perfon any more : then, laying his right hand on the
daemoniac’s head, he repeats the form of exorcifm,
which is this : “ I exorcife thee, unclean fpirit, in the
name of Jefus Chrift : tremble, O Satan ! thou enemy
of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who haft brought
death into the world 5 who haft deprived men of life,
and haft rebelled againft juftict : thou feducer of man¬
kind, thou root of evil, thou fource of avarice, difeord,
and envy.” The Romanifts likewife exorcife houfes
and other places, fuppofed to be haunted by unclean
fpirits} and the ceremony is much the fame with that
for perfons poffeffed.
EXORCISTS, in church hiftory, an order of men,
in the ancient church, whofe employment it was to ex-
orcife or caft out devils. See the preceding article.
EXORDIUM, in Oratory, is the preamble or be¬
ginning, ferving to prepare the audience for the reft of
the difeourfe.
Exordiums are of twm kinds j either juft and formal,
or vehement and abrupt. The laft are more fuitable
on occafions of extraordinary joy, indignation, or the
like. See Oratory, N° 26-
EXOSTOSIS (from %% out, and ocw, a bone'), in
Anatoviyr an acute eminence or excrefcence, puftiing
preternaturally above the bone.
EXOTERIC and Esoteric, are terms denoting
external and internal, and applied to the double doc¬
trine of the ancient philofophers : the one was public
or exoteric ; the other fecret, or efoteric. The firft; was
that which they openly profeffed and taught to the
world •, the latter was confined to a fmall number of
chofen difciples. This method was derived originally
from the Egyptians j wJio, according to the united
teftimony of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo,
Plutarch, &c. had a twmfold philofophy, one fecret
and facred, another public and common. The fame
practice alfo obtained among the Perfian Magi, the
Druids of the Gauls, and the Brachmans of India.
The Egyptian priefts, with whom it originated, fuf-
tained the charadler of judges and magiftrates, and
probably introduced this diftindlion with a view to the
public welfare, and to ferve the purpofes of legiflation
and government. Clement of Alexandria informs us,
EXP r 3S2 1 EXP
EKOtb tliat tliey communicated their myfteries principally to
II thofe who were concerned in the adminiitration of the
^tiona" ^ate ’ :u'^ Plutarch confirms the fame declaration.
-■ - However, others have fuppofed that they invented the
fables of their gods and heroes, and the other external
ceremonies of their religion, to difguife and conceal
natural and moral truths j but whatever was the mo¬
tive of their pra&ice, it was certainly applied to politi¬
cal purpofes.
EXOTIC, a term properly fignifying foreign or ex¬
traneous, i. e. brought from a remote or llrange coun¬
try. In which fenfe we fometimes fay exotic or barba¬
rous terms or words, &c. The word is derived from
the Greek e!»ev, extra, “ without, on the out fide.”
Exotic, is chiefly applied to plants which are na¬
tives of foreign countries, particularly thofe brought
from the Eaft and Weft Indies, and which do not na¬
turally grow in Europe.
The generality of exotics,, or exotic plants, do not
thrive in England without fome peculiar care and cul¬
ture : they require the warmth of their own climates j
whence the ufe of hot beds, glafs frames, green houfes,
&c. See Gardening Index.
EXPANSION, among metaphyficians, denotes the
idea we have of lafting diftance, all whofe parts exift
together.
Expansion, in Phy/ics, the enlargement or in-
creafe of bulk in bodies, chiefly by means of heat.
This is one of the moft general effefts of that fubtile
principle, being common to all bodies whatever, whe¬
ther folid or fluid. In fome few cafes, indeed, bodies
feem to expand as they grow cold, as water in the a£l
of freezing : but this is found to be owing to a new
arrangement of the particles, or to cryftallization ; and
is not at all a regular and gradual expanflon like that
of metals, or any other folid or fluid fubftance by means
of heat. In certain metals alfo, an expanfion takes
place when they pafs from a fluid to a folid ftate : but
this too is not to be accounted any proper effeff of cold,
but of the arrangement of the parts of the metal in a
peculiar manner; and is therefore to be afcribed to a kind
of cryftallization.
The expanfion of bodies by heat is very various, and
in folids does not feem to be guided by any certain
rule. In the 48th volume of the Phil. Tranf. Mr
Smeaton has given a table of the expanfions of many
different fubftances. See Chemistry Index.
Expectancy, estates in, are of two forts j
one created by a£t of the parties, called a remainder $
the other, by aft of law7, called reverjion.
EXPECTATION, in the doftrine of chances, is
applied to' any contingent event, and is capable of be¬
ing reduced to the rules of computation. Thus a fum
of money in expeftation when a particular event hap¬
pens, has a determinate value before that event hap¬
pens ; fo that if a perfon is to receive any fum, e. gr.
10I. when an event takes place which has an equal
probability of happening and failing, the value of the
expeftation is half that fum or 5I. j and in all cafes the
expeftation of obtaining any fum is eftimated by mul¬
tiplying the value of the fum expefted by the fraftion
which reprefents the probability of obtaining it. The
expeftation of a perfon who has three chances in five
ef obtaining look is equal to 4-X 100 or 60k and the
probability of obtaining look in this cafe is equal ExpeAa-
6 o —, 1 tion
10 TiYo — T* ... . . II
Expectation of Life, fignifies, in the doftrine of life Jlcnctt
annuities, that (hare or number of the years of human ^' 1
life, which a perfon of any given age may expeft to en¬
joy on an equality of chance.
According to Mr Simpfon, by the expeftation of life
w7e are not to underftand that period which a perfon
may have an equal chance of furviving, which is a dif¬
ferent and more Ample confideration } but the number
of years at which the purchafe of an annuity ought to
be valued, granted on it without difcount of money.
There will be a greater or lefs difference in this number
of years, in proportion to the various degrees of mor¬
tality to which the different ftages of human life are
expofed. Thus, it is more than an equal chance that
an infant juft come into the world, wall not reach the
age of 10 years $ yet the expeftation of life, or (hare of
exiftence due to it, is almoft 20 years upon an average.
The reafon. of this vaft difference is the excefs of the
probability of death in the firft tender years of exift¬
ence above that which refpefts the more advanced fta¬
ges. If the numbers of thofe who die at every aflign-
able period wrere always found to be on an equality, the
twro quantities already mentioned wrould be the fame ;
but w7hen thefe numbers conftantly become lefs and lefs,
the expeftation muft of confequence become the greater
of the tw7o.
EXPECTORANTS, mPJiarmacy, medicines which
promote Expectoration. See Materia Medica
IgcIcx *
EXPECTORATION, the aft of evacuating or
bringing up phlegm or other matters out of the tra¬
chea, lungs, &c. by coughing, hanking, fpitting, &c.
EXPEDtlTATION, in the foreft law7s, fignifies a
cutting out the balls of a dog’s fore feet for the pre-
fervation of the king’s game.
Every one that keeps any great dog not expeditated
forfeits three {hillings and fourpence to the king. In
maftiffs, not the ball of the feet, but the three claw's,
are to be cut to the fkin. Inftit. Part VI. p. 308.
This expeditation was to be performed once in every
three years, and wTas done to every man’s dog who lived
near the foreft, and even the dogs of the forefters
themfelves.
EXPEDITION, the march of an army to fome di-
ftant place, with a view of hoftilities. Such were the
expeditions of Cyrus againft Artaxerxes, and of Bacchus
and Alexander into the Indies.
Expeditions for the recovery of the Holy Land were
called croifadcs.
EXPERIENCE, a kind of knowledge acquired
by long ufe without any teacher. It confifts in the
ideas of things we have feen or read, which the judge¬
ment has reflefted on, to form for itfelf a rule or method.
Authors make three kinds of experience : The firft
is the fimple ufes of the external fenfes, wdiereby w7e
perceive the phenomena of natural things without any
direft attention thereto, or making any application
thereof. The fecond is, when we premeditately and
defignedly make trials of various things, or obferve
thofe done by others, attending clofely to all eftefts
and circumftances. The third is that preceded by a
foreknowledge, or at leaft an apprehenfion of the event,
#
4
f Cun-
Stry,
and determines whether the apprehenfion were true or
falfe j which two latter kinds, efpecially the third,, are
of great fervice in philofophy.
EXPERIMENI, in Philofophij, is the trial of the
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
refult or effeft of the applicationc. and motions of cer¬
tain natural bodies, in order to difcover fomething of
their motions and relations, by which fome of their
phenomena or caufes may be afcertained.
383
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY,
T o that which has its foundation in experience, where¬
in nothing is aflumed as a truth but what is found¬
ed upon ocular demonflration^ or which cannot be de¬
nied without violating the common fenfe and percep¬
tions of all mankind.
In former times philofophers, when reafoning about
natural things, inftead of following this method, af-
fumed fuch principles as they imagined fufficient for
explaining the phenomena, without confidering whe¬
ther thefe principles were juft or not. Hence for a
great number of ages no progrefs was made in fcience ;
but fyftems were heaped upon fyftems, having neither
eonliftency with one another nor with themfelves. No
proper explanations indeed were given of any thing j for
all thefe fyftems, when narrowly examined, were found
to confift merely in changes of words, which were often
very abfurd and barbarous. The firft who deviated
from this method of philofophizing, if wre may call it
by that name, was Friar Bacon, who lived in the 13th
century, and who fpent 2000I. (an immenfe fum in
thofe days) in making experiments. The Admirable
L,richton, wftio flourilhed about the year 1580, not only
difputed againft the philofophy of Ariftotle, which
had for fo long been in vogue, but wrote a book a-
gainft it. Cotemporary with this celebrated perfonage
was Francis Bacon lord chancellor of England, who is
looked upon to be the founder of the prefent mode of
philofophizing by experiments. But though others
might lay the foundation, Sir Ifaac Newton is juftly
allowed to have brought this kind of philofophy to
perfection j and to him wt are certainly indebted for
the greatert part of it. Unfortunately, however, nei¬
ther Lord Bacon nor Sir Ifaac Newton had an oppor¬
tunity of knowing many important faCts relating to
the principles of fire and eleftricity, wrhich have fince
been brought to light. Hence all their philofophy
was merely mechanical, or derived from the vifible
operations of folid bodies, or of the grolTer fluids, upon
one another. In fuch cafes, therefore, where the more
iubtile and a£Hve fluids were concerned, they fell
Into miftakes, or were obliged to deny the exiftence
of the principles altogether, and to make ufe of terms
which were equally unintelligible and incapable of
conveying any information with thofe of their prede-
ceflbrs. A remarkable inftance of the errors into which
they were thus betrayed, we have in the doClrine of
projeCtiles, where the moft enormous deviations from
truth were fanCtified by the greateft names of the laft
century, merely by reafoning from the refiftance of the
air to bodies moving flowly and vifibly, to its refiftance
to the fame bodies when moved with high degrees of
velocity f. In other cafes they were reduced to make
ufe of words to exprefs immechanical powers, as attrac¬
tion, ippulfion, rarefaCtion, &c. which have fitice tend-.
ed in no fmall degree to embarrafsand confound fcience
by the difputes that have taken place concerning them..
I he foundations of the? prefent fyftem of experimental
philofophy are as follows :—
E All tne material fiibftances of which the univerle
is compofed are called natural bodies. What we per¬
ceive uniform and invariable in thefe fubftances we call
their properties. Some of thefe are general and com¬
mon to all matter, as extenfion j others are proper to1
particular fubftances, for inftance fluidity ; while fome
appear to be compounded of general and particular
properties, and thus belong to a ftill fmaller number j
as the properties of air, which are derived from the ge¬
neral property of extenfion combined with thofe of flui¬
dity, elafticity, &.c.
II. In taking a particular review of the properties
of bodies we naturally begin with that of extenfion.
This manifefts itfelf by the three dimenfions of length,
breadth, and thicknefs. Hence proceeds the divifibility
of matter j which the prefent fyftem fuppofes to reach
even to infinity : but though this propofition be fup-
ported by mathematical demonftrations, it is impoflible
we can either have any difthnft idea of it, or of the op-
pofite do&rine, which teaches that matter is compofed
of exceflively minute particles called atoms, which can¬
not be divided into fmaller ones. The fubtility indeed
to which folid bodies may be reduced by mechanical
means is very furprifing ; and in fome cafes is fo great,,
that ive might be tempted to fuppofe that a farther di-
vifion is impoflible. Thus, in grinding a fpeculum,
the inequalities of its furface are fo effedlually worn oft',
that the whole becomes in a certain degree invifible,
(bowing not itfelf by the light which falls upon it, but
the image of other bodies j but the fmalleft fcratch-
■which dirturbs the equality of the furface is at once di-
ftinclly vifible.
III. From the arrangement of thefe ultimate parti¬
cles of matter, whatever we fuppofe them to be, arife
the various figures of bodies : and hence figure is a
property of all bodies no lefs univerfal than extenfion,
unlefs we choofe to fpeak of the ultimate particles of
matter, which, as they are fuppofed to be deftitute of
parts, muft confequently be equally deftitute of figure j
and the fame confequence will follow whether we adopt
this fuppofition or the other. The figures of bodies are
fo extremely various and diflimilar,. that it is impoflible
to find any two perfectly alike. It is indeed the next
thing to impoflible to find two in which the diflimila-
rity may not be perceived by the naked eye ; but if any
fjch ftiould be found, the microfcope will quickly dif¬
cover the imbecility of our fenfes in this refpedh Soli¬
dity is another property effential to all matter. By this
we mean that property which one quantity of matter
has of excluding any other.from the fpace which itfelf
occupies''-
.3*4
EXPERIMENTAL
occupies at that time. Hence arifes what we call re-
jiftance, which is always an indication of folidity j and
no lefs fo in thofe bodies which we call fluid than in
thofe which are the moft folid. I his may at fir ft feem
fo be a contradiction j but fluids yield only when they
can get away from the prfeflure } m all other cafes they
refift as violently as the moft folid bodies. Thus water
confined in a tube will as etTeclually refift the impreflion
of a pifton thruft dowm upon it as though it were the
moft folid fubftance. Air indeed will yield for ascertain
time ; but this, as appears from feveral expeinments,
is entirely owing to a more fubtile fluid, viz-, that of ele¬
mentary fire, being prefled out from among its particles.
As long as this fluid can be forced out, either from a-
mong the particles of air, wTater, or any other more
grofs fluid fubftance, the latter wall be found compref-
fible, as a heap of wet fand would be by fqueezing the
water out from it ; but when we come to the moft fub¬
tile of all elements, fuch as we fuppofe that of fire to
be, there cannot be any poflibility of compreffing it,
even though we had a vefiel fo clofe as to prevent it
from efeaping through its fides ; becaufe its parts are al¬
ready as near each other as they can be.
IV. The diftance of the parts of bodies from each
other is what we call their porofity, and was formerly
fuppofed to be owing to a vacuum interfperfed between
them ; but now it is generally allowed that the pores
of folid bodies as well as of fluids are filled with an ex¬
tremely fubtile matter which pervades all nature, ihe
porofity of bodies with regard to one another may be
thus explained. Wood or a fponge is porous with re¬
gard to water : but water itfelf is porous with regard to
air, which it abforbs in confiderable quantity. But air
and water are porous with regard to. the element of fire,
which produces very confiderable changes upon them,
according to the quantity of it they contain, or the
manner it a£ts in their pores. This element itfelf,
however, is not porous with regard to any other fub¬
ftance. Its pores, therefore, if it has any, muft be ab-
folute vacuities, deftitute of any matter whatever. Va¬
cuities of this kind indeed are fuppofed to be abfolutely
neceffary to motion : for though we may lay, matter
being divifible almoft ad infinitum, that a body or fub¬
ftance more folid may move in another fubftance that is
more fubtile, and that'will give way to its motion, we
muft neverthelefs have recourfe to a laft refort, and ad¬
mit of an ultimate vacuum, which wall give room fuffi-
cient to the leaft corpufcle, that its part A may take
the place of its part B without the leaft refiftance :
befides, it is not to be imagined, that nature, in facl,
admits of that infinite divifibility which our imagina¬
tion can conceive, and that every thing which is pofli-
ble in idea, is at all times prafticable. All that
exifts is poffible, but all that is poflible does not how¬
ever exift. By denfity, is underftood the proportion
between the extenfion and folidity- of a body ; one body
therefore is more denfe than another, when, under the
fame degree of extenfion, it contains more folid mat¬
ter : and this quality ariles from condenfation and com-
preflion. Elafticity is nothing more than that effort
by which certain bodies, when Compreffed, endeavour
to reftore themfelves to their former ftate ; and this pro¬
perty fuppofes them compreffible. As all thefe natural
properties of bodies are of great utility in explaining
the principles of phyfics and in applying them to all the
•'* ' ’ 3
PHILOSOPHY.
arts, experimental philofophy proves their reality by a
thoufand examples.
V. We difcover ftill other properties in bodies ; fuck
as mobility, which we muft not here confound with
motion. This mobility arifes from certain difpofition§
which are not in an equal degree in all bodies : from
whence it comes that fome are more eafily moved than
others : and this proceeds from the refiftance to mo¬
tion -which is perceived in all bodies, haying regard
merely to their maffes ; and this refiftance is called vis
inertia, or inert force. A body is faid to be in motiori
when it is aftually moving from one place to another :
or, whenever a body changes its fituation with regard
to the objects that lurround it, either nearly or remote¬
ly, it is laid to be in motion. There are three principal
matters to be confidered in a moving body ; its direc¬
tion, its velocity, and the quantity of its motion : and
here phyfics explains the force or moving power; it
likewife diftinguifhes between fimple and compound mo¬
tion. Simple motion is that which arifes from only one
force, or which tends to one point only. It defcribes
the laws, and explains the refiftance, of mediums ; the
refiftance of fridion ; the difficulties of a perpetual mo¬
tion ; the alteration of direction occafioned by the op-
pofition of a fluid matter j refleded or reverberated mo¬
tion ; the communication of motion by the ftiock of
bodies, &c. Compound motion is that of a body im¬
pelled to move by feveral caufes or powers which ad
according to their different diredions. Phyfics here
likewdfe inveftigates the lawrs of motion ; and is particu-*
larly applied to the explaining, under this head, what
are called the central forces, which produce a motion
that is either circular or in a curve line, and which in-
ceffantly urge the moving body either to approach or
recede from the centre. lo diftinguifh thefe from each
other, the former is called the centripetal force, and the
latter the Centrifugalforce* See Dynamics.
VI. By gravity, or ponderofity, is to be underftood
that force which occafions bodies to pafs froin a higher
to a lower plac6, when nothing oppofes their courfe,
or when the obftacles are not fufficient to flop them.
Speculative philofophy inveftigates its caufe, and per¬
haps in vain. Experimental philofophy contents itfelf
with defcribing the phenomena, and teaching the laws
of gravity, wffiich are thoroughly eftablilhed by a thou¬
fand reiterated experiments. In order properly to un-
derftand this fubjed, vTe muft take care not to confound
the term gravity with that of weight. By the former,
we underftand that force wffiich urges bodies to defcend
through a certain fpace in a given time. By the latter,
is meant the quantity of a heavy body that is contain¬
ed under the fame bulk. The phenomena are explain¬
ed by the experiments themfelves, and by inferences de¬
duced from them. # .
VII. HydroftaticS is a fcience of which the objed is
the gravity arid equilibrium of fluids in particular.
Though the gravity of thefe bodies is the fame with
that of others, and is fubjed to the fame laws, yet
their ftate of fluidity gives rife to particular pheno¬
mena, wffiich it is of confequence to known But as hy-
droftatics cannot be fuccefsfully treated on without the
affiftance of calculation, it has been ranked among the
mathematical fciences. .
VIII. We fay the fame with regard to mechanics i
which is the art of employing, by the aid of machines,
the
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
the motion of bodies, in conformity to its properties
and laws, as well with regard to folids as fluids, either
more commodioufly or more advantageoufly.
IX. After it has made the moll accurate experi¬
ments, and the molt judicious obfervations, on all thefe
different fubjects, and the properties of bodies in par¬
ticular, Experimental Philofophy paffes to the exami¬
nation of tlm air, the water, fire, the wind, colours,
&c. The air is a fluid with which we are furrounded
from the inftant of our birth, and without which we
cannot exiff. It is by the properties and the influences
of the air, that nature gives increafe and perfection to
all that it produces for our wants and conveniences :
it is the fpirit of navigation : found, voice, fpeech it-
felf, are nothing more than percuflions of the air:
this globe that we inhabit is completely furrounded by
ah-; and this kind of coverture, which is commonly
called the atmofphere, has fuch remarkable functions,
that it evidently appears to concur to the mechanifm
of nature. Experimental phyfics, therefore, confiders
the air, I. Of itfelf, independent of its bulk, and the
figure of its whole body : it examines its effential pro¬
perties j as its gravity, denfity, fpring, &c. The air-
pump is here of indifpenfable ufe ; and by this ma¬
chine phyfics examines in what manner fpace, or a va¬
cuum, is made. It likewife ffiows the neceflity of air to
the prefervation of animal life 5 the effeCl it has on
found, fire, and gunpowder, in vacuo; and a hundred
other experiments of various degrees of curiolity. 2. It
confiders the air as the terreftrial atmofphere, fome-
times as a fluid at reft, and fometimes as in motion.
And by thefe means it accounts for the variation of the
mercury in the barometer, and why it finks in propor¬
tion as the height of the atmofphere diminifties ; as alfo
for the figure, the extent, and weight of the atmofphere:
it ftiows the method of determining the height of moun¬
tains, the nature of found in general, of its propagation,
and of fonorous bodies. The late difcoveries have add¬
ed greatly to experimental philofophy, of which an ac¬
count is given under the article Chemistry, &c.
X. It is here alfo, that experimental philofophy con¬
fiders the nature of the wind j which is nothing more
than agitated air, a portion of the atmofphere that
moves like a current, with a certain velocity and deter¬
minate flireftion. This fluid, with regard to its direc¬
tion, takes different names according to the different
points of the horizon from whence it comes, as eart,
weft, north, and fouth. Winds are likewife diftinguilh-
ed into three forts ; one of which is called general or
conjlant, as the trade winds which continually blow be¬
tween the tropics : another is the periodical, which al¬
ways begin and end within a certain time of the year,
or a certain hour of the day, as the monfoons, the land
breezes and fea breezes, which arife conftantly in the
morning and evening 5 and laftly, fuch as are variable,
as well with regard to their direction as their velocity
and duration.
M. Mariotte computes the velocity of the molt impe¬
tuous wind to be at the rate of 3 2 feet in a fecond, and
,Mr Derham makes it 66 feet in the fame time. The
fir ft, doubtlefs, meant the wind of the greateft velocity
that had then come to his knowledge. The invention
of aerortatic machines has tended more to Ihow the real
velocity of the wind than any other invention as yet
made public : but all of them move flower than the
Vol. VIII. Part I.
aerial current; fo that the real velocity of the wind re¬
mains yet undetermined.
XI. The force of the wand, like that of other bodies,
depends on its velocity and mafs : that is, the quan¬
tity of air which is in motion fo the fame wind has
more or lefs force on any obftacle that oppofes it, in
proportion as that obftacle prefents a greater or a lefs
furface : for which reafon it is that they fprcad the fails
of a veflel more or lefs, and place the wings of a 'wind¬
mill in different directions. The machines by which
the winds are meafured, are called anemometers. They
Ihow the direction, the velocity, and the duration of
winds. It is by the agitations of the winds that the air
is purified \ that the feeds of trees and herbs are convey¬
ed through the forefts and fields j that (hips are driven
from one pole to the other 3 that our mills turn upon
their axles, &c. : and art, by imitating nature, fome¬
times procures us artificial winds, by which we re-
frelh our bodies, invigorate our fires, purify our com,
&c.
XII. Water is an univerfal agent, which nature em¬
ploys in all her productions, It may be confidered as
in three Hates : 1. As a liquid 3 2. As a vapour 3 3. As
ice. Thefe three different Hates do not in any man¬
ner change its effence, but make it proper to anfwer
different ends. The natural ftate of water 'would be
that of a folid body, as fat, wax, and all thofe other
bodies which are only fluid when heated to a certain
degree 3 for water would be conftantly ice, if the par¬
ticles of fire, by which it is penetrated in the tempe¬
rate climates, did not render it fluid, by producing a
reciprocal motion among its parts 3 and, in a country
where the cold is continually ftrong enough to main¬
tain the congelation, the afliftance of art is neceffary
to make it fluid in the fame manner as we do lead, &c.
Water, when not in ice, is a fluid that is infipid, tranfpa-
rent, without colour and without fmell, and that eafily
adheres to the furfaee of fome bodies, that penetrates
many, and extinguiihes fire. Experimental philofophy
inveftigates the origin of fountains 3 the caufe of the
faltnefs of the fea 3 the means of purifying water 3 what
is its weight, and what are its effeCfs when heated, &c.
It likewife examines this fluid in the ftate of vapour 3
and finds that a drop of water, -when in vapour, occu¬
pies a fpace vaftly greater than it did before. It
explains the (eolipile and its effeCts 3 fire engines 3 and
the force of vapour that gives motion to immenfe ma¬
chines in mines and elfewhere, &c. And laftly, It con¬
fiders water in the ftate of ice. Ice confequently is
more cold than water 3 and its coldnefs increafes if it
continue to lofe that matter, already too rare, or too
little adlive, to render it fluid. Experimental phyfics
endeavours to inveftigate the caufes of the congelation
of water, and why ice is lighter than water 3 from
whence it derives that expanfive force by which it breaks
the containing veffel 3 the difference there is between
the congelation of rivers and that of Handing waters 3
why ice becomes more cold by the mixture of falts 3
and many other fimilar phenomena.
XIII. The nature of fire is yet very much unknown
to the moft learned philofophers. As objedls when at a
great diftance are not perceptible to our fenfes, fo when
we examine them too nearly, we difcern them but con-
fufedly. It is ftill difputed whether fire be a homogene,
unalterable matter, defigned, by its prefence, or by its
3 C aftion,
386
a&lon, to produce heat, inflammation, and diffo-ution,
in bodies : or if its effence confifts in motion only, or
in the fermentation of thofe particles which we call in¬
flammable, and which enter as principles, m greater or
‘lefs quantities, in the compofition of mixed bodies.
The molt learned inquirers into nature incline to the
former opinion-, and to have recourfe to a matter
which they regard as the principle of fire. Ihey lup-
pofe that there is in nature a fluid adapted to this pur-
pofe, created fuch from the beginning, and that no¬
thing more is neceffary than to put it m action, j he
numberlefs experiments which are daily made in elec¬
tricity feem to favour this opinion, and to prove t at
experimental philosophy.
what its velocity and progreflive motion. It edio invef-
tigates and explains the principles of optics properly
f0 called, and ftiows the direftions which light ob-
lervcs in its motions. From thence it proceeds to the
examen of the principles of catoptrics, and deferioes
the laws and effeds of refleded light. _ It next treats
of the principles of dioptrics, and explains the la\vs of
refraded light 5 and laftly, it teaches, from the princi¬
ples of natural and artificial vifion, the confirudion ot
optical inftruments, as lenfes, concave mirrors, priims,
telefcopes, &c. &c. and the ufes to which they are ap¬
plied.
XVII. By refolving or feparating the rays ot light.
tricity feem to favour this opmmn an o Mof h' hag obtained true and clear difeoveries of the
this matter, this fluid, tb s e eme . , nature of colours. We are naturally led to imagine that
inis maiLci, lhao ^ r ,c
through all nature, and in all bodies, even ice itielt.
We cannot fav to what important knowledge this great
difeovery of eledricity may lead if we continue our
inquiries concerning it. It appears, however, that
we may believe,- without any inconvenience or ab-
furdity, that fire and light, coniidered in their firlt
principle, are one and the fame fubttance differently
inodified.
XIV. Be this matter however as it may, experi¬
mental philofophy is employed in making the mo!t in¬
genious and moil ufeful refearches concerning the na¬
ture of fire, its propagation, and the means by which
its power may be excited or augmented -, concerning
the phofphorus and its inflammation -, fire excited by
the refledion of the fun’s rays from a mirror j and on
the effeds of fire in general -, concerning lightning and
its effeds-, the fufion of metals-, gunpowder and its
explofion -, flame and the aliments of fire j and an m-
finity of like obieds which it explains, or concerning
which it makes new difeoveries, by the aid ot expen-
ments.
XV. Bv the word light, we underffand that agent
by which nature affeds the eye with that lively and
almoft conftantly pleafing fenfation, which we call
and by which w-e difeern the fize, figure, colour,
and fituation of objeds, when at a convenient diftance.
All philofophers agree, that the light, which is diffuted
in any place, is a real body. But what this body is,
and by what means it enters that place where it is per¬
ceived, is a queftion about which philofophers are di-
XVI. Experimental philofophy is applied in difco-
vering or proving, by an infinity of experiments, what
is the nature of light, in what manner it is propagated,
nature of colours. We are naturally led to imagine that
colours, and their different degrees, make a part of the
bodies that prefent them to our fight , that white is
inherent in fnow, green in leaves and grafs, and red in
a fluff dyed of that colour. But this is far from being
true. If an objed, which prefents any colour to our
fight, be not illuminated, it prefents no colour what-
foever. In the night all is black. Colours therefore
depend on light ^ for without that we could form no
idea of them 5 but they depend alfo on bodies $ for of
feveral objeds prefented to the fame light, feme appear
white, others red, blue, &c. But all thefe matters
being feparate from our own bodies, we fhould never
acquire any ideas of them, if the light, tranfmitted 01
refleded by thefe objeds, did not make them fenfible
to us, by itriking upon the organs of our fight, and if
thefe impreflions did not revive in us thofe ideas which
we have been ufed to exprefs by certain terms. For
thefe reafons philofophy confiders colours iiotrp three
points of view, I. As in the light j 2. In bodies, as
being coloured j and, 3. From the relation they have
to our vifual faculties, which they particularly affect,
and by which we are enabled to diftinguifh them.
It is unneeffary in this place to fay more either 0.1
colour in particular or experimental philofophy in ge¬
neral. The different fubjeds of this colledive article
are particularly treated under their proper names^ in
the order of the alphabet : the reader will therefore
turn, as he has occafion, to Acoustics, Catoptrics,
Chromatics, Dioptrics, Hydrostatics, Mecha¬
nics, Optics, Pneumatics, Electricity, Magne¬
tism, &.c. &c. &c. Alfo, Aerostation, Atmo¬
sphere, Burning Glafs, Chemistry, &c. &c.
Expiation,
EXP
Experhuen- EXPERIMENTUM CRUCIS, a capital, leading,
turn or decifive experiment j thus termed, either on account
of its being like a crofs, or diredion-poft placed in
the meeting of feveral roads, guiding men to tne true
knowledge of the nature of that thing they are inquir¬
ing after $ or, on account of its being a kind of tor¬
ture, wdiereby the nature of the thing is as it were ex¬
torted by force.
EXPHORESIS. See Oratory, N° 85.
EXPIATION, a religious ad, by which fatisfac-
E X P
tion or atonement is made for the commifiion of iome Expiation.
crime, the guilt done away, and the obligation to pu- ' v 1
nifliment cancelled.
Expiations among the Heathens, w-ere of feveral
kinds -, as facrifices and religious wafhings. They were
ufed for effacing a crime, averting any calamity, and
on numberlefs other occafions, as purifying towms,
temples, and facred places, and armies before and after
battle. And they were performed for whole cities as
well as particular perfons.
Expiation
Esplofion.
Difference
between
explofion
and expari-
fion.
Ceneral
caufes of
explolions.
EXP f 3
1'lie method of expiation among the Jews was chief¬
ly by facrifice, whether for fins of ignorance, or to puri¬
fy themfelves from certain pollutions.
FeaJ} of Expiation, among the Jews, called by our
translators the day of atonement, was held on the tenth
day of Tifri, or the feventh month of the Jewilh year,
anfwering to part of our September and October. It
was inliituted by God himfelf, Levit. xxiii. 27, &c.
On that day the high-prieft, the figure or type of Je-
lus Chrift, entered into the molt holy place, and con-
felled his fins ; and, after feveral cerernqnies, made an
atonement for all the people, to -walh them from their
fins. Lev. chap. xvi. See ScAP£-Goat.
Expiation, in a figurative fenfe, is applied by di¬
vines to the pardon procured to the fins of the peni¬
tent by the merit of Chrilt’s death. See the article
Christianity.
EXPIRATION, in Medicine. See ExSPlRATION.
Expiration, is alfo ufed figuratively, for the end
of a term of time granted, agreed on, or adjudged.
EXPLICIT, in the fchools, fomething clear, di-
ftihft, formal, and unfolded.
EXPLOSION, mNatural P/ulofophij, a hidden and
violent expanlion of an aerial or other elailic fluid, by
which it inftantly throws oft' any obitacle that happens
to be in the wray, fometimes with incredible force, and
in fuch a manner as to produce the moll ailonithing ef-
fevfts upon the neighbouring objects.
Explofion differs from expanfion, in that the latter is
a gradual and continued power, adling uniformly for
fome time, whereas the former is always hidden, and
only of momentary duration. The expanfions of folid
fubftances do not terminate in violent explofions, on ac¬
count of their Hownefs, and the fmall fpace through
which the metal, or other expanding fubftance, moves ;
though their ftrength may be equally great with that
of the moft aftive aerial fluids. Thus we find, that
though wedges of wood, when wretted, wTill cleave lo-
lid blocks of ftone, they never throw them to any di-
ftance, as is the cafe with gunpowder. On the other
hand, it is feldom that the expanfion of any elaftic
fluid burffs a folid fubftance without throwing the
fragments of it to a conliderable diftance, the effedls
of which are often very terrible. The reafons of this
may be compriled in the two following particulars .
x. The immenle velocity with which the aerial fluids
expand, when affe&ed by a confiderable degree of
heat 5 and, 2. Their celerity in acquiring heat and
being affeffed by it, which is much fuperior to that of
folid fubftances. Thus air, heated as much as iron
when brought to a white heat, is expanded to four
times its bulk j but the metal itlelf wall not be expand¬
ed the yooth part of the fpace. In the cafe of gun¬
powder, which is a violent and well known explolive
fubftance, the velocity with which the flame moves is
calculated by IVIr Robins, in his 1 reatifeupon Gunnery,
to be no lefs than 7000 feet in a fecond, or little lefs
than 79 miles per minute. Hence the impulfe of the
fluid is inconceivably great, and the obftacles on which
it ftrikes are hurried off with vaft velocity, though
much lefs than that juft mentioned *, for a cannon bul¬
let, with the greateft charge of powder that can be con¬
veniently given, does not move at a greater late than
2400 feet per fecond, or little more than 27 miles per
eiunute. The velocity of the bullet again is promoted
87 ] EXP
by the hidden propagation of the heat through the EspEfioiv
whole body of air, as ioon as it is extricated from the v " ^
materials of which the gunpowder is made ; fo that it
is enabled to ftrike all at once, and thus greatly to aug¬
ment the momentum of the ball. It is evident that
this contributes very much to the force of the explo¬
fion, by what happens when powder is wTetted or mixed
with any fubftance, which prevents it from taking fire
all at once. In this cafe the force of the explofion,
even when the fame quantity of powder is made ufe of,
cannot be compared to that of dry powfter.
Upon thefe principles we may conclude, that the
force of an explofion depends, 1. On the quantity of
elaftic fluid to be expanded •, 2. On the velocity it ac¬
quires by a certain degree of heat j and, 3. On the
celerity with which the degree of heat affefls the
whole of the expanfile fluid. Thefe three take place Electric ex-
in the greateft perfection where the electric fluid is P 0fions the
concerned j as in cafes of lightning, earthquakes, and'^j
volcanoes. This fluid, as is frown in many parts of
this work, differs not from elementary fire or the light
of tire fun •, it pervades the whole fyftem of nature 5 its
expanfion is nothing elfe than its motion from a centre
towards a circumference, for it does not feeni capable
of any proper expanfion by a feparation of its parts
like any other fluid. Hence, when it begins to expand
in this manner, the motion is propagated through it
with a velocity far exceeding that of any other fluid
whatever. Thus, even when the quantity is exceflively
fmall, as when an eleclric fpark is fent through a glals
full of water or of oil, the expanfion is fo violent as
to diflipate the glafs into innumerable fragments with
great danger to the by-ftanders, as is obferved under
the article Electricity. In violent lightning, where
the eleftric fluid collefts itfelf into balls, the ftrength
of the explofion is proportionable to the quantity.
Every one has heard of the prodigious effetfs of light¬
ning when it happens to ftrike buildings, trees, or even
the moft folid rocks ; and in fome cafes, where the
quantity of eleftricity is ftill greater than in any flafti
of lightning, we hear of ftill more tremendous confe-
quences enfuing. Dr Prieftley gives an inftance of a
large fire ball (undoubtedly a quantity of eledric mat¬
ter) rolling on the furface of the fea, which after rift
ing up to the top-maft of a fliip of iwr, burft with
fuch violence that the explofion refembled the dii-
charge of hundreds of cannon fired at once. Great da¬
mage was done by it j but there is not the leaft doubt
that moft of its force was fpent on the air, or carried
down to the fea by the mail: and iron work of the fhip.
Indeed, confidering that in all cafes a great part of
the force of eleftric explofions is difiipated in this man¬
ner, it may juftly be doubted whether they can be
meafured by any method applicable to the menfuration
of other forces. Even in artificial electricity the force
is prodigioufly great j infomuch that Dr Van Marum
calculated that of the great battery belonging to the
machine in Teyler’s mufeum to be upwards of 9^-^
pounds.
In thofe cafes where the elecftrical matter ads like Volcanic
common fire, the force of the explofions, though ex-”P‘0.^0ns
' ceedingly great, is capable of menfuration by compar- ^rcngt^
ing the diltances to which the bodies are thrown with
their weight. ITis is moft evident in volcanoes, where
the projections of the burning rocks and lava manifeft
3 C 2 the
Explofion.
In what
manner ae¬
rial explo¬
sions take
place.
Explofion
of gunpow¬
der explain
ed.
+ See the
article Gun
ntry.
Of pulvis
fulminans,
EXP [ 3
lire dreatnefs of the power, at the fame time that they
afford a method of meafuring it. Thefe explofions, as
is fhown under the article Volcano, a;e owing to ex¬
trication of aerial vapours, and their rarefaction by m-
tenfe heat. In all of them the air is originally m a
date of decompofition, viz. its invifible and folid part
is joined with fome terreftrial fubftances. Thus, when
fixed air, for inftance, is expofed to any pure earth
which attraas it, as calcined magnefia, a decompoii-
tion inllantly takes place. All thefe _ vapours are
compofed of elementary fire and fome invifible iub-
ilance capable of affuming a folid form. Ihe decom-
pofition juft mentioned is therefore eafily explained j the
folid part of the air joins itfelf to the magnefia, while the
elementary fire or latent heat is diffipated, and pailes
through the fides of the veffel. Were it now m our
power fuddenly to reftore the latent heat to the_ whole
of the fixed air, fo that it would at once aflume its for¬
mer expanfion, a violent explofion would follow. Ihis
feems to be precifely the cafe with the volcanic explo¬
fions. An immenfe quantity of the fixed part of di -
terent aerial fluids is united to the various fubftances
found below the furface of the earth. By means of the
dearie fire which kindles the volcanoes, the aerial fluids
are fuddenly reftored to their elaftic ftate } and not only
fo, but their natural elafticity is greatly augmented, fo
that the explofions take place with great violence, ihe
cafe is the fame with gunpowder; only that the. con-
denfed air -in this cafe is at firft of the dephlogifticated
kind, but is quickly phlogifticated by reafon of the
combuftible matters mixed with the nitre, while the
heat produced by the inflammation, augments , the elaf¬
ticity of the generated air to four times what it ufually
is, fo that the whole force of the explofion is calculated
at i ooo times the preffure of the common atmofphere -f-.
Thus the explofions of gunpowder and of volcanoes
are effentially the fame. The reafon of. the extreme
quicknefs ofthofe of gunpowder is, that it takes fire .o
readily by the intimate mixture and combuftibility of
all the materials. In volcanoes the explofions likewife
follow one another very quickly, and are by no means
interior in ftrength to thofe of gunpowder : biu here
the quantity of vapour makes up for the comparative
flownefs with which it is affeded by the heat. Thus,
though we could not by any means contrive to fire can¬
non in quick fuccefflon by means of calcareous earth as
we can do with gunpowder, yet in the huge furnace of
a volcano the elaftic matter is fupplied in fuch quanti¬
ties, that the explofions are in a manner unremit¬
ting ; and even in ordinary experiments the. confine¬
ment of aerial vapours has often occafioned violent ex¬
plofions in chemical veffels. In one cafe too the ex¬
trication of fixed air adds exceflively to the force of an
explofion, viz. in that of pulvis fulminans. This is
compounded of fulphur, faltpetre, and lalt of tartar.
The latter we know contains much fixed air : and it is
probable that the violence of the explpfion is occafioned
by this air •, for the greater quantity of it that the alka¬
line fait contains, the greater force does it explode
with. Fulminating gold emits a quantity of phlogifti¬
cated air, to wiiich its exploiive power is fuppofed to be
owing, as is explained under the article Chemistry
but that of fulminating filver is fo extraordinary., that
fcarce any force of aerial vapour that can be extricated
88 ] EXP
is likely to produce it, and it feems probable that elec- b.-p'ohun..
tricity itfelf is concerned. . „ , ri
Next in ftrength to the aerial vapours are thofe ^
aqueous and other liquids.. The moft.remarkable el-v^^rs
feds of thefe are obferved in fleam engines •, but there
is one particular cafe from which it has been inferred
that aqueous fleam is vaftly ftronger than the ilame of
gunpowder. This is when water is thrown upon melted Violent ex¬
copper •, for here the explofion is fo ftrong as almoftploi.on^ot ^
to exceed imagination ; and the moil terrible accidents meJted top_
have been known to happen from fuch a flight caule as per>
one of the workmen fpitting in the furnace where cop¬
per was melting. Here, however, it is moll probable Probably
that a decompolition of the water takes place. I hat owing ua
this element can be decompofed, or refolved into elaftic tion of!the
vapours, has been completely eftablilhed by. the moll la- water,
tisfadory experiments, and is now, wTe believe, univer-
fally admitted by chemical philofophers. See Water,
Chemistry Index. L he polition is indeed denied by
the phlogiftians j hut their arguments appear not to be
conclufive ; nor is it a fad which militates, in the lealt
againft their principles. On the fuppolition that the
water is decompofed in the prefent cam, however, the
phenomenon in queftion is eafily folved. The water be- Particular-
ing thrown in fubilance upon the melted copper, is de- ly expiain-
compofed by the violent heat j and one part of it adheres
to the metal, thus converting it into a calx, or oxide,
while the other is converted into inflammable air, or
hydrogen gas, which expanding iuddenly, throws the
melted metal all about with the greateft violence by
means of its readion. . _ . .
To underftand the manner ifi which this is accom-
plilhed, we mult confider fome of. the principles of
Gunnery laid down by Mr Robins, and related un¬
der that article. One of thefe is, that though the
air, in cafes of ordinary velocity, makes no great re-
flftance, it is far otherwife where the velocity of the
moving body becomes very great. In all cafes, of ex-
plofion alfo there is in the firft inftance a refilling va¬
cuum made by the exploding fluid } and coniequently the
weight of the atmofphere is to be overcome, which a-
mounts to about 14 pounds on every fquare inch of fur-
face. Suppofing the furface of the exploding fluid, then,
on that of melted copper, to contain an area of 4 fquare
inches, it meets with a refiftance of 60 pounds fiom the
atmofphere, and confequently communicates an equal
preffure to the fluid metal. Even this mull of confe-
quence throw it about, unlefs the fame preffure wTas
exadly diffuled over every part of the fuiface. But
much more mull this effed be increafed by the immenfe
velocity with which the fluid moves, and by which the
refiftance of the atmofphere is augmented in a prodi¬
gious degree, as is explained under the article Gun¬
nery. The elaftic fluid generated is then confined not
only by the fluid metal and fides of the furnace, but by
the air itfelf, which cannot get out of the wTay ; fo
that the wdiole refembles a cannon doled at the mouth,
and filled with inflamed gunpowder. Hence not only
the melted metal, but the furnace itfelf and the adjacent
walls of the building, are hurried off as they would be by
the firing of a great quantity of gunpowder in a fmall fpace,
and which is w7ell known to produce analogous effeds.
In explaining the phenomenon in queftion, Dr Black
fuppofes that the mere heat of the metal applied to the
aqueous
EXP r 389 l EXP
Exp'ofion.
Is not ow-
ing to mere
aqueous
iteam in-
te rifely
heated.
Why fuch
explolions
do not take
place with
other me¬
tals.
Explofions
when heat¬
ed fubftan-
ces are
thrown up¬
on fmall
quantities
of water.
aqueous fleam produces the explofion 5 and in proof
ot this alleges, that copper imbibes a greater quantity
of heat during fulion than any other metal. Aqueous
fleam, however, feems to be too ilow for producing
fuch hidden and violent effedls. Explofions, it is true,
will be occalioned by it, but then it mult be confined
for a very confiderable time ; whereas the effects of wa¬
ter thrown upon melted copper are inllantaneous.
It may now be afked, Why fuch explofions do not
take place with any other metal, iron for inflance, when
water is thrown upon its furface in fufxon ? In anfwer
to this we mull obferve, That though water is decom-
pofed by being applied to red-hot iron in the form of
iteam, yet there is a polfibility, that when the fame ele¬
ment is applied in fubftance to the fluid metal, no
decompofition may enfue. Something like this in¬
deed happens with copper itfelf; for, notwithftanding
the violent effedts which take place on the contadl of
water in fubltanee with the melted metal, no explo-
fion happens though aqueous fleam be blown upon its
furface. On the contrary, the upper part of the me¬
tal is thus cooled, and forms itfelf into cakes, which
are afterwards taken off, and new ones formed in the
fame manner j neither does aqueous fleam affedl red-hot
copper in the manner that it does iron in the fame flate.
A decifive proof that the explofion is not occafioned
by the mere heat of the aqueous fleam may be dedu¬
ced from the example of melted glafs, which produces
no exploflon though we pour water upon it in that
ilate 5 and yet the heat of melted glafs is undoubtedly
equal at leail to that of melted copper. It muff be ob-
ferved, however, that in all cafes where a very hot
body is thrown upon a fmall quantity of water in fub-
flance, an exploflon will follow •, but here the water is
confined and fuddenly rarefied into fleam, which can¬
not get away without throwing off the body which
confines it. Examples of this kind frequently occur
where mafons or other mechanics are employed in faft-
ening cramps of iron into ftones •, where, if there hap¬
pens to be a little water in the hole into which the lead
is poured, the latter will fly out in fuch a manner as
fometimes to burn them feverely. Terrible accidents
of this kind have fometimes happened in founderies,
when large quantities of melted metal have been poured
into wet moulds. In thefe cafes, the hidden expanfion
of the aqueous fleam has thrown out the metal with
violence *, and if any decompofition has taken place at
the fame time, fo as to convert the aqueous into an
aerial vapour, the explofion mull be ftill greater.
By pouring To this laft kind of explofion we mull refer that
cold water w}fich takes place on pouring cold water into boiling
mto boiling OJ. burrqng. or tallow. Here the cafe is much the
fame whether we pour the oil on the water, or the
water on the oil. In the former cafe, the water which
lies at the bottom is rarefied into fleam, and explodes •,
in the latter, it finks down through the oil by its fupe-
rior fpecific gravity, and explodes as it paffes along.
In either cafe, however, the quantity of aqueous fluid
mull be but fmall in proportion to that of the oil : a
very great quantity would put out the flame, or deftroy
the heat, in whatever way we applied it..
Explofions Another kind of exploflon is that which takes place
in folidfub-in folid fubftances, where we can fcarcely fuppofe either
(lances ex- aqueous or aerial vapours to be concerned. The moll
plained. remarkable of thefe are the volcanic bombs mentioned
by Sir William Hamilton in the great eruption of Ve- Esplofion,
fuvius in I779- They were large pieces of lava which
burft in pieces like bombs as they fell to the grofind j.
but he does not inform us whether their burfling was
attended with any great violence or not. Indeed, amidft
fuch fcenes of horror, and the continual tremendous
explofions of the volcano, fmaller phenomena of this
kind would probably be overlooked. Other examples
are the Gljss Tears, of which an account is given un¬
der that article ; the burfting of elefilrical globes, when
put in motion •, of other glafs veffels fpontaneoufly,
and feemingly without any caufe •, and laftly, the burfl-
iug of large call metal veffels in the a£t of cooling.
Thefe are all fo fimilar to one another, that it is pro¬
bable they depend on one general caufe. All of them
agree in this refpedl, that the extreme parts of them
are confiderably cooled, while the internal remain very
hot. Thus, in the volcanic bombs, the current of air,
formed by their fwift paffage through it in falling, ne-
ceffarily carries off a great quantity of heat from the
parts which are in contadl with it, while the reft are
fcarce at all cooled. The glafs-tears are artificially
cooled on the outfide by dropping them upon water j
and in confequence of this, their explofion is probably
more violent in proportion to their bulk than that of
the volcanic bombs. Glafs veffels only burft fponta¬
neoufly when they have not been well annealed ; and
we know that this bad annealing confifts only in ap¬
plying cold too fuddenly to the outfide. Something
like this probably takes place when caft-iron veffels ex¬
plode *, and we are certain it does fo with eledlrical
globes, for thefe laft are not apt to burft if they have
been well annealed. In all cafes, therefore, there is a
remarkable contradlion of the outward furface by the
cold, while the internal parts remain as much expand¬
ed as ever. In this cafe there muft be a continual ef¬
fort of that fubtile fluid called elementary fire, from the
internal to the external part, as the contradlion gra¬
dually proceeds the contrary way. Thus, when a vol¬
canic bomb, for inftance, is cooled on the outfide, its -
parts are confolidated fo that the internal fluid has not
fuch an eafy paffage through it as isneceffary. In con¬
fequence of this it makes a greater effort, which is ftill
farther augmented by the cooling and contra£lion of
the internal partr, fqueezing the fluid out irom among
themfelves, and forcing it to recoil upon that in the.
centre, as well as to exert itfelf againft the external
part; from which united operation the effedl already
mentioned at laft takes place. This explanation, how¬
ever, does not hold with refpe£t to elefilrical globes,
glafs tears, or ill annealed glafs : but in order to ac¬
commodate it to all thefe, we have only to remember,
that fire, and the eleftric fluid afiling from a centre
to a circumference, are not in the leaft different j lo
that from whatever caufe the electric matter is difpof-
ed to act in this manner, the fame effect will follow,
i. e. an explolion will take place if the fubftance does
not afford an equally ready paffage through all its
parts, and that whether any fenfible heat is telt in it
or not.
The only other kind of explofion we have to take no-Explofion
tice of is that produced by inflammable and dephlogifti-!)t
cated air, or oxygen and hydrogen gafes, when mixed ^ ^ ^
together and fet on fire, ihis differs from any of thole
hitherto confldered, becaufe in reality there is an abfo-
lute
\
i
X 'P
[ 39° ]
EXP
lixplofion.
Singular
phenome¬
non obfer-
ved by Dr
Prieftley.
Ufes to
which ex-
plofions are
applied.
Attempts
to fuper-
fede the
ufe of gun¬
powder.
lute condenfation rather than an expanfion throughout
the whole of the operation j and the refult is the forma¬
tion of water ; and could the airs be made to take fire
throughout their whole fubftance abfolutely at the fame
inftant, there would be no explofion, but only a fudden
produftion of heat. From this caufe alfo is derived a
very lingular phenomenon taken notice of by Dr Pneft-
ley in his experiments on that fubject, recorded in the
Phil. Tranf. Having enclofed feveral quantities of in¬
flammable and dephlogillicated air in a copper vefl'el
firing them afterwards by the ele&nc {parks, he found
that the force of the explofion was directed more to
wards ofie part of the veffel than another j leaf! on th.-.t
part where the eleftrical difcharge was made, and molt
upon that which was fartheft from it. This inequality
wras very confiderablc } infomuch that he could not re¬
peat his experiments any number of times without inju¬
ring the veffel in that part which was fartheft from the
difcharge. The reafon he gives for this is, that the
mixture was not fired at the fame inftant, but firft at
the place where the difcharge wus made. This firft ex¬
plofion would have afted equally upon all parts of the
veffel, had it not been for the intervention of the air.
By the firft momentary explofion, however, the air in
the fartheft part of the veffel was condenfed, fo that the
next explofion was made ftronger, while the copper m
the fore part of the veffel had the wdiole of this ftiong
explofion to refill, the hinder part being but little con¬
cerned, as the air in it was condenfed and reduced al-
moft to a vacuum.
Though the phenomena of explofions are fometimes
very deftruftive, they are likewife of confiderable ufe
in life, by removing obftacles which could fcarcely be
got the better of by any mechanical power whatever.
The principal of thefe are the blowing up of rocks, the
feparating of Hones in quarries, and other purpofes of
that kind. The deftru&ion occafioned by them in times
of war, and the machines formed upon the principle of
explofion for the deftruaion of the human race, are
well known j and if we cannot call thefe ujeful, w e
muft allow them at leaft to be neceffary evils. For the
produ£fion of explofions, gunpowder is the only lub-
ftance that has yet been found to anfwer 5 neVerthelefs,
as its ufe is attended with confiderable expence, feyeral
attempts have been made to find out a cheap fubftitute
for it.1 One of the moft remarkable of thefe was by
mixing fmall quantities uf water, enclofed in little blad¬
ders or fome eafily deftruaible vehicles, along with a
charge of powHer. By this contrivance it was hoped
that the water being converted into vapour when the
powder was inflamed, would augment the force of the
txplofion : but inftead of this, it was fouhd greatly to
diminifti it. The reafon was evident, viz. that the con-
verfion of the water into fleam required fo much of the
latent heat of the inflamed gunpowder, that enough ryas
not left to give the necefiary expanfion to the aerial
fluid produced. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
gafes has alfo been tried 5 but the explofion here has
always been found too weak. In mines, indeed, very
terrible effefts are produced by fuch a mixture, but in
thefe the quantity is immenfe } fo that the comparative
rveaknefs of the mixture cannot be difcovered. Elec¬
tricity therefore feems to be the only refource we have 5
except by adding ingredients to gunpowder which may
increafe the ftrength of it. There can be no doubt in¬
deed that the eleflric fluid is pofleffed of lufficient Eqflcfion
ftrength to perform every thing we could defire; and E
eleftricians have fuppoled, perhaps juftly enough, that t;on>
a cannon charged with water might, by means of elec-      
tricity, become more dangerous than one charged with
gunpowder : but this fluid is fo exceedingly capricious,
fo imperceptible and unmanageable, that the ufe of it
cannot as yet be thought practicable, nor in all proba¬
bility ever wall be fo.
The effefts of explofions, when violent, are felt at a Effefts of
confiderable diftance, by reafon of the concuffions they explofions
give to the atmofphere ; for, as has been already mofn|iere
~    —r ' ,' r 1 • i /i -'i m mofphere
ed, all of them a<ft upon the atmofpherical. fluid with and elcc.
the very fame force they exert upon terreftrial fubftan-tric fluid,
ces fubjedled to their adtion. Sir W ixliam Hamilton
relates, that at the explofions of Vcfuvius in 1767, the
doors and windows of the houfes at Naples flew open if
unbolted, and one door was burft open though it had
been locked. A great quantity of gunpowder being
put into the ditch of a fortified city, and let on fire, de-
ftroyed part of the wall, and broke down one of the
gates. The blowing up of powder magazines or pov\-
der mills will deftroy buildings and kill people, though
certainly without the reach of the flame, and untouched
by any part of the ftiattered magazine or mill. But the
moft curious effeCf is, that they eleffriiy the air, and
even glafs windows, at a confiderable diftance.^ ^ This is
always obfervable in firing the guns of the Tower at
London ; and fbme years ago, after an explofion of
fome powder mills in the neighbourhood of that city, a
great number of people were alarmed by a rattling and
breaking of their china ware ; which by the vulgar was
taken for a fupernatural phenomenon, but undoubtedly
was oAvmg to lome commotion in the elecnical fluid
from the violent concuflion of the atmofphere. In this
refpeft, however, the effeas of elearical explofions
themfelves are moft remarkable, though not. in the un¬
common way juft mentioned ; but it is certain, that the
influence of a flafli of lightning is diffufed for a great
way round the place ■where the explofion happens, pro¬
ducing many very perceptible changes both on the ani¬
mal and vegetable creation.
EXPONENT, in Algebra, the fame with index.
See Algebra. _ . .
Exponent is alfo ufed in arithmetic, m tne fame
fenfe as index or logarithm.
Exponential Calculus, the method of differencing,
or finding the fluxions of exponential quantities, and
of fumming up thofe differences, or finding their
fluents. • i r J
Exponential Curve, is that whofe nature is defined
or expreffed by an exponential equation ; as the curve
denoted by a*—y, or by xv~y. .
Exponential Equation, is one in which is contained
an exponential quantity; as the equation w b, or
xx—a b, &c.
Exponential Quantity, is that whofe power is a va¬
riable quantity ; as'the expreflion c1, or x\ Exponen¬
tial quantities are of feveral degrees and orders, accord¬
ing to the number of exponents or powers, one over
another.
EXPORTATION, the {hipping and carrying out
of the kingdom wares and commodities for other coun¬
tries. See the articles COMMERCE, Trade, and Siiir-
PING‘ ' V' EXPOSING,
EXP [39
Expcfmg EXPOSING, the act of fetting a thing to public
Ex ofitor v*ew* In Ectmiih church, the facrament is laid to
i be expofed when it is ihovvn in public uncovered on fef-
tival days, and during the time of plenary indul¬
gences. *
Exposing is aifo uied with a farther latitude ; thus
we lay, It is prohibited to expoi'e falfe and cli})ped mo¬
ney. Such a houfe Hands very high, and has a delici¬
ous profpefl •, but it is expofed to all the four winds.
Such a city being on the frontiers, and not fortified, is
expofed to the inlults of every party of forces.
Exposing of Children, a barbarous cuftom praclifed
by moil of the ancients excepting the Thebans, who
had an exprefs law to the contrary, whereby it was
made capital to expofe children ; ordaining at the fame
time, that fuch as were not in a condition to educate
them fhould bring them to the magiftrates, in order to
be brought up at the public expence. Among the
other Greeks, when a child was born, it was laid on
the ground •, and if the father defigned to educate his
child, he immediately took it up } but if he forbore to
do this, the child was carried away and expofed. The
Lacedemonians indeed had a different cutlom •, for
with them all new-born children were brought before
certain triers, wdio were fome of the graveit men in
their own tribe, by whom the infants wTere carefully
viewed •, and if they were found lufty and w ell favour¬
ed, they gave orders for their education, and allotted a
certain proportion of land for their maintenance } but if
weakly or deformed, they ordered them to be call into
a deep cavern in the earth, near the mountain Tayge-
tus, as thinking it neither for the good of the children
themfelves nor for the public intereft, that defe'J’ive
children fhould be brought up. Many perfons expofed
their children only becaufe they were not in a condition
to educate them, having no intention that they fhould
perifh. It was the unhappy fate of daughters efpecially
to be thus treated, as requiring more charges to educate
and fettle them in the world than fons.
The parents frequently tied jewels and rings to the
children they expofed, or any other thing whereby
they might afterwards diicover them, if Providence
took care for their fafety. Another defign in adorn¬
ing thefe infants w7as either to encourage fuch as found
them to nourilh and educate them, if alive, or to give
them human burial if dead. 1 he places where it was
ufual to expofe children were fuch as people frequented
mold. This was done in order that they might be
found, and taken up by compaffionate perfons who
were*-in circumftances to be at the expence of their
education. With this intention the Egyptians and Ro¬
mans chofe the banks of rivers, and the Greeks the
high-ways.
EXPOSITION, in general, denotes the fetting a
thing open to public view7. See EXPOSING.
Exposition1-, in a literary fenfe, the explaining an
author, paffage, writing, or the like, and fetting their
meaning in an obvious and clear light.
* • EXPOSITOR, or Expository, a title which fome
writers have given to a leiTer kind of dictionaries or vo¬
cabularies, ferving to expound or explain the meaning
of the obfcure or difficult wmrds of a language. It is
alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with commentary and para-
phrafe.
i ] EXT
EXPOSTULATION, in Rhetoric, a warm addrefs Expoduk-
to a perfon who has done another fome injury, repre- t'on
fenting the wrong in the itrongeft terms, and demand- £xtgnfor
ing redrefs. ■  1
EXPOSURE, in Gardening, the fituation of a gar¬
den wall, or the like, with refpect to the points of the
compafs, as fouth or eaft. See Gardening.
Ex-poJl-faBo, in Law, denotes fomething done after
another thing that was committed before. An eftate
granted may be made good by matter ex-pofl-faBo, that
was not fo at firft by eledlion, &c.
EXPRESSED oils, fuch oils as are obtained from
bodies only by preffing. See Chemistry and Mate¬
ria MEDICA Index.
EXPRESSION, in Rhetoric, the elocution, diclion,
or choice of words in a difcourfe. See Language,
Oratory, and Poetry.
Expression, in Mujic. See Composition. «
Expression, in Painting, a natural and lively re-
prefentation of the fubjedt, or of the feveral objects in¬
tended to be fhown.
The expreffion confifts chiefly in reprefenting the hu¬
man body and all its parts, in the aftion fuitable to it :
in exhibiting in the face the feveral paflions proper to
the figures, and obferving the motions they imprefs on.
the external parts. * See Painting.
Expression, Theatrical. See Declamation, Ar¬
ticle iv.
EXPRESSION, in Medicine, ChemiJlry, &c. the
adl of expreflion or extracting the juices or oils of plants,,,
fruits, or other matters, by fqueezing, wringing, or
preffing them in a prefs. After having let the herbs
infufe a due time, their juice muft be drawn by expref¬
fion in a linen cloth or by a prefs.
EXPULSION, in a general fenfe, the adt ot vio¬
lently driving a perfon out of any city, fociety, &c.
Expulsion, in Medicine, the act whereby any thing
is forcibly driven out of the place in which it is : thus
we fay, the expullion of the fetus in delivery.
EXSICCATION, (formed of gy and ficcus, “ dry,”)
in Chemijlnj, &c. the act of drying up c* evaporating
the moiflure of a thing.
EXSPIRATION, in Phyfw, that part of refpira-
tion by which the air is expelled or driven out of the
lungs. See Anatomy Index and Respiration.
EXSUDATION, or Exudation, the aft offweat-
ing out. In which manner, gums, ballams, &c. are
ufually produced from trees.
EXTANT, fomething that ftill fubfifls, or is in be- -
ing. It is but part of the hiltory of Livy, of the writ¬
ings of Cicero, Caefar, &c. that are extant, the reft are
loft. We have nothing extant of Socrates, though he
w-rote a great deal.
EXTASY, a tranfport wffiich fufpends the funftion
of the fenfes, by the intenfe contemplation of fome ex¬
traordinary or fupernatural objeft.
Extasy, in Medicine, a fpecies of catalepfy, when
a perfon perfeftly remembers, after the paroxyfm is over,
the ideas he conceived during the time it lafted.
EXTENSION, in Philofophy, one of the common
and effential properties of body ; or that by which it
poffeffes or takes up lome part of univerfal fpace, which
is called the place of that body. See Metaphysics.
EXTENSOR, an appellation given to feveral
mulclcs, . *
EXT
[ 392 1
Extortion.
Extent mufcles, from their extending or ftretching the paits
to which they belong. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
EXTENT, in Law, is ufed in a double fenle. Some¬
times it lignifies a writ or command to the fheriff for
the valuing of lands or tenements ", and fometimes the
aa of the fheriff, or other commiflioner, upon this
writ. . or
Old and New Extent, in Scots Law. See EaW
Index.
EXTENUATION, the aa of diminilhing or lef-
fening the bulk or fubftance of a thing, efpecially of the
human body. Fevers, agues, long abftinences, &c.
occafion great extenuations or emaciations.
Extenuation, is alfo a figure in rhetoric, oppofite
to the hyperbole. The Greeks call it xHeltis-
EXTERIOR, or External. See External.
EXTERMINATION, in general, the extirpating
-or deftroying fomething. .
Extermination or Exterminating, m Algebra,
is ufed for taking away. Thus algebraifts fpeak of ex¬
terminating furds, fraaions, and unknown quantities
out of equations. See Maclaur. Algebr. Part I. Chap,
i 2. where we have fome general theorems for the exter¬
minating unknown, quantities in given equations.
EXTERNAL, a term of relation applied to the
furface or outfide of a body, or that part wdiich appears
or prefents itfelf to the eye, touch, &c. in contradiilinc-
tion to internal. _ . .
External is alfo ufed to fignify any thing that is
without fide a man, or that is not within himfelf, par¬
ticularly ifi his mind in which fenfe wre fay, external
obje£fs, &c.
EXTINCTION, in general, denotes the putting
out or deflroying fomething, as a fire or flame. See
Extinguifhing of Fire.
EXTINGUISHMENT, in Lazv, is a confolidation
qr union, as wThere one has due to him a yearly rent out
of lands, and afterwards purchafes the lands out of
which the rent arifes ; in this cafe, both the property
•and the rent being united in one pofieflbr, the rent is
faid to be extinguifhed.
EXTIRPATION, (formed of ex and firfis,
“ root,”) the aft of pulling up or deftroying a thing
to the very roots. Among the prayers of the Romilh
jubilee, there is one for the extirpation of herefy._
Extirpation is alfo ufed, in Surgery, for cutting off
any part entirely j as a wen, &c. or the eating it away,
as a wart, &c. by corrofive medicines.
EXTISPEX, in antiquity, the perfon who drew
prefages from viewing the entrails of animals offered in
facnfice.
EXTORTION, in Law, is an illegal manner of
wrefting any thing from a man, either by force, me¬
nace, or authority. It is alfo the exaftion of unlawful
ufury, winning by unlaw fuf games, and taking more than
is due under pretence of right, as exceflive tolls in mil¬
lers, &c.
At the common law, extortion is punifhable by fine
and imprifonment ; and the ftatute of 3 Eliz. 1. c. 30.
has enafted, that officers of juftice guilty of extortion
for the expedition of bufinefs, &c. ihall render to the
party treble value. There are likewife divers other fta-
£utes for punifliing extortions of iheriffs, bailiffs, gamers,
£ X T
peace, attorneys,
folici- Extra#
clerks of the aflize and of the
tors, &c. . . r 1 n r »L Extravafa-
EXTRACT, m Pharmacy, is a folution of the tion_
purer parts of a mixed body infpiffated, by diftillation v 1
or evaporation, neatly to the confiftence of honey*
Extract, in matters of literature, is fomething co¬
pied or colle&ed from a book or paper.
EXTRACTION, in Chemiftry and Pharmacy, the
operation by which effences, tinftures, &c. are drawn
from natural bodies. _ > .
Extraction, in Surgery, is the drawing any ioreign
matter out of the body by the hand, or by the help oi
inftruments. See Surgery.
Extraction, in genealogy, implies the ftock or
family from which a perfon is defcended. See X)E-
SCENT.
Extract ion of Roots, in Algebra and Arithmetic,
the methods of finding the roots of given numbers or
quantities. See Algebra and Artihmetic.
EXTRACTOR, in Midwifery, an inftrument or
forceps fe>r extracting children by the head.
EXTRAJUDICIAL, fomething done out of the
proper court, or the ordinary courfe of lawn As wffien
judgment is given in a caufe, or cafe, not depending in
in that court where fuch judgment is given, or wherein
the jud£e has no jurifdiClion.
EXTRAORDINARII, amongft the Romans, was
a body of men confifting of a third part of the foreign
horfe and a fifth of the foot, which was ieparated from
the reft of the forces borrowed from the confederate
ftates wdth great policy and caution, to prevent any
defign that they might poflibly entertain againft the
natural forces. A more choice body of men were
drawn from among the extraordinarii under tue name
of ableBi. See Ablecti.
EXTRAORDINARY, fomething out of the com¬
mon courfe.
Extraordinary Couriers, are thofe fent exprels oa
fome urgent occafion. - r
Extraordinary Ambajfador, or envoy, is luch a one
as is fent to treat or negotiate fome fpecial and import¬
ant affair, as a marriage, a treaty, confederacy, &.C.
or even on occafion of fome ceremony, as condolence,
congratulation, &c.
A gazette, journal, or other new’fpaper extraordinary,
is that publiftied after fome great and notable event,
containing the detail or particulars thereof, winch are
not found in the ordinary papers.
EXTRAVAGANTES, thofe decretal epiftle*
which were publilhed after the Clement, inks.
They were fo called, becaufe at firft they were_ not
dicefted or ranged with the other papal conftitutions,
but feemed to be, as it were, detached from the canon
law. They continued to be called by the fame name
when they were afterwards inferted in the body of the
canon law. The firft extravagantes are thofe of John
XXII. fucceffor of Clement V. The laft colledhon
was brought down to the year 1483, and was called
the common extravagantes, notwithftanding that they
were likewife incorporated with the reft of the canon
a EXTRAVASATION, in contufions, fiffures,. de-
preflions, fraaures, and other accidents of the cranium,
is when one or more of the blood-veffels, chat are dn
1
E X U
Estreme ftnbutedin the dura mater, is broken or divided, where-
Exuvi ^ t^lere hich a dil'charge of blood as greatly oppref-
« i:e' , fes the brain, and diiturbs its office ; frequently bringing
on violent pains and other mifchiefs; and at length
death itfelf, unlefs the patient is timely relieved. See
Surgery and Medicine Index.
EXTREME, is applied to the laft and outermoft
part of any thing ; or that which finiffies and terminates
it on that ltde.
Extremes, in Logic, denote the two extreme terms
of the conclufion of a fyllogifm 5 viz. the predicate and
fubjeci. They are called extremes, from their relation
to another term, which is a medium or mean between
them. The predicate, as being likewife had in the
firlf propolition, is Called the ?jiajus extremum, greater
extreme j and the fubjedt, as being put in the fecond
or minor propolition, is called the minus extremum, lef-
ier extreme. Thus, in the fyllogifm, man is an ani¬
mal ; Peter is a man, therefore Peter is an animal j the
word animal is the greater extreme, Peter the lefs ex¬
treme, and man the medium. See Syli.ogism.
Extreme and mean proportion, in Geometry, is when
a line is fo divided, that the whole line is to the greater
fegment, as that fegment is to the other : Or, as it is ex-
preffed by Euclid, when the line is fo divided, that the
redfangle under the whole line, and the lefier fegment, is
equal to the fquare of the greater fegment.
Extreme XJnBion. See Unction.
EXTREMITIES of figures, in Painting, is ufed
for the head, hands, and feet. Thefe ffiould be drawn
with more nicety and exactnefs, or more terminated
than other parts ; and thus help to render the adlion
more expreffive.
EXTRINSIC, among metaphylicians, is taken in
various fenfes. Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not be¬
longing to the elfence of another 5 in which fenfe, the
efficient caufe and end of a thing are faid to be extrin-
fic. Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not being contain¬
ed within the capacity of another ; in which fenfe, thofe
caufes are called extrinfic which introduce fomething
into a fubjefl from without, as when a fire introduces
heat. Sometimes it fignifies a thing added or applied
to another 5 in which fenle accidents and adherents
are faid to be extrinfic to the fu^pjedls to which they
adhere. Sometimes the vifion is faid to be extrinfic
from fome form which does not exilt in that thing,
but is adjacent to it, or by fome means or other with¬
out it.
EXTUBERANCES, in Medicine, are fwellings or
rifings up in the fielh or other parts of the body.
EXUBERANCE, (compounded of ex and uber,
“ plentiful;”) in Rhetoric, a redundancy. See Re¬
dundance and Pleonasm.
EXUDATION. See Exsudation.
EXVERRiE, in antiquity, a kind of brulh ufed in
cleanfing houfes out of. which a dead perfon had been
carried.
EXULCERATION, in
caufing or producing ulcers.
r*ates the inteftines 5 corrofive
fkin.
Exulceration is fometimes alfo ufed for an ulcer
itfelf; but more generally for thofe beginning erofions
which wear away the fubflance, and form ulcers.
EXUVIAE, among naturalilts, denote the call off
Vol. VIII. Part I.
1 393 1
E Y M
Ev mouth.
Medicine, the act of
Thus, arfenic exulce-
humours exulcerate the
parts or coverings of animals, as the Ikins of ferpents, Exuviae
caterpillars, and other infedts.
ExuviiE is alfo ufed for fome {hells and other marine
bodies, frequently found in the bowels of the earth j
fuppofed to have been depolited there at the deluge,
as being the real fpoils of once living creatures. See
Deluge, Conchology, and Geology.
EY, in our old writers, the fame with infula, “ an
ifland 5” from which comes eyet, a fmall illand or illet,
vulgarly called eyght.
EYCK. See Bruges, ^ohn of.
EYE, in Anatomy. See Anatomy Index.
Anew bom child lhall be obferved, perhaps, never t®
keep its eyes fixed on any one objedi, but continually
changing from one to another, and if you put your
hand before them, the child will not wink. Hence iome
have thought, that new-born infants have no fight :
but this is a miftake \ and the true reafon why their
eyes are in perpetual motion is, that they have not yet
acquired the habit of examining one thing at once with
their eyes : their not wanking at the approach of the
hand, arifes from their want of experience how eafily
their eyes may be hurt; but in a few days they get the
habit of wanking, fo that afterwards their eyes do it
fpontaneoully at the approach of danger.
Artificial eyes are made of concave plates of gold, fil-
ver, or glafs, and are ftained fo as to refemble the natu¬
ral eye. They muff, when fixed in the orbit, be taken
out and cleaned every night, and replaced in the morn¬
ing. If no more of a difeafed eye is removed than what
is preternaturally projedled, or if enough is left to pre-
ferve the mufcles unhurt, the artificial eye wall have a
little motion from the mufcles that remain. If the eye
does not fit well, it irritates and inflames the other eye ■
in which cafe lay it afide, until one can be had that
fits better.
Bull's ErEyin AJlronomy. See Aldebaran.
Ete of a Block, in naval affairs, that part of the rope-
ftrop which is faftened to fome neceffary place in the
ffiip : the ftrop is a fort of wreath or rope formed into
a ring, and fixed round the block for the double con¬
venience of ftrengthening the block and faftening it in
any place where it is wanted.
Eye, in Agriculture and Gardening, fignifies a little
bud or ffioot, inferted into a tree by w’ay of graft. See
Engrafting.
Eye of a Tree, a fmall pointed knot to which the
leaves ftick, and from which the ftioots or fprigs pro¬
ceed. See Gemma.
Eye, a town of Suffolk, 12 miles from Ipfvvich and
91 from London. It may be called an ifland, becaufe
it is furrounded by a brook near the borders of Norfolk,
in the road between Ipfwich and Norwich. It was in¬
corporated by King John j has twro bailiffs, 10 princi¬
pal burgeffes, 24 common council, a recorder, and town
clerk. It is a mean-built place, with narrow ftreets.
The chief manufacture is bone-lace and fpinning. Here
is, however, a large handfome church j and near it are
the ruinous walls of an ancient caftle and monaftery.
The market is on Saturday, the fair on Whit-Monday.
It has only fent members to parliament fince the reign
of Edward IV.
ErE-Bright. See Euphrasia, Botany Index.
EYMOUTH, a tqwn of Scotland in the county of
Benvick, formerly fortified to curb the garrifon of Ber-
3 D wick,
E Z E
[ 394 ]
FAB
wick, from which place it is diftant fix miles. W. Long,
i. 50. N. Lat. 55. 50. It gave title of baron in the
kingdom of Scotland to Churchill, afierwards the great
duke of Marlborough ; but he having no male iffue, it
became extinfl in him. , r ,
EYRAC, or Irac, Arabia, a province of Turkey
in Alia, 345 miles in length, and 190 in breadth 5 of
which Bagdad is the capital.
Eyrac Jgemi, the principal province of Perfia, an¬
ciently called Parthia.
EYRE, or Eire, in Law, the court of itinerant ju-
ftices. See Assise. •
EYRIE, in Falconry, a brood or neft, a place where
hawks build and hatch their young.
EZEKIEL, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
referring chiefly to the degenerate manners and corrup¬
tions of the Jews of thofe times. It abounds with fine
fentences and rich comparifons, and difcovers a good
deal of learning in profane matters.
Ezekiel was carried captive to Babylon with Jehoi-
achin, and began his prophecies in the fifth year of the
captivity. lie was cotemporary with Jeremiah, who
prophefied at the fame time in Judea. He foretold
many events, particularly the deftru&ion of the temple,
the fatal cataflrophe of thofe who revolted from Baby * _
Ion to Egypt, and the happy return of the Jews to their
own land.
EZION-gaber. See Asiongaber.
EZRA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament j
comprehending the hiftory of the Jewrs from the time
of Cyrus’s edidh for their return, to the 20th year of
Artaxerxes Longimanus. It fpecifies the number ol
Jews who returned, and Cyrus’s proclamation, for the
rebuilding the temple, together with the laying its
foundation, the obftrudfion it met with, and the finifh-
ing thereof in the reign of Darias.
The illuftrious author of this book was alfo the re-
ftorer and publifher of the canon of the Old 1 eftament.
See Bible.
The books of Ezra, called in the Englilh verfion the
Fir/f and Second Book of Efdras, though held by lome,
particularly the Greeks, for canonical, are thrown bj
the Engliih church into the number of apocryphal-
hooks, being only extant in Greek.
Ezion*
gaber,
Ezra.
F.. Tf THE fourth confonant, and fixth letter of the
''V—~ -L 9 alphabet.. The letter F is borrowed from the
digamma or double gamma of the ALolians, as is evi¬
dent from the infcription on the pedeftal of the Colof-
fus at Delos •, and was undoubtedly formed from the
old Hebrew vau: and though this letter is not found in
the modern Greek alphabet, yet it was in the ancient
one, from whence the Latins received it and tranfinit-
ed it to us.
It is formed by a ftrong expreflion of the breath, and
joining at the fame time the upper teeth and under lip.
It has but one fort of found, which has a great affinity
with v and ph, the letter being written for it by us in
all Greek words, as philofophy, &c. though the Italians
write Yifilofofia. #
The Romans for fome time ufed an inverted F, j,
infteacLof V confonant, which had no peculiar figure
ijn their alphabets Thus, in inferiptions we meet with
' TERMINA^rr, DLjI, &c. Lipfius and others fay,
that it was the emperor Claudius who introduced the
ufe of the inverted digamma, or j[.: but it did not
long fubfift after his death; for Quintilian, obferves,
that it was not ufed in his time.
F, or FA, in Mufic, is the fourth note in riling in this
order of the gamut, ut, re, mi, fa. It likewife de¬
notes one of the Greek keys in mufic, deftined for the
. . f 77-
F, in phyfical prefeription Hands for - Fiat, or
“ Let it be done.” Thus/ s. a. Hgnifiesfatfecundiim
artem.
F, was alfo a numeral letter fignifying 40 j, accord¬
ing to the verfe,
Sexto quaterdenos gerit quee dijlat ab alpha. Faba
And when a dalh was added at top,- thus F, it figni- ||
fied forty thoufand. ■ , - —
F, in the civil law. Two Ps joined together thus,/,
fignify the Pandeas. See Pandects^
F, in the civil law, a ftigma or brand put upon fe¬
lons with a hot iron, on their being admitted to the be¬
nefit of clergy y by flat. 4 Hen. VII. c. 13.
FABA. See Vicia, Botany Index.
FAB AGO, a fpecies of bean-caper. See Zygo-
phyllum, Botany Index.
FABER. See Zeus, Ichthyology Index^
FABIAN, Robert, an alderman of the Hty of
London, and Iheriff in the year 1494 ) was a perfon of
learning for the time he lived in, a good poet, and
author of a Chronicle of England and-France, entitled
The Concordance of Stories, in two volumes folio, be-
ginning with Brute, and ending with the 2Cth of-
Henry VII. 1504. It contains feveral curious parti¬
culars relative to the city of London* not elfewhere to
be found. Stow calls it “ a painful labour, to the
great honour of the city and of the whole realm”: We
are told that Cardinal Wolfey caufed as many copies
of this book as he could procure to be burned, be-
caufe the author had made too clear a difeovery of
the large revenues of the clergy. Fabian died in
I ^ I 2*
FABII, a noble and powerful family at Rome, who
derived their name from fab a, a bean, becaufe fome of
their anceftors cultivated this pulfe. They were once
fo numerous that they 1,00k upon themfelves to wage
a.
[ 395 ] FAB
Fabius. a war againft the Veientes. They came to a general
engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family
eonfifting of 306 men, were totally flain, in the year of
Rome 277. There only remained one whofe tender
age had detained him at Rome, and from him arofe
the noble Fabii in the following ages.
FABIUS, Maximus Rullianus, was firft of the
Fabii who obtained the furname of Maximus, for lef-
fening the power of the populace at ele&ions. He
was mafter of horfe : and his victory over the Samnites
in that capacity nearly coft him his life, becaufe he
engaged the enemy without the command of the di£ta-
tor. He was five times conful, twice dictator, and
once cenfor. He triumphed over feven different nations
in the neighbourhood of Rome, and rendered himfelf
illuftrious by his patriotifm.
Fabius Rujlicus, an hiftorian in the age of Clau¬
dius and Nero. He was intimate with Seneca j and the
encomiums which Tacitus pafi'es upon his ftyle, make
us regret the lofs of his compofitions.
_ Qc F abius Maximus, a celebrated Roman, who
from a dull and inaftive childhood was raifed to the
higheft offices of the ftate. In his firft confulffiip he
obtained a victory over Liguria •, and the fatal battle of
Thrkfymenus occafioned his election to the diftator-
ffiip. In this important office he began to oppofe
Hannibal, not by fighting him in the open field, like
his predeceflfors, but he continually harafl'ed his army
by countermarches and ambufeades, from which he re¬
ceived the furname of CunBator or Delayer. Hannibal
lent him word, “ That if he was as great a captain as
he would be thought, he ought to come into the plain
and give him battle.” But Fabius coldly replied,
*l That if he was as great a captain as he would be
thought, he would do wrell to force him to fight.”
Such operations for the commander of the Roman ar¬
mies gave offence to fome 5 and Fabius was even accuf-
ed of cowardice. He, however, continued firm in his
firft refolutions j and patiently bore to fee his mafter of
horfe raifed to lhare the diftatorial dignity with him-
fclf by means of his enemies at home. When he had
laid down his office of dictator, his fucceffors for a
while followed his plan *, but the raffinefs of Varro, and
his contempt for the operations of Fabius, occafioned
the fatal battle of Cannae. Tarentum was obliged to
furrender to his arms after the battle of Cannae 5 and
on that occafion the Carthaginian army obferved that
Fabius was the Hannibal of Rome. When he had
made an agreement with Hannibal for the ranfom of
the captives, which was totally difapproved by the
Roman fenate, he fold all his eftates to pay the mo¬
ney, rather than forfeit his word to the enemy. The
bold propofal of young Scipio to go and carry the
war from Italy to Africa, was rejefted by Fabius as
chimerical and dangerous. He did not, however, live
to fee the fuccefs of the Roman arms under Scipio,
and the conqueft of Carthage by meafures which he
treated with contempt and heard with indignation.
He died in the 100th year of his age, after he had
been five times conful, and twice honoured with a
triumph. The Romans were fo fenfible of his great
merit and fervices, that the expences of his funeral
were defrayed from the public treafury. His fon bore
the fame name, and (bowed himfelf worthy of his noble
father’s virtues. During his confulffiip he received a
vifit from his father on horfeback in the camp. The Fainas
fon ordered his father to difmount} and the old man I!
cheerfully obeyed, embracing his fon, and faying, “ I riS1 c
wiffied to know whether you knew what it is to be
conful.” He died before his father, and Cun<Elator
with the moderation of a philofopher delivered a funeral
oration over the dead body of his fon.
Fabius, ftyled PiBor, a Roman general and hifto¬
rian. He firft introduced painting at Rome $ and hav¬
ing caufed the wralls of the temple of Health to be
painted, fome authors have erroneoufly reckoned him
a painter. He died about 216 B. C.
Fable, a tale, or feigned narration, defigned either
to inftrurt or divert, difguifed under the allegory of an
aftion, &c.
Fables were the firft pieces of wit that made their
appearance in the world j and have continued to be
highly valued, not only in times of the greateft fimpli-
city, but in the molt polite ages of the world. Jo-
tham’s fable of the trees is the oldeft that is extant,
and as beautiful as any that have been jnade fince. Na¬
than’s fable of the poor man is next in antiquity. We
find iEfop in the moft diftant ages of Greece 5 and in
the early days of the Roman commonwealth, we read
of a mutiny appeafed by the fable of the belly and the
members. As fables had their rife in the very infancy
of learning, they never fiouriffied more than when
learning was at its greateft height; witnefs Horace,
Boileau, and Fontaine.
Fable is the fineft way of giving counfel, and moft
univerfally pleafing, becaufe leaft (hocking *, for, in the
reading of a fable, a man thinks he is diredling himfelf,
whilft he is following the diclates of another, and con-
fequently is not fenfible of that which»is the moft un-
pleafing circumftanee in advice. Befides, the mind is
never fo much pleafed as when (he exerts herfelf in any
aftion that gives her an idea of her own abilities j this
natural pride of the foul is very much gratified in the
reading of fable.
Fable, is alfo ufed for the plot of an epic or dra¬
matic poem; and is, according to Ariftotle, the prin¬
cipal part, and, as it were, the foul of the poem. See
Poetry.
FABRI, Honorius, a laborious .Tefuit born in the
diocefe of Bellay, diftinguifhed himfelf by his (kill in
philofophy and the mathematics, and by writing a
great number of books ; the moft curious of which
treat of geometry, optics, the loadftone, the motion of
the earth, the ebbing and flowing of the fea, &c. He
died at Rome iii 1688.
FABRIANO, Gentile da, painter of hiftory, was
born at Verona in 1332, and became a difciple of Gio¬
vanni da Fiefole. In that early age of painting he
rendered himielf very famous, and was employed to a-
dorn a great number of churches and palaces at Flo¬
rence, Urbino, Siena, Perufia, and Rome, but parti¬
cularly in the Vatican } and one piclure of his, repre-
fenting the Virgin and Child, attended by .Tofeph,
which is preferved in the church of S. Maria Maggiore,
was highly commended by Michael Angelo. By or¬
der of the doge and fenate of Venice, he painted a
pirture in the great council chamber, which was. con-
fidered as fo extraordinary a performance, that his em¬
ployers granted him a penfion for life, and conferred on
him the higheft honour of their ftate, which was, the
3 D 2 privilege
Fabric,
Fabncius.
FAB [ 396 ] FAC
privilege of wearing the habit of a noble Venetian.
He died in 141 2.
FABRIC, in general, denotes the ftru&ure or con-
ftru&ton of any thing j but particularly of buildings,
as a church, hall, houfe, &c. See Architecture.
Fabric Lands, thole formerly given towards re¬
building and repairing of cathedrals and other churches j
for anciently almoft every body gave more or lefs, by
his will, to the fabric of the parilh church where he
dwelt.
FABRICIUS, C. a celebrated Roman, who in
his firft confullhip, year of Rome 470, obtained feve-
Tal victories over the Samnites and Lucanians, and was
honoured with a triumph. The riches which were ac¬
quired in thofe battles were immenfe, the foldiers were
liberally rewarded by the conful, and the treafury was
enriched with 400 talents, I wo years after, Fabri-
cius went as ambaffador to Pyrrhus, and refufed with
contempt prefents, and heard with indignation offers,
which might have corrupted the fidelity of a lefs vir¬
tuous citizen. Pyrrhus had occafion to admire the
magnanimity of Fabricius •, but his aftonilhment was
more powerfully awakened when he faw him make a
difcovery of the perfidious offers of his phyfician, who
pledged himfelf to the Roman general for a fum of
money to poifon his royal mafter. To this greatnefs
of foul was added the moll confummate knowledge of
military affairs, and the greateft fimplicity of manners.
Fabricids never ufed rich plate at his table. A fmall fait*
cellar, the feet of which were of horn, was the only fil-
ver veffel which appeared in his houfe. This contempt
of luxury and ufelefs ornaments Fabricius wifhed to in-
fpire among the people ; and during his cenforfhip he
banifhed from the fenate Cornelius Ruffinus, who had
been twice conful and dictator, becaufe he kept in his
houfe more than ten pounds weight of filver plate.
Such were the manners of the conqueror of Pyrrhus,
who obferved that he .wifhed rather to command thofe
that had money, than polfefs it himfelf. He lived and
died in the greateft poverty. His body was buried at
the public charge, and the Roman people were obliged
to give a dowry to his twro daughters when they had ar¬
rived at years of maturity.
Fabricius, George, a learned German, born at
Chemnitz in Mifnia, in After a liberal educa¬
tion, he vifited Italy in quality of tutor to a young
nobleman and, examining all the remains of antiqui¬
ty with great accuracy, compared them with their de-
fcriptions in Latin writers. The refult of thefe obfer-
vations wras his wTork entitled Roma, containing a de-
fcription of that city. He afterwards fettled at Mife-
num, where he conducted a great fchool to the time of
his death in 1571* He was alfo the author of a great
number of facred Latin poems, wrote feven books of
the Annals of Mifnia, three of the Annals of Meijfen,
and Travels.
Fabricius, Jerom, a celebrated phyfician in the
latter end of the 16th century (furnamed Aquapendente,
from the place of his birth), wras the difciple and fuc-
ceffor of Fallopius. He chiefly applied himfelf to for¬
gery and anatomy, which he profeffed at Padua for 40
years with extraordinary reputation. The republic of
Venice fettled a large penfion upon him, and honoure'd
him with a gold chain and a flatue. He died in 1603 }
leaving behind him feveral works which are much Fabricias
efteemed. ra|e>
Fabricius, ’jolin Albert, one of the moft learned  
and laborious men of his age, w7as born at Leipfic in
1668. He was chofen profelfor of eloquence at Ham¬
burgh in 1699, and was made doftor of divinity at
Kiel. His works are numerous 5 and he died at Ham¬
burgh in i 736, after a life fpent in the fevereft literary
application to colledl and publilh valuable remains of
ancient learning.
Fabricius, Vincent, born at Hamburgh in 1613,
wTas a good poet, a great orator, an able phyfician, and
a learned civilian. He was for fome time counfellor
to the bilhop of Lubec, and afterward* burgomafter
and fyndic of the city of Dantzic } from whence he
was 13 times fent deputy into Poland, wrhere he died
at Warfaw in 1657, during the diet of that kingdom.
The moft complete edition of Fabriciusas poems and
other works was publilhed at Leipfic in 1685, under
the dire&ion of his fon Frederic Fabricius.
Fabricius, Baron, one of the fineft gentlemen of
his time, and known to the public by his letters relat¬
ing to the tranfadlions of Charles XII. of Sweden dur¬
ing his refidence in the Ottoman empire, wTas defcended
from a good family in Germany. He was taken early
into the fervice of the court of Holftein } and was
fent in a public character to the king of Swxden whilft
he was at Bender ; where he foon acquired the good
graces of that prince. He accompanied him in his
exercifes j gave him a turn for reading } and it was out
of his hand Charles fnatched Boileau’s fatires, when
he tore out thofe that reprefented Alexander the Great
as a madman. Fabricius was alfo in favour wdth Sta-
niflaus, and with our King George I. whom he accom¬
panied in his laft journey to Hanover, and was with
him when he died. A tranflation of his letters was
publilhed in London 1761.
FABROT, Charles Hannibal, one of the moft ce¬
lebrated civilians of his time, was born at Aixin 1681 j
and acquired fan extraordinary Ikill in the civil and
canon law, and in the belles lettres. He publifhed the
Bafilicce, or Conftitutions of the Emperors of the Eaft,
in Greek and Latin, with learned notes, in feven vols.
folio } and editions of Cedrenus, Nicetas, Anajlqfeus Bi-
bliothecarius, Conftantine Manaffes, and Cujas, whh learn¬
ed and curious notes.
FABULOUS, fomething confifting of, or conne&-
ed with, a fable.
Fabulous Age, among ancient hiftorians. See
Age.
FACE, the furface, or firft fide which a body pre¬
fents to the eye. We fay, dncface of the earth, of the
waters, &c. Polyhedrons have feveralA die,
or cube, has fix faces.
Face, is particularly ufed for the vifage of an ani¬
mal, and efpecially of man ; and comprehends, in the
latter, all that part of the head which is not covered
with the common long hair. The Latins call it facies,
vultus, os, &c.
The human face is called the image of the foul, as be¬
ing the feat of the principal organs of fenfe; and the
place where the ideas, emotions, &c. of the foul are
chiefly fet to view. Pride and dildain are fhowm in the
eyebrows, modefty on the cheeks, majefty in the fore¬
head,
Face
li
Tadlor.
FAC [3
head, See. It is the face {hows the fex, age, tempera¬
ment, health, or difeafe, &c.
, The face, conlidered as the index of the paffions,
habits, &c. of the perfon, makes the fubject of phy-
liognomy. See Physiognomy.
Face, among painters and artifts, is ufed to denote
a certain dimenfion of the human body, adopted for de¬
termining the proportion which the feveral parts fhould
bear to one another. See Drawing.
Face, in the military art, a word of command, in¬
timating to turn about : thus, face to the right, is to
turn upon the left heel a quarter-round to the right 5
and, face to the left, is to turn upon the right heel a
quarter-round to the left.
FACIES Hippocratica, in Medicine, is when the
noftrils are {harp, the eyes hollow, the temples low,
the tips of the ears contradded and cold, the forehead
dry and wrinkled, and the complexion pale or livid.—
The Hippocratic face is chiefly obferved towards the
period of phthifes and other confumptions, and is held
a fure prognoftic of death. If it appears within three
days after the attack of an acute difeafe, it is deemed
to indicate death.
FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a date, city,
or company.
Faction, in antiquity, a name given to the differ¬
ent companies of combatants in the circus. They were
four, viz. the white, the red, the green, and the blue ;
to which Domitian added another of purple colour.
They were fo denominated from the colour of the live¬
ries they wore $ and were dedicated, according to M.
Aur. Cafliodorus, to the four feafons of the year the
green being confecrated to fpring, the blue to winter,,
the red to fummer, and the white to autumn. _ It ap¬
pears from ancient inferiptions, that each fadlion had
its procurators and phyfician j and from hiftory, that
party rage ran fo high among them, that m. a. diflen-
f on between two faflions, in the time of Juftinian, al-
mofl: 40,000 men loft their lives in the quarrel.
FACTITIOUS, any thing made by art, in oppofi-
♦ion to what is the produce of nature. Fhus, factitious
cinnabar is oppofed to native cinnabar.
FACTOR, in commerce, is-an agent employed by
merchants redding at other places, to buy or fell goods,
or negotiate bills, or tranfaft any kind of bufinefs on
their account ; and entitled to a certain allowance for
his trouble-. . ,
A fupercargo differs from a factor in this : ihe bu¬
finefs of the, former is limited to the care of a particu¬
lar cargo ; he goes along 'with it, and generally re¬
turns when his bufinefs is completed : the latter has a
fixed refidence abroad, and executes buftnefs for differ¬
ent merchants. But their duties, and the circumftan-
ces for which they are accountable, are the fame.
The duty of a fadtor is to procure the belt intelli--
gence of the ftate of trade at his place of refidence j of
the courfe of exchange 5 of the quantity and quality
of goods at market, their prefent price, and the pro¬
bability that it may rife or fall : to pay exaeft obedience
to the orders of his employers-, to confult their advan¬
tage in matters referred to his direction ^ to execute
their bufinefs with all the defpatch that circumftances
admit ; to be early in his intelligence, diftind m his
accounts, and punftual in his correfpondence. ^
A fadtor’s power is either abfolute or limited., iho
97 ] FAC
intruded with ample diferetionary powers, he is not f actor,
warranted to take unreafonable or unufual meafures, or
do any thing contrary to his employer’s intereft; but
it is incumbent on the employer, if he challenge his
proceedings, to prove that he could have done better,,
and was guilty of wilful mifmanagement.
When a fadfor’s power is limited, he muft adhere
ftridtly to his orders. If he exceeds his power, though
with a view to his employer’s intereft, he is liable for
the confequence. For example, if he gives credit when
not empowered, or longer credit if not empowered, for
the fake of a better price, and the buyer proves infol-
vent, he is liable for the debt. A fadtor has no power
to give credit unlefs authorized : But if the goods
consigned be generally fold on credit at the place of
confignation, the fadtor will be vindicated for felling at
the ufual credit, unlefs exprefsly reftridted.
Although opinion will never juftify the fadtor for
departing from orders, neceflity fometimes will. If he
be limited not to fell goods under a certain price, and
the goods be periftiable, and not in a fituation for be¬
ing kept, he may fell them, to prevent their deftrudtion,
even under the price limited.
A fadtor is never warranted to deal on truft, ex¬
cept with perfons in good credit at the time. If the
employer challenge the debtors, it is incumbent on
him to prove that their bad circumftances were known
at the time of fale y and the fadtor will be vindicated,
if he trufted them at the fame time for goods of his
own.
If the fadtor fells his employer’s goods on truft, and,
after the day of payment is elapfed, receive payment
from the purchafer for a debt of his own, he becomes
liable in equity for the debt.-
In cafe of bankruptcy, the fadtor ought immediately
to lay attachments, and advife his employers ; and he
cannot .withdraw his attachments, nor compound debts,'
without orders.
If a fadtor fells goods belonging to different mer¬
chants to the fame perfon, and the buyer proves jnfol-
vent, they ftiall bear the lofs in equal proportions y
and, if the buyer has paid part before his infolvency,
without fpecifying for which, the payment ought to.
be diftributed in equal proportions; but, if the days
of payment be fixed, and part of the debts only due,-
the payment ought to be applied, in the firft place, to
fuch debts as were due.
If he make's a wrong entry at the cuftom-houfe, and
the goods be feized in confequence thereof, he muft
bear the lofs, unlefs the error be occafioned by a mif-
take in the invoice,..or letter of advice.
The owner bears the lofs of goods feized when at¬
tempted to be fmuggled by his orders; but the ■ fadtor
complying with an unlawful order is liable in fuch pe¬
nalties as the laws exadt.
If a fadtor faves the duty of goods due to a foreign
prince, he ftiall have the benefit; for, if detedted, he
bears the lofs.
If a fadtor fells goods bought by his employer’s
orders for his own advantage, the employer may reco¬
ver the benefit, and the faftor (hall be amerced for the
fame.
If a fadtor receives bad money in payment, he bears
the lofs; but if the value of the money be leffened by
the government, the employer bears the lofs,
. A,
\
TAG
[ 398 I
PAG
•fa&or
Faculty.
A factor is not liable for goods fpoiled, robbed, or
deftroyed by fire. ^ .
, If a faftor receives counterfeit jewels from his em¬
ployer, and fells them, the employer is liable to indem¬
nify him for any penalties he may incur.
If a faftor be ordered to make infurance, and ne-
gledt it, and the fubjeft be loft, he is liable to make it
good, providing he had effects in his hands.,
If a faftor buys goods for his employer, his bargain
{hall be binding on the employer^
In cafe of a faftor’s infolvency, the owner may re¬
claim his goods j and, if they be fold on truft, the
•wner (and not the fadtor’s creditors) {hall recover
payment of the debts.
Factor, in multiplication, a name given to the mul¬
tiplier and multiplicand, becaufe they conftitute the
produft. See Arithmetic.
FACTORAGE, called alfo contmijjion, is the al¬
lowance given to faftors by the merchant who employs
them.
A fa&or’s commiflion in Britain, on moft kinds of
goods, is per cent. •, on lead, and fome other ar¬
ticles, 2 per cent.; in Italy, per cent, j in France,
Holland, Spain, Portugal, Hamburgh, and Dantzic,
2 per cent: in Turkey, 3 per cent, j in North Ameri¬
ca, 5 per cent, on fales, and 5 per cent, on returns j in
the Weft Indies, 8 per cent for commiflion and ftorage.
In fome places, it is cuftomary for the factors to enfure
the debts for an additional allowance, generally 14 per
cent. In that cafe, they are accountable for the debt
when the ufual term of credit is expired.
Factorage on goods is fometimes charged at a cer¬
tain rate per cafk, or other package, meafure, or weight,
efpecially when the faftor is only employed to receive
or deliver them.
FACTORY is a place where a confiderable number
of factors refide, to negotiate for their mafters or em¬
ployers. See Factor.
The moft confiderable faiftories belonging to the
Britifh are thofe eftablifhed in the Eaft Indies, Portu¬
gal, Turkey, &c. There are alfo Englifh fa&ories
eftablifhed at Hamburgh, Peterftmrgh, Dantzic, and in
Holland ; all endowed with certain privileges.
FACTUM, in Arithmetic, the product of two quan¬
tities multiplied by each other.
FACULiE, in Aflronomij, certain bright and Ihining
parts, which the modern aftronomers have, by means of
telefcopes, obferved upon or about the furface of the
fun } they are but very feldom feen.—The word is pure
Latin $ being a diminutive of fax, “ torch and fup-
pofed to be here applied from their appearing and dif-
appearing by turns.
FACULTY, in Law, a privilege granted to a per-
fon, by favour and indulgence, of doing what, by law,
he ought not to do.
For granting thefe privileges, there is a court under
the archbifhop of Canterbury, called the court of the
faculties. The chief officer of this court is ftyled mafer
of the faculties, and has a power of granting difpenfa-
tions in divers cafes : as to marry without the bans be¬
ing firft publifhed, to eat flefh on days prohibited, to
ordain a deacon under age, for a fon to fucceed his fa¬
ther in his benefice, a clerk to hold two or more liv¬
ings, &c.
Faculty, in the fchools, a term applied to the dif-
4
ferent members of an univerfity, divided according to
the arts and fciences taught there : thus in moft univer-
ftties there are four faculties, viz. 1. Of arts, which
include humanity and philofophy. 2. Of theology.
3. Of phyfic. And, 4. Of civil law.
Faculty of Advocates. See Advocates.
Faculty is alfo ufed to denote the powers of the hu¬
man mind, viz. underftanding, will, memory, and ima¬
gination. See Metaphysics.
FALCES, in Chemijlry, the grofs matter, or fedL’
ment, that fettles at the bottom after diftillation, fer¬
mentation, and the like.—The faeces of wine are com¬
monly called Lees.
Faxes, in Medicine, the excrements voided by {tool.
See Excrements.
FECULENT, in general, is applied to things a-
bounding with faeces or dregs: thus the blood and
other humours of the human body are faid to be fae-
culent, when without that purity which is neceffary to
health.
FAENSA, a city and bifhop’s fee of Italy, fituated
in the pope’s territories, about 30 miles eaft of Bolog¬
na : E. Long. 12. 38. and N. Lat. 44. 30.
FAENZA, a city of Romagna in Italy with a bi-
fhop’s fee. It is an ancient place, and has undergone
various revolutions. The rivet Amona wafhes its walls,
and paffes between the city and the fuburbs, which are
joined by a ftone bridge defended by two good towers.
The city is remarkable for its earthen ware, which is
the beft in all Italy.
FAERNUS, Gabriel, a native of Cremona in Ita¬
ly, was an excellent Latin poet and critic of the 16th
century. He -was fo fkilled in all parts of polite lite¬
rature, that the cardinal de Medicis, afterward Pope
Pius IV. was particularly fond of him. He was the
author of fome Latin elegies ; of 100 Latin fables, fe-
lefted from the ancients, written in iambic verfe ; and
of feveral pieces of criticifm, as Cenfura emendationum
Livianarum, De Metris Comicis, &c. He was re¬
markably happy in decyphering manuferipts, and re-
ftoring ancient authors to their purity : he took fuch
pains with Tei’ence in particular, that Bentley has
adopted all bis notes in the edition he gave of that
writer. He died at Rome in 1561 j and Thuanus,
who wTrote his eloge, fays that the learned world was
greatly obliged to him • yet had been ftill more fo, if,
inftead of fupprefling the then unknown fables of Phae-
drus, for fear of leffening the value of his own Latin
fables, written in imitation of ALfbp, he had been con¬
tent with imitating them. M. Perrault, however, who
tranflated Faernus’s fables into French, has defended
him from this imputation, by affirming that the firft
MS. of Phtednis’s fables, found in the duff; of an old
library, was not difeovered till about 30 years after
Faernus’s death.
FAG AR A, iron wood a genus of plants belonging
to the tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 43d order, Dumofe. See Botany Index.
FAGE, Raimond DE la, an excellent defigner and
engraver, highly efteemed by Carlo Maratti, was bom
at Touloufe in 1648. He applied himfelf to defign-
ing, through inclination, in fpite of his parents j and
had no mafter nor any afliftance : but his fuperior ta¬
lents fupplied the want of them, and he became one of
the beft; defigners in Europe, his performances on li¬
centious
Faggot
il
Fa*us.
FAG
centious fubjefts are the moft efteemed,
of this artift, that he never made ufe of money, but
, contrafted debts ; and when the accounts were brought
him, he made fome defign upon the back of the bills,
and bid the owners fell the drawings to connoiffeurs for
the amount, by which they were generally great gainers.
Several of thofe drawings are yet in the cabinets of the
curious. He led a loofe, depraved life 3 and his re¬
peated debaucheries put an end to it at the age of 42.
FAGGOT, in times of Popery here, was a badge
worn on the fleeve of the upper garment of fuch per-
fons as had recanted or abjured what was then termed
herefy ; being put on after the perfon had carried a fag¬
got, by way of penance, to fome appointed place of
folemnity. The leaving off the wear of this badge w7as
fometimes interpreted a llgn of apoftafy.
Faggots, among military men, perfons hired by
officers, wffiofe companies are not full, to muiler and
hide the deficiencies of the company ; by which means
they cheat the king of fo much money.
FAGIUS, Paul, alias Buchlin, a learned Prote-
flant minifter, born at Rheinzabem in Germany in
1504. He was a fchoolmafter at Ifna j but afterwards
became a zealous preacher, and wrote many books.
The perfecution in Germany menacing danger to all
who did not profefs the Romifh doftrines, he and Bu-
cer came over to England in 1549, at the invitation of
Archbiffiop Cranmer, to perfeft a new tranflation of the
Scriptures. Fagius took the Old Teftament, and Bu-
eer the New, for their refpeftive parts *, but the defign
was at that time fruflrated by the hidden deaths of
both. Fagius died in 1550, and Bucer did not live
above a year after. Their bodies wTere dug up and
burned in the reign of Queen Mary.
FAGONI A, a genus of plants belonging to the de-
candria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 14th order, Gruinales. See Botany Index.
FAGOPYRUM, or buck wheat. See Poly¬
gonum, Botany Index.
FAGUS, the beech tree •, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the monoecia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 50th order, Amentacece. See
Botany Index.
The chefnut tree, one of the fpecies belonging to this
genus, fometimes grows to an immenfe fize. The lar-
geft in the known world are thofe which grow upon
Mount FEtna in Sicily. At Tortworth in Gloucef-
terfhire, is a chefnut tree 5 2 feet round. It is proved
to have flood there ever fmce the year 1150, and
was then fo remarkable that it was called the great
chefnut of Tortworth. It fixes the boundary of the ma¬
nor, and is probably near IOOO years old. As an orna¬
mental, the chefnut, though unequal to the oak, the
beech, and the efculus, has a degree of greatnefs belong¬
ing to it which recommends it ftrongly to the gardener’s
attention. Its ufes have been highly extolled ; and it
may deferve a confiderable fhare of the praife which
has been given it; As a fubflitute for the oak, it is
preferable to the elm: For door-jambs, window-
frames, and fome other purpofes of the houfe carpen¬
ter, it is nearly equal t® oak itfelf; but it is very apt
to be fhakey, and there is a deceitful brittlenefs in it
which renders it unfafe to be ufed as beams, or in any
other fituation where an uncertain load is required to
be borne. It is univerfally allowed to be excellent for
C 399 1
It is reported liquor calks j
F A I
as not being liable to fhrink nor to
change the colour of the liquor it contains : it is alfo
ftrongly recommended as an underwood for hop-poles,,
flakes, &c. Its fruit too is valuable, not only for
fwine and deer, but as a human food : Bread is faid to
have been made of it. Upon the whole, the chelnut,
whether in the light of ornament or ufe, is undoubted¬
ly an objeft of the planter’s notice.
FAINT action, in Law, a feigned aftion, or fuch
as, although the words of the writ are true, yet for
certain caufes, the plaintiff has no title to recover
thereby.
Fa 1 nr Header, in Law, a covinous, falfe, or col-
lufory manner of pleading, to the deceit of a third per¬
fon.
FAINTING. See Lipothymia.
FAINTS, in the diltillery, the weak fpirituous li¬
quor that runs from the ftill in reftifying the low wines
after the proof-fpirit is taken off.
Faints are alfo the laft runnings of all diftilled fpirits.
The clearing the worm of thefe is fo effential a point in
order to the obtaining a pure fpirit by the fubfequent
diftillation, that all others are fruitlefs without it.
FAIR, a greater kind of market, granted to a
town, by privilege, for the more fpeedy and commo¬
dious providing of fuch things as the place Hands in
need of.
The word fair, is formed from the French foire,
which fignifies the fame thing j and foire is by fome
derived from the Latin forum, “ market j” by others
from the Latin ferice, becaufe anciently faifs were al¬
ways held in the places where the wakes,- or feafts of
the dedications of churches, called ferice, were held.-
See Ferine.
It is incident to a fair, that perfons (hall be free from
being arrefted in it for any other debt or contraft than
what was contrafted in the fame j or, at leaft, promif-
ed to be paid there. Thefe fairs are generally kept
once or twice a-year : and, by ftatute, they ihall not be
held longer than they ought by the lords thereof, on
pain of their being feized into the king’s hands, &c.
Alfo proclamation is to be made, how long they are
to continue j and no perfon fhall fell any goods after
the time of the fair is ended, on forfeiture of double
the value, one fourth to the profecutor and the reft to
the king. There is a toll ufually paid in fairs on the:
fale of things, and for ftallage, picage, &c.-
Fairs abroad are either free, or charged with toll
and impoft. The privileges of free fairs confift chief¬
ly, firft, in that all traders, &c. whether natives
or foreigners, are allowed to enter the kingdom, and
are under the royal proteftion, exempt from duties, im-
pofitions, tolls, &c. Secondly, that merchants, in go¬
ing or returning, cannot be molefted or arrefted, or
their goods flopped. They are eftabliihed by letters-
patent from the prince. Fairs, particularly free fairs,
make a very conliderable article in the commerce of
Europe, efpecially that of the Mediterranean, and in¬
land parts of Germany, &c.
The moft celebrated fairs in Europe are thofe,.
I. Of Francfort, held twice a-year, in fpring and
autumn : the firft commencing the Sunday before
Palm-Sunday, and the other on the Sunday before
the eighth of September. Each lafts 14 days, or two;
weeks y the firft of which is called the week of accept
tmce3.
Faint?
Fair.
F A I
[ 400 ]
F A I
Fair. ti'ince, and the fecond tlie week pf payment* I hey are
—famous for the fale of all kinds of commodities ; but
particularly for the immenfe quantity of curious books
nowhere elfe to be found, and whence the bookiellers
throughout all Europe uied to fur nidi themlclves. Be¬
fore each fair, there is a catalogue or all the books to
be fold thereat, printed and diiperfed, to call together
purchafers : though the learned complain of divers un¬
fair praftices therein 5 as fictitious titles, names of
books purely imaginary, &c. belidc great faults in the
names of the authors, and the titles of the real books.
— 2. The fairs of Leiplic, which are held thrice a-
year ; one beginning on the firft of January ; another
three weeks after Eafler } and a third after Michael¬
mas. They hold 12 days a-piece ; and are at lead;
as confiderable as- thofe of Francfort. 3. The fairs
of Novi, a little city in the Milanefe, under the do¬
minion of the republic of Genoa. There are four in
the year, commencing on the fecond of February, the
fecond of May, the firft of Auguft, and fecond of
September. Though the commodities bought and
fold here be very confiderable } yet, what chiefly con¬
tributes to render them fo famous, is the vaft con-
courfe of the moft confiderable merchants and nego¬
tiants of the neighbouring kingdoms, for the tranfacf-
ing of affairs and fettling accounts* 4. ft he fairs of
Riga, whereof there are two in the year ; one in May,
and the other in September. ft hey are much fre¬
quented by the Englifh, Dutch, and French (hips, as
alfo from all parts of the Baltic. The beft time for
the fale of goods at Riga is during the fairs. Since
the building of the famous city of Peterfburgh, thefe
fairs have fuffered fome diminution. 5* Fair of Arch¬
angel, during which all the trade foreigners have with
that city is riianaged. It holds a month, or fix weeks
at moft, commencing from the middle of Auguft.
The Mufcovite merchants attend here from all parts
of that vaft empire j and the Engliih, Dutch, French,
Swedifh, Daniih, and other Ihips in the port of that
city, on this occafion, ordinarily amount to 300-
this is no free fair as the reft are : ft he duties of ex¬
portation and importation are very ftridlly paid, and
on a very high footing. 6. The fair of St Germain,
one of the fuburbs of Paris, commencing on the third
of February, and holding till Eafter *, though it is
only free for the firft 1 $ days. 7. The fairs of Lyons,
which Monf. du Chefne, in his antiquity of cities,
tvould infinuate, from a paffage in Strabo, were efta-
bliihed by the Romans; though it is certain, the fairs,
as they now ftand, are of a much later date. There
are three in the year, each lading 2a days, and free
for ever. They begin on Eafter Monday, the 26th
of July, and the firft of December. 8. Fair of Guibray,
a fuburb of the city of Falaife, in the Lower Normandy.
It is faid to have been eftabliflied by our William the
Conqueror, in confideration of his being born at Falaife.
It commences on the 16th of Auguft ; and holds 15
days free by charter, and longer by cuftom. 9. Fair of
Beaugaire, held partly in a city of that name, in Lan¬
guedoc, and partly in the open country, under tents,
&c. It commences on the 2 2d of July, and only holds
for three days *, yet it is the^greateft and moft celebrat¬
ed of all the fairs in that part of Europe, both for the
eoncourfe of ftrangers from all parts of the wTorld, and
for the traffic of all kinds of goods : the money retum-
3
ed in thefe three days amounting fometime* to above fix
millions of livres.
The fairs of Porto-Bello, Vera Cruz, and the Ha-
vannah, are the moft confiderable of all thofe in Ame¬
rica. The two firft laft as long as the flota and gal¬
leons continue in thole ports and the laft is opened as
foon as the fiota or galleons arrive there upon their re¬
turn for Spain ; this being the place where the two
fleets join. See Flota and GALLEONS*
The principal Britilh fairs are, 1. StUrbridge fair,
near Cambridge, by far the greateft in Britain, and
perhaps in the world. 2. Briftol has two fairs, very
near as great as that of Sturbridge. 3. Exeter. 4.
Weft Chefter. 5. Edinburgh. 6. Wh'eyhill 5 and,
7. Burford fair j both for iheep. 8. Pancras fair,
in Staffordfhire, for faddle-hbrfes. 9. Bartholomew
fair, at London, for lean and Welffi black cattle.
10. St Faith’s, in Norfolk, for Scotch runts; 11.
Yarmouth fifhing fair for herrings ; the only fiffiing fair
in Great Britain. 1 2. Ipfwich butter fair. ^.W^ood-
borough-hill, in Dorfetftiire, for weft country manufac¬
tures, as kerfeys, druggits, 8tc. 14. Two cheefe fairs
at Chipping Norton : with innumerable other fairs, be-
fides wTeekly markets, for all forts of goods, as wxll our
own as of foreign growth.
Fair, in fea-language, is ufed for the difpofition of
the wind, when it is favourable to a (hip’s courfe, in op-
pofition to that which is contrary or foul, fthe term
fair is more comprehenfive than large^ and includes a-
bout 16 or 18 points of the compafs ; whereas large is
confined to the beam or quarter, that is, to a wind
which croffes the keel at right angles, or obliquely from
the (tern, but never to one right a-ftern.
Fair Ifle, a fmall ifland lying between Orkney and
Shetland, 10 or 12 leagues E. N. E. from the former 5
and feven, eight, or 10 leagues S. W. from the latter.
It is three miles long, and fcarcely half a mile broad,
very craggy, with three high rocks which are vifible
both from Orkney and Shetland. It contains a fmall
quantity of arable land, which is very fruitful and w’ell
manured ; excellent pafturage for Iheep; and affords
great plenty of fea and water fowd, and all kinds of fifti
upon the coafts. 'There is in effeft no port, though
they have two that are nominally fo : one at the fouth
end, which is full of rocks, where only fmall boats can
lie } the other at the north-eaft end, larger and fafer in
fummer, fo that it ferves commodioufly enough for
their fiffiery. The duke of Medina Sidonia, when com¬
mander of the famous Spanifh armada in 1588, was
wrecked on the eaft coaft of this ifland. 'The Ihip
broke to pieces, but the duke and 200 made their ef-
cape. They lived here fo long, that both they and the
inhabitants were almoft famiflied. At length the duke
and the poor remains of his people wTere carried over to
the main land of Shetland, and then to Dunkirk, by
one Andrew Humphry, for which fervice Andrew was
rewarded with 3000 merks. This ifland produced to
its former proprietor between 50I. and 60 fterling. It
was fold at Edinburgh in 1766, for about 850k to
James Stewart of Burgh, Efq. .
FAiR-curve, is a winding line, ufed in delineating
(hips, whofe (hape is varied, according to the part of
the (hip which it is intended to defcribe.
FAin-way, m fea language, the path or channel of
a narrow bay, river, or haven, in which (hips ufually
advance
Fair,