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Encyclopaedia Britannica.
BUR
Burke. "O URKE, Edmund, a writer, orator, and ftatefman,
I j was born in Dublin, on the ift January in the
year 1730. His father was an attorney, firft at Lime¬
rick, and afterwards in Dublin. Young Burke re¬
ceived the firft rudiments of his education at Ballytore,
in the county of Kildare, under the tuition of Abra¬
ham Shackleton, a Quaker of confiderable celebrity.
Committed to the care of a mafter fo admirably qua¬
lified for the important bufinefs of inftru&ion, young
Burke applied to his ftudies with commendable affi-
duity, and became one of the numerous examples that
might be adduced, to demonftrate the falfehood of
that popular but dangerous maxim, that young men of
genius are always deJUtute of application.
In this feminary he laid the foundation of his know¬
ledge in the languages of antiquity ; whence he was
hereafter to borrow the elegance of his tafte, and the
models and imagery of his eloquence. From this
fource was alfo, moft probably, derived that love of
liberty, which germinating at certain periods in his
bofom, fo often pointed his oratory, inflamed his pal-
fions, and animated his fentiments $ and which in his
belt days acquired him a reputation almoft unequalled
in our times.
At this refpedtable fchool feveral years of his life
were fpent 5 and the attachment of the mafter, and
the gratitude of the pupil, reflect honour on both.
The former lived to fee his fcholar attain a confider¬
able degree of reputation ; and he on his part was ac-
cuftomed to fpend a portion of his annual vifit to Ire¬
land at Ballytore.
From a provincial feminary Edmund was fent to the
univerfity of Dublin. Here, however, he does not
appear to have diftinguifhed himfelf either by applica¬
tion or talents. His charafler, as a‘ftudent, was merely
negative. He exhibited no fymptoms of early genius,
obtained no palms in the academic race, and departed
even without a degree. During this period, however,
he commenced author. His firft effays, were of a poli¬
tical nature.
Mr Burke now addi£!ed himfelf to other purfuits,
. particularly logic and metaphyfics; and is faid to have
planned a refutation of the fyftems of Berkeley and
Hume. While thus employed in treafuring up the
means of attaining a fpecies of celebrity, which far diffe¬
rent avocations prevented him afterwards from afpiring
to, he was not inattentive to the grand objeft of obtain¬
ing a fuitable fettlement in life $ for his family was not
Vol. V. Part I.
BUR
opulent, and he already panted after independence. He
accordingly became a candidate for a vacant chair at
the univerfity of Glafgow. The immediate reafon of
his failure is not diredfly known $ but on this he re¬
paired to the metropolis, and enrolled his name as a
ftudent of the Inner Temple.
It appears from his fpeeches, his writings, and his
converfation, that he ftudied the grand outline of our
municipal jurifprudence with particular attention j but
it may be doubted whether he ever entered into the
minutiai. Indeed the verfatility of his talents, and
his avocations, were but little calculated for that dull
and plodding circuit which can alone lead to an inti¬
mate knowdedge of our laws. Befides, if he had been
gifted with the necefiary application, both time and
opportunity were wanting : for it is well knowm that
at this period of his life the “ res angufa domi”
did not permit the ftudent to dedicate his attention
folely to this, or indeed to any other fingle object.
The exhaufted ftate of his finances called frequently
for a fpeedy fupply, and inftead of perufing the pages
of Brafton, Fleta, Littleton, and Coke, he w7as ob¬
liged to write effays, letters, and paragraphs, for the
periodical publications of the day. But if thefe pur¬
fuits diverted his attention from graver ftudies, they
Burke.
acquired him a facility of compofition, and a com¬
mand of ftyle and of language, which proved emin¬
ently ferviceable in the courfe of his future life.
His health, however, became at length impaired,
and a nervous fever enfued. This circumftance in¬
duced him to call in the aid of Dr Nugent, one of his
own countrymen, a medical man whofe manners were
more amiable than his praffice was extenfive. This
gentleman, who had travelled on the continent, and
was an author himfelf, readily difeovered the fource of
his malady, and, by removing him from books and
bufinefs to his owm houfe, loon effedfed a cure. That
event is faid to have been haftened, if not entirely
completed, by a phyfician of another kind j the ac-
complilhed daughter of his hoft. This lady wTas def-
tined to become his wife j a circumftance particularly
fortunate for him, as her difpofition was mild and
gentle, and {he continued, through a long feries of
years, and many viciflitudes of fortune, to foothe and
tranquillize pafiions always violent, and often tumul¬
tuous.
Our ftudent feems at length to have determined
once more to endeavour to diftinguilh himfelf as an au-
A thor,
BUR [
Burke, thor, and he accordingly took advantage of the death
of a celebrated peer to write a work after the manner
of that nobleman; in which, by exaggerating his
principles, he fliould be enabled to bring them into
contempt: but this eft'ort proved unfuccef&ful, for the
treatife in queilion was for a long time configned to
oblivion, and would never have been heard of, had it
not been refufcitated by his future fame. Another
performance made ample amends: his “ Effay on the
Sublime and Beautiful” attradfed a high degree of re¬
putation, and acquired him confiderable celebrity as a
man of letters. In addition to the profits of the pub¬
lication, he is faid on this occafion to have received a
prefent from his father of look But his circumflances
mull have been greatly embarraffed about this time, as
he was obliged to fell his books and furely nothing
but the extremity of diftrefs could have forced a man
of letters to fuch a meafure.
The work we have juft mentioned, having an im¬
mediate relation to talle, excited a defire in Sir Jolhua
Reynolds, even then at the head of his profeflion, to
become acquainted with Mr Burke 5 and a friendlhip
enfued wdiich continued uninterrupted during the life
of the painter, and was unequivocally teilified by a
handfome bequelt in his will. Dr Johnfon alfo fought
and obtained an intimacy with him, and he now be¬
came the conltant frequenter of two clubs, compofed
of fome of the moll celebrated men of that day. One of
thefe met at the Turk’s Head tavern in Gerrard-ftreet,
and confilied of the following members: Dr [ohnfon,
Mr (afterwards Sir Jolhua) Reynolds, Dr Goldffnith,
Mr Topham Beauclerc, Dr Nugent, Sir John Haw¬
kins, Mr Bennet Langton, Mr Chamier, Mr Garrick,
and Mr Burke.
The other allembled at the St James’s coffee-houfe,
and bcfides many of the above, was compofed of the
following members: Mr Cumberland, Dr Douglas bi-
Ihop of Salilbury, Dr Bernard dean of Derry, Mr
Richard Burke, Mr William Burke, Mr Hickey, &c.
Dr Goldfmith, who was Mr Burke’s contemporary at
Dublin college, wras a member of both, and wrote the
epitaphs of thofe who compoled the latter. That on
Mr Burke has often been praifed.
Here lies our good Edmund, whofe genius wras fuch,
We fcarcely can praife it or blame it too much ;
Who, born for the univerfe, narrow’d his mind,
And to party gave up what was meant for mankind.
Though fraught with all learning, yet draining his
throat
To perfuade Tommy Townlhend to lend him a vote ;
Who, too deep for his hearers, dill went on refining,
And thought of convincing while they thought of
dining ;
Though equal to all things, for all things unfit,
Too nice for a datefman, too proud for a wit j
For a patriot too cool; for a drudge difobedient j
And too fond of the right> to purfue the expedient.
In Ihort, ’twas his fate, unemploy’d or in place, fir,
To eat mutton cold, and cut blocks with a razor.
A literary work on a new plan, fird fuggeded in
1750, and by fomc attributed to the Dodfleys, and by
others to Mr Burke, became, for fome time, a confi¬
derable fource of emolument to him. This was called
2 ] BUR
the “ Annual Regider j” a publication that foon ob¬
tained confiderable celebrity, and of which he had the
fupcrintendance for feveral years.
He was, at length, called off from his literary la¬
bours by avocations of a far different kind. A gentle¬
man who afterwards derived the cognomen of “ lingle-
fpeech Hamilton,” from a celebrated oration, having
been appointed fecretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ire¬
land, invited his friend Mr Burke to accompany him
thither 5 this offer he readily complied with, and al¬
though he afted in no public ftation, and performed
no public fervice while he remained in that country, he
was rewarded with a penfion of 300I. per annum, which
he foon after difpofed of for a fum of money.
On his return to England he amufed himfelf, as
ufual, with literary compofition. A feries of eiTays^
written by him in a new-fpaper, which, at one time,
obtained great celebrity, attrafied the notice of the
late marquis of Rockingham ; and Mr Fitzherbert, a
member of parliament, and lather of the prefent Lord
St Helen’s, in confequence of this circumftance, in¬
troduced him to that nobleman. From this moment
he was dertined to become a public man, and to de¬
dicate his ftudies, his eloquence, and his pen, to po¬
litics.
Lord Rockingham having proved more compliant
than the earl of Chatham, the former nobleman was
brought into power, and feated on the treafury bench*
On this occafion he felefted Mr Burke as his private
fecretary, an office of no power and very little emo¬
lument, but which naturally leads to both. As it was
now neceifary he fliould have a feat in parliament, al¬
though it cannot be fuppofed that he svas legally quali¬
fied in refpefl to property, he applied to Lord Ver-
ney, who was patron of Wendover, a borough at that
time dependent on him, and principally occupied by
his tenants.
Having thus obtained a feat in 1765, he prepared
to fit himfelf for his new fituation. He was already
provided with all the neceffary talents, and was only
deficient in the forms of bufinefs, and the facility of
expreffing his fentiments before a public audience*
The firft of thefe was maftered by fedulous attention }
and as to the fecond, if we are to give credit to thofe
who pretend to be intimately acquainted with this pe¬
riod of his life, he overcame all difficulties by a pre¬
vious initiation elfewhere. In ffiort he had acquired
celebrity at the “ Robinhood,” before he attempted
to fpeak in the Britiffi fenate, and vanquifhed an elo-
orators of the nation.
Holding a confidential place under the Rockingham
adminillration, he of courfe fupported all its meafures*
A former miniftry, anxious to increafe its influence by
means of increafed imports, had conceived the idea of
taxing America through the medium of a parliament
in which fhe was not reprefented. Having attempted'
to carry this into effefl by means of the famous ftamp
a£l, the Americans, alarmed at what they conceived
to be a flagrant violation of every principle of the
Engliflr conftitution, made fuch a fpirited refiftance to
the meafure that it was abandoned, and the Rocking¬
ham party readily confented to the repeal. Under the
pretext, however, of vindicating the honour of the
crown, they unfortunately propofed and carried the de¬
claratory
BUR [ 3 1 BUR
Burke, claratory a&, by means of which, although the original
■---v—fcheme had been abandoned, the principle on which it
was built was afferted anew, and a foundation laid for all
the miferies that afterwards enfued. But if this (hort-
lived adminiftration deferved no great credit on this
occafion, it is entitled to confiderable praife on account
of other parts of its conduft 5 for it repealed the cy¬
der a61, procured a declaration of the houfe of com¬
mons condemning the feizure of papers, and a refo-
lution againft general warrants. The firft of thefe af¬
forded great relief to fuch of the counties as cultivated
orchard grounds, and the two laft feemed to be called
for bv the condudt of their predeceffors in refpedl to
Mr Wilkes.
On retiring from office they, however, did not car¬
ry much popularity along with them, as Lord Chatham
and his friends, who in fome meafure monopolized the
public favour, were entrufted with the management of
affairs for a fhort time j and it is extremely probable
that they would have funk into negledl, had not Ame¬
rica been driven into reliftance.
It now fell to the lot of Lord North to enforce the
fcheme which the Grenville party had projefted, and
wiffied to carry boldly into execution j which the Rock¬
ingham adminillration had by an unaccountable blun¬
der at once annihilated and recognifed, and which
they afterwards manfully, and at length fuccefsfully
oppofed.
This forms the mod brilliant epoch of Mr Burke’s
life. He was hoftile to the expullion of Mr Wilkes ;
an a6l which the houfe of commons afterwards refcind-
ed from its records. On the application of the diffen-
ters for relief, he took up their caufe, and expreffed
his refentment, in very animated terms, againft that
mifguided policy, which permits all thofe not within
the pale of eftabliftiment to enjoy liberty lefs by right
than by connivance. But perhaps the nobleft part of
his condudl confifted in his fteady and uniform oppofi-
tion to the American war, and his marked and declared
hoftility to the abettors of it. His fpeech againft the
Bofton Port Bill was one of the moft charming fpe-
cimens of oratory that had ever been exhibited in the
Britifti fenate 5 and on the 19th of April, I774» on a
motion for the repeal of the tea duty, he difcovered
fuch talents, that an old and refpedfable member ex¬
claimed, “ Good God ! what a man is this !—How
could he acquire luch tranfcendent powers ?” And
when, in reply to another who had faid, “ That the
Americans were our children, and it was horrible to
revolt againft their parent !” the orator uttered the
following paffage, the whole houfe was eledlrified :
—“ They are our children, it is true •, but when chil¬
dren a Ik for bread, we are not to give them a ftone.
When thofe children of ours wilh to affimilate with
their parent, and to refpedl the beauteous countenance
of Britiflr liberty, are we to turn to them the flrame-
ful parts of our conftitution ? Are we to give them
our weaknefs for their ftrength ; our opprobrium for
their glory; and the flough of flavery, which we are
not able to work off, to ferve them for their free¬
dom.”
The city of Briftol, the merchants of which had be¬
come rich by the commerce with America, were like¬
ly to fuffer by its interdidlion. This confideration
alone rendered many of them hoftile to the proceed¬
ings of the miniftry ; but nobler and more exalted rno- Burke,
lives adluated the bofoms of others, particularly the
Quakers, Diffenters, and other feclarifts, who were
moved by zeal againft eppreflion, and a love of liber¬
ty imprinted on their minds by a conftitution which
had remained until then inviolate. Gratified by the
exertions of Mr Burke in behalf of civil and religious
freedom, they put him in nomination for their city,
and fent into Yorkfhire, to requeft his immediate per*
fonal attendance. After confulting with his patron
concerning an offer fo llattering and unexpe61ed, ac¬
companied at the fame time with aflurances moft punc¬
tually fulfilled, that he Jhould be put to no expcnce
whatever, he immediately fet out for the weft of Eng¬
land, and found that no lefs than three candidates had
ftarted before him. The firft was Lord Clare, after¬
wards Lord Nugent, one of the former reprefentatives,
whofe unpopularity was fuch, that he foon difcovered
the neceffity of refigning all his pretenfions; two,
therefore (Mr Cruger and Mr Brickdale), only re¬
mained in the field, and the former of thefe, like Mr
Burke himfelf, was averfe to a rupture with Ame¬
rica.
The new candidate did not appear on the huftings
until the afternoon of the fixth day’s poll, on which
occafion he addreffed the eledlors in a very able fpeech,
admirably calculated for the occafion. He began by
expreffing a modeft diffidence of his own abilities, and
a high opinion of the important ttuft they were affem-
bled to confer. He then boldly declared himfelf ho¬
ftile to a conteft with America, and afferted, that
England had been rendered flourilhing by liberty and
commerce, the firft of which was dear to his heart,
while the latter had been a favourite objedl of his ftu-
dies, both in its principles and details.
This harangue was well received by the ele61ors;
the conteft proved propitious to his wifhes; and when
the fheriffs had notified, at the clofe of the poll, that he
was eledled, he made the moft brilliant addrefs on the
occafion that had ever been heard within the walls of
a city celebrated rather for its opulence than its elo¬
quence.
Mr Burke immediately returned from his new con-
ftituents to parliament, with increafed vigour, reputa¬
tion, and zeal. The earl of Chatham, having failed,
notwithftanding his reputation for wifdom, in an at¬
tempt to adjuft the troubles of the colonies by means
of a conciliatory bill introduced by him into the
houfe of peers for that purpofe, the obftinacy ot the
miniftry now became apparent to every one. This cir-
cumftance, which would have appalled an inferior
man, did not, however, difeourage the member for
Briftol from a fimilar attempt in another place ; and
accordingly, March 2 2. 1775, he brought forward
his thirteen celebrated propofitions, which were in¬
tended to clofe the fatal breach, and heal all the dif¬
ferences between the mother country and her colo¬
nies.
His plan, on this occafion, embraced not only an
immediate conciliation, by a repeal of the late coer¬
cive a6ts, but alfo the creation of an independent ju¬
dicature, and the regulation of the courts of admiral¬
ty. The whole, however, was quaftied by a large
majority on the fide of the minifter, who moved the
previous queftion.
A 2 Mr
BUR
g? Burke.’*5 Mr Burke had hitherto chiefly diftinguxflied himfelf
*— —y—■1 1 in oppofltion to the meafures of others j but in 1780,
he himfelf flood forth as the original author and pro-
pofer of a fcheme which foon engaged the attention of
the public, and a'ftually appeared big with the moft
profperous refults. When he found minifters obfti-
nately perfifting in a difaftrous war, and perceived that
the people began to bend beneath the weight of the
taxes for its fupport, it ftruck him as advantageous on
one hand, and political on the other, to diminilh the
public burdens and the number of adherents to the
court at the fame time. Accordingly, on the nth of
February, he brought in a bill “ for the regulation of
his majefty’s civil eftablifliments, and of certain public
offices ; for the limitation of penflons, and the fuppref-
fion of fundry ufelefs, expenfive, and inconvenient
places, and for applying the monies faved thereby to
the public fervice.”
This fcheme was manifeftly founded on the late re¬
forms that had taken place in France ; for by an edidl
of the king, regiftered in the parliament of Paris, it
appeared that he had fupprefied no lefs than 406 pla¬
ces in his houfehold by one regulation. The orator,
with great judgment, faftened upon this event, and
endeavoured to make ufe of it as an incitement to a
flmilar attempt here ; nay he called in national rival-
fliip itfelf, by way of an inducement to confent to this
facrifice on the part of the crown.
To this bill the minority did not at firft give much
oppofltion. Indeed the mover of it contrived to.'foften
thofe features that appeared harffi to them. Notwith-
flanding this, it did not prove fuccefsful during Lord
North’s adminiftration j and when it was at length
carried, it was much modified and altered.
Parliament w7as diflblved in 1780, but Mr Burke
was not re-elefted for Briftol, and this is faid to have
made a deep impreffion on the mind of the orator 5 but
this muft have been obliterated by the important events
that fpeedily enfued ; for the minifter now tottered on
the treafury bench, being abandoned by many of his
ilauncheft fupporters, and but little confident in his
own fchemes, all of which had proved eminently un-
fuccefsful. The oppofition, having by this time in-
creafed to a confiderable degree, unceafingly affailed
him, until at length, March 28. 1782, Lord North
affured the houfe of commons, that his adminiftraticn
was at an end.
The day had now arrived when the miniftry and op¬
pofition were to change places, and the former to be
arrayed in the fpoils of the latter. Of this rich booty
Mr Burke, whofe fervices had been fo confpicuous in
hunting the enemy into the toils prepared for them,
had his portion : for he was made a privy counfellor,
and invefted wuth the lucrative appointment of pay-
mafter-general of the forces. He was at length now en¬
abled to enforce his plan of political economy, tender¬
ed before in vain •, and the board of trade, the board
of w'orks, the offices of third fecretary of ftate, treafu-
rer of the chamber, cofferer of the houfehold, the
lords of police in Scotland, the mafter of the harriers,
the mafter of the flag hounds, the fix clerks of the
board of green cloth, and the paymafter of the pen-
lions, were abolifhed.
At length the reins of government were confided to
BUR
the hands of the marquis of Lanfdowne, then earl Burke.
Shelburne and this event gave fuch offence to thofe —y—
who wiffied to place the duke of Portland at the head
of affairs, that Mr Fox, Lord John Cavendiih, and
Mr Burke, immediately refigned.
In the mean time, the critical ftate of the Englifh
Eaft India Company had long agitated the public
mind, and become occafionally a fubjecl of difcuffion
in parliament. The feizure, imprifonment, and con¬
finement of Lord Pigot, by a faction in the council of
Madras 5 the conduft of Mr Haftings, in refpedl to
feveral of the native powers; the grand queftion of fo-
vereignty, relative to the territorial pdffeffions of the
company in Afia : all thefe fubjedls had, at different
times, excited the attention of the nation.
No fooner did Mr Fox behold himfelf and his friends
in poffeffion of powder, than he brought in a bill, to
remedy the various abufes in the government of Bri-
tiflr India. Of this bill Mr Burke is well known to
have been the principal penman, and upon this occa-
fion he defended its principles and provifions with all
the zeal of a parent. In a fpeech of confiderable
length he exhibited an able retrofpeft of the fyftem,
both political and commercial, of the company. He
then proceeded to ftate the benefit likely to refult from
the plan under contemplation, which he confidered as
calculated to effeft “ the refcue of the greateft num-
ber of the human race that ever wTere fo grievoufly op-
preffed, from the greateft; tyranny that ever wTas exer-
cifed.” In (hort, he contemplated it as a meafure that
would “ fecure the rice in his pot to every man in In¬
dia.” “ I carry my mind (adds he) to all the peo¬
ple, and all the names and defcriptions that, relieved
by this bill, will blefs the labours of this parliament,
and the confidence which the beft houfe of commons
has given to him who beft deferves it.”
This celebrated bill, notwithftanding much oppofi¬
tion both within and without, was carried triumphantly
through the houfe of commons ; but in the houfe of
peers it experienced a far different fate, and with it
fell the pow er and confequence of its authors, framers,
and fupporters.
In the courfe of the next year (February 28. 1785),
he made a celebrated fpeech relative to the nabob of
Arcot’s debts } and depidled one qf his creditors, who
had taken an aftive lhare in the late elections, “ as a
criminal who long fince ought to have fattened the re¬
gion kites with his offal •, the old betrayer, infulter,
oppreffor, and fcourge, of a country (Tanjore), which
had for years been an objefr of an unremitted, but un¬
happily an unequal, ftruggle, between the bounties of
Providence to renovate, and the wickednefs of man¬
kind to deftroy.”
But there appeared to Mr Burke to be a ftill great¬
er delinquent, on whom he was determined to infli£t
all the wounds of his eloquence, and facrifice, if poffi-
ble, the powerful offender himfelf at the flirine of na¬
tional vengeance. This was Mr Haftings $ and foon,
after his arrival in England, the orator gave notice of
his intentions. On the 17th of February, 1785, he
opened the accufation by a moft eloquent fpeechin
which he depidled the fuppofed crimes of the late go¬
vernor-general, in the moil; glowing and animated co¬
lours. This trial, however, turned out in the event
[ 4 1
It
BUR [
Burke, far different from his hopes and expe&ations 5 while
; the length of it failed not to involve both himfelf and
party in reproach.
Daring the debate on the commercial treaty with
France (January 23. 17B7), the member for Malton
exhibited an undiminithed verfatility of talents, and
pointed his ridicule with no common fuccefs at Mr
Pitt, who, according to him, contemplated the fub-
iedt with a narrownefs peculiar to limited minds:
He feems to confider it (adds he) as an affair of two
little compting-houfes, and not of two great nations.
He feems to confider it as a contention between the
lign of the fleur-de-lis and the fign of tne old red-lion,
for which fhould obtain the belt cuftom.
The next public event of importance in which we
find Mr Burke engaged, occurred in confequence of
his majefly’s indifpofition. On this occafion he took
an active part in the debates of the houfe of commons}
and is fuppofed to have penned a letter for one, and a
fpeech for another, branch of the royaUamily. When
Mr Pitt moved his declaratory refolutions relative to
the provifional exercife of the royal authority, he at¬
tacked him with much afperity of language, and was
particularly fevere on the manner in which the royal
affent was to be given to all future acts of parliament.
The men who held moft of the high places under the
government were treated as “ jobbers, old hacks of
the court, and the fupporters and betrayers of all par¬
ties 5 and it was a mock crown, a tinfel robe, and a
feeptre from the theatre, lackered over and unreal,”
which were about to be conferred on the prince of
Wales.
The oppofition, leffened indeed by a few occafional
defertions, had hitherto added as a great public body,
fuppofed to be united in general principles, for the
common welfare and profperity of the (late \ but the
French revolution thinned their ranks, difpelled their
confequence, and, by lowing jealoufy between the
chiefs, fpread confternation and difmay among their
followers. _ _
It was on the 2d of March 1790, when Mr Fox
moved for leave to bring in a bill to repeal the corpo¬
ration and teft-a£ds, that this difunion became evident •,
and foon after this Mr Burke declared, “ that his ho¬
nourable friend and he were feparated in their politics
for ever.” . r
The miniftry now feemed anxious to provide tor
their new affociate ; and he, on his part, certainly ap¬
peared deferving of fome remuneration at their hands,
for he had abandoned all his old friends, and not a
few of his old principles. In addition to this, his
“ Refleftions on the Revolution in France,” had af¬
forded fome degree of countenance, and even popula¬
rity, to the meafures of adminiftration } and, not con¬
tent with his own exertions, he had enlifted his fon
on the fame fide, and even fent him to Coblentz. The
royal munificence at length gratified his warmeft wi -
es; for by a warrant, dated September 24. 1795, and
made to commence January 5. I793> r*:cejvel!ra
penfion of 1200I. for his own life, and that of his wire,
on the civil lift $ while two other penfions of 2500I.
a-year for three lives, payable out of the four and a
half per cent, fund, dated Oftober 24. 1795, were
made to commence from July 24. 1793. Honours as
well as wealth now feemed to await him, for he was
5 ] BUR
about to be ennobled, when the untimely death of an
only child put an end to his dreams of ambition, and
contributed not a little to haften his own, which oc¬
curred at his houfe at Beaconsfield, July 8. 1797*
Thus died, in the 68th year of his age, Edmund
Burke, one of the greateft orators, ftatefmen, and au¬
thors, of his age ; one whofe name will long continue
to be celebrated j and who, had he fallen during the
meridian of his fame and charafter, would have fcarce-
ly been confidered as fecond to any man, either oi an¬
cient or modern times. _ . .
As a man of letters, he ranks high in point of ge¬
nius, learning, and compofition *, and his works are
attended with this peculiarity, that they are the pro-
duftion of almoft the only orator of his day, who
could wield his pen with as much fluency as his tongue,
and fhine equally in the fenate and the clofet. His
differtation on the “ Sublime and Beautiful” acquired
him the applaufe of all, and fecured him the fnend-
fhip and afliftance of many men of tafte m the nation.
His political tradls betoken much reading, deep
thought, uncommon fagacity ; and even thofe wo
may be difpofed to objeft to his doaHnes, cannot but
admire his various talents, his happy allufions, and Hs
acute penetration. There is no fpecies of compofition
which he has not attempted ; no fubjea on which he
has not occafionally treated : his firft and his laft days
were equally dedicated to literature, and he dildained
not any fpecies of it, from the newfpaper column, that
fupplied needful bread to his early youth, to the more
elaborate performance that procured unnecenary opu¬
lence to his old age. . . , f
As an orator, notwithftandmg fome glaring defects,
he ftands almoft unrivalled. His gefticulation was at
times violent and repulfive, his manner harfti and over¬
bearing, his epithets coarfe and difguftmg 5 on many
occafions he made ufe of affertions which were not bot¬
tomed in faft, and on one in particular, toward the
latter end of his life, had recourfe to ftage trick and
pantomime, inftead of fenfe and argument. But on
the other hand, no man was better calculated to arouie
the dormant pafiions, to call forth the glowing affec¬
tions of the human heart, and to “ harrow up the
inmoft receffes of the foul. Venality and meannefa
flood appalled in his prefence he who was dead to
the feelings of his own confcience, was ftdl alive to
his animated reproaches j and corruption for a while
became alarmed at the terrors of his countenance. Mis
powers were never more confpicuous than on jhat me¬
morable day on which he expofed the enormities of a
fubaltern agent of oriental defpotifm—on which he de-
pidled the tortures inflifted by his orders, the flagrant
iniuftice committed by his authority, the pollution that
enfued in confequence of his fandlion—when he paint¬
ed agonizing nature vibrating in horrid fulpenie be¬
tween life and deftru&ion—when he defenbed, in t le
climax of crimes, “ death introduced into the very
fources of life,” the bofoms of his auditors became
convulfed with paflion, and thofe of more delicate or¬
gans and weaker frame aftually fwooned away. Nay,
after the ftorm of eloquence had fpent its force, and
the captivated ears no longer liftened to his voice, his
features ftill fpoke the purpofe of his heart, his hand
ftill feemed to threaten punifhment, and his brow to
meditate vengeance. <{
Burke.
BUR [
Burkitt “ The qualities of his heart (fays one of his biogra-
Burlefque. P^ers) vvere not lefs amiable and ellimable than his ta-
lents were aftonifhing :—benevolent, juft, temperate,
magnanimous. He loved his country, loved its con-
ftitution, becaufe he believed it the beft adapted for
its happinefs: at different times, from the fame prin¬
ciple, he fupported different members of it, when he
thought the one or the other likely to be overbalanced.
During the prevalence of the Bute plans, dreading the
influence ot the crown, he lupported the people j and
-or the fame reafon, during1 .the American war.
After the overthrow of the French monarchy, the
ariftocracy, and the diffemination in Great Britain of
the piinciples that had deftroyed thefe powers, appre¬
hending fimilar effedts, if not vigoroufty oppofed in
England, he (Irenuoufty fupported the monarchy and
ariftocracy. Thus difcriminately patriotic in public
life,, in.his private relations his condudf was highly
meritorious. A fond and attentive hufband, an affec¬
tionate and judicioufly indulgent father, a fincere
friend, at once fervid and adtive, a liberal and kind
xnafter, an agreeable neighbour, a zealous and bounti¬
ful patron, he diffufed light and happinefs. His prin¬
ciples wrere as ftridf, and habits as virtuous, as his dif-
pofitions were kind.” [Annual Necrology).
BURK I I’d , William, a celebrated commentator
on the New Teftament, was born at Hitcham in North-
amptonlhire, July 25. 1650, and educated at Pem-
broke hall, Cambridge. He entered young upon the
miniftry, being ordained by Bilhop Reynolds : and the
ftrft employment which he had was at Milden in Suf¬
folk, where he continued 21 years a conftant preach¬
er, firlf as a curate, and afterwards as redfor of that
church. In the year 1692, he had a call to the vi¬
carage of Dedham in Effex, where he continued to
the time of his death, which happened in the latter
end of Odlober 1703. He was a pious and charitable
man. He made great colledfions for the French Pro-
teftants in the years 1687, &c. and by his great care,
pains, and. charges, procured a worthy minifter to go
tind fettle in Carolina. Among other charities, by his
laft will and teftament, he bequeathed the houfe where¬
in he lived, wflth the lands thereunto belonging, to be
a. habitation for the ledturer that ftiould be chofen from
time to time to read the ledlure at Dedham. Befides
his commentary upon the New Teftament, written in
the. fame plain, pradfical, and affedlionate manner in
which he preached, he WTOte a volume, entitled ’The
poor man's help, and rich man's guide.
BURLAW. See By Law.
BURLEIGPI. See Cecil.
BURLESQUE, a fpecies of compofition, which,
though a great engine of ridicule, is not confined to
that lubjedi; for it is clearly diftinguifttable into bur-
lefque that excites laughter merely, and burlefque that
excites denfion or ridicule. A grave fubjedl, in which
there is no impropriety, may be brought down by a
certain colouring fo as to be rifible, as in Virgil tra-
veftie ; the author firfl: laughs at every turn in order
to make his readers laugh. The Lutrin is a burlefque
poem ot the other fort, laying hold of a low and tri-
Ring incident to expofe the luxury, indolence, and
contentious fpirit, of a fet of monks. Boileau, the
author, turns the fubjeft into ridicule, by drefling it in
the heroic ftyle, and affedting to confider it as of the
I
6 ] BUR
utmoft dignity and importance. Though ridicule Is Burlington
the poet’s aim, he always carries a grave face, and II
never once betrays a fmile. The oppofition between ^>ulliet*
the fubjedt and the manner of handling it, is wfliat pro- "
duces the ridicule ; and therefore, in a compofition of
this kind, no image profeffedly ludicrous ought to
have quarter, becaufe fuch images deftroy the con-
traft.
Though the burlefque that aims at ridicule produ¬
ces its efredls by elevating the ftyle far above the fub-
jedl ; yet the poet ought to confine himfelf to fuch
images as are. lively, and readily apprehended. A
ft rained elevation, loanng above the ordinary reach of
fancy,, makes not a pleafant impreflion. The mind is
foon difgufted by being kept long on the ftretch. Ma¬
chinery may. be employed in a burlefque poem, fuch
as the Lutrin, Difpenfary, or Hudibras, with more
fuccefs and propriety than in any other fpecies of poe-
*D* r^.or burlefque poems, though they affume the
air of hiftory, give entertainment chiefly by their plea¬
fant and ludicrous pidures : It is not the aim of fuch a
poem to rafte lympathy j and for that reafon, a ftridl
imitation of nature is not neceffary. And hence, the
more extravagant the machinery in a ludicrous poem,
the more entertainment it affords.
BURLING I ON, a fea-port town in the eaft rid-
ing of \ 01k flu re, fituated on the German ocean, a-
bout 37 miles north-eaft of York. E. Long. o. 10. and
N. Lat. 54. 15. It gave the title of earl to a branch
of the noble family of Boyle, but the earldom is now
extinft.
Ncw-Burlington, the capital of New-Jerfey, in
North America ; fituated in an ifland of Delaware’ ri¬
ver, about 20 miles north of Philadelphia. W. Lomr
74- o. N. Lat. 40. 40.
BURMAN, Francis, a Proteftant minifter, and
learned profeffor of divinity at Utrecht, was born at
Leyden in 1628 } and died on the 10th of November
1679, after having publilhed a courfe of divinity, and
feveral other wTorks.
He is not to be confounded with Francis Burman
his fon ; or with Peter Burman, a laborious commen¬
tator on Phaedrus, Lucan, Petronius, and other pro¬
fane authors, who died in 1741.
BURN, in Medicine and Surgery, an injury re¬
ceived in any part of the body by fire. See Sur¬
gery.
BURNET, Gilbert, bilhop of Salifbury in the
latter end of the 17th century, was born at Edin¬
burgh, in 1643, of an ancient family in the fliire of
Aberdeen. His father being bred to the lawT, was,
at the reftoration of King Charles II. appointed one of
the lords of feflion, with the title of Lord Crimond,
in reward for his conftant attachment to the royal par¬
ty during the troubles of Great Britain. Our author,
the youngeft fon of his father, was inftruaed by him
in the Latin tongue : at ten years of age he was fent
to continue his ftudies at Aberdeen, and" was admitted
M. A. before he was 14. His own inclination led
him to the ftudy of the civil and feudal law j and he
ufea to fay, that it was from this ftudy he had recei-
ved. more juft notions concerning the foundations of
civil lociety and government, than thofe which fome
divines maintain. About the year after, he changed
his mind, and began to apply to divinity, to the great
fatisfa&ion
Burnet.
BUR [ 7 ] BUR
fatisfaftion of his father. He was admitted preacher
before he was iB j and Sir Alexander Burnet, his cou-
fm-german, offered him a benefice ; but he refufed to
accept of it.
In 1663, about two years after the death of his fa¬
ther, he came into England; and after fix months
flay at Oxford and Cambridge, returned to Scotland j
which he foon left again to make a tour for fome
months, in 1664, in Holland and France. At Am-
flerdam, by the help of a Jewifh rabbi, he perfedted
himfelf in the Hebrew language ; and likewife became
acquainted with the leading men of the different per-
fuafions tolerated in that country ; as Calvinifts, Ar-
minians, Lutherans, Anabaptifls, Brownifts, Papifts,
and Unitarians ; amongll each of which he ufed fre¬
quently to declare, he met with men of fuch unfeign¬
ed piety and virtue, that he became fixed in a flrong
principle of univerfal charity, and an invincible ab¬
horrence of all feverities on account of religious diffen-
fions.
Upon his return from his travels, he was admitted
minifter of Salton ; in which ftation he ferved five
years in the moll exemplary manner. He drew up a
memorial, in which he took notice of the principal
errors in the conduct of the Scots bifhops, which he
obferved not to be conformable to the primitive irrfli-
tution ; and fent a copy of it to feveral of them. 'Phis
expofed him to their refentments: but, to fhow he was
not actuated with a fpirit of ambition, he led a retired
courfe of life for two years ; wdrich fo endangered his
health, that he was obliged to abate his exceffive ap¬
plication to ftudy. . In 1669, he publifhed his “ Mo-
dell and free conference between a conformill and non-
•conformifl.” He became acquainted with the duchefs
of Hamilton, who communicated to him all the papers
belonging to her father and her uncle 5 upon which he
drew up the “ Memoirs of the dukes of Hamilton.”
The duke of Lauderdale, hearing he was about this
work, invited him to London, and introduced him to
King Charles II. He returned to Scotland, and mar¬
ried the lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of the earl
of Caflilis ; a lady of great piety and knowledge,
highly e(teemed by the Prefbyterians, to whofe fenti-
ment^ (he was (Irongly inclined. As there was fome
difparity in their ages, that it might remain pad dif-
pute that this match was wholly owing to inclination,
and not to avarice or ambition, the day before their mar¬
riage our author delivered the lady a deed, whereby
he renounced all pretenfions to her fortune, which was
very confiderable, and mud otherwife have fallen into
his hands, (he herfelf having no intention to fecure it.
The fame year he publidied his “ Vindication of the
authority, conditution, and laws of the church and
date of Scotland which at that jun&ure was looked
upon as fo great a fervice, that he was again offered a
bidiopric, and a promife of the next vacant archbi-
diopric } but did not accept of it, becaufe he could
not approve of the meafures of the court, the grand
view of which he faw to be the advancement of Po¬
pery.
Mr Burnet’s intimacy with the dukes of Hamilton
and Lauderdale occafioned him to be frequently fent
for by the king and the duke of York, wTo had con-
verfations with him in private. But Lauderdale con¬
ceiving a refentment againd him on account of the
freedom with which he fpoke to him, reprefented at
lad to the king, that Ur Burnet was engaged in an v"
oppofition to his meafures. Upon his return to Lon¬
don, he perceived that thefe fuggedions had entirely
thrown him out of the king’s favour, though the duke
of York treated him with greater civility than ever,
and diffuaded him from going to Scotland. Upon this,
he refigned his profefforfirip at Glafgow, and daid at
London. About this time the living at Cripplegate
being vacant, the dean and chapter of St Paul’s (in
whofe gift it was), hearing of his circumdances, and
the hardfhips he had undergone, fent him an offer of
the benefice j but as he had been informed of their fird
intention of conferring it on Dr Fowler, he gencroully
declined it. In 1675, at the recommendation of Lord
Hollis, whom he had known in France, ambaffador at
that court, he was, by Sir Herbottle Grimdone, mader
of the rolls, appointed preacher of the chapel there,
notwithdanding the oppofition of the court. He was
foon after chofen a ledlurer of St Clement’s, and became
one of the preachers that were mod followed in town.
In 1697, he Hi/iory of the Reformation,io):
which he had the thanks of both houfes of parliament.
The fird part of it was publifhed in 1679, and the fe-
cond in 1681. Next year he publiihed an abridgment
of thefe two parts.
Mr Burnet about this time happened to be lent for
to a woman in ficknefs, who had been engaged in an
amour with the earl of Rocheder. The manner in
which he treated her during her illnefs, gave that lord
a great curiofity for being acquainted with him.
Whereupon, for a whole winter, he fpent one evening
in a week with Dr Burnet, who difcourfed with him
upon all thofe topics upon which fceptics and men of
loofe morals attack the Chridian religion. The happy
effe£l of thefe conferences occafioned the publication
of his account of the life and death of that earl. In
1682, when the adminidration was changed in favour
of the duke of York, being much reforted to by per-
fons of all ranks and parties, in order to avoid returning
vifits, he built a laboratory, and w7ent for above a year
through a courfe of chemical experiments. Not long
after, he refufed a living of 300I. a-year offered him by
the earl of Effex, on the terms of his not refiding
there, but in London. When the inquiry concerning
the popidi plot was on foot, he was frequently fent for
and confulted by King Charles with relation to the date
of the nation. His rnajedy offered him the bifhopric
of Chicheder, then vacant, if he would engage in his
intereils ; but he refufed to accept it on thefe terms.
He preached at the Rolls till 1684, when he was dif-
miffed by order of the court. About this time he pu¬
bliihed feveral pieces.
On King James’s acceflion to the throne, having ob¬
tained leave to go out of the kingdom, he fird went
to Paris, and lived in great retirement, till contra£ling
an acquaintance with Brigadier Stouppe, a Protedant
gentleman in the French fervice, he made a tour with
him into Italy. He met with an agreeable reception
at Rome. Pope Innocent XL hearing of our author’s
arrival, fent the captain of the Swifs guards to acquaint
him he would give him a private audience in bed, to
avoid the ceremony of hiding his holinefs’s flipper.
But Dr Burnet excufed himfelf as well as he could.
Some difputes which our author had here concerning
religion
Burnet
BUR [
• religion, beginning to be taken notice of, made it
“ proper for him to quit the city j which, upon an in¬
timation given him by Prince Borghefe, he according¬
ly did.
He purfued his travels through Switzerland and
Germany. In 1688, he came to Utrecht, with an in¬
tention to fettle in fome of the feven provinces. There
he received an invitation from the prince and princefs
of Orange (to whom their party in England had re¬
commended him) to come to the Hague, which he
accepted. Pie was foon made acquainted with the fe-
cret of their counfels, and advifed the fitting out of a
fleet in Plolland fufficient to fupport their defigns and
encourage their friends. This, and the Account of his
Travels, in which he endeavoured to blend Popery and
tyranny together, and represent them as unfeparable,
with fome papers reflecting on the proceedings of Eng¬
land, that came out in Angle flieets, and were dif-
perfed in feveral parts of England, moft of which Mr
Burnet owned himfelf the author of, alarmed King
James •, and were the occafion of his writing twice
again!! him to the princefs of Orange, and infifting,
by his ambaflador, on his being forbid the Court ;
which, after much importunity, was done, though he
continued to be trufted and employed as before, the
Dutch minifter confulting him daily. To put an end
to thefe frequent conferences with the miniiters, a pro-
fecution for high treafon was fet on foot again!! him
both in England and Scotland. But Burnet receiving
the news thereof before it arrived at the States, he
avoided the florm, by petitioning for, and obtaining
without any difficulty, a bill of naturalization, in order
to his intended marriage with Mary Scott, a Dutch
lady of confiderable fortune, who, with the advan¬
tage of birth, had thofe of a fine perfon and under-
.{landing.
After his marriage with this lAdy, being legally un¬
der the protection of Holland, when Mr Burnet found
King James plainly fubverting the conftitution, he
omitted no method to fupport and promote the defign
the prince of Orange had formed of delivering Great
Britain, and came over with him in quality of chap¬
lain. He was foon advanced to the fee of Salilhury,
He declared for moderate meafures with regard to the
clergy, who fcrupled to take the oaths, and many were
difpleafed with him for declaring for the toleration of 4
nonconformifts. His paftoral letter concerning the
oaths of allegiance and fupremacy to King William and
Queen Mary, 1689, happening to touch upon the right
of conqueft, gave fitch offence to both houfes pf parlia¬
ment, that it was ordered to be burnt by the hands of
the common executioner. In 1698 he loft his wife by
the finallpox j and, as he was almoft immediately af¬
ter appointed^ preceptor to the duke of Gloucefter, in
whofe education he took great care, this employment,
and the tender age of his children, induced him the fame
year to fupply her lofs by a marriage with Mrs Berke-
ly, eldeft daughter of Sir Richard Blake, knight. In
1699 he publiflied his Expofition of the 39 articles;
which occafioned a reprefentation again!! him in the
lower houfe of convocation in the year 1701 ; but he
was vindicated in the upper houfe. His fpeech in the
houfe of lords in 1704 again!! the bill to prevent occa-
fional conformity was feverely attacked. He died in
£715, and was interred in the church of St James,
8 ] BUR
Clerkenwell, where he has a monument ere&ed to him. Burnet.
He formed a fcheme for augmenting the poor livings; 1 v'""’
which he prefled forward with fuch fuccefs, that it
ended in an a£t of parliament pafled in the fecond year
of Queen Anne, “ for the augmentation of the livings
of the poor clergy.”
Burnet, Thomas, a polite and learned writer in.
the end of the 17th century, was born in Scotland, but
educated in Cambridge under the tuition of Mr John
Tillotfon, afterwards archbifltop of Canterbury. In
the beginning of 1685, he was made mafter of Sutton’s
hofpital in London, after which he entered into holy
orders. During the reign of King James, he made a
noble Hand in his poft as mafter of the charter-houfe
again!! the encroachtnents of that monarch, who would
have impofed one Andrew Popham, a Papift, as a pen-
fioner upon the foundation of that houfe. In 1680 he
publifhed his Te/luns theoria facra, fo univerfally admi¬
red for the purity of the ftyle and beauty of the fenti-
ments, that King Charles gave encouragement to a tranf-
lation of it into Englifh. This theory was, however
attacked by feveral writers. In 1692 he publifihed his
Archceologia philofophica, dedicated to King William
to whom he was clerk of theclofet. He died in 17x5!
Since his death hath been publifhed, his book De fatti
mortuorum et refurgentium, and his treatife De fide et
officiis Chri/lianorum.
Burnet, the Honourable James, Lord Monboddo, a
fenator of the college of juftice in Scotland, was born
about the year 1714. He was the fon of Mr Burnet
of Monboddo in Kincardinelhire. After paflingthrough
the ufual courfe of fchool education, he profecuted his
ftudies at the univerfities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and
Leyden, with diftinguiflied reputation. He was ad¬
mitted an advocate in 1737, and on the 12th of Fe¬
bruary 1767, he was railed to the bench by the title of
Lord Monboddo, in the room of Lord Milton, ap¬
pointed a judge the 4th of June 1742, and who had
fucceeded Sir John Lauder of Fountainhall, admitted
November r. 1689; being the third on the bench in
fucceflion fince the revolution.
He married Mifs Farquharfon, a very amiable
woman, by whom he had a fon and two daughters.
His private life was fpent in the pra&ice of all the
focial virtues, and in the enjoyment of much domeftic
felicity. Although rigidly temperate' in his habits of
life, he, however, delighted much in the convivial fo-
ciety of his friends, and among thefe he could number
almoft all the moft eminent of thofe who were dif-
tinguifhed in Scotland for virtue, literature, or genuine
elegance of converfation and manners. One of thofe
who efteemed him the moft was the late Lord Garden-
ftone, a man who poflefled no mean portion of the fame
overflowing benignity of difpofition, the fame unim¬
peachable integrity as a judge, the fame partial fond-
nefs for literature and the fine arts. His fon, a very
promifing boy, in whofe education he took great de-
light, was, indeed, fnatched away from his affeftions
by a premature^ death. But, when it was too late for
forrow and anxiety to avail, the afftifted father ftifled
the emotions of nature in his breaft, and wound up the
energies of his foul to the firmeft tone of ftoical forti¬
tude. He was, in like manner, bereaved of his excel¬
lent lady, the object of his deareft tendernefs ; and he
endurpd the lols with a fimilar firmnefs, fitted to dq
honour
BUR [
Burnet, honour either to philofophy or to religion. In addi-
““"Y’-"*' tion to his office as a judge in the court of feffion, an
offer was made to him of a feat in the court of judi¬
ciary. But, though the emoluments of this would have
made a convenient addition to his income, he refufed
to accept it j left its bufinefs fhould too much detach
him from the purfuit of his favourite ftudies. To thefe
ftudies he continued through the whole of a long life
to be greatly devoted. His admiration of the man¬
ners, literature, and philofophy of the ancients, was un¬
bounded. Thus ftrongly prepoffeffed, it is not to be
wondered at, that the comparifon which he made be¬
tween the ancients and moderns, was little favourable to
the latter. For among the former he fuppofed that hefaw
all that was elegant, manly, and virtuous, all that was
praifeworthy and excellent*, while the degenerate race
of the moderns exhibited nothing but effeminacy and
corruption.
The vacation of the court of feffion afforded him
fufficient leifure to retire every year, in fpring and in
autumn, to the country *, and he ufed then to drefs in a
ftyle of fimplicity, as if he had been only a plain far¬
mer ; and to live among the people upon his eftate,
with all the kind familiarity and attention of an aged
father among his grown-up children. Although his
eftate, from the old leafes, afforded comparatively but
a moderate income, he would never raife the rents, or dif-
place an old tenant to make room for a new one who of¬
fered a higher rent. In imitation of the rural economy of
fome of the ancients, w*hom he chiefly admired, he ac¬
counted population the true wealth of an eftate, and was
deftrous of no improvement fo much as of increafing the
number of fouls upon his lands, fo as to make it greater,
in proportion to the extent, than that of thofe upon the
eftate of any neighbouring landholder. It was there he
had the pleafure of receiving Dr Samuel Johnfon, with his
friend James Bofwell, at the time when thefe two gen¬
tlemen were upon their well-known tour through the
Highlands of Scotland, Johnfon admired nothing in
literature fo much as the difplay of a keen difcrimina-
tion of human charafter, a juft apprehenfion of the
principles of moral aflion, and that vigorous common
fenfe wffiich is the moft happily applicable to the ordi¬
nary conduH of life. Monboddo delighted in the re¬
finements, the fubtleties, the abftraftions, the affedta-
tions of literature j and, in comparifon with thefe, def-
pifed the groffnefs of modern tafte and of common af¬
fairs. Johnfon thought learning and fcience to be lit¬
tle valuable, except fo far as they could be made fub-
fervient to the purpofes of living ufefully and happily
with the world, upon his own terms. Monboddo’s
favourite fcience taught him to look down with con¬
tempt upon all fublunary, and efpecially upon ail mo¬
dern things ; and to fit life to literature and philofo¬
phy, not literature and philofophy to life. James Bof¬
well, therefore, in carrying Johnfon to vifit Monbod¬
do, probably thought of putting them one againft an¬
other, as two game cocks, and promifed himfelf much
fport from the colloquial conteft which he expedled to
enfue between them. But Monboddo was too hofpi-
table and courteous to enter into keen contention with
a ftranger in his own houfe. There was much talk
between them, but no angry controverfy, no exafpe-
ration of that diflike for each other other’s well-known
peculiarities with which they had met. Johnfon, it is
Vol. V. Part I.
9- ] BUR
true, ftill continued to think Lord Monboddo what he Burnet,
called a prig in literature. >,
Lord Monboddo ufed frequently to vifit London, to
which he wras allured by the opportunity that great
metropolis affords of enjoying the converfation of a vaft
number of men of profound erudition. A journey to
the capital became a favourite amufement of his peri¬
ods of vacation from the bufinefs of the court to which
he belonged 5 and, for a time, he made this journey
once a year. A carriage, a Vehicle that was not in
common ufe among the ancients, he confidered as art
engine of effeminacy and floth, which it w*as difgrace-
ful for a man to make ufe of in travelling. To be
dragged at the tail of a horfe, inftead of mounting up¬
on his back, feemed, in his eyes, to be a truly ludi¬
crous degradation of the genuine dignity of human na¬
ture. In all his journies, therefore, between Edin¬
burgh and London, he was wont to ride on horfeback,
with a fingle fervant attending him. He continued
this pradlice, without finding it too fatiguing for his
ftrength, till he Was upwards of eighty years of age.
Within thefe few years, on his return from a laft vifit,
which he made on purpofe to take leave, before his
death, of all his old friends in London, he became ex¬
ceedingly ill upon the road, and was unable to proceed j
and had he not been overtaken by a Scotch friend,
who prevailed upon him to travel the remainder of the
way in a carriage, he might, perhaps, have adlually
periflied by the way fide, or breathed his laft in fome
dirty inn. Since that time, he did not again attempt
an equeftrian journey to London.
In London, his vifitswere exceedingly acceptable to
all his friends, whether of the literary or falhionable
world. He delighted to (hew himfelf at court ; and the
king is faid to have taken a pleafure in converfing with
the old man with a diftinguifliing notice that could not
but be very flattering to him.
A conftitution of body, naturally framed to wear
well and laft long, was ftrengthened to Lord Monbod¬
do by exercife, guarded by temperance, and by a te¬
nor of mind too firm to be deeply broken in upon by
thofe paffions which confume the principles of life. In
the country he always ufed much the exercifes of
walking in the open air, and of riding. The cold bath
was a means of preferving the health, to which he had
recourfe in all feafons, amid every feverity of the
weather, under every inconvenience of indifpofition or
bufinefs, with a perfeverance invincible. He was
aecuftomed, alike in winter and in fummer, to rife at
a very early hour in the morning, and, without lofs of
time, to betake himfelf to ftudy or wholefome exercife.
It is faid, that he even found the ufe of what he
called the air bath, or the praftice of occafionally walk¬
ing about, for forne minutes, naked, in a room filled
with frefh and cool air, to be highly falutary.
Lord Monboddo is rvell known to the wrorld as a
man of letters. His firft publication was “ a Diflerta-
tion on the Origin and Progrefs of Language,” in 2
vols. 8vo. 1773 which wrere followed by four more
vols. the laft publiflred not long before his death. In
this work, intended chiefly to vindicate the honours of
Grecian literature^ he afcribes the origin of alphabetical
w’riting to the Egyptians; and ftrenuoufly maintains, that
the ouran-outang is a clafs of the human fpecies, and
that his want of fneech is merely accidental. He al-
B fo
BUR [ii
Uumet. fo endeavours to eftablifh the reality of the exigence of
mermaids, and other fiftitious animals. He was indu¬
ced to undertake another work, for the purpofe of de¬
fending the caufe of Grecian philofophy j and publiih-
cd, in five vols. 4to. a work entitled, “ Antient Meta-
phyfics,” which, like the other, is remarkable fora fur-
prifing mixture of erudition and genius, with the moil
abfurd whim and conceit.
As a judge, his decifions were found, upright, and
learned, and marked with acute difcrimination ; and
free from thofe paradoxes and partialities which appear
in his writings. He attended his judicial duty wifch
indefatigable diligence till within a few days of his
death, which happened at his houfe in Edinburgh, May
26. 1799, at the advanced age of 85.
His eldeft daughter married fome years before his
death. His fecond daughter, in perfonal lovelinefs one
of the fined women of the age, was beheld in every
public place with general admiration, and was fought
in marriage by many fuitors. Her mind was endowed
with all her father’s benevolence of temper, and with all
his tafte for elegant literature, without any portion of his
whim and caprice. It was her chiefdelighttobe the nurfe
and the companion of his declining age. Her prefence
contributed to draw aroujid him, in his houfe, and at
his table, all that was truly refpe&able among the youth
of his country. She mingled in the world of fafhion,
without lharing its follies; and heard thofe flatteries
which are addreffed to youth and beauty, without be¬
ing betrayed to that light and felfilh vanity w-hich is
often the only fentiment that fills the heart of the high-
praifed beauty. She delighted in reading, in literary
converfation, in poetry, and in the fine arts, without
contradling from this tafte, any of that pedantic felf-
conceit and affe&ation which ufually chara&erize lite¬
rary ladies, and whofe prefetice often frightens away the
domeftic virtues, the graces, the delicacies, and all the
more interefting charms of the fex. When Burns, the
well-known Scotilh poet, firft arrived from the plough
in Ayrlhire to publiih his poems in Edinburgh, there
w^as none by whom he was more zealoufly patronized
than by Lord Monboddo and his lovely daughter. No
man’s feelings were ever more powerfully or exquifitely
alive than thofe of the ruftic bard, to the emotions of
gratitude, or to the admiration of the good and fair.
In a poem which he at that time wrote, as a panegy¬
rical addrefs to Edinburgh, he took occafton to cele¬
brate the beauty and excellence of Mils Burnet, in,
perhaps the fineft ftanza of the whole :
“ Thy daughters bright thy walks adorn,
“ Gay as the gilded fummer Iky,
“ Sweet as the dewy milk-white thorn,
“ Dear as the raptur’d thrill of joy !
s‘ Fair Burnet ftrikes th’ adoring eye ;
“ Heav’n’s beauties on my fancy ftiine,
“ I fee the Sire of Love on high,
“ And own his work, indeed, divine.”
She was the ornament of the elegant fociety of the
city in which ftie refided, her father’s pride, and the
comfort of his domeftic life in his declining years.
Every amiable and noble fentiment was familiar to her
heart, every female virtue was exemplified in her life.
Yet, this woman, thus lovely, thus elegant, thus wife
and virtuous, was cut off in the flower of her age, and
] BUR
left her father bereft of the laft tender tie which bound Burnham,
him to fociety and to life. She died about fix years Burning. ^
before him of a confumption ; a difeafe that in Scot-
land proves too often fatal to the lovelieft and molt
promifing among the fair and the young. Neither his
philofophy, nor the neceffary torpor of the feelings of
extreme old age, were capable of preventing Lord Mon¬
boddo from being very deeply aftedled by lo grievous a
lofs; and from that time he began to droop exceeding¬
ly in his health and fpirits. Edin. Mag.
Burnet. See Potejuum and Sanguisorba, Bo¬
tany Index.
BURNHAM, a market-town of Norfolk in Eng¬
land, fituated in Et Long. o. 50. N. Lat. 53-°*
BURNING, the aftion of fire on fome pabulum or
fuel, by which the minute parts thereof are put into a
violent motion, and fome of them afluming the nature
of fire themfelves, fly off in orbem, while the reft are
diflipated in form of vapour or reduced to allies. See
Ignition.
Extraordinary Cafes of Burning. We have inftances
of perfons burnt by fire kindled within their own bo¬
dies. A wroman at Paris, who ufed to drink brandy to •
excefs, wras one night reduced to allies by a fire from
within, all but her head and the ends of her fingers.
Signora Corn. Zangari, or, as others call her, Corn.
Bandi, an aged lady, of an unblemillied life, near Ce-
fana in Romagna, underwent the fame fate in March
1731. She had retired in the evening to her chamber
fomewhat indifpofed ; and in the morning was found
in the middle of the room reduced to allies, all except
her face, legs, Ikull, and three fingers. The ftockings
and llioes ihe had on were not burnt in the leaft. The
allies were light ; and, on preffing between the fingers,
vanilhed, leaving behind a grofs ftinking moifture with
which the floor w*as fmeared 5 the walls and furniture
of the room being covered with a moift cineritious
foot, which had not only ftained the linen in the chefts,
but had penetrated into the clofet, as well as into the
room overhead, the wralls of which were moiftened with
the fame vifcous humour.—We have various other re¬
lations of perfons burnt to death in this unaccountable
manner.
Sig. Mondini, Bianchini, und Maffei, have written
treatifes exprefs to account for the caufe of fo extraor¬
dinary an event; common fire it could not be, fince this-
would likewife have burnt the bed and the room; befides
that it would have required many hours, and a vaft
quantity of fuel, to reduce a human body to allies ; and,
after all, a confiderable part of the bones wmuld have
remained entire, as they w7ere anciently found after the
fierceft funeral fires. Some attribute the eftedl to a mine
of fulphur under the houfe ; others, to a miracle; while
others fufpedl that art or villany had a hand in it. A
philofopher of Verona maintains, that fuch a conflagra¬
tion might have arifen from the inflammable matters-
wherewith the j^uman body naturally abounds. Sig.
Bianchini accounts for the conflagration of the lady
above-mentioned, from her ufing a bath or lotion of
camphorated fpirit of wine when the found herfelf out
of order. Maffei fuppofes it owing to lightning, but
to lightning generated in her owm body, agreeable to
his do&rine, which is, That lightning does not pro¬
ceed from the clouds, but is always produced in the
place where it is feeti and its effeds perceived. We
have
BUR l 11 ] BUR
Burning have had a late attempt to eftablUh the opinion, that
b—y-^-' thefe deftroying internal fires are caufed in the entrails
of the body by inflamed effluvia of the blood ; by juices
and fermentation in the ftomach •, by the many com-
buftible matters'which abound in living bodies for the
purpofes of life ; and, finally, by the fiery evaporations
which exhale from the fettlings of fpirit of wine, bran¬
dies, and other hot liquors, in the tunica villofa of the
ftomach and other adipofe or fat membranes ; within
which thofe fpirits engender a kind of camphor, which
in the night-time, in deep, by a full refpiration, are
put in a ftronger motion, and are more apt to be fet on
fire. Others afcribe the caufe of fuch perfons being
fet on fire to lightning ; and their burning fo entirely,
to the greater quantity of phofphorus and other com-
buftible matter they contained.—For our own part,
we can by no means pretend to explain the caufe of
fuch a phenomenon : but for the interefts of humanity
we wilh it could be derived from fomething external
to the human body 5 for if, to the calamities of human
life already known, we luperadd a fufpicion that we
may unexpeftedly, and without the leaft warning, be
confumed by an internal fire, the thought is too dread¬
ful to be borne.
Burning, or Bre?ining, in our old cuftoms, denotes
an infectious difeaie, got in the ftcws by converting
with lewd wromen, and fuppofed to be the fame with
what w'e now call the venereal difeafe.
In a manufcript of the vocation of John Bale to the
bifhopric of Ofibry, written by himfelf, he fpeaks of
I5r Hugh Wefton, who was dean of Windfor in 1556,
but deprived by Cardinal Pole for adultery, thus : “ At
this day is leacherous Wefton, who is more praftifed in
the arts of breech-burning, than all the whores of the
ftews. He not long ago brent a beggar of St Botolph’s
parifti.” See Stews.
Burning, in Antiquity, away of difpofing of the
dead much praClifed by the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans, and ftill retained by feveral nations in the
Eaft and Weft Indies. The antiquity of this cuftom
rifes as high as the Theban war, where w^e are told
of the great folemnity accompanying this ceremony
at the pyre of Menaeacus and Archemorus, who
were cotemporary with Jair the eighth judge of
Ifrael. Homer abounds with funeral obfequies of this
nature. In the inward regions of Afia the praftice
was of very ancient date, and the continuance long :
for we are told, that, in the reign of Julian, the king
of Chionia burnt his fan’s body, and depofited the alhes
in a filver urn. Coeval almoft with the firft inftances
of this kind in the eaft, w^as the praftice in the weftern
parts of the world. The Herulians, the Getes, and
the Thracians, had all aloeg obferved it j and its anti¬
quity was as great with the Celtae, Sarmatians, and o-
ther neighbouring nations. 1 he origin of this cuftom
feems to have been out of friendlhip to the deceafed :
their alhes were preferved as we preferve a lock of hair,
a ring, or a feal, which haft been the property of a fte-
ceafed friend.
Kings wrere burnt in clothrinafte of the afheftos ftone,
that their allies might lie preferved pure from any mix¬
ture with the fuel and other matters throwm on the fu¬
neral pile. The fame method is ftill obferved with the
princes of Tartary. Among the Greeks, the body was
placed on.the ton of a pile, on which were thrown di¬
vers animals, and even flaves and captives, befides un- Burning,
guents and perfumes. In the funeral of Patroclus we ' ' "V 1 7
find a number of ftieep and oxen thrown in, then four
horfes, iollowed by two dogs, and laftly by 12 Trojan
prifoners. The like is mentioned by Virgil in the fune¬
rals of his Trojans j where, befides oxen, fwine, and all
manner of cattle, we find eight youths condemned to
the flames. The firft thing was the fat of the beads
wherewuth the body was covered, that it might con-
fume the fooner : it being reckoned great felicity to be
quickly reduced to allies. For the like reafon, where
numbers were to be burnt at the fame time, care was
taken to mix with the reft fome of humid conftitutions,
and therefore more eafily to be inflamed. Thus we are
affkred by Plutarch and Macrobius, that for every ten.
men it was cuftomary to put in one woman. Soldiers
ufually had their arms burnt with them. The garments
worn by the living were alfo thrown on the pile, wuth
other ornaments and prefents; a piece of extravagance
which the Athenians carried to fo great a height, that
fome of their lawgivers were forced to reftrain them,
by fevere penalties, from defrauding the living by their
liberality to the dead.—In fome cafes, burning was ex-
prefsly forbidden among the Romans, and even looked
upon as the higheft impiety. Thus infants, who died
before the breeding of teeth, were intombed unburnt
in the ground, in a particular place fet apart for this
purpofe, called Juggrimdanum. The like was praflifed
wuth regard to thofe who had been ftruck dead with
lightning, who were never to be burnt again. Some fay
that burning was denied to filicides.—The manner ot
burning among the Romans wTas not unlike that of the
Greeks j the corpfe, being brought out w'ithout the
city, was carried direftly to the place appointed for
burning it •, which, if it joined to the fepulchre, was
called bujlum ; if feparate from it, ujlnna ; and there
laid on the rogus or pyra, a pile of wood prepared on
which to burn it, built in lhape of an altar, but of diffe¬
rent height according to the quality of the deceafed.
The wood uled was commonly from fuch trees as con¬
tain moft pitch or rofin 5 and if any other were ufed,
they fplit it for the more eafy catching fire : round
the pile they fet cyprefs trees, probably to hinder the
noifome fineli of the corpfe. The body was not placed
on the bare pile, but on the couch or bed whereon it
lay. This done, the next of blood performed the cere¬
mony of lighting the pile j which they did with a
torch, turning their faces all the while the other way,
as if it were done- with relu&ance. During the cere¬
mony, decurfions and games were celebrated 5 after
which came the ajjilegium, or gathering of the bones and
allies 5 alfo waftiing and anointing them, and repofiting
them in urns.
Burning, among furgeons, denotes the application
of an actual cautery, that is, a red-hot iron inllrument,
to the part effefled : otherwife denominated cauterisa¬
tion. The whole art of phylic among the Japanefe
lies in the choice of places proper to be burnt : which
are varied according to the difeafe. In the country of
the Mogul, the colic is cured by an iron ring applied
red-hot about the patient’s navel. Certain it is, that
fome very extraordinary cures have been performed ac¬
cidentally by burning, ft he following cafe is recorded
in the Memoirs of the academy of fciences by M. Hom-
bsrg. A W"oman of about 35 became fubjeft to a head-
B z ach»
BUR [ i
Earning, jrch* which at times was fo violent that it drove her out
"“"Y——" of her fenfes, making her fometimes ftupid and foolifh,
at other times raving and furious. The feat of the pain
w7as in the forehead, and over the eyes, which were in¬
flamed, and looked violently red and fparkling 5 and
the mod violent fits of it were attended with naufeas
and vomitings. In the times of the fits, {he could take
no food ; but out of them, had a very good ftomach.
Mr Homberg had in vain attempted her cure for three
years with all kinds of medicines : only opium fuc-
ceeded; and that but little, all its effeft being only the
taking off the pain for a few hours. The rednefs of her
eyes was always the fign of an approaching fit. One
night, feeling a fit coming on, (he went to lie down
upon the bed 5 but firff walked up to the glafs with
the candle in her hand, to fee how her eyes looked :
in obferving this, the candle fet fire to her cap: and as
ffie was alone, her head was terribly burnt before the
fire could be extinguiffied. Mr Homberg was fent for,
and ordered bleeding and proper dreflings: but it was
perceived, that the expelled fit this night never came
on ; the pain of the burning wore off by degrees ; and
the patient found herfelf from that hour cured of the
headach, wdiich had never returned in four years after,
which was the time when the account wTas communi¬
cated. Another cafe, not lefs remarkable than the
former, was communicated to Mr Homberg by a phy-
fician at Bruges. A woman, who for feveral years
had her legs and thighs fvvelled in an extraordinary
manner, found fome I'elief from rubbing them before
the fire with brandy every morning and evenino-.
One evening the fire chanced to catch the brandy (he
had rubbed herfelf with, and flightly burnt her. She
applied fome brandy to her burn j and in the night all
the water her legs and thighs were fwelled with was
entirely difcharged by urine, and the fwelling did not
again return.
BuRNiNG-BuJh. See Bush.
Burning G/afs, a convex glafs commonly fpherical,
which being expofed direftly to the fun, collects all the
rays falling theron into a very final! fpace called the^/o-
sus; where wood or any other combuffible matter
being put, wall be fet on fire. The term burnmg-glafs
is alfo ufed to denote thofe concave mirrors, whether
compofed of glafs quickfilvered, or of metalline mat¬
ters, which burn by reflettion, condenfing the fun’s rays
into a focus fimilar to the former.
The uie of burning-glaffes appears to have been very
ancient. Diodorus Siculus, Liacian, Dion, Zonaras,
Galen, Anthemius, Euftathius, Tzetzes, and others,
atteff, that by means of them Archimedes fet fire to
the Roman fleet at the fiege of Syracufe. Tzetzes is
fo particular in his account of this matter, that his de-
feription fuggefted to Kircher the method by which
it was probably accompliflied. That author fays, that
“ Archimedes fet fire to Marcellus’s navy, by means
of a burning glafs compofed of finall fquare mirrors
moving every way upon hinges j which, when placed
In the fun’s rays, diredled them upon the Roman fleet,
fo as to reduce it to allies at the diftance of a bow ftiot.”
A very particular teftimony we have alfo from Anthe¬
mius of Lydia, who takes pains to prove the poflibility
of fetting fire to a fleet, or any other combuftible bo¬
dy, at fuch a diftance.
That the ancients were alfo acquainted with the ufe
2 ] BUR
of catoptric or refrafting burning-glaffes, appears from Burmagv
a pafl'agein Ariftophanes’s comedy of The Clouds, w’hich —y—■■
clearly treats of their effefts. The author introduces
Socrates as examining Strepfiades about the method
he had difeovered of getting clear of his debts. He
replies, that “ he thought of making ufe of a burn-
ing-glafs which he had hitherto ufed in kindling his
fire j” “ for (fays he) fliould they bring a writ againft
me, I’ll immediately place my glafs in the fun at fome
little diftance from it, and fet it on fire.” Pliny and
Laftantius have alfo fpoken of glaffes that burn by
refra&ion. The former calls them balls or globes of
glafs or cry/lal, which, expofed to the fun, tranfmit a
heat fufficient to fet fire to cloth, or corrode the
dead flelh of thofe patients wTho ftand in need of cau-
ftics; and the latter, after Clemens Alexandrinus, takes
notice that fire may be kindled by interpofing glaffes
filled with water between the fun and the object, fo as
to tranfmit the rays to it.
It feems difficult to conceive how they ftiould know
fuch glaffes would burn without knowing they would
magnify, wdiich it is granted they did not, till towards
the clofe of the 13th century, when fpeftacles were firft
thought on. For as to thofe paffages in Plautus which
feem to intimate the knowledge of fpeftacles, M. de
la Hire obferves, they do not prove any fuch thing )
and he folves this, by obferving, that their burning-
glaffes being fpheres, either folid or full of water, their
foci would be one-fourth of their diameter diftant from
them. If then their diameter were fuppofed half a foot,
which is the moft we can allowq an objeft muft be at an
inch and a half diftance to perceive it magnified 5 thofe
at greater diftances do not appear greater, but only
more confufed through the glafs than out of it. It is
no wronder, therefore, the magnifying property of con¬
vex glaffes was unknown, and the burning one known.
It is more wonderful there fliould be 300 years between
the invention of fpeftacles and telefcopes.
Among the ancients, the burning mirrors of Ar¬
chimedes and Proclus are famous : the former w7e have-
already taken notice of; by the other, the navy of
Yitellius befieging Byzantium, according to Zonaras,
was burnt to allies.
Among the moderns, the moft remarkable burning
mirrors.are thofe of Settala, of Villette, of Tfchirnhau-
fen, of Buffon, of Trudaine, and of Parker.
Settala, canon of Padua, made a parabolic mirror,
which, acording to Schottus, burnt pieces of wood
at the diftance of 15 or 16 paces. The following things
are noted of it in the ;4£la Eruditorum. 1. Green wTood
takes fire inftantaneoufly, fo as a ftrong wdnd cannot
extinguifti it. 2. Water boils immediately ; and eggs
in it are prefently edible. 3. A mixture of tin and
lead, three inches thick, drops prefently 5 and iron and
fteel plate becomes red-hot prefently, and a little after
burns into holes. 4. Things not capable of melting,
as ftones, bricks, &c. become foon red-hot, like iron.
5. Slate becomes firft white, then a black glafs. 6. Tiles
are converted into a yellow glafs, and {hells into a
blaskilh yellow one. 7. A pumice ftone, emitted from
a volcano, melts into white glafs ; and, 8. A piece of
crucible alfo vitrifies in eight minutes. 9. Bones are
foon turned into an opaque glafs, and earth into a black
one. The breadth of this mirror is near three Leipfic
ells, its focus two ells from it 3, it is made of copper,
and
BUR t 1
and Its fubftance is not above double the thickneis of
the back of a knife.
Villette, a French artift of Lyons, made a large
jnirror, which was bought by Tavernier and pre-
fented to the king of Perfia; a fecond, bought by the
king of Denmark ; a third, prefented by the French
king to the Royal Academy; a fourth has been in Lng-
land, where it was publicly expofed. The effefts here¬
of, as found by Dr Harris and Dr Defaguliers, are,
that a iilver fixpence is melted in 7-!-", a . King
George’s halfpenny in 16", and runs with a hole in 34.
Tin melts in 3", caft iron in 16", date in 3"; a toi-
fil {hell calcines in 7" ; a piece of Pompey’s pillar at
Alexandria vitrifies, the black partin 50", in the white
in 54"; copper ore in 8"; bone calcines in 4", vitri¬
fies in 33". An emerald melts into a fubftance like a
turquois {tone ; a diamond weighing four grains loles
■l of its weight : the afbeftos vitrifies ; as all other bo¬
dies will do, if kept long enough in the focus ; but
when once vitrified, the mirror can go no farther vuth
them. This mirror is 47 inches wide, and is ground
to a fphere of 76 inches radius ; fo that its focus is
about 38 inches from the vertex. . Its fubftance is a
compofttion of tin, copper, and tin-glafs.
Every lens, whether convex, plano-convex, or con¬
vexo-convex, collects the fun’s rays, difpetfed over its
convexity, into a point by refraftion ; and is there¬
fore a burning glafs. The moft confiderable of this
kind is that made by M. de Tfchirnhaufen : the dia¬
meters of his lenfes are three and four feet, the focus
at the diftance of 12 feet, and its diameter an inch and
a half. To make the focus the more vivid, it is col-
le&ed a fecond time by a fecond lens parallel to the firft,
and placed in that point where the diameter of the
cone of rays formed by the firft lens is equal to the
diameter of the fecond ; fo that it receives them all;
and the focus, from an inch and a half, is contracted
into the fpace of eight lines, and its force increafed
proportionably. -
This glafs vitrifies tiles, Hates, pumice-ftones, &c.
in a moment. It melts fulphur, pitch, and all lofins,
under water ; the aftves of vegetables, woods, and other
matters, are tranfmuted into glafs; and every thing
applied to its focus is either melted, turned into a calx,
or into fmoke. Ffclurnhaufen obfeives, that it fuc-
eeeds beft when the matter applied is laid on a hard
charcoal well burnt.
Sir Ifaac Newton prefented a burning-glafs to the
royal fociety, confiding of feven concave glafles, fo
placed as that all their foci join in one phyfical point.
Each glafs is about 1 x inches and a half in diameter :
fix of them are placed round the 'feventh, to which
they are all contiguous ; and they foim a kind of feg-
ment of a fphere, whofe fubtenfe is about 34 inches
and a half, and the central glafs lies about an inch far¬
ther in than the reft. The common focus is about 22
inches and a half diftant, and about an inch in diame¬
ter. This glafs vitrifies brick or tile in 1", and melts
gold in 30".
It would appear, however, that glafs quickfilvered
is a more proper material for burning glafles than
metals; for the eflfeas of that fpeculum wherewith Mr
Macquer melted the platina feem to have been fupe-
rior to thofe above mentioned^ though the mirror it-
5 ] BUR
felf was much fmaller. The diameter of this glafs was Burning,
only 22 inches, and its focal diftance 28. Black flint,—y——
when expofed to the focus, being powdered to prevent
its crackling and flying about, and fecured in a large
piece of charcoal, bubbled up and ran into tranfparent
glafs in lefs than half a minute. Helfian crucibles, and
glafs-houfe pots, vitrified completely in three or four
leconds. Forged iron fmoked, boiled, and changed in¬
to a vitrefcent fcoria as foon as it was expofed to the
focus. The gyplum of Montmartre, when the flat
fides of the plates or leaves of which it is compofed
were prefented to the glais, did not fhow the leaft dii*
pofition to melt ; but, on prefenting a tranfverfe fec-
tion of it, or the edges of the plates, it melted in an
inftant, with a hilling noife, into a brownifti yellow
matter. Calcareous ftones did not completely melt :
but there was detached from them a circle more com-
paft than the reft of the mafs, and of the fize of the.
focus ; the feparation of which feemed to be occafioned
by the Ihrinking of the matter which had begun to en¬
ter into fufion. The white calx of antimony, common¬
ly called diaphoretic antimony, melted better than the
calcareous ftones, and changed into an opaque pretty
glofl'y fubftance like white enamel. It was obferved,
that the whitenefs of the calcareous ftones and the an-
timonial calx was of great difadvantage to their fufion,
by reafon of their retkaing great part of the fun’s rays;
fo that the fubjea could not undergo the full aaivity
of the heat thrown upon it by the burning-glafs. The
cafe was the fame with metallic bodies ; which melted
fo much the more difficultly as they were more white
and polifhed *, and this difference was fo remarkable,
that in the focus of this mirror, fo fufible a metal as
filver, when its furface was polifhed, did not melt at
all. ^ ^ ,
Plate CXXXI. fig. I. reprefents M. Buffon’s burn¬
ing mirror, which he with great reafon fuppofes to be
of the fame nature with that of Archimedes. It con-
fifts of a number of fmall mirrors of glafs quickfilvered,.
all of which are held together by an iron fiame.^ Each
of thefe fmall mirrors is alfo moveable by a contrivance
on the back part of the frame, that fo their refleftions
may all coincide in one point. By this means they are
capable of being accommodated to various heights of
the fun, and to different diftances. The adjufting them
in this manner takes up a confiderable time ; but after
they are fo adjufted, the focus will continue unalteied
for an hour or more. _ t> rr r
Fig. 2. reprefents a contrivance of M. Buffon’s for
diminifhing the thicknefs of very large refrafting lenfes.
He obfer-ves, that in the large lenfes of this kind, and
which are moft convenient for many purpofes, the
thicknefs of the glafs in the middle is fo great as very
much to diminiffi their force. For this reafon he pro-
pofes to form a burning-glafs of concentric circular
pieces of glafs, each refting upon the other, as reprefent-
ed in the figure. His method is to divide the convex
arch of the lens into three equal parts. Thus, fuppofe
the diameter to be 26 inches, and the thicknefs in the
middle to be three inches : By dividing the lens into
three concentric circles, and laying the one over the
other, the thicknefs of the middle piece needs be only
one inch ; at the fame time that the lefts will have the
fame convexity, and almoft the fame focal diftance.
BUR [ 14 ] BUR
.Burning. as in the other cafe ; ■while the efFe&s of it muft be
niuch greater, on account of the greater thinnefs of
the glafs.
M. Trudaine, a French gentleman, conflrufted a
burning lens on a new principle. It w7as compofed of
two circular fegments of glafs fpears, each four feet in
diameter, applied with their concave fides towards each
other. The cavity was filled with fpirit of wine, of
which it contained 40 pints. It was prefented by the
maker to the royal academy of fciences, but was, not
long after, broken by accident. The expence of con-
Ilrudling it amounted to about 1000I. fterling. After
all, it does not appear that the effe&s of this lens were
very great. Mr Magellan informs us, that it could on¬
ly coagulate the particles of platina in 20 minutes,
while Mr Parker’s lens entirely melted them in lefs
than two.
A large burning lens, indeed, for the purpofe of fil¬
ling and vitrifying fuch fubftances as refill the fires of
ordinary furnaces, and efpecially for the application of
heat in vacuo, and in other circumltances in which heat
cannot be applied by any other means, has long been a
defideratum among perfons concerned in philolophical
experiments: And it appears nowr to be in a great de¬
gree accomplilhed by Mr Parker. His lens is three
feet in diameter, made of fiint-glafs, and which, when
fixed in its frame, expofes a furface two feet eight
inches and a half in the clear.
In the Elevation reprefented on Plate CXXXII, A is
the lens of the diameter mentioned : thicknefs in the
centre, three inches and one-fourth: weight, 212
pounds : length of the focus, fix feet eight inches ;
diameter of ditto, one inch. B, a fecond lens, whofe
diameter in the frame is 16 inches, and {hows in the
clear 13 inches: thicknefs in the centre, one inch five-
eighths : weight 21 pounds : length of focus 29 inches:
diameter of .ditto, three-eighths of an inch. When the
two above' lenfes are compoundiid together, the length
of the focus is five feet three inches : diameter of ditto,
half an inch. C, a truncated cone, compofed of 21
ribs of wood: at the larger end is fixed the great lens A j
at the fmaller extremity the lefier lens B : near the
fmaller end is alfo fixed a rack, D, palling through the
pillar L, moveable by a pinion turning in ^ the faid
pillar, by means of the handle E, and thus giving a
vertical motion to the machine.^ F, a bar of wTood,,
fixed between the two lower ribs of the cone atrG j
having, within a chafed mortice imrvhich it moves, an
apparatus H, with the iron plate, I, fixed thereto ; and
this part turning on a ball and focket, K, a method is
thereby obtained of placing the matter under experi¬
ment, fo as to be acted upon by the focal rays in the
moll direft and powerful manner. 'LL, a ftrong ma¬
hogany frame, moving on caftors, MM. Immediately
* under the table N are three friction wheels, by which
the machine moves horizontally. O, a ftrong iron
bow, in which the lens and the cone hang.
SeBion. a, The great lens marked A in the eleva¬
tion. b, The frame which contains the lens, e, The
{mall lens marked B. d, The frame which contains
the fmall lens, e, The truncated cone, marked • C.
f, The bar on which the apparatus marked F moves.
g, The iron plate marked {. h, The cone of rays
formed by the refradtion ofi lhe great lens a, and falling
on the lens c. i, The cone of rays formed by the
-.2
bowr in which it hangs.
From a great number of experiments made with this
lens, in the prefence of many fcientific perfcns, the
following are feledled as fpecimens of its powers.
Subltances fufed, with their weight and
time of fufion.
_c
^ ^5 s
£ R
Gold, pure,
Silver, do.
Copper, do.
Platina, do.
Nickell,
Bar iron, a cube,
Call iron, a cube,
Steel, a cube,
Scoria of wrought iron,
Terra ponderofa or barytes,
A topaz, or chryfolite,
An oriental emerald,
Cryllal pebble,
White agate,
Flint, oriental,
Rough cornelian,
Jafper,
Onyx,
Garnet,
White rhomboidal fpar,
Zeolites,
Rotten Hone,
Common Hate,
Afbellos,
Common lime-ftone,
Pumice-Hone,
Lava,
Volcanic clay,
Cornilli moor-llone,
20
20
33
10
16
10
10
10
12
10
3
2
7
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
3
4
20
3
3
12
3
12
2
7
45
25
6
30
3°
75
25
20
J7
60
23
80
2
10
55
24
7
60
60
Burning Mountains. See ./Etna, Hecla, Vesu¬
vius, and Volcano, with the plates accompanying
them.
Burning Springs. Of thefe -there are many in dif¬
ferent parts of the world ; particularly one in Dau-
phiny near Grenoble; another near Hermanlladt in
Tranfylvania ; a third at Chermay, a village near
Switzerland; a fourth in the canton of Friburg ; and
a fifth not far from the city of Cracow in Poland.
There alfo is, or wras, a famous fpring of the fame
kind at Wigan in Lancalhire, which, upon the ap¬
proach of a lighted candle, would take fire and bum
like fpirit of wine for a whole day. But the moll re¬
markable one of this kind, or at leall that of which we
have the moll particular defcription, was difcovered in
1711 at Brofely in Shroplhire. The following account
of this remarkable fpring was given by the reverend Mr
Mafon, Woodwardian profelfor at Cambridge, dated
February 18. 1746. “ The well for four or five feet
deep is fix or feven feet wide ; within that is another
lefs hole of like depth dug in the clay, in the bottom
whereof is placed a cylindric earthen vefiel, of about
four or five inches diameter at the mouth, having the
bottom taken off, and the fides well fixed in the clay
rammed
\
13 r UNIX a MIR R OR .
Plate CXX X1.
I
■
Plate CXXX1I
B U R N I N Ct Reus
Burning-,
SurniXher.
BUR [ i
rammed clofe about it. Witbin the pot is a brown
water, thick as puddle, continually forced up wbth a
violent motion beyond that of boiling water, and a
rumbling hollow noife, riling or falling by fits five or
fix inches •, but there was no appearance of any vapour
tiling, which perhaps might have been vifible, had not
the fun ihone fo bright. Upon putting a candle
down at the end of a flick, at about a quarter of a yard
ditlance, it took fire, darting and flalhing after a very
violent manner for about half a yard high, much in the
manner of fpirits in a lamp, but with great agitation.
It was faid, that a tea-kettle had been made to boil in
about nine minutes time, and that it had been left burn¬
ing for 48 hours without any fenfible diminution. It
was extinguilhed by putting a wet mop upon it; which
mull be kept there for a little time, otherwife it would
not go out. Upon the removal of the mop there arifes
a fulphureous fmoke lulling about a minute, and yet the
water is very cold to the touch.” In 1755, this well
totally difappeared by the finking of a coal-pit in its
neighbourhood.
The caufe of the inflammable property of fuch wa¬
ters is, with great probability, fuppofed to be their
mixture with petroleum, which is a very inflammable
fubllance, and has the property of burning on the fur-
face of wrater.
Burning of Colours, among painters. There are fe-
veral colours that require burning ; as,
Firll, Lamp-black, which is a colour of fo greafy a
nature, that, except it is burnt, it will require a long
time to dry. The method of burning, or rather dry¬
ing, lamp-black, is as follows : Put it into a crucible
over a clear fire, letting it remain till it be red hot,
or fa near it that no manner of fmoke arifes from
it.
Secondly, Umber, which if it be intended for co¬
lour for a horfe, or to be a lhadow for gold, then
burning fits it for both thefe purpofes. In order to
burn umber, you muft put it into the naked fire, in
large lumps, and not take it out till it is thoroughly
red hot; if you have a mind to be more curious, put
it into a crucible, and keep it over the fire till it be
red hot.
Ivory alfo mull be burnt to make black, thus : Fill
two crucibles with (havings of ivory, then clap their
two mouths together, and bind them fad with an iron
wire, and lute the joints clofe with clay, fait, and
horfe-dung, well beaten together j then fet it over the
fire, covering it all over with coals : let it remain in.
the fire till you are fure that the matter enclofed is
thoroughly red hot : then take it out of the fire ; but
do not open the crucibles till they are perfectly cold
for were they opened while hot, the matter would turn
to a(hes 5 and fo it will be, if the joints are not luted
clofe.
BURNISHER, a round poliflied piece of (leel
ferving to fmooth and give a lullre to metals.
Of thefe there are. different kinds of different fi¬
gures, (Iraight, crooked, &.c. Half burnifliers are ufed-
to folder filver, as well as to give a luftre.
Burnifhers for gold and filver are commonly made
of a dog’s or wolf’s tooth, fet in the end of an iron or
wooden handle. Of late, agates and pebbles have been
introduced, which many prefer to the dog’s tooth.
The burriiihers. ufed by engravers in copper, ufually
j ] B u R.
ferve with one end to burnifh, and with the other to BurnifUag
ferape. _
BURNISHING, the art of fmoothing or polifliing 1 ..U^‘S. .
a metalline body, by a brifk rubbing of it with a bur-
niiher.
Book-binders burnifli the edges of their books, by
rubbing them with a dog’s tooth.
BURNLEY, a town of Lancalhire in England,
fituated in W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 51. 38.
BURNS, Robert, was a native of Ayrflrire, one
of the weftern counties of Scotland. He was the fon
of humble parents *, and his father palled through life
in the condition of a hired labourer, or of a fmall far¬
mer. Even in this fituation, however, it was not hard
for him to fend his children to the pariftr fchool, to re¬
ceive the ordinary inftruflion in reading, writing, arith¬
metic, and the principles of religion. By this courfe of
education young Robert profited to a degree that might
have encouraged his friends to delline him to one of
the liberal profeflions, had not his father’s poverty
made it neceffary to remove him from fchool, as foou
as he had grown up, to earn for himfelf the means oi
fupport as a hired ploughboy or (hepherd.
The expence of education in the parifli-fchools of
Scotland is fo fmall, that hardly any parents who are
able to labour w^ant the means of giving to their chil¬
dren at lead fuch education as young Burns received.-
From the fpring labours of a ploughboy, from the
fummer employment of a fliepherd, the peafant-youth.
often returns for a few months, eagerly to purfue his-
education at the parilh-fchool.
It wras fo 'with Burns ; be returned from labour to
learning, and from learning wTent again to labour, till
his mind began to open to the charms of tade and
knowledge 5 till he began to feel a paflion for books,
and for the lubjefts of books, which was to give a co¬
lour to the whole thread of his future life. On nature,
he foon began to gaze with new difeernment and with.
new enthufiafm : his mind’s eye opened to perceive af-
fefting beauty and fublimity, where, by the mere grofs.
peafant, there was nought to be feen but water, earth,
and (ky—but animals, plants, and foil,
What might- perhaps firfl contribute to diipofe h.s-
mind to poetical efforts, is one particular in the devo¬
tional piety of the Scotnlr peafantry. It is dill com¬
mon for them to make their children get by heait thej
Pfalms of David, in the verfiort of homely rhymes,
which is ufed in their churches. In the morning and
in the evening of every day, or at lead on the evening,
of every Saturday and Sunday, thefe Pfalms are fung
in folemn family-devotion, a chapter of the Bible is
read, and extemporary prayer is fervently uttered. The.
whole books of the (acred Scriptures are thus conti¬
nually in the hands of aimed every peafant. And it is
impoflible that there fnould not be occafionally fome
fouls among them, awakened to the divine emotions of
genius by that rich affemblage which thofe books pre-^
fent, of aimed all that is intereding in incidents, or pic-,
turefque in imagery, or affeflingly fublime or tender in
fentiments and character. It is impoflible. that thole
rude rhymes, and the Ample artlefs mufic with which
they are accompanied, (hould not occafionally excite
fome ear to a fond perception of the melody 0. verfe.
That Burns had felt thefe impulfes, will appear under
niably certain to whoever (hall carefully perufe his Cot-
J tar's
BUR [ 16 ] BUR
Burns, tar's Saturday's Night; or fhall remark, with nice ob- fants on his own level j but having got admiflion into Burns,
fervation, the various fragments of Scripture fentiment, the fraternity of free-mafons, he had the fortune, whe-v'""
of Scripture imagery, of Scripture language, which are ther good or bad, to attraft in the lodges the notice of
fcattered throughout his works. gentlemen better qualified than his more youthful com-
Still more interefting to the young peafantry are panions to call forth the powers of his mind, and to
thofe ancient ballads of love and war, of which a great fhow him that he was indeed a poet. A mafonic fong,
number are, in the fouth of Scotland, yet popularly a fatirical epigram, a rhyming epiftle to a friend, at-
knovrn, and often fung by the ruftic maid or matron at tempted with fuccefs, taught him to know7 his own
her fpinning-w'heel. They are liftened to with ravilhed powers, and gave him confidence to try talks more
ears by old and young. Their rude melody ; that arduous, and which ihould command Hill higher burfts
mingled curiofity and awe which are naturally excited of applaufe.
by the very idea of their antiquity; the exquifitely
tender and natural complaints fometimes poured forth
In them ; the gallant deeds of knightly heroifm, which
they fometimes celebrate ^ their wild tales of demons,
ghofts, and fairies, in whofe exiftence fuperftition alone
has believed 5 the manners which they reprefent j the
obfolete, yet pifturefque and expreffive, language in
which they are often clothed-—give them wonderful
power to tranfport every imagination, and to agitate
every heart. To the foul of Burns they were like a
happy breeze touching the wires of an ALolian harp,
and calling forth the moft ravifhing melody.
Befide all this, the Gentle Shepherd, and the other
poems of Allan Ramfay, have long been highly popu¬
lar in Scotland. They fell early into the hands of
Burns; and while the fond applaufe wrhich they receiv¬
ed drew his emulation, they prefented to him likewife
treafures of phrafeology and models of verfification.
He got acquainted at the f£me time wuth the poetry
of Robert Fergufon, written chiefly in the Scotifh
dialed!, and exhibiting many fpecimens of uncommon
poetical excellence. The Seafons of Thomfon too,
the Grave of Blair, the far-famed Elegy of Gray,
the Paradife Loft of Milton, perhaps the Minftrel of
Beattie, wrere fo commonly read, even among thofe
with whom Burns w^ould naturally affociate, that poe¬
tical curiofity, although even lei's ardent than his, could
in fuch circumftances have little difficulty in procuring
them.
With fuch means to give his imagination a poetical
bias, and to favour the culture of his tafte and genius,
Burns gradually became a poet. He was not, however,
one of thofe foward children who, from a miftaken im-
pulfe, begin prematurely to write and to rhyme, and
hence never attain to excellence. Converfing familiarly
for a long while with the works of thofe poets who
were known to him *, contemplating the afpedl of na¬
ture in a diftridl which exhibits an uncommon afiem-
blage of the beautiful and the ruggedly grand, of the
cultivated and the wild •, looking upon human life with
an eye quick and keen, to remark as well tire ftronger
and leading, as the nicer and fubordinate, features of
charadler; to difcriminate the generous, the honour¬
able, the manly, in condudl, from the ridiculous, the
bafe, and the mean—he was diftinguifhed among his
fellows for extraordinary intelligence, good fenfe, and
penetration, long before others, or perhaps even him-
felf, fufpe&ed him to be capable of writing verfes. His
mind was mature, and well ftored with fuch knowledge
as lay within his fearch : he had made himfelf mafter
of powers of language, fuperior to thofe of almoft any
former writer in the Scotiffi dialed!, before he conceiv¬
ed the idea of furpaffing Ramfay and Fergufon.
Hitherto he had converfed intimately only with pea-
i
The annual celebration of the facrament of the Lord’s
Supper, in the rural pariffies of Scotland, has much in it
of thofe old popifh feftivals, in which luperftition, traffic,
and amufement,ufedto be ftrangely intermingled. Burns
faw, and feized in it one of the happieft of all fubjefls,
to afford fcope for the difplay of that ftrong and pier¬
cing fagacity by which he could almoft intuitively di-
ftinguiffi the reafonable from the abfurd, and the beco¬
ming from the ridiculous •, of that pifturefque power of
fancy, which enabled him to reprefent fcenes, and per-
fons, and groupes, and looks, attitude, and geftures, in
a manner almoft as lively and impreffive, even in words,
as if all the artifices and energies of the pencil had been
employed ^ of that knowledge which he had neceffarily
acquired of the manners, paffions, and prejudices of the
nifties around him, of whatever w>as ridiculous, no lefs
than of whatever v7as affeclingly beautiful, in rural life.
A thoufand prejudices of Popifti, and perhaps too
of ruder Pagan fuperftition, have from time immemo¬
rial been conne<ffed in the minds of the Scotiffi pea¬
fantry, wfith the annual recurrence of the F.ve of the
Feftival of all the Saints, or Halloween. Thefe were
all intimately known to Burns, and had made a power¬
ful impreffion upon his imagination and feelings. He
chofe them for the fubjedl of a poem, and produced
a piece which is almoft to frenzy the delight of thofe
who are beft acquainted with its fubjeH j and which
wdll not fail to preferve the memory of the prejudices
and ufages which it deferibes, when they ftiall perhaps
have ceafed to give one merry evening in the year jto
the cottage fire-fide.
The fimple joys, the honeft love, the fincere friend-
fhip, the ardent devotion of the cottage 5 whatever in
the more folemn part of the ruftic’s life is humble and
artlefs, without being mean or unfeemly—or tender and
dignified, without afpiring to ftilted grandeur, or to
unnatural bufkined pathos, had deeply impreffed the
imagination of the rifing poet 3 had, in fome fort,
wrought itfelf into the very texture of the fibres of his
foul. He tried to exprefs in verfe what he moft ten¬
derly felt, what he moft enthufiaftically imagined 3 and
produced the Cottar's Saturday's Night.
Thefe pieces, the true effufions of genius, informed
by reading and obfervation, and prompted by its owur
native ardour, as well as by friendly applaufe, w7ere
foon handed about among!! the moft difeerning of
Burns’s acquaintance 3 and were by every new reader
perufed and reperufed, with an eagernefs of delight
and approbation which w^ould not fuffer their author
long to withhold them from the prefs. A fubfeription
was propofed 3 w7as earneftly promoted by Lome gentle¬
men, who wrere glad to intereft themfelves in behalf of
fuch fignal poetical merit 3 wjas foon crowded with
the names of a confiderable number of the inhabitants
of
ee#'
BUR
Bwfns. of Ayriliire, who in the proffered purchafe fought not
—y—j }efs to gratify their own paflion for Scotifh poely, than
to encourage the wonderful ploughman. At Kilmar¬
nock were the poems of Burns for the tirft time print¬
ed. The whole edition was quickly diftributed over
the country.
It is hardly poffible to exprefs with what eager ad¬
miration and delight they were everywhere received.—
They eminently poffeffed all thole qualities which the
molt invariably contribute to render any literary work
quickly and permanently popular. They were written
in a phrafeology, of which all the powers were univer-
fally felt; and which being at once antique, familiar,
and now rarely written, was hence fitted to ferve all
the dignified and pifturefque ufes of poetry, without
making it unintelligible. The imagery, the fentiments,
were at once faithfully natural, and irrefiftibly impref-
five and interefting. Thofe topics of fatire and fcandal
in which the ruftic delights ; that humorous imitation
of character, and that witty aflociation of ideas familiar
and linking, vet not naturally allied to one another,
which has force to (hake his fides with laughter ; thofe
fancies of fuperftition, at which he Hill wonders and
trembles ; thofe affedling fentiments and images of true
religion, which are at once dear and awful to his heart,
were all reprefented by Burns with all a poet’s magic
power. Old and young, high and low, grave and gay,
learned or ignorant, all were alike delighted, agitated,
tranfported.
In the mean time, fome few copies of thefe fafcina-
tlng poems found their way to Edinburgh j and having
been read to Dr Blacklock, they obtained his warmeft
approbation. In the beginning of the winter 1786-7
Burns went to Edinburgh, where he was received by
Dr Blacklock with the moft flattering kindnefs, and
introduced to every man of generofity and talle among
that good man’s friends. Multitudes now vied with
each other in patronizing the ruftic poet. Thofe who
poffeffed at once true tafte and ardent philanthropy
were foon earneftly united in his praife : they who were
difpofed to favour .any good thing belonging to Scot¬
land, purely becaufe it was Scotilh, gladly joined the
cry j thofe who had hearts and underftanding to be
charmed, without knowing wrhy, when they favv their
native cuftoms, manners,, and language, made the fub-
je£ts and the materials of poefy, could not fupprefs that
voice of feeling which ftruggled to declare itfelf for
Burns : for the diflipated, the licentious, the malignant
wits, and the freethinkers, he was fo unfortunate as to
have fatire, and obfcenity, and ridicule of things fa-
cred, fufticient to captivate their fancies, e\en foi the
pious he had paffages in which the infpired language of
devotion might feem to come mended fiom his pen.
Thus did Burns, ere he had been many weeks in E-
dinburgh, find himfelf the objefl of univerfal curiofity,
favour, admiration, and fondnefs. He was fought after,
courted with attentions the m.oft refpeffful and affiau-
ous, feafted, flattered, carefied, treated by all ranks as
the firft boaft of his country, whom it was fcarcely pof¬
fible to honour and reward to a degree equal to his
merits. In comparifon with the general favour which
now promifed to more than crown his moft fanguine
hopes, it could hardly be called praife at all which he
had obtained in Ayrfhxre.
In this pofture of our poet’s affairs a new edition of
Yql. V. Part I.
BUR
his poems was earneftly called for. He fold the copy- Burns,
right for look ; but his friends at the fame time fug-
gefted, and adlively promoted, a fubfcription for an
edition, to be publilhed for the benefit of the author,
ere the bookfeller’s right fhould commence. Thofe
gentlemen who had formerly entertained the public
of Edinburgh with the periodical publication of the
papers of the Mirror, having again combined their ta¬
lents in producing the Lounger, were at this time about
to conclude this laft feries of papers; yet before the
Lounger relinquiftied his pen, he dedicated a number
to a commendatory criticifm of the poems of the Ayr-
(hire bard.
The fubfcription-papers w^ere rapidly filled ; and it
was fuppofed that the poet might derive from the fub¬
fcription and the fale of his copy-right a clear profit of
at leaf! 700I.
The converfation of even the moft eminent authors
is often found to be fo unequal to the fame of their
writings, that he who reads with admiration can liften
with none but fentiments of the moft profound con¬
tempt- But the converfation of Burns was, in com¬
parifon with the formal and exterior circumftances of
his education, perhaps even more wonderful than his
poetry. He affefled no foft air or graceful motions
of politenefs, which might have ill accorded with the
ruftic plainnefs of his native manners. Confcious lu-
periority of mind taught him to affociate w ith the great,
the learned, and the gay, without being overawed in¬
to any fuch bafhfulnefs as might have made him con-
fufed in thought, or hefitating in elocution. He pof¬
feffed withal an extraordinary fhare of plain common
fenfe or mother-wfit, which prevented him from ob¬
truding upon perfons, of whatever rank, with whom he
V'as admitted to converfe, any of thofe effufions of va¬
nity, envy, or felf-conceit, in wdfich authors are exceed-
ingly apt" to indulge, who have lived remote from the
general praflice of life, and whofe minds have been
alraoft exclufively confined to contemplate their ow7n
ftudies and their own works. In converfation he dif-
played a fort of intuitive quicknefs and reclitude of
judgment upon every fubjedt that arofe. The fenfibi-
lity of his heart, and the vivacity of his fancy, gave a
rich colouring to whatever reafoning he was difpofed
to advance j and his language in converfation was not
at all lefs happy than in his writings. For thefe rea-
fons, thofe who had met and converfed with him once,
w'ere pleafed to meet and to converfe with him again
and again.
For fome time he converfed only with the virtuous,
the learned, and the wife j and the purity of his morals
remained uncontaminated. But, alas! he fell, as others
have fallen in fitnilar circumftances. He fuffered him¬
felf to be furrounded by a race of miferable beingSj
who were proud to tell that they had been in company
with Burns, and had feen Burns as loofe and as fooliih
as themfelves. He was not yet irrecoverably loft to tem¬
perance and moderation ; but he was already almolt
too much captivated with their wTanton rivals, to be
ever more wron back to a faithful attachment to their
more fober charms. He now alfo began to conti a A
fomething of new arrogance in converfation. Accuf-
tomed to be among his favourite affociates what is vul¬
garly but expreflively called the cock of the company, he
could fcarcely refrain from indulging in linniar free-
' q dom
[ 17 1
V
B U R v [ i
Burns, dom and dictatorial decifion of talk, even in the pre-
fence of perfons who could lefs patiently endure his
prefumption.
The fubfcription edition of his poems, in the mean
time, appeared 5 and although not enlarged beyond
that which came from the Kilmarnock prefs by any
new pieces of eminent merit, did not fail to give entire
fatisfaftion to the fubfcribers. He was now to clofe
accounts with his bookfeller and his printer, to retire
to the country with his profits in his pocket, and to fix
upon a plan for his future life. He talked loudly of
independence of fpirit, and fimplicity of manners, and
boafted his refolution to return to the plough ; yet ftili
lie lingered in Edinburgh, week after week, and month
after month, perhaps expediting that one or other of his
noble patrons might procure him fome permanent and
competent annual income, which (liould fet him above
all necefhty of future exertions to earn for himfelf the
means of fubfiftence; perhaps unconfcioufly reludlant
to quit the pleafures of that voluptuous town-life to
which he had for fome time too willingly accullomed
himfelf. An accidental diflocation or fraflure of an
arm or a leg confining him for fome weeks to his apart¬
ment, left him during this time leifure for ferious re-
fieftion j and he determined to retire from the town
without longer delay. None of all his patrons inter-
poled to divert him from his purpofe of returning to
the plough, by the offer of any fmall penfion, or any
finecure place of moderate emolument, fuch as might
have given him competence without withdrawing him
from his poetical ftudies. It feemed to be forgotten
that a ploughman thus exalted into a man of letters
wras unfitted for his former toils, without being regu-
garly qualified to enter the career of any new profef-
lion ; and that it became incumbent upon thofe patrons
who bad called him from the plough, not merely to
make him their companion in the hour of riot, not
limply to fill his purfe with gold for a few tranfient ex-
pences, but to fecure him, as far as was poflible, from
being ever overwhelmed in diftrefs in confequence of
the favour which they had Ihown him, and of the ha¬
bits of life into which they had feduced him. Perhaps
indeed the fame delufion of fancy betrayed both Burns
and his patrons into the miftaken idea, that, after all
which had palfed, it was ftill poffible for him to return
in cheerful content to the homely joys and fimple toils
ol undilhpated rural life.
In this temper of Burns's mind, in this ftate of his
fortune, a farm and the excife were the objefts upon
a Inch his choice ultimately fixed for future employ¬
ment and fupport. By the furgeon who attended him
during his illnefs, he was recommended with effeft to
the commiffioners of excife ; and Patrick Millar, Efq.
of Dalfwinton, deceived, like Burns himfelf and
Burns’s other friends, into an idea that the poet and ex-
cifeman might yet be refpeaable and happy as a far¬
mer, generoufly propofed to eflablifh him in a farm,
upon conditions of leafe which prudence and induftry
might eafily render exceedingly advantageous. Burns
eagerly accepted the oflfers of this benevolent patron.
’I wo ot the poet’s friends from Ayilhire were invited
to furvey that farm in Dumfrieslhire which Mr Millar
offered. A leafe was granted to the poetical farmer at
that annual rent which his own friends declared that
the due cultivation of his farm might eafily enable him
8 ]
BUR
to pay. What yet remained of the profits of his pub¬
lication was laid out in the purchafe of farm flock ;
and Mr Millar might, for fome fnort time, pleafe him¬
felf with the perfuafion that he had approved him¬
felf the liberal patron of genius 5 had acquired a good
tenant upon his effate ; and had placed a defervino-
man in the very fituation in which alone he himfelf de¬
fined to be placed, in order to be happy to his willies.
Burns, with his Jane, whom he now7 married, took
up their refidence upon his farm. The neighbouring
farmers and gentlemen, pleafed to obtain for an inmate
among them the poet by whofe works they had been
delighted, kindly fought his company, and invited him
to their houfes. He found an inexpreffible charm in
fitting down befide his wife, at his own firefide; in
wandering over his own grounds 5 in once more put-
tmg ms hand to the fpade and the plough j in forming
his inclofures, and managing his cattle. For fome
months he felt almoft all that felicity which fancy had
taught him to expert in his new fituation. He had
been for a time idle ; but his mufcles were not yet un¬
braced for rural toil. He now feemed to find a joy in
being the hufhand of the miftrefs of his affettions, in
feeing himfelf the father of her children, fuch as might
promife to attach him for ever to that modefl, humble,
and domeftic life, in which alone he could hope to be
permanently happy. Even his engagements in the
fervice of the excife did not, at the very firfl, threaten
neceffarily to debafe him by affociation with the mean,
the grofs, and the profligate, to contaminate the poet*
or to ruin the farmer. *
But it could not be : it rvas not poflible for Burns
now to affume that fobernefs of fancy and paflions, that
fedatenefs of feeling, thofe habits of earnelt attention to
grofs and vulgar cares, without which fuccefs in his new
fituation was not to be expedled. A thoufand difficul¬
ties were to be encountered and overcome, much mo¬
ney was to be expended, much weary toil was to be
exeiciled, before his farm could be brought into a Hate
of cultivation, in which its produce might enrich the
occupier. This was not a profpedl encouraging to a
man who had never loved labour, and who was at this
time certainly not at all difpofed to enter into agricul¬
ture with the enthufiafm of a projedlor. The bufinefs
of the excife too, as he began to be more and more
employed in it, diftradled his mind from the care of
his farm, led him into grofs and vulgar fociety, and
expofed him to many unavoidable temptations to drun¬
ken excefs, fuch as. he had no longer fufficient forti¬
tude to relift. Amidft the anxieties, diftradlions, and
feducements which thus arofe to him, home became in-
fenfibly lefs and. lefs pleafing ; even the endearments of
his Jane’s affeftion began to lofe their hold on his heart 5
he became every day lefs and lefs unwilling to forget in
riot thofe gatheringforrows which he knew not tofubdue.
Mr Millar and fome others of his friends would glad¬
ly have exerted an influence over his mind which might
have preferved him in this fituation of his affairs, equal¬
ly from defpondency and from diffipation 3 but Burns’s
temper fpurned all controul from his fuperiors in for-
tune. Fie refented, as an arrogant encroachment up¬
on his independence, that tenor of conduft by which
Mr Millar wifhed to turn him from diffolute convivia-
lity, to that fteady attention to the bufinefs of his
farm, without which it was impoffible to thrive in it.
His
Burns,
BUR [ 19 ] BUR
Burns. His croiTes and difappointments drove him every day
more and more into diffipation ; and his diflipation
tended to enhance whatever was difagreeable and per¬
plexing in the date of his affairs. He funk, by de¬
grees, into the boon companion of mere excifemen }
and almoft every drunken fellow, who was willing to
fpend his money laviihly in the alehoufe, could eafily
-command the company of Burns. The care of his
farm was thus neglected 5 wafte and lofies wholly con-
fumed his little capital ; he refigned his leafe into the
hands of his landlord 5 and retired, with his family, to
the town of Dumfries, determining to depend entirely
for the means of future fupport upon his income as an
cxcife-officer.
Yet during this unfortunate period of his life, which
paired between his departure from Edinburgh to fettle
in Dumfriesfture, and his leaving the country in order
.to take up his refidence in the town of Dumfries, the
energy and a&ivity of his intellectual powers appeared
not to have been at all impaired. In a colleftion of
Scotifh fongs, which were publhhed (the words with
the mufic) by Mr [ohnfon, engraver in Edinburgh, in
4 vols 8vo, Burns, in many initances, accommodated
new verfes to the old tunes with admirable felicity and
{kill. He aflifled in the temporary inftitution oFa
{’mail fubfeription library, for the ufe of a number of
the well-difpofed peafants in his neighbourhood. He
readily aided, and by his knowledge of genuine Sco-
tifli phrafeology and manners greatly enlightened, the
antiquarian refearches of the late ingenious Captain
Grofe. He ftill carried on an epiftolary correipon-
dence, fometimes gay, fportive, humorous, but always
enlivened by bright Hafhes of genius, with a number
of his old friends, and on a very wide diverfity^ of to¬
pics. At times, as it fhould feem from his writings of
this period, he retle6Ied, with inexprefhble heart-bit-
ternefs, on the high hopes from which he had fallen *,
on the errors of moral conduft into which he had been
hurried bv the ardour of his foul, and in fome meafure
by the veiy generolity of his nature j on the difgrace
and wretchednefs into which he faw himfelf rapidly
finking j on the forrow with which his mifeonduft op-
preffed the heart of his Jane ; on the want and defti-
tute mifeiy in which it ieemed probable that he mult
leave her and their infants } nor amidit thefe agonizing
refleftions did he fail to look, with an indignation haif
invidious, half contemptuous, on thofe who, with mo¬
ral habits not more excellent than his, with powers of
intellect far inferior, yet balked in the funfhine of for¬
tune, and were loaded with the wealth and honours of
the world, while his follies could not obtain pardon,
nor his wants an honpurable fupply. His wit became
from this time more gloomily farcaftic •, and his con-
veriation and writings began to alTume fomething of a
tone of mifanthropical malignity, by which they had not
been before, in any eminent degree, diitinguilhed. But
with all thefe failings, he was ftill that exalted mind
which had raifed itfelf above the deprelTion of its ori¬
ginal condition : with all the energy of the lion, paw¬
ing to fet free his hinder limbs from the yet encum¬
bering earth, he ftill appeared not lefs than archangel
ruined l
His morals were not mended by his removal from
the country. In Dumrries his diflipation became ftill
more deeply habitual \ he was here more expofed than
in the country to be folicited to thare the riot of the
difiblute and the idle : foolilh young men flocked ea¬
gerly about him, and from time to time prefled him to
drink with them, that they might enjoy his wicked
wit. 'Fhe Caledonian Club, too, and the Dumfries-
fhire and Galloway Hunt, had occafional meetings in
Dumfries after Burns went to refide there, and the
poet was of courfe invited to lhare their conviviality,
and hefitated not to accept the invitation.
In the intervals between his difterent fits of intem¬
perance, he fuffered ftill the keeneft anguith of remorfe,
and horribly affliftive forefight. His Jane ftill beha¬
ved with a degree of maternal and conjugal tendernefs
and prudence, which made him feel more bitterly the
evil of his mifeondudf, although they could not reclaim
him. At laft crippled, emaciated, having the very
power of animation wafted by difeale, quite broken¬
hearted by the fenfe of his errors, and of the hopeleis
miferies in which he faw himfelf and his family depref-
fed ; with his foul ftill tremblingly alive to the fenfe of
lliarne, and to the love of virtue 3 yet even in the laft
feeblenefs, and amid the laft agonies of expiring life,
yielding readily to any temptation that offered the
femblance of intemperate enjoyment, he died at Dum¬
fries, in the fummer of 1796, while he was yet three
or four years under the age of 40, furniftiing a melan¬
choly proof of the danger offuddenly elevating even
the greateft mind above its original level.
After his death it quickly appeared that his failings
had not effaced from the minds of his more refpe&able
acquaintance either the regard which had once been
won by his focial qualities, or the reverence due to Hs
intelledlual talents. The circumftances of want in which
he left his family were noticed by the gentlemen of
Dumfries with earneft commiferation. His funeral was
celebrated by the care of his friends with a decent fo-
lemnity, and with a numerous attendance of mourners,
fufficiently honourable to his memory. Several copies
of verfes were inferted in different newfpapers upon the
occafion of his death. A contribution, by fubferip¬
tion, was propofed, for the purpofe of raifing a fmall
fund, for the decent fupport of his widow, and the edu¬
cation of his infant children.
From the preceding detail of the particulars of this
poet’s life, the reader will naturally and juftly infer
him to have been an honeft, proud, warm-hearted
man 3 of high paflions and found underftanding, and a
vigorous and excurfive imagination. He was never
known to defeend to any act of deliberate meannefs.
In Dumfries he retained many refpettable friends,
even to the laft. It may be doubted whether he has
not, by his writings, exercifed a greater power over
the minds of men, and, by confequence, on their con-
du&, upon their happinefs and mifery, and upon the
general fyftem of life, than has been exercifed by any
half dozen of the moft eminent ftatelmen ot the preient
•ap-e. The power of the ftatefman is but fhadowy, Jo tar
as” it a61s upon externals alone : the power ot the wri¬
ter of genius fubdues the heart and the underftanding,
and having thus made the very fpring of adtion F
owrn, through them moulds almoft all life and nature
at its pleafure. Burns has not failed to command one
remarkable fort of homage, fuch as is never paid but
to great original genius : a crowd of poetafters ftarted
up to imitate him, by waiting verfes as he had done.
Burns.
BUR [ 20 ] BUR
in the Scotlfli dialed ; but, 0 imitatores ! fervum pe-
cus ! To perfons to whom the Scotifh dialeft, and the
cuftoms and manners of rural life in Scotland, have no
charm, too much may appear to have been faid about
Burns ; by thofe who paffionately admire him, a great
deal more, perhaps, was expected.
A complete edition of his works in 4 vols Bvo, was
publiihed under the fuperintendance of Dr Currie of
Liverpool, who drew up an elaborate and valuable ac¬
count of the life of the poet, which is prefixed. From
the profits of this edition his widow and family have
received a handfome lum. The following letter from
Burns to the late Dr Moore, gives fo interefting an
account of the tranfaftions of his early years, and af¬
fords fo good a fpecimen of vigour of thought and
force of expreffion in his profe compolition, that we
hope it will prove acceptable to our readers.
“ Mauch/ine, Auguft 2. 1787.—Sir, For fome
months paft I have been rambling up and down the
country, but I am now confined with fome lingering
complaints, originating, as I take it, in the ftomach.
To divert my fpirits a little in this miferable fog of
ennui, I have taken a whim to give you a hiftory of
tnyfelf. My name has made fome little nolle in this
country •, you have done me the honour to intereft
yourfelf very warmly in my behalf; and I think a
faithful account of what charadler of a man I am, and
how I came by that charadler, may perhaps amufe you
in an idle moment. I will give you an honed narra¬
tive, though I know it will be often at my own ex¬
pence 5 for I allure you, Sir, I have, like Solomon,
whofe character, excepting in the trifling affair of wif-
dom, I fometimes think I refemble, I have, I fay,
like him turned my eyes to behold madnefs and folly,
and like him too, frequently lhaken hands with their
intoxicating friendfhip. * * * After you
have perufed thefe pages, fliould you think them tri¬
fling and impertinent, I only beg leave to tell you,
that the poor author wrote them under fome twitching
qualms of confcience, arifing from a fufpicion that he
was doing what he ought not to do $ a predicament he
has more than once been in before.
<i J have not the mod didant pretenfions to affiime
iiiat charafter which the pye-coated guardians of efcut-
cheons call, a gentleman. When at Edinburgh lad
winter, I got acquainted in the heralds office, and
looking through that granary of honours, I there,
found aimod every name of the kingdom ; but for me,
• My ancient but ignoble blood
Bias crept thro’ fcoundrels ever flnce the flood.
Gules, purpure, argent, &c. quite difowned me.
“ My father was of the north of Scotland, the fon
of a larmer, and was thrown by early misfortunes on
the world at large •, where, after many years wander¬
ings and fojournings, he picked up a pretty large quan¬
tity of obfervation and experience, to which I am in¬
debted for mod of my little pretenfions to wifdom 
I have met with few who underflood men, their man¬
ners^ and their ways, equal to him 5 but ftubborn
ungainly integrity, and headlong ungovernable irafci-
bility, are difqualifying circumdances 5 confequently I
was born a very poor man’s ion. For the firfl fix or
feven years of my life, my father was a gardener to a
worthy gentleman of a fmall edate in. the neighbour¬
hood of Ayr. Had he continued in that flation, I Bums,
mud have marched off" to be one of the little under-—y—"
lings about a farm-houfe ; but it was his dearefl wifh
and prayer to have it in his power to keep his children
under his own eye, till they could difcern between
good and evil; fo with the affiflance of his generous
mader, my father ventured on a fmall farm on his
edate. At thefe years I was by no means a favourite
wflth any body. I was a good deal noted for a reten¬
tive memory, a ftubborn fturdy fomething in my dif-
pofition, and an enthufiaftic ideot piety. I fay ideot
piety, becaufe I was then but a child. Though it cod
the Ichoolmader fome thraffiings, I made an excellent
Englilh fcholar 5 and by the time I was 10 or 12
years of age, I was a critic in fubftantives, verbs, and
particles. In my infant and boyifli days too, I owed
much to an old woman who redded in the family, re¬
markable for her ignorance, credulity, and fuperfli-
tion. She had, I fuppofe, the larged collection in the
country of tales and fongs concerning devils, ghofts,
fairies, brownies, witches, warlocks, fpunkies, kel¬
pies, elf-candles, dead-lights, wraiths, apparitions,
cantraips, giants, inchanted towers, dragons, and other
trumpery. This cultivated the latent feeds of poetry j
but had fo ftrong an effect on my imagination, that to
this hour, in my nocturnal rambles, I fometimes keep
a flrarp look-out in fufpicious places \ and though no¬
body can be more fceptical than I am in fuch matters,
yet it often takes an effort of philofophy to drake off
thefe idle terrors. The earlieft compofition that I re¬
collect taking pleafure in, was the Vifion of Mirza,
and a hymn of Addifon’s, beginning, ‘ How are thy
fervants bled, O Lord !’ I particularly remember
one half-ftanza which was mufic to my boyiffi ear—
For though on dreadful whirls we hung
High on the broken wave.—
I met with thefe pieces in Mafon’s Engliflr Collection,
one of my fchool-books. The two firft books I ever
read in private, and which gave me more pltafure than
any two books I ever read fince, were, The Life of
Hannibal, and The Hiftory of Sir William Wallace.
Hannibal gave my young ideas fuch a turn, that I
ufed to ftrut in raptures up and down after the recruit¬
ing drum and bag-pipe, and wiffi myfelf tall enough to
be a foldier 5 while the dory of Wallace poured a Sco-
tiffi prejudice into my veins, which, will boil along
there, till the flood-gates of life ffiut in eternal reft.
“ Polemical divinity about this time was putting the
country half mad, and I, ambitious of finning in con-
verfation parties on Sundays between fermons, at fu¬
nerals, &c. ufed a few years afterwards to puzzle CaL
vinifm with fo much heat and indiferetion, that I rai¬
led a hue and cry of herefy againfl me, which has not
ceafed to this hour.
“ My vicinity to Ayr was of fome advantage to me.
My focial difpofition, when not checked by feme mo¬
difications of fpited pride, was, like our catechifm de¬
finition of infinitude, without bounds or limits. I
formed feveral connexions with other younkers who
poffefled fuperior advantages \ the youngling aftors
who were bufy in the rehearfal of parts in which they;-
were fiiortly to appear on the ftage of life, where,
alas ! I was deffined to drudge behind the feenes. It
is not commonly at this green age, that our young.
gentry
Burns
Burns.
BUR [2
gentry have a juft fenfe of the hnmenfe diftance be¬
tween them and their ragged play-fellows. It takes a
few dailies into the world, to give the young great
man that proper, decent, unnoticing difregard for the
poor, infignificant, ftupid devils, the mechanics and
peafantry around him, who were perhaps born in the
fame village. My young fuperiors never infulted the
clouterly appearance of my plough-boy carcafe, the
two extremes of which were often expofed to all the
inclemencies of all the feafons. They would give me
ftray volumes of books ; among them, even then, I
could pick up fome obfervations, and one, whole heart
I am fure not even the Munny Begum fcenes have
tainted, helped me to a little French. Parting with
thefe my young friends and benefaftors, as they occa-
fionally went off for the Eaft or Weft Indies, was of¬
ten to me a fore affliilion, but I was foon called to
more ferious evils. My father’s generous mafter died ;
the farm proved a ruinous bargain } and to clench the
misfortune, we fell into the hands of a faflor, who fat
for the pifture I have drawn of one in my tale of Twa
Dogs. My father was advanced in life when he mar¬
ried •, I was the eldeft of feven children, and he, worn
out by early hardftrips, was unfit for labour. My fa¬
ther’s fpirit was foon irritated, but not eafily broken.
There was a freedom in his leafe in two years more,
and to weather thefe two years, we retrenched our
expences. We lived very poorly : I was a dexterous
ploughman for my age ; and the next oldeft to me was
a brother (Gilbert) who could drive the plough very
well, and help me to thralh the corn. A novel-writer
might perhaps have viewed thefe fcenes with fome fa-
tisfa&ion, but fo did not I ; my indignation yet boils
at the recolle&ion of the f -1 faftor’s infolent threat¬
ening letters, which ufed to fet us all in tears.
“ This kind of life—the cheerlefs gloom of a her¬
mit, with the unceafing moil of a galley-flave, brought
me to my 16th year; a little before which period I
firft committed the fin of rhyme. You know' our
country cuftom of coupling a man and woman toge¬
ther as partners in the labours oi harveft. In my 15th
autumn, my partner was a bewitching creature, a year
younger than myfelf. My fcarcity of Fnglifti denies
me the powrer of doing her juftice in that language, but
you know the Scotifti idiom ; Ihe wras a bonnie, fweet,
fonlie lafs. In Ihort, Ihe altogether, unwittingly to
herfelf, initiated me in that delicious paftion, which,
in fpite of acid difappointment, gin-horfe prudence, and
book-worm philofophy, I hold to be the firft of human
joys, our deareft blelfing here below ! How fhe caught
the contagion I cannot tell; you medical people talk
much of infection from breathing the fame air, the
touch, &c. but I never exprefsly faid I loved her.—
Indeed I did not know myfelf why 1 liked fo much to
loiter behind with her, when returning in the evening
from our labours ; why the tones of her voice made
my heart-ftrings thrill like an Atolian harp; and par¬
ticularly why my pulfe beat fuch a furious ratan wThen
I looked and fingered over her little hand to pick out
the cruel nettle-ftings and thirties. Among her other
love-infpiring qualities, fhe fung fweetly ; and it was
her favourite reel to which I attempted giving an em¬
bodied vehicle in rhyme. I was not fo prefumptuous
as to imagine that I could make verfes like printed'
ones, compofed by men who had Greek and Latin ;
]
BUR
but my girl lung a fong which rvas faid to be compo¬
fed by a fmall country laird’s fon, on one of his fa¬
ther’s maids, with whom he w7as in love ; and I faw
no reafon why I might not rhyme as well as he ; for
excepting that he could fmear fheep, and caft peats, his
father living in the moorlands, he had no more fcholar-
craft than myfelf.
“ Thus with me began love and poetry ; which at
times have been my only, and, till within the laft 1 z
months, have been my higheft enjoyment. My father
ftruggled on till he reached the freedom in his leafe,
when he entered on a larger farm, about ten miles
farther in the country. The nature of the bargain he
made wras fuch as to throw a little ready money into his
hands at the commencement of his leafe, otherwife the
affair would have been impra&icable. For four years
wre lived comfortably here ; but a difference commen¬
cing between him and his landlord as to terms, after
three years toffing and whirling in the vortex of litiga¬
tion, my father was juft faved from the horrors of 3
jail, by a confumption, which, after two years promi-
fes, kindly ftepped in, and carried him away, to
“ where the wicked ceafe from troubling, and where
the weary are at reft !”
“ It is during the time that wTe lived on this farm,
that my little ftory is moft eventful. I was, at the
beginning of this period, perhaps the moft ungainly
awkward boy in the pariih—no folitaire was lefs ac¬
quainted with the ways of the world. What I knew
of ancient ftory wTas gathered from Salmon’s and Guth¬
rie’s geographical grammars ; and the ideas I had form-^
ed of modern manners, of literature, and criticifm, f
got from the Spe&ator. Thefe, with Pope’s Works,-
fome plays of Shakefpeare, Tull and Dickfon on Agri¬
culture, the Pantheon, Locke’s Effay on the Human-
Underftanding, Stackhoufe’s Hiftory of the Bible, Ju-
ftice’s Britifii Gardener’s Direftory, Bayle’s Le&ures,
Allan Ramfay’s Works, Taylor’s Scripture Doftrine
of Original Sin, a Select Collefrion of Engliih Songs,,
and Hervey’s Meditations, had formed the whole of
my reading. The colle&ion of fongs was my vade me-
cum. I pored over them driving my cart, or walking-
to labour, fong by fong, verfe by verfe ; carefully not¬
ing the true tender, or fublime, from. affectation and.
fuftian. I am convinced I owe to this practice much
of my critic-craft, fuch as it is.” {Month. Mag. and
Currish Life of Burns.)
BURNTISLAND. See Bruntislanix
BURNTWOOD, a town of Effex in England, fi-
tuated on a hill, in E. Long. o. 25. N^Lat. 51. 38.
BURR, the round knob of a horn next a deer’s head,.
BURRE, Bouree, or Boree, a kind of dance com¬
pofed of three fteps joined together in two motions,,
begun wdth a crotchet rifing. The firft couplet con¬
tains twice four meafures, the fecond twice eight. It
coniifts of a balance and coupee.
BURR-pump, or BiLGK-Pump, differs from the
common pump, in having a ftaff, fix, fevenr or eights
feet long, with a bar of wood, whereto the leather is
nailed, and this ferves-inftead of a box. So twm men,
handing over the pump, thruft down this ftaff, to the
middle whereof is faftened a rope, for fix, eight, or
ten to hale by, thus pulling it up and dawn.
BURROCK, a fmall wier or dam, where weeh-
are laid in a river, for the taking °*“‘-R0UGHS,s
Bunock.
BUR [ 22 ] BUR
Burroughs’s BURROUGHS’S machine for grinding and po-
, Machine.^ glafs, invented by Mr Burroughs of South¬
wark ; and for which he received from the fociety for
CXXXI t^e encouragemt;nt °f arts a premium of 70I.
This machine confiftsofa cog-wheel A (fig. 3.), 12
feet in diameter, carrying 72 cogs; which turn a trun¬
dle-head B, one foot four inches in diameter, and fur-
nifhed with eight rounds ; and alfo a horizontal fpur-
wheel C, of 12 cogs 5 and one foot eight inches in
diameter. The trundle-head B turns a fpur-wheel D
of 10 cogs, and two feet eight inches in diameter.
This fpur-wheel has two cranks, a b, in its fhaft j one
of which a gives motion to a wooden frame, c, about
34 inches long and 19 broad. On the under fide of
this frame are faftened by fcrews 12 pieces of poliihed
metal, each five inches and a half long, and three
broad, covered with leather ; and underneath thefe po-
lifhers a glafs-plate cemented in another frame is pla¬
ced on the bench d, and polifhed with tripoli by the
motion given to the upper frame by the crank a. The
nuts of the fcrews which fallen the polifiicrs to the up¬
per frame are not fcrewed clofe to the wood, in order
to give the frame room to play j by which contrivance
the perpendicular rife of the crank is avoided, and the
motion of the polifhers is always parallel and equal. The
under frame may be moved by the hand in any direc¬
tion without Hopping the machine ; by which means
the plate, when larger than the 'polifhing frame can
cover in its motion, will be equally polifbed in every
part.
The other crank b gives motion to two other po~
lilhers marked //, 0, which have an alternate motion by
the bending of the crank 5 they move upon the fame
plate, and have an equal number of polifhers as that
already defcribed.
The fame crank alfo gives motion to a contrivance
reprefented at e for polifhing fpe£lacle-glaffes. It con-
fifts of two fegments of the fame fphere ; one concave
and the other convex. On the latter the glafles are
cemented ; and polifhed by the former, which is mo¬
ved by the crank b. The convex fegment may be
moved round by the hand without flopping the ma¬
chine, fo that all the glafies on its fuperficies will be
equally polifhed.
1 he other fpur-wheel C, by means of a crank in its
(haft, gives motion to another frame g, employed in
grinding the glafs plates. The rod h, extended from
the crank/to the frame g, is faflened to the latter by
means of a pivot, in order to admit of a rotatory mo¬
tion, as well as that given it by the crank in a longitu¬
dinal direction. This rotatory motion is effe&ed by
means of a rod of iron z, called a trigger, fharp at the
extremity next the frame, where it touches the teeth of
an horizontal fpur-wheel, or circular piece of wood,
fixed on the grinding plate, while the other end is ex¬
tended three feet two inches to the centre of motion.
.But this contrivance, in which the merit of the ma¬
chine principally confifls, will be much better conceived
from a fmall delineation of it by itfelf (fig. 4.), where
b is the crank marked fin fig. 3. and turned by the
ipur-wheel C in the fame figure. G is the trigger, three
feet two inches long. I, a roll fixed on the trigger for
the rod to Hide on. H, the horizontal fpur-wheel, ele¬
ven inches in diameter, fixed on the grinding plate ;
the teeth of which are touched by the trigger j but with
1
a very unequal force, as it will wholly depend upon the
grinding-plate’s being farther from, or nearer to, the
centre of motion of the trigger. By this fimple contri¬
vance, the grinding-plate has a very compound motion,
never moving exactly in the fame track, and therefore
mull grind the plates equally in every part. Several
attempts have been made by others for producing the
fame effecl : but without i'uccefs ; the grinding-plate
always follows the fame track, and conlequently the
plates are ground equally.
BURROW, Sir J ames, mailer of the crown of¬
fice, was ele&ed F. R. S. and F. A. S. 1751. On the
death oi Mr Welt in 1772, he wras prevailed on to fill
the prefident’s chair at the royal fociety till the anni-
verfary election, when he refigned it to Sir John
Pringle ; and Auguft 10. 1773, when the fociety pre-
fented an addrefs to his majelty, he received the ho¬
nour of knighthood. He publilhed two volumes of Re¬
ports in 17663 two others in 1771 and 17763 and a
volume of Decifions of the Court of King’s Bench up¬
on fettlement cafes from 1732 to 1772 (to which w'as
fubjoined An Effay of Pun&uation), in three parts,
qto, 1768, 1772, 1776. The Effay was alfo printed
feparately in qto, 1773. He publilhed, without his
name, “ A few Anecdotes and Obfervations relating
to Oliver Cromwell and his family, ferving to reclify
feveral errors concerning him,” publifhed by Nicol.
Comn. Papadopoli, in his Hijloria Gymnafi Patavim,
1763, qto. He died in 1782.
BURROWS, holes in a warren, ferving as a covert
for rabbits, <kc. A coney’s coming out of her burrow
is called bolting. To catch coneys, they fometimes lay
purfe-nets over the burrows, then put in a terrier clofe
muzzled, w’hich making the creature bolt, Ihe is caught
in the net.
BURSA, or Prusa, in Geography, the capital of
Bithynia in Afia Minor, fituated in a fine fruitful
plain, at the foot of Mount Olympus, about 100
miles fouth of Conftantinople. E. Long. 20. o.
N. Lat. 40. 30.
BuRSA-PaJloris, in Botany. See Thlaspi.
Bursa, Burfe, originally fignifies a purfe. In mid¬
dle-age writers it is more particularly ufed for a little
college or hall in a univerfity, for the refidence of flu-
dents, called burfales or burfarii. In the French uni-
verfities it ftill denotes a foundation for the maintenance
of poor fcholars in their ftudies. The nomination to
burfes is in the hands of the patrons and founders
thereof. The burfes of colleges are not benefices, but
mere places affigned to.certain countries and perfons.
A burfe becomes vacant by the burfer’s being promo¬
ted to a cure.
BURSiE muCosje. See Anatomy Index.
BURSAR, or Burser, (Bnrfarins), is ufed in
middle-age writers for a treafurer or cafh-keeper. In
this fenfe we meet with burfars of colleges. Conven¬
tual burfars were officers in monafteries, who were to
deliver up their account yearly on the day after Mi¬
chaelmas. The word is formed from the Latin bnrfa,
whence alfo the Engliih word purfe; hence alfo the
officer, who in a college is called burfar, in a ihip is
called purfer.
Bursars, or Burforsj fBurfarii), alfo denote thofe
to whom ftipends are paid cut of a burfe or fund ap¬
pointed for that purpofe.
Eurrsw
II
Burfars.
BURSARIA,
BUR [2
Burfana BURSARIA, the burfary, or exchequer of colle-
Eurton. glat.e and conventua| b°dies 5 or the place of receiving,
paying, and accounting by the burfarii or burfers.
BURSR, in maters of commerce, denotes a public
edifice in certain cities, for the meeting of merchants
to negotiate bills, and confer on other matters relating
to money and trade. In this fenle, burfe amounts to
the fame 'with what wTe otherwife call an exchange.
1 he fiill place of this kind to which the name JBurJe
was given, Guiechardin allures us was at Bruges ; and
it took its denomination from a hotel adjoining to it,
built by a lord of the family de la Bourfe, whole arms)
which aie thiee purfes, are Hill found on the crowning
over the portal of the houfe. Catel’s account is fome-
v.hat different, viz. that the merchants of Bruges
bought a houfe or apartment to meet in, at which was
tne fign of the purfe. From this city the name w^as
afterwards transferred to the like places in others, as in
Antwerp, Amfterdam, Bergen in Norway, and Lon¬
don. This laft, anciently known by the name of the
common burfe of merchants, had the denomination fince
given it by Queen Elizabeth, of the royal exchange.
I he moft confiderable burfe is that of Amfterdam,
which is a large building, 230 feet long and 130 broad)
round which runs a periftyle 20 feet wide. The co¬
lumns of the perilfyle, w’hich are 46, are numbered, for
the conveniency of finding people. It will hold 4500
perfons.
In the times of the Romans there were public places
for the meeting of merchants in moft of the trading
cities of the empire ; that built at Rome, in the zypth
year after its foundation, under the confulate of Appius
Claudius and Publius Servilius, w7as denominated the
college of merchants ; fome remains of it are ftill to be
ieen, and are knowm by the modern Romans under
the name loggia. The Hans towns, after the ex¬
ample of the Romans, gave the name of colleges to their
burfes.
BURSERA. See Botany Index.
BURSTEN, denotes a perfon who has a rupture.
See Rupture.
BURT HEN of a Ship. See Burden.
BURTON u[>on Trent, a town of Staffordftiire, in
England. It had formerly a large abbey ; and over the
river Trent it has now7 a famous bridge of free ftone,
about a quarter of a mile in length, fupported by sy
arches. It confifts chiefly of one long ftreet, which
runs from the place where the abbey ftood to the bridge j
and has a good market for corn and provifions. Bur¬
ton ale is reckoned the beft of any brought to London.
E. Long. 1. 36. N. Lat. 52. 48/
Burton, a town of Lincolnihire in England, feated
on a hill near the river Trent. It is but a fmall place,
and is fituated in W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 53. 4c.
Burton, a town of Weftmorland in England, feat¬
ed in a valley near a large hill called Farleton-knot-
hill. It is pretty w7ell built, and lies on the great road
from Lancafter to Carlifle. W. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat.
54. 10.
Burton, Robert, known to the learned by the name
of Democritus junior, was younger brother to Wil¬
liam Burton wrho wrote “ ne antiquities of Lei-
cefterfhire,” and born of an ancient family at Bindley,
in that county, upon the 8th of February 1576. He
3 ] bur
w7as educated in grammatical learning in the free fchool Burton,
of Sutton Colefield in Warwickftiire ; in the year icoo t——
w as fent to Brazen-noze college in Oxford ; and in
1599 w7as defied ftudent of Chrift-church. In 1616 he
,\adrthf oarage of St Thomas, in the w7eft fuburb of
Oxford, conferred upon him by the dean and canons of
Clmit-church, to the parithioners of which, it is faid,
that he always gave the facrament in wafers; and*
tins wnh the refiory of Segrave in Leicefterfhire, gi¬
ven him fome time after by George lord Berkeley, he
held to the day of his death, which happened in Ja¬
nuary 1639.
He was a man of general learning; a great philofo-
pher; an exafi mathematician j and (what makes the
peculiarity of his charafier) a very curious calculator
ot nativities. Fie was extremely ftudious, and of a me¬
lancholy turn ; yet an agreeable companion, and very
humorous. The anatomy of melancholy, by Democritus
junior, as he calls himfelf, fhows, that thefe different
qualities were mixed together in his compofition. This
book w7as printed firft in qto, afterwards in folio, in
lb32> ^sS, and 1652, to the great emolument
of the bookfeller, who, as Mr Wood tells us, got an
eftate by it. Some circumftances attending his death
occafioned ftrange fufpicions. He died in his chamber
at or very near the time which, it feems, he had fome
years before predified from the calculation of his nati¬
vity ; and this exaflnefs made it whifpered about, that
for the glory of aftrology, and rather than his calcula¬
tion ftiould fail, he became indeed a felo de fe. This,
how ever, was generally difcredited; he w7as buried with
due folemnity in the cathedral of Chrift-church, and
had a fair monument erefied to his memory. He left
behind him a very choice collefiion of books. He be¬
queathed many to the Bodleian library; and tool,
to Chrift-church, the intereft of which was to be laid
out yearly in books for their library.
Burton, John, D. D. a learned divine, was born in
1696, at Wembwmrth, in JDevonfhire, of which parifh
his father w7as reftor. Fie was educated at Corpus
Chnili college, Oxford. In lyzy, being then pro-
profior and mafter of the fchools, he fpoke a Latin
oration before the determining bachelor, which is
entitled Heh ,* or, An inftance of a magiftratc's
erring through unfealbnable lenity written and
pubhihed with a view to encourage the falutary ex-
ercife of academical difcipline ; and afterwards treated
the lame lubjefi ftill more fully in four Latin fermons
before the univerfity, and publiftied them wflth appen¬
dixes. He alfo introduced into the fchools, Locke,
and other eminent modern philofophers, as fuitable
companions to Ariftotle ; and printed a double feries
of philofophical queftions, for the ufe of the younger
Undents; from which Mr Johnfon of Magdalene col-
lege, Cambridge, took the hint of his larger work
of the fame kind, which has gone through feveral edi¬
tions.
When the fettling of Georgia was in agitation, Dr
Bray, juftly revered for his inftitution of parochial li¬
braries, Dr Stephen Hales, Dr Berriman, and other
learned divines, intreated Mr Burton’s pious afliftance
in that undertaking. This he readily gave, by preach¬
ing before the fociety in I732> and publiftiing his fer-
mon, with an appendix on the ftate of that colony; and
he
:Biiry
I!.'
■Burying
Place.
BUR [ 24 ]
he afterwards publiihed an account of the defigns of the and towns
BUS
an ufage which we find equally among Bury
affociates of the late Dr Bray, with an account oi their
 , ^ About the fame time, on the death of Dr Edward
*'~"V Littleton, he was prefented by Eton college to the vi¬
carage of Maple-Derham, in Oxfordflnre. Here a me¬
lancholy fcene, which too often appears in the manhons
of the clergy, prefented itfelf to his view •, a widow,
with three infant daughters, without a home, without
a fortune : from his compafiion arofe love, the con-
fequence of which was marriage ; for Mrs Littleton
washandfome, elegant, accomplilhed, ingenious, and had
great fweetnefs of temper. In 1760, he exchanged his
vicarage of Maple-Derham for the rettery of Worplei-
don in Surrey. In his advanced age, finding his eyes
begin to foil'him, he colletted and pubhihed, in one
volume, all his fcattered pieces, under the title ot U/>u/~
cula mifcellanea; and foon after died, February 11th,
‘ Burton, in the fea-language, a fmall tackle con-
lifting of two fingle blocks and may be made fait
any where at pleafure, for hoifting fmall things in
and out. , . . ,
BURY, is fometimes ufed to denote the hole or den
of fome animal under ground. In this fenfe we fay
the bury of a mole, a tortoife, or the like. The gnllo-
talpa, or mole-cricket, digs itfelf a bury with its fore¬
feet, which are made broad and flrong for that pur-
pofe. Naturalifts fpeak of a kind of urchins m the
ifland of Maraguan, which have two entries to their
buries, 0116 towards the north, the other to the iouth,
which they open and Unit alternately as the wind hap¬
pens to lie. .
Bury, in Geography, a market town of Lancaihire,
about 30 miles fouth-eaft of Lancafter. It is a baiony
in the family of Albemarle. W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat.
c3. 26,
Bury St Edmond's, or St Edmund's Bury, the
county town of Suffolk, about 12 miles eaft of New¬
market, and 70 north-eaft of London. E. Long. 0.45.
N. Lat. 52. 20. .
BURYING, the fame with interment or Burial.
Burying Alive was the punifhment of a veilal who
had violated her vow of virginity. The unhappy prieftefs
was let down into a deep pit, with bread, water, milk, *
oil, a lamp burning, and a bed to lie on. But this
was only for {how •, for the moment flie was let down,
they began to caff in the earth upon her till the pit was
.1 See filled up f. Some middle-age writers feem to make
article burying alive [defojjio} the puniflunent of a woman
reftals- Lord Bacon gives inftances of the refurrettion
of perfons who have been buried alive. The famous
Duns Scotus is of the number *, who, having been
feized with a catalepfis, was thought dead, and laid to
fteep among his fathers, but railed again by his fervant
in whofe ahfence he had been buried. Bartholin gives
an account of a woman, who, on recovering from an
apoplexy, could not be convinced but that (lie was
dead, and folicited fo long and fo earneftly to be bu¬
ried, that they were forced to comply ; and performed
the ’ceremonies, at lead in appearance. The famous
emperor Charles V. after his abdication, took it into
his head to have his burial celebrated in his lifetime,
and affifted at it. See Charles V. . ^ .
J^uKYiNG-PIacCf rhe ancients buried out of cities
Place
Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Among the lad, bury-
ing within the walls was exprefsly prohibited by a law •BlTfbjr
of the 1 2 tables. The ufual places of interment were , 
in the fuburbs and fields, but efpecially by the way-
fides. We have indances, however, of perfons buried
in the city 5 but it was a favour allowed only to a few
of Angular merit in the commonwealth. Plutarch fays,
thofe who had triumphed were indulged in it. Be this
as it will, Val. Publicola, and C. Fabricius, are faid to
have bad tombs in the forum : and Cicero adds i ubertus
to the number. Lycurgus allowed his Lacedemonians
to bury their dead within the city and around their
temples, that the youth, being inured to iuch fpetta-
cles, might be the lefs terrified with the apprehenfion ot
death. Two reafons are alleged why the ancients bu¬
ried out of cities : the fird, an opinion that the fight,
touch, or even neighbourhood, of a corpie defiled a
man, efpecially a pried •, whence that rule in A. Gel-
lius, that the jlamen Dialis might not on any account
enter a place where there was a grave : the iecond, to
prevent the air from being corrupted by the dench ot
putrified bodies, and the buildings from being endan¬
gered by the frequency of funeral fires.
Burying in churches was not allowed for the fird
300 years after Chnd } and the fome was leverely pro¬
hibited by the Cbridian emperors for many ages after¬
wards. The fird dep towards it appears to have been
the prattice of eretting churches over the graves of
fome martyrs in the country, and tranflating the re¬
lics of others into churches in the city j the next was,
allowing kings and emperors to be buried in the atrium
or church-porch. In the 6th century, the people be¬
gan to be admitted into the church-yards; and fome
princes, founders, and bifhops, into the chuich. From
that time the matter feems to have been left to the dii-
cretion of the bidiop.
BUSBEC, Auger Gislen, lord of, a perfon il-
ludrious on account of his embaffies, was born at Corn-
mines in the year 1522 *, and educated at the mod fa¬
mous univerfities, at Louvain, at Paris, at \ enice,
at Bologna, and at Padua. He was engaged in feve-
ral important employments and negotiations, and par¬
ticularly was twice fent ambaffador by the king of the
* Romans to the emperor Soliman., He colletted in-
feriptions ; bought manuferipts j fearched alter late
plants } inquired into the nature of animals } and in
his fecond journey to Condantinople, carried with him
a painter, that he might be able to communicate to
the curious the figures, at lead, of the plants and
animals that were not well known in the wed. He
wrote a Difcourfe of the date of the Ottoman empire,
and a Relation of his two Journeys to Rurkey, which
are much edeemed. He died in I592*
BUSBY, Dr Richard, fon of^ a gentleman in.
Wedminder, w^as born at Button in Lincolndnre in
1606. He paffed through the claffes in Wedminder
fchool, as king’s fcholar and completed his dudies at
Chrid-church, Oxford. In 1640 he was appointed
mader of Wedminder fchool ; and by his {kill and. di¬
ligence in the difeharge of this important and laborious
office, for the fpace of 55 years, bred up the greated
number of eminent men, in church and date, that ever
at one time adorned any age or nation. He was ex¬
tremely fevere in his fchool j though he applauded wit
IB
BUS [ 25 ] BUS
Bufli. in his fcholars, even when it reflected on himfelf. This
great man, after a long and healthy life purchafed by
temperance, died in 1695, aged 89 ; and was buried
in Wedminfter abbey, where there is a fine monument
erected for him, with a Latin infcription. He com-
pofed feveral books for the ufe of his fchool.
BUSH, Paul, the firft bifliop of Briftol, became
a ftudent in the univerfity of Oxford about the year
1513, and in 1518 took the degree ofbachelor of arts.
He afterwards became a brother of the order called
bonhorns; of which, after ftudying fome time among
the friars of St Auftin (now Wadham college), he was
eletled provincial. In that flation he lived many years 5
till at length King Henry VIII. being informed of his
great knowledge in divinity and phyfic, made him his
chaplain, and in 1542 appointed him to the new epif-
copal fee of Briflol : but having in the reign of Ed¬
ward VI. taken a wife, he was, on the acceflion of
Mary, deprived of his dignity, and fpent the remainder
of his life in a private ftation at Briftol, where he died
in the year 1558, aged 68, and was buried on the
north fide of the choir of the cathedral. Wood fays,
that while he was a ftudent at Oxford, he was num¬
bered among the celebrated poets of that univerfity 5
and Pits gives him the character of a faithful Catholic
his want of chaftity notwithftanding. He wrote, 1.
An exhortation to Margaret Burgefs, wife to John
Burgefs, clothier of King’s wrood, in the county of
Wilts. Lond. printed in the reign of Edward VI.
8vo. 2. Notes on the Pfalms. 3. Treatife in praife
of the crofs. 4. Anfwer to certain queries concerning
the abufe of the mafs. Records, N° 25. 5. Dia¬
logues between Chrift and the Virgin Mary. 6. Trea-
tile of falves and curing remedies. 7. A little treatife
in Englifh, called The extirpation of ignorancy, &c.
in verfe, Lond. by Pinfon, 4to. 8. Carmtna diverfa.
Bush, a term ufed for feveral fhrubs of the fame
kind growing clofe together: thus we fay, a furxe-
bufhi bramble-bijh, &c.
Bush is fometimes ufed, in a more general fenfe,
for any afiemblage of thick branches interwoven and
mixed together.
Bush alfo denotes a coronated frame of wood hung
out as a fign of taverns. It takes the denomination
from hence, that, anciently, figns where wine was fold
were bufhes chiefly of ivy, cyprefs, or the like plant,
which keeps its verdure long. And hence the Eng¬
lifh proverb, “ Good wine needs no bufh.'1''
Burnwg-Bv$H, that bufh wherein the Lord appeared
to Mofes at the foot of Mount Horeb, as he was feed¬
ing his father-in-law’s flocks.
As to the perfon that appeared in the bufh, the text
fays, “ That the angel of the Lord appeared unto him
in a flame of fire, out of the middle of the bufh but
whether it was a created angel, fpeaking in the perfon
of God, or God himfelf, or (as the moft received opi¬
nion is) Chrift the fon of God, has been matter of
fome controverfy among the learned. Thofe who fup-
pofe it no more than an angel, feem to imply that it
would be a diminution of the majefty of God, to ap¬
pear upon every cccafion, efpecially when he has fuch
a number of celeftial minifters, who may do the buli-
nefs as well. But confidering that God is prefent
everywhere, the notification of his prefence by fome
outward fign in one determinate place (which is all
Vql. V. Part I.
we mean by his appearance), is in our conception lefs Bu£liel.
laborious (if any thing laborious could be conceived of—v—
God) than a delegation of angels upon every turn from
heaven, and feems in the main to illuftrate rather than
debafe the glory of his nature and exiftence. But how¬
ever this be, it is plain that the angel here fpoken of
was no created being, from the whole context, and
efpecially from his faying, “ I am the Lord God, the
Jehovah,” &c. fince this is not the language of angels,
who are always, known to exprefs themfelves in fuch
humble terms as thefe, “ I am fent from God ; I am
thy fellow fervant,” &c. It is a vain pretext to fay,
that an angel, as God’s ambaffador, may fpeak in God’s
name and perfon ; for w-hat ambaffador of any prince
ever yet find, “ I am the king r” Since therefore no
angel, without the guilt of blafphemy, could affume
thefe titles ; and fince neither God the Father nor
the Holy Ghoft, are ever called by the name of angel,
i. e. “ mefienger, or perfon fent,” whereas God the
Son is called by the prophet Malachi (chap. iii. 1.),
“ The angel of the covenant it hence feems to fol¬
low, that this angel of the Lord was God the Son,
who might very properly be called an angel, becaufe
in the fulnefs of time he was fent into the w orld in our
flefh, as a meffenger from God, and might therefore
make thefe his temporary apparitions prefages and
forerunners, as it wrere, of his more folemn mifiion.
The emblem of the burning-bufti is ufed as the feal of
the church of Scotland, with this motto: Nec tamen eon-
fumebatur ; i. e. “ Though burning, is never confumed.”
BUSHEL, a meafure of capacity for things dry j
as grains, pulfe, dry fruits, &c. containing four pecks,
or eight gallons, or one eighth of a quarter.
Du Cange derives the wmrd from buffellus, bufellus,
or biffellus, a diminutive of buys, or bu%a, ufed in the
corrupt Latin for the fame thing \ others derive it
from buffulus, an urn, wherein lots were caft 5 which
feems to be a corruption from buxulus. Buffellus ap¬
pears to have been firft ufed for a liquid meafure of
wine, equal to eight gallons. OBo librce faciunt galo-
nem vini, et 0B0 galones vini faciunt buffellum London,
qua ejl oBava pars quarterii. It was foon after tranf-
ferred to the dry meafure of corn of the fame quantity.
—Pondus 0B0 librorum frumenti facit buffellum, de
quibus 0B0 conffit quarterium.
By 12 Henry VII. c. 5. a bufiiel is to contain
8 gallons of wdreat •, the gallon 8 pounds of wrheat
troy weight; the pound 12 ounces troy-weight; the
ounce 20 (hillings; and the fterling 32 grains, or corn
of wheat, growung in the midft of the ear. This ftan-
dard bufhel is kept in the Exchequer ; when being
filled with common fpring water, and the water mea-
fured before the houfe of commons in 1696, in a re¬
gular parallelepiped, it w^as found to contain 2145,6
folid inches ; and the faid water being w-eighed, a-
mounting to 1131 ounces and 14 penny-weights troy.
Befides the ftandard or legal bufhel, wTe have feveral
local bufhels, of different dimenfions in different places.
At Abington and Andover, a bufhel contains nine
gallons : at Appleby and Penrith, a bufhel of peafe,
rye, and wheat, contains 16 gallons: of barley, big,
malt, mixt malt, and oats, 20 gallons. A bufhel
contains, at Carliile, 24 gallons ; at Chefter, a bufhel
of wheat, rye, &c. contains 32 gallons, and of oats
40 : at Dorchefter, a bufhel of malt and oats con-
D tains
BUS [ 26 ] BUS
Bufiris tains 10 gallons*, at Falmouth, the bufhel of flricken
II. coals is 16 gallons, of other things 20, and ufually
^^^^21 gallons; at Kingflon upon Thames, the bufhel
contains 8|at Newbury 9 ; at Wycomb and Rea¬
ding, at Stamford, 16 gallons. Houghton. Col-
left. tom. i. n. 46. p. 42.
At Paris, the bufhel is divided into 2 half-bufhels *,
the half-bufhel into 2 quarts; the quart into 2 half¬
quarts ; the half-quart into 2 litrons ; and the litron
into 2 half-litrons. By a fentence of the provofl of
the merchants of Paris, the bufhel is to be 8 inches
2,j lines high, and 10 inches in diameter; the quart
4 inches 9 lines high, and 6 inches 9 lines wdde ; the
half-quart 4 inches 3 lines high, and 5 inches diame¬
ter ; the litron 34 inches high, and 3 inches 10 lines
in diameter. Three bufhels make a minot, 6 a mine,
12 a feptier, and 144 a muid. In other parts of France
the bufliel varies : 14^- bufhels of Amboife and Tours
make the Paris feptier. Twenty bufhels of Avignon
make 3 Paris feptiers. Twenty bufhels of Blois make
I Paris feptier. Twto bufhels of Bourdeaux make I
Paris feptier. Thirty-two bufhels of Rochel make 19
Paris feptiers. Oats are meafured in a double propor¬
tion to other grains; fo that 24 bufhels of oats make
a feptier, and 248 a muid. The bufhel of oats is di¬
vided into 5 picotins, the picotin into 2 half-quarts, or
4 litrons. For fait 4 bufhels make one minot, and 6 a
1’eptier. For coals 8 bufhels make a minot, 16 amine,
and 320 a muid. For lime, 3 bufhels make a minot,
and 48 minots a muid. Such wrere the meafures by
bufhel before the revolution ; for the changes that have
fince taken place, fee Measure and Weight.
BUSIRIS, in Ancient Geography, a city of the
Lower Egypt, to the fouth of Leontopolis, on that
branch of the Nile called Bufiriticus: Built by Bufi-
lis, noted for his cruelty, and {lain by Hercules, (O-
vid, Virgil, Diodorus Siculus). Strabo denies fuch a
tyrant ever exifted; Ifocrates has written his panegyric.
In this city there flood a grand temple of Ills, which
gave it the appellation of the city of Ifis. It was de-
ftroyed on a revolt by Dioclefian.
BUSIRITICUS Fluvius, in Ancient Geography,
that branch of the Nile which empties itfelf at the
mouth called Oflium Pathmeticum, or Phatniticum,
(Ptolemy); alfo a part, according to an ancient map
at the Oflium Mindefrum; this river, or branch, di¬
viding itfelf at Diofpolis into two branches ; called
Bufiriticus, from the city of Bufiris, which flood on
its left, or weft branch. It is the fecond branch of the
Nile, reckoning from the eaft.
Buriticus Norms, in Ancient Geography, a prefec¬
ture, or divifion of the Lower Egypt ; fo called from
the city Bufiris, (Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemv.)
BUSITIS, in Ancient Geography, a diftrift of Ara¬
bia Deferta ; fo called from Bus, or Buz, Nahor’s fe¬
cond fon ; the country of Elihu, the fourth interlocu¬
tor in Job ; called Bu%etes, by the Septuagint.
BUSKIN, a kind of ftroe, fomewhat in manner of
a boot, and adapted to either foot, and worn by either
fex. This part of drefs, covering both the foot and
mid-leg, was tied underneath the knee ; it w^as very
rich and fine, and principally ufed on the ftage by ac¬
tors in tragedy. It was of a quadrangular form ; and
the tole was fo thick, as that, by means thereof, men
cf the ordinary ftature might be railed to the pitch and
elevation of the heroes they perfonated. The colour Eufs
w-as generally purple on the ftage ; herein it was dif-
tinguifhed from the fock worn in comedy, that being .
only a low common fhoe. The bulkin feems to have
been wmrn not only by aftors but by girls, to raife
their height ; travellers and hunters alfo made ufe of
it, to defend themfelves from the mire. In claflic au¬
thors, we frequently find the bulkin ufed to fignify
tragedy itfelf, in regard it w’as a mark of tragedy on
the ftage. It w^as alfo to be underftood for a lofty
ftrain or high ftyle.
BUSS, in maritime affairs, a fmall fea veffel, ufed
by us and the Dutch in the herring-filhery, commonly
from 48 to 60 tons burden, and fometimes more : a
bufs has two fmall ftreds or cabins, one at the prow* and
the other at the ftern ; that at the prow ferves for a
kitchen. Every bufs has a mailer, an afliftant, a mate,
and feamen in proportion to the veffel’s fize ; the
mailer commands in chief, and without his exprefs or¬
ders the nets cannot be call or taken up; the af-
fiftant has the command after him; and the mate next,
whofe bufinefs is to fee the feamen manage their rig¬
ging in a proper manner, to mind thofe who draw in
their nets, and thofe w7ho kill, gut, and cure the her¬
rings as they are taken out of the fea: the feamen
generally engage for a whole voyage in the lump. The
provifions which they take on board the buffes, confilt
commonly in bifcuit, oat meal, and dryed or fait filh ;
the crew* being content for the reft with what frelh filh
they catch. See Fisheries.
BUST, or Busto, in Sculpture, denotes the figure
or portrait of a perfon in relievo, Ihowung only the head,
Ihoulders, and ftomach, the aims being lopped off: or¬
dinarily placed on a pedeftal or confole.
In fpeaking of an antique, we fay the head is marble,
and the bull porphyry, or bronze, that is, the llomacli
and Ihoulders. Felibien obferves, that though in paint¬
ing, one may fay a figure appears in bufto, yet it is not
properly called a hiijl, that word being confined to
things in relievo.
The bull is the fame w*ith w*hat the Latins called
Hernia, from the Greek Hermes, Mercury, the image
of that god being frequently reprefented in this manner
amongft the Athenians.
Bust is alfo ufed, efpecially by the Italians, for the
trunk of a human body, from the neck to the hips.
Busta Gallica, was a place in ancient Rome, wherein
the bones of the Gauls, who fit ft took the city, and were
llain by Camillus, were depofited. It differed from
Busta Gallorum, a place on the Apennines, thus
called by reafon of many thoufands of Gauls killed there
by Fabius.
BUSTARD. See Otis, Ornithology Index,
BUSTUARIAL MoECHiE, according to fome, w*o-
men that w*ere hired to accompany the funeral and la¬
ment the lofs of the deceafed : but others are of opi¬
nion, that they w*eie rather the more common profti-
tutes, that Hood among the tombs, graves, and other
fuch lonely places.
BUSTUARII, in Roman antiquity, gladiators who
fought about the buftum or funeral pile of a perfon of
diftinftion, that the blood wTich was fpilt might lerve
as a facrifice to the infernal gods, and render them
more propitious to the manes of the deceafed. 7 his
cuftom was introduced in the room of the more inhu¬
man
Buftum
Butcher-
Ifland.
BUT [ 27 ] BUT
man one of facrificing captives at the buftum, or on
the tombs of warriors.
BUSTUM, in antiquity, denotes a pyramid or pile
of wood, whereon were anciently placed the bodies of
the deceafed, in order to be burnt.
The Romans borrowed the cuftom of burning their
dead from the Greeks. The deceafed, crowned with
flowers, and dreffed in his richeft habits, was laid on the
buftum. Some authors fay, it was only called bnflum,
after the burning, quaji bene vjlum: before the burning
it was more properly called pyra; during it, rogus; and
afterwards, bujlum. When the body was only burnt
there, and buried elfewhere, the place was not properly
called bujlum, but ujlrina, or ujlrinum.
Bustum, in the Campus Martius, was a ftrufture
whereon the emperor Auguftus firft, and after him the
bodies of his fucceflbrs, were burnt. It was built of
white ftone, furrounded with an iron palhfade, and
planted withinfide with alder trees.
Bustum was alfo figuratively applied to denote any
tomb. Whence thofe phrafes, facere bujlum, violare
bujlum, &.c.
Bustum of an Altar, was the hearth or place where
the fire was kindled.
BUTCHER, a perfon who daughters cattle for the
ufe of the table, or who cuts up and retails the fame.
Among the ancient Romans, there were three kinds
of eftablifhed butchers, whole office it was to furnifli
the city with the neceffary cattle, and to take care of
preparing and Vending their fleffi. The fuarii provided
hogs; the pecuarii or boarii, other cattle, efpecially
oxen ; and under thefe was a fubordinate clafs, whole
office was to kill, called lanu, and carnifices.
To exercife the office of butcher among the Jews
with dexterity, was of more reputation than to under-
ifand the liberal arts and fciences. They have a book
concerning ftiamble-conftitution } and in cafe of any
difficulty, they apply to fome learned rabbi for advice :
nor was any allowed to praftife this art, without a li-
cenfe in form \ which gave the man, upon evidence of
his abilities, a power to kill meat, and others to eat
what he killed 5 provided he carefully read every week
for one year, and every month the next year, and
once a quarter during his life, the conftitution above-
mentioned.
\Ye have fotne very good laws for the better regula-
tion and preventing the abufes committed by butchers,
A butcher that fells fwine’s flefh meafted, or dead of
the murrain, for the firft offence ffiall be amerced *, for
the fecond, have the pillory •, for the third, be impri-
foned, and make fine *, and for the fourth, abjure the
town. Butchers not felling meat at reafonable prices
ffiall forfeit double the value, leviable by warrant of two
juftices of the peace. No butcher {hall kill any fteffi
in his fcalding-houfe, or within the walls of London,
on pain to forfeit for every ox fo killed izd. and for
every other beaft, 8d. to be divided betwixt the king
and the profecutor.
BuTCHER-Bird. See Lanius, Ornithology In-
^BvrcHER-Broom. See Ruscus, Botany Index.
BuTCHER-IJland, in the Eaft Indies, a fmall ifland
about two miles long and fcarce one broad. It has its
name from cattle being kept there for the ufe of Bom¬
bay, from which it is about three miles diftant. It
has a fmall fort, but of very little confequence.
BUTE, an ifland lying to the weft of Scotland, be¬
ing feparated from Cowal, a diftrift of Argyllftiite, on¬
ly by a narrow channel. In length it is about 18 miles j
the broadeft part from eaft to weft is about five. Part
of it is rocky and barren ; but from the middle fouth-
wards, the ground is cultivated, and produces peafe,
oats, and barley. Here is a quarry of red ftone, which
the natives have ufed in building a fort and chapel in
the neighbourhood of Rothfay, which is a very ancient
royal-borough, head town of the {hire of Bute and A-
ran j but very thinly peopled, and maintained chiefly
by the herring fiffiery, with the profits of which all the
rents of this ifland are chiefly paid. On the north fide
of Rothfay, are the ruins of an ancient fort, with its
drawffiiidge, chapel, and barracks. Here are likewife
the remains of fome Danifli towers. '1 he natives are
healthy and induftrious, fpeak the Erfe and the dia-
ledl of the Lowlands indifferently^ and profefs the Pro-
teftant religion. The ifland is divided into twro pariffies,
accommodated with four churches 5 and belongs chiefly
to the earl of Bute, who poffeffes an elegant feat on
the eaft fide of the ifland. The name of this ifle has
by feveral authors, and in different periods, been very
differently written, as Bote, Both, Bothe, Boot, but now
generally Bute. Our ancient writers fuppofe that it
derived its name from a cell erected therein by St Bren¬
dan, an Iriffi abbot who flouriflred in the 6th century,
becaufe in his language fuch a cell W’as called Both.
It is, however, probable, that this name was of great
antiquity, fince wTe find it denominated Both by the
anonymous geographer of Ravenna. It was from very
early times part of the patrimony of the Stuarts :
large poffeffions in it wrere granted to Sir John Stuart,
fon of Robert II. by his beloved miftrefs Elizabeth
More } and it has continued in that line to the prefent
time.
BUTESHIRE, comprehends the iflands of Bute,
Arran, the greater and leffer Cumbray, and Inch-mar-
noc. This {hire and that of Caithnefs fend a member
to parliament alternately. The earl of Bute is admi¬
ral of the county, by commiffion from his majtfty ; but
no way dependent on the lord high admiral of Scot¬
land : fo that if any maritime cafe occurs within this
jurifdidlion, (even crimes of as high a nature as mur¬
der or piracy), his lordftnp, by virtue of his powers as
admiral, is fufficient judge, or he may delegate his au¬
thority to any deputies.
The following is a view of the population of this
county at two different periods, taken from the Statif-
tical Hiftory of Scotland.
Bute,
Eutefliire.
Bute.
Arran.
Panjh.
Rothfay,
Kingarth,
Kilbride,
Kilmorie,
Population
in 175S*
2222
998
1369
2127
Total, 6866
Population in
1790—1798.
4032
727
2545
S2 9
10,563
6866
D 2
Increafe,
3697
BUTEO,
BUT [ 28 ] BUT
BUTEO, tlie trivial name of a fpecies of Ealco.
See Ornithology Index.
BUTLER, Charles, a native of Wycomb in tbe
county of Bucks, and a mafter of arts in Magdalen
college, Oxford, publilhed a book with this title, “ The
principles of mufic in finging and fetting ; with the
twofold ufe thereof, ecclefiaftical and civil.” Quarto,
London 1636. The author of this book was a perfon
of lingular learning and ingenuity, which he manitefted
in fundry other works enumerated by Wood in the
Athen. Oxon. Among the reft is an Engliih grammar,
publifhed in 1633, in which he propoles a fcheme of
regular orthography, and makes ufe of charadlers, fome
borrowed from the Saxon, and others of his own in¬
vention, fo lingular, that we want types to exhibit
them : and of this imagined improvement he appears to
have been fo fond, that all his trafts are printed in like
manner with his grammar ; the confequence whereof
has been an almoft general difguft to all that he has
written. His “ Principles of Mufic” is, however, a
very learned, curious, and entertaining book ; and, by
the help of the advertifement from the printer to the
reader, prefixed to it, explaining the powers of the fe-
veral charafters made ufe of by him, may be read to
great advantage, and may be confidered a judicious
fupplement to Motley’s introduftion,
Hvtler,'Snmue/, a celebrated poet, was the fon
of a reputable Worcefterlhire farmer, and was born
in 1612. Lie palled fome time at Cambridge, but
was never, matriculated in that univerfity. Return¬
ing to his native country, he lived fome years as clerk
to a juftice of peace •, where he found fufficient time to
apply himfelf to hiftory, poetry, and painting. Being
recommended to Elizabeth countefs of Kent, he enjoy¬
ed in her houfe, not only the ufe of all kinds of books,
but the converfation of the great Mr Selden, who oft-
ten employed Butler to write letters, and tranllate for
him. lie lived alfo fome time with Sir Samuel Luke,
a gentleman of an ancient family in Bedfordlhire, and
a famous commander under Oliver Cronnvell : and he
is fuppofed at this time to have wrote, or at leaft to
have planned, his celebrated Hudibras ; and under that
charadter to have ridiculed the knight. The poem it-
felf furnilhes this key ) where, in the firft canto, LIu-
dibras fays,
“ ’Tis fung, there is a valiant mamaluke
“ In foreign land yclep’d —- -—
“To whom w7e oft have been compar’d
“ For perfon, parts, addrefs, and beard.”
After the Reftoration, Mr Butler was made fecretary
to the earl of Carbury, lord prefident of Wales, who
appointed him fteward of Ludlow caftle, when the court
was revived there. No one w’as a more generous friend
to him' than the earl of Dorfet and Middlefex, to
whom it was owing that the court tafted his Hudibras.
He had promifes of a good place from the earl of
Clarendon, but they were never accomplifhed } though
the king was fo much pleafed with the poem, as oft-
ten to quote it pleafantly in converfation. It is in¬
deed faid, that Charles ordered him the fum of 3000I.:
but the fum being expreffed in figures, fomebody
through whofe hands the order paffed, by cutting off
a cypher reduced it to 300I. which, though it paffed
the offices without fees, proved not fufficient to pay
what he then owed ; fo that Butler was not a fnilling Butlery
the better for the king’s bounty. He died in 1680 : Buterlage.
and though he met with many difappointments, was' 1 v
never reduced to any thing like want, nor did he die
in debt. Mr Granger obferves, that Butler “ ftands
without rival in burlefque poetry. liis Hudibras (fays
he) is in its kind, almoft as great an effort of genius,
as the Paradife Loft itfelf. It abounds with uncom¬
mon learning, new rhimes, and original thoughts. Its
images are truly and naturally ridiculous. There are
many ftrokes of temporary fatire, and fome charadlers
and allufions which cannot be difcovered at this diftance
of time.”
Butler, ’Jofepk, late biffiop of Durham, a pre¬
late diftinguifhed by his piety and learning, was the
youngeft Ion of Mr Thomas Butler, a reputable ftiop-
keeper at Wantage in Berkfhire, where he was born
in the year 1692. His father, who was a Prefbyterian,
obferving that he had a ftrong inclination to learning,
after his being at a grammar-fchool, fent him to an a-
cademy in Gloucefterftdre, in order to qualify him for
a diffenting minifter ) and while there, he wrote fome
remarks on Dr Clarke’s firft fermon at Boyle’s lefture.
Afterwards, refolving to conform to the eftabliftied
church, he ftudied at Oriel college, where he contradl-
ed an intimate friendfhip with Mr Edward Talbot, fon
of the bifhop of Durham, and brother to the lord chan¬
cellor, who laid the foundation of his fubfequent ad¬
vancement. He was firft appointed preacher at the
Rolls, and redlor of Haughtcn and Stanhope, two rich
benefices in the bifhopric of Durham. He quitted the
Rolls in 1726 ; and publiftred in 8vo, a volume of fer-
mons, preached at that chapel. After this he con-
ftantly refided at Stanhope, in the regular difcharge of
all the duties of his office, till the yTear 1733, when he
was called to attend the lord chancellor Talbot as his
chaplain, who gave him a prebend in the church of
Rochefter. In the year 1736, he was appointed clerk
of the clofet to Queen Caroline, whom he attended
every day, by her majefty’s fpecial command, from fe-
ven to nine in the evening. In 1738 he was appointed
to the biihopric of Briftol; and not long afterwards to
the deanery of St Paul’s, London. He now refigned his
living of Stanhope. In the year 1746, he was made
clerk of the clofet to the king •, and in 1750, w7as
tranfiated to Durham. This rich preferment he en¬
joyed but a fliort time 5 for he died at Bath June 16.
1752. His corpfe was interred in the cathedral at
Briftol } where there is a monument, with an infcrip-
tion, eredled to his memory. He died a bachelor.
His deep learning and comprehenfive mind appear fuf-
ficiently in his waitings, particularly in that excellent
treatife entitled, The Analogy of Religion^ natural and
revealed, to the Conjlltution and Courfe of Nature, pub-
liffied in 8vo, 1736.
Butler, the name anciently given to an officer in
the court of France, being the fame as the grand echan-
fon, or great cupbearer of the prefent times.
Butler, in the common acceptation of the word,
is an officer in the houfes of princes and great men,
whofe principal bufinefs is to look after the wine, plate,
&c.
BUTLERAGE of wine, is a duty of 2s. for every
ton ot wine imported by merchant ftrangers; being a
compofition in lieu of the liberties and freedoms grant¬
ed
Batoient
BUT [2
ed to them by King John and Edward I. by a charter
called charta mere at or ia.
Butlerage was originally the only cuRom that was
payable upon the importation of wines, and was taken
and received by virtue of the regal prerogative, for the
proper ufe of the crown. But for many years paft,
there having been granted by parliament fubfidies to
the kings of England, and the duty of butlerage not
repealed, but confirmed, they have been pleafed to grant
the fame way to fome noblemen, who by virtue of
fuch grant, is to enjoy the full benefit and advantage
thereof, and may caufe the fame to be collefted in the
fame manner that the kings themfelves were formerly
wont to do.
BUTMENT. Butments of arches are the fame with
buttreffes. They anfwer to what the Romans call ful-
licas, the French culces and butees.
Butments, or Abutments, of abridge, denote the
two maflives at the end of a bridge, whereby the two
extreme arches are fuftained and joined with the ihore
on either fide.
BUTOMUS, the Flowering-rush, or Water-
gladiole. See Botany Index.
BUTRINTO, a port-town of Epirus, or Canina,
in Turkey in Europe, fituated oppofite to the ifiand of
Corfu, at the entrance of the gulf of Venice. E.
Long. 20. 40. N. Lat. 39. 45.
B [JTT is ufed for a veffel, or meafure of wine, con¬
taining two hogfheads, or 1 26 gallons •, othervvife call¬
ed pipe. A butt of currants is from 1500 to 2200
pounds weight.
Butts, or Butt-ends, in the fea-language, are the
fore ends of all planks under water, as they rife, and
are joined one end to another.—Butt-ends in great (hips
are moft carefully bolted ; for if any one of them fliould
fpring or give way, the leak would be very dangerous
and difficult to flop.
Butts, the place where archers meet with their
bows and arrows to {hoot at a mark, which is called
{hooting at the butts: (See Archery.)—Alfo butts
are the finort pieces of land in arable ridges and fur¬
rows.
BUTTER, a fat un&uous fubftance, prepared from
milk by beating or churning.
It was late ere the Greeks appear to have had any
notion of butter ; their poets make no mention of it,
and are yet frequently fpeaking of milk and cheefe.
The Romans ufed butter no otherwife than as a me¬
dicine, never as a food.
According to Beckman, the invention of butter be¬
longs neither to the Greeks nor the Romans. The
former, he thinks, derived their knowledge of butter
from the Scythians, the Thracians and Phrygians; and
the latter from the people of Germany.
The ancient Chriftians of Egypt burnt butter in
their lamps inftead of oil; and in the Roman churches,
it was anciently allowed, during Chriftmas time, to
burn butter inftead of oil, on account of the great con-
fumption of it otherwife.
Butter is the fat, oily, and inflammable part of the
milk. This kind of oil is naturally diftributed through
all the fubftance of the milk in very fmall particles,
which are interpofed betwixt the cafeous and lerous
parts, amongft which it is fufpended by a flight adhe-
5 ] BUT
fion, but without being diflblved. It is in the fame ftate Butter,
in which oil is in emulfions : hence the fame white- v ~ "
nefs of milk and emulfions; and hence, by reft, the
oily parts feparate from both thefe liquors to the fur-
face, and form a cream. See Emulsion.
When butter is in the ftate of cream, its proper oily
parts are not yet fufficiently united together to form
a homogeneous mafs. They are ftill half feparated by
the interpofition of a pretty large quantity of ferous
and cafeous particles. The butter is completely form¬
ed by prefling out thefe heterogeneous parts by means
of continued percuflion. It then becomes an uniform
foft mafs.
Freflr butter which has undergone no change, ha^
fcarce any fmell •, its tafte is mild and agreeable ; it
melts with a weak heat, and none of its principles are
difengaged by the heat of boiling water. Thefe pro^
perties prove, that the oily part of butter is of the na¬
ture of the fat, fixed, and mild oils obtained from many
vegetable fubftances by expreffion. See Oils.—The
half fluid confiftence of butter, as of moft other con¬
crete oily matters, is thought to be owing to a con-
fiderable quantity of acid united with the oily part ^
which acid is fo well combined, that it is not perceptible
while the butter is frefti and has undergone no change;
but when it grows old, and undergoes fome kind of
fermentation, then the acid is difengaged more and
more 5 and this is the caufe that butter, like oils of the
fame kind, becomes rancid by age.
Butter is conftantly ufed in food, from its agreeable
tafte : but to be wbolefome, it muft be very frefti and
free from rancidity, and alfo not fried or burnt; other-
wife its acrid and even cauftic acid, being difengaged,
diforders digeftion, renders it difficult and painful, ex¬
cites acrid empyreumatic' belchings, and introduces
much acrimony into the blood. Some perfons have
ftomachs fo delicate, that they are even affedted with
thefe inconveniences by frefti butter and milk. This
obfervation is alfo applicable to oil, fat, chocolate, and
in general to all oleaginous matters.
For the making of butter fee Agriculture Index.
The trade in butter is very confiderable. Som. com¬
pute 50,000 tons annually confumed in London. It
is chiefly made within 40 miles round the city. Fifty
thoufand firkins are faid to be fent yearly from Cam¬
bridge and Suffolk alone: each firkin containing 5 61bs.
Utoxeter in Staffordffiire is a market famous for good
butter, infomuch that the London merchants have
eftabliftied a faftory there for that article. It is
bought by the pot, of a long cylindrical form, weigh¬
ing rqlb.
°Sbower of Butter. Naturalifts fpeak of ffiowers
and dews of a butyraceous fubftance. In 1695, there
fell in Ireland, during the winter and enfuing fpring,
a thick yellow dew, which had the medicinal properties
of butter.
Butter, among chemifts, a name given to feveral
preparations, on account of their confiftence refembling
that of butter ; as butter of antimony, &c. See Che¬
mistry Index.
BuTTER-Bur. See Tussilago, Botany Index.
BuTTER-Milk, the milk which remains after the but¬
ter is produced by churning. Butter milk is efteemed an
excellent food, in the fpring efpecially, and is particu¬
larly
e:t3
Butter-
wort
II
Button.
Edward s
Hi/}, of
Bird;,
122 vol.
BUT [ 30 1 BUT
larly recommended in heftic fevers. Some make curds are covered with a kind of ftuflf compofed of nlk and
of butter-milk, by pouring into it a quantity of new- hair 5 the warp being belladine frlk, and the (lioot horie
milk hot. ^ hair. This fluff is wove with two felvages, in the fame
BuTTKR-lVort. See Pinguicula, Botany Index.
BUTTERFIjY, the Englifh name of a numerous
genus of inlefts. See" Paimlio, Entomology/Wkr.
BuTTERFLY-Shel/. See Yoluta, conchology
Index.
Method of preferving Buttf.rfi.ies. See Insects.
Method of making BiBures of Butterflies. “Take
butterflies or field moths, either thofe catched abroad,
or fuch as are taken in caterpillars and nurfed in the
houfe till they be flies ; clip off their wings very clofe
to their bodies, and lay them on clean paper, in the
form of a butterfly when flying •, then have ready pre¬
pared gum arabic that hath been fome time diffolved in
water, and is pretty thick •, if you put a drop of ox¬
gall into a fpoonful of this, it will be better for the
ufe ; temper them 'well with your finger, and fpread a
little of it on a piece of thin white paper, big enough
to take both Tides of your fly ; when it begins to be
clammy under your finger, the paper is in proper order
to take the feathers from the wings of the fly j then
lay the gummed fide on the wings, and it will take
them up : then double your paper fo as to have all the
wings between the paper 5 then lay it on a table, pref-
fing it clofe wdth your fingers *, and you may rub it
gently with fome fmooth hard thing ; then open the
paper and take out the wings, which will come forth
tranfparent : the down of the upper and under fide of
the wings, flicking to the gummed paper, form a juft
likenefs of both Tides of the wings in their natural
fhapes and colours. The nicety of taking cff flies de¬
pends on a juft degree of moifture of the gummed paper :
for if it be too wet, all will be blotted and confufed ;
and if too dry, your paper will flick fo faft together,
that it will be torn in feparation. When you have
opened your gummed papers, and they are dry, you muft
draw the bodies from the natural ones, and paint them
in water colours : you muft take paper that will bear
ink very well for this ufe ; for finking paper will fe-
parate with the reft, and fpoil all.”
BUTTERIS, in the manege, an inftrument of fteel,
fitted to a wooden handle, wherewith they pare the
foot, or cut off the hoof, of a horfe.
BUTTOCK of a Ship, is that part of her which is
her breadth right aftern, from the tack upwards ; and
a fhip is faid to have a broad or a narrow' buttock,
according as fhe is built broad or narrow at the tran-
fum.
BUTTON, an article in drefs, whofe form and ufe
are too well known to need defcription. They are
made of various materials, as mohair, filk, horfe hair,
metal, &c.
Method of making common Buttons. Common but¬
tons are generally made of mohair; fome indeed are
made of filk, and others of thread ; but the latter are
of a very inferior fort. In order to make a button,
the mohair muft be previoufly wmund on a bobbin ;
and the mould fixed to a board by means of a bodkin
thruft through the hole in the middle of it. This be¬
ing done, the workman wraps the mohair round the
mould in three, four, or fix columns, according to the
jputton.
Horfe-hair Buttons. The moulds of thefe buttons
1
manner and in the fame loom as ribbands. It is then
cut into fquare pieces proportional to the fize of the
button, wrapped round the moulds, and the felvages
ftitched together, which form the under part of the
button.
Cleanfing of Buttons. A button is not finiftied
when it comes from the maker’s hands; the fuperfluous
hair and hubs of filk muft be taken off, and the but¬
ton rendered glofiy and beautiful before it can be fold.
This is done in the following manner : A quantity of
buttons are put into a kind of iron fieve, called by
workmen a f ageing box. Then a little fpirit of wine
being poured into a kind of fhallow’ iron difh, and fet
on fire, the W’orkman moves and fhakes the fingeing
box, containing the buttons, brifldy over the flame of
the fpirit, by which the fuperfluous hairs, hubs of filk,
&c. are burnt off, without damaging the buttons.
Great care, however, muft be taken that the buttons
in the fingeing box be kept continually in motion ; for
if they are fuffered to reft over the flame, they will im¬
mediately burn. When all thefe loofe hairs, &c, are
burnt oft' by the flame of the fpirit, the buttons are tak¬
en out of the fingeing box, and put, with a proper
quantity of the crumbs of bread, into a leather bag,
about three feet long, and of a conical ftiape ; the mouth
or fmaller end of wEich being tied up, the workman
takes one of the ends in one hand and the other in the
other, and fhakes the hand brifkly with a particular,
jerk. This operation cleanfes the buttons, renders them
very gloffy, and fit for fale.
Gold-twif Buttons. The mould of thefe buttons
is firft covered in the fame manner with that of common
buttons. This being done, the whole is covered with
a thin plate of gold or filver, and then wrought over
of different forms, with purple and gimp. The former
is a kind of thread compofed of filk and gold wire
twflfted together ; and the latter, capillary tubes of
gold or filver, about the tenth of an inch long. Thefe
are joined together by means of a fine needle, filled
with filk, thruft through their apertures, in the fame
manner as beads or bugles.
The manner of making Metal Buttons. The metal
with which the moulds are intended to be covered is
firft caft into fmall ingots, and then flatted into thin
plates or leaves, of the thicknefs intended, at the flat¬
ting mills after wdiich it is cut into fmall round pieces
proportionable to the fize of the mould they are intend¬
ed to cover, by means of proper punches on a block
of w’ood covered with a thick plate of lead. Each piece
of metal thus cut out of the plate is reduced into the
form of a bjutton, by beating it fucceflively in feveral
.cavities, or concave moulds, of a fpherical form, with
a convex puncheon of iron, always beginning wflth the
fhalloweft cavity of the mould, and proceeding to the
deeper, till the plate has acquired the intended form :
and the better to manage fo thin a plate, they form ten,
twelve, and fometimes even twenty-four, to the cavities,
or concave moulds, at once ; often nealing the metal
during the operation, to make it more duftile. This
plate is generally called by workmen the cap of the but¬
ton.
The form being thus given to the plates or caps,
they
Button.
Button.
BUT
they {trike the intended impreflion on the convex fide,
by means of afimilar iron puncheon, in a kind of mould
engraven en creux, either by the hammer or the prefs
ufed in coining. The cavity or mould, wherein the
impreflion is to be made, is of a diameter and depth
fuitable to the fort of button intended to be {truck in
it •, each kind requiring a particular mould. Between
the puncheon and the plate is placed a thin piece of
lead, called by workmen a hob, which greatly contri¬
butes to the taking off all the ftrokes of the engrav¬
ing ; the lead, by reafon of its foftnefs, eafily giving
way to the parts that have relievo, and as eafily infinu-
ating itfelf into the traces or indentures.
The plate thus prepared makes the cap or {hell of
the button. The lower part is formed of another plate,
in the fame manner, but much flatter, and without any
impreffion. To the laid or under plate is foldered a
fmall eye made of wire, by which the button is to be
faflened.
The two plates being thus finifhed, they are foldered
together with foft folder, and then turned in a lathe.
Generally indeed they ufe a wooden mould, inflead of
the under plate j and in order to fallen it, they pals a
thread or gut acrofs, through the middle of the mould,
and fill the cavity between the mould and the cap with
cement, in order to render the button firm and folid *,
for the cement entering all the cavities formed by the
relievo of the other fide, fuftains it, prevents its flatten¬
ing, and preferves its bode or defign.
Button, in the manege. Button of the reins of a
bridle, is a ring of leather, with the reins palled through
it, which runs all along the length of the reins. To
put a horfe under the button, is when a horfe is flop¬
ped wdthout a rider upon his back, the reins being laid
on his neck, and the button lowered fo far down that
the reins bring in the horfe’s head, and fix it to the true
poflure or carriage. It it not only the horfes which
are managed in the hand that mufl be put under the
button ; for the fame method mufl be taken with fuch
horfes as are bred between two pillars, before they are
backed.
BurroN-Wood. See Cephalanthus, Botany
Index.
Button's-Bay, the name of the north part of Hud-
fon’s bay, in North America, by which Sir Thomas
Button attempted to find out a north-weft paflage to
the Baft Indies. It lies between 8o° and too0 weft
longitude, and between 6o° and 66° north latitude.
BuTTON-Stone, in 'Natural Hljlory, a kind of figured
ftone, fo denominated from its refembling the button
of a garment. Dr Hook gives the figure of three forts
of button-ftones, which feem to have been nothing elfe
but the filling up of three feveral forts of ftiells. They
are all of them very hard flints 5 and have this in com¬
mon, that they confift of two bodies, which feem to
have been the filling up of two holes or vents in the
{hell. Dr Plot deferibe* a fpecies finely ftriated from
the top, after the manner of fome hair buttons. This
name is-alfo given to a peculiar fpecies of flate found
in the marquilate of Bareith, in a mountain called
Fichtelberg; w’hich is extremely different from the
common forts of flate, in that it runs with great eafe
into glafs in five or fix hours time, without the addi¬
tion of any fait or other foreign fubftance, to promote
its vitrificationj as other ftones require. It contains in
B U X
itfelf all the principles of glafs, and really has mixed in Buttreft
its fubftance the things neceffary to be added to pro- M
mote the fufion of other ftony bodies. The Swedes, n^t0n*
and Germans make buttons of the glafs produced from
it, which is very black and finning, and it has hence its
name button-Jlone. They make feveral other things al-
fo of this glafs, as the handles of knives and the like,
and fend a large quantity of it unwrought in round
cakes, as it cools from the fufion, into Holland.
BUTTRESS, a kind of butment built archwife, or
a mafs of ftone or brick, ferving to prop or fupport the
fides of a building, wall, &c. on the outfide, where it is
either very high, or has any confiderable load tofuftain
on the other fide, as a bank of earth, &c.—Buttreffes,
are ufed againft the angles of fteeples and other build¬
ings of ftone, &c. on the outfide, and along the walls
of fuch buildings as have great and heavy roofs, which
would be fubjeft to thruft the walls out, unlefs very
thick, if no buttreffes were placed againft them. They
are alfo placed for a fupport and butment againft the
feet of fome arches, that are turned acrofs great halls
in old palaces, abbeys, &c.
BUT US, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower
Egypt, on the weft fide of the branch of the Nile,
called FhermuthiacUs ; towards the mouth called OJlium
Sebennyticum . in this totvn flood an oracle of Latona,
(Strabo, Herodotus). Ptolemy places Butus in the
Nomos Phthenotes ; it is alfo called Buto, -us, (Plero-
dotus, Stephanus). It had temples of Apollo and
Diana, but the largeft was that of Latona, where the
oracle flood.
BUTZAW, a town of Lower Saxony, in Germany j
it Hands upon the river Varnow, on the road from
Schwerin to Roftock, lying in E. Long. 13. 12. N.
Lat. 54. 50.
BUVETTE, or BEuvETTE,in the French laws, an
eftablifhed place in every court, where the lawyers
and counfellors may retire, w^arm themfelves, and take
a glafs of wine by way of refreftrment, at the king’s
charge. There is one for each court of parliament,
but thefe are only for perfons belonging to that body j
there are others in the palais, whither other perfons al¬
fo refort.
BUXENTUM, (Livy, Velleius, Ptolemy, Mela,
Pliny); Pyxus, (Strabo, Pliny); a town of Lucania,
firft built by the people of Meffana, but afterwards de-
ferted, (Strabo). A Roman colony was fent thither,
(Livy, Velleius) : and when found ftill thin of inhabi¬
tants, a new colony was fent by a decree of the fenate.
Its name is from buxus, the box-tree, growing plenti¬
fully there. Strabo fays, the name Pyxus includes a
promontory, port, and river,under one. Now Pulicajkro,
in the Hither Principato of Naples. E. Long. 15. 40.
N. Lat. 40. 20.
BUXTON, a place in the peak of Derbyfliire, ce¬
lebrated for its medicinal waters, and lying in W. Long,
o. 20. N. Lat. 53. 20.
It has been alw7ays believed by our antiquaries, that
the Romans were acquainted with thefe wells, and had
frequented them much, as there is a military way ftill
vifible, called the Bath-gate, from Burgh to this place.
This was verified about 5° years ago, when Sir I Lomas
Delves, of Chefliire, in memory of a cure he received
here, caufed an arch to be erefled j in digging the
foundation for which, they came to the remains of a
[ 31 1
B U X [3
Buxton, folid and magnificent ftru&ure of Roman workman-
■—"■'V'”—^ flap j and in other places of the neighbourhood, very
capacious leaden vellels, and other utenfils of Roman
workmanlhip, have been difcovered. Thefe waters
have always been reckoned inferior to thofe in Somer-
fetfhirej but feem never to have been totally difufed.
They are mentioned by Leland, as well known 200
years ago ; but it is certain they were brought into
greater credit by Dr Jones in 1572, and by George
earl of Shrewfbury, who erected a building over the
bath, then compofed of nine fprings. This building
was afterwards pulled down, and a more commodious
one erected at the expence of the earl of Devonlhire.
In doing this, however, the ancient regifter of cures
drawn up by the bath-warden, or phyfician attending
the baths, and fubfcribed by the hands of the patients,
wras loft.
The warm waters of Buxton are, the bath, confift-
ing of nine fprings, as already mentioned, St Ann’s
well, and St Peter’s or Bingham well. St Ann’s well
rifes at the diftance of fomewhat more than 32 yards
north-eaft from the bath. It is chiefly fupplied from
a fpring on the north fide, out of a rock of black lime-
ftone or baftard marble. It formerly rofe into a ftone
bafon, fhut up wdthin an ancient Roman brick wall, a
yard fquare within, a yard high on tliree fides, and open
on the fourth. But, in 1709, Sir Thomas Delves, as
already mentioned, erefted an arch over it which ftill
continues. It is 12 feet long, and as many broad, fet
round with ftone fteps on the infide. In the midft of
this dome the water now fprings up into a ftone bafon
two feet fquare. St Peter’s or Bingham well rifes about
20 yards fouth-eaft of St Ann’s. It is alfo called
Leigh's well, from a memorable cure received from it
by a gentleman of that name. It rifes out of a black
limeftone, in a very dry ground j and is not fo warm
as St Ann’s well.
From the great refort of company to the waters,
this place has grown into a large ftraggling town,
which is daily increafing. The houfes are chiefly, or
rather folely, built for the reception of invalids ; and
many of them are not only commodious, but elegant.
The duke of Devonfhire has lately erefted a molt mag¬
nificent building in the form of a crefcent, with piazzas,
under which the company walk in wet or cold weather.
It is divided into different hotels, fhops, &c. with a
public coftee-room, and a very elegant room for affem-
blies and concerts.
The hot water refembles that of Brillol. It has a
iweet and pleafant tafte. It contains the calcareous
earth, together with a fmall quantity of fea-falt, and
an inconfiderable portion of a purging fait , but no
iron can be difcovered in it. This water taken in.
wardly is efleemed good in the diabetes 5 in bloody
urine ; in the bilious cholic *, in lofs of appetite, and
coldnefs of the ftomach •, in inward bleedings; in atro¬
phy ; in contraction of the veffels and limbs., efpeci-
ally from age ; in cramps and convulfions ; in the dry
afthma without a fever; and alfo in barrennefs. In¬
wardly and outwardly, it is faid to be good in rheu¬
matic and fcorbutic complaints ; in the gout; in in¬
flammation of the liver and kidneys, and in confump-
tions of the lungs ; alfo in old ftrains ; in hard callous
tumours j in withered and contracted limbs j in the
Itch, fcabs, nodes, chalky fwellings, ring worms, and
I
] B U X
other fimilar complaints.—Befides the hot water, there Enxton,
is alfo a cold chalybeate water, with a rough irony ln” /~“~l
tafte : It refembles the Tunbridge water in virtues.
For the methods of ccmpofing artificial Buxton -wa¬
ter, or of impregnating the original water with a great¬
er quantity of its own gas or with other gafes, fee Wa¬
ters, Medicinal.
Buxton, Jedediah, a prodigy with refpedft to Ikill
in numbers. His father, William Buxton, was fchool-
mafter of the fame parilh where he was born in 1704 :
yet Jedediah’s education was fo much neglected, that
he wTas never taught to write j and with refpeCt to any
other knowledge but that of numbers, feemed always
as ignorant as a boy of ten years of age. Hotv he
came firft to know the relative proportions of numbers,
and their progreflive denominations, he did not remem¬
ber ; but to this he applied the whole force of his mind,
and upon this his attention was conftantly fixed, fo that
he frequently took no cognizance of external objefts,
and when he did, it was only with refpeft to their
numbers. If any {'pace of time wras mentioned, he would
foon after fay it wTas fo many minutes ) and if any di¬
ftance of way, he would affign the number of hair¬
breadths, without any queftion being afked, or any
calculation expeded by the company. When he once
underftood a queftion, he began to work with amazing
facility, after his own method, without the ufe of a
pen, pencil, or chalk, oreven underftanding the common
rules of arithmetic as taught in the fchools. He wmuld
ftride over a piece of land or a field, and tell you the
contents of it almoft as exaft as if you had meafured it
by the chain. In this manner he meafured the whole
lordfhip of Elmton, of fome thoufand acres, belonging
to Sir John Rhodes, and brought him the contents, not
only in acres, roods, and perches, bjjt even in fquare
inches. After this, for his own amufement, he reduced
them into fquare hair-breadths, computing 48 to each
fide of the inch. His memory was fo great, that while
refolving a queftion, he could leave off, and refume the
operation again w’here he left off the next morning, or
at a week, a month, or at feveral months, and proceed
regularly till it was completed. His memory would
doubtlefs have been equally retentive with refpefl to
other objefls, if he had attended to other objefts w ith
equal diligence ; but his perpetual application to figures
prevented the fmalleft acquifition of any other knowT-
ledge. He was fometimes alked, on his return from
church, whether he remembered the text, or any part
of the fermon *, but it never appeared that he brought
away one fentence, his mind, upon aclofer examination,
being found to have been bufied, even during divine
fervice, in his favourite operation, either dividing fome
time, or fome fpace, into the fmalleft known parts, or
refolving fome queftion that had been given him as a
teft of his abilities.
This extraordinary perfon living in laborious pover¬
ty, his life wTas uniform and obfeure. Time, with re-
fpect to him, changed nothing but his age 5 nor did
the feafons vary his employment, except that in winter
he ufed a flail, and in fummer a ling-hook. In the year
1754, he came to London, where he w-as introduced
to the royal lociety, who, in order to prove his abili¬
ties, alked him feveral queftions in arithmetic, and he
gave them fuch fatisfaftion, that they difmiffed him
with a handfome gratuity. In this vifit to the metro-
polis,
BUY [ 33 ] B Y N
Tiuvwrf polls, the only obje6l of his curiofity, except figures,
1', was his defire to fee the king and royal family ; but
Buyng. ^ they being juft removed to Keufington, Jedediah was
difappointed. During his relidencein London, he was
taken to fee King Richard III. performed at Drury-
lane playhoufe j and it was expected, either that the
novelty and the fplendourof the fhow'would have fixed
him in ailonilhment, or kept his imagination in a con¬
tinual hurry •, or that his paffions would, in fome de¬
gree, have been touched by the power of aftion, if he
had not perfectly underftood the dialogue. But Jede-
diah’s mind was employed in the playhoufe juft as it
was employed in every other place. During the dance,
he fixed his attention upon the number of fteps; he
declared, after a fine piece of mufic, that the innume¬
rable founds produced by the inllruments had perplexed
him beyond meafure j and he attended even to Mr
Garrick, only to count the words that he uttered, in
which he faid he perfectly fucceeded. Jedediah re¬
turned to the place of his birth, where, if his enjoy¬
ments were few, his wilhes did not feem to be more.
He applied to his labour, by which he fubfifted, with
cheerfulnefs ; he regretted nothing that he left behind
him in London •, and it continued to be his opinion,
that a ilice of rufty bacon afforded the moft delicious
goods purchafed are only to be delivered at a certain Bying
time future. H
Buying the Refufal, is giving money for the right or t »
liberty of purebafing a thing at a fixed price in ft cer¬
tain time to come 5 chiefly ufed in dealing for ftiares in
flock. This is fometimes alfo called by a cant name,
buying the bear.
Buying the Small-Pox, is an appellation given to a
method of procuring that difeafe by an operation fimi-
lar to inoculation ; frequent in South Wales, where it
has obtained time out of mind, It is performed either
by rubbing fome of the pus taken out of a puftule of
a variolous perfon on the fkin, or by making apumfture
in the fkin with a pin dipped in fuch pus.
BUYS, a town of Dauphiny in France, fituated on
the borders of Provence. E. Long. 5. 2o. N. Lat
44. 25.
BUZANCOIS, a fmall town of Berry in France,
fituated on the borders of Touraine, in E. Long. 1.29.
N- Lat. 46. 38.
BUZBACH, a town of Germany, in Wefteravia,
and the county of Holmes, on the confines of Hanau.
E. Long. 10. 51. N. Lat. 50. 22.
BUZET, a fmall town of France, in Languedoc,
feated on the river Tome, in E. Long. 1. 45* N. Lat.
repaff.
BUXTORF, John, a learned profefibr of Hebrew
at Bafil, who, in the 17th century, acquired the higheft
reputation, for his knowdedge of the Hebrew and Chal¬
dee languages. He died of the plague at Bafil in 1629,
aged 6?. His principal wmrks are, 1. A fmall but ex¬
cellent Hebrew grammar j the bell edition of which
is that of Leyden in 1701, revifed by Leufden, 2. A
treafure of the Hebrew grammar. 3. A Hebrew con¬
cordance, and leveral Hebrew lexicons. 4. Injhtutio
epiftolaris Hebraica. 5. Be abbreviaturis Hebru’orum,
tec.
Buxtorf, John, the fon of the former, and a learn¬
ed profeffor of the oriental languages at Bafil, diftin-
guithed himfelf, like his father, by his knowledge of
the Hebrew language, and bis rabbinical learning. He
died at Bafil in 1664, aged 65 years. His principal
works are, 1. His tranfhtion of the More Nevochim,
and the Co%ri. 2. A Chaldee and Syriac lexicon.
3. An anticritic againft Cappel. 4. A tieatife on the
Hebrew points and accents againft the fame Cappel.
BUXUS, the box-tree. See Botany Index.
BUYING, the act of making a purchafe, or of ac¬
quiring the property of a thing for a certain price.
Buying Hands oppofed to felling, and differs from
borrowing or hiring, as in the former the property of
the thing is alienated for perpetuity, which in the lat¬
ter it is not. By the civil law, perfons are allowed to
buy hope, fpcm precis emere, that is, to purchale the
event or expeftation of any thing; gr' ^ke filh or
birds a perfon fhall catch, or the money he ftiall win in
gaming.
There are different fpecies of buying in ufe among
tinders: as, buying on one’s own account, oppofed to
buying on commiftion ; buying for ready money, which
is when the purchafer pays in aflual fpecie on the
fpot; buying on credit, or for a time certain, is when
the payment is not to be prefently made, but in lieu
thereof, an obligation given by the buyer for payment
at a time future ; buying on delivery, is when the
Vol. V. Part I.
43- 47-
BUZZARD, the name of feveral fpecies of the
hawk kind. See Ealco, Ornithology Index.
BYBLUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Phoe¬
nicia, fituated between Berytus and Botrys ; it was the
royal refidence of Cinyras; facred to Adonis. Pom-
pey delivered it from a tyrant, whom he caufed to be
beheaded. It flood at no great diffance from the fea,
on an eminence (Strabo) : near it ran the Adonis into
the Mediterranean. Now in ruins.
BYCHOW, a fmall town of Lithuania in Poland,
fituated on the river Nieper, in E. Long. 30. 2. N. Lat.
BY-laws, are laws made obiter, or by the by ; fuch
as' orders and conffitutions of corporations for the go¬
verning of their members, of court-leets, and courts
baron, commoners, or inhabitants in vills, &c. made
by common aflent, for the good of thofe that made
them, in particular cafes whereunto the public law
doth not extend ; fo that they bind farther than the
common or ftatute law : guilds and fraternities of
trades by letters patent of incorporation, may likewife
make by-laws for the better regulation of trade among
themfelves or with others. In ocotland thefe laws are
called laws of birlaxu or burlaw ; which are made by
neighbours elected by common confent in the birlaw-
courts, wherein knowledge is taken of complaints be¬
twixt neighbour and neighbour ; which men fo choien
are judges and arbitrators, and ftyled birlaw-men. And
birlaws, according to Skene, are leges rujlicorutn, laws
made by hufbandmen, or townfhips, concerning neigh¬
bourhood among them. All by-laws are to be reaion-
able, and for the common benefit, not private advan¬
tage of particular perfons, and muff be agreeable to
the public laws in being.
BYNG, George, Lord Vifcount Torrington, was
the fon of John Byng, Efq. and was born in 1663.
At the age of 15, be went volunteer to. fea with the
king’s warrant. His early engagement in. this courfe
of life gave >him little opportunity of acquiring lea.m-
6 E *nS
B Y N
[ 34 1
B Y S
Byng. ing or cultivating the polite arts } but by his abilities
—v-*"* and activity as a naval commander he furnifhed abun¬
dant matter for the pens of others. After being feve-
ral times advanced, he was in 1702 raifed to the com¬
mand of the Naffau, a third rate, and was at the tak¬
ing and burning the French fleet at Vigo ; and the
next year he was made rear-admiral of the red. In
1704, he ferved in the grand fleet fent to the Medi¬
terranean under Sir Cloudefly Shovel, as rear-admiral
of the red ; and it was he who commanded the fqua-
dron that attacked, cannonaded, and reduced Gibral¬
tar. He wras in the battle of Malaga, which followed
foon after ;,and for his behaviour in that aftion Queen
Anne conferred on him the honour of knighthood.
In 1705, in about twTo months time, he took 12 of the
enemies largefl: privateers, wnth the Thetis, a French
man of war of 44 guns ; and alfo feveral merchant
ihips, moft of them richly laden. The number of men
taken on board was 2070, and of guns 334. In 1718
he was made admiral and commander in chief of the
fleet; and w’as fent with a fquadron into the Mediter¬
ranean for the prote&ion of Italy, according to the
obligation England was under by treaty, againft the
invafion of the Spaniards ; who had the year before
furprifed Sardinia, and had this year landed an army
in Sicily. In this expedition he defpatched Captain
Walton in the Canterbury with five more {hips, in pur-
fuit of fix Spanifli men of war, with galleys, fire-fliips,
bomb-veffels, and ftorefiiips, who feparated from the
main fleet, and flood in for the Sicilian fliore. The
captain’s laconic epiftle on this occafion is wmrthy of
notice j which fhovved that fighting was his talent as
Well as his admiral’s, and not writing.
“ Sir,
“ We have taken and deflroyed all the Spanifli (hips
and veflels which were upon the coaft, as per margin.
Canterbury, off Syracufe, I am, &c.
Auguft 16. 1718. G. Walton.”
From the account referred to, it appeared that he had
taken four Spanifh men of war, with a bomb-veflel
and a fliip laden with arms ; and burned four, with a
fire-ftiip and bomb-veflel. The king made the admi¬
ral a handfome prefent, and fent him plenipotentiary
powers to negotiate with the princes and ftates of Italy
as there ffiould be occafion. He procured the empe¬
ror’s troops free accefs into the fortrefles that ftill helcl
out in Sicily ; failed afterwards to Malta, and brought
out the Sicilian galleys, and a fliip belonging to the
Turkey company. Soon after he received a gracious
letter from the emperor Charles VI. written with his
own hand, accompanied with a pifture of his imperial
majefty, fet round with very large diamonds, as a mark
of the grateful fenfe he had of his fervices. It was en¬
tirely owing to his advice and afliftance that the Ger¬
mans retook the city of Meffina in 1719, and dtftroy-
ed the (hips that lay in the bafon j which completed
the ruin of the naval power of Spain. The Spaniards
being much diftreffed, offered to quit Sicily 5 but the
admiral declared, that the troops fhould never be fuf-
fered to quit the ifland till the king of Spain had ac¬
ceded to the quadruple alliance. And to his condudl
it was entirely owing that Sicily was fubdued, and his
Catholic majefty forced to accept the terms prefcribed
Lim by the quadruple alliance. After performing fo
many fignal fervices, the king received him with the
nioft gracious expreflions of favour and fatisfaflion ;
made him rear-admiral of England and treafurer of
the navy, one of his moft honourable privy-council,
Baron Byng of Southill in the county of Bedford,
Vifcount Torrington in Devonfliire, and one of the
knights companions of the Bath upon the revival of
that order. In 1727, George II. on his acceflion to
the crown, placed him at the head of his naval affairs,
as firft lord commiflioner of the admiralty j in which
high ftation he died January 15. I733> t^ie 7ot^
year of his age, and was buried at Southill in Bedford-
(hire.
Byng, the honourable George, Efq. the unhappy fon
of the former, w'as bred to fea, and rofe to the rank
of admiral of the blue. He gave many proofs of cou¬
rage *, but was at laft {hot, upon a dubious fentence for
negleft of duty, in 1757. See Britain.
BYRLAW or Burlaw Laws in Scotland. See
By-laws.
BYROM, John, an ingenious poet of Manchefler,
born in 1691. His firft poetical effay appeared in the
Speftator, N° 603, beginning, “ My time, O ye
Mufes, was happily {pent j” which, with two humo¬
rous letters on dreams, are to be found in the eighth
volume. He was admitted a member of the Royal
Society in 1724; and having originally entertained
thoughts of praflifing phyfic, to which the title of abc-
tor is incident, that wras the appellation by which he
was always known : but reducing himfelf to narrow
circumftances by a precipitate marriage, he fupported
himfelf by teaching a newT method of writing ftiort-
hand, of his own invention ; until an eftate devolved
to him by the death of an elder brother. He was a
man of lively wit ; of which, whenever a favourable
opportunity tempted him to indulge it, he gave many
humorous fpecimens. He died in 1763 j and a collec¬
tion of his mifcellaneous poems was printed at Man-
chefter, in 2 vols 8vo, 1773.
BYRRHUS. See Entomology Index.
BYSSUS. See Botany Index.
Byssus, or ByJJum, a fine thready matter produced
in India, Egypt, and about Elis in Achaia, of which
the richefi apparel was anciently made, efpccially that
worn by the priefts both Jewifh and Egyptian. Some
interpreters render the Greek Eve-trot, which occurs
both in the Old and New Teffament, byy?»e linen.
But other verfions, as Calvin’s, and the Spanifii printed
at Venice in 1556, explain the word by Jf/b ; and yet
byffus muff have been different from our filk, as ap¬
pears from a multitude of ancient writers, and parti¬
cularly from Jul. Pollux. M. Simon, who renders the
word by fine linen, adds a note to explain it j viz.
that there was a fine kind of linen very dear, which
the great lords alone wmre in this country as well as in
Egypt.” This account agrees perfeflly well with that
given by Hefychius, as well as what is obferved by
Bochart, that the byffus was a finer kind of linen,
which was frequently dyed of a purple colour. Some
authors will have the byffus to be the fame with our
cotton ; others take it for the linum ajbejlmum ; and
others for the lock or bunch of filky hair found adhe¬
ring to the pinna marina, by which it faflens itfelf to
the neighbouring bodies. Authors ufually diftinguifli
two forts of byffus; that of Elis 5 and that of Judaea,
' which
Byng-
II
B Y Z [3:
Byffus, which was the fineft. Of this latter were the prieftly
Byzantium. ornaments made. Bonfrerius notes, that there muft
j^ave been two forts of byflus, one finer than ordinary,
by reafon there are two Hebrew words ufed in Scrip¬
ture to denote byiTus j one of which is always ufed in
fpeaking of the habit of the priefts, and the other of
that of the Levites.
Brssus AJbeJlmus, a fpecies of albeftus or incom-
buftible flax, compofed of fine flexible fibres parallel to
one another. It is found plentifully in Sweden, either
white or of different (hades of green. At a copper
mine in Weftmannland it forms the greateft part of
the vein out of which the ore is dug 5 and by the heat
of the furnace which melts the metal, is changed into
a pure femitranfparent flag or glafs.
BYZANTIUM, an ancient city of Thrace, fitu-
ated on the Bofphorus. It was founded, according to
Eufebius, about the 30th Olympiad, while Tullus Hof-
tilius reigned in Rome. But, according to Diodorus
Siculus, the foundations of this metropolis were laid in
the time of the Argonauts, by one Byfas, who then
reigned in the neighbouring country, and from whom
the city w7as called Byzantium. This Byfas, accord¬
ing to Euftathius, arrived in Thrace a little before the
Argonauts came into thofe feas, and fettled there with
a colony of Megarenfes. Velleius Paterculus afcribes
the founding of Byzantium to the Milefians,. and Am-
mianus Marcellinus to the inhabitants of Attica. Some
ancient medals of Byzantium, which have reached our
times, bear the name and head of Byfas, with the prow
of a (hip on the reverfe. The year after the deftruc-
tion of Jerufalem by Titus, Byzantium was reduced
to the form of a Roman province. In the year 193
this city took part with Niger againft _ Severus. It
was ftrongly garrifoned by Niger, as being a place of
the utmoft importance. It w’as foon after inveued by
Severus *, and as he was univerfally hated on account
of his cruelty, the inhabitants defended themfelves with
the greateft refolution. They had been fupplied with
a great number of warlike machines, moft of them in¬
vented and built by Perifcus a native of Nicaea, and
the greateft engineer of his age. For a long time they
baffled all the attempts of the affailants, killed great
numbers of them, cruftied fuch as approached the walls
with large ftones; and when ftones began to fail, they
ufed the ftatues of their gods and heroes. At laid they
were obliged to fubmit, through famine, after having
been reduced to the neceffity of devouring one another.
The conqueror put all the magiftrates and foldiers to
the fword ; but fpared the engineer Perifcus. Before
this fiege, Byzantium was the greateft, moft populous,
and wealthieft city of Thrace. It was furrounded by
walls of an extraordinary height and breadth: and de¬
fended by a great number of towers, feven of which
were built with fuch art, that the leaf! noife heard in
one of them was immediately conveyed to all the reft.
Severus, however, no fooner became mafter of it, than
he commanded it to be laid in allies. The inhabitants
were dripped of all their effefls, publicly fold for flaves
and the walls levelled with the ground. But by the
chronicle of Alexandria we are informed, that loon al¬
ter this terrible cataftrophe, Severus himfelf. caufed a
great part of the city to be rebuilt, calling it Antonia
] B Z O
from his fon Caracalla, who affumed the furname of%zamiunt*
Antoninus. In 262, the tyrant Galienus wreaked his. ^'aJ‘ <
fury on the inhabitants of Byzantium. He intended
to befiege it-, but on his arrival defpaircd of being able
to make himfelf mafter of fuch a ftrong place. He w7as
admitted the next day, however, into the city ; and
without any regard to the terms he had agreed to,
caufed the foldiers and all the inhabitants to be put to
the fword. Trebellius Pollio fays, that not a Angle per-
fon was left alive. What the reafon was for fuch an
extraordinary maffacre, we are nowhere informed. In
the wars between the emperors Licinius and Maximin
the city of Byzantium was obliged to fubmit to the
latter, but w'as foon after recovered by Licinius. In
the year 323, it was taken from Licinius by Conftan-
tine the Great, who in 330 enlarged and beautified
it, with a defign to make it the fecond, if not the firft,
city in the Roman empire. He began with extending
the walls of the ancient city from fea to feaj and while
fome of the workmen were bufied in rearing them,
others w7ere employed in railing within them a great
number of ftaiely buildings, and among others a palace
no way inferior in magnificence and extent to that of
Rome. He built a capitol and amphitheatre, made a
circus maximus, feveral forums, porticoes, and puolic
baths. He divided the whole city into 14 regions, and
granted the inhabitants many privileges and immunities.
By this means Byzantium became one of the moft flou-
rifhing and populous cities of the empire. \aft num¬
bers of people flocked thither from Pontus, I hi ace,
and Afia, Conftantine having, by a law, drafted this
year f33^0i decreed, that fuch as had lands in thole
countries fltould not be at liberty to difpofe of them,
nor even leave them to their proper heirs at their death,
unlefs they had a houfe in this new7 city. But how¬
ever defirous the emperor was that his city (nould be
filled with people, he did not care that it (hould be in¬
habited by any but Chriftians. He therefore caufed
all the idols to be pulled down, and all their churches
confecrated to the true God. He budt befides an in¬
credible number of churches, and caufed croffes to be
erefted in all the fquares and public places. Moft of
the buildings being finiftied, it was folemnly dedicated
to the Virgin Mary, according to Cedrenus, but, ac¬
cording to 'Eufebius, to the God of Martyrs. At the
fame time Byzantium was equalled to Rome. The
fame rights, immunities, and privileges, were granted
to its inhabitants as to thofe of the metropolis. _ He
eftabliftied a fenate and other magiftrates, with a
pow7er and authority equal to thofe of oid Rome. He
took up his refidence in the new city ; and changed
its name to Constantinople.
BZOVIUS, Abraham, one of the moft celebrated
writers in the 17th century, w7ith refpeft to the afto-
nilhing number of pieces compofed by him. His chief
work is the continuation of Baronius’s annals. He was
a native of Poland, and a Dominican friar. Upon his
coming to Rome, he was received w ith open arms by
the Pope, and had an apartment afligned him in the
Vatican. He merited that reception, for he has imi¬
tated Baronius to admiration in his defign of making
all things confpire to the defpotic power and glory oi
the papal fee. He died in 1630, aged 70.
E 2
C,
c A A [ 36 ] C A A
c.
C, /'*i THE third letter, and fecond confonant, or the
iaba. 3 alphabet, is pronounced like k before the vowels
^ ^ p, 0, and uy and like s before e, iy andy. C is formed,
according to Scaliger, from the x of the Greeks, by re¬
trenching the Item or upright line j though others de¬
rive it from the 3 of the Hebrews, which has in effect
the fame form 5 allowing only for this, that the He¬
brews reading backwards, and the Latins, &x. for¬
wards, each have turned the letter their own way.
However the C not being the fame as to found with
the Hebrew and it being certain the Romans did
not borrow their letters immediately from the He¬
brews or other orientals, but from the Greeks, the de¬
rivation from the Greek x, is the more probable. Add,
that F. Montfaucon, in his Palseographia, gives us fome
forms of the Greek x which come very near to that of
ourC: thus, for inftance, C; and Suidas calls the C the
Roman kappa. The fecond found of C refembles that
of the Greek 2} and many inftances occur of ancient
infcriptions, in which 2 has the fame form with our C.
All grammarians agree, that the Romans pronounced
their QJike our C, and their C like our K. F. Ma-
billon adds, that Charles the Great was the firft who
wrote his name with a C j whereas all his predeceffors
of the fame name wrote it with a K ; and the fame
difference is obferved in their coins.
As an abbreviature, C Hands for Caius, Carolus,
Ctefar, condemno. See. and CC for confuiibus.
As a numeral, C lignifies 100, CC 200, &c.
C, in Mu fie y placed after the cleff, intimates that
the mulic is in common time, which is either quick or
flow, as it is joined with allegro, or adagio: if alone, it
is ufually adagio. If the C be croffed or turned, the
firft requires the air to be played quick, and the la 11:
very quick,
‘ CAABA, or CaabaH, properly fignifies a fquare
ft one building: but is particularly applied by the Ma¬
hometans to the temple at Mecca, built as they pre¬
tend, by Abraham and Ifhmael his fon.
Before the time of Mahomet, this temple was a
place of worlhip for the idolatrous Arabs, and is faid
to have contained no lefs than different images,
equalling in number the days of the Arabian year.
They were all deftroyed by Mahomet, who fandlified
the Caaba, and appointed it to be the chief place of
worlhip for all true believers. The temple is in length
from north to fouth about 24 cubits j its breadth from
eaft to weft is 23 , and its height 27. The door,
which is on the eaft fide, Hands about four cubits from
the ground ; the floor being level with the bottom of
the door. In the corner next this door is the blacb/lone,
ib much celebrated among the Mahometans. On the
north fide of the Caaba, within a femicircular enclo-
lure 50 cubits long, lies the whiteJlone, faid to be the
fepulchre of Ilhmael, which receives the rain water
from the Caaba by a fpout formerly of wood, but now
of gold. The black Hone, according to the Mahome¬
tans, was brought down from heaven by Gabriel at the
creation of the world, and was originally of a white co¬
lour ; but contradled the blacknefs that now appears ^
on it from the guilt of thofe fins committed by the fons
of men. It is let in filver, and fixed in the fouth-eaft
corner of the Caaba, looking towards Bafra, about fe-
ven fpans from the ground. This ftone, upon vdfleh
there is the figure of a human head, is held in the
highert eftimation among the Arabs 5 all the pilgrims
killing it with great devotion, and fome even calling
it the right hand vf God. Its blacknefs, which is only
fuperficial, is probably owing to the kiffes and touches
of fo many people. After the Karmatians had taken
Mecca, they carried away this precious ftone, and
could by no means be prevailed upon to reftore it •,
but finding at laft that they were unable to prevent the
concourfe of pilgrims to Mecca, they fent it back of
their own accord, after having kept it 22 years.
The double roof of the Caaba is lupported within by
three oftagonal pillars of aloes wrood 5 between which*
on a bar of iron, hang fome filver lamps. The outfide
is covered with rich blade datnalk, adorned w'ith an
embroidered band of gold, which is changed every
year, and was formerly fent by the caliphs, afterwards
by the fultans of Egypt, and is now provided by the
Turkilh emperors. The Caaba, at fome diftance, is
almoft furrounded by a circular enclofure of pillars*
joined towards the bottom by a low balluftrade, and
towards the top by bars of filver. Juft without this
inner enclofure, on the fouth, north, and weft fides of
the Caaba, are three buildings, which are the orato¬
ries or places where three of the orthodox feds affem-
ble to perform their devotions. Towards the fouth-
eaft Hands an edifice which covers the well Zemzem,
the treafury, and the cupola of A1 Abbas. Formerly
there was another cupola, that went under the name
of the hemicycle or cupola of /fudea ; but whether or
not any remains of that are now to be feen is unknown j
nor is it eafy to obtain information in this refped, all
Chriftians being denied accefs to this holy place. At
a fmall diftance from the Caaba, on the eaft fide, is
thejlation or place of Abraham 5 where is another ftone
much refpeded by the Mahometans ; and where they
pretend to ftrow the footfteps of the patriarch, telling
us he ftood on it when he built the Caaba. Here the
fourth fed of Arabs, viz. that of A1 Shafei, affemble
for religious purpofes.
The fquare colonnade, or great piazza, which at a
confiderable diftance enclofes thefe buildings, confifts,
according to A1 Jannabi, of 488 pillars, and has no
lefs than 38 gates. Mr Sale compares this piazza to
that of the Royal Exchange at London, but allows it
to be much larger. It is covered with fmall domes or
cupolas, from the four corners of which rife as many
minarets or fteeples, with double galleries, and adorn¬
ed with gilded fpires and crefcents after the Turkifh,
manner, as are alfo the cupolas which cover the piazza
and other buildings. Between the columns of both
enclofures hang a great number of lamps, which are
confl antler
Caaba.
—  >
/
CAB [ 37 ] CAB
Caamini conflantly lighted at night. The firft foundation of
II this fecond enclofure was laid by Omar the fecond ca-
Cabaliana. wl10 built no more than a low wall, to prevent
v 1 the court of the Caaba from being encroached upon
by private buildings , but by the liberality of fucceed-
ing princes, the wdiole has been raifed to that date of
magnificence in which it appears at prefent.
This temple enjoys the privilege of an afylum for
all forts of criminals : but it is mod remarkable Tor
the pilgrimages made to it by the devout Muffulmans,
who pay fo great a veneration to it, that they believe
a Tingle fight of its facred walls, without any particu¬
lar aft of devotion, is as meritorious in the fight of
God, as the mod careful difcharge of one’s duty, for
the fpace of a whole year, in any other temple.
CAAMINI, in Botany, a name given by the Spa¬
niards and others to the fined fort of Paraguayan
tea. It is the leaf of a dirub which grows on the
mountains of Maracaya, and is ufed in Chili and Pe¬
ru as the tea is with us. The mountains where this
drrub grows naturally are far from the inhabited parts
of Paraguay : but the people of the place know fo well
the value and ufe of it, that they condantly furnifii
themfelves with great quantities of it from the fpot.
They ufed to go out on thefe expeditions many thou-
fands together j leaving their country, in the meantime
cxpofed to the infults of their enemies, and many of
themfelves perifiiing by fatigue. To avoid thefe in¬
conveniences, they have of late planted thefe trees about
their habitations ; but the leaves of thefe cultivated
ones have not the fine flavour of thofe that grow
wild. The king of Spain has permitted the Indians
of Paraguay to bring to the town of Saintfoy 12,000
arobes of the leaves of this tree every year, but they
are not able to procure fo much of the wild leaves an¬
nually : about half the quantity is the utmofl they
bring of this : the other half is made up of the leaves
of the trees in their own plantations •, and this fells at
a lower price, and is called pabos. The arobe is about
25 pound weight 5 the general price is four piadres ;
and the money is always divided equally among the
people of the colony.
CAANA, or Kaana, a town in Upper Egypt,
feated on the eadern bank of the river Nile, from
wdience they carry corn and pulfe for the fupply of
Mecca in Arabia. E. Long. 32. 23. N. Lat. 24. 30.
Here are feveral monuments of antiquity yet remain¬
ing, adorned with hieroglyphics.
"CAB, a Hebrew dry mcafure, being the fixth part
of a feah or fatum, and the 18th part of an ephah. A
cab contained 2 SS pints of our corn-meafure : a quarter
Cab was the meafure of dove’s dung, or more properly
a fort of chick-peafe called by this name, which w’as
fold at Samaria, during the fiege of that city, for five
fhekels.
CABAL, an apt name currently given to the infa¬
mous minidry of Charles H. compofed of five perfons,
Clifford, Afhley, Buckingham,. Arlington, and Lau¬
derdale ; the fird letters of whole names, in this or¬
der, furnifhed the appellation by which they were
didinguifhed.
CABALIST, in French commerce, a factor or
perfon who is concerned in managing the trade of an¬
other.
CAB ALL ARIA, in middle-age writers, lands held
by the tenure of furnifhing a horfeman, with datable Caballeros
equipage in time of war, or when the lord had occa- Ji,
lion tor him* .
CABALLEROS, or Cavalleros, are Spanilh
wools, of which there is a pretty confiderable trade at
Bayonne in France.
CABAL LINE, denotes fomething belonging to
borfes; thus caballine aloes is fo called, from its being
chiefly ufed for purging horfes ; and common brim-
done is called fulphur cabalhnum for a like reafon.
CABALLINUM in Ancient Geography, a town of
the TEdui in Gallia Celtica •, now Chalons fur Saone,
which fee. ‘
CABALLINUSin Ancient Geography, a very clear
fountain of Mount Helicon in Boeotia ; called Hip-
pocrene by the Greeks, becaufe opened by Pegafus on
driking the rock w ith his hoof, and hence called Pe~
gajius.
CABALLIO, or Cap.ell 10, in Ancient Geography,
a towm of the Cavares in Gallia Narbonenfis, fituated
on the Druentia. One of the Latin colonies, in the
Notitiae called Civitas Cabellicorum. Now Cavaillon
in Provence.
CABBAGE, in Botany. See Brassica; and A-
griculture Index.
CABBAGE-Tree or True CABBAGE-Palm. See A-
reca, Botany Index.
Cabbage-bark Tree. See Geoffrjea, Botany
Index.
CABBALA, according to the Hebrew dyle, has
a very didinft fignification from that wherein we un-
derdand it in our language. The Hebrew cabbala fig-
nifies tradition ; and the rabbins, who are called cab-
lalijls, dudy principally the combination of particular
words, letters, and numbers, and by this means pretend
to difcover what is to come, and to fee clearly into the
fenfe of many difficult paffages of Scripture. There
are no fure principles of this knowledge, but it depends
upon fome particular traditions of the ancients 5 for
which reafon it is termed cabbala.
The cabbalids have abundance of names which they
call facred; thefe they make ufe of in invoking of
fpirits, and imagine they receive great light from them.
They tell us, that the fecrets of the Cabbala w'ere did
covered to Mofeson Mount Sinai ; and that thefe have
been delivered to them down from father to fon, with¬
out interruption, and without any ufe of letters ; for
to write them down, is what they are by no means
permitted to do- This is likevvife termed the oral law,
becaufe it paffed from father to fon, in order to di-
Ifinguifii it from the written laws.
, There is another cabbala, called artificial, which
confifts in fearching for abftrufe and myfferious figni-
fications of a word "in Scripture, from whence they bor¬
row certain explanations, by combining the letters
which compofe it 5 this cabbala is divided into three
kinds, the gematrie, the notaricon, and the temura or
themura. The firlT whereof confifts in taking the
letters of a Hebrew wmrd for ciphers or arithmetical
numbers, and explaining every word by the arithmeti¬
cal value of the letters whereof it is compofed.. The
fecond fort of cabbala, called notaricon, confifts in tak¬
ing every particular letter of a word for an entire
diftion ; and the third, called themura, i. e. change,
confifts in making different tranfpofitions or changes-
CAB f 38 J CAB
Cal)balifts of letters, placing one for the other, or one before the
II other.
u ja ^ °s' Among the Chriftians, likewife, a certain fort of
magic is, by miftake, called cabbala; which confiits
in ufing improperly certain paflages of Scripture for
magic operations, or in forming magic characters or
figures with liars and talifmans.
Some vifionaries among the Jews believe, that Jefus
Chrift wrought his miracles by virtue of the mylteries
of the cabbala.
CABBALIST3, the Jewilh doCtors who profefs
the ftudy of the cabbala.
In the opinion of thefe men, there is not a word,
letter, or accent in the law, without fome my fiery in
it. The Jews are divided into two general feCts j the
karaites, who refufe to receive either tradition or the
talmud, or any thing but the pure texts of Scripture ;
and the rabbinirts, or talmudifts, who, belides this,
receive the traditions of the ancients, and follow the
talmud.
The latter are again divided into two other feCts j
pure rabbinifts, who explain the Scripture in its natu¬
ral fenfe, by grammar, hifiory, and tradition ; and
cabbalifts, who, to difeover hidden myftical fenfes,
which they fuppofe God to have couched therein,
make ufe of the cabbala, and the myftical methods
above mentioned.
CABECA, or Cabess, a name given to the fineft
filks in the Eaft Indies, as thofe from 15 to 20 per.
pent, inferior to them are called barina. The Indian
workmen endeavour to pafs them off one with the
other j for which reafon, the more experienced Euro¬
pean merchants take care to open the bales, and to
examine all the Ikaines one after another. The Dutch
diftinguilh two forts of cabecas; namely, the moor ca-
beca, and the common cabeca. The former is fold at
Amfterdam for about 21J fchellinghen Flemilh, and
the other for about 18-E
Cabeca de Vide, a fmall fea port town of Alentejo,
in Portugal, with good walls, and a ftrong caftle.
W. Long. 6. 43, N. Lat. 39. o.
CABENDA, a fea port of Congo, in Africa, fitu-
ated in E. Long. 12. 2. S. Lat. 4. 5.
Cx\BES, or Gabes, a town of Africa in the king¬
dom of Tunis, feated on a river near the gulf of the
fame name. E. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 33. 40.
CABEZZO, a province of the kingdom of Angola,
in Africa ; having Oacco on the north, Lubolo on the
fouth, the Coanzo on the north-eaft, and the Remba
on the fouth-weft. It is populous, and well ftored
with cattle, &c. and hath a mine of iron on a moun¬
tain from thence called the iron mountain, which yields
great quantities of that metal 5 and this the Portuguefe
have taught the natives to manufacture. This pro¬
vince is watered by a river called Rio Longo, and other
fmall rivulets, lakes, &c. The trees here are vaftly
large j and they have one fort not unlike our apple trees,
the bark of which being fiaftied with a knife, yields
an odoriferous refin of the colour and confiftency of
wax, and very medicinal in its nature, only a little too
hot for Europeans, unlefs qualified by fome cooling
drug.
CABIDOS, or Cavidos, a long meafure ufed at
,^?oa, and other places of the Eaft Indies belonging to
l
the Portuguefe, to meafure fluffs, linens, &c. and equal
to 4ths of the Paris ell.
CABIN, a room or apartment in a fhip where any
of the officers ufually refide. There are many of thefe
in a large ftiip ; the principal of w'hich is defigned for
the captain or commander. In {hips of the line this
chamber is furniftied with an open gallery in the {hip’s
ftern, as alfo a little gallery on each quarter. The
apartments where the inferior officers or common fail-
ors fleep and mefs are ufually called Births 5 which
fee.
The bed places built up for the failors at the ftiip’s
fide in merchantmen are alio called cqbins.
CABINDA, the chief port of the kingdom of An-
goy in Loango in Africa. It is fituated at the mouth of a
river of the fame name about five leagues north of Cape
Palmerino, on the north fide of the mouth of the river
Zaire. The bay is very commodious for trade, wooding,
and watering.
CABINET, the moft retired place in the fineft
part of a building, fet apart for writing, ftudying, or
preferving any thing that is precious.
A complete apartment confifts of a hall, anti¬
chamber, chamber, and cabinet, with a gallery on
one fide. Hence we fay, a cabinet of paintings, curio-
fittes, &c.
Cabinet, alfo denotes a piece of joiners workman-
fhip, being a kind of prefs or cheft, with feveral doors
and draw'ers.
There are common cabinets of oak or of chefnut
varniftied, cabinets of China and Japan, cabinets of
inlaid-Work, and fome of ebony, or the like fcarce and
precious wmods. Formerly the Dutch and German
cabinets wrere much efteemed in France ; but are now
quite out of date, as well as the cabinets of ebony
which came from Venice.
Cabinet is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the more feleft
and fecret councils of a prince or adminiftration. Thus
we fay, the fecrets, the intrigues of the cabinet. To
avoid the inconveniences of a numerous council, the
policy of Italy and praftice of France firft introduced
cabinet councils. King Charles I. is charged with
firft eftablifiiing this ufage in England. Befides his
privy council, that prince erefled a kind of cabinet
council, or junto, under the denomination of a council
of ftate ; compofed of Archbiftiop^ Laud, the earl of
Strafford, and Lord Collington, with the fecretaries of
ftate. Yet fome pretend to find the fubftance of a
cabinet council of much greater antiquity, and even
allowed by parliament, wffiich anciently fettled a quorum
of perfons .moft: confided in, without whofe prefence
no arduous matter was to be determined 5 giving them
power to aft without confulting the reft of the council.
As long fince as the 28th of Henry III. a charter paf-
fed in affirmance of the ancient rights of the kingdom j
which provided, that four great men, chofen by com¬
mon confent, who were to be converfators of the king¬
dom, among other things, fhould fee to the difpofing
of moneys given by parliament, and appropriated to
particular ufes.; and parliaments were to be fummoned
as they fhould advife. But even of thefe four, any two
made a quorum : and generally the chief juftice of
England and chancellor were of the number of the con-
fervators, Matth. Par. 28. Henry III. In the firft
of
Cabin
i.l !
Cabinet.
Cabin
II
Cable.
CAB [ 39 ]
CAB
of Henty VI. the parliament provides, that the quo¬
rum for the privy council be fix, or four at leaf! $ and
that in all weighty confiderations, the dukes of Bed¬
ford and Glocefter, the king’s uncles, fliould be prefent ;
which feems to be ere&ing a cabinet by law.
CABIRI, a term in the theology of the ancient
Pagans, fignifying great and powerful gods j being
a name given to the gods of Samothracia. They
were alfo worihipped in other parts of Greece, as
Lemnos and Thebes, where the cabiria were celebra¬
ted in honour of them •, thefe gods are faid to be in
number four, viz. Axieros, Axiocerfa, Axiocerfus, and
Cafmilus.
CABIRIA, feftivals in honour of the Cabin, cele¬
brated in Thebes and Lemnos, but efpecially in Samo¬
thracia, an ifland confecrated to the Cabiri. All who
were initiated into the myfteries of thefe gods were
thought to be fecured thereby from ftorms at fea, and
all other dangers. The ceremony of initiation was
performed by placing the candidate, crowned with
olive branches, and girded about the loins with a pur¬
ple ribband, on a kind of throne, about which the priefts
and perfons before initiated danced.
CABLE, a thick, large, ftrong rope, commonly of
hemp, which ferves to keep a fliip at anchor.
There is no merchant fliip, however weak, but
has at lead three cables; namely, the chief cable, or
cable of the fheet anchor, a common cable, and a
fmaller one.
Cable is alfo faid of ropes, which ferve to raife
heavy loads, by the help of cranes, pulleys, and other
engines. The name of cable is ufually given to fuch
as are, at leaft, three inches in circumference •, thofe
that are lefs are only called ropes, of different names,
according to their ufe.
Every cable, of whatfoever thicknefs it be, is com*
pofed of three ftrands j every ftrand of three ropes ;
and every rope of three twufts : the twift is made of
more or lefs threads, according as the cable is to be
thicker or thinner.
In the manufaflure of cables, after the ropes are
made, they ufe flicks, which they pafs firft between
the ropes of which they make the ftrands, and after¬
wards between the ftrands of which they make the
cable, to the end that they may all twift the better,
and be more regularly wmund together ; and alfo, to
prevent them from entwining or entangling, they hang,
at the end of each ftrand and of each rope, a w’eight of
lead or of ftone. > r c -
The number of threads each cable is compofed of is
always proportioned to its length and thicknefs 5 and
it is by this number of threads that its weight and va¬
lue are afcertained : thus, a cable of three incnes cir¬
cumference, or one inch diameter, ought to confift of
48 ordinary threads, and to weigh 192 pounds j and
on this foundation is calculated the following table,
very ufeful for all people engaged in marine commerce,
who fit out merchantmen for their own account, or
freight them for the account of others.
table of the number of threads and weight of cables
of different circumferences.
Circumf. Threads. Weight.
a inches 48 192 pounds.
4 77 3°8
Circumf. Threads.
5 inches 121
6 174
7 238
8 311
9- 393
10 48 r
11 598
12 699
13 821
14 952
15 1093
16 1244
17 1404
18 1574
19 1754
20 1943
Weight.
484 pounds
696
952
1244
1572
1940
2392
2796
3284
3808
4372
4976
5616
6296
7016
7772
Cable's
Cabot.
Sheet-Anchor Cable, is the greateft cable belonging
to a (hip.
Stream Cable, a hawfer or rope, fomething fmaller
than the bowers, and ufed to moor the ftiip in a river
or haven, ftieltered from the wind and fea, &c.
Serve or Plate the Cable, is to bind it about with
ropes, clouts, &c. to keep it from galling in the
hawfe.
To Splice a Cable, is to make two pieces faft toge¬
ther, by working the feveral threads of the rope, the
one into the other.
Pay more Cable, is to let more out of the ftiip.
Pay cheap the Cable, is to hand it out apace. Veer
more Cable, is to let more out, 8tc.
Cable's Length, a meafure of 120 fathoms, or of
the ufual length of the cable.
CABLED, in Heraldry, a term applied to a crofs
formed of the two ends of a fliip’s cable y fometimes
alfo to a crofs covered over with rounds of rope ; more
properly called a crofs carded.
Cabled Piute, in Architecture, fuch flutes as are fil¬
led up with pieces in the form of a cable.
CABO de Istria, the capital town of the province
of Iftria, in the territory of Venice ; and the fee of a
bifliop. It is feated on a fmall ifland in the gulf of
Venice, and is joined to the main land by draw-bridges.
E. Long. 14. 22. N. Lat. 45. 49.
CABOCHED, in Heraldry, is when the heads
of beafts are borne without any part of the neck, full
CABOLETTO, in commerce, a coin of the repub¬
lic of Genoa, worth about 3d. of our money.
CABOT, Sebastian, the firft difcoverer of the con¬
tinent of America, was the fon of John Cabot, a Ve¬
netian. He was born at Briftol in 1477 ; and was
taught by his father, arithmetic, geometry, and cofmo-
graphy. Before he was 20 years of age he made fe¬
veral voyages. The firft of any confequence feems to
have been made with his father, who had a commiflion
from Henry VII. for the difcovery of a north-weft paf-
fage to India. They failed in the fpring of 1497 j and
proceeding to the north-weft they difcovered land,
which for that reafon they called Primavijta, or Lew-
foundland. Another fmaller ifland they called St John,
from its being difcovered on the feaft of St John Bap-
tift ; after which, they failed along the coaft of Ame¬
rica as far as Cape Florida, and then returned to
L land
' Cabot,
Cabra.
CAB [ 40
land with a good cargo, and three Indians aboard.
Stowe and Speed afcribe thefe difcoveries wholly to
Sebaftian, without mentioning his father. It is pro¬
bable that Sebaftian, after his father’s death, made fe-
veral voyages to thefe parts, as a map of his diicove-
ries, drawn by himfelf, was hung up in the privy gar¬
den at Whitehall. However, hiftory gives but little
account of his life for near 20 years when he went to
Spain, where he was made pilot-major, and intrufted
with reviewing all projedhs for difcoveries, which were
then very numerous. His great capacity and approved
integrity induced many eminent merchants to treat with
him about a voyage by the new found ftraits of Ma¬
gellan to the Moluccas. He therefore failed in 1525,
firft to the Canaries •> then to the Cape de Verd iflandsj
thence to St Auguftine and the ifland of Patos ; when
fome of his people beginning to be mutinous, and re-
fufing to pafs through the ftraits, he laid afide the de-
Tign of failing to the Moluccas ; left fome of the prin¬
cipal mutineers upon a defert iiland j and, failing up
the rivers of Plate and Paraguay, difcovered, and built
forts in, a large trad! of fine country, that produced
gold, filver, and other rich commodities. He thence de-
fpatched meftengers to Spain for a fupply of provifions,
ammunition, goods for trade, and a recruit of men. but
bis requeft not being readily complied with, after flay¬
ing five years in America, he returned home j where
he met with a cold reception, the merchants being dif-
pleafed at his not having purfued his voyage to the
Moluccas, while his treatment of the mutineers had
given umbrage at court. Hence he returned to Eng¬
land *, and being introduced to the duke of Somerfet,
then lord protedfor, a new office wras eredfed for him :
he was made governor of the myftery and company of
the merchant-ad venturers for the difcovery of regions,
dominions, iflands, and places unknown ; a penfion was
granted him, by letters patent, of 166I. 13s. qd. per
annum and he was confulted in all affairs relative to
trade. In 1522, by his intereft, the court fitted out
fome fhips for the difcovery of the northern parts of the
world. This produced the firft; voyage the Englifh
made to Ruffia, and the beginning of that commerce
w7hich has ever fince been carried on between the two
nations. The Ruflia company was now founded by a
charter granted by Philip and Mary 5 and of this com¬
pany Sebaftian was appointed governor for life. He js
laid to be the firft who took notice of the variation of
the needle, and who publifhed a map of the world.
The exa£t time of his death is not known, but he liv¬
ed to be above'70 years of age.
CABRA, a town of the kingdom of Tombut in
Africa. It is a large town, but without walls j and is
feated on the river Niger, about 1 2 miles from Tom¬
but. The boufes are built in the ftiape of bells } and
the walls are made with flakes or hurdles, plaftered
with clay, and covered with reeds after the manner of
thatch. This place is very much frequented by negroes
who come here by water to trade. The town is very
unhealthy, which is probably owing to its low fitua-
tion. The colour of the inhabitants is black, and their
religion a fort of Mabometanifm. They have plenty
of corn, cattle, milk, and butter; but fait is very fcarce.
The judge who decides controverfies is appointed by
the king of lombut. E. Long. o. 50. N. Eat. 14*
21.
] C A C
CABUL, or Garoul, a city of Afta, and capital Cabut
of the province of Cabuliftan. It lies in E. Long. 68.
j N. Lat. 33. 30. on the frontiers of Great Bukha-
ria, on the fouth fide of the mountains which divide the
territories of the Mogul from that part of Great I ar¬
tary. It is one of the fineft places in that part of the
world ; large, rich, and very populous. As it is con-
fidered as the key of the Great Mogul’s dominions on
that fide, great care is taken to keep its fortifications
in repair, and a numerous garrifon is maintained for its
fccurity. It lies on the road between Samarcand and
Labor ; and is much frequented by the 1 artars, Per-
fians, and Indians. The Ulhec Tartars drive there a
great trade in ftaves and lioi'fesj of which it is faid that
no fewer are fold than 60,000 annually. The Perfians
bring black cattle and ftieep, which renders provifions
very cheap. 1 hey h^ve alfo wine, and pienty of all
forts of eatables, i he city ftands on a little liver which
falls into the Indus, and thereby affords a fhort and
fpeedy paffage for all the rich commodities in the
country behind it, which when brought to Cabul, are
there exchanged for flaves and horfes, and then con¬
veyed by merchants of different countries to all parts
of the world. The inhabitants are moft of them Indian
pagans, though the officers of the Mogul and moft of
the garrifon are Mahometans.
CABULISTAN, a province of Afta, formerly be*
longing to the Great Mogul ; but ceded in 1739 ^
Kouli Khan, who at that time governed Perfia. It is
bounded on the north by Bukharia, on the eaft by
Cafchmire, on the weft by Zabuliftan and Candahar,
and on the fouth by Moultan. It is 250 niiles*in
length 240 in breadth, and its chief town is Cabul.
This country in general is not very fruitful ; but in the
vales they have good pafture lands. I he roads are
much infefted with banditti; which obliges the na¬
tives to have guards for the fecurity of travellers.
The religion of the Cabuliftans is pagan ; and their
extraordinary time of devotion is the full moon in Feb¬
ruary, and continues for two days. At this time they
are clothed in red, make their offerings, dance to the
found of the trumpet, and make viftts to their friends
in mafquerade dreffes. They fay, their god Crufman
killed a giant who was his enemy, and that he appear¬
ed like a little child ; in memory of which, they caufe a
child to Ihoot at the figure of a giant. Thole of the
fame tribe make bonfires, and feaft: together in a jovial
manner. The moral part of their religion cpnfifts in
charity ; for w'hich reafon, they dig wells and build
houfes for the accommodation of travellers. They have
plenty of proviftons, mines of iron, myrobolans, aroma¬
tic w’cods, and drugs of many kinds. They carry on
a great trade with the neighbouring countries; by which
means they are very rich, and are fupplied with plenty
of all things.
CABURNS, on fliip board, are fmall lines made
of fpun yarn, to bind cables, feize tackles, or the like..
CACALIA. See Botany Index.
CACAO. See Theobroma, Botany Index.'
CACCOONS. See Elevillea, Botany Index.
CACERES, a town of Spain in the province of
Eftremadura, is feated on the river Saler, and noted
for the exceeding fine wool which the ftieep bear in the
neighbourhood. Between this town and Brocos, there
is a w’ood, where the allies defeated the rear guard of
the
2
C A C [ 41 ] k C A C
Cachalot tlie duke of Berwick, on the 7th of April 1 706. E.
Cachao L°nS* 6' 47* N* Lat‘ 39- * 5*
CACHALOr. See Physeter, Cetology In¬
dex.
CACHAN, or Cashan, a confiderable town of Per-
lia, in Irac Agemi, where they carry on an extenlive
trade in lilks, lilver and gold brocades, and fine earthen
ware. It is fituated in a vaft plain, 55 miles from If-
pahan. E. Long. 50. 2. N. Lat. 34. 10.
C ACPI AO, a province in the kingdom of Tonquin
in Afia, fituated in the heart of the kingdom, and fur-
rounded by the other feven. Its foil is fertile, and in
fome places mountainous, abounding with a variety of
trees, and particularly that of varnilh. Moll of thefe
provinces carry on fome branch of the {ilk manufacture,
but this moll of all. It takes its name from the capi¬
tal, which is alfo the metropolis of .the wdrole kingdom,
though in other refpeCls hardly comparable to a Chi-
nefe town of the third rank.
Cachao, a city of the province of that name, in the
kingdom of Tonquin in Alia, lituated in E. Long.
105. 31. N. Lat. 22. 10. at about 80 leagues dillance
from the fea. It is prodigioufly crow'ded wdth people,
infomuch that the llreets are hardly pafiable, efpecially
on market days. Thefe vaft crowds, however, come
moftly from the neighbouring villages ; upon which
account thefe villages have been allowed their halls in
particular parts of the city, where they bring and dif-
pofe of their wares. The town itfelf, though the me¬
tropolis of the whole Tonquinefe kingdom, hath nei¬
ther wTalls nor fortifications. The principal ftreets are
wide and airy, but the reft of them narrow and ill
paved •, and except the palace royal and arfenal, the
town has little elfe wrorth notice. The houfes are low
and mean, moftly built of wood and clay, and not above
one ftory high. The magazines and warehoufes belong¬
ing to foreigners are the only edifices built of brick : and
thefe, though plain, yet, by reafon of their height
and more elegant ftrufture, make a conliderable Ihow
among thofe row’s of wooden huts. From the combuf-
tibility of its edifices, this city fuffers frequent and
dreadful conflagrations. Thefe fpread wdth fuch fur-
prifmg velocity, that fome thoufands of houfes are of¬
ten laid in allies before the fire can be extinguifhed.
To prevent thefe fad confequences, every houfe hath,
either in its yard or even in its centre, fome low build¬
ing of brick, in form of an oven, into wdiich the inha¬
bitants on the firft alarm convey their moll valuable
goods. Befides this precaution, which every family
takes to fecure their goods, the government obliges
them to keep a ciftern, or fome other capacious veffel,
always full of water on the top of their houfe, to be
ready on all occafions of this nature : as likewife a long
pole and bucket, to throw water from the kennel upon
the houfes. If thefe two expedients fail of fupprefling
the flames, they immediately cut the ftraps which fall¬
en the thatch to the walls, and let it fall in and wafte
itfelf on the ground. The king’s palace Hands in the
centre of the city •, and is furrounded with a flout wall,
within whofe cinfture are feen a great number of apart¬
ments two llories high, whofe fronts and portals have
fomething of the grand tafte. Fhofe of the king and
his wives are embellilhed with variety of carvings and
gildings after the Indian manner, and all finely var-
nilhed. In the outer court are a vafl: number of fump-
Vau V. Part I.
tuous ftables for the king’s horfes and elephants. The Cacliao.. *
appearance of the inner courts can only be conjedlured;
for the avenues are not only flint to all llrangers,
but even to the king’s fubjedls, except thofe of the
privy council, and the chief minillers of Hate ; yet we
are told, that there are llaircafes by which people may
mount up to the top of the walls, which are about 18
or 20 feet high ; from whence they may have a di-
ftant view of the royal apartments, and of the fine par¬
terres and filh ponds that are between the cinfture and
them. The front wall hath a large gate well orna¬
mented, w hich is never opened but when the king goes
in and out \ but at fome diftance from it on each fide
there are two pofterns, at which the courtiers and ler-
vants may go in and out. This cindlure, which is of
a vaft circumference, is faced with brick within and
without, and the w7hole ftru6lure is terminated by wide
fpacious gardens j which, though ftored wdth great va-
riety of proper ornaments, are deftitute of the gran¬
deur and elegance obferved in the palaces of European
princes. Befides this palace, the ruins of one Hill more
magnificent are to be obferved, and are called Libatvia.
The circumference is faid to have been betwixt fix and
feven miles ; fome arches, porticoes, and other orna¬
ments are Hill remaining ; from which, and feme of
its courts paved with marble, it may be concluded to
have been as magnificent a ftru£lure as any of the eaft-
ern parts can ftiow7. The arfenal is likewife a large
and noble building, w'ell ftored with ammunition and
artillery. The Englilh faftory is fituated on the north
fide of the city, fronting the river Song-koy. It is a
handfome low-built houfe, with a fpacious dining room
in the centre ; and on each fide are the apartments of
the merchants, faflors, and fervants. At each end of
the building are fmaller houfes for other ufes, as llore-
houfes, kitchen, &c. which form two wings with the
fquare in the middle, and parallel with the river, near
the bank of wdiich Hands a long flag-ftaff, on w'hich
they commonly difplay the Englifli colours on Sun¬
days and all remarkable days. Adjoining to it, on the
fouth fide, is the Danilh fablory, which is neither fo
large nor fo handfome- On the fame fide of the river
runs a long dike, whole timber and Hones are fo firmly
faftened together, that no part of it can be ftirred wdth-
out moving the whole. I his vrork w7as raifed on thole
banks to prevent the river, during the time of their
vaft rains, from overflowing the city } and it has hi¬
therto anfwered its end ; for though the towm Hands
high enough to be in no danger from land floods, it
might yet have been otherwife frequently damaged, if
not totally laid under water, by the overflowing of that
river. Some curious obfervations have been commu¬
nicated to the Royal Society concerning differences be¬
tween the tides of thofe feas and thofe ol Europe, viz.
that on the Tonquinefe coaft ebbs and flowrs but once
in 24 hours ; that is, that the tide is riling during the
fpace of 1 2 hours, and can be eafily perceived during
tw'o of the moon’s quarters, but can hardly be obferv¬
ed during the other two. In the fpring tides,, which
laft 14 days, the waters begin to rife at the riling of
the moon } whereas in the low tides, which continue
the fame number of days, the tide begins not till that
planet has got below the horizon. Whilft it is palling
through the fix northern figns, the tides are obferved
to vary greatly, to rife fometimes very high, and fome-
0 F times
Cachectic
II
Cadtus.
C A C - [ 42 ] CAD
times to be very low ; but when it is once got into the
fouthern part of the zodiac, they are then found to be
more even and regular.
CACHECTIC, fomething partaking of the nature
of, or belonging to, a cachexy.
CACHEO, a town of Negroland in Africa, feated
on the river St Domingo. It is fubjeft to the Portu-
guefe, who have three forts there, and carry on a great
trade in wax and Haves. W. Long, 14. 55. N. Lat.
12. O.
CACHEXY, in Medicine, a vitious Hate of the
humours and whole habit. See Medicine ZWhv.
CACHRYS. See Botany Index.
CACHUNDE, the name of a medicine, highly ce¬
lebrated among the Chinefe and Indians, and made of
feveral aromatic ingredients, the perfumes, medicinal
earth, and precious Hones : they make the whole into
a It iff paffe, and form out of it feveral figures accord¬
ing to their fancy, which are dried for ufe j thefe are
principally ufed in the Eaff Indies, but are lometimes
brought over to Portugal. In China, the principal
perfons ufually carry a fraall piece in their mouths,
which is a continued cordial, and gives their breath a
very fweet frnell. It is a highly valuable medicine,
alfo, in all nervous complaints j and is eflesmed a
prolonger of life, and a provocative to venery, the tw’o
great intentions of moH of the medicines in ufe in the
Eafl.
CACOCHYLIA, or Cacochymia, a vitious Hate
of the vital humours, efpecially of the mafs of blood j
arifing either from a diforder of the fecretions or ex¬
cretions, or from external contagion. The word is
Greek, compounded of xaxaj ill, and juice.
CACOPHONIA, in Grammar and Rhetoric, the
meeting of twm letters, or fyllables, which yield an un¬
couth and difagreeable found, the word is compound¬
ed of kukos evil, and (pc*n voice.
Cacophonia, in Medicine, denotes a vice or de¬
pravation of the voice or fpeech 5 of which there are
two fpecies, aphonia and dyfphoma.
CACTUS. See Botany Index..
The cafti are plants of a fingular Hruflure, but
efpecially the larger kinds of them ^ which appear like
a large, tleihy, green melon, with deep ribs, let all
over with firong firarp thorns, and, when the plants
are cut through the middle, their iniide is a foft, pale-
green, flefliy fubHance, very full of moifiure. The
fruit of all the fpecies is frequently eaten by the inha¬
bitants of the Weff Indies. The fruits are about three
quarters of an inch in length, of a taper form, drawing
to a point at the bottom toward the plant, but blunt
at the top where the empalement of the flower was fi-
tuated. The tafle is agreeably acid, which in a hot
country muff render the fruit more grateful.
The cochineal animals are fupported on a fpecies
called eaBus cochenillifer.— The flower of the caflus
grandiflora (one of the creeping cereufes) is faid to be
as grand and beautiful as any in the vegetable fyflem :
It begins to open in the evening about feven o’clock,
is in perfeflion about eleven, and fades about four in
the morning j fo that the fame flower only continues
in perfedlion about fix hours. The calyx when expand¬
ed is about a foot in diameter, of a fplendid yellow
within, and a dark brown without •, the petals are ma-
*7, and of a white j and the great number of
recurved ffamina, furrounding the flyle in the centre Cacus
of the flower, make a grand appearance, to which may
be added the fine feent, which perfumes the air to a T ' ^
confiderable diflance. It flowers in July.
CACUS, in fabulous hiflory, an Italian fhepherd
upon Mount Aventine. As Hercules wras driving
home the herd of King Geryon whom he had flain, Ca-
cus robbed him of fome of his oxen, which he drew
backward into his den lefl they Ihould be difcovered0
Hercules at lafl finding them out by their lowing, or
the robbery being difeovered to him, killed Cacus w'ith
his club. He was Vulcan’s fon, of prodigions bulk,
and half man half fatyr.
CADAN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Zats,
feated on the northern bank of the river Egra, in E.,
Long. 13. 34. N. Lat. 50. 20.
CADARI, or Kadari, a fedl of Mahometans, who
affert free will j attribute the actions of men to metr
alone, not to any fecret power determining the will ?
and deny all abfolute decrees, and predeftination. The
author of this fe£t was Mabeb ben Kaled al Gihoni,
who fuffered martyrdom for it. The word comes from
the Arabic, -rrp, cadara, “ power.” Ben Aun calls
the Cadarians the Magi or Manichees of the Muffel-
rnans.
CADE, a cag, calk or barrel. A cade of her¬
rings is a veffel containing the quantity of 500 red her¬
rings, or 1000 fprats.
Cade Lamb, a young lamb weaned, aad brought
up by hand, in a houfe ; called, in the North, pet
lamb.
Cade Oil, in the Materia Medica, a name given to
an oil much in ufe in fome parts of France and Ger¬
many. The phyficians call it oleum cadee, or oleum de
cada. This is fuppofed by fome to be the piffeloeum
of the ancients, but improperly •, it is made of the fruit
of the oxycedrus, which is called by the people of
thefe places cada.
Cade Worm, in Zoology, the maggot or worm of a
fly called phryganea. It is ufed as a bait in angling.
See Phryganea, Entomology Index.
CADEA, or THS LEAGUE OF THE HOUSE OF GOD,
is one of thofe that compofe the republic of the Gri-
fons, and the moft powerful and extenfive of them all.
It contains the biihopric of Coire, the great valley of
Engadine, and that of Bragail or Pregal. Of the 11
great, or 21 fmall communities, there are but two that
fpeak the German language •, that of the refl is called
the Rhetic, and is a dialed of the Italian. The Pro-
teftant religion is mofl prevalent in this league, which
has been allied to the Swifs cantons ever fince the year
1498. < Coire is the capital town.
CADENAC, a town of France, in Querci, on the
confines of Rouergue, feated on the river Lot, in E,.
Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 44. 36.
CADENCE, or Repose, in Mujic, (from the La¬
tin cadere “ to fall or defeend”) •, the termination of an
harmonica! phrafe on a repofe, or on a perfed chord.
See Music, Art. 73—76, and 132—137.
Cadence, in Reading, is a falling of the voice be¬
low the key note at the clofe of every period. In reading,
whether profe or verfe, a certain tone is affumed which
is called the key note; and in this tone the bulk of the
words are founded : but this note is generally lowered
towards the clofe of every fentence.
Cadence*
'.Cadence
CAD [ 43 j CAD
Cadence, in the manege, an equal meafure or pro¬
portion, obierved by a horfe in all his motions ; fo
that his times have an equal regard to one another,
the one does not embrace or take in more ground than
the other, and the horfe obferves his ground regular¬
ly*
C A DENE, one of the forts of carpets which the
Europeans import from the Levant. They are the
worft fort of all, and are fold by the piece, from one
to two piaftres per carpet.
CADENET, a town of France in Provence,
and in the vigurie of Apt. E. Long. 5. 30. Lat.
43. 40-
CADES, or Kadesh, in Ancient Geography, a
town in the wildernefs of Zin, in Arabia Petrrea j
the firft encampment of the Ifraelites, after their de¬
parture from Eziongeber j and from which the wil¬
dernefs of Zin was called Cades; the burial place
of Miriam, with the rock and water of Me rib ah
in it. Another Cades, a town of the tribe of Ju¬
dah, Jofhua xv. 23. Cadejbarnea, called alfo Cades.
CADESBARNEA, in Ancient Geography, a town
@f the wildernefs of Paran, on the confines of Canaan,
from which the fpies were fent out *, fometimes fimply
called Cades, but diftina from the Cades in the wilder¬
nefs of Zin.
CADET, the younger fon of a family, is a term
naturalized in our language from the French. At Pa¬
ris, among the citizens, the cadets have an equal patri¬
mony with the reft. At Caux, in Normandy, the
cuftom, as with us, is to leave all to the eldeft, except
a fmall portion to the cadets. In Spain, it is ufual for
one of the cadets in great families to take the mother’s
name.
Cadet is alfo a military term, denoting a young
gentleman who choofes to carry arms in a marching
regiment as a private man. His views are, to acquire
fome knowledge in the art of war, and to obtain a
commiflron in the army. Cadet differs from volunteer,
as the former takes pay, whereas the latter ferves
without pay.
CADI, or Cadhi, a judge of civil affairs in the Tur-
kifh empire. It is generally taken for the judge of a
town •, judges of provinces being diftinguiihed by the
appellation of mollas.
We find numerous complaints of the avarice, ini¬
quity, and extortion, of the Purkiih cadis j all juftice
is here venal j the people bribe the cadis, the cadis bribe
the mouias, the moulas the cadilefchers, and the cadi-
lefchers the mufti. Each cadi has his ferjeants, who
are to fummon perfons to appear and anfwer complaints.
If the party fummoned fails to appear at the hour ap¬
pointed, fentence is paffed in favour of his advenary.
It is ufually vain to appeal from the fentences cf the
cadi, fince the affair is never heard anew, but judg¬
ment is paffed on the cafe as ftated by tne cadh But
the cadis are often cafhiered and punifhed for crying in-
juftice with the baftinado and mulfts j the law, how¬
ever, does not allow them to be put to deatn. Con-
ftantinople has had cadis ever fince the year 1390, when
Bajazet I. obliged John Paleologus, emperor of the
Greeks, to receive cadis into the city to judge all con-
troverfies happening between the Greeks and the Turks
fettled there. In fome countries of Africa, the cadis
are alfo judges of religious matters. Among the Moors
cadis is the denomination of their higher order of Carhaei
priefts or doftors, anfwering to the rabbins among the J:„
Jeavs. y—
CADIACI, the Turkifh name of Chalcedon. See
Chalcedon.
C ADILESCHER. a capital officer of juftice among
the Turks, anfwering to a chief juftice among us.
It is laid, that this authority was originally confined
to the foldiery •, but that, at prefent, it extends itfelf
to the determination of all kinds of lawr-fuits ; yet is
neverthelefs fubjedt to appeals.
There are but three cadilefchers in all the grand fig-
nior’s territories j the firft is that of Europe ; the ie-
cond, of Natolia; and the third refides at Grand Cairo.
This laft is the moft confiderable: they have their feats
in the divan next to the grand vizir.
GADILLxAC, a town of France in Guienne, and
in Bazadois, near the river Garonne, with a hand-
fome caftle, fituated in W. Long. o. 15- hi. Lat.
44- 37-
CADIZ, a city and port town of Andalufia in
Spain, fituated on the ifland of Leon, oppofite to Port
St Mary on the continent, about 60 miles louth-weft;
of Seville, and 40 north-weft of Gibraltar. W. Long.
6. 40. N. Lat. 36. 30.
It occupies the whole furface of the weftern extre¬
mity of the ifland, which is compofed of tw’o large
circular parts, joined together by a very narrow bank
of fand, forming altogether the figure of a chain fliot.
At the fouth-eaft end, the ancient bridge of Suaco,
thrown over a deep channel or river, affords a commu¬
nication between the ifland and the continent j a ftrong
line of works defends the city from all approaches along
the ifthmus j and, to render them ftill more difficult,
all the gardens and little villas on the beach were in
1762 cleared away, and a dreary fandy glacis left in
their room, fo that now there is fcarce a tree on the
W’hole ifland.
Except the Calle Ancha, all the ftreets are narrow,
ill paved, and infufferably ftinking. They are all
drawn in ftraight lines, and moft of them interfedl each
other at right angles. The fwarms of rats that in the
nights run about the ftreets are innumerable j whole
droves of them pafs and repafs continually, and thefe
their midnight revels are extremely troublefome to
fuch as wTalk late. The houfes are lofty, with each a
veltibule, which being left open till night, ferves paflen-
gers to retire to ; this cuftom, which prevails through¬
out Spain, renders thefe places exceedingly offenfive.
In the middle of the houfe is a court like a deep well,
under wdiich is generally a ciftern, the breeding place
of gnats and mofquitos j the ground floors are ware-
houfes, the firft ftories compting-houfe or kitchen, and
the principal apartment up two pair or flairs. 1 he
roofs are flat, covered with an impenetrable cement,
and few are without a mirador or turret for the pur-
pofe of commanding a view of the fea. Round the
parapet-wall at top are placed rows of iquare pillars,
meant either for ornament according to fome tradi¬
tional mode of decoration, or to fix awnings to, that
fuch as fit there for the benefit of the fea breeze may
be flieltered from the rays of the fun j but the mofl
common ufe made of them, is to fallen ropes for dry¬
ing linen upon. High above all thefe pinnae es,
which give Cadiz a moft fingular appearance, Hands
6 F 2 the
CAD [ 44 ] CAD
Cadiz, the tower of fignals. Here flags are hung out on the
firft fight of a fail, marking the fize of the fliip, the
jration it belongs to, and, if a Spanifh Indiaman, the
port of the Indies it comes from. The flaps are ac¬
quainted with the proper fignals to be made, and
thefe are repeated by the watchmen of the tower : as
painted lifls are in every houfe, perfons concerned in
commerce foon learn the marks.
The city is divided into 24 quarters, under the in-
fpeilion of as many commiflioners of police ; and its
population is reckoned at 140,000 inhabitants, of
which 12,000 are French, and at leaft as many more
Italians. The fquare of Saint Antonia is large, and
tolerably handfome, and there are a few imaller open¬
ings of no great note. The public walk, or Alameda,
is pleafant in the evening : it is fenced off the coach
road by a marble rail. The fea air prevents the
trees from thriving, and deftroys all hopes of future
lhade.
From the Alameda, continuing your walk weft-
wards, you come to the Campofanto, a large efplanade,
the only airing-place for coaches } it turns round molt
part of the weft and fouth iides of the ifland, but the
buildings are ftraggling and ugly ; the only edifice of
any ftrow is the new orphan houie 5 oppolite to it is
the fortrefs of St Sebaftian, built on a neck of land
running out into the fea. The round tower at the
extremity is fuppofed to have faved the city, in the
great earthquake of 1755, from being fwept aw^ay by
the fury of the waves. The building proved fufficient-
ly folid to withftand the fhock, and break the immenfe
volume of water that threatened deftrmftion to the
whole ifland. In the narrow part of the ifthmus the
furge beat over with amazing iinpetuofity, and bore
down all before it ; among the reft, the grandfon of
the famous tragic poet Racine, who ftrove in vain to
efcape, by urging his horfe to the utmoft of his fpeed.
On St Sebaftian’s feaft, a kind of wrake or fair is
held in the fort 5 an aftonilhing number of people
then palling and repafling, on a firing of wooden
bridges laid from rock to rock, makes a very lively
moving picture.
From hence to the wooden circus where they exhi¬
bit the bull fealts, you keep turning to the left clofe
above the fea, which on all this fide dalhes over large
ledges of rock : the Ihore feenps here abfolutely inac-
ceflible. On this Ihore ftands the cathedral, a work
of great expence, but carried on with fo little vigour,
that it is difficult to guefs at the term of years it will
require to bring it to perfeftion. The vaults are exe¬
cuted with great folidity. The arches, that fpring
from the cluftered pilafters to fupport the roof of the
church, are very bold j the minute fculpture bellowed
upon them feems fuperfluous, as all the effefl will be
loft from their great height, and from the lhade that
will be thrown upon them by the filling up of the in-
terllices. From the fea, the prefent top of the church
refembles the carcafe of fome huge monfter call upon
its fide, rearing its gigantic blanched ribs high above
the buildings of the city. The outward cafings aje to
be of white marble, the bars of the windows of bronze.
Next, crofting before the land gate and barracks, a
fuperb edifice for ftrength, convenience, and cleanli-
n.efs, you come down to the ramparts that defend the
-city on the fide of the bay. If the. profpeft. to the
ocean is folemn, that towards the main land is ani¬
mated in the higheft degree ; the men of war ride in
the eaftern bofom of the bay •, lower down the mer¬
chantmen are fpread far and near 5 and clofe to the
town an incredible number of barks, of various lhapes
and fizes, cover the furface of the water, fome moored
and fome in motion, carrying goods to and fro. The
oppofite Ihore of Spain is ftudded with white houfes,
and enlivened by the towns of St Mary’s, Port-real,
and others, behind which, eallward, on a ridge of hills,
ftands Medina Sidonia, and further back rife the moun¬
tains of Granada. Weftward, Rota clofes the hoi'i-
zon, near which was anciently the ifland and city of
Tarteffus, now covered by the fea, but at low water
fome part of the ruins are Hill to be difcerned. In
a large baftion, jutting out into the bay, they have
built the cuftom-houfe, the firft ftory of which is
level with the walk upon the walls. When it was re~
folved to ere£l a building fo neceffary to this great em¬
porium of trade, the marquis di Squillace gave orders
that no expence ihould be fpared, and the moll intelli¬
gent architects employed, in order to ereCl a monument,
which by its tafte and magnificence might excite the
admiration of pofterity : the refult of thefe precautions
proved a piece of vile architecture, compofed of the
worfi: of materials.
The ftir here is prodigious during the laft months of
the flay of the flota. The packers poffefs the art of
preffing goods to great perfection \ but, as they pay
the freight according to the cubic palms of each bale,
they are apt to fqueeze down the cloths and linens fo.
very clofe and hard, as fometimes to render them un¬
fit for ule. The exportation of French luxuries in
drefs is enormous *, Lyons furnifties molt of them ;
England fends out bale goods } Brittany and the north
linens. Every commercial nation has a conful refi-
dent at Cadiz ; thofe of England and France are the
only ones not allowed to have any concern in trade.
In 1596, Cadiz was taken, pillaged, and burnt by
the Englilh ; but in 1702 it was attempted in conjunc¬
tion with the Dutch, without fuccefs.
CADIZADELITES, a feCt of Mahometans very
like the ancient Stoics. They ftiun feafts and diver-
ftons, and affeCt an extraordinary gravity in all their
aCtions; they are continually talking of God, and fome
of them make a jumble of Chriftianity and Mahome-
tanifm ; they drink wdne, even in the faff of the Ra¬
mazan ; they love and proteCt the Chriftians ^ they be¬
lieve that Mahomet is the Holy Ghoft, praCtife cir-
cumcifion, and juftify it by the example ot Jefus ChrilL
CADMEAN Letters, the ancient Greek or Ionic
characters, fuch as they were firft brought by Cadmus
from Phoenicia ; whence Herodotus alfo calls them
Phoenician letters. According to fome writers, Cad¬
mus w7as not the inventor, nor even importer of the
Greek letters, but only the modeller and reformer
thereof j and it was hence they acquired the appellation
Cadmean or Phoenician letters; wEereas-before that,
time they had been called Pelafgian letters*
CADMIA. See Calamine.
CADMUS, in fabulous hiftory, king of Thebes,
the fon of Agenor king of Phoenicia, and. the brother
of Phoenix, Cilix, and Europa. He carried into
Greece the 16 fimple letters of the Greek alphabet;
and there built Thebes, in Boeotia. The poets fay,,
CAD
Cadmus that he left his native country in fearch of his lifter
I! Europa, whom Jupiter had carried away in the form
Caduceus., ^ ^ . ancj tl:iat} JnqUiring of the Delphic oracle
for a fettlement, he was anfwered, that he Ihould fol¬
low the direftion of a cow% and build a city where ftie
lay down. Having arrived among the Phocenfes, he
was met by a cow, who conduced him through Bo?o-
tia to the place where Thebes was afterwaids built :
but as he was about to facrifice his guide to Pallas, he
fent two of his company to the fountain Dirce for wa¬
ter ; when they being devoured by a ferpent or dragon,
he flew the monfter, and afterwards, by the advice of
Pallas, lowed his teeth, when there fprung up a num¬
ber of armed foldiers, who prepared to revenge the
death of the ferpent 5 but on his calling a ftone among
thefe upftart warriors, they turned their weapons againft
each other with fuch animofity, that only five furvived
the combat, and thefe atiifted Cadmus in founding his
new city. Afterwards, to recompenfe his labours, the
gods gave him Harmonia, or Harmione, the daughter
of Mars and Venus ; and honoured his nuptials with
prefents and peculiar marks of lavour. Tut at length
refigning Thebes to Pentheus, Cadmus and Plarmione
went to govern the Ecclellenfes : when grown old,
they were transformed into ferpents 5 or, as others fay,
fent to the Elyfian fields, in a chariot drawn by fer¬
pents. See Thebes.
Cadmus of Miletus, a celebrated Greek hiftorian,
was, according to Pliny, the firft of the Greeks who
wrote hiftory in profe. He flourilhed about 550 be¬
fore Chrift.
CADORE, or Pieve DE CADORE., a town of Italyr
in the territory of Venice, and capital of a diftrihl
called Cadorino ; famous for the birth of Titian the
painter. E. Long. 13. 45. N. Lat. 46. 25.
CADORINO, a province of Italy, in the territory
of Venice ; bounded on the eaft by Friuli Proper, on
the fouth and weft by the Bellunefe, and by the bi-
firopric of Brixen on the north. It is a very moun¬
tainous country, but pretty populous. I he only town
is Pieve de Cadore.
CADRITES, a fort of Mahometan friars, who
once a-week fpend a great part of the night in turn¬
ing round, holding each others hands, and repeating
inceffantly the word hai, which fignifies living, and is
one of the attributes of God •, during w’hich one of
them plays on a flute. They never cut their hair, nor
cover their heads j and always go bare-footed : they
have liberty to quit their convent when they pleafe,
and to marry.
CADS AND, an ifland on the coaft of Dutch Flan¬
ders, fituated at the mouth of the Scheldt, whereby
the Dutch command the navigation of that river.
CADUCEUS, in antiquity,- Mercury’s rod or
fceptre, being a wand entwifted by two ferpents, borne
by that deity as the enfign of his quality, and office,
given him, according to the fable, by Apollo, for his
feven-ftringed harp. Wonderful properties are afcribed
to this rod by the poets } as laying men afleep, railing
the dead, &c.
It was alfo ufed by the ancients as a fymbol of peace
and concord : the Romans fent the Carthaginians a
javelin and a caduceus, offering them their choice either
of war or peace. Among that people, thofe who de-
arounced war were called fccuiics > and thole who went
G JE L
to demand peace, caduceatores, becaufe they bore a Cadusi
caduceus in their hand. Cielius
The caduceus found on medals is a common fymbol,  ^
fignifying good conduft, peace and profperity. '1 he
rod expreffes power, the two ferpents prudence, and
the two wings diligence.
CA.DUCI, (from cado “ to fall”); the name of a
clafs in Linnaeus’s calycina, confining of plants whgfe
calyx is a Ample perianthium, fupporting a Angle,
flower or fructification, and falling off either before or
with the petals. It fiands oppofed to the dajj'es perfi-
Jlentes in the fame method, and is exemplified in muftard
and ranunculus.
CADURCI, CadurCUM, CWarc/nr, and Cadurx, in
Ancient Geography, a town of the Cadurci, a people of
Aquitania ; fituated between the rivers Oldus, running
from the north, and the Tarnis from the fouth, and
falling into the Garumna : Now Cabers, capital of the
territory of the Querci, in Guienne. A part of the-
Cadurci, to the fouth next the Tarnis, were called
Eleutheri.
CAD US, in antiquity, a wine veffel of a certain-
capacity, containing 80 amphorae or firkins ; each of
which, according to the heft accounts, held nine gal¬
lons.
CADUSII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Me¬
dia Atropatene, fituated to the weft in the mountain?,,
and reaching to the Cafpian fea ; between whom and-
the Medes perpetual war and enmity continued down
to the time of Cyrus.
CfECILIA, in Zoology, a genus of ferpents be¬
longing to the amphibia clafs. The caecilia has no-
feales; it is fmooth, and moves by means.of lateral
rugee or prickles. The upper lip is prominent, and-
furniffied with two tentacula. It has no tail. There
are but two fpecies of this ferpent, viz. 1. The tenta-
culata, has 135 rugm. It is about a foot long, and a;v
inch in circumference, preferving an uniform cylindri¬
cal ihape from the one end to the other. The teeth
are very fmall. It has fuch a refemblance to an eel,,
that it may eafily be miftaken fox one ; but as it has.
neither fins nor gills, it cannot be claiied with ihe
fifties. It is a native of America, and its bite is not-
poifonous. 2. The glutinofa, has 340 rug* or prickles
above, and 10 below, the anus. It is of a brownilll
colour, with a white line on the fide, and is a native of
the Indies.
CiECUM, or Coecum, the blind gut. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
GALLIUM, in Ancient Geography, an inland town
of Peucetia, a divifion of Apulia ; a place four or five?
miles above Barium or Bari, and which ftill retains,
that name.
CfELIUS Mons, (Itinerary) ; a town of Vindeli-.
cia, on the right or welt, fide of the Ilargus. Now
Kelmunt%, a fmall towrn of Suabia, on the Iller.
C/elius Mons at Rome. See Coelius.
Czelius, Aurelianus, an ancient phyfician, and.
the only one of the fed of the Methodifts of whom w e,
have any remains. He was of Sicca, a town ot Nu--
midia; but in what age he lived, cannot be deter¬
mined : it is probable, however, that he lived before
Galen : fince, though he carefully mentions all the
phyficians before him, he takes no notice or Galen
He had read over very diligently the ancient phyfi-v
cian>.
E 45 3
\
CAE
[ 46 ]
CAE
Caen
clans of all fedls; and we are indebted to him for the
knowledge of many dogmas which are not to be found
but in his books de celeribus et tardis pajfionibus. He
wrote as he himfelf tells us, feveral other works j but
they are all perithed.
CAEN, a handfome and confiderable town of
France, capital of Lower Normandy, with a celebrated
univerfity, and an academy of literature. It contains
60 ftreets, and 12 parifhes. It has a caftle with four
towers, which were built by the Englifh. The town-
houfe is a large building with four great towers. The
royal fquare is the handfomeft in ail Normandy, and
has fine houfes on three fides of it ; and in the middle
is the ftatue of Louis XIV. in a Roman habit, Hand¬
ing on a marble pedeftal, and furrounded with an iron
balluftrade. It is feated in a pleafant country on the
river Orne, about eight miles from the fea. William
the Conqueror was buried here, in the abbey of St
Stephen, which he founded. W. Long. o. in. N.
Lat. 49. 11.
CiLRE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Etruria,
the royal refidence of Mezentius. Its ancient name was
Argyl/a. In Strabo’s time not the lead: veftige of it
remained, except the baths called cccretana. From this
town the Roman cenfor’s tables were called ccerites ta¬
bula. In thefe were entered the names of fuch as for
fome mifdemeanor forfeited their right of fuffrage, or
were degraded from a higher to a lefs honourable tribe.
For the people of Caere hofpitably receiving thofe Ro¬
mans who, after the taking of Rome by the Gauls, fled
rvith their gods and the facred fire of Vella, were, on
the Romans recovering themfelves from this difaller,
honoured with the privilege of the city, but without a
right of voting.
CiERITES tabulae. See the preceding article.
CAERFILLY, atowmof Glamorganfliire in South
Wales, feated between the rivers TaafF and n nney.
in a moorifh ground among the hills. It is thought
the walls, now in ruins, were built by the Romans;
there being often Roman coins dug up there. W. Long.
3. 12. N. Lat. 51. 25.
CAERLEON, a town of Monmouthlhire in Eng¬
land, and a place of great antiquity. It was a Roman
town, as is evident from the many Roman antiquities
found here. It is commodioufly fituated on the river
Ufk, over which there is a large wooden bridge. The
houfes are generally built of Hone, and there are the
ruins of a callle Hill to be feen. W. Long. 3.0. N.
Lat. 51. 40.
CAERMARTHEN-shire, a county of Wales,
bounded on the north by the Severn fea or St George’s
channel, Cardiganfhire on the fouth, the (hires of
Brecknock and Glamorgan on the eaft, and Pembroke-
fliire on the wTeft. Its greatell length is between 30
and 40 miles, and its breadth upwards of 20. The air
is wholefome, and the foil lefs rocky and mountainous
than mod other parts of Wales, and confequently is
proportionally more fertile both in corn and pafture.
It has alfo plenty of wood, and is well fupplied with
coal and limeftone. The moft conliderable rivers are
the Towy, the Cothy, and the Tave j of v/hich, the firft
abounds with excellent falmon. The principal towns
are Caermarthen the capital, Kidwely, Lanimdovery,
&c. This county abounds with ancient forts, camps,
and tumuli or barrows. Near to Caermartheii, to-
1
wards the eaft, may be feen the ruins of Kaflelk Kar-
rey, which was fltuated on a deep and inacceflible
rock ; and alfo feveral vaft caverns, fuppofed to have
been copper mines of the Romans. Near this Ipot is
a fountain which ebbs and flows twice in 24 hours like
the fea.
Caermarthen, a town of Wales, and capital of
the county of that name. It is fituated on the river
Fowey, over which it has a fine Hone bridge. It is of
great antiquity, being the Maridunum of Ptolemy. It
is a populous, thriving, and polite place, many of the
neighbouring gentry refiding there in the winter. It
is a corporation and county of itfelf, with power to
make by-laws. Here were held the courts of chancery
and exchequer for South Wales, till the whole was unit¬
ed to England in the reign of Henry VIII. Here
was born the famous conjurer Merlin ; and near the
town is a wood called Merlin's grove, where he is faid
to have often retired for contemplation. Many of his
pretended prophecies are Hill prel'erved in the country.
The town gives the title of marquis to his grace the
duke of Leeds. It fends one member to parliament,
and the county another.
CAERNARVON-shire, a county of Wales, bound¬
ed on the north and wefl by the fea, on the fouth by
Merionethfhire, and on the eafl is divided from Den-
bighfliire by the river Conway. It is about 40 miles
in length, and 20 in breadth; and fends one member to
parliament for the (hire, and another for the borough
of Caernarvon. The air is very piercing; owing partly
to the fnow, that lies feven or eight months of the year
upon fome of the mountains, which are fo high that
they are called the Britijh Alps; and partly to the
great number of lakes, which are faid not to be fewer
than 50 or 63. The foil in the valleys on the fide next
Ireland is pretty fertile, efpecially in bailey; great
numbers of black cattle, fheep, and goats, are fed on
the mountains: and the fea, lakes, and rivers, abound
with variety of filh. The highefi mountains in the
county are thofe called Snowdon hills, and Ven-matn-
tnawr, which lafl hangs over the fea. There is a road
cut out of the rock on the fide next the fea, guarded
by a wall running along the edge of it on that fide ;
but the traveller is fometimes in danger of being crulhed
by the fall of pieces of the rock from the precipices
above. The river Conway, though its courfe from the
lake out of which it iflues to its mouth is only 1 2 miles,
yet is fo deep, in confequence of the many brooks it re¬
ceives, that it is navigable by (hips of good burden for
eight miles. Pearls are found in large black mufcles
taken in this river. The principal towns are Bangor,
Caernarvon the capital, and Conway. In this county
is an ancient road faid to have been made by Helena
the mother of ConHantine the Great; and Matthew of
Weflminfler afferts, that the body of ConHantius the
father of the fame ConHantine was found at Caernar¬
von in the year 1283, and interred in the parilh church
there by order of Edward 1.
Caernarvon, a town of Wales, and capital of the
county of that name. It w*as built" by Edward I. near
the fite of the ancient Segontium, after his conquefl of
the country in 1282, the fituation being well adapted
to overawe his new fubjedls. It had natural requifites
for Hrength ; being bounded on one fide by the arm
of the fea called the Menai; by the efiuary of the
Sciont
Caermar¬
then
II
Caernar-
CMS
Caernarvon Sciont on another, exa&ly. where it receives the
il from the former on a third fide, and a part of the
Casfalp^nia. £ourtp> a cheek of the Menai 5 and the remainder
' ]ias the appearance of having the infulation completed
by art. Edward undertook this great work immedi¬
ately after his eonqueft of the country in 1282, and
completed the fortifications and cafile before 1284*,
for his queen, on April 25th in that year, brought
forth within its walls Edward, firft prince of Wales of
the Englilh line. It was built within the fpace of one
year, by the labour of the peafants, and at the coft of
the chieftans of the country, on whom the conqueror
impofed the hateful talk. The external date of the
avails and caftle, Mr Pennant informs us, are at prefent
exadlly as they were in the time of Edward. 1 he
•walls are defended by numbers of round towers, and
have two principal gates: the eaft, facing tne moun¬
tains •, the weft, upon the Menai. 'I he entrance in¬
to the caftle is very auguft, beneath a great tower, on
the front of which appears the ftatue of the founder,
with a dagger in his hand, as if menacing his new
acquired unwilling fubjeds. The gate had four porl-
cullifes, and every requifite of ftrength. The towers
are very beautiful. The eagle tower is remarkably
fine, and has the addition of three llender angular tur¬
rets ifluing from the top. Edward II. was born in a
little dark room in this tower, not twelve feet long
nor eight in breadth : fo little did, in thofe days, a
royal confort confult either pomp or conveniency.
The gate through wdiich the affedlionate Eleanor en¬
tered, to give the Welftr a prince of their own, who
could not fpeak a word of Enghfh, is at the furtheft
end, at a vaft height above the outfide ground 5 fo
could only be approached by a drawbridge. The
quay is a moft beautiful walk along the fide of the
Menai, and commands a moft agreeable view.
Caernarvon is defhtute of manufadlures, but has a
brilk trade with London, Briftol, Liverpool, and Ire¬
land, for the feveral neceffaries of life. It is the re-
fidence of numbers of genteel families, and contains
feveral very good houfes. Edward I. bellowed on this
town its firft royal charter, and made it a free bo¬
rough. Among other privileges, none of the burgeffes
could be conviaed of any crime commiued between
the rivers Conway and Dyfe, unlefs by a jury or their
own townfmen. It is governed by a mayoi, who, by
patent, is created governor of the caftle. It has one
alderman, two bailiffs, a town clerk, and two feijeants
at mace. The reprefentative of the place is ekaed by
its burgeffes, and thofe of Conway, Pwllheli, Nefyn,
and Crickaeth. The right of voting is in every one,
refident or non-refident, admitted to their freedom..
The town gives title of earl and marquis to the dutce
of Chandos, and has a good tide harbour.. .
CAERWIS, a market town of Flintfhire, in [North
Wales, fituated in W. Long. 3. 2.5. IS. Eat. 53. 20.
C/ESALPINIA Erasiletto, or Brafd wood. See
Botany Index. Of this there are three ipecies, the
moft remarkable of which is the brafilienfis, commonly
cd\\td Brafiletto. It grows naturally in the .warmeft
parts of America, from whence the wood is imported
for the dyers, who ufe it much. The demand has
been fo great, that none of the large trees are left m any
of the Britifh plantations *, fo that Mr Catefhy owns
himfelf ignorant of the dimenfions to which they grow.
[ 47 ] .. c ^ s
tide The largeft remaining are not above two inches in Caefalpinus,
thicknefs, and eight or nine feet in height. The , Ca;<ar• ,
branches are ftender and full of fmall pnckles; the leaves
are pinnated j the lobes growing oppofite to one ano¬
ther, broad at their ends, with one notch. The flowers
are white, papilionaceous, with many ftamina and yel¬
low apices, growing in a pyramidal ipike, at the end of
a long {lender ftalk: the pods encloie feveral fmall
round feeds. The colour produced from this wood is
greatly improved by folution of tin in aqua regia *.* See Ca.
The fecond fort is a native of the fame countries with four-making
the firft, but is of a larger fize. It fends out many weak anc*
irregular branches, armed with ftiort, ftrong, upright
thorns. The leaves branch out in the fame manner as
the firft j but the lobes, or fmall leaves, are oval and
entire. The flowers are produced in long fpikes like
thofe of the former, but are variegated with red. Thefe
plants may be propagated from feeds, which fticuid be
fovvn in fmail pots filled with light rich earth early in
the Ipring, and plunged in a bed of tanner’s bark.
Being tender, they require to be always kept in the
ftove, and to be treated in the fame manner as other
exotics of that kind.
CiESALPINUS, of Arezzo, profeffor at Pifa, and
afterwards phyfician to Pope Clement VIII. one oi the
capital writers in botany. See Botany Index.
C/ESAR, Julius, the illuftrious Roman general
and hiftorian, was of the family of the Julii, who pre¬
tended they were defcended from Venus by iEneas,
The defcendants of Afcanius, fon of iEneas and Creufa,
and furnamed Julius, lived in Alba till that city was
ruined by Tullus Hoftilius king of Rome, who carried
them to Rome, where they flourifhed. We do not find
that they produced more than two branches. I he firft:
bore the name of Tullus, the other that of Ccrfar. The
moft ancient of the Caefars were thofe who were in pu¬
blic employments in the nth year of the firft Punic
war. After that time we find there was always fome
of that family u ho enjoyed public offices in the com¬
monwealth, till the time of Cains Julius Casfar, the iub-
jecf of this article. He was born at Rome the 12th of
the month Quintilis, year of the city 653, and loft his
father an. 669. By his valour and eloquence he foon
acquired the higheft reputation in the field and in the
fenate. Beloved and refpe&ed by his fellow citizens,
he enjoyed fucceffively every magifterial and military
honour the public could beftow confiftent with iis
own free conftitution. But at length having fubdued
Pompey the great rival of his growing power, his
boundlefs ambition effaced the glory of his former ac¬
tions : for, purfuing his favourite maxim, “ that he
had rather be the firft man in a village than the fecond
in Rome,” he procured himfelf to be chofen perpetual
dictator *, and, not content with this unconftitutional
power, his faftion had refolved to raife him to the im¬
perial dignity j when the friends of the civil hbeities
of the republic raftily affaffinated him in the fenate-
houfe, where they fhould only have feized him and
brought him to a legal trial for ufurpation. By this
impolitic meafure they defeated their own purp.oie, in¬
volving the city in confternation and tenor, which pro-
cuced general anarchy, and paved the way to the revo¬
lution they wanted to prevent •, the monarchial govern¬
ment being abfolutely founded on the murder of Julius
Caefar. He fell in the $6ih year of his age, 43 years
before-
G iE
fCaefar. before tbe Chriftian
s
His
era. ms commentaries contain
a hiftory of bis principal voyages, battles, and vidto-
ries. The London edition in 1712, in folio, is pre¬
ferred.
The detail of Caefar’s tranfadlions (fo far as is con¬
fident with the limits of this work) being given under
the article Rome, we (hall here only add a portrait of
* From the him as drawn by a philofpher *.
MelangH K after the iapfe 0f jg centuries> the truth may
pb'quesoi Publiflied without oftence, a philofopher might, in
M Ophel- t^le following terms, cenfure Caefar without calum-
lot. niating him, and applaud him without exciting his
blulhes.
“ Caefar had one predominant paffion ,: it was the
love of glory 5 and he paffed 40 years of his life in feek-
ing opportunities to fofter and encourage it. His foul,
entirely abforbed in ambition, did not open itfelf to
other impulfes. He cultivated letters j but he did not
love them with enthufiafm, becaufe he had not leifiu'e
to become the firft orator of Rome. He corrupted the
one half of the Roman ladies, but his heart had no
concern in the fiery ardours of his fenfes. In the arms
of Cleopatra, he thought of Pompey ; and this fingu-
lar man, who difdained to have a partner in the empire
of the wrorld, would have blufhed to have been for one
inflant the Have of a woman.
“ We mull not imagine, that Caefar wTas born a war¬
rior, as Sophocles and Milton were bormpoets. For,
if nature had. made him a citizen of Sybaris, he wmuld
have been the mod voluptuous of men. If in our days
he had been born in Pennfylvania, he would have been
the moft inoffenfive of Quakers, and wrould not have dis¬
turbed the tranquillity of the new wmrld.
“ The moderation with which he condufled himfelf
after his vi&ories, has been highly extolled ; but in this
he Ihowed his penetration, not the goodnefs of his
heart. Is it not obvious, that the -difplay of certain
virtues is neceffary to put in motion the political ma¬
chine ? It was requifite that he Ihould have the appear¬
ance of clemency, if he inclined that Rome Ihould for¬
give him his vidlories. But what greatnefs of mind is
there in a generofity which follows on the ufurpation
of the fupreme power ?
“ Nature, while it marked Caefar with afublime cha¬
racter, gave him alfo that fpirit of perfeverance which
renders it ufeful. He had no fooner begun to refledt,
than he admired Sylla 3 hated him, and yet wifhed to
imitate him. At the age of 15, he formed the pro-
jedl of being dictator. It was thus that the prefident
Montefquieu conceived, in his early youth, the idea of
the Spirit of Laws.
“ Phyfical qualities, as well as moral caufes, contri¬
buted to give ftrength to his charadler. Nature, which
had made him for command, had given him an air of
dignity. He had acquired that loft and infinuat'ing
eloquence, which is perfectly fuited to feduce vulgar
minds, and has a powerful influence on the moft culti¬
vated. His love of pleafufe was a merit wuth the fair
fex ; and women, who even in a republic can draw to
them the fuffrages and attention of men, have the
higheft importance in degenerate times. The ladies
of his age were charmed with the profpeft of having
a dictator whom they might fubdue by their attrac¬
tions.
“ In vain did the genius of Cato watch for fome
' 2
48 ] C jE s
time to fuftain the liberty of his country. It w7as un¬
equal to contend with that of Caefar. Of what avail1
W’ere the eloquence, the philofophy, and the virtue of
this republican, when oppofed by a man who had the
addrefs to debauch the wufe of every citizen whofe in-
tereft he meant to engage ; who, pofleffing an enthu¬
fiafm for glory, wept, becaufe, at the age of 30, he
had not conquered the world like Alexander ; and who,
with the haughty temper of a defpot, w-as more defir-
ous to be the firft man in a village than the fecond in
Rome.
“ CaTar had the good fortune to exift in times of
trouble and civil commotions, when the minds of men
are put into a ferment ; w’hen opportunities of great
a£lions are frequent 3 wThen talents are every thing, and
thofe who can only boaft of their virtues are nothing
If he had lived an hundred years fooner, he would have
been no more than an obfcure villain 3 and, inftead of
giving laws to the world, would not have been able to
produce any confufion in it.
I will here be bold enough to advance an idea,
which may appear paradoxical to thofe who weakly
judge of men from what they achieve, and not from
the principle wTich leads them to aft. Nature formed
in the fame mould Caefar, Mahomet, Cronwell, and
Kouli Khan. They all of them united to genius that
profound policy which renders it fo powerful. They
all of them had an evident fuperiority over thofe with
wdiom they wTere furrounded 3 they were confcious of
this fuperiority, and they made others confcious of it.
They were all of them born fubjefts, and became for¬
tunate ufurpers. Had Ccefar been placed in Perfia, he
W’ould have made the conqueft of India 3 in Arabia, he
would have been the founder of a new7 religion 3 in Lon¬
don, he wrould have ftabbed his fovereign, or have pro¬
cured his aflafiination under the fanftion of the law's.
He reigned with glory over men whom he had reduced
to be llaves 3 and, under one afpeft, he is to be confidered
as a hero 3 under another, as a monfter. But it wmuld
be unfortunate, indeed, for fociety, if the pofleflion of
fuperior talents gave individuals a right to trouble its
repofe. Ufurpers accordingly have flatterers, but no
friends 3 ftrangers refpedl them 3 their fubjedls com¬
plain and fubmit ; it is in their own families that huma¬
nity finds her avengers. Caefar w'as afiaftinated by
his fon, Mahomet was poifoned by his wife, Kouli
Khan was maflacred by his nephew7, and Cromwell on¬
ly died in his bed becaufe his fon Richard was a philo¬
fopher.
“ Caefar, the tyrant of his country 3 Caefar, who
deftroyed the agents of his crimes, if they failed in ad¬
drefs 3 Caefar, in fine, the hulband ©f every wrife, and
the w7ife of every hulband, has been accounted a great
man by the mob of writers. But it is only the philo¬
fopher who knows how to mark the barrier between
celebrity and greatnefs. The talents of this lingular
man, and the good fortune which conftantly attended
him till the moment of his aflaflination, have concealed
the enormity of his' aftions.”
C^sar, in Roman antiquity, a title.borne by all
the emperors, from Julius CaTar to the deftrudlion of
the empire. It was alfo ufed as a title of diftimftion
lor the intended or prefumptive heir of the empire, as
kwg of the Romans is now7 ufed for that of the German
empire.
This
Caefar.
C JE S [ 49 ] C JE S
Gsefar This title took its rife from the furname of the firft
li. emperor, C. Julius Caefar, which, by a decree of the
Cjefanans.^ penate a2} tjie fUCceeding emperors were to bear. Un-
’ ' der his fucceffor, the appellation of Augujlus being
appropriated to the emperors, in compliment to that
prince, the title Ccefar was given to the fecond per-
fon in the empire, though ftill it continued to be given
to the firft j and hence the difference betwixt Caefar
ufed fimply, and Caefar with the addition of Imperator
Auguflus.
The dignity of Caefar remained to the fecond of
the empire, till Alexius Comnenus having eledted
Nicephorus Meliffenus Caefar by contradl 5 and it be¬
ing necelfary to confer fbme higher dignity on his
own brother Ifaacius, he created him Sebaftocrator
with the precedency over Meliffenus; ordering, that
in all acclamations, &c. Ifaacius Sebaftocrator fhould
be named the fecond, and Meliffenus Caefar the
third.
CAESAR, Sir Juliusy a learned civilian, wras defend¬
ed by the female line from the duke de Cefarini in
Italy; and was born near Tottenham in Middlefex, in
the year 1557. He was educated at Oxford, and
afterwards ftudied in the univerfity of Paris, where, in
the year 1581, he was created dodlor of the civil
law, and two years after was admitted to the fame
degree at Oxford, and alfo became doftor of the ca¬
non law. He was advanced to many honourable em¬
ployments, and for the laft 20 years of his life wras
xnafter of the rolls. He was remarkable for his exten-
five bounty and charity to all perfons of worth, fo that
he feemed to be the almoner-general of the nation.
He died in 1639, in the 79th year of his age. It is
very remarkable that the manufcripts of this lawyer
were offered (by the executors of fome of his defen¬
dants) to a cheefemonger for wafte paper; but being
timely infpe&ed by Mr Samuel Paterfon, this gentle¬
man difovered their w'orth, and had the fatisfadlion to
find his judgment confirmed by the profeflion, to whom
they were fold in lots for upwards of 500I. in the year
I757*
Caesar Augujla, or Ccefarea Augujlciy in Ancient
Geographyy a Roman colony fituated on the river Iberus
in the Hither Spain, before called Sa/duba, in the ter¬
ritories of the Edetani. Now commonly thought to be
Saragofa.
CiE,SAREA, the name of feveral ancient citities,
particularly one on the coaft of Phoenicia. It was very
conveniently fituated for trade ; but had a very danger¬
ous harbour, fo that no ftiips could be fafe in it when
the wind was at fouth-wTeft. Herod the Great king
of Judea remedied this inconveniency at an immenfe
expenfe and labour, making it one of the moft con¬
venient havens on that coaft. He alfo beautified it
with many buildings, and beftowed 12 years on the
finifhing and adorning it.
CiESARERAM operation. See Midwifery.
CAESARIANS, Cafarienfes, in Roman antiquity,
were officers or minifters of the Roman emperors : They
kept the account of the revenues of the emperors ; and
took poffeifion, in their name, of fuch things as devolv¬
ed or were confif ated to them.
CiESARODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Turones in Celtic Gaul; now TourSy the capi¬
tal of Touraine. See T.OURS.
Vol. V. Part I,
CAESAROMAGUS, in Ancient Geography, a town Csefaroma”
of the I rinobantes in Britain ; by fome fuppofed to £us
be Chelmsford, by others Brentford, and by others jj-
Purfeet. , ^ a' „
CAESENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia
Cifpadana, fituated on the rivers Ifapis and Rubicon ;
now Cecena, which fee.
CAESIA sylva, in Ancient Geography, a wood in
Germany, part of the great Sylva Hercynia, fituated
partly in the duchy of Cleves, and partly in Weftphalia,
between Wefel and Kesfield.
CAESONES, a denomination given to thofe cut out
of their mothers wombs. Pliny ranks this as an au-
fpicious kind of birth ; the elder Scipio Africanus, and
the firft family of Csefars, were brought into the world
in this way.
CAESTUS, in antiquity, a large gauntlet made of
raw hide, which the wreftlers made ufe of when they
fought at the public games.—This was a kind of lea¬
thern ftrap, ftrengthened with lead or plates of iron,
which encompaffed the hand, the wrift, and a part of
the arm, as well to defend thefe parts as to enforce
their blows.
Caestus, or Ceejlum, was alfo a kind of girdle, made
of wool, which the hufband untied for his fpoufe the
firft day of marriage, before they went to bed.
This relates to Venus’s girdle, which Juno borrowed
of her to entice Jupiter to love her. See Cestus.
CAESURA, in the ancient poetry, is when, in the
fcanning of a verfe, a word is divided fo, as one part
feems cut off, and goes to a different foot from the
reft ; as,
Menti\ri no\li, nun\quom men\dacia\profunt.
where the fyllables ri, li, quam, and men, are cas-
furas.
Caesura, in the modern poetry, denotes a reft or
paufe towards the middle of an Alexandrian verfe, by
w’hich the voice and pronunciation are aided, and the
verfe, as it were, divided into two hemiftichs. See
Pause.
CAETERIS paribus, a Latin term in frequent ufe
among mathematical and phyfical writers. The words
literally fignify, the rejl (or other things') being alike or
equal. Thus we fay the heavier the bullet, cateris
paribus, the greater the range ; i. e. by how much the
bullet is heavier, if the length and diameter of the piece
and ftrength of the powder be the fame, by fo much
will the utmoft range or diftance of a piece of ordnance
be the greater. Thus alfo, in a phyfical way, we fay,
the velocity and quantity circulating in a given time
through any feflion of an artery, will, Cceteris paribus,
be according to its diameter, and nearnefs to or di¬
ftance from the heart.
CAETOBRIX, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lu-
fitania, near the mouth of the Tagus on the eaft fide ;
now extindl. It had its name from its fifhery ; and
there are ftill extant fiih ponds on the fhore, done with
plafter of Paris, which illuftrate the name of the ruined
city.
CAFFA, in commerce, painted cotton cloths ma¬
nufactured in the Eaft Indies, and fold at Bengal.
Caffa, or Kqffa, a city and port town of Crim
Tartary, fituated on the fouth-eaft part of that penin-
fula. E. Long. 37. o. N. Lat. 44. 55.
It is the moft confiderable town in the country, and
G gives
C A G
[ 5° 1
C A G
Caffila
II
Cage.
gives name to the ftraits of CafFa, which run from
the Euxine or Black fea, to the Palus Maeotis or fea
of Afoph.
CAFFILA, a company of merchants or travellers,
who join together in order to go with more fecurity
through the dominions of the Great Mogul, and
through other countries on the continent of the Eaft
Indies.
The caffila differs from a caravan, at leaft in Per-
fia •, for the caffila belongs properly to fome fovereign,
or to fome powerful company in Europe } whereas a
caravan is a company of particular mercnants, each
trading upon his own account. I he Englilh and
Dutch have each of them their caffila at Gambrorv.
There are alfo fuch caftllas, which crofs fome parts of
the deferts of Africa, particularly that called the
of [and, wdiich lies between the kingdom of Morocco
and thofe of Tombut and Gaigo. This is a journey
of 400 leagues $ and takes up two months in going,
and as many in coming back ; the caffila travelling
only by night, on account of the exceffive heat of that
country. The chief merchandife they bring back con-
fifts in gold duff, which they call at'ibar, and the Eu¬
ropeans tibir.
Caffila, on the coaft of Guzerat or Cambaya, fig-
nifies a fmall fleet of merchant fhips.
CAFFRARIA, the country of the Caffres or Hot¬
tentots, in the moff foutherly parts of Africa, lying in
the form of a crefcent about the inland country of Mo-
nomotapa between 350 fouth latitude and the tropic
of Capricorn : and bounded on the eaft, fouth, and
weft, by the Indian and Atlantic oceans. See Hot¬
tentots.
Moft of the fea coafts of this country are fubjeft to
the Dutch, who have built a fort near the moft fouthern
promontory called the Cape of Good Hope.
CAG, or Keg, a barrel or vellel that contains from
four or five gallons.
CAGANUS, or Cacanus, an appellation ancient¬
ly given by the Huns to their kings. The word ap¬
pears alfo to have been formerly applied to the prin¬
ces of Mufcovy, now called czar. From the fame
alfo, probably, the Tartar title cbam or can, had its
origin.
CAGE, an enclofiire made of wire, wicker, or the
like, interwoven lattice-wife, for the confinemeht of
birds or wild beafts. The word is French, cage, formed
from the Italian gaggin, of the Latin cavea which fig-
nifies the fame : a caveis theatrahbus in quilus include-
bantur ferce.
Beafts wrere ufually brought to Rome Ihut up in
oaken or beechen cages, artfully formed, and covered or
(haded with boughs, that the creatures deceived with
the appearance of a wood, might fancy themfelves in
their foreft. The fiercer fort were pent in iron cages,
left wooden prifons might be broke through. In fome
prifons there are iron cages for the clofer confinement
of criminals. The French law7s diftinguifti two forts
of birds cages, viz. high or finging cages, and low or
dumb cages j thofe who expofe birds to fale are obliged
to put the hens in the latter, and the cocks in the for¬
mer, that perfons may not be impofed on by buying a
hen for a cock.
Cages [cavea), denote alfo places in the ancient
amphitheatres, wherein wild beafls were kept, ready to
be let out for fport. The cave<e w’ere a fort of iron
cages different from dens, which were under ground
and dark 5 whereas the cavea being airy and light,
the beafts ruffied out of them with more alacrity and
fiercenefs than if they had been pent under ground.
Cage, in carpentry, fignifies an cuter work of tim¬
ber, enclofmg another within it. In this fenfe we fay,
the cage of a wind-mill. The cage of a ftaircafe de¬
notes the wooden fides or w7alls which encloie it.
CAGE AN, or Cagayan, a province of the ifland
of Luzon, or Manilla, in the Eaft Indies. It is the
largeft in the ifland, being 80 leagues in length and
40 in breadth. The principal city is called New Se¬
govia, and 15 leagues eaftw'ard from this city lies Cape
Bajador. Doubling that cape, and coafting along 20
leagues from north to fouth, the province of Cagean
ends, and that of Illocos begins. The peaceable Ca-
geans who pay tribute are about 9000 but there are
a great many not lubdued. The whole province is
fruitful; the men apply themfelves to agriculture, and
are of a martial difpofition •, and the .women apply to
feveral works in cotton. The mountains afford food
for a vaft number of bees } in coniequence of which
wrax is fo plenty, that all the poor burn it inftead of
oil. They make their candles after the following
manner : they leave a fmall hole at each end of a hol¬
low flick for the wick to run through, and then, flop¬
ping the bottom, fill it with wax at the top ; when
cold, they break the mould and take out the candle.
On the mountains there is abundance of brafil, ebony,
and other valuable woods. In the woods are ftore of
wuld beafts, as boars j but not fo good as thofe of Eu¬
rope. There are alfo abundance of deer which they
kill for their fkins and horns to fell to the Chinefe.
CAG LI, an ancient epifcopal town of Italy, in the
duchy of Urbino, fituated at the foot of the Apennine
mountains. E. Long. 14. 12. N. Lat. 43. 30.
CAGLIARI, Paolo, called Paulo Veronefe, an
excellent painter, was born at Verona in the year
1532. Gabriel Cagliari his father was a fculptor, and
Antonio Badile his uncle was his mafter in painting.
He was not only efteemed the beft of all the Lombard
painters, but for his extenfive talents in the art w7as
peculiarly ftyled II pittor felice, “ the happy painter
and there is fcarcely a church in Venice where fome
of his performances are not to be feen. De Pile fays,
that “ his pidlure of the marriage at Cana, in the
church of St George, is to be diftinguifhed from his
other works, as being not only the triumph of Paul
Veronefe, but almoft the triumph of painting itfelf.”
When the fenate fent Grimani, procurator of St
Mark, to be their ambaffador at Rome, Paul attended
him, but did not ftay long, having left lome pieces at
Venice unfiniffied. Philip II. king of Spain, fent for
him to paint the Efcurial, and made him great offers j
but Paul excufed himfelf from leaving his own coun¬
try, where his reputation w7as fo well eftablilhed, that
moft of the princes of Europe ordered their feveral am-
baffadors to procure fomething of his hand at any rate.
He was indeed highly effeemed by all the principal
men in his time •, and fo much admired by the great
mafters, as wTell his contemporaries, as thofe who luc-
ceeded him, that Titian himfelf ufed to fay, he was
the ornament of his profeffion. And Guido Reni be¬
ing a Iked which of the mafters his pjedeceffors he
Che'S
'Cagliari would dioofe to be, were it. in his power, after R.a-
.11 phael and Corregio, named Paul Veronefe ; whom he
■ aJ^tan- , always called his Paolino. He died of a fever at Ve¬
nice in 1588, and had a tomb and a llatue of brafs
eredled to bis memory in the church of St Sebaftian.
He left great wealth to his two fons Gabriel and
Charles, who lived happily together, and joined in fi-
nilhing feveral of their father’s imperfect pieces with
good fuccefs.
Cagliari, an ancient, large, and rich town, capital
of the illand of Sardinia in the Mediterranean. It is
feated on the declivity of a hill ; is an univerfity, an
archbifhopric, and the refidence of the viceroy. It has
an excellent harbour, and a good trade •, but is a place
of no great ftrength. It was taken, with the whole
illand, by the Englhh in 1708, who transferred it to
the emperor Charles VLj but it wras retaken by the
Spaniards in 1717, and about two years afterwards
ceded to the duke of Savoy in lieu of Sicily, and hence
he has the title of king of Sardinia. E. Long. 9. 14.
N. Lat. 39. 12.
CAGUI, in Zoology, a fynonyme of two fpecies of
monkeys, viz. the jacchus and cedipus. See Simia,
Mammalia Index. ^
CAHORS, a conliderable town of France, in Qaer-
ci in Guienne, with a bilhop’s fee and a univerfity. It
is feated on a peninfula made by the river Lot, and
built partly on a craggy rock. The principal ftreet is
very narrow; and terminates in the market place, in
which is the town-houfe. The cathedral is a Gothic
flrudlure, and has a large fquare fteeple. The fortifi¬
cations are regular, and the town is furrounded with
thick walls. E. Long. 1.6. N. Lat. 44. 26.
CAHYS, a dry meafure for corn, ufed in fome
parts of Spain, particularly at Seville and at Cadiz. It
is near a bulhel of our meafure.
CAJANABURG, the capital of the province of
Cajania or Eaft Bothnia in Sweden, fituated on the
north-eafl part of the lake Cajania, in E. Long. 27. o.
N. Lat. 63. 50.
CAIAPHAS, high prieft of the Jews after Simon,
condemned Chrilt to death : and was put out of his
place by the emperor Vitellius, for which difgrace he
made away with himfelf.
CAJAZZO, a town of the province of Lavoro in
the kingdom of Naples, fituated in E. Long. 13. o.
N. Lat. 41. 15.
CAICOS, the name of fome American iflands to
the north of St Domingo, lying from W. Long. 11 2.
to. to 113. 16. N. Lat. 21. 40.
CAJEPUT, an oil brought from the Eaft Indies,
refembling that of cardamoms. See Melaleuca.
CAIE FA, in Ancient Geography, a port and town
of Latium, fo called from Eneas’s nurfe ; now Gaeta,
which fee.
CAJETAN, Cardinal, was born at Cajeta in the
kingdom of Naples in the year 1469. His proper
name was Thomas de Vio ; but he adopted that of Ca-
Jetan from the place of his nativity. He defended the
authority of the pope, which fuffered greatly at the
council of Nice, in a work entitled Of the power of the
Pope; and for this work he obtained the biftiopric of
Cajeta. He was afterwards railed to the archiepifco-
pal fee of Palermo, and in 1517 was made a cardinal
by Pope Leo X. The year after, he was fent as le-
] c A t
gate into Germany, to quiet the commotions railed a- Caifb
gainft indulgencies by Martin Luther 5 but Luther, Caii-
under proteftion of Frederic eleftor of Saxony, fet him ~ ^
at defiance •, for though he obeyed the cardinal’s fum-
mons, m repairing to Augfburg, yet he rendered all
his proceedings ineffeftual. Catejan was employed in
feveral other negotiations and tranfa&ions, being as
ready at bufinefs as at letters. Ke died in 1534. He
wrote Commentaries upon Ariftotle’s philofophy, and
upon Thomas Aquinas’s theology •, and made a literal
tranflation of the Old and New Teftaments.
CAIFONG, a large, populous, and rich town of
Alia, in China, feated in the middle of a large and
w?ell cultivated plain. It {lands in a bottom ■, and
when befieged by the rebels in 1642, they ordered the
dykes of the river Hoang-ho to be cut, which drown¬
ed the city, and deftroyed 300,000 of its inhabitants.
E. Long. 113. 27. N. Lat. 35. o.
CAILLE, Nicholas Louis de la, an eminent
mathematician and ailronomer, was born at a final!
town in the diocefe of Rheims in 1713. His father
had ferved in the army, which he quitted, and in his re¬
tirement ftudied mathematics; and amufed himfelf with
mechanic exercifes, wherein he proved the happy au¬
thor of feveral inventions of confiderable ufe to thft
public. Nicholas, almoft in his infancy, took a fancy
to mechanics, which proved of fignal fervice to him in
his maturer years. He was fent young to fchool at
Mantes-fur-Seine, where he difeovered early tokens of
genius. In 1729, he w7ent to Paris; where he ftudied
the claflics, philofophy, and mathematics. Afterwards
he went to ftudy divinity at the college de Navarre,
propofing to embrace an ecclefiaftical life. At the end
of three years he was ordained a deacon, and officiated
as fuch in the church of the college de Mazarin feve¬
ral years ; but he never entered into priefts orders, ap¬
prehending that his aftronomical ftudies, to wLich he
became moft offiduoufly devoted, might too much in¬
terfere with his religious duties. In 1739? he was
conjoined wuth M. de Thury, fon to M. Caflini, in
verifying the meridian of the royal obfervatory through
the wThole extent of the kingdom of France. In the
month of November the fame year, whilft he was en¬
gaged day and night in the operations which this
grand undertaking required, and at a great diftance
from Paris, he was, without any folicitation, elefted
into the vacant mathematical chair which the celebra¬
ted M. Varignon had fo worthily filled. Here he be¬
gan to te^ch about the end of 1740 ; and an obferva¬
tory was ordered to be eredted for his ufe in the col¬
lege, and furnifhed with a fuitable apparatus of the
beft inftruments. In May I74G M. de la Caille was
admitted into the Royal Academy of Sciences as an
adjoint member for aftronomy. Befides the many ex¬
cellent papers of his difperfed up and down in their
memoirs, he publiftied Elements of Geometry, mecha¬
nics, optics, and aftronomy. Moreover, he carefully
computed all the eclipfes of the fun and moon that had
happened fince the Chriftian era, which were printed
in a book publiftied by two Benedidlines, entitled
I art de verifier les dates. See. Paris, I75°> 'n 4to*
fides thefe he compiled a volume of aftronomical ephe-
merides for the years 1745 to 1755 i another for the
years 1755 to 1765 ; a third for the years 1765 to
1775 ; an excellent work AJlronotn'ur funda-
G 2 mentes
C A I [ 52
Caille. vienta novijjhnis foils et Jlel/arutn obfervatwnibus Jfabih-
—V—-'' ta : and the mold correft folar tables that ever appear¬
ed. Having gone through a feven years feries of aftro-
nomical obfervations in his own obfervatory, he form¬
ed a proje£t of going to obferve the fouthern liars at
the Cape of Good Hope. This was highly approved
by the academy, and by the prime minifter Comte de
Argenfon, and very readily agreed to by the Hates of
Holland. Upon this he drew up a plan of the method
he propofed to purfue in his fouthern obfervations;
fetting forth, that, belides fettling the places of the
fixed Itars, he propofed to determine the parallax of
the moon, Mars, and Venus. But whereas this re¬
quired correfpondent oblervations to be made in the
northern parts of the world, he fent to thofe of his
correfpondents who were expert in praflical aftronomy
previous notice, in print, what obfervations he defign-
ed to make at fuch and fuch times for the faid purpofe.
At length, on the 2lft of November 1750, he lailed
for the Cape, and arrived there on the 19th of April
1751. He forthwith got his inilruments on lhore ;
and with the afliftance of fome Dutch artificers, fet
about building an altronomical oblervatory, in which
his apparatus of inlfruments was properly difpofed of as
foon as it was in a fit condition to receive them.
The Iky at the Cape is generally pure and ferene,
unlefs when a fouth-eaft wind blows : But this is often
the cafe, and when it is, it is attended with fome
llrange and terrible effe&s. The ftars look bigger,
and feem to caper ; the moon has an undulating tre¬
mor \ and the planets have a fort of beard like comets.
Two hundred and twenty-eight nights did our aftro-
nomer furvey the face of the fouthern heavens : during
which fpace, which is almoft incredible, he obferved
more than 10,000 ftars ; and ivhereas the ancients fil¬
led the heavens with monfters and old wives tales, the
abbe de la Caille chofe rather to adorn them with the
inftruments and machines which modern philofophy
has made ufe of for the conqueft of nature *. With
no lefs fuccefs did he attend to the parallax of the
/ ^ ^ ; moon, Mars, Venus, and the fun. Having thus exe-
ftdlifl’um ‘ cuted the purpofe of his voyage, and no prefent oppor-
' tunity offering for his return, he thought of employing
the vacant time in another arduous attempt; no lefs
than that of taking the meafure of the earth, as he had
already done that of the heavens, d his, indeed, had,
through the munificence of the French king, been
done before by different fets of learned men both in
Europe and America; fome determining the quantity
of a degree under the equator, and others under the
ardfic circle : but it had not as yet been decided whe¬
ther in the fouthern parallels of latitude the fame di-
menfions obtained as in the northern. His labours
were rewarded with the fatisfaftion he wdftied for ; ha¬
ving determined a diftance of 410,814 feet from a
place called Klip Fontyn to the Cape, by means of a
bafe of 38,802 feet, three times a&ually meafured :
whence he difcovered a new fecret of nature, namely,
that the radii of the parallels in fouth latitude are not
the fame as thofe of the correfponding parallels in north
latitude. About the 23d degree of fouth latitude he
found a degree on the meridian to contain 342,222
Paris feet. He returned to Paris the 27th of Septem¬
ber 1754? having in his almoft four years abfence ex-
# See the
Planifnhere
in his Ca
lum aujirale
] C A I
pended no more than 9144 livres on himfelr and his Caille,
companion \ and at his coming into port, he refufed a Caimacan,
bribe of 100,000 livres, offered by one who thirfted
lefs after glory than gain, to be {barer in his immunity
from cuftomhoufe fearches.
After receiving the congratulatory vifits of his more
intimate friends and the aftronomers, he firft of all
thought fit to draw up a reply to fome ftrictures which
Profeffor Euler had publiftied relative to the meridian,
and then he fettled the refults of the comparifon of his
own with the obfervations of other aftronomers for the
parallaxes. That of the fun he fixed at 9!" J °f
moon at 56' 56" ; of Mars in his oppofition, 36" 3 of
Venus, 38". He alfo fettled the laws whereby aftro-
nomical refraflions are varied by the different denfity
or rarity of the air, by heat or cold, and drynefs or
moifture. And, laftly, He {bowed an eafy, and by-
common navigators prafticable, method of finding the
longitude at lea by means of the moon, which he il-
luftrated by examples feledled from his own obferva¬
tions during his voyages. His fame being now efta-
blifhed upon fo firm a balls, the moft celebrated acade¬
mies of Europe claimed him as their own : and he was
unanimoufly eledfed a member of the royal fociety at
London 3 of the inftitute of Bologna 3 of the imperial
academy at Peterfburgh 3 and of the royal academies
at Berlin, Stockholm, and Gottingen. In the year
1760, M. de la Caille was attacked with a fevere fit
of the gout; which, however, did not interrupt the
courfe of his ftudies 3 for he then planned out a new
and immenfe work 3 no lefs than the hiftory of aftro-
nomy through all ages, with a comparifon of the an¬
cient and modern obfervations, and the conftruftion.
and ufe of the inftruments employed in making them.
In order to purfue the talk he had impoled upon him-
felf in a fuitable retirement, he obtained a grant of a-
partments in the royal palace of Vincennes 3 and whilft
his aftronomical apparatus was erefting there, he be¬
gan printing his Catalogue of the Southern Stars, and
the third volume of his Ephemerides. The ftate of
his health was, towards the end of the year 1763.,
greatly reduced. His blood grew inflamed 3 he had
pains of the head, obftrudlions of the kidneys, lofs of
appetite, with a fullnefs of the whole habit. His
mind remained unaffe£led, and he refolutely perfifted
in his ftudies as ufual. In the month of March, medi¬
cines w?ere adminiftered to him, which rather aggravated
than alleviated his fymptoms 3 and he w as now fenfi-
ble, that the fame diftemper which in Africa, ten
years before, yielded to a few Ample remedies, did in
his native country bid defiance to the beft phyficians.
This induced him to fettle his affairs : his manuicripts
he committed to the care and difcretion of his efteem-
ed friend M. Maraldi. It was at laft determined that
a vein ftiould be opened 3 but this brought on an ob-
ftinate lethargy, of which he died, aged 49.
CAIMACAN, or Caimacam, in the Turkiftr af¬
fairs, a dignity in the Ottoman empire, anfwering to
lieutenant, or rather deputy, amongft us.
There are ufually twm caimacans 3 one refiding at
Conftantinople, as governor thereof 5 the other at¬
tending the grand vizir in quality of his lieutenant, fe-
cretary of ftate, and firft minifter of his council, and
gives audience to ambaffadors. Sometimes there is a
& third
C A I
[ 53 ]
C A I
Cayman
\\
Cairns.
tKlrd caimacan, who attends the fultan *, whom he ac¬
quaints with any public difturbances, and receives his
, orders concerning them.
CAIMAN, or Cayman islands, certain Ameri¬
can i(lands lying fouth of Cuba, and north-weft of Ja¬
maica, between 8i° and 86° of weft longitude, and in
21° of north latitude. They are moft remarkable on
account of the fifhery of tortoife, which the people of
Jamaica catch here and carry home alive, keeping
them in pens for food, and killing them as they want
them.
CAIN, eldeft fon of Adam and Eve, killed his
brother Abel •, for which he was condemned by God
to banifhment and a vagabond ftate of life. Cain
retired to the land of Nod, on the eaft of Eden ;
and built a city, to which he gave the name of his fon
Enoch.
C AINITES, a feft of heretics In the zd century,
fo called on account of their great refpeft for Cain.
They pretended that the virtue wdiich produced Abel
was of an order inferior to that which had produced
Cain, and that this was the reafon why Cain had^ the
viftory over Abel and killed him ; for they admitted
a great number of genu, which tney called virtues^ of
different ranks and orders. They made profeftion of
honouring thofe who carry in Scripture the moft vifible
marks of reprobration ; as the inhabitants of Sodom,
Efau, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. They had, in
particular, a very great veneration for the traitor Ju¬
das, under pretence that the death of Jefus Chrift had
faved mankind. They had a forged gofpel of Judas,
to which they paid great refpefl.
CAIRNS, or Carnes, the vulgar name of thofe
heaps of ftones which are to be feen in many places of
Britain, particularly Scotland and Wales.—They are
compofed of ftones of all dimenfionA thrown together
in a conical form, a flat done crowning the apex ; (fee
Plate CXXXV.
Various caufes have been afllgned by the learned for
thefe heaps of ftones. I hey have fuppofed them to
have been, in times of inauguration, the places where
the chieftan eledf (food to (how himfelf to beft advan¬
tage to the people ; or the place from whence judge¬
ment was pronounced 5 or to have been ere61ed on the
road-fide in honour of Mercury •, or to have been form¬
ed in memory of fome folemn compaft, particularly
where accompanied by (landing pillars of ftones j or
for the celebration of certain religious ceremonies.
Such might have been the realbns, in fome inftances,
where the evidences of (lone chefts and urns are 'want¬
ing : but thefe are fo generally found that, they feem
to determine the moft ufual purpofe of the piles in que-
ftion to have been for fepulchral monuments. Even
this deftination might render them fuitable to other
purpofes *, particularly religious, to which by their na¬
ture they might be fuppofed to give additional folem-
nity.—According to Toland, fires , were kindled on
the tops or flat ftones, at certain times of the year,
particularly on the eves of the ift of May and the .rft
of November, for the purpole of facrificing.j at which
time all the people having extinguiftied their domeftic
hearths rekindled them from the facred fires , of the
cairns. In general, therefore, thefe accumulations ap¬
pear to have been defigned for the (epulchral prote&ion
of heroes and great men. The (lone ehefts, the repo-
fitory of the urns and a(hes, are lodged in the earth
beneath : fometimes only one, fometimes more, are
found thus depofited ; and Mr Pennant mentions an
inftance of 17 being difeovered under the fame pile.
Cairns are of different fizes, fome of them very large.
Mr Pennant deferibes one in the ifland of Arran, 114
feet over, and of a vaft height. They may juftly be
fuppofed to have been proportioned in fize to the rank
of the perfon, or to his popularity : the people of a
whole diftrift affembled to (how their refpeCl to the
deceafed ; and, by an aftive honouring of his memory,
foon accumulated heaps equal to thofe that aftonifh us
at this time. But thefe honours were not merely thofe
of the day ; as long as the memory of the deceafed en¬
dured, not a paflenger wTent by without adding a (lone
to the heap : they fuppofed it would be an honour to
the dead, and acceptable to his manes.
Shianquam fejlinas, non ejf mora long a : licebit
Injetlo ter pulvera, curras.
To this moment there Is a proverbial expreflion among
the Highlanders allufive to the old praftice 5 a fuppli-
ant wall tell his patron, Cum mi clock er do charnef
“ I will add a (lone to your cairn meaning, When
you are no more, I will do all poflible honour to your
memory.
Cairns are to be found in all parts of our iflands, in
Cornwall, Wales, and all parts of North Britain ; they
were in ufe among the northern nations ; Dahlberg,
in his 323d plate, has given the figure of one. In
Wales they are called carneddau ; but the proverb ta¬
ken from them there, is not of the complimental kind :
Karn ar dy ben, or, “ A cairn on your head,” is a to¬
ken of imprecation.
CAIRO, or Grand Cairo, the capital of Egypt,
fituated in a plain at the foot of a mountain, in E.
Long. 32. o. N. Lat. 30. o. It was founded by Jaw-
har, a Magrebian general, in the year of the Hegira
358. He had laid the foundation of it under the ho-
rofeope of Mars; and for that reafon gave his new ci¬
ty the name of jll Kahirn, or the Vidlomous, an epi¬
thet applied by the Arab aftronomers to that planet.
In 362 it became the refidence of the caliphs 01 E-
gypt, and of confequence the capital of trtat country,,
and has ever fince continued to be fo. . It is divided
into the New and Old cities. Old Cairo is on the
eaftern fide of the river Nile, and is now almoft unin¬
habited. The new, which is properly Cairo, is feated
in a fandy plain about two miles and a half from the
old citv. It (lands on the weftern fide of the Nile,,
from which it is not three quarters of a. mile diftant.
It is extended along the mountain on w7hich the caftle
is built, for the fake of which it was removed hither,
in order, as fome pretend, to be under its prote£lion.
However, the change is much for the worfe, as well
with regard to air as water, and the pleafantnefs of. the
profpeff. Bulack may be called.the port of Cairo;
for it (lands on the bank of the Nile, about a mile and
a half from it, and all the corn and other commodities
are landed there before they are brought to the city.
Some travellers have made Cairo, of a moft enormous
magnitude, by taking in the old city, Bulack, .and the
new ; the real circumference of it, however, nsnot a-
bove ten miles, but it is extremely populous. I he firft
tiling that ftrikes a traveller is the narrownefs of the
All V V h b ^
Cairns,
Cairo
CAT t 54 1 C A I
Cairo, ftreets, and the appearance of the houfes. Thefe are
f0 daubed with mud on the outfide, that you would
think they were built with nothing elfe. Befides, as
the ftreets are unpaved, and always full of people, the
walking in them is very inconvenient, efpecially to
Grangers. To remedy this, there are a great number
of affes, which always Hand ready to be hired for a
trifle, that is, a penny a mile. The owners drive
them along, and give notice to the crowd to make way.
And here it may be obferved, that the Ciiriftians in
this, as well as other parts of the Turkifli dominions,
are not permitted to ride upon horfes. The number
of the inhabitants can only be guefled at ; but we may
conclude it to be very great, becaufe in feme years
the plague will carry olf 200,000, without their be¬
ing much miffed. The houfes are from one to two or
three (lories high, and flat at the top j where they
take the air, and often deep all night. The better
fort of thefe have a court on the infide like a college.
The common run of houfes have very little room, and
even among great people it is ufual for 20 or 30 to
lie in a (mall hall. Some houfes will hold 3C0 per-
fons of both (exes, among whom are 20 or 30 (laves;
and thofe of ordinary rank have generally three or
four.
There is a canal called kha/is, which runs along the
city from one end to the other, with houfes on each
(ide, which make a large ftraight (Ireet. Befides this,
there are feveral lakes, which are called iirh in the
language of the country. The principal of thefe,
which is near , the caftle, is 500 paces in diameter.
The moft elegant houfes in the city are built on its
banks; but what is extraordinary, eight months in the
year it contains water, and the other four it appears
with a charming verdure. When there is water fufti-
cient, it is always full of gilded boats, barges, and
barks, in which people of condition take their pleafure
towards night, at which time there are curious fire¬
works, and variety of mufic.
New Cairo is furrounded wuth walls built with (lone,
on which are handfome battlements, and at the diftance
of every hundred paces there are. very fine towers,
which have room for a great number of people. The
walls wrere never very high, and are in many places
gone to ruin. The bafha lives in the caftle, which
W'as built by Saladine 700 years ago. It (lands in the
middle of the famous mountain Moketan, which ter- ,
minates in this place, after it had accompanied the
Nile from Ethiopia hither. This caftle is the only
place of defence in Egypt; and yet the Turks take
no notice of its falling, infomuch that in procefs of
time it will become a heap of rubbifh. The principal
part in it is a magnificent hall, environed with 12 co¬
lumns of granite, of a prodigious height and thicknefs,
which fuftain an open dome, under which Saladine
diftributed juftice to h\s fubjefts. Round this dome
there is an infeription in relievo, which determines the
s date and by whom it was built. From this place the
whole city of Cairo may be feen, and above 30 miles
along the Nile, w'ith the fruitful plains that lie near it,
as w'ell as the mofquec, pyramids, villages, and gar¬
dens, with which thefe fields are covered'. Thefe gra¬
nite pillars were the work of antiquity, for they were
.got out of the ruins of Alexandria. There are like-
syjfe in the mofques and in the principal houfes no lefs
$
than 40,000 more, befides great magazines, wdiere all
kinds are to be had at very low rates. A janizary
happened to find five in his garden, as large as thofe
in the caftle *, but could not find any machine of
ftrength fufficient to move them, and therefore had
them fa wed in pieces to make mihftones. It is belie¬
ved that there have been 30 or 40,000 of thefe pillars
brought from Alexandria, where there are yet many
more to be had. The gates of Cairo are three, which
are very fine and magnificent.
There are about 300 public mofques in this city,
fome ot which have fix minarets. The mofque of A-
flier hath feveral buildings adjoining, which were once
a famous univerfity, and 14 000 fcholars and (Indents
were maintained on the found ttion } but it has now not
above 1400, and thofe are only taught to read and
tvnte.. All the mofques aie built upon the fame plan,
and differ only in magnitude. The entrance is through
the principal gate into a large fquare, open on the
top, but well paved. Round this are covered galleries,
fupported by pillars •, under which they fay their pray¬
ers, in the (hade. , On one fide of the fquare there arc
particular places with bafons of water for the conve-
niency o* performing the ablutions enjoined by the Ko¬
ran. The moft remarkable part of the mofque, befides
the minaret, is the dome. This is often bold, well
proportioned, and of an aftonifhing magnitude. The
infide ftones are carved like lace, flowers, and melons.
They are built fo firm, and with fuch art, that they
will laft 600 or 700 years. About the outward
circumference there are large Arabic inferiptions
in relievo, which may be read by thofe who (land
below, though they are fometimes of a wonderful
height.
Cairo.
7 he khanes or caravanferas are numerous and large,
with a court in the middle, like their houfes. Some
are feveral ftories high, and are always full of people
and merchandife. I he Nubians, the Abyftinians, and
other African nations, which come to Cairo, have one
to themfelves, where they always meet with lodging.
Here they are fecure from infults, and their effefts are
all fate. Befides thefe there is a bazar, or market,
where all forts of goods are to be fold. This is in a
long broad ftreet ; and yet the crowd is fo great, yon
can hardly pafs along. At the end of this ftreet is an¬
other (hort one, but pretty broad, with (Imps full of
the beft fort of goods and precious merchandife. At
the end of this {hort ftreet there is a great khane,
where all forts of white (laves are to be fold. Farther
than this is another khane, where a great number of
blacks, of both (exes, are expofed to (ale. Not far
from the beft market place is a mofque, and an hofpital
for mad people. They alio receive and maintain fick
people in this hofpital, but they are poorly looked
after.
Old Cairo has fcarce any thing remarkable but the
granaries of Jofeph; which are nothing but a high
wall, lately built, which includes a fquare fpot of
ground where they depofite wheat, barley, and other
grain, which is a tribute to the baftia, paid by the
owners of land. I his has no other covering but the
heavens, and therefore the birds are always fure to
have their (hare. There is likewife a tolerably hand¬
fome church, which is made ufe of by the Copts, who
are Chriftians and the original inhabitants of Egypt.
Jofeph’s
C A I
[ SS ]
C A I
Cairo
.11,
Cailfon.
Jofeph’s well is in the cattle, and was made by King
Mohammed about 700 years ago. It is called Jofe/)b'ls
well, becaufe they attribute every thing extraordinary
to that remarkable perfon. It is cut in a rock, and is
280 feet in depth. The water is drawn up to the top
by means of oxen, placed on platforms, at proper
diftances, which turn about the machines that raile
it. The defcent is fo doping, that, though there
are no fteps, the oxen can defcend and afcend with
eafe.
The river Nile, to which not only Cairo, but all
Egypt is fo much indebted, is now known to have its
rife in Abyflinia. The increafe of the Nile generally
begins in May, and in June they commonly proclaim
about the city how much it is rifen. Over againft
old Cairo the battia has a houfe, wherein the water
enters to a column, which has lines at the diftance of
every inch, and marks at every two feet as far as 3 j.
When the water rifes to 2 2 feet, it is thought to be
of a fufficient height j when it rifes much higher, it
does a great deal of mifchief. I here is much pomp
and ceremony ufed in letting the water into the canal
above mentioned. See Egypt.
The inhabitants of Cairo are a mixture of Moors,
Turks, Jexvs, Greeks, and Copts or Coptis. The
only difference between the habit of the Moors and
Coptis is their turbans •, thofe of the Moors being
white, and of the Coptis white ftriped with blue.
The common people generally wear a long black loofe
frock, fewed together all down before. T he Jews
wear a frock of the lame fafhion, made of cloth j and
their caps are like a high-crowned hat, without brims,
covered with the fame cloth, but not fo taper. 1 ne
Jewifh women’s are not very unlike the men s, but
more light and long. The Greeks are habited like
the Turks, only their turbans differ.
Provifions of all kinds are exceedingly plenty j for
20 eggs may be bought for a parah or penny, and
bread is fix times as cheap as with us. They have
almoft all forts of flefh and fifh j and in particular have
tame buffaloes, which are very ufeful. They bring
goats into the ftreets in great numbers,, to fell thci-r
milk. Their gardens are well flocked with fruit trees
of various kinds, as well as roots, herbs, melons, .md
cucumbers. The moft common flefh meat is mutton.
The goats are very beautiful, and have ears two feet
in length *, but their flefh is in no great efteem. See
further the article Egypt.
CAIRO AN, or Cairwan, a city of Africa, in the
kingdom of Tunis, feated in a fandy barren foil,
about five miles from the gulf of Capres* It has
neither fpring, well, nor river ; for which reafon they
are obliged to preferve rain water in tanks and dfterns.
It was built by the Aglabites; and is the ancient Cy-
^ See Bar- rene *, but hath now loft its fplendour. There is ftill,
&ary. however, a very fuperb mofc]ue, and the tombs of the
kings of Tunis are yet to be feen, E. Long. 9. 12.
N. Lat. 35. 40. j n n
CAISSON, in the military art, a wooden chett,
into which feveral bombs are put, and lometimes
filled only with gun-powder : this is buried under rome
work whereof the enemy intend to polfefs tnemfelves,
and, when they are mailers of it, is fired, in order to
blow them up.
Caisson is alfo ufed for a wooden *rame o*
cheft ufed in laying the foundations of the piers of a Caidmeh^
jo —v —'■*
bridge.
CAITHNESS, otherwife called the fiire of Wick,
is the moft northern county of all Scotland 5 bounded on
the eaft by the ocean, and by Strathnaver and Suther¬
land on the fouth and fouth-weft : from thefe it is divid ¬
ed by the mountain of Orde, and a continued ridge of
hills as far as Knockfin, then by the whole courfe of
the river Hallowdale. On the north it is wafhed by the
Pentland or Pidlland frith, which flows between this
county and the Orkneys. It extends 35 miles from
north to fouth, and about 20 from eaft to weft. T he
coaft is rocky, and remarkable for a number of bays
and promontories. Of thefe, the principal are Sand-
fide-head to the weft, pointing to the opening of Pent-
land frith ; Orcas, now Holborn-head, and Dunnet-
head, both pointing northward to the frith. Dunne.t-
head is a peninfula about a mile broad, and feven in
compafs 5 affording feveral lakes, good pafture, excel¬
lent mill-ftones, and a lead mine. Scribifter bay, on
the north-weft is a good harbour, where ftiips may
ride fecurely. Rice-bay, on the eaft fide, extends three
miles in breadth } but is of dangerous accefs, on ac¬
count of lome funk rocks at the entrance. At the bot¬
tom of this bay appear the ruins of two ffrong caftles,
the feat of the earl of Caithnefs, palled Cajlle Sinclair,
and Gernego, joined to each other by a draw-bridge.
Duncan’s bay, otherwife called Dunjby-head, is the
north-eaft point of Caithnefs, and the extremeft pro¬
montory in Britain. At this place, the breadth of the
frith does not exceed 12 miles, and in the neighbour¬
hood is the ordinary ferry to the Orkneys. ^ere.
likewife Clythenels pointing eaft, and Nofhead pointing
north-eaft. 'The fea in this place is very impetuous, be¬
ing in continual agitation from violent counter tides,
currents, and vortices. The only ifland belonging to this
county is that of Stroma, in the Pentland frith, at the
diftance of two miles from the main land, extending
about a mile in length, and producing good corn. I he
navigation is here rendered very difficult by conflidfing
tides and currents, which at both ends of the ifland
produce a great agitation in the fea. At the fouth
end, the waves dance fo impetuoufly, that the Tailors
term them the merry men of May, from the name of a
gentleman’s feat on the oppofite (bore of Caithnefs,
which ferved them as a land mark, in the dangeious
paffage between the iftand and the continent. The pro¬
perty of this ifland was once difputed between the eaiis
of Orkney and Caithnefs ; but adjudged to. the latter,
in confequence of an experiment, by which it appeared,
that venomous creatures will live in Stroma, whereas
they die immediately if tranfported to the Orkneys.
The county of Caithnefs, though chiefly mountainous,
flattens, towards the fea coaft, where the ground is
arable, and produces good harvefts of oats and bailey,
fufficient for the natives, and yielding a.furplus for
exportation. Caithnefs is well watered with Imall ri¬
vers, brooks, lakes, and fountains, and affords a few
woods of birch, but is in general bare of trees .; and even
tlVofe the inhabitants plant are ftunted in their growth.
Lead is found at Dunnet, copper at Old Urk, and
iron ore at feveral places; but thefe advantages are not
improved. The air of Caithnefs is temperate, though m
the latitude of 580, where the longeft day in futnmer is
computed at 18 hours; and when the lun fets, he makes
Pari/h.
Bower
Canifbay
Dunnet
Halkirk
Latheron
Olrick
Reay
Thurfo
\V attin
Wick
C , A 1 [ 1
^Criitlmefs. f0 fmali an 3^ 0f a circie below tke horizon, that the dead in the water.
^ u~ people enjoy a twilight until he rifes again. The fuel
ufed by the inhabitants of Caithnefs confifts of peat and
turf, which the ground yields in great plenty. The
forefts of Morravins and Berridale afford abundance of
red deer and roe-bucks j the county is well ftored
with hares, rabbits, growfe, heathcocks, plover, and
’ all forts of game, comprehending a bird called fnow-
about the fize of a fparrow, exceedingly fat and
delicious, that comes hither in large flights about the
middle of February, and takes its departure in April.
The hills are covered with fheep and black cattle j fo
numerous, that a fat cow has been fold at market for
4s. flerling. The rocks along the coafls are frequented
by eagles, hawks, and all manner of fea fowl, whofe
eggs and young are taken in vatl quantities by the na¬
tives. The rivers and lakes abound with trout, fal-
mon, and eels ; and the fea affords a very advantage¬
ous filhery. Divers obelifks and ancient monuments ap¬
pear in this diflrid, and feveral Romifh chapels are ftill
Handing. Caithnefs is well peopled with a race of
hardy inhabitants, who employ themfelves chiefly in
fifhing, and breeding fheep and black cattle : they are
even remarkably induftrious ; for between Wick and
Dunbeath, one continued tra£l of rugged rocks, ex¬
tending 12 miles, they have forced feveral little har¬
bours for their fifhing boats, and cut artificial Heps
from the beach to the top of the rocks, where they
have ere&ed houfes, in which they cure and dry the
fifh for market.
According to Mr Pennant, this county is fuppofed
to fend out in fome years about 20,000 head of black
cattle, but in bad feafons the farmer kills and falts great
numbers for fale. Great numbers of fwine are alfo
reared here. Thefe are fhort, high backed, long briftled,
fharp, flender, and long nofed $ have long eredl ears
and moil favage - looks. Here are neither barns nor
granaries : the corn is threfhed out, and preferved in
the chaff in byks j which are Hacks, in the fhape of
bee hives, thatched quite round, where it will keep good
for two years. VaH numbers of falmon are taken at
Caflle-hill, Dunnet, Wick, and Thurfo. A miracu¬
lous draught at this laH place is Hill talked of, not lefs
than 2500 being taken at one tide within the memory
of man j and Mr Smollet informs us, that, in the neigh¬
bourhood, above 300 good falmon have been taken at
one draught of the net. In the month of November,
great numbers of feals are taken in the caverns that
open into the fea, and run fome hundreds of yards un¬
der ground. 1 he entrance of thefe caverns is narrow,
but the infide lofty and fpacious. The feal hunters en¬
ter thefe in fmall boats with torches, which they light
as foon as they land, and then with loud fhcuts alarm
the animals, which they kill with clubs as they attempt
to pafs. This is a hazardous employment ; for fhould
the wind blow hard from fea, thefe adventurers are
inevitably loH. Sometimes a large fpecies of feals, 12
feet long, have been killed on this coaH ; and it is faid
the fame kind are found on the rock Hifkir, one of the
Weflern iflands. During the fpring, great quantities
of lump filh refort to this eoafl, and are the prey of the
feals, as appears from the number of fkins of thofe
fiflies which at that feafon float aflrore. At certain
times alfo the feals feem to be vifited by a great morta¬
lity 5 for, at thofe times, multitude^ of them are feea
I
C A I
Much limeflone is found in this Carthnefs.
county, which when burnt is made into a compofl
with turf and fea plants.
The difcovery of coal has long been an objeft of
great importance in this part of Scotland. In the
years 1801 and 1802 fome attempts were made for
this purpofe at the expence of government. But al¬
though the bufinefs was conduced by perfons well
Ikilled in fuch matters, and long perfevered in, it has
entirely failed, which leaves little hope of future fuccefs.
The following is the population of the county of
Caithnefs according to the parifhes, taken at two dif¬
ferent periods, namely in 1755 and in 1798, and ex¬
tracted from the Statiflical Hiflory of Scotland.
Population
in I7SS*
I 287
1481
1 23S
3°75
367$
875
2262
2963
1424
3938
22,215
Population in
179®—DPS*
1592
1950
!399
3180
4006
ICO!
2298
3146
I23O
5000
24,802
22,2 15
2,587
CAIUS, Kaye, or Keye, Dr John, the founder
of Caius college in Cambridge, was born at Norwich
in 1510. He was admitted very young a fludent in
Gonville hall in the above-mentioned univerfity ; and
at the age of 21 tranflated from Greek into Latin fome
pieces of divinity, and into Englifti Erafmus’s para-
phrafe on Jude, &c. From thefe his juvenile labours, it
feems probable that he firfl intended to profecute the
fludy of divinity. Be that as it may, he travelled to
Italy, and at Padua fludied phyfic under the celebrated
Montanus. In that univerfity he continued fome time,
where we are told he read Greek leftures with great
applaufe. In 1543, he travelled through part of Italy,
Germany, and France j and returning to England com¬
menced doftor of phyfic at Cambridge. He praClifed
firfl at Shrewlbury, and afterwards at Norwich ; but
removing to London, in 1547, he was admitted fellow
of the college of phyficians, to wkich he w?as feveral
years prefident. In 1557, being then phyfician to
Queen Mary, and in great favour, he obtained a licenfe
to advance Gonville-hall, where he had been educated,
into a college ; which he endowed with feveral confi-
derable eflates, adding an entire new fquare at the ex¬
pence of 1834I. Of this college he accepted the ma-
flerfhip, which he kept till within a flrort time of his
death. He was phyfician to Edward VI. Queen Mary,
and Queen Elizabeth. Towards the latter end of his
life he retired to his own college at Cambridge 5 where,
having refigned the maflerfhip to Dr Legge of Nor¬
wich, he fpent the remainder of his life as a fellow
commoner. He died in July 1573, aged 63 5 and wras
buried in the chapel of his own college. Dr Caius was
%
CAL
Calve a learned, aftlve, benevolent man. _ ..
II ed a monument in St Paul’s to the memory ol the a-
Calabafh. mous L;nacrc. In 1563, he obtained a grant for the
college of phyficians to take the bodies of two male-
faftors annually for diffedion j and he was the inven¬
tor of the inftgnia which diftinguilh the prefident from
the reft of the fellows. He wrote, 1. Annals of the
college from 1555 to 1572. 2. Tranflation of fpveral
of Galen’s works. Printed at different times abroad.
3. Hippocrates de Medicamentis; fir ft difcovered and
vubliihed by our author : alfo Be ratione viBus, Lov.
J r <6, 8vo. 4. DeMedendiMethodo. Bafil, 1554. Lond.
1556’ 8vo. 5. Account of the fweating licknefs in
England. Lond. 1 556, 1721- ^is entitled De ephe¬
mera Britanmca. 6. Hiftory of the univerfity of am-
bridge. Lond. 1568, 8vo, 1574, 4to, in Latin. >].De
thermis Britannicis. Doubtiul whether ever printed.
8 Of fome rare plants and animals. Lond. 1570.
9: De canibus Britannicis, 1570, 1729. 10. De pro-
nunciatione Graces et Latina Lingua-. Lond. 1574. n.
De libris propriis. Lond. 1570. Befides many other
works which never were printed. _
CAKE, a finer fort of bread, denominated Irom its
flat round figure. , ,
We meet with different compofitions under the name
ot cakes; as feed-cakes, made of flour, butter, cream, fu-
par, coriander, and caraway feeds, mace, and other
fpices and perfumes, baked in the oven 5 plum-cake,
made much after the fame manner, only with fewer
feeds and the addition of currants : pan cakes, made
of a mixture of flour, eggs, &c. fried cheefe-cakes,
made of cream, eggs, and flour, with or without cheefe-
curd, butter, almonds, &c.-, oat-cakes, of fine
oaten flour, mixed with yeft and fometimes without,
rolled thin, and laid on an iron or ftone to bake over
a flow fire; fugar-cakes, made of fine fugar beaten and
fearced with the fineft flour, adding butter, rofe-water,
and fpices-, rofe-cakes, {placenta rofacexf) are leaves of
rofes dried and preffed into a mafs, fold in the ftiops for
epithems
The Hebrews had fevera-l forts of cakes, which they
offered in the temple. They were made of the meal
either of wheat or barley ; they were kneaded lome-
times with oil and fometimes with honey, bometimes
they only rubbed them over with oil when they were
baked, or fried them with oil in a frying pan upon the
fire. In the ceremony of Aaron’s coniecration, they
facrificed a calf and two rams, and offered unleavened
bread, and cakes unleavened, tempered with oil, and
wafers unleavened, anointed with oil j the whole made
of fine wheaten flour. Ez. xxix. 1, 2.
CARET, a town of Afia, m Perfia, m the province
of Curdiftan near Mount Caucafus. Its trade confifts
chiefly in filks. E. Long. 46. 15. - * 43' 32-
CALABASH, in commerce, a light kmd of veffel
formed of the (hell of a gourd, emptied and
ingtoput divers kinds of goods in as pitch, rofin,
and the like. The word is Spanifti, Calabacca, which
fignifies the fame. The Indians alfo, both of the North
and South fea, put the pearls they have filhed in cala-
bafhes and the negroes on the coaft of Africa do the
fame by their gold dull. The fmaller calabafties are
alfo frequently ufed by thefe people as a mealure y
which they fell thefe precious commodities to the L.u-
xopeans. The fame veffels likewife ferve for putting
Vol. V. Part I.
[ 57 1 CAL
In I 777 he ereft- liquors in; and do the office of cups, as well as bottles, Calabaffi,
for foldiers, pilgrims, &c. Calabna.
CALABA$H-Tree. See Crescentia, Botany Index. J,1~v
Hfrican CALABASit-Hree. See Adansonia, Botany
Index.
CALABRIA, a country of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, divided into Calabria Ultra, and Calabria
Citra, commonly called Ulterior and Ulterior, or Far¬
ther and Hither Calabria. Calabria Citerior is one of
the 12 provinces of the kingdom of Naples; and bound¬
ed on the fouth by Calabria Ultra, on the north by
Bafilicata, and on the weft and eaft by the fea: Co-
fenfa is the capital. Calabria Ultra is waffied by the
Mediterranean fea on the eaft, fouth, and weft, and
bounded by Calabria Citra on the north. Reggio is
the capital toivn.
This country has been almoft entirely defolated by
the earthquakes of 1783. The reiterated ftiocks ex¬
tended from Cape Spartivento to Amantea above the
gulf of St Eufemia, and alfo affefted that part of Sicily
which lies oppofite to the fouthern extremity of Italy.
Thofe of the 5th and 7th of February, and of the 28th
of March, were-the moft violent, and completed the
deftruclion of every building throughout the above-
mentioned fpace. Not one ftone was left upon another
fouth of the narrow- ifthmus of Squillace : and w-hat is
more difaftrous, a very large proportion of the inhabi¬
tants was killed by the falling of their houfes, near
40,000 lives being loft. Some perfons were dug out
alive after remaining a furprifing length of time buried
among the rubbifli. Meffina became a mafs of ruins;
its beautiful palazzata was thrown in upon the town,
and its quay cracked into ditches full of water.
Reggio w^as almoft deftroyed; Tropea greatly damaged;
and every other place in the province levelled to the
g Before and during the concuffion the clouds gather¬
ed, and then hung immoveable and heavy over the
earth. At Palmi the atmofphere wmre fo fiery an
afpeft, that many people thought part of the town was
burning. It w-as afterwards remembered that an un-
ufual heat had affeaed the {kins of feveral perfons juft
before the {hock ; the rivers affumed a muddy alh-
coloured tinge, and a fulphureous iinell was almoit ge¬
neral. A frigate palling between Calabria and Lipan
felt fo fevere a {hock, that the fteerfman was thrown
from the helm, and the cannons were rafted upon their
carriages, while all around the fea exhaled a ftrong
fmell of brimftone. . . . f
Stupendous alterations were occafioned in the mce
of the country; rivers choked up by the falling in of
the hills, were converted into lakes, which it not Ipeeduy
drained by fome future convulfion, or opened by human
labour, will fill the air with peftilential vapours, and
deftroy the remnants of population. Whole acres or
ground, with houfes and trees upon them, were broken
off from the plains, and waffied many furlongs down
the deep hollows which the courfe of the rivers had
worn; there, to the aftoniffiment and terror of behold¬
ers, they found a new foundation^ to fix upon, either
in an upright or an inclining pofition. In fliort, every
fpecies of phenomenon, incident to thefe deilru e
commotions of the earth, was to be ieen in utn oft
extent and variety in this defolatedf, COUnty;. r,r f
Sicilian majefties, with the mmoft. exped.uon, ^ de-
GAL [ 58 ] CAL
Calade {patched veffels loaded with every thing that could be
II. thought of on the occafion for the relief and accommo-
^a a’s‘ dation of the dillreffed Calabrians •, a general officer
went from Naples with engineers and troops to direct
the operations of the perfons employed in clearing
away and rebuilding' the houfes, and to defend the
property of the fufferers. The king ordered this offi¬
cer to take all the money the royal treafures could fup-
ply or borrow) for, rather than it ffiould be wanting
on this preffing call, he was determined to part with
his plate, nay the very furniture of his palace. A
meffenger fent off from a town near Reggio, on the
8th of February, travelled four days without ffielter,
and wuthout being able to procure a morfel of bread ;
he fupported nature with a piece of cheefe which he
had brought in his pocket, and the vegetables he was
lucky enough to find near the road. To add to all
their other fufferings, the Calabrians found themfelves
and the miferable wreck of their fortunes expofed to
the depredations of robbers and pirates. Villains
landed from boats and plundered feveral places, and
thieves went even from Naples in fearch of booty: In
order to ftrike a greater terror, they dreffed themfelves
like Algerines •, but were dilcovered and driven off. To
this accumulated diftrefs fucceeded a moft inclement
feafon, which obftruffed every effort made to alleviate
it; and almoft daily earthquakes kept the inhabitants
in continual dread, not of being deftroyed by the fall
of houfes, for none were left, but of being fwallowed
up by the fplitting of the earth, or buried in the waves
by fome fudden inundation.
For further particulars concerning this dreadful ca-
taftrophe, and the phenomena attending it, fee Earth¬
quake.
CALADE, in the manege, the defcent or Hoping
declivity of a rifing manege ground, being a fmall emi¬
nence upon which wre ride dowm a horfe feveral times,
putting him to a ffiort gallop, with his fore hams in
the air, to learn him to ply or bend his haunches, and
form his flop upon the aides of the calves of the
legs, the ft ay of the bridle, and the cavefon feafona-
bly given.
CALAGORINA, or Calaguris, diftinguifhed
by the furname Nafica, in Ancient Geography, a city
of the Vafcones in the Hither Spain : now Gala-
horra.
CALAHORRA, an epifcopal town of Spain, in
Old Caftile, feated on a fertile foil, on the fide of a hill
which extends to the banks of the river Ebro. W. Long.
2.7. N. Lat. 42. 12.
CALAIS, a ftrong town of France, in Lowrer Pi¬
cardy, now called the department of the ftraits of Ca¬
lais, which has a citadel and a fortified harbour. It
is built in the form of a triangle, one fide of which
ii towards the fea. The citadel is as large as the
town, and has but one entrance. It is a trading
place, with handfome ftreets, and feveral churches and
monafteries j the number of inhabitants is reckoned
to be 4000.
Calais wTas taken by Edward III. in 1347. Hi¬
ther he marched his victorious army from Creffy, and
invefted the town on the 8th of September. But find¬
ing that it could not be taken by force without the
deftruCtion of great multitudes of his men, he turned
the fiege into a blockade j and having made ftrong in-
l
trenchments to fecure his army from the enemy, huts Calaff,
to proteft them from the inclemency of the weather, —V"*
and ftationed a fleet before the harbour to prevent the
introduction of provifions, he refolved to wait with
patience till the place fell into his hands by famine.
The befieged, difcovering his intention, turned feven-
teen hundred women, children, and old people, out
of the town, to fave their provifions; and Edward
had the goodnefs, after entertaining them with a din¬
ner, and giving them two-pence a piece, to fuffer them
to pafs. The garrifon and inhabitants of Calais hav¬
ing at length confumed all their provifions, and event
eaten all the horfes, dogs, cats, and vermine in the
place, the governor John de Vienne appeared upon
the walls, and offered to capitulate. Edward greatly
incenied at their obftinate refiftance, which had de¬
tained him eleven months under their walls, at an im-
menfe expence both of men and money, fent Sir Wal¬
ter Mauny, an illuftrious knight, to acquaint the go¬
vernor that he would grant them no terms j but that
they muft furrender at difcretion. At length, how¬
ever, at the fpirited remonftrances of the governor,
and the perfuafions of Sir Walter Mauny, Edward
confented to grant their lives to all the garrifon and
inhabitants, except fix of the principal burgeffes, who
flrould deliver to him the keys of the city, with ropes
about their necks. When thefe terms were made
known to the people of Calais, they w^ere plunged in¬
to the deepeft diftrefs; and after all the miferies they
had fuffered, they could not think without horror of
giving up fix of their fellow citizens to certain death.
In this extremity, when the whole people were drown¬
ed in tears, and uncertain what to do, Euftace de St
Pierre, one of the richeft merchants in the place, ftep-
ped forth, and voluntarily offered himfelf to be one
of thefe fix devoted victims. His noble example w'as
foon imitated by other five of the moft wealthy citi¬
zens. Thefe true patriots, barefooted, and bareheaded,
with ropes about their necks, were attended to the
gates by the whole inhabitants, with tears, bleffings,
and prayers for their fafety. When they w’ere brought
into Edward’s prefence, they laid the keys of the
city at his feet, and falling on their knees implored
his mercy in fuch moving ftrains, that all the noble
fpeClators melted into tears. The king’s refentment
was fo ftrong for the many toils and lofles he had fuf¬
fered in this tedious fiege, that he was in fome danger
of forgetting his ufual humanity 5 when the queen,
falling upon her knees before him, earneftly begged
and obtained their lives. This great and good princefs
conduCled thefe virtuous citizens, whofe lives ffie had
faved, to her owm apartment, entertained them honour¬
ably, and difmiffed them with prefents. Edward took
poffeffion of Calais Auguft 4th 5 and in order to fecure
a conqueft of fo great importance, and which had coft
him fo dear, he found it neceffary to turn out all the
ancient inhabitants, who had diicovered fo ftrong an
attachment to their native prince, and to people it
with Englilh.
Calais remained in fubjeClion to England till the
reign of Queen Mary, when it was retaken by the
duke of Guife. This general began the enterprife by
ordering the privateers of Normandy and Bretagne to
cruife in the Channel, more efpecially in the very ftraits
of Calais: he then detached the duke of Nevers with
a
GAL [ 59 1 G A L
Calais, a confidetable army towards the country of Luxem-
—v’"-'' bur^ j a motion which drew the attention of the Spa¬
niards that way : when all things were ready, he pro¬
cured an application from the people of Boulogne,
for a body of troops to fecure them againft the incur-
fions of the Spaniards ; he fent a ftrong detachment at
their requeft, which was followed by another, under
colour of fupporting them •, then repaired thither in
perfon, fecure that his officers would follow his in-
ftruftions: and thus, on the firft day of the new
year, I ^57, Calais was invefted. He immediately at¬
tacked Fort St Agatha, which the garrifon quitted,
and retired into the fort of Nicolai, which, together
with the Rilbank, the befiegers attacked at the fame
time, granted good terms to the officer who command¬
ed in the former, but obliged the garrifon of the latter
to furrender prifoners of war. By thele means he
opened a communication with the fea ; and having
received from on board the (hips an immenfe quantity
of hurdles, his infantry, by the help of them, paffed
the moralfes that lie round the town. He then made
a falfe attack at the water-gate, which drew the at¬
tention of the garrifon, who fatigued themfelves exceed¬
ingly in making intrenchments behind the breach ; but
when they had finilhed their work, he began to fire
upon the "caftle, where the walls were very old, and
had been neglefted on account of the breadth of the
ditch, which was alfo very deep when the tide was in 5
but a great breach being made, the duke caufed it
to be attacked in the night, and during the ebb, the
foldiers paffing almoft up to the (boulders. The place
was eafily carried, though the governor made three
vigorous attacks before the break o( day, in order to
diflodge them $ but the French, though they loll: a
confiderable number of men, kept their pods. I he
governor then faw that it was impraddicabie to de¬
fend the place any longer, and therefore _ made the
bed terms for himfelf that he could obtain, which,
however, were not very good : and thus in eight days
the duke of Guife recovered a fortrefs which cod the
victorious Edw'ard III. a w’hole year’s (lege, and which
had been now 210 years in the poffeffion of the Eng-
liffi, without fo much as a fingle attempt to retake it.
There are very different accounts given of this matter.
Some Engliffi hidorians fay, that King Philip pene¬
trated the defign of the French upon this fortrefs,
gave notice of it in England, and offered to take the
defence of it upon himfelf} but that this, out of jea-
loufy, was refufed, it being believed to be only .an ar¬
tifice to get a place of fuch confequence into his own
hands. The truth of the matter feems to be this :
The drength of Calais confided in its fituation and
•outworks, which required a very numerous garrifon ;
but this being attended with a very large expence, the
bed part of the troops had been fent to join Philip’s
army, fo that the governor had not above 500 men,
and there were no more than 25° the townfmen
able to bear arms. As to ammunition, artillery, and
yrovifions, the French found there abundance : but
with fo fiender a garrifon, it was impoffible to make
a better defence and therefore when the Lord Went¬
worth, w7ho was governor, and whom the french call
Lord Dumfort, was tried by his peers for the .lofs
of this place, he was acquitted. The duke obliged
all the Englidi inhabitants to quit Calais j and bedow-
ed the government of it upon Des Termes, wT.o was Caiais
foon after made a mardial of France. obmii
The fortifications of Calais are good •, but its great Sir—^—
ed drength is its fituation among the marffies, which
may be overftow’ed at the approach of an enemy. '1 he
harbour is not fo good as formerly, nor w'ill it admit
veffels of any great burden. In times of peace, there
are packet boats going backward and forward twice
a wTeek from Dover to Calais, which is 21 miles didant.
E. Long. 2. 6. N. Lat. 50. 58.
Calais and Zctcs, in fabulous hidory, fons of Bo¬
reas and Orythia, to w horn the poets attributed wrings ;
they w7ent on the voyage to Colchis wuth the Argo¬
nauts *, delivered Phineus from the harpies •, and were
flain by Hercules.
CALAMANCO, a fort of woolen duff manufac¬
tured in England and Brabant. It has a fine glofs; and
is checkered in the w'arp, whence the checks appear
only on the right fide. Some calamancoes are quite
plain, others have broad dripes adorned with flowers,
fome with plain broad dripes, fome with narrow (tripes,
and others w'atered.
CALAMARHE, in Botany, an order of plants in
the Fragmenta methodi natura/is of Linnaeus •, in which
he has the following genera, viz. bobartia, fcirp.us, cy-
perus, eriophorum, carex, fchoenus, dagellaria, juncus.
Sec Botany.
CALAMATA, a confiderable town of Turkey in
Europe, in the Morea, and province of Belvedera. It
was taken by the Venetians in 1685 j but the Turks
retook it aftewards w'ith all the Morea. It dands on
the river Spinarza, eight miles from the fea. E. Long
22. 15. N. Lat. 37. 8. n
CALAMINE, CAlAmy, Lapis Calatninarls,ox Cad-
tnia Fojji/is, a fort of (lone or mineral containing zinc,
iron, and fometimes other fubdances. It is confidera-
bly heavy •, moderately hard and brittle, or of a con¬
fidence betwixt done and earth 1 the colour fometimes
whitifh or gray 5 fometimes yettowifh, or of a deep yel¬
low ; fometimes red ; fometimes brown or blackidi. It is
plentiful in feveral places of Europe, as Hungary, Fran-
fylvania, Poland, Spain, Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony,
Godar, France, and England, particularly in Derby-
(hire, Gloucederfhire, Nottinghamdiire, and Somerfet-
(hire, as alfo in Wales. The calamine of England, how7-
ever,’is by the bed judges allowed to be fuperior in qua¬
lity to that of mod other countries. It feldom lies very
deep, being chiefiy found in clayey grounds near the fur-
face/ In fome places it is mixed with lead ores. It is a
true ore of zinc, and is ufed as an ingredient in making of
brafs. Newman relates various experiments with this
mineral, the only refult of which w7as to (how that it con¬
tained iron as well as zinc. The mod remarkable are the
following : A faturatedfolution of calamine in the marine
acid, concentrated by evaporating part of the liquor, ex¬
hibits in the cold an appearance of fine crydals, which on
the application of w'armth diffolve and difappear. A lit¬
tle ofthis concentrated folution tinges a large quantity oc
water of a bright yellow colour j and at.the iame.time
depofites by degrees a fine, fpongy, browniffi precipitate.
Blue diffolved in this folution, and.afterwards infpiffated,
forms an extremely (lippery tenacious mafs, which does
not become dry, and, were it not too expenfive, might
be of ufe for entangling ffie4, caterpillars, &c. bulphur
boiled in this folution, feems to acquire fome degree of
jq 2 tranipaqency.
Calamiut
II
Calamy.
CAL [ 60 j CAL
transparency.—This mineral is an article in the materia
medica j but, before it comes to the drops is ufually roaf-
ted or calcined, in order to feparate fome arfenical or ful-
phureous matter which in its crude date it is fuppofed to
contain, and to render it more eafily reducible into a
fine powder. In this ftate it is employed in collyria a-
gainft defluxions of thin acrid humours upon the eyes, for
drying up moift running ulcers, and healing excoria¬
tions. It is the bafis of an officinal epulotic Cerate.
There is another fubftance from which this femi-
metal is alfo obtained. This is called cadmia fornacum,
or cadmia of the furnaces, to diftinguiffi it from the
other. This is a matter fublimed wffien ores contain¬
ing zinc, like thofe of Rammeliberg, are fmelted.
This cadmia confifts of the flowrers of the femi-metal
fublimed during the fufion, and adhering to the inner
furfaces of the wralls of furnaces, where they fuffer a
femi fufion, and therefore acquire fome folidity. So
great a quantity of thefe is colledled, that they form
very thick incruftations, which mull be frequently ta¬
ken off.
CALAMINT. See Melissa and Mentha, Bo¬
tany Index.
CALAMUS. See Botany Index. There is but
one fpecies, the rotang. The ftem is without branches,
has a crown at top, and is everywhere befet wdth
ftraight fpines. This is the true Indian cane, which
is not viable on the outfide ; but the bark being taken
off difcovers the fmooth flick, which has no marks of
fpine on the bark, and is exadlly like thofe which the
Dutch fell to us} keeping this matter very fecret, left
travellers going by fliould take as many canes out of
the wmods as they pleafe. Sumatra is laid to be the
place where moft of thefe flicks grow. Such are to
be chofen as are of proper growth between two joints,
fuitable to the falhionable length of canes as they are
then wTorn •, but fuch are fcarce. The calamus rotang
is one of feveral plants from which the drug called
dragons blood is obtained.
Calamus, in the ancient poets, denotes a Ample
kind of pipe or fiftula, the mufical inftrument of the
ihepherds and herdfmen j ufually made either of an
oaten ftalk or a reed.
Calamus Aromaticus, or Sweetfcenled Flag, in the
materia medica, a fpecies of flag called acorus by Lin-
meus. See Acorus. Botany Index.
Calamus Scriptorins, in antiquity, a reed or rufh
to write with. The ancients made ufe of ftyles to write
on tables covered with wax \ and of reed, or rulh, to
write on parchment, or Egyptian paper.
CALAMY, Edmund, an eminent Prefbyterian di¬
vine, born at London in the year 1600, and educated
at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, wmere his attachment
to the Arminian party excluded him from a fellowftiip.
Dr Felton biffiop of Ely, however, made him his chap¬
lain •, and, in 1639, he w^as chofen minifter of St Mary
Aldermary, in the city of London. Upon the opening
of the long parliament, he diftinguiftied himfelf in de¬
fence of the prefbyterian caufe ; and had a principal
hand in writing the famous SmeBytnnus, which, him¬
felf fays, gave the firft deadly blow to Epifcopacy. The
authors of this tra£! were five, the initials of whofe
names formed the name under which it was publiflied ;
viz. Stephen Marffial, Edmund Calamy, Thomas
Young, Mathew Newcomen, and William Sparftow.
He was after that an a£!ive member in the affembly of Calamy.
divines, was a ftrenuous oppofer of feftaries, and ufed '——v™”"
his utmoft endeavours to prevent thofe violences com¬
mitted after the king was brought from the ifle of
Wight. In Cromwell’s time, he lived privately, but
was affiduous in promoting the king’s return 5 for
which he was afterwards offered a biihopric, but re¬
filled it. He wtis ejedfed for noncomformity in 1662 ;
and died of grief at the fight of the great fire of Lon¬
don.
Calamy, Edmund, grandfon to the preceding, (by
his eldeft fon, Mr Edmund Calamy, who w'as ejecfed
from the living of Moxton in Effex on St Bartholo¬
mew’s day 1662) was born in London, April 5. 1671.
After having learned the languages, and gone through
a courfe of natural philofophy and logic at a private
academy in England, he ftudied philolophy and civil
law at the univerfity of Utrecht, and attended the lec¬
tures of the learned Graevius. Whilft he refided here,
an offer of a profeffor’s chair in the univerfity of Edin¬
burgh w7as made him by Mr Carftairs, principal of that
univerfity, fent over on purpofe to find a perfon pro¬
perly qualified for fuch an office. This he declined j
and returned to England in 1691, bringing with him
letters from Graevius to Dr Pococke canon of Chrirt-
church and regius profeffor of Hebrew, and to Dr
Bernard, Savilian profeffor of aftronomy, who obtained
leave for him to profecute his ftudies in the Bodleian
library. Having refolved to make divinity his princi¬
pal ftudy, he entered into an examination of the contro-
verfy between the conformifts and nonconformifts j
wdrich determined him to join the latter; and coming
to London in 1692, he was unanimoufly chofen affift-
ant to Mr Matthew Sylvefter at Blackfriars : and in
1694, he wjas ordained at Mr Annefly’s meeting-
houfe in Little St Helena, and foon after was invited
to become affiftant to Mr Daniel Williams in Hand-
Alley. In 1702, he was chofen to be one of the lec¬
turers in Salters-hall \ and in 1073, fucceeded Mr
Vincent Alfop as paftor of a great congregation in
Weftminfter. He drew up the table of contents to Mr
Baxter’s hiftory of his life and times, which wTas lent
to the prefs in 1696 \ made fome remarks on the work
itfelf, and added to it an index ; and, reflecting on the
ufefulnefs of the book, he faw the expediency of con¬
tinuing it, for Mr Baxter’s hiftory came no lower than
the year 1684. Accordingly he compofed an abridge¬
ment of it, with an account of many other miniflers
who w’ere ejected after the reftoration of Charles II.
their apology, containing the grounds of their non¬
conformity and practice as to flated and occafional
communion wdth the church of England j and a con¬
tinuation of their hiftory till the year 1691. This work
was publiflied in 1702. He afterwards publiflied a
moderate defence of nonconformity, in three tradts, in
anfwer to fome trafts of Dr Hoadley. In 17095 •^■r
Calamy made a tour to Scotland 1 and had the degree
of doctor of divinity conferred on him by the univerfi-
ties of Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Glafgow. In 17x3,
he publilhed a fecond edition of his Abridgement of
Mr Baxter’s hiftory of his life and times; in which,,
among other additions, there is a continuation of the
hiftory through King William’s reign, and Queen
Anne’s, dowm to the palling of the occafional bill j and,
in the clofe is fubioined the reformed liturgy, which was,
drawn
Calandre,
Galas.
CAL [ 61
drawn up and prefented to the bithops in 1661, “ that
the world may judge (he fays in his preface) how fair¬
ly the ejedfed miniiters have been often reprefented as
irreconcilable enemies to all liturgies.” In 1718, he
wrote a vindication of his grandfather, and feveral
other perfons, againft certain reiledtions call upon
them by Mr Archdeacon Echard in his Hiftory of
England ; and in 1728 appeared his Continuation
of the account of the minifters, ledlurers, mailers,
and fellows of colleges, and fchoolmailers, who were
eiedled, after the relloration in 1660, by or before
the acl of uniformity. He died June 3. 1732, great¬
ly regretted not only by the diflenters, but aho by
the moderate members of the eftablifhed church,
clergy and laity, with many of whom he lived in
great intimacy. Befides the pieces already mention¬
ed, he publifhed a great many fermons on feveral iuo-
jefts and occafions. He was twice married, and had
13 children. , , . „ , -
CAL ANDRE, a name given by the French wri¬
ters to an infeft that does vaft mifchief in granaries.
It is properly of the fcarab or beetle clafs j it has tv\o
antennae or horns formed of a great number of round
joints, and covered with a foft and fhort down ; from
the anterior part of the head there is thruft out a
trunk, which is fo formed at the end, that the crea¬
ture ealily makes way with it through the coat or ikin
that covers the grain, and gets at the meal or fanna
on which it feeds ; the infide of the grains is alfo the
place where the female depofites her eggs that the
young progeny may be born with provifion about them.
When the female has pierced a grain of corn for this
purpofe, file depofites in it one egg, or at the utmoft
two, but fhe moft frequently lays them fing e : theie
eg<rS hatch into fmall worms, which are ufually found
with their bodies rolled up in a fpiral form and after
eating till they arrive at their full growth, they are
changed into chryfales, and from thefe in about a
fortnight comes out the perfeft calandre. 1 he fe¬
male lays a confiderable number of eggs; and the m-
creafe of thefe creatures would be very great, but na¬
ture has fo ordered it, that while m the egg a"d
even while in that of the worm, they are iubjed to be
eaten by mites: thefe little vermme are always very
plentiful in granaries, and they deftroy the far greater
number of thefe larger animals. . f.
GALAS, John; the name of a moft unfortunate
Proteftant merchant at Thouloufe, inhumanly butcher¬
ed under forms of law cruelly proftituted to {belter the
fanguinary dictates of ignorant Popfth zeal. He had
lived 40 years at Thouloufe. Hts wife was an Enghfti
woman of French extraftion : and they had five ions
one of whom, Lewis, had turned Catholic through
the perfuafions of a Catholic maid who had hved 30
years in the family. In Odober 1761, the family
confifted of Galas, his wife, Mark Anthony their fon,
Peter their fecond fon, and this maid. Anthony was
educated for the bar ; but being of a mela,Lcholy ^
of mind, was continually dwelling on paffages from
authors on the fubjed of fuicide, and one night in
that month hanged himfelf on a bar laid amofs two
folding doors in their ftrop. 1 he crowd collede y
the confufion of the family on fo ftmcking a difcovery
'00k it into their heads jl-t Ite had be- ftrangled by
the famiWta prevent his changing his religion, and Syriac
. ] CAL
that this was a common pradice among Proteftants.
The officers of juftice adopted the popular tale, and
were fupplied by the mob with what they accepted as
evidences of the fad. The fraternity of White Peni¬
tents got the body, buried it with great ceremony,
and performed a folemn fervice for him as a martyr .
the Francifcans did the fame ; and after thefe formal.-
ties no one doubted the guilt of the devoted heretical
family. They were all condemned to the torture, to
bring them to confelfion : they appealed to the parlia¬
ment ; who, as weak and as wicked as the fubordinate
magiftrates, fentenced the father to the torture, ordi¬
nary and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon the
wheel, and then to be burnt to allies. . A diabolicd
decree ! which, to the fhame of humanity, was adu-
ally carried into execution. Peter Galas, the other
fon, was baniihed for life ; and the reft were acquitted.
The diftraded widow found fome friends, and among
the reft M. Voltaire, who laid her cafe before the
council of ftate at Verfirilles, and the parliament of
Thouloufe was ordered to tranfmit the proceedings.
Thefe the king and council unanimoufly agreed to an¬
nul ; the capitoul or chief magiftrate of Thouloufe was
degraded and fined ; old Galas was declared to have
been innocent; and every imputation of guilt was re*
moved from the family, who alio received from the
king and clergy confiderable gratuities.
CALASH, or Galesh, a fmall light kind of cha¬
riot or chair, with very low wheels, ufed chiefiy for
taking the air in parks and gardens. 'I he calafti is for
the moft part richly decorated, and open on all iides
for the conveniency of the air and proipeft, or at molt
enclofed with light mantlets of wax-cloth to be opened
and {hut at pleafure. In the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions we have a defcription of a new fort of calafli go¬
ing on two wheels, not hung on traces, yet eafier than
the common coaches, over which it has tms further
advantage, that whereas a common coach will over¬
turn if one wheel go on a furface a_ foot and a hail
higher than the other, this will admit of a difference
of 3 J feet without danger of overturning. Add, that
it would turn over and over ; that is, after the fpokes
being fo turned as that they are parallel to the hori¬
zon, and one wheel flat over the head of him that
rides in it, and the other fiat under him, it will turn
once more, by which the wheels are placed tnjlatu*
nuo, without any diforder to the horie or rider.
CALASIO, Marius, a Irancifcan, and profeffor
of the Hebrew language at Rome, of whom there is
very little to be faid, but that he publifhed there, in
the year 1621, a Concordance of the, Bible, which
confifted of four great volumes in folio. 1 his wor e
has been highly approved.and commended both by
Proteftants and Papifts, and is indeed a moft admi¬
rable work. For befides the Hebrew words m the
Bible, which are in the body of the book, with the
Latin verfion over againft them ; there are, m the
margin, the differences between, the Septuagmt veifion
and the Vulgate; fo that at one view may be fees
wherein the three Bible* agree, and wherem they dif¬
fer. Moreover, at the beginning of every ^icle the«
is a kind of didlionary, which gives the. figmfication
of each Hebrew word ; affords an opportunity o -
paring it with other oriental languages, viz. with the
P ‘ S Arabic, and Chaldee 5 and is extremely ufeiul
Calafh,
Calaiio.
Calaftris
II
Calauria
CAL l 62
for determining more exadtly the true meaning of the
Hebrew words.
«' CALASIRIS, in antiquity, a linen tunic fringed
at the bottom, and worn by the Egyptians under a
vyhite woollen garment : but this laft they were ob¬
liged to pull off when they entered the temples, being
only allowed to appear there in linen garments.
CALATAJUD, a large and handfome town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon ; fituated at the
confluence of the rivers Xalon and Xiloca, at the end
of a very fertile valley, with a good caftle on a rock,
w. Long. 2. 9. N. Lat. 41. 22.
CALATHUS, in antiquity, a kind of hand bafket
made of light wmod or ruflies j ufed by the wTomen
fometimes to gather flowers, but chiefly after the ex¬
ample of Minerva to put their work in. The figure
of the calathus, as reprelented on ancient monuments,
is narrow at the bottom, and widening upw-ards like
that of a top. Pliny compares it to that of a lily.
Fhe calathus or wrork bafket of Minerva is no lefs ce¬
lebrated among the poets than her diftaff.
Calathus was alfo the name of a cup for wrine
ufed in facrifices.
CALATOR, in antiquity, a crier, or officer ap¬
pointed to publifh fome thing aloud, or call the peo¬
ple together. The word is formed from x^Asiv, voco,
I call. Such minifters the pontifices had, whom they
ufed to fend before them when they went to facrifice
on ferice or holidays, to advertife the people to leave
off work. The magiftrates alfo ufed calatores, to call
the people to the comitia, both curiata and centuriata.
The officers in the army alfo had calatores; as had like-
wife many private families, to invite their guefts to
entertainments.
CALATRAVA, a city of New Caftile, in Spain,
fituated on the river Guadiana, 41; miles fouth of To¬
ledo. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 39. o.
Knights of CAiATRAya, a military order in Spain,
in diluted by Sancho III. king of Caftile, upon the
following occafion : When that prince took the ftrong
fort of Calatrava from the Moors of Andalufia, he gave
it to the Templars, who, wanting courage to defend
it, returned it him again. Then Don Reymond of
the order of the Ciftercians, accompanied with feveral
perfons of quality, made an offer to defend the place,
which the king thereupon delivered up to them, and
inftituted that order. It increafed fo much under the
reign of Afphonius, that the knights defired they
might have a grand mafter, which was granted. Fer¬
dinand and Ifabella afterwards, with the confent of
Pope Innocent VIII. re-united the grand njafterfhip of
Calatrava to the Spanifh crown j fo that the kings of
Spain are now become perpetual adminiftrators there¬
of.
The knights of Calatrava bear a crofs gules, fleur-
delifed with green, &e. Their rule and habit was
originally that of the Ciftercians.
CALAURIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
Greece in the Saronic bay, over againft the port of
Troezen, at the diftance of 40 ftadia. Hither Demo-
fthenes went twice into banifhment *, and here he died.
Neptune was faid to have accepted this ifland from
Apollo, in exchange for Delos. The city flood on a
high ridge nearly in the middle of the ifland, command.
j CAL
ing an extenfive view of the gulf and its coafts. There Caleada
was his holy temple. The prieftefs was a virgin, who , II
was dilmiffed when marriageable. Seven of the cities Cu!ceariun^
near the ifland held a congrefs at it, and facrificed
joiptly to the deity. Athens, iEgina, and Epidaurus,
were of this number, with Nauplias, for which place
Argos contributed. 'I he Macedonians, when they had
reduced Greece, were afraid to violate the fandluary,
by forcing from it the fugitives, his fuppliants. An.
tipater commanded his general to bring away the ora¬
tors, who had offended him, alive 5 but Demofthenes
could not be prevailed on to furiender. His monu¬
ment remained in the iecond century, within the en-
clofure of the temple. The city of Calauria has been
long abandoned. I races of buildings and of ancient
walls appear nearly level with the ground ; and fome
ftones, in their places, each with a feat and back
forming a little circle, once perhaps a bath. The tem¬
ple, which was of the Doric order, and not large, as
may be inferred from the fragments, is reduced to an
inconfiderable heap of ruins. The ifland is now called
Poro. It ftretches along before the coaft of the Mo-
rea in a lower ridge, and is feparated from it by a canal
only four ftadia, or half a mile wide. This which is
called Poro or the Ferry, in ftill weather may be paffed
on foot, as the water is not deep. It has given its
name to the ifland ; and alfo to the town, which con-
fifts of about 200 houfes, mean and low, with flat
roofs ; rifing on the flope of a bare difagreeable rock.
CALC ADA, or St Domingo Calcalda, a towm of
Spain, fituated in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 42. 36.
CALCAR, a very ftrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, and duchy of Cleves. It belongs
to the king of Pruffia, and is feated near the Rhine,
in E. Long. 5. 41. N. Lat. 51. 45.
Calcar, in glafs-making, the name of a fmall oven
or reverberatory furnace, in which the firft calcination
of fand and fait of potafhes is made for the turning
them into what is called frit. This furnace is made in
the fafhion of an oven, ten feet long, feven broad in
the wideft part, and two feet deep. On one fide of it
is a trench fix inches fquare, the upper part of which
is level wfith the calcar, and feparated only from it at
the mouth by bricks nine inches wide. Into this trench
they put fea-coal, the flame of which is carried into
every part of the furnace, and is reverberated from the
roof upon the frit, over the furface of which the fmoke
flies very black, and goes out at the mouth of the
calcar j the coals burn on iron grates, and the allies
fall through.
Calcar, fohn tie, a celebrated painter, was the
difciple of Titian, and perfe£led himfelf by ftudying
Raphael. Among other pieces he drew' a Nativity, re-
prefenting the angels around the infant Chrift ; and fo
ordered the difpofition of his piffure, that the light
all proceeds from the Child. He died at Naples, in
1546, in the flow’er of his age. It was he who de-
figned the anatomical figures of Vefal, and the por¬
traits of the painters of Vefari.
CALCAREOUS, fomething that partakes of the
nature and qualities of calx, or lime. We fay, a
calcareous earth, calcareous ftone. See Chemistry
Index.
CALCEARIUM, in antiquity, a donative or lar-
gefs
GAL [ 63 ] CAL
Calceolaria gefs beftowed on Roman foldiers for buying (hoes. In
II monafteries, calcearium denoted the daily fervice of
^Calculus. . c]ean;ng {hoes of the religious.
Vlh CALCEOLARIA. See Botany Index.
CALCHAS, in fabulous hiftory, a famous diviner,
followed the Greek army to Troy. He foretold that
the fiege would laft ten years : and that the fleet, which
was detained in the port of Aulis by contrary winds,
Would not fail till Agamemnon’s daughter had been
facrificed to Diana. After the taking of Troy, he re¬
tired to Colophon *, where, it is laid, he died of grief,
becaufe he could not divine what another of his profef-
fion, called Mopfus, had difcovered.
CALCINATION, in Chemiftry, the reducing of
fubftances to a calx, or powder, by fire. Limeflone
is faid to be calcined or burned by being deprived of
its carbonic acid, and thus brought to the cauftic date.
But when a metallic fubftance is calcined by being ex-
pofed to ftrong heat, it aflumes the form of powder or
calx, by combining with oxygen. See Chemistry
Index.
CALCINATO, a towm of Italy, in the duchy of
Mantua, remarkable for a viftory gained over the Im-
perialifts by the French in 1706. E. Long. 9. 55. N.
Lat. 45. 251.
CALCULARY of a Pear, a congeries of little
ftrong knots difperfed through the whole parenchyma
of the fruit. The calculary is moft obferved in rough-
tafted or choke pears. The knots lie more continuous
and compaft together towards the pear where they fur-
round theACETARY. About the ftalk they ftand more
diftant; but towards the cork, or ftool of the flower,
they ftill grow clofer, and there at laft: gather into the
firmnefs of a plum ftone. The calculary is no vital or
effential part of the fruit ; the feveral knots whereof it
confifts being only fo many concretions or precipita¬
tions out of the fap, as we fee in urines, wines, and
other liquors.
CALCULATION, the aft of computing feveral
fums, by adding, fubtrafting, multiplying, or dividing.
See Arithmetic.
Calculation is more particularly ufed to fignify
the computations in aftronomy and geometry, for ma¬
king tables of logarithms, ephemerides, finding the
time of eclipfes, &c. See Astronomy, Geometry,
and Logarithms.
CALCULUS, primarily denotes a little ftone or
pebble, anciently ufed in making computations, taking
of fuffrages, playing at tables, and the like. In after
times, pieces of ivory, and counters ftruck of filver,
gold, and other matters, were ufed in lieu thereof, but
ftill retaining the ancient names. Computifts were by
the lawyers called calculones, when they were either
flaves, or newdy freed men 5 thofe of a better condition
were named calculatores ox nurneram : ordinarily there
was one of thefe in each family of diftinftion. I he
Roman judges anciently gave their opinions by calculi,
which were white for abfolution, and black for con¬
demnation. Hence calculus albus, in ancient waiters,
denotes a favourable vote, either in a perfon to be ab-
folved and acquitted of a charge, or elefted to fome
dignity or port; calculus nlger the contrary. This
ufage is faid to have been borrowed from the Thracians,
who marked their happy or profperous days by white,
and their unhappy by black, pebbles, put each night Calculus,
into an urn. -v—i
Befides the diverfity of colour, there were fome cal¬
culi alfo w’hich had figures or charafters engraven on
them, as thofe which wrere in ufe in taking the fuffra¬
ges both in the fenate and at affemblies of the people.
Thefe calculi were made of thin wmod, polifhed and
covered over with wax. Their form is ftill feen in
fome medals of the Caffian family 5 and the manner of
calling them into the urns, in the medals of the Lici-
nian family. The letters marked upon thefe calculi
were U. R. for uti rogas, and A. for antiquo ; the firft
of which expreffed an approbation of the lawT, the lat¬
ter a rejeftion of it. Afterwards the judges who fat
in capital caufes ufed calculi marked with the letter A.
for abfolvo ; C. for condctnno; and N. L. for non liquet,
fignifying that a more full information was required.
Calculus is alfo ufed in ancient geometric writers
for a kind of weight equal to trvo grains of cicer.
Some make it equivalent to the filiqua, which is equal,
to three grains of barley. Two calculi made the ce-
ratium.
Calculus, in Mathematics, is a certain method of
performing inveftigations and refolutions, particularly
in mechanical philofophy. Thus there is the Differ*
ential calculus, the Exponential, the Integral, the Li*
teral, and the Antecedental.
Calculus Differ entialis, is a method of differencing
quantities, or of finding an infinitely fmall quantity,
wdiich being taken infinite times, {hall be equal to a
given quantity \ or, it is the arithmetic of the infinite¬
ly fmall differences of variable quantities.
The foundation of this calculus is an infinitely
fmall quantity, or an infinitefimal, which is a portion
of a quantity incomparable to that quantity, or that
is lefs than any afiignable one, and therefore account¬
ed as nothing ; the error accruing by omitting it being
lefs than any aflignable one. Hence two quantities,
only differing by an infinitefimal, are reputed equal.
Thus, in aftronomy, the diameter of the earth is an
infinitefimal, in refpeft of tlie diftance of the fixed
ftars 5 and the fame holds in abftraft quantities. The
term, infinitefimal, therefore, is merely refpeftive, and
involves a relation to another quantity ; and does not
denote any real ens or being. Now infinitefimals are
called differentials, or differential quantities, wdren they
are confidered as the difterences of two quantities. Sir
Ifaac Newton calls them moments; confidering them
as the momentary increments of quantities, v. g. of a
line generated by the flux of a point, or of a furface
by the flux of a line. The differential calculus, there¬
fore, and the doftrine of fluxions,, are the fame thing
under different names the former given by M. Leib¬
nitz, and the latter by Sir Ifaac Newton: each of
whom lays claim to the dilcovery. There is, indeed a
difference in the manner of exprefling the quantities
refulting from the different views wherein the two au¬
thors confider the infinitefimals: the one as moments,
the other as differences. Leibnitz, and moft foreigners,
exprefs the differentials of quantities by the fame let¬
ters as variable ones, only prefixing the letter d: thus
the differential of x is called dx ; and that of y, dy:
now d x is a pofitive quantity, if x continually increafej
negative, if it decreafe. The Engliftr, with Sir Ilaac
Newton,
CAL [ <4 ] CAL
.Ga^'u.u?. ^ ]sjewton> Jnftead of dx write x (with a dot over it)>
for dy^ y, &.c. which foreigners objedf againft, on ac¬
count of that confufion of points, which they imagine
arifes when differentials are again differenced; befides,
that the printers are more apt to overlook a point than
a letter. Stable quantities being always exprelfed by
the firft letters of the alphabet da — O, db—o, dc~o;
wherefore ^ (.v-j-j'—a^—dx-^-dy, and d {x—-J’+tf)
~dx-\-dy. So that the differencing of quantities is
.eafily performed by the addition or fubtraflion of their
compounds.
To difference quantities that multiply each other j
the rule is, firft, multiply the differential of one fadtor
into the other fadtor, the £um of the two fadtors is the
differential fought : thus, the quantities being x,y, the
tiifferential will be x dy-\-y dx, i. t. d{xy^—x dy y
dx. Secondly, If there be three quantities mutually
multiplying each other, the fadtum of the two muft
then be multiplied into the differential of the third j
thus fuppofe vxy, let vx~t, then v x y = ty j confe-
quently d [yv ~t dy-\-y d t: but dt~v dx-\-x dv.
Thefe values, therefore, being fubftituted in the ante¬
cedent differential, tdy-\-y dt, the refult is, d (vxy}
~v x dy-^-vy dx-\-xy dv. Hence it is eafy to appre-
Irend how to proceed, where the quantities are more
than three. If one variable quantity increafe, while
the other y decreafes, it is evident y dx—x dy will be
the differential of xy.
To difference quantities that mutually divide each
other; the rule is, firft, multiply the differential of the
divifor into the dividend ; and on the contrary, the
differential of the dividend into the divifor j fubtradf
the laft produdt from the firft, and divide the remain¬
der by the fquare of the divifor; the quotient is the
differential of the quantities mutually dividing each
other. See Fluxions.
Calculus Exponentialis, is a method of differencing
exponential quantities, or of finding and fumming
up the differentials or moments of exponential quan*
tides ; or at leaft bringing them to geometrical con-
ftrudlions.
By exponential quantity, is here underftood a power,
whofe exponent is variable j v. g. xx. ax. xy. where the
exponent x does not denote the fame in all the points
of a curve, but in fome Hands for 2, in others for 3,
in others for 5, &c.
To difference an exponential quantity j there is no¬
thing required but to reduce the exponential quantities
to logarithmic ones; which done, the differencing is
managed as in logarithmic quantities.—Thus, fuppofe
the differential of the exponential quantity x? required,
let
• xV—z
Then willy Ix—lz
, _ y d x d z
lxdy + J- = —
J x 55
, , ' z y d x
"zl x dy-\ — d%
That is, x* l x dy^x^—1 dx—dz.
Calculus Integralis, or Summatorius, is a method of
integrating, or fumming up moments, or differential
2
quantities; 5. e. from a differential quantity given, to Calculus,
find the quantity from whofe differencing the given v——v—"
differential refults.
The integral calculus, therefore, is the inverfe of
the differential one : whence the Englifh, who ufually
cail the differential method fluxions, give this calculus,
which afcends from the fluxions, to the flowing or va¬
riable quantities: or as foreigners exprefs it, from the
differences to the fums, by the name of the inverfe me¬
thod offluxions.
Hence, the integration is known to be juftly per¬
formed, if the quantity found, according to the rules
of the differential calculus, being difterenced, produce
that propofed to be fummed.
Suppofe f the fign of the fum, or integral quantity,
then f y dx will denote the fum, or integral of the dif¬
ferential y d x.
To integrate, or fum up a differential quantity : it is
demonftrated, firft, that f dx~x: fecondly, f (dx-\-dy)
r=x-|-thirdly,y (v dx)—xy ; fourthly, f(m
«» /*/ \ Tl—-?7l • tl
xm—x) — x m : fifthly, y \ri\in)x~ dx—x—:
fixthly,y (yd x—x dy) : y^—X : y. Of thefe, the fourh
and fifth, cafes are the moft frequent, wherein the dif¬
ferential quantity is integrated, by adding a variable
unity to the exponent, and dividing the fum by the
new exponent multiplied into the differential of the
root-, v. g. the fourth cafe, by tn—( 1-f-1) i- e*
by m d x.
If the differential quantity to be integrated doth not
come under any of thefe formulas, it muft either be
reduced to an integral finite, or an infinite feries, each
of whofe terms may be fummed.
It may be here obferved, that, as in the analyfis of
finites, any quantity may be railed to any degree of
power j hut vice verfa, the root cannot be ext raffed
out of -any number required ; fo in the analyfis of
infinites, any variable or flowing quantity may be dif¬
ferenced j but vice verfa, any differential cannot be in¬
tegrated. And as, in the analyfis of finites, we are not
yet arrived at a method of extrafling the roots of all
equations, fo neither has the integral calculus arrived
at its perfeflion : and as in the former we are obliged
to have recourfe to approximation, fo in the latter wre
have recourfe to infinite feries, where we cannot attain
to a perfeft integration.
Calculus Literalis, or Literal Calculus, is the
fame with fpecious arithmetic, or algebra, fo called
from its ufing the letters of the alphabet 5 in contra-
diftinflion to numeral arithmetic, which ufes figures.
In the literal calculus given quantities are exprefled by
the firft: letters, abed; and quantities fought by the
laft zy x, &x. Equal quantities are denoted by the
fame letters.
Calculus, Antecedental, a geometrical method of
reafoning invented by Mr Glenie, which, without any
confideration of motion or velocity, is applicable to all
the purpofes of fluxions. In this method, fays Mr
Glenie, “ every expreflion is truly and ftriffly geometri¬
cal, is founded on principles frequently made ufe of by
the ancient geometers, principles admitted into the very
firft elements of geometry, and repeatedly ufed by
Euclid himfelf. As it is a branch of general geometri¬
cal proportion, or univerfal comparifon, and is derived
Trom an examination of the antecedents of ratios, hav¬
ing
CAL [ 65 ] CAL
Calculus, ing given confequents and a given flandard of compari-
fon in various degrees of augmentation and diminution
they undergo by compofition and decompofition, I
have called it the antecedental calculus. As it is
purely geometrical, and perfeftly fcientific, I have
lince it firft occurred to me in 1779, always made ufe
of it inftead of the fluxionary and differential calculi,
which are merely arithmetical. Its principles are to¬
tally unconnefted with the ideas of motion and time,
which, ftricffly Ipeaking, are foreign to pure geometry
and abftraft fcience, though, in mixed mathematics and
natural philofophy, they are equally applicable to every
inveftigation, involving the conlideration of either with
the two numerical methods juft mentioned. And as
many fuch inveftigations require compofitions and de-
compofttions of ratios, extending greatly beyond the
triplicate and fubtriplicate, this calculus in all of them
furniflies every expreflion in a ftridftly geometrical form.
The ftandards of comparifon in it may be any magni¬
tudes whatever, and are of courfe indefinite and innu¬
merable 5 and the confequents of the ratios, compound¬
ed or decompounded, may be either equal or unequal,
homogeneous or heterogeneous. In the fluxionary and
differential methods, on the other hand, 1, or unit, is
not only the ftandard of comparifon, but alfo the con-
fequent of every ratio compounded or decompound¬
ed.” See Phil. Tranf. Edin. vol. iv.
Some mathematicians, however, are of opinion that
the advantage to be derived from the employmeirt of
this calculus is not fo great as the author feems to pro-
mi fe from it.
Calculus Minerva, among the ancient lawyers, de¬
noted the decifion of a caufe, wherein the judges were
equally divided. The expreflion is taken from the hif-
tory of Oreftes, reprefented by ATchylus and Euripi¬
des ; at whole trial, before the Areopagites, for the
murder of his mother, the votes being equally divided
for and againft him, Minerva interpoled, and gave the
calling vote or calculus in his behalf.
M. Cramer, profeffor at Marpurg, has a difcourfe
exprefs, De Calculo Minervce; wherein he maintains,
that all the effeft an entire equality of voices can have,
is to leave the caufe in Jfatu quo.
Calculus Tiburtinus, a fort of figured ftone, form¬
ed in great plenty about the catarafts of the Anio, and
other rivers in Italy 5 of a white colour, and in lhape
oblong, round, or echinated. They are a fpecies of
the JUria hip idea, or Jlalaffites, and generated like
them ; and fo like fugar plums, that it is a common
jeft at Rome to deceive the unexperienced by ferving
them up as defferts.
Calculus, in Medicine, the difeafe of the ftone in
the bladder, or kidneys. The term is Latin, and fig-
nifies a Utile pebble. The calculus in the bladder is
called lith'wfis ; and in the kidneys, nephritis. See Me-
dicine and Surgery.
Human calculi are commonly formed of different
ftrata or incruftations; fometimes fmooth and heavy
like mineral ftones •, but often rough, fpongy, light,
and full of inequalities or protuberances : chemically
analyzed, or diftilled in an open fire, they nearly yield
the fame principles as urine itfelf, or at leaft an em-
pyreumatic volatile urinous matter, together with a
great deal of air. They never have, nor can have, na¬
turally, any foreign matter for a balls; but they may
Vol. V. Part I.
by accident; an inftance of which is related by Dr Calcutta.
Percival *. A bougie had unfortunately flipped into “
the bladder, and upon it a ftone of confiderable fize Yq\u\'
wras formed in lefs than a year. 'Phis ftone had fop.
much the appearance of chalk, that the doftor was
induced to try whether it could be converted into
quicklime. His experiment fucceeded, both with that
and fome other calculi j from which he conjefluies,
that hard waters which contain calcareous earth may
contribute towards the formation of thefe calculi.
CALCUTTA, the capital of the province of Ben¬
gal, and of all the Britilh poffeffions in the Eaft Indies,
is fituated on the river Huguely, a branch of the
Ganges, about 100 miles from the fea, in N. Lat. 23.
and Long. 88. 28. E. from Greenwich. It is but a
modern city, built on the fite of a village called
Govindpour. The Engliftr firft obtained the Mogul’s
permiflion to fettle in this place in the year 16905 and
Mr Job Charnock, the company’s agent, made choice
of the fpot on which the city Hands, on account of a
large lhady grove which grew there 5 though in other
refpedls it was the worft he could have pitched upon 5
for three miles to the north coaft, there is a fait water
lake, wLich overflows in September, and when the
flood retires in December, leaves behind fuch a quanti¬
ty of fifh and other putrefcent matter, as renders the
air very unhealthy. The cuftom of the Gentoos throw¬
ing the dead bodies of their poor people into the river
is alfo very difguftful, and undoubtedly contributes to
render the place unhealthy, as well as the caufe al¬
ready mentioned.
Calcutta is now become a large and populous city,
being fuppofed at prefent to contain 500,000 inhabi¬
tants. It is elegantly built, at leaft the part inhabited
by the Englifti; but the reft, and that the greateft:
part, is built after the faftiion of the cities of India in
general. The plan of all thefe is nearly the fame 5
their ftreets are exceedingly confined, narrow, and
crooked, with a vaft number of ponds, refervoirs, and
gardens interfperfed. A few of the ftreets are paved
with brick. The houfes are built, fome with brick,
others with mud, and a ftill greater number with bam¬
boos and mats-, all which different kinds of fabrics Hand¬
ing intermixed with one another, form a very uncouth
appearance. The brick houfes are feldom above two
ftories high, but thofe of mud and bamboos are only
one, and are covered with thatch. The roofs of the
brick houfes are flat and terraced. Thefe, however,
are much few?er in number than the other two kinds ;
fo that fires, which often happen, do not fometimes
meet with a brick houfe to obftruft their progrefs in a
whole ftreet. Within thefe 20 or 25 years Calcutta has
been greatly improved both in appearance and in the
falubrity of its air: the ftreets have been properly
drained, and the ponds filled 5 thereby removing a vaft
furface of ftagnant water, the exhalations of which
w7ere particularly hurtful. The citadel is named fort
William, and is fuperior as a fortrefs to any in India ;
but is now on too extenfive a fcale to anfwer the pur-
pofe for which it was intended, viz. the holding a poll
in cafe of extremity. It was begun on this extended
plan by Lord Clive immediately after the battle oi
Plaffey. The expence attending it w’as fuppofed to
amount to twro millions fterling.
Calcutta is the emporium of Bengal, and the refi-
I dence
CAL [66
Calcutta, dence of the governor general of India. Its flourifh-
u—v * ing (late may in a great meafure be fuppofed owing to
the unlimited toleration of all religions allowed here 5
the Pagans being fuffered to carry their idols in pro-
ceffion, the Mahomedans not being difcountenanced,
and the Roman Catholics being allowed a church.—
At about a mile’s diftance from the town is a plain
•where the natives annually undergo a very ftrange kind
of penance on the 9th of April j fome for the (ins
they have committed, others for thofe the) may com¬
mit, and others in confequence of a vow made by their
parents. This ceremony is performed in the follow¬
ing manner : Thirty bamboos, each about tne height
of 20 feet, are erefted in the plain above-mentioned.
On the top of thefe they contrive to fix a fwivel, and
another bamboo of thirty feet or more erodes it, at
each end of which hangs a rope. The people pull
down one end of this rope, and the devotee placing
himfelf under it, the bramin pinches up a large piece
of (kin under both the (houlderblades, fometimes m
the breads, and thruds a drong iron hook through
each. Thefe hooks have lines of Indian grafs hanging
to them, which the pried makes fad to the lope at the
end of the crofs bamboo, and at the fame time puts a
fadr round the body of the devotee, laying it loofely
in the hollow of the hooks, led by the (kin’s giving
way, he (hould fall to the ground. When this is done,
the people haul down the other end of the bamboo j
by which means the devotee is immediately lifted up
feet or more from the ground, and they run round
as fad as their legs can carry them. Thus the de¬
votee is thrown out the whole length of the rope,
where, as he fwings, he plays a thoufand antic tricks ;
being painted and dreffed in a very particular manner,
on purpofe to make him look more ridiculous. Some
of them continue fwinging halt an hour, otheis lefs.
The devotees undergo a preparation of four days for
this ceremony. On the fird and thud they abda.n
from all kinds of food* but eat fruit on the other
two. During this time of preparation they walk about
the dreets in their fantadical drefles, dancing to the
GAL
and
fome to exprefs the
run a rod of iron quite
fometimes through their
Calcutta was commonly
found of drums and horns *
greater ardour of devotion,
through their tongues, and
cheeks alfo.
Before the war of 1755,
garrifonedby 300 Europeans, who were frequently em¬
ployed in conveying the company’s veffels from Patna,
loaded with faltpetre, piece goods, opium, and raw
filk. The trade of Bengal alone fupplied rich cargoes
for 50 or 60 drips annually, befides what was carried
on in finall veffels to the adjacent countries. It was
this douridring date of Calcutta that probably was. one
motive for the nabob Surajah Dowla to attack it m
the year 1756. Having had the fort of Coflimbuzar
delivered up to him, he marched againd Calcutta with
all his forces, amounting to 70,000 horfe and foot,
with 400 elephants, and in veiled the place on the 15 th
of June. Previous to any hodihties, however, he wrote
a letter to Mr Drake the governor, offering to with¬
draw his troops, on condition that he would pay him
his duty on the trade for 15 years pad, defray the
expence of his army, and deliver up the black mer¬
chants who were in the fort. This being refufed, he
attacked one of the redoubts at the entrance of the
town * but was repulfed with great daughter. On the Calcutta-.
16th he attacked another advanced pod, but was like-'
wife repulfed with great lofs. Nothwithdanding this
difappointment, however, the attempt was renewed on
the J 8th, when the troops abandoned thefe pods, and
retreated into the fort *, on which the nabob’s troops
entered the town, and plundered it for 24 hours. An
order was then given for attacking the fort * for which
purpofe a fmall breadwork was thrown up, and two
twelve pounders mounted upon it * but without firing
oftener than two or three times an hour. The go¬
vernor then called a council of war, when the captain
of the train informed them, that there was not am¬
munition in the fort to ferve three days 5 in confe¬
quence of which the principal ladies were lent on board
the (hips lying before the fort. They were followed
by the governor, who declared himfelf a Quaker, and
left the place to be defended by Mr Holwell the fecond
in council. Befides the governor, four of the coun¬
cil, eight gentlemen of the company’s fervice, four
officers, and ico foldiers, with 52 free merchants, cap¬
tains of drips, and other gentlemen, efcaped on board
the drips, where were alfo 59 ladies, with 33 of their
children. The whole number left in the fort was about
250 effeftive men, with Mr Holwell, four captains,
five lieutenants, fix enfigns, and five ferjeants ; as alfo
14 fea captains, and 29 gentlemen of the fa&ory. Mr
Holwell then having held a council of war, divided
thtt* cheds of treafure among the difeontented fol¬
diers, making them large promifes alfo, jf they be¬
haved with courage and fidelity * after which he bold¬
ly dood on the defence of the place, notwithdanding
the immenfe force which oppofed him. dhe attack
was very vigorous * the enemy having got poffefficn of
the houfes, galled the Englidr from thence, and drove
them from the badions * but they themfelves were
feveral times didodged by the fire from the fort,
which killed an incredible number, with the lofs ot
only five Englidr foldiers the fird day. The attack,
however, w^as continued till the afternoon of the 20th*
when many of the garrifon being killed and wounded,
and their ammunition almod exhauded, a dag of truce
was hung out. Mr Holwell intended to have availed
himfelf of this opportunity to make his efcape on
board the (hips, but they had fallen feveral miles
down from the fort, without leaving even a (ingle
boat to facilitate the efcape of thofe who remained.
In the mean time, however, the back-gate w-as be¬
trayed by the Dutch guard, and the enemy, entering the
fort, killed all they fird met, and took the red. prifoners.
The fort w^as taken before fix in the evening * and,
in an hour after, Mr Holwell had three audiences of
the nabob, the lad being in the durbar or council.
In all of thefe the governor had the mod pofitive af-
furances that no harm (hould happen to any of the
prifoners * but he was furprifed and enraged at finding
only 5000I. in the fort, indead of the immenfe trea-
fures he expe&ed * and to this as w?ell as perhaps to the
refentment of the jemmidaars or officers, of whom many
were killed in the fiege, we may impute the catadrophe
that followed.
As foon as it was dark, the Englifh priloners, to
the number of 146, were diredted by the jemmidaars
who guarded them, to collea themfelves into one
body, and fit down quietly under the arched veranda,
^ or
G A L [ 67
Calcutta, or piazza, to the weftward of the Black Hole priion.
Befides the guard over them, another was placed at
the fouth end of this veranda, to prevent the efcape of
any of them. About 500 gunmen, with lighted
matches, were drawn up on the parade •, and foon af«
ter the faftory was in flames to the right and left of
the prifoners, who had various conjeftures on this ap¬
pearance. The fire advanced with rapidity on both
fides j and it was the prevailing opinion of the Eng-
lifli, that they were to be fuffocated between the two
fires. On this they foon came to a refolution of ruffl¬
ing on the guard, feizing their fcimitars, and attack¬
ing the troops upon the parade, rather than be thus
tamely roafted to death : but Mr Holwell advanced,
and found the Moors were only fearching for a place
to confine them in. At the time Mr Holwell might
have made his efcape, by the afliftance of Mr Leech,
the conTpany’s fmith, who had efcaped when the
Moors entered the fort, and returned juft as it was
dark, to tell Mr Holwell he had provided a boat,
and rvould enfure his efcape, if he would follow him
through a paffage few were acquainted with, and by
which he then entered. This might eafily have been
accomplifhed, as the guard took little notice of E 5
hut Mr Holwell told Mr Leech, he was refolved to
(hare the fate of the gentlemen and the garrifon j to
which Mr Leech gallantly replied, that “ then he was
refolved to {hare Mr Holwell’s fate, and would not
leave him.”
The guard on the parade advanced, and ordered
them all to rife and go into the barracks. Then, with
their mulkets prefented, they ordered them to go into
the Black Hole prifon ; while others, with clubs and
fcimitars, prefled upon them fo ftrong, that there was
no refilling it; but, like one agitated wave impelling
another, they were obliged to give way and enter j
the reft following like a torrent. Few among them,
the foldiers excepted, had the leaft idea of the di-
menfions or nature of a place they had never feen ^ for
if they had, they (flould at all events have ruihed upon
the guard, and been cut to pieces by their own choice
as the lefler evil.
It was about eight o’clock when thefe 146 unhappy
perfons, exhaufted by continual aftion and fatigue,
were thus crammed together into a dungeon about
eighteen feet fquare, in a clofe fultry night in Bengal;
fhut up to the eaft and fouth, the only quarters from
whence air could reach them, by dead walls, and by
a wall and door to the north •, open only to the weft
by two windows, ftrongly barred with iron, from
which they could receive fcarce any circulation of freflr
They had been but few minutes confined before
every one fell into a perfpiratjon fo profufe, that no
Idea can be formed of it. This brought on a raging
thirft, which increafed in proportion as the body was
Brained of its moifture. Various expedients were
thought of to give more room and air.. Every man
was ftripped, and every hat put in motion : they, fe-
veral times fat down on their hams ; but at each time
feveral of the poor creatures fell, and were inftantly
fuffocated or trode to death.
Before nine o’clock every man’s thirft grew into¬
lerable, and refpiration difficult. Efforts were again
made to force the door 3 but ftill in vain. Many m-
1
CAL
fults were ufed to the guards, to provoke them to fire
in upon the prifoners, who grew outrageous, and
many delirious. “ Water, water,” became the ge¬
neral cry. Some water was brought : but thefe iup-
plies, like fprinkling water on fire, only ferved to
raife and feed the flames. The confufion became ge¬
neral and horrid from the cries and ravings for water;
and fome were trampled to death. This fcene of mi-
fery proved entertainment to the brutal wretches
without, who fupplied them with water, that they
might have the fatisfa&ion of feeing them fight
for it, as they phrafed it } and held up lights to the
bars, that they might lole no part of the inhuman di-
verfion.
Before eleven o’clock, moft of the gentlemen were
dead, and one-third of the whole. 1 hirft grew into¬
lerable : but Mr Holwell kept his mouth moift by
fucking the perfpiration out of his (flirt fleeyes, and
catching the drops as they fell, like heavy rain, fiom
his head and face. By half an hour after eleven, moft
of the living were in an outrageous delirium. They
found that water heightened their uneafinefs j and
“ Air, air*” rvas the general cry. Every infult that
could be devifed againft the guard 5 all the opprobrious
names that the viceroy and his officers could be loaded
with, were repeated, to provoke the guard to fire upon
them. Every man had eager hopes of meeting the firft
{hot. Then a general prayer to heaven, to haften the ap¬
proach of the flames to the right and left 01 them, and
put a period to their milery. Some expired on others ^
while a fleam arofe as well from the living as the dead,
which was very offenfive.
About two in the morning, they crowded fo much
to the windows, that many died Handing, unable to fall
by the throng and equal preflure round. When the
day broke, the flench anfing from the dead bodies was
infufferable. At that junflurc, the foubah, who had
received an account of the havock death had made
among them, fent one of his officers to inquire if the
chief furvived. IVIr Holwell was ihorvn to himj and
near fix, an order came for their releafe.
Thus they had remained in this infernal pnfon
from eight at night until fix in the morning, when
the poor remains of 146 fouls, being only 23, came
out alive 5 but moft of them in a high putrid fever.
The dead bodies were dragged out of the hole by the
foldiers, and thrown promifcuoufly into the ditch .of
an unfinifhed ravelin, which was afterwards filled with
The injuries which Calcutta fuffered at this time,
however, were foon repaired. Ihe place was retaken
by Admiral Watfon and Colonel Clive, early in
1737 ; Surajah Dowla was defeated, depofed, and put
to death •, and Meer Jaffier, who fucceeded him in
the nabobfhip, engaged to pay an immenfe fum for
the indemnification of the inhabitants. Since that
time, the immenfe acquifition of territory by the Bn-
tifh in this part of the world, with the conftant ftate oi
fecurity enjoyed by this city, have given an opportunity
of embellifhing and improving it greatly beyond what
it was before.—Among thefe improvements we may
reckon that of Sir William Jones, who on the .15th
of January 1784* inftituted a fociety for inquiring
into the hiftory civil and natural, the antiquities, arts,
fciences, and literature of Afia ; and thus the literature
I 2
Calcutta
GAL [ 68 1 CAL
Caldarium of Europe, and along with it, it is to be hoped, the
Ci'JLr artS humanity» beneficence, and peace, have at
wood. length obtained a footing in the rich empire of Indof-
w—y—tan, fo long a prey to the rapine and violence of ty
rants and ufurpers.
CALDARIUM, in the ancient baths, denoted a
brazen vefifel or ciftern, placed in the hypocauftum,
full of hot water, to be drawn thence into the pifcina
or bath, to give it the necefl'ary degree of heat. In
this fenfe the caldarium Hood contradiftinguifhed from
the tepidanum and frigidarium.
Caldarium, alfo denoted the Hove, or fudatory,
being a clofe vaulted room, wherein by hot dry fumes,
without water, people were brought to a profufe fweat.
In which fenfe, caldarium was the fame with what
was otherwife denominated vaporarium,fudatorimn, and
lacomum ; in the Greek baths, hypocaujlum, iTroxavrov.
CALDERINUS, Domitius, a learned critic, born
at Calderia near Verona. He read leftures upon po¬
lite literature at Rome with great reputation j and
was the firft who ventured to write upon the moll
difficult of the ancient poets. He died very young in
1477.
CALDERON de la Barca, Dom Pedro, a Span •
ifh officer, who after having fignalized himfelf in the
military profeffion, quitted it for the ecclefiallical,
and then commenced dramatic writer. His dramatic
works make 9 vols. in 410. and fome Spanilh authors
have compared him to Shakefpeare. He flourilhed
about the year 1640.
CALDERWOOD, David, a famous divine of
the church of Scotland, and a diltinguiffied writer in
behalf of the Prefbyterians, was defcended of a good
family in that kingdom ; and being early defigried for
the miniftry, he applied with great diligence to the
itudy of the Scriptures in their original tongues, the
Avorks of the fathers, the councils, and the bell wait¬
ers on church hillory. He was fettled about the year
1604 at Crelling near Jedburgh. King James I. of
Great Britain, being defirous of bringing the church
of Scotland nearer to a conformity with that of Eng¬
land, laboured earnellly to rellore the epifcopal autho¬
rity, and enlarge the powers of the bilhops who were
then in Scotland. This defign was very warmly oppof-
ed by many of the rainillers, and particularly by Mr
David Calderwood ; who, when Mr James Law, bi-
Ihop of Orkney, came to vifit the prefbyteries of Merfe
and Tiviotdale, declined his jurifdidlion by a paper
under his hand dated May 5. 1608. But the king
having its fuccefs much at heart, fent the earl of Dunbar,
then high-treafurer of Scotland, with Dr Abbot, after¬
ward archbifhop of Canterbury, and two other divines,
into that kingdom, with inltrudlions to employ every
method to perfuade both the clergy and laity of his
majelly’s fincere defire to promote the good of the
church, and of his zeal for the Protellant religion.
Mr Calderwood did not affill at the general affembly
held at Glafgow June 8. 1610, in which Lord Dun¬
bar prefided as commiffioner ; and it appears from his
writings, that he looked upon every thing tranfadled
in it as null and void.. In May follorving, King James
went to Scotland j and on the 17th of June held a par¬
liament at Edinburgh. At that time the clergy met in
one of the churches, to hear and advife with the bi-
Jhops, which kind of affembly, it fe.ems3. was contriv¬
ed in order to refemble the Englifh convocation. Mr Calder-
Calderwood was prefent at it, but declared publicly wooci-
that he did not take any fuch meetings to refemble a
convocation ; and being oppofed by Dr Whitford and
Dr Hamilton, who were friends to the bifhops, he took
his leave of them in thefe words : “ It is abfurd to fee
men fitting in filks and fatins, and to cry poverty in
the kirk, when purity is departing.” The parliament
proceeded in the meanwhile in the defpatch of bufinefs 5
and Mr Calderwood, with feveral other minifters, be¬
ing informed that a bill was depending to empower the
king, with the advice of the archbiiffiops, bifhops, and
fuch a number of the minillry as his majelly ftiould
think proper, to confider and conclude as to matters
decent for the external policy of the church, not re¬
pugnant to the word of God ; and that fuch conclu-
fions fhould have the ilrength and porver of ecclefialli¬
cal laws : againll this they protelied, for four reafons.
x. Becaite their church was fo perfedl, that, inllead
of needing reformation, it might be a pattern to others.
2. General affemblies, as now ellablilhed by larv, and
Avhich ought always to continue, might by this means
be overthrown. 3. Becaufe it might be a means of
creating fchifm, and diilurb the tranquillity of the
church. 4. Becaufe they had received affurances, that
no attempts Ihould be made to bring them to a confor¬
mity with the church of England. They defired there¬
fore, that, for thefe and other reafons, all thoughts of
palling fuch a lawr might be laid afide : but in cafe this
be not done, they protell for themfelves and their bre¬
thren who lhall adhere to them, that they can yield no
obedience to this law, when it lhall be enadled, becaufe
it is delirudlive of the liberty of the church 5 and there¬
fore lhall fubmit to fuch penalties, and think themfelves
obliged to undergo luch punilhments, as may be in-
Hi6led on them for difobeying that law. This protell
was figned by Mr Archibald Simfon on behalf of the
members, wffio fubfcribed another feparate roll, Avhich
he kept for his jullification. This protell svas prefent-
ed to the clerk regiller, who refufed to read it before
the Hates in parliament. However, though not read,
it had its effebl 5 for although the bill had the confent
of parliament, yet the king thought fit to caufe it to be
laid alide, and not long after called a general affembly
at St Andrew’s. Soon after the parliament xvas dif-
folved, and Mr Calderwood was fummoned to appear
before the high-commiffion court at St Andrew’s, on
the 8th of July following, to anfwer for his muti¬
nous and feditious behaviour. July 10th, the king
came to that city in perfon; when Mr Caldenvood, be¬
ing called upon, and refufing to comply with what the
king in perfon required of him, was committed to prifon*
Afterwards the privy council, according to the power
exercifed by them at that time, directed him to ba-
nilh himfelf out of the king’s dominions before Michael¬
mas next j and not to return without licenfe. Having
applied to the king for a prorogation of his fentence
v?ithout fuccefs, becaufe he would neither acknowledge
his offence, nor promife conformity for the future, he
retired to Holland, where, in 1623, he publiffied his
celebrated piece entitled Slltare Damafcenum. Mr Gal-
dervvood having in the year 1624 been affliiffed with
a long fit of ficknefs, and nothing having been heard
of him for fome time, one Mr Patrick Scot, as Cal-
derwood himfelf informs us, took it for granted that
lie
CAL
[ 69 ]
CAL
Caldron he was dead ; and thereupon wrote a recantation in his
' || name, as if, before his deceafe, he had changed his fen-
Caledonia, timents. This impofture being detected, Scott went
 ' over to Holland, and ftaid three weeks at Amfterdam,
where he made a diligent fearch for the author of Al-
tare Damafcenum, with a defign to have defpatched
him. But Calderwood had privately retired into his
own country where he lived feveral years. Scott gave
out that the king had furnilhed him writh the matter
for the pretended recantation, and that he only put it
in order. During his retirement, Mr Calderwood col-
lefled all the memorials relating to the ecclefiaftical af¬
fairs of Scotland, from the beginning of the reforma¬
tion theje down to the death of Bing James •, which
collection is (till preferved in the univerfity library of
Glafgow j that which was publifhed under the title of
‘4 The True Hiftory of Scotland,” is only an extraft
from it. In the advertifement prefixed to the lalt edi¬
tion of his Altare Damafcenum mention is made of his
being minifter of Pencaitland near Edinburgh in 1638,
but we find nothing faid there, or anywhere elfe, of
his death.
CALDRON, a large kitchen utenfil, commonly
made of copper; having a moveable iron handle, ■where¬
by to hang it on the chimney hook. The word is
formed from the Trench chaudroiiy or rather the Latin
caldarium.
Boiling in Caldrons {caldariis decoquere), is a capi¬
tal punilhment fpoken of in the middle-age writers,
decreed to divers fort of criminals, but chiefly to de-
bafers of the coin. One of the torments infliaed on
the ancient Chriftian martyrs, was boiling in caldrons
of water, oil, &c. _
'CALDWALL, Richard, a learned Enghfn phy-
fician, born in Staffordlhire about the year 1513. He
ftudied phyfic in Brazen-nofe College, Oxford ; and
was examined, admitted into, and made cenfor of, the
College of Phyficians at London, all in one day.. Six
weeks after he was chofen one of the ekas; and in the
year 1570, he w7as made prefident of that college. Mr
Wood tells us, that he wrote feveral pieces in his pro^
feffion ; but he does not tell us what they were, only
that he tranllated a book on the art of furgery, wuitten
by one Horatio More, a Florentine phyfician.. We
learn from Camden, that Caldwall founded a chirurgi-
cal kaure in the College of Phyficians, and endowed
it with a handfome falary. He died in 15S5.
CALEA. See Botany Index.
CALEB, one of the deputies fent by the Ifraelites
to take a view7 of the land of Canaan. He made a
good report of the country, and by this means revived
the fpirits of the dejeaed people ; on which account,
he and }ofhua were the only perfons who, after their
kaving'Egypt, fettled in the land of Canaan, oakb
had for his' fhare the mountains and the city of He¬
bron, from which he drove three kings. Othmel his
nephew having taken the city of Debir, Caleb gave
him his daughter Achfah in marriage ; and died, aged
CALEDONIA, the ancient name of. Scotland.
From the teftimonies of Tacitus, Dio, and Solinus, we
find, that the ancient Caledonia comprehended all that
country lying to the north of the rivers Forth and
Clyde. In proportion as the Silures or Cimbri advan¬
ced towards the north, the Caledonians being circum*
fcribed within narrowTer limits, were forced to tranf-Caledonia.
migrate into the ifiands which crowd the weftern coafts 1 v
of Scotland. It is in this period, probably, we ought
to place the firft great migration of the Britifh Gael
into Ireland ; that kingdom being much nearer to the
promontory of Galk>w7ay and Cantire, than many of
the Scotifh ifies are to the continent of North Bri¬
tain.
To the country which the Caledonians pofieffed,
they gave the name of Cael-doch; which is the only ap¬
pellation the Scots, who fpeak the Gaelic language,
know for their ow7n divifion of Britain. Cael-doch is a
compound, made up of Gael or Gael, the firft colony
of the ancient Gauls who tranfmigrated into Britain,
and doch, a diftrift or divifion of a country. The Ro¬
mans, by tranlpofing the letter / in Gael, and by foft-
ening into a Latin termination the ch of dock, formed
the well-known name of Caledonia.
When the tribes of North Britain w7ere attacked by
the Romans, they entered into affociations, that, by
uniting their ftrength, they might be more able to re¬
pel the common ei^emy. The particular name of that
tribe, which either its fuperior pow7er or military repu¬
tation placed at the head of the affociation, was the
general name given by the Romans to all the confede¬
rates.' Hence it is that the Mceats, who with other
tribes inhabited the diftrifts of Scotland lying fouth-
ward of the frith, and the Caledonians, who inhabited
the weft and north-weft parts, have engrofled all. the
glory which belonged in common, though in an infe¬
rior degree, to all the other nations fettled of old in
North Britain. It was for the fame reafon that the
name of Mceatce was entirely forgotten by foreign wri¬
ters after the third century, and that of the Caledonians
themfelves but feldom mentioned after the fourth.
Britons, Caledonians, Masala:, Barbarians, are. the
names conftantly given to the old inhabitants of North
Britain, by Tacitus, Herodian, Dio, Spartian, Vopif-
cus, and other ancient writers. The fucceffors of thefe
Britons, Caledonians, Moeats, and Barbarians, are calk
ed Pi£ts, Scots, and Attacots, by fome Roman , wa¬
ters of the fourth century.
The origin of the appellations Scoti and Pi&i, intro¬
duced by later Roman authors, has occafiotied much
controverfy among the antiquarians of thefe days.
The difpute feems now to be fully decided by fome
learned critics of the prefent century, whofe knowledge
of the Gaelic language aflifted their inveftigation. See
Scotland, Picts, and Highlanders.
Caledonia, the name of a fettlement made by the
Scots on the weft fide of the gulf of Darien, in 1698 ;
out of w7hich they were ftarved at the requeft of the
Eaft India Company; for the Englilh government pro¬
hibited the other colonies fending them any provifions;
fo they were obliged to leave it in i^oo.
New Caledonia, an iiland in the South fea, lately
difcovered- by Captain Cook, and next, to New Hol¬
land and New Zealand, is the largeft ifland that hath
yet been difcovered in that fea. It extends from 19.
37; to 22. 30. S. Lat. and from 163. 37. to 167. 14.
E. Long. Its length from north-w7eft to foutLeaft is
about 80 leagues : but its greateft breadth does not ex¬
ceed ten leagues. This iiland is diverfified with hills and
valleys of vfrious fize and extent. From the hills iffue
abundance of rivulets, which contribute to fertilize toe
plains, ,
CAL
Caledonia, plains. Along its north-eaft (hore the land is flat; and
,'l^~v being avell watered, and cultivated by the inhabitants
after their manner, appeared to great advantage to Cap¬
tain Cook’s people. Was it not, indeed, for thofe
fertile fpots on the plains, the whole country might be
called a dreary wajie: the mountains and higher parts
of the land are in general incapable of cultivation.
They confift chiefly of rocks, many of which are full of
mundic •, the little foil that is upon them is fcorcbed
and burnt up by the fun : it is, however, covered with
coarfe grafs and other plants, and here and there co¬
vered with trees and flnubs. I he country in gcnetal
bears a great refemblance to thofe parts of New South
Wales which lie under the fame parallel of latitude.
Several of its natural produ&ions are the fame, and the
woods are v/ithout underwood as well as in that coun¬
try. The whole coaft feems to be lurrounded by
reefs and fhoals, which render all accefs to it extreme¬
ly dangerous $ but at the fame time guard the coafts
againft the attacks of the wind and fea ; rendering it
«afily navigable along the coaft by canoes, and caufing
it abound with fifh. Every part of the coaft feems to
be inhabited : the plantations in the plains are laid out
with great judgment, and cultivated with much labour.
They begin their cultivation by fetting fire to the grafs,
See. with w'hich the ground is covered, but have no
notion of preferving its vigour by manure 5 they, how¬
ever, recruit it by letting it lie for fome years untouched.
On the beach was found a large irregular mafs of rock,
not. lefs than a cube of ten feet, confifting of a clofe
grained ftone fpeckled full of granites fomcw-hat bigger
than pins heads, from whence it feems probable that
fome valuable minerals may be found on this ifland. It
differs from all the other iflands yet difcovered in the
South fea, by being entirely deflitute of volcanic pro-
duftions. Several plants of a new fpecies were found
here ; and a few young bread-fruit trees, not then fuf-
ficiently grown to bear fruit, feemed to have come up
without culture ; plantains and fugar canes are here
in fmall quantity, and the cocoa-nut trees are fmall
and thinly planted. A new fpecies of paflion flower
•was likewife met with, which was never known to grow
wild anywhere but in America. Several Caputi (Me¬
laleuca) trees were alfo found in flower. Mufquetos
here are very numerous. A great variety of birds was
feen of different claffes, which wrere for the mofl part
entirely new ; particularly a beautiful fpecies of par¬
rot before unknown to zoologiits, A new fpecies of
fifli, of the genus called by Linnseus tetraodon, was
caught here ; and its liver, which was very large, pre-
fented at fupper. Several fpecies of this genus being
reckoned poifonous, and the prefent fpecies being re¬
markably ugly, MeflT. Forfters hinted their fufpicions
of its quality ; but the temptation of a frefh meal, and
the affurances of Captain Cook that he had formerly
eaten this identical fort of fifh without harm, got the
better of their fcruples, and they ate of it. Its oili-
nefs, however, though it had no other bad tafte than
what proceeded from this, prevented them from taking
more than a morfel or two. In a few hours after they
had retired to reft, they were awaked by very alarm¬
ing fymptoms, being all feized with an extreme giddi-
nefs j their hands and feet were numbed, fo that they
were fcarcely able to crawl *, and a violent languor and
9|>prefiion feized them. Emetics were adminiftered
C 70 ]
CAL
writh fome fuccefs, but tudorifics gave the greateft re- Caledonia,
lief. Some dogs who had eaten the remainder of the
liver were likewife taken ill; and a pig which had eaten
the entrails died foon after, having fwelled to an un-
ufual fize. The effects of this poifon on the gentle¬
men did not entirely go off in lefs than fix weeks.—.
Abundance of turtle was feen here. The natives had
not the leaft notion of goats, hogs, dogs, or cats, and
had not even a name for any of them
The inhabitants are very flout, tall, and in general
well proportioned ; their features mild ; their beards
and hair black, and ftrongly frizzled, fo as to be
fomevvhat woolly in fome individuals : their colour is
fwarthy, or a dark chefnut brown. A few were feen
who meafured fix feet four inches. They are remark¬
ably courteous, not at all addifted to pilfering and
ftealing : in which charafter of honefty they are An¬
gular, all the other nations in the South fea being re¬
markably thieviih. Some wear their hair long, and tie
it up to the crown of their heads; others fuffer only a
large lock to grow on each fide, which they tie up in
clubs ; many others, as well as all the women, wear it
cropt fhort. They make ufe of a kind of comb made
of flicks of hard wood, from feven to nine or ten inches
long, and about the thicknefs of knitting needles; a
number of thefe, feldom exceeding 20, but generally
fewer, are faftened together at one end, parallel to and
near one-tenth of an inch from each other : the ends,
which are a little pointed, will fpread out or open like
the flicks of a fan. Thefe combs they always wear in
their hair on one fide of their head. Some had a kind
of concave cylindrical ftiff black cap, which appeared
to be a great ornament among them, and was fuppofed
to be worn only by the chiefs and warriors. A large
flieet of ftrong paper, whenever they got one in ex¬
change, was commonly applied to this purpofe. The
men go naked; only tying a firing round their middle,
and another round their neck. A little piece of a
brown cloth made of the bark of a fig tree, fometimes
tucked up to the belt, and fometimes pendulous,
fcarcely deferves the name of a covering ; nor indeed
does it feem at all intended for that purpofe. This
piece of cloth is fometimes of fuch a length, that the
extremity is faftened to the firing round the neck ; to
this firing they likewdfe hang fmall round beads of
a pale green nephritic ftone. Coarfe garments were
feen among them made of a fort of matting ; but they
feemed never to wear them, except when in their ca¬
noes and unemployed. The women feemed to be in a
fervile ftate : they were the only perfons of the family
who had any employment, and feveral of them brought
bundles of flicks and fuel on their backs ; thofe who
had children carried them on their backs in a kind of
fatchel. The women alfo were feen to dig up the earth
in order to plant it. They are in general of a dark
chefnut, and fometimes mahogany brown ; their fla-
ture middle-fized, fome being rather tall, and their
whole form rather flout and fomewhat clumfy. Their
drefs is the moft disfiguring that can be imagined, and
gives them a thick fquat fhape ; it is a fhort petticoat
or fringe, confifting of filaments or little cords, about
eight inches long, which are faftened to a very long
firing, which they have tied feveral times round their
waift. The filaments, or little ropes, therefore, lie
above each other in feveral layers, forming a kind of
i thick
CAL
Caledonia, thick thatch all round the body, but which does not
' near cover the thigh ; thefe filaments were iometimes
dyed black ; but frequently thofe on the outfide only
were of that colour, the reft being of a dirty gray.
There was not a fingle inftance, during the fhip’s ftay
in this ifiand, of the women permitting any indecent
familiarity with an European : they took pleafure in
pra&ifing the arts of a jilting coquette, but never be¬
came abfolute wantons. The general ornaments of both
fexes are ear-rings of tortoife ftiells 5 necklaces, or
amulets, made of both fhells and ftones } and brace¬
lets made of large fhells, which they wear above the
elbows. . ...
The houfes, or huts, in New Caledonia, are circu¬
lar, fomething like a bee-hive, and full as clofe and
warm •, the entrance is by a fmall door, or long fquare
hole, iuft big enough to admit a man bent, double :
the fide walls are about four feet and a half high ; but
the roof is lofty, and peaked to a point at the top, a-
bove which is a poft or flick of wood, which is gene¬
rally ornamented either with carving or fhells, or
both. The framing is of fmall fpars, reeds, &c. and
both'fades and roof are thick, and clofe covered with
thatch made of coarfe long grafs. In the infide of the
houfe are fet up pofts, to which crofs fpars are fatten¬
ed and platforms made for the convemency of laying
any thing on. Some houfes have two floors, one above
another ■ the tloor is laid with dried grafs, and here
and there mats are fpread for the principal people to fit
or fleep on. In thefe houfes there was no paffage for
the fmoke but through the door: they were intolerably
fmoky, and fo hot as to be infupportable. to thofe
unaccuftomed to them : probably the fmoke is intend¬
ed to drive out the mufquetos which fwarm here.
They commonly erefft two or three of thefe huts near
each other under a clutter of lofty fig trees, whofe leaves
are impervious to the rays of the fun.
The canoes ufed here are very heavy clumfy veffelsj
they are made of two trees hollowed out, having a
railed gunnel about two inches high, and clofed at each
end with a bulk head of the fame height 5 fo that the
whole is like a long fquare trough about three feet
fhorter than the body of the canoe. Two canoes thus
fitted are fattened to each other about three feet Blun¬
der, by means of crofs fpars, which projeft about a
foot over each fide. Over thefe is laid a deck or heavy
platform made of plank and fmall round pars, on
which they have a fire-hearth, and generally a fire
burning; they are navigated by one or two latteen lads,
extended to a fmall latteen yard, the end of which is
fixed in a notch or hole in the deck.
Notwithftanding the inoffenfive difpofition of the in¬
habitants of New Caledonia, they are well provided
with offenfive weapons ; as clubs, fpears, darts, and
flings for throwing ftones. Their clubs are about two
feet and a half long, and varioufly formed ; fome ike
a fey the, others like a pick-axe; fome have a head like
a hawk, and others have round heads; but all are
neatly made ; many of their darts and fpe.ars are no leis
neat and ornamented with carvings. The flings are
as Ample as poflible ; but they take feme pains to form
the ftones that they ufe into a proper fliape, which is
fomething like an egg, fuppofing both ends to be
like the fmall one. They drive the dart by the affift-
ance of fhort cords knobbed at one end and looped
Calectoruii
[ 71 ] .CAL
at the other, called by the feamen bechets. 1 hefe con¬
tain a quantity of red wool taken from the vampyre,
or great Indian bat. Bows and arrows are wholly un¬
known! among them.
Their language bears no affinity to that fpoken in
the other South fea iflands, the word arrekee and
one or twro more excepted. This is the more extra¬
ordinary, as different dialefls of one language were
fpoken not only in the eafterly iflands, but at New
Zealand.
A mufical inftrument, a kind of w’hiftle, was pro¬
cured here. It was a little polifhed piece of brown
wood about two inches long, fliaped like a kind of bell,
though apparently folid, with a rope fixed at the fmall
end ; twm holes w7ere made in it near the bale, and ano¬
ther near the infertion of the rope, all which commu¬
nicated with each other ; and by blowing in the up-
permoft, a fhrill found like whittling was produced :
no other inftrument wras ieen among them that had the
leaft relation to mufic.
Many of the New Caledonians were feen with pro-
digioufly thick legs and arms, which feemed to be af-
fedled with a kind of leprofy ; the fwelling was found
to be extremely hard, but the fkin w7as not alike harih
and fcaly in all thofe who were affli&ed with the dif-
order. The preternatural expanfion of the arm or leg
did not appear to be a great inconvenience ; and
they feemed to intimate that they very rarely felt any
pain in it ; but in fome the diforder began to form
blotches, which are marks of a great degree of viru¬
lence. This difeafe is probably elephantiafis.
Here they bury their dead in the ground. The
grave of a chief who had been flain in battle here re -
fembled a large mole-hill, and was decorated with
fpears, darts, paddles, &c. all ftuck upright in the
ground round about it. Lieutenant I ickerfgill wa ;
(bowed a chief whom they named 'Tea-booma, ftyl-
ed their arrebee or king; but nothing further is known
of their government, and nothing at all of their reli-
gion-
CALEFACTION, the produftion of heat m a
body from the aettion of fire, or that impulfe impreffed
by a hot body on others around it. This word is ufed
in pharmacy, by way of diftinaion from cothon, which
implies boiling ; whereas calefaaion is only heating a
thlCALENBERG, a cattle of Germany, in the duchy'
of Brunfwick and principality of Calenberg. It is
feated on the river Leine, and is 15 miles fouth o:
Hanover. It is fubjea to the duke of Brunfwick Lu-
nenberg, eleaor of Hanover, and king of Great Bri¬
tain. E. Long. 9. 43. N. Lat. 52. 20.
Calenberg, a principality of Lower Saxony, and
one of the three parts of the duchy of Brunfwick, is-
bounded on the north by the duchy of Verden, on the
eaft by the principality of Zell, on the fouth by the
principalities of Grubenhagen and Wolfenbuttle, and
on the weft by Weftphalia. It belongs to the eledor
of Hanover.
CALENDAR, in AJironomy and Chronology, bee
Kalendar. c .. ,
Calendar of prifoners, in Law, a lift of all.the pn-
foners names in the cuftody of each re pe ive e
• ^ ^ Scg the
n CALENDARIUM Flor.s, in Boiany, a calendar article
f _ £xtlUtioH,
CAL [ 72 ] CAL
Calender, containing an exaft regilter of the refpeftive times in
Calenders. t)le plant;s of any given province or climate ger¬
minate, expand, and ihed their leaves and flowers, or
ripen and difperfe their feeds. For particulars on this
curious fubjeft, fee the articles Defoliatio, Efflo-
RESCENTIA, FrON DES C E N TI A, FrUCTESCENT I A, and
Germinatio.
CALENDER, a machine ufed in manufaflories to
prefs certain woollen and lilken fluffs and linens, to
make them fmooth, even, and glofly, or to give them
waves, or water them, as may be feen in mohairs and
tabbies. This inftrument is compofed of two thick
cylinders or rollers, of very hard and well polifhed
wood, round which the fluffs to be calendered are
wound : thefe rollers are placed crofs-wife between two
very thick boards, the lower ferving as a fixed bafe,
and the upper moveable by means of a thick ferew
with a rope faffened to a fpindle, which makes its ax¬
is : the uppermoft board is loaded with large ftones
weighing 20,ooolb. or more. At Paris they have an
extraordinary machine of this kind, called the royal
calender, made by order of M. Colbert. The lower
table or plank is made of a block of fmooth marble,
and the upper is lined with a plate of polifhed copper.
The alternate motion of the upper board fometimes one
way and fometimes another, together with the prodi¬
gious weight laid upon it, gives the fluffs their glofs
and fmoothnefs j or gives them the waves, by making
the cylinders on which they are put roll with great
force over the undermoft board. When they would
put a roller from under the calender, they only incline
the undermoft board of the machine. The drefling
alone, with the many turns they make the ftaffs and
linens undergo in the calender, gives the waves, or
waters them, as the workmen call it. It is a miftake
to think, as fome have afferted, and Mr Chambers a-
mong others, that they ufe rollers with a fhallow in¬
denture or engraving cut in them.
Calender of Monteith, a diftrict in the fouth-
■weff corner of Perthfhire in Scotland, from which
a branch of the ancient family of Livingftone had
the title of earl. The chief feat of the family near
Falkirk is alfo called Calender. Both eftate and title
were forfeited in confequence of the poffeffor being
engaged in the rebellion 1715.
CALENDERS, a fort of Mahometan friars, fo
called from Santon Calenderi their founder. This San-
ton went bareheaded, without a fhirt, and with the
fldn of a wild beaft thrown over his fhoulders. He
wore a kind of apron before, the firings of which were
adorned with counterfeit precious flones. His difciples
are rather a fe£t of epicures than a fociety of religi¬
ous. They honour a tavern as much as they do a
mofque 5 and think they pay as acceptable wTorlhip to
God by the free ufe of his creatures, as others do by
the greateff aufterities and a£ls of devotion. They are
Called, in Perfia and Arabia, Abdals, or Abdallat.,
i. e. perfons confectated to the honour and fervice of
God. Their garment is a Angle coat, made up of a
variety of pieces, and quilted like a rug. They preach
in the market places, and live upon what their auditors
beftow’ on them. They are generally very vitious per¬
fons : for which reafon they are not admitted into any
. houfes. 2
CALENDS, in Roman antiquity. See Kalends. Calends
CALENDULA, the marigold. See Botany II •>
Index.
CALENTIUS, Elisius, a Neapolitan poet and' " v
profe author. He was preceptor to Frederick the fon
of Ferdinand king of Naples, and the earliefl writer on
the illegality of putting criminals to death, except for
murder. He died in 1503.
CALENTURE, a feverifh diforder incident to fai-
lors in hot countries ; the principal fymptom of which
is their imagining the fea to be green fields: hence,
attempting to walk abroad in thefe imaginary places of
delight, they are frequently loft. Vomiting, bleeding,
a fpare diet, and the neutral falts, are recommended
in this diforder j a Angle vomit commonly removing
the delirium, and the cooling medicines completing
the cure.
CALEPIN, Ambrosius, an Auguftine monk of
Calepio, whence he took his name, in the 16th cen¬
tury. He is author of a didlionary of eight languages,
Ance augmented by Pafferat and others.
CALES, in Ancient Geography, a municipal city of
fome note in Campania, at no great diftance from Ca-
Alinum. The epithet Calenus is by Horace and Juve¬
nal applied to a generous wine which the territory pro¬
duced.
CALETES, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Gallia Celtica, on the confines of Belgica, fituated be¬
tween the fea and the Sequana. Now called le Paix
de Caux, in Normandy.
CALETURE, a fort on the ifland of Ceylon, at
the mouth of a river of the fame name. The Dutch
became mafters of it in 1655 ; but were afterwards ob¬
liged to leave it. E. Long. So. 51. N. Lat. 6. 38.
CALF, in 'Zoology, the young of the ox kind.
There are two ways of breeding calves that are in¬
tended to be reared. The one is to let the calf run
about wdth its dam all the year round ; which is the
method in the cheap breeding countries, and is gene¬
rally allow'ed to make the beft cattle. The other is
to take them from the dam after they have fucked a-
bout a fortnight : they are then to be taught to drink
flat milk, which is to be made but juft w7arm for them,
it being very dangerous to give it them too hot. The
beft time of weaning calves is from January to May :
they fhould have milk for T 2 weeks after $ and a fort¬
night before that is left off, wTater fhould be mixed with
the milk in larger and larger quantities. When the
calf has been fed on milk for about a month, little
wTifps of hay fhould be placed all about him in cleft
flicks to induce him to eat. In the beginning of
April they fhould be turned out to grafs ; only for a
few days they fhould be taken in for the night, and
have milk and water given them : the fame may alfo
be given them in a pail fometimes in the field, till they
are fo able to feed themfelves that they do not regard
it. The grafs they are turned into mull not be too
rank, but fhort and fweet, that they may like it, and
yet get it with fome labour. Calves fhould always be
weaned at grafs ; for if it be done with hay and w'ater,
they often grow big-bellied on it, and are apt to rot.
When thofe among the males are feledled which are to
be kept as bulls, the reft Ihould be gelt for oxen : the
foonej the better. Between xo and 20 days is a pro¬
per
CAL
[ 73 1
CAL
Calf< per About London alinoft h11 tne calves aie fat¬
ted for the butcher. The reafon of this is, that there
is a good market for them 5 and the lands there are not
fo profitable to breed upon as in cheaper countries.
The way to make calves fat and fine is, the keeping
them very clean : giving them frefti litter every day :
and the hanging a large chalk ftone_ in fome corner
where they can eafily get at it to lick it, but where it
is out of the way of being fouled by their dung and
urine. The coops are to be placed fo as not to have
too much fun upon them, and fo high above the ground
that the urine may run off. They alfo bleed them
once when they are a month old, and a fecond time
before they kill them j which is a great addition to the
beauty and whitenefs of their flefh : the Weeding is by
fome repeated much oftener, but this is fufficient.
Calves are very apt to be loofe in their bowels j which
waffes and very much injures them. I he remedy is
to give them chalk feraped among milk, pouring it
down with a horn. If this does not fucceed, they
give them bole armenic in large dofes, and ufe the coid
bath every morning. If a cow will not let a ftrange
calf fuck her, the common method is to rub both her
nofe and the calf’s with a little brandy ; this general¬
ly reconciles them after a few fmellmgs. ^
Golden'Calt, an idol fet up and worlhipped by the
Ifraelites at the foot of Mount Sinai, in their paffage
through the wildernefs to the land of Canaan. Our
verfion makes Aaron falhion this calf with a graving
tool after he had caff it in a mould : the Geneva tranf-
lation makes him engrave it firft, and caff it afterwards.
Others, with more probability, render the whole verfe
thus : “ And Aaron received them (the golden ear¬
rings), and tied them up in a bag,, and got them caff
into a molten calfwhich verfion is authorifed by the
different fenfes of the word t%ur, which fignifies to tie
up or bind, as well as to fhape or^ form 5 and of the
word cherret, which is ufed both for a graving tool
and a bag. Some of the ancient fathers have been of
opinion that this idol had only the face of a caxf, and
the fhape of a man from the neck downwards, in imi¬
tation of the Egyptian Ifis. . Others have thought it
was only the head of an ox without a body.. But the
xnoft general opinion is, that it was an entire calf m
imitation of the Apis worfhipped by the Egyptiansj
among whom, no doubt, the Ifraelites had acquired
their propenfity to idolatry. This calf Moles is laid to
have burnt with fire, reduced to powder, and ftrewed
upon the water which the people were to drink. How
this could be accomplifhed hath been a queftion. Moft
people have thought, that as gold is indeffrucffible it
could only be burnt by the miraculous power of God ;
but M. Stahl conjectures that Mofes diffolved it by
r/ means of liver of fulphur *. The Rabbins tell us
dfi “7 the people were made to drank of th.S wate^.n or-
d:x der to diftinguifh the idolaters from the reft ; for that
as foon as they had drunk of it, the beards of the for¬
mer turned red. The Cabbalifts add, that the calf
■weighed 125 quintals j which they gather from the
Hebrew word mafiekah, whofe numerical letters make
12 /• r,
Gaits Shins, in the leather manufacture, are prepa¬
red and dreffed by the tanners, fkinners, and curriers,
who fell them for the ufe of the fhoeraakers, laddlers,
Vol. V. Part I.
bookbinders, and other artificers, who employ them in
their feveral manufactures. '. _
Galt Skin drejfied in fumach, denotes the fkin of this
animal curried black on the hair fide, and dyed of an
orange colour on the flefii fide, by means of fumach,
chiefiy ufed in the making of belts.
The Englifh calf-lkin is much valued abroad, and
the commerce thereof very confiderable in France and
other countries-, where divers attempts have been made
to imitate it, but hitherto in vain. What is like to
baffle all endeavours for imitating the Englifh calf in
France is, the fmallnefs and weaknefs of the calves
about Paris which at 15 days old are not fo big as
the Englifh ones when they come into the world.
Sea Galt. See Phoca, Mammalia W<?.r.
CALI, a town of Popayan in South America, feat*
ed in a valley of the fame name on the river Cauca.
The governor of the province ufuaily refides there.
Wr. Long. 78. 5. N. Lat. 3. 15.
CALIBER, or Calliper, properly denotes the
diameter of any body j thus we fay, two columns of
the fame caliber, the caliber of the bore of a gun, the
caliber of a bullet, &c.
Caliber Compajfes, a fort of compaffes made with
arched legs to take the diameter of round or fwelling
bodies. See Compasses.
Caliber compaffes are chiefly ufed by gunners for
taking the diameters of the feveral parts of a piece of
ordnance, or of bombs, bullets, Sec. Their legs aie
therefore circular; and move on an arch of brafs,
whereon is marked the inches and half inches, to fhow
how far the points of the compaffes are opened afun-
dcr.
Some are alfo made for taking the diameter of the
bore of a gun or mortar.
The gaugers alfo fometimes ufe calibers, to em¬
brace the two heads of any calk, in order to find its
length. , .
The caliber ufed by carpenters and joiners,, is a
piece of board notched triangular-wife in the middle
for the taking of meafure.
Caliber Rule, or Gunners Callipers, is an muru-
ment wherein a right line is fo divided as that the firft
part being equal to the diameter of an iron or leaden
ball of one pound weight, the other parts are to the
firft as the diameters of balls of two, three, four, &c.
pounds are to the diameter of a ball of one pound.^
The caliber is ufed by engineers,, from the weight of
the ball given, to determine its diameter or caliber, or
vice verfia. .
The gunners callipers confift of two thin plates ot
brafs joined by a rivet, fo as to move quite round each
other : its length from the centre of the joint is be¬
tween fix inches and a foot, and its breadth from, one
to two inches -, that of the moft convenient fize is a-
bout nine inches long. Many feales, tables, and pro-
poitions, &c. may be introduced on this inftrument-,
but none are effential to it, except thofe for taking the
caliber of {hot and cannon, and for meafurmg the
magnitude of faliant and entering angles. The moft
complete callipers is exhibited Plate CXXXIIL the
furniture and ufe of which we (hall now briefly de-
feribe. Let the four faces of this inftrument be diitin-
guifhed by the letters A, ^B, C, D: A and D confitt
Cali.
Caliber.
CAL [ 74 ] CAL
Cahber. of a circular head and leg j B and C confxft only of a
—v le&
On the circular head adjoining to the leg of the face
A are divifions denominated Jlot diameters; which
fhow the diftance in inches and tenths of an inch of the
points of the callipers when they are opened ; fo that
if a hall not exceeding ten inches be introduced be¬
tween them, the bevil edge E marks its diameter
among thefe divifions.
On the circular bevil part E of the face B is a fcale
of divifions diftinguilhed by lb. xveight of iron Jhot.
When the diameter of any fliot is taken between the
points of the callipers, the inner edge of the leg A
fhows its weight in avoirdupois pounds, provided it be
lib. 4, i, i4, 2, 3, 4, yi, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, 24, 26,
32, 36, or 42 ; the figures nearer! the bevil edge an-
Iwering to the ftiort lines in the fcale, and thofe be¬
hind them to the longer ftrokes. This fcale is con-
ftrudled on the following geometrical theorem, viz.
that the weights of fpheres are as the cubes of their
diameters.
On the lower part of the circular head of the face
A is a fcale of divifions marked bores of guns; for the
life of which, the legs of the callipers are Hipped acrofs
each other, till the Heel points touch the concave fur-
face of the gun in its greateft breadth *, then the bevil
edge F of the face B will cut a divifion in the fcale
fhowing the diameter of the bore in inches and
ten hs.
Within the faales of [hot and bore diameters on the
circular part of A, are divifions marked pounders : the
inner figures 4, i4-» 3, 8, 12, 18, 26, 36, corre-
fpond to the longeft lines } and the figures, 1, 2, 4, 6,
9, 16, 24, 32, 42, to the fhort flrokes. When the
bore of a gun is taken between the points of the calli¬
pers, the bevil edge F will either cut or be near one of
thefe divifions, and fhow the weight of iron fhot pro¬
per for that gun.
On the upper half of the circular head of the face A
are three concentric fcales of degrees ; the outer fcale
confifting of 180 degrees numbered from right to left,
10, 20, &c. the middle numbered the contrary way,
and the outer fcale beginning at the middle, with o,
and numbered on each fide to 90 degrees. Thefe
fcales ferve to take the quantity of an angle, either
entering or faliant. For an entering or internal angle,
apply the legs of the callipers fo that its outward edges
coincide with the legs of the given angle, the degree
cut by the bevil edge F in the outer fcale fliow's the
meafure of the angle fought : for a faliant or external
angle, flip the legs of the callipers acrofs each other,
fo that their outward edges may coincide with the
legs forming the angle, and the degree marked on the
middle fcale by the bevil edge E will fhow the meafure
of the angle required. The inner fcale will ferve to
determine the elevation of cannon and mortars, or of
any oblique plane. Let one end of a thread be fixed
into the notch on the plate B, and any weight tied to
the other end : apply the ffraight fide of the plate A
to the fide of the body whofe inclination is fought;
hold it in this pofition, and move the plate B, till the
thread falls upon the line near the centre markedperp.
Then will the bevil edge F cut the degrees on the in¬
ner fcale, fhowing the inclination of that body to the
horizon.
On the face C near the point of the callipers is a
little table fhowing the proportion of troy and avoirdu¬
pois rveights, by which one kind of weight may be ea-
fily reduced into another.
Near the extreme of the face D of the callipers are
two tables fhowing the proportion between the pounds
weight of London and Paris, and alfo between the
lengths of the foot meafure of England and France.
Near the extreme on the face A is a table contain¬
ing four rules of the circle and fphere ; and geometri¬
cal figures with numbers annexed to them : the firft is
a circle including the proportion in round numbers of
the diameter to its circumference , the fecond is a cir¬
cle, infcribed in a fquare, and a fquare within that cir¬
cle, and another circle in the inner fquare : the num¬
bers 28, 22, above this figure exhibit the proportion
of the outward fquare to the area of the infcribed cir¬
cle ; and the numbers 14, 11, below it, fhow the pro¬
portion between the area of the infcribed fquare and
the area of its infcribed circle. The third is a cube
infcribed in a fphere ; and the number 894 fhows that
a cube of iron, infcribed in a fphere of 12 inches in
diameter, weighs 894. The fourth rs a fphere in a
cube, and the number 243 exprefles the weight in
pounds of a fphere infcribed in a cube whofe fide is r 2
inches : the fifth reprefents a cylinder and cone of one
foot diameter and height : the number in the cylinder
fhows, that an iron cylinder of that diameter and
height weighs 364.51b. and the number 121.5 in the
cone expreffes the weight of a cone, the diameter of
whofe bafe is i 2 inches, and of the fame height : the
fixth figure fhows that an iron cube, whofe fide is 12
inches, weighs 4641b. and that a fquare pyramid of
iron, wdiofe bafe is a fquare foot and height 12 inches,
weighs 15441b. The numbers which have been hi¬
therto fixed to the four laf! figures W’ere not ftriflly
true ; and therefore they have been corredfed in the
figure here referred to •, and by thefe the figures on
any inftrument of this kind fliould be correfted like-
wife.
On the leg B of the callipers, is a table fhowing the
weights of a cubic inch or foot of various bodies in
pounds avoirdupois.
On the face D of the circular head of the callipers
is a table contained between five concentric fegments
of rings: the inner one marked Guns fhows the nature
of the gun or the weight of ball it carries 5 the two
next rings contain the quantity of pow^der ufed for
proof and fervice to brafs guns, and the two outermoft
rings fhow the quantity for proof and fervice in iron
cannon.
On the face A is a table exhibiting the method of
computing the number of fhot or Jhells in a triangular,
fquare, or redlangular pile. Near this is placed a
table containing the principal rules relative to the fall
of bodies, exprefl'ed in an algebraic manner : nearer the
centre we have another table of rules for railing water,
calculated on the fuppofition, that one horfe is equal
in this kind of labour to five men, and that one man
will raife a hogfliead of water to eight feet of height
in one minute, and work at that rate for fome hours.
N. B. Hogfheads are reckoned at 60 gallons.
Some of the leading principles in gunnery, relating
to [hooting in cannon and mortars, are exprefied on the
face B of the callipers. Befides the articles already
enumerated.
Caliber,
Plate C XXXI II
CAIJBER Ride.
(R/oe//'“/'/itt- MaR.EcJjfUbr fecit'.
CAL [ 7S ] C A L
Caltcoukn enumerated, the fcales ulually marked on tins feidor freezing point is o, and 100 the heat of boiling water. Calidu<ft\
Calid® aie down on tnis initrument: thus the line of In the loth degree of cold, they ceafe to grow, lofe ^aLfomia
plantse. inc^es *s placed on the edge of the callipers, or on their leaves, become barren, are fuffocated, and pe- *
»_ < ■ the ftraight borders of the faces C, D : the logarith- riih.
mic Icales of numbers, fines, verfed fines, and tangents, CALIDUCT, in Antiquity, a kind of pipes or ca-
are placed along thefe faces near the ftraight edges : nal difpofed along the walls of houfes or apartments,
the line of lines is placed on the fame faces in an an- ufed by the ancients for conveying heat to leveral re¬
gular pofition, and marked Lin. T he lines of planes mote parts of the houle from one common furnace,
or fuperfices are alfo exhibited on the faces C and D, CALIFORNIA, the mold northerly of all the Spa¬
tending towards the centre, and marked Plan. Fi- nifli dominions on the continent of America, is fome -
nally, The lines of folids are laid on the fame faces
tending towards the centre, and diftinguifhed by Sol.
CALICOULAN, orQuiLLON, a town of Afia, in
the F.aft Indies, on the coaft of Malabar, and in the
peninfula on this fide the Ganges, where the Dutch
have a factory. E. Long. 75. 21. N. Lat. 9. 5.
CALICUT, a kingdom of India, on this fide the
Ganges, upon the coaft of Malabar. It is about 63
miles long, and as much broad. It has many woods,
rivers, and marfhes, and is very populous ; but does
not produce much corn, abundance of rice being im¬
ported from Canara. The land along the fea coaft is
low and fandy, and produces a number of cocoa trees.
The higher grounds produce pepper and cardamoms
of a very good quality. They have likewife timber for
building, white and yellow fanders, caxTia lignea, caf-
iia fiftula, nux vomica, and cocculus indicus. The
■woods abound with parrots and monkeys, as well as
different kinds of game. They have alfo plenty of
filh, feveral forts of medicinal drugs, and their moun¬
tains produce iron. The famorin, or king, of Calicut,
was once mafter of all the coaft of Malabar ; but at
his death, he left it by will among four of his nephews.
He who governs Calicut has a palace of ftone, and
there is fome appearance of grandeur about his court.
He carries on a confiderable trade, which makes the
people of Calicut richer than their neighbours. In
former times they had feveral ftrange cuftoms, fome
of which are ftill kept up *, particularly the famorin’s
wife muft be firft enjoyed by the high-prieft, who may
have her three nights if he pleafes. The nobles per¬
mit the other priefts to take the fame liberty, but the
lower people cannot have that honour. A woman may
marry a number of hufbands j each of whom has her
ten days or more by turns, as they agree among them-
felves •, and provide her all things neceffary during
that time. When (he proves with child, fire names
the father : who, after the child is weaned, takes care
of its education. Thefe people have no pens, ink, or
paper; but write with a bodkin on flags that grow
by the fides of the rivers. By this means the letters
are7 in fome fenfe engraved ; and fo tough are the
flags, that they will laft for a great number of years.
This’ was the firft land difcovered by the Portuguefe
I498* . , , • , e 1
Calicut, a town of Afia, m the kingdom ot that
name on the coaft of Malabar. It contains a great
number of mean low houfes, each of which has a gar¬
den. The Englifh had a faftory here, but it is remo¬
ved to Tellichery. E. Long. 76. 4. N. Lat. 1 x. 21.
CALIDiE PLANT*: (from Cfl/or, heat) ; plants that
are natives of wTarm climates. Such are thofe of the
Eaft Indies, South America, Egypt, and the Canary
t{lands. Thefe plants, fays Linnaeus, will bear a de¬
gree of heat which is as 40 on a fcale in which the
times diftinguiftied by the name of New Albion, and
the IJlas Carrabiras; but the moft ancient appellation is
California; a word probably owing to fome accidfent,
or to fome words fpoken by the Indians and mifunder-
ftood by the Spaniards. For a long time California
was thought to be an ifland; but Father Caino, a Ger¬
man Jefuit, difcovered it to be a peninfula joining to the
coaft of New Mexico and the fouthern parts of Ame¬
rica. The peninfula extends from Cape St Sebaftian,
lying in north latitude 43. 30. to Cape St Lucar which
lies in north latitude 22. 32. It is divided from New
Mexico by the gulf, or as fome call it the lake, of
California, or Vermilion Sea, on the eaft; on the north,
by that part of the continent of North America which
is leaft known ; and on the weft and fouth, by the
Pacific ocean or great South fea. The coafts, efpe-
cially towards the Vermilion fea, are covered with
inhabited illands, on fome of which the Jefuits have
eftabliflied fettlements, fuch as St Clement, Paxaros,
St Anne, Cedars (fo called from the great number of
thei’e trees it produces), St Jofeph, and a multitude of
others. But the iflands beft known are three lying off
Cape St Lucar, towards the Mexican coaft. Thefe are
called Les Tres Marias, “ the three Maries.” They
are fmall, but have good wood and water, fait pits, and
abundance of game; therefore the Englifh and French
pirates have fometimes wintered there, when bound on
cruifes in the South feas.
As California lies altogether within the temperate
zone, the natives are neither chilled with cold nor
fcorched with heat; and indeed the improvements in
agriculture made by the Jefuits afford ftrong proofs
of the excellency of the climate. In fome places the air
is extremely hot and dry; and the earth wild, rugged,
and barren. In a country ftretching about 800 miles in
length, there muft be confiderable variations of foil and
climate; and indeed we find, from good authority, that
California produces fome of the moft beautiful lawns,
as well as many of the moft inhofpitable deferts, in the
univerfe. Upon the whole, although California is ra¬
ther rough and craggy, we are affured by the Jefuit
Vinegas, and other good writers, that with due culture
it furnifties every neceffary and conveniency of life;
and that, even where the atmofphere is hotteft, vapours
rifing from the fea, and difperfed by pleafant breezes,
render it of a moderate temperature.
The peninfula of California is now flocked with all
forts of domeftic animals known in Spain and Mexico.
Horfes, mules, affes, oxen, ftieep, hogs,, goats, and all
other quadrupeds imported, thrive and increafe in this
country. Among the native animals is a fpecies of deer
of the fize of a young heifer, and greatly refembling it
in fhape; the head is like that of a deer, and the horns
thick and crooked like thofe of a ram. I he hoof of the
animal is large, round, and cloven, the Ikin Ipotted, but
K 2 the
CAL [ 76 ] CAL
California, the hair thinner and the tail (harper than thofe of a
' y deer. Its fledi is greatly efteemed. There is another
animal peculiar to this country, larger and more bulky
than a Iheep, but greatly refembling it in figure, and
like it, covered with a fine black or white wool. The
flelh of this animal is nourilhing and delicious ; and,
happily for the natives, it is fo abundant, that nothing
more is required than the trouble of hunting, as thefe
animals wander about in droves in the forefls and on
the mountains. Father Torquemado defcribes a crea¬
ture which he calls a fpecies of large bear, fomething
like a buffalo, of the fize of a fteex, and nearly of the
figure of a flag. Its hair is a quarter of a yard in
length, its neck long and awkward, and on its forehead
are horns branched like thofe of a dag. The tail is a
yard in length and half a yard in breadth ; and the
hoofs cloven like thofe of an ox. With regard to
birds, we have but an imperfeft account j only, in ge¬
neral, Father Vinegas tells us that the coaft is plen¬
tifully ftored with peacocks, buftards, geefe, cranes,
and mod of the birds common in other parts of the
world. The quantity of fifh which refort to thefe
coads is incredible. Salmon, turbot, barbel, Ikate,
mackerel, &c. are caught here with very little trou¬
ble j together with pearl oyders, common oyders,
lobders, and a variety of exquifite fhell fith. Plen¬
ty of turtle are alfo caught on the coads. On the
South fea coads are fome (hell filh peculiar to it, and
perhaps the mod beautiful in the world ; their ludre
iurpading that of the fined pearl, and darting their
rays through a tranfparent varnidi of an elegant vivid
blue, like the lapis lazuli. The fame of California
for pearls foon drew forth great numbers of adventur¬
ers, who fearched every part of the gulf, and are dill
employed in that work, notwithdanding fafiiion has
greatly diminilhed the value of this elegant natural pro-
dudlion. Father Torquemado obferves that the fea of
California affords very rich pearl filheries ^ and that the
hoflias, or beds of oyders, may be feen in three or four
fathom water, almod as plain as if they were on the
x furface.
The extremity of the peninfula towards Cape St
Lucar is more level, temperate, and fertile, than the
other parts, and confequently more woody. In the
more didant parts, even to the farthed midions on
the ead coad, no large timber hath yet been difco-
vered. A fpecies o( manna is found in this country,
which, according to the accounts of the Jefuits, has all
the fweetnefs ot refined fugar without its wTitenefs.
The natives firmly believe that this juice drops from
heaven.
The Californians are well made, and very drong.
They are extremely pufillanimous, incondant, dupid,
and even inienfible, and feem extremely deferving of
the chara£ler given to the Indians in general, under
the article America. Before the Europeans pene¬
trated into California, the natives had no form of reli¬
gion. The miffionaries indeed tell us many tales con¬
cerning them, but they fo evidently bear the marks of
forgery as not to be worth repeating. Each nation was
then an affemblage of feveral cottages more or lefs nu¬
merous, that were all mutually confederated by alli¬
ances, but without any chief. They were drangers
even to filial obedience. No kind of drefs was ufed bv
the men} but the women made ufe of fome coverings,
and were even fond of ornamenting themfelves with California,,
pearls and fuch other trinkets as the country afforded, s——y—
What mod difplayed their ingenuity was the con-
drudlion of their fidiing nets, which are faid by the
Jefuits to have even exceeded in goodnefs thofe made
in Europe. They wTere made by the women, of a
coarfe kind of dax procured from fome plants which
grow there. Their houfes were built of branches and
leaves of trees; nay, many of them were only enclo-
fures of earth and done, railed half a yard high, with¬
out any covering } and even thefe were fo i'mall, that
they could not dretch themfelves at length in them;
In winter, they dwelt under ground in caves either na¬
tural or artificial.
In 1526, Ferdviand Cortez having reduced and fet¬
tled Mexico, attempted the conqued of California} but
wTas obliged to return, without even taking a furvey
of the country, a report of his death having difpofed
the Mexicans to a general infurre61ion. Some other
attempts were made by the officers of Cortez, but thefe
were alfo unfuccefsful} and this valuable coad was
long neglefted by the Spaniards, who, to this day
have but one fettlement upon it. In 1595, a galleon
was fent to make difcoveries on the Californian diore }
bnt the veffel was unfortunately lob. Seven years af¬
ter, the count de Monteroy, then viceroy of New
Spain, fent Sebadian Bifcayno on the fame defign with
two drips and a tender} but he made no difcovery of
importance. In 1684, the marquis de Laguna, alfa
viceroy of New Spain, defpatched two ffiips with a
tender to make difcoveries on the lake of California-.
He returned with an indifferent account, but was a-
mong the firff who afferted that California wTas not an
idand } which was afterwards confirmed by Father
Caino, as already related. In 1697, the Spaniards
being difcouraged by their Ioffes and difappointments,
the Jefuits folicited and obtained permiffion to under¬
take the conqued of California. They arrived among
the favages with curiofities that might amufe them,
corn for their food, and clothes for which they could
not but perceive the neceffity. The hatred thefe peo¬
ple bore the Spaniffi name could not fuppdrt itfelf a-
gaind thefe demondrations of benevolence. They tef-
tified their acknowledgments as much as their wTant of
fenfibility and their incondancy would permit them.
Thefe faults were partly overcome by the religious in¬
ditutors, who purfued their projeft with a. degree of
warmth and refolution peculiar to the fociety. They
made themfelves carpenters, mafons, weavers, and huf-
bandmen } and by thefe means fucceeded in imparting
knowledge, and in fome meafure a tade for the ufeful
arts, to this favagc people, who have been all fuccef-
fively formed into one body. In 1745, they compof-
ed 43 villages, feparated from each other by the bar-
rennefs of the foil and the want of water. The inha¬
bitants of thefe fmall villages fubfid principally on corn
and pulfe, which they cultivate; and on the fruits and
domedic animals of Europe, the breeding of which
lad is an objecff of continual attention. The Indians
have each their field, and the property of what they
reap , but fuch is their want of forefight, that they
would fquander in a day wffiat they had gathered, if
the miffionary did not take upon himfeff to didribute
it to them as they band in need of it. They manu-
fafture fome coarfe duffs; and the neceffaries they are
C A L
[ 77 1
CAL
in want of are purcliafed with pearls, and with wine
nearly refembling that of Madeira, which they fell to
the Mexicans and to the galleons, and which experi¬
ence hath fhown the neceflity of prohibiting in Cali¬
fornia. A few laws, which are very Ample, are fuffi-
cient to regulate this rifing date. In order to enforce
them, the mitlionary choofes the moll intelligent per-
fon of the village; who is empowered to whip and im-
prifon the only punithments of which they have any
knowledge. In all California there are only two gar-
rifons, each confifting of 30 men, and a foldier with
every miflionary. I hefe troops were cholen oy the le-
piflators, though they are paid by the government.
Were the court of Madrid to pufh theii intertll ith
half the zeal of the fefuits, California might become
one of the moft valuable of their acquifitions, on ac¬
count of the pearls and other valuable articles of com¬
merce which the country contains. At prefent the
little Spanilh town near Cape St Lucar is made ufe of
for no other purpofe than as a place of refreOunent for
the Manilla (hips, and the head refidence of the mii-
lionaries. . . .
CALIGA, in Roman antiquity, was the proper
foldier’s llioe, made in the fandal fafhion, without up¬
per leather to cover the fuperior part of the foot,
though otherwife reaching to the middle of the leg,
and faftened with thongs. The foie of the caliga was
of wood, like the fabot of the French peafants, and
its bottom ftuck full of nails; which clavi are fuppof-
ed to have been very long in the Ihoes of the fcouts and
fentinels-, whence thefe were called by way of diilinc-
tion, ca/iga fpeculatorice; as if by mounting the wearer
to a higher pitch, they gave a greater advantage to
the fight.: though others will have the caliga! fpecula-
/orA? to have been made foft and woolly, to prevent
their making a noife. From thefe caltgce it was that
the emperor Caligula took his name, as having been
born in the army, and afterwards bred up m the habit
of a common foldier.
According to Du Cange, a fort of cahgce was alio
worn by monks and bilhops, when they celebrated ma^s
pontifically. . . .
CALIGATI, an appellation given by lome ancient
writers to the common foldiers in the Roman aimies,
by reafon of the caliga which they wdte. The caliga
was the badge or fymbol of a foldier •, whence to take
away the caliga and belt, imported a ddmifhng o.
cafhiering.
CALIGO, or CaliOatio, in Medicine, an opacity,
or cloudinefs of the anterior furface of the cryfta-
line lens of the eye, caufing a dimnefs or fuffufion of
fight. ,
CALIGULA, the Roman emperor and tyrant,
A D 37, began his reign with every promifing ap¬
pearance of becoming the real father of his people •,
but at the end of eight months he was feized with a
fever, which, it is thought, left a frenzy on his mind :
for his difpofition totally changed, and he committed
the moft atrocious afts of impiety, cruelty, and tolly;
fuch as proclaiming his horfe confift, feeding it at his
table, introducing it to the temple in the veftments of
the priefts of Jupiter, &c. and caufing facnfices to be
offered to himfelf, his wife, and the horfe.. After hav¬
ing murdered many of his fubjects with.his own hand,
and caufed others to be put to death witnout any juft
caufe, he was affaffinated by a tribune of the people as
he came out of the amphitheatre, A. D. 41* the
29th year of his age, and 4th of his reign.
CALIN, a compound metal, whereof the Chinefe ,
make tea canifters, and the like. The ingredients teem
to be lead and tin.
CALIPH, or K HAL IF, the fupreme ecclefiaftical
dignity among the Saracens; or, as it is otherwile de¬
fined, a fovereign dignity among the Mahometans, veil¬
ed with abfolute authority in all matters relating both
to religion and policy. In the iVrabic it fignifies fuc-
ceffor or vicar; the caliphs bearing the fame relation to
Mahomet that the popes pretend they do to Jefus
Chrift or St Peter. It is at this day one of the Grand
Signior’s titles, as fucceffor of Mahomet; and of the
Sophi of Perfia, as fucceffor of Ali. One of the chief
fundions of Ae caliph, in quality of imam or chief
prieft of Muffulmanifm, was to begin the public pray¬
ers every Friday in the chief mofque, and to deliver
the khothbak or fermon. In after times, they had ak
fiftants for this latter office; but the former the caliphs
always performed in perfon. The caliph was alio ob¬
liged to lead the pilgrims to Mecca in perfon, and to
march at the head of the armies of his empire. He
granted inveftiture to princes; and fent fwords, lland-
ards, gowns, and the like, as prefents to princes of the
Mahometan religion; who, though they had thrown
off the yoke of the caliphate, neverthelefs held of it as
vaffals. The caliphs ufually went to the molque
mounted on mules; and the fultans Selgiucides, though
mailers of Bagdad, held their ftirrups, and led their
mule by the' bridle fome diftance on foot, till luch time
as the caliphs gave them the fign to mount on horie-
back. At one of the windows of the caliph s palace,
there always hung a piece of black velvet 20 cubits
Iona- which reached to the ground, and was called the
caliph's Jleeve; which the grandees of his court never
failed to kifs every day, with great refpea. Axter
the deftruftion of the caliphate by Hulaku, the Ma¬
hometan princes appointed a particular officer, m t dr
refpedtive dominions, who fuftams the facred authority
of caliph. In Turkey, he goes under the denomination
of mufti, and in Perfia under that ot fadne. ^
CALIPHATE, the office or dignity ot caliph :
See the preceding article. The fucceffions of cahp is
continued from the death of Mahomet till the 655th
year of the Hegira, when the city ox Bagdad was tak¬
en by the Tartars. After this, however, there were
perfons who claimed the caliphate, as pretending to be
of the family of the Abaffides, and to whom the lul-
tans of Egvot rendered great honours at Cairo, as the
true fucceffors of Mahomet: but this honour was
merely titular, and the rights allowed them only in
matters relating to religion; and though they bore the
fovereign title of caliphs, they were neverthelefs fub-
iefts and dependents of the fultans. In the year of he
Hegira 361, a kind of caliphate was erefted by the
Fatemites in Africa, and latted till it was iuppreffed by
Saladin. Hiftorians alfo fpeak of a third caliphate
in Gemen or Arabia Felix, erefted by fome princes of
the family of the Jobites. The emperors of Morocco
affume the title oi grandcherifs ; and pretend to be the
true cafiphs, or fuieffors of Mahomet, though under
another name. . . 0 rpr:P<.
CALIPPIC period, m Chronology,
Calm
Calippic
period.
*
Califta
Calkins
CAL [ 78
feventy-flx years, perpetually recurring; which elapfed,
the middle of the new and full moons, as its inventor
Calippus, an Athenian, imagined, return to the fame
day of the folar year. Meton, an hundred years be¬
fore, had invented the period, or cycle, of nineteen
years; affirming the quantity of the folar year 365*/.
6/6. 1 S' 56" 503 314 34-y; and the lunar month, 29^/.
126. 45' 47" z63 4s4 30s: but Calippus, confider-
ing that the Metonic quantity of the folar year was
not exaft, multiplied Melon’s period by 4, and thence
arofe a period of 76 years, called the Calippic. The
Calippic period, therefore, contains 27,759 days: and
lince the lunar cycle contains 235 lunations, and the
Calippic period is quadruple of this, it contains 940
lunations. This period began in the third year of
the 112th Olympiad, or the 4384th of the [ulian
period. It is demon ft rated, however, that the Calip¬
pic period itfelf is not accurate; that it does not bring
the new and full moons precifely to their places:
8/6. 5' 52" 60"', being the excefs of 940 lunations
above 76 folar years; but brings them too late, by a
whole day in 225 years.
CALISTA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of
Lycaon king of Arcadia, and one of the nymphs of
.Diana. Being beloved by Jupiter, that god affumed
the form of the goddefs of chaftity, by which means
he debauched her: but her difgrace being revealed, as
Ihe was bathing with her patronefs, the incenfed deity
turned her and the fon with which (he was pregnant
into bears; when Jupiter, in compaflion to her iuffer-
ings, took them up into the heavens, and made them
the conftellations Urfa Major and Urfa Minor.
CALIX. See Calyx.
CALIXTINS, a name given to thofe, among the
Lutherans, who follow the fentiments of George Ca-
lixtus, a celebrated divine, and proffffor at Helmftadt,
in the duchy of Brunfwick, who died in 1656 : he op-
pofed the opinion of St Auguftin, on predeftination,
grace, and free will, and endeavoured to form an union
among the various members of the Romifti, Lutheran,
and reformed churches; or, rather, to join them in
the bonds of mutual forbearance and charity.
Cal ixtins alfo denote a fe£! in Bohemia, derived
from the Huftites, about the middle of the 15th cen¬
tury, who afferted the ufe of the cup as effential to the
eucharift. And hence their name ; which is formed ,
from the Latin calyx, a cup.
The Calixtins are not ranked by Romanjfts in the
lift of heretics, fince in the main they {fill adhered to
the doftrine of Rome. The reformation they aimed
at terminated in the four following articles. 1. In re-
ftoring the cup to the laity. 2. In fubjeffing the cri¬
minal clerks to the punifhment of the civil magiftrate.
3. In ftripping the clergy of their lands, lordftiips, and
all temporal jurifdiftion. 4. In granting liberty to
all capable priefts to preach the word of God.
CALK A, a kingdom of Tartary, in Afta, to the
eaft of Siberia.
C \LKING. See Caulking.
CALKINS, the prominent parts at the extremities
of a horfe fnoe, bent downwards, and forged to a fort
, of point.
Calkins are apt to make horfes trip : they alfo oc-
cafion bleymes, and ruin the back finews. If faftiioned
in form of a hare’s ear, and the horn of a horfe’s heel
I
CAL
be pared a little low, they do little. damage; whereas,
the great fquare calkins quite fpoil the foot.
Calkins are either fingle or double, that is, at one
end of the fhoe, or at both: thefe laft are deemed lefs
hurtful, as the horfes can tread more even.
CALL, among hunters, a leffon blown upon the
horn, to comfort the hounds.
Call, an Englifli name for the mineral called tung-
ften or wolfram by the Germans.
Call, among failors, a fort of whiffle or pipe, of
filver or brafs, ufed by the boatfwain and his mates to
fummon the failors to their duty, and direft them in
the different employments of the {hip. As the call can
be founded to various ftrains, each of them is appro¬
priated to fome particular exercife ; fuch as hoifting,
heaving, lowering, veering away, belaying, letting go
a tackle, &c. The a£! of winding this inftrument is
called piping, -which is as attentively obferved by fail¬
ors as the beat of the drum to march, retreat, rally,
charge, &c. is obeyed by foldiers.
Call, among fowlers, the noife or cry of a bird
efpecially to its young, or to its mate in coupling
time. One method of catching partridges is by the
natural call of a hen trained for the purpofe, which
drawing the cocks to her, they are entangled in a net.
Different birds require different forts of calls; but thev
are moft of them compofed of a pipe or reed, with a
little leathern bag or purfe, fomewhat in form of 3
bellows; w'hich, by the motion given thereto, yields a
noife like that of the fpecies of bird to be taken. The.
call for partridges is formed like a boat bored through,
and fitted with a pipe or fwan’s quill, &c. to be blown
with the mouth, to make the noife of the cock par¬
tridge, wdiich is very different from the call of the hen.
Calls for quails &c. are made of a leathern purfe in
flrape like a pear, Huffed with horfe hair, and fitted at
the end with the bone of a cat’s, hare’s, or coney’s
leg, formed like a flageolet. They are played, by
fqueezing the purfe in the palm of the hand, at the
fame time ftriking on the flageolet part with the thumb
to counterfeit the call of the hen quail.
Call of the Houfe. See Calling.
CALL A, Wake-robin, ox Ethiopian Alrim. See
Botany Index.
Calla Sufung, a town of Afia, in the ifland of
Bouton in the Eaft Indies. It is feated about a mile
from the fea, on the top of a fmall hill furfounded.
with cocoa nut trees. See Bouton.
CALLAO, a ftrong town of South America, in
Peru. It is the port of Lima, from w’hich it is di-
ftant about five miles. The town is built on a low flat
point of land on the lea-lhore. It is fortified ; but the
fortifications were much damaged by the laft great
earthquake, and have not fince been repaired. The
town is not above nine or ten feet above the level of
high water mark ; but the tide does not commonly
rife or fall above five feet. The ftreets are drawn in a
line ; but are full of drift, w-hich is very troubiefome.
In a fquare near the fea fide are the governor’s houfe,
the viceroy’s palace, the parifh church, and a battery
of three pieces of cannon. On the north fide are the
W'arehoufes for the merchandife brought from Chili,
Mexico, and other parts of Peru. The other churches
are built with reeds, and covered with timber or clay,
but they look tolerably neat. There are five monaite-
ries
Call
II
Cailao.
CAL
[ 79 1
CAL
vies and an hofpital, though the number of families
does not exceed 400. The trade of Callao is confj-
derable. From Chili they bring cordage, leather, tab
low, dried filh, and corn ; from Chiloe, cedar planks,
woollen manufactures, and carpets; from Peru, lugars,
wines, brandy, malts, cordage, timber for Hupping,
cacao, tobacco, and melafies} from Mexico, pitch,
tar, woods for dyeing, fulphur, balfam ot Peru both
white and brown, as well as commodities from China.
At the port of Callao the watering is eafy, but the
wood is a mile or two diftant. Earthquakes are very
frequent in thefe parts, which have done vaft miichiet
to Lima and Callao. W. Long. 76. 15. S. Lat.
CALLE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hither
Spain, fituated on an eminence which hangs over the
river Durius} whofe port was at the mouth of the ri¬
ver. Now Porto, Oporto, or Port a Port.
CALLEN, a town of Ireland, in the county ot
Kilkenny and province of Lemfter, about ten miles
fouth-weft of Kilkenny. W. Long. 7. 22. N. Lat.
52CALLICARPA. See Johnsonia.
CALLICO, in commerce, a fort of doth reiemb-
line linens made of cotton. The name is taken from
that of Calicut, a city on the coaft of Malabar being
the fir ft place at which the Poituguefe landed when
they difcovered the India trade. The Spaniards ftill
call it callicu. .
Callicoes are of different kinds, plain, printed, paint¬
ed, ftained, dyed, chints, muflins, and.the like, all in¬
cluded under the general denomination of cathcoes.
Some of them are painted with various flowers of ait-
ferent colours: others are not ftained, but have a ftripe
of gold and filver quite through the piece, and at each
end is fixed a tiffue of gold, filver, and filk, intermixed
with flowers. The printing of callicoes was firft let on
foot in London about the year 1676.
CALLICRATES, an ancient fculptor, who en¬
graved fome of Homer’s verfes on a grain of millet,
made an ivory chariot that might be concealed under
the wing of a fly, and an ant of ivory in which all the
members were 'diftindt : but iEhan juftly blames him
for exerting his genius and talents in things o uielets,
and at the fame time fo difficult. He flounihed about
the year 472 before Chrift.
CALL1GONUM. See Botany Index.
CALLIGRAPHUS anciently denoted a copyift,
or fcrivener, who tranfcribed fair, and at length, what
the notaries had taken down in notes or minutes. I he
word is compounded of beauty, ana
write. The minutes of afts, &c. were always taken m
a kind of cypher, or ftiort hand •, fuch as the notes
of Tyro in Gruter: by which means the notaries, as the
Latins called them, or the cr-^uoyand
as the Greeks called them, were enabled to keep pace
with a fpeaker or perfon who diaated. Theft notes,
being underftood by few, were copied over fair, and
at length, by perfons who had a good hand, for iale,
&c. Theft perfons were called calligraphic a name ic-
quentlv met with in the ancient writers. _
CALLIGRAPHY, the art of fair writing. Cal¬
licrates is faid to have written an elegant diftich on a
ftfamum feed. Junius fpeaks of a perfon as very ex¬
traordinary, who wrote the apoftles creed, and begm-
/ j
ning of St John’s Gofpel, in the compafs of a farthing. Callim*.
What would he have faid of our famous Peter Bale, c
who in 1575 wrote the Lord’s prayer, creed, ten Caj|jpse<jjai
commandments, and two ffiort prayers in Latin, with ' ■ y
his own name, motto, day of the month, year of the
Lord, and reign of the queen, in the compafs of a
Angle penny, enchaftd in a ring and border of gold, and
covered with a cryftal, all fo accurately wrought as to
be very legible ?
CALLIMACHUS, a celebrated architeft, pamter,
and fculptor, born at Corinth, having feen by accident
a veffel about which the plant called acanthus had
railed its leaves, conceived the id J*- of forming the Co¬
rinthian capitalhence the Corinthian order of archi-
tefture. The ancients affure us, that he worked in
marble with wonderful delicacy. He flourilhed about
540 B. C. . -
Callimachus, a celebrated Greek poet, native ex
Gyrene in Libya, flouriffied under Ptolemy Philadel-
phus and Ptolemy Eurgetes kings of Egypt, about
280 years before Chrift. He paffed, according to Quin¬
tilian, for the prince of the Greek elegiac poets. Ills
ftyle is elegant, delicate, and nervous. He wrote a
great number of fmall poems, of which we have only
fome hymns and epigrams remaining. Catullus has
cloftly imitated him, and tranflated into Latin verie
his fmall poem on the locks of Berenice. Callimachus
was alfo a good grammarian and a learned critic. There
is an edition of his remains, by Meff. le Fevre, quarto;
and another in two volumes 8vo, with notes by Span-
hcim, Graevius, Bentley, &c.
CALLING the House, in the Bntifli parliament,
is the calling over the members names, every one an-
fwering to his own, and going out of the houft, in
the order in which he is called : this they do in order
to difcover whether there be any perfon there not re¬
turned by the clerk of the crown, or if any member:
be abftnt without the leave of the houfe.
CALLINICUS of Heliopolis, inventor of a com-
pofition to burn in the water, called the Greek, and
fince Wild-fire. See Grecian Fire. .
C ALDINUS of Ephefus, a very ancient Greek poet,
inventor of elegiac verfe fome fpecimens of which are
to be found in the colftaion of Stobeus. He flourilh-
ed about 776 years before Chrift.
CALLIONYMUS, the dragonet. See Ichthyo-
LOCALLIOPE, in the Pagan mythology, the Muft
who prefides over eloquence and heroic poetry. ie
was thus called from the fweetnefs of her voice, and-
was reckoned the firft of the nine fillers. Her diftm-
guifiling office was to record the worthy afttons of the
living ; and accordingly ffie is repreftnted with tablets
in her hand. . , v j: ~
CALLIPiEDlA, the art of getting or breeding
fine and beautiful children. We find divers rales and
praaices, relating to this art, in ancient and modem
writers. Among the Magi, a fort of medicme called
ermejia was adminiftered to pregnant women, as a m
of producing a beautiful iffue. Of tins krnd were the
kernels of pine nuts ground with honey myrrh faf-
fron, plam wine and milk. The Jews are fa.d to have
been fo folicitous about the beauty of tlrem .cMd ^
that care was taken to have fome very beautiful cl
placed at the door of the public baths, that the women
Gallipoli
^ II
Calloo.
C . A L [
at going out being ftruck with his appearance, and
retaining the idea, might all have children as fine as
j he. The Chinefe take ftill greater care of their breed¬
ing women, to prevent uncouth objects of any kind
from ftriking their imagination. Muficians are employ¬
ed at night to entertain them with agreeable fongs and
odes, in which are fet forth all the duties and comforts
of a conjugal and domeftic life ; that the infant may
receive good impreffions even before it is born, and not
only come forth agreeably formed in body, but well
dilpofed in mind. Calhpaedia, neverthelefs, feems to
have been firil erefted into a juft art by Claude Quillet
de Chinon, a Freni, h abbot, who, under the fictitious
name of Calvides Lcetus, has publifhed a fine Latin
poem in four books, under the title of Callipcedia, feu
de pulchrce prolis habendie ratione ; wherein are con¬
tained all the precepts of that new art. There is a
tranflation of it into Engliih verfe by Mr Rowe.
CALLIPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, the name of
feveral cities of antiquity, particularly one upon the
Hellefpont, next the Propontis, and oppofite to Lamp-
i'ucus in Alia. Now Galiupoli.
CALL1PPIC period. See Calippic.
CALLIRRHOE, in Ancient Geography, furnamed
Enneacrunos, from its nine fprings or channels ; a
fountain not far from Athens, greatly adorned by Pi-
fiftratus, where there were feverai wells, but this the
only running fpring. Callirrhoe was alfo the name of
a very fine fpring of hot water beyond Jordan near the
Dead Sea, into which it empties itfelf.
CALLISIA. See Botany Index.
CALL1STEA, in Grecian antiquity, a Lefbian
feftival, wherein the women prefented themfelves in
Juno’s temple, and the prize was afligned to the faireft.
There was another of thefe contentions at the feftival
of Ceres Eleufinia among the Parrhafians, and another
among the Eleans, wdiere the moft beautiful man was
prefented with a complete fuit of armour, which he
confecrated to Minerva, to whofe temple he walked in
froceftion, being accompanied byhis friends wEo adorn¬
ed him wuth ribbons, and crowned him with a garland
of myrtle.
CALLISTHENES the philofopher, difciple and
relation of Ariftotle, by whofe defire he accompanied
Alexander the Great in his expeditions \ but proving
too fevere a cenfurer of that hero’s condudf, he was by
him put to the torture (on a fufpicion of a treafon-
able confpiracy), and died under it, 328 years before
Chrift.
CALLISTRATUS, an excellent Athenian orator,
was baniftred for having obtained too great an authority
in the government. Demofthenes was fo ftruck with
the force of his eloquence, and the glory it procured
him, that he abandoned Plato, and refolved from
thenceforward to apply himfelf to oratory.
CALLITRICHE, or Star-grass, in Botany: A
genus of the digynia order, belonging to the monan-
dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 12th order, Holoracea. There is no
calyx, but twro petals, and the capfule is bilocular and
tetrafpermous.
CALLOO, a fortrefs in the Netherlands, in the
territory of Waes, on the river Scheld, fubjeft to the
boufe of Auftria. The Dutch were defeated here by
the Spaniards in 1638. E. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 51. jj.
80 ] CAL
CALLOSUM CORPUS, in Anatomy, a whitifh hard Callofun»
fubftance, joining the two hemifpheres of the brain, and corpus
appearing in view when the two hemifpheres are drawn r }j
back. See Anatomy Index. 1 La‘lot* j.
CALLOF, James, a celebrated engraver, born at
Nancy in 1593. In his youth he travelled to Rome
to learn deligning and engraving 5 and from thence
went to Florence, where the grand duke took him into
his fervice. After the death of that prince, Callot re¬
turned to his native country ; when he was very fa¬
vourably received by Henry duke of Lorrain, wEo fet¬
tled a confiderable penfion upon him. His reputation
being foon after fpread all over Europe, the infanta of
the Netherlands drew him to Bruflels, where he en¬
graved the fiege of Breda. Louis XIII. made him de-
%n the fiege of Rochelle, and that of the ifte of Rhe.
d he French king, having taken Nancy in 1631, made
Callot the propolal of reprefenting that new conqueft,
as he had already done the taking of Rochelle : but
Callot begged to be excufed ; and fome courtiers refolv-
ing to oblige him to do it, he anfwered, that he would
fooner cut oft' his thumb than do any thing againft the
honour of his prince and country. This excufe the
king accepted ; and faid, that the duke of Lorrain was
happy in having fuch faithful and affeftionate fubje&s.
Callot followed his bufinefs fo clofely, that, though he
died at 43 years of age, he is faid to have left of his
own execution about 1500 pieces. The following are
a few of the principal. 1. The murder of the innocents,
a fmall oval plate, engraved at Florence. Callot en¬
graved the fame fubjedt at Nancy, with fome difference
in the figures on the back ground. The former is the
moft rare ; a fine impreflion of it is very difficult to be
found. 2. The marriage of Cana in Galilee, from Paolo
Veronefe, a middling fized plate, lengthwife. 3. The
paffion of Chrijl, on 12 very fmall upright plates : firft
impreflions very fcarce. 4. St John in the ifland of
Patmos, a fmall plate, nearly fquare. 5. The temptation
of St Anthony, a middling fized plate, lengthwife. He
alfo engraved the fame fubjedl larger; which, though
not the beft, is notwithftanding the fcarceft print.
There is a confiderable difference in the treatment of
the fubjeft in the two prints. 6. The punifhments,
wherein is feen the execution of feveral criminals. The
marks of the beft impreflions of this plate are, a fmall
fquare tower which appears above the houfes, towards
the left, and a very fmall image of the Virgin placed
in an angle of the wall, near the middle of the print.
7. The miferies of war, 18 fmall plates, lengthwfife.
There is another let on the fame fubjedl, confifting of
feven plates lefs than the former. 8. The great fair of
Florence, fo called becaufe it was engraved at Florence.
As feveral parts of this plate wrere not equally bitten
by the aquafortis, it is difficult to meet with a fine im-
preffion. Callot, on his return to Nancy, re-engraved
this plate without any alteration. The copy, howr-
ever, is by no means equal to the original. The firft:
is diftinguifhed from the fecond by the words in Firen-
za, which appear below at the right-hand corner of
the plate. The fecond has thefe words in the fame
place, Fe. Florientis, excudit Nancei. There is alfo
a large copy of this print, reverfed, publilhed by Sa-
very ; but the difference is eafily diftinguiffied between
it and the true print. 9. The little fair, otherwife called
the players at bowls ; where alfo fome peafants are re-
prefented
CAL [8
Callus prefented dsncing. This is one of the fcarceft of Csl
Calm.
lot’s prints; and it is very difficult to meet with a fine
impreffion of it, for the diltances and other parts of the
plate failed in the biting it with the aquafortis. I o. The
tilting, or the new Jlreet at Nancy, a middling fized
plate, lengthwife. u. The Garden of Nancy, where
young men are playing with a balloon, the fame.
12. View of the Potit Neuf a fmall plate, lengthwife.
53. View of the Louvre, the fame. 14. Tour landfcapes,
fmall plates, lengthwife.
CALLUS, or Callosity, in a general fenfe, any
cutaneous, corneous, or offeous hardnefs, whether na¬
tural or preternatural j but molt frequently it means
the callus generated about the edges of a fradture, pro¬
vided by nature to preferve the fra&ured bones, or di¬
vided parts, in the fituation in which they are replaced
bv the furgeon. A callus, in this lafl fenfe, is a fort of
jelly, or liquid vifeous matter, that fweats out from
the fmall arteries and bony fibres of the divided parts,
and fills up the chinks or cavities between them. It
firft appears of a cartilaginous fubftance •, but at length
becomes quite bony, and joins the fra&ured part fo firm¬
ly together, that the limb will often make greater re-
liftance to any external violence, wdth this part than
with thofe which were never broken.
Callus is alfo a hard, denfe, infenfible knob, rifing
on the hands, feet, &c. by much friftion and preffure
againft hard bodies.
CALM, the ftate of reft which appears in the air
and lea when there is no wind ftirring. A calm is
more dreaded by a feafanng man than a ftorm, if he
has a ftrong ftiip and fea room enough *, for, under the
line exceffive heat fometimes produces fuch dead calms,
that (hips are obliged to ftay twmor three months with¬
out being able to ftir one way or other. . Two oppofite
wrinds will fometimes make a calm. This is frequently
obferved in the gulf of Mexico, at no great diftance
from the ftiore, where fome gull or land wind will
fo poife the general ealterly wind, as to produce a per-
Calms are never fo great on the ocean as on the
Mediterranean, becaufe the flux and reflux of the
former keep the water in a continual agitation, even
where there is no wind j whereas there being no tides
in the latter, the calm is fometimes fo dead, that me
face of the water is as clear as a looking glafs j but
fuch calms are almoft conftant prefages of an approacn-
ing ftorm. On the coafts about Smyrna, a long calm
is reputed a prognoftic of an earthquake.
It is not uncommon for the veflels to be calmed, or
becalmed, as the failors exprefs it, in the road of the
conftant Levantine winds, in places where they ride
near the land. Thus between the two capes of Car-
tooche towards the main, and Cape Antonio in Cuba,
the fea is narrow, and there is often a calm produced
by fome guft of a land wind, that poifes the Levantine
wind, and renders the whole perfeftly ftill for two or
three days. In this cafe, the current that.runs here is
of ufe to the veflels, if it fets right; when it fets eafter-
lv a (hip will have a paffage in three or four days to
the Havannah ; but if otherwife, it is often a fortnight
or three weeks fail, the ffiip being embayed in the gulf
of Mexico. • j ^ n
When the weather is perfeftly calm, no wind at all
ftirring, the failors try which way the current fets, by
Vol. Y. Part I.
1 ] CAL
means of a boat which they fend out, and which will Calm
ride at anchor, though there is no bottom to be found, ^aj0^er-_
as regularly and well as if faftened by the ftrongeft an-  
chor to the bottom. T he method is this : they row
the boat to a little diftance from the ftiip, and then
throw over their plummet, which is about forty pounds
weight } they let this fink to about two hundred fa¬
thoms j and then, though it never reaches the bottom,
the boat will turn head againft the current, and ride as
firmly as can be.
Calm Latitudes, in fea language, are fituated in the
Atlantic ocean, between the tropic of Cancer and the
latitude of 290 N. or they denote the fpace that lies be¬
tween the trade and variable winds, becaufe it is fre¬
quently fubjefl to calms of long duration.
CALMAR, a ftrong fea port of Sweden, in the
province of Smaland, divided into tw7o towns, the old
and the new j but of the former there remains only the
church and a few houfes. The new town is built a
little way from the other, and has large handfome
houfes. E. Long. 16. 15. N. Lat. 56. 48.
CALMET, Augustine, one of the moft learned
and laborious writers of the 18th century, was born at
Mefnil le Horgne, a village in the diocefe of Toul in
France, in the year 1672, and took the habit of the
Benedidlines in 1688. Among the many works he
publiihed are, 1. A literal expofition in French, of all
the books in the Old Teftament, in nine volumes folio.
2. An hiftorical, critical, chronological, geographical,
and literal diftionary ef the Bible, in four voh, folio,
enriched with a great number of figures of Jewifli an¬
tiquities. 3. A civil and ecclefiaftical hiftory of Lor-
rain, three vols. folio. 4. A hiftory of the Old and
New Teftament, and of the Jews, in two volumes fo¬
lio, and feven vols. duodecimo. 5. An univerfal facred
and profane hiftory, in feveral volumes quarto. He
died in 1757.
CALMUCKS. See Kalmucks.
CALNE, a town of Wiltffiire in England, feated
on a river of the fame name. It has a handfome church,
and fends two members to parliament. W. Long. 1.
59. N. Lat. 51. 30.
CALNEH, in Ancient Geography, a city in the land
of Shinar, built by Nimrod, and the laft city men¬
tioned (Gen. x. 10.) as belonging to his kingdom. It
is believed to be the fame with Calno, mentioned in
I fa i ah (x. 9.) and with Canneh in Ezekiel (xxvii. 23.)
w'ith ftill greater variation. It is obferved, that it
muft have been fituated in Mefopotamia, fince thefe
prophets join it with Haran, Eden Aflyrian, and Chil-
mad, which carried on a trade with Tyre. It is laid
by the Chaldee interpreters, as alfo by Eufebius and
jerome, to be the fame wTith Ctefiphon, Handing upon
the Tigris, about three miles diftant from Seleucia,
and that for fome time it was the capital city of the
Parthians.
CALOGERI, in cnurch hiftory, monks or the
Greek church, divided into three degrees : the novices,
called arebari; the ordinary profeffed, called mzbrocAe-
tni; and the more perfeft, called megalochetm : they are
likewife divided into camobites, anchorets, and reclufes.
The caenobites are employed in reciting their offices
from midnight to funfet, they are obliged to make
three genuflexions at the door of the choir, and, return¬
ing, to bow to the right and to the left, to their bre-
43 ’ I, thren.
CAL [8
Calomel thren. The anchorets retire from the converfation of
Ca'vart t^ie wor^* anc^ ^ve hermitages in the neighbour-
hood of the monafteries ; they cultivate a little fpot
of ground, and never go out but on Sundays and holi¬
days to perform their devotions at the next monalfery.
As for the reclufes, they (hut themfelves up in grottos
and caverns on the tops of mountains, which they never
go out ofF, abandoning themfelves entirely to Provi¬
dence : they live on the alms fent them by the neigh¬
bouring monafteries.
CALOMEL, or dulcified fnblimate of mercury, is a
combination of mercury with the muriatic acid, in the
prefeut nomenclature called a fub-muriate of mercury.
See Pharmacy and Chemistry Index.
CALOPHYLLUM. See Botany Index.
CALOTTE, a cap or coif of hair, fatin, or other
fluff an ecclefiaftical ornament in moft Popifh coun¬
tries. See Cap.
Calotte, in ArchiteSlure, a round cavity or de-
preffure, in form of a cap or cup, lathed and plaftered,
ufed to diminiftr the rife or elevation of a moderate cha¬
pel, cabinet, alcove, &c. which without fuch an ex¬
pedient would be too high for other pieces of the
apartment.
CALPE, a mountain of Andalufia in Spain ; at
the foot of which, towards the fea, Hands the town of
Gibraltar. It is half a league in height towards the
land, and fo fteep that there is no approaching it on
that fide.
CALPURNIUS, Titus, a Latin Sicilian poet,
lived under the emperor Carus and his fon. We have
feven of his eclogues remaining.
CALQUING, or Calking, a term ufed in paint¬
ing, &c. where the back fide of any thing is covered
over with a black or red colour, and the ftrokes or lines
traced through on a waxed plate, wall, or other mat¬
ter, by pafling lightly over each ftroke of the defign
with a point, which leaves an impreftion of the colour
on the plate or wall.
CALTHA. See Botany Index. There is only
one fpecies known, which grows naturally in moift
boggy lands in many parts of England and Scotland.
The flowers gathered before they expand, and pre-
ferved in failed vinegar, are a good fubftitute for ca¬
pers. The juice of the petals, boiled with a little
alum, ftains paper yellow. The remarkable yellow,-
nefs of the butter in fpring is fuppofed to be caufed
by this plant : but cows will not eat it, unlefs compell¬
ed by extreme hunger ; and then, Boerhaave fays, it
occafions fuch an inflammation, that they generally die.
Upon May-day, the country people ftrew the flowers
upon the pavement before their doors. Goats and
ftieep eat this plant *, horfes, cows, and fwine, refufe it.
CALTROP. See Tribulus, Botany Index.
Caltrop, in military affairs, an inftrument with
four iron points, difpofed in a triangular form, fo that
three of them arc always on the ground, and the fourth
in the air. They are fcattered over the ground where
the enemy’s cavalry is to pafs, in order to embarrafs
them.
CALVARIA, in Anatomy, the hairy fcalp or upper
part of the head, which, either by difeafe or old age,
grows bald firtt.
CALVART, Denis, a celebrated painter, was
born at Antwerp in 1552? and had for his mafters
] CAL
Profpero Fontana and Lorenzo Sabbatini. He opened Calvary
a ichool at Bologna, which became celebrated ; and II.
from which proceeded Guido, Albani, and other great ,
mafters. Calvart was well Ikilled in architecture, per-
fpeftive, and anatomy, which he confidered as necef-
fary to a painter, and taught them to his pupils. His
principal works are at Bologna, Rome, and Reggio.
He died at Bologna in 1619.
CALVARY, a term uled in Catholic countries for.
a kind of chapel of devotion railed on a hillock near a
city, in memory of the place where Jefus Chrift was
crucified near the city of Jerufalem. The word comes
from the Latin calvarium ; and that from calvus, bald,
in regard the top of that hillock was bare and deftitute
of verdure •, which is alio fignified by the Hebrew word
golgotha. Such is the Calvary of St Valerian near Paris }
which is accompanied with feveral little chapels, in
each of which is reprefented in fculpture one of the
myfteries of the Pafiion.
Calvary, in Heraldry, a crofs fo called, becaufe it
refembles the crofs on which our Saviour fuffered. It
is always fet upon fteps.
CALVERT, George, afterwards Lord Baltimore,
was born at Kipling in Yorkftiire about the year 1582,
and educated at Oxford, where he took the degree of
bachelor of arts, and afterwards travelled. At his re¬
turn, he was made fecretary to Sir Robert Cecil : he
was afterwards knighted, and in 1618 appointed one
of the principal fecretaries of ftate. But after he had
enjoyed that poll about five years, he willingly refigned
it ; freely owning to his majefty that he was become a
Roman Catholic, fo that he muft either be wanting to
his truft, or violate his confcience in difcharging his
office. This ingenuous confeffion f© affefted King
James, that he continued him privy counfellor all his
reign, and the fame year created him baron of Bal¬
timore in the kingdom of Ireland. He had before
obtained a patent for him and his heirs, for the pro¬
vince of Avelon in Newfoundland : but that being
expofed to the infults of the French, he abandon¬
ed it, and afterwards obtained the grant of a country
on the north part of Virginia from Charles I. who call¬
ed it Maryland, in honour of his queen: but he died
in April 1632 (aged 50), before the patent was made
out. It was, however, filled up to his fon Cecil Cal¬
vert Lord Baltimore j and bears date June 20. 1632.
It is held from the crown as part of the manor of
Windlor, on one very Angular condition, viz. to pre-
fent two Indian arrows yearly, on Eafter Tuefday, at
the caftle, where they are kept and ftiown to vifitors.—
His lordfliip wrote, 1. A Latin poem on the death of
Sir Henry Upton. 2. Speeches in parliament. 3. Va¬
rious letters of ftate. 4. The anfwerofTom Tell-truth.
5. The Praflice of Princes. And, 6. The Lamentation
of the Kirk.
CALVI, a town of the province of Lavoro, in the
kingdom of Naples, fituated near the fea, about fifteen
miles north of the city of Naples. E. Long. 14. 45'.
N. Lat. 41. 15.
Calvi is alio the name of a fea port in the ifland of
Corfica, fituated on a bay, on the weft fide of the
ifland, about 40 miles fouth-weft of Baftia. E. Long,
9. 5. N. Lat. 42. 16.
CALVIN, John, the celebrated reformer of the
Chriftian church from llomilh fuperftitions and doftri-
nal
CAL r 83 ] CAL
C&lvin. nal errors, and founder of the feft fmce called Cafawifts,
■«—V—^ was born in 1509. He was the fon of a cooper of
Noyon in Picardy j and his real name was Chauvin,
which he chofe to latinize into Calvinus, ftyling him-
felf in the title page to his firil work (a Commentary
on Seneca dedementia)) “ Lucius Calvinus, Civis Ro-
manus j” an early proof of his pride, at about 24 years
of age. In 1529, he was reftor of Pontl’Eveque j and
in 1534 he threw up this benefice, feparating himfelf
entirely from the Romifh church. The perfecution
againft the Proteftants in France (with whom he wras
now affociated) obliged him to retire to Btffle in Swit¬
zerland : here he publifhed his famous Inftitutes of the
Chriftian religion in 1535. The following year he was
chofen profeffor of divinity, and one of the minifters of
the church at Geneva. The next year, viz. I537> he
made all the people folemnly fwear to a body of doc¬
trines ) but finding that religion had not yet had any
great influence on the morals of the people, he, aflifted
by other minifters, declared, that fince all their admo¬
nitions and warnings had proved unfuccefsful, they
could not celebrate the holy facrament as long as thefe
diforders reigned } he alfo declared, that he could not
fubmit to fome regulations made by the fynod of Berne.
Upon which the fyndics having fummoned the people,
it was ordered that Calvin and two other minifters
ftiould leave the city within two days. Upon this Cal¬
vin retired to Straftmrg, where he eftablifhed a French
church, of which he was the firft minifter, and was al¬
fo chofen profeffor of divinity there. Two years af¬
ter he was chofen to aflift at the diet appointed by the
emperor to meet at Worms and at Ratifbon in order
to appeafe the troubles occafioned by the difference of
religion. He went with Bucer, and entered into a
conference with Melanfthon. The people of Geneva
now entreated him to return ; to which he confented,
and arrived at Geneva, September 13. I541* He
began with eftablifhing a form of ecclefiaftical difci-
pline, and a confiftorial jurifdiflion, wuth the power of
infli&ing all kinds of canonical punifhments. 1 his
was greatly difliked by many perfons, who imagined
that the papal tyranny would foon be revived. Calvin,
however, afferted on all occafions the rights of his
confiftory with inflexible ftriftnefs ; and he caufed Mi¬
chael Servetus to be burnt at the ftake for wrriting
againft the doftrine of the Trinity. But though the
rigour of his proceedings fometimes occafioned great
tumults in the city, yet nothing could {hake his ftea-
dinefs and inflexibility. Amongft all the difturbances
of the commonwealth, he took care of the foreign
churches in England, France, Germany, and in Po¬
land •, and did more by his pen than his prefence, fend¬
ing his advice and inftru£tions by letter, and welting
a greater number of books. This great reformer died
on the 27th of May 1564, aged 55. His works were
printed together at Amfterdam in 1671, in nine vo¬
lumes folio •, the principal of which are his Inftitutions,
in Latin, the beft edition of which is that of Robert
Stephens in 1553, in folio-, and his Commentaries on
the Holy Scriptures.—Calvin is univerfally allowed
to have had great talents, an excellent genius, and pro¬
found learning. His ftyle is grave and polite. Inde¬
pendent of his fpiritual pride, his morals were exem¬
plary ; for he was pious, fober, chafte, laborious, and
difinterefted. But his memory can never be purified
from the Ham of burning Servetus : it ill became a Calvinifrn,
reformer to adopt the moft odious practice of the cor- ('a*v^n‘tts‘yi
rupt church of Rome. " _v
CALVINISM, the doflrine and fentiments of Cal¬
vin and his followers. Calvinifm fubfifts in its great-
eft purity in the city of Geneva : and from thence it
w’as firft propagated into Germany, France, the United
Provinces, and England. In France it wTas abolifti-
ed by the revocation of the edift of Nantz in 1685.
It has been the prevailing religion in the United Pro¬
vinces ever fince the year 1571. The theological fy-
ftem of Calvin w’as adopted, and made the public rule
of faith in England, under the reign of Edward VI.
and the church of Scotland was modelled by John
Knox, the difciple of Calvin, agreeably to the doc¬
trine, rites, and form of ecclefiaftical government, efta-
bliftted at Geneva. In England, it has declined fince
the time of Queen Elizabeth j though it Hill fubfifts,
fome fay a little allayed, in the articles of the eftabiifh-
ed church ; and in its rigour in Scotland.
The diftinguiftiing theological tenets of Calvinifm,
as the term is now generally applied, refpefl the doc¬
trines of Predestination, or particular Election
and Reprobation, original Sin, particular Redemp¬
tion, effectual, or, as fome have called it, irrefiftible
Grace in regeneration, Justification by faith, Per¬
severance, and the Trinity. See each of thefe ar¬
ticles.
Befides the do&rinal part of Calvin’s fyftem, which,
fo far as it differs from that of other reformers of the
fame period, principally regarded the abfolute decree
of God, whereby the future and eternal condition of
the human race was determined out of mere fovereign
pleafure and free will} it extended likewife to the dif-
cipline and government of the Chriftian church, the
nature of the Eucharift, and the qualification of thofe
who were entitled to the participation of it. Calvin
confidered every church as a feparate and independent
body, inverted with the power of legiflation for itfelf.
He propofed that it flrould be governed by prefbyteries
and fynods, compofed of clergy and laity, without
bifhops, or any clerical fubordination 5 and maintain¬
ed, that the province of the civil magiftrate extended
only to its proteftion and outward accommodation.
In order to facilitate an union with the Lutheran church,
he acknowledged a real, though fpiritual, prefence of
Chrift, in the Eucharift, that true Chriftians were uni¬
ted to the man Chrift in this ordinance, and that di¬
vine grace w7as conferred upon them, and fealed to
them, in the celebration of it; and he confined the
privilege of communion to pious and regenerate be¬
lievers. In France the Calvinifts are diftingufthed by
the name of Huguenots; and, among the common peo¬
ple, by that of Parpaillots. In Germany they are con¬
founded with the Lutherans, under the general title
Proteftants ; only (ometimes diftinguiftied by the name
Reformed.
CALVINISTS, in church hiftory, thofe who fol¬
low the opinions of CalviH* See the two preceding
articles.
Crypto-Calf in 1 STS) a name given to the favourers
of Calvinifm in Saxony, on account of their fecrct at¬
tachment to the Genevan doctrine and difeipline.
Many of them fuffered by the decrees of the convoca¬
tion of Torgaw, held in 157b. The Calvinifts in their
L 2 Pr°grek
CAL [ 84 ] CAL
Calvifius progrefs have divided into various branches, or lefler
II fedls.
a umet', CALVISIUS, Seth, a celebrated German chro-
nologer in the beginning of the 17th century. He
wrote Elenchus calendari'i Gregonani, et duplex ca/enda-
rii melioris forma, and other learned works, together
with fome excellent treatifes on mufic. He died in
1617, aged 61.
CALVITES, orCALViriUM, in Medicine, bald-
nefs, or a want of hair, particularly on the finciput,
occalioned by the moifture of the head, which (hould
feed it, being dried up, by fome difeafe, old age,
or the immoderate ufe of powder, &c. See Alo¬
pecia.
CALUMET, a fymbolical inftrument of great im¬
portance among the American Indians.—It is nothing
more than a pipe, whole bowl is generally made of a
foft red marble : the tube of a very long reed, orna¬
mented with the wings and feathers of birds. No af¬
fair of confequence is tranfafted without the calumet.
It ever appears in meetings of commerce or exchanges:
in congreffes for determining of peace or war ; and
even in the very fury of a battle. The acceptance of the
calumet is a mark of concurrence with the terms pro-
pofed } as the refufal is a certain mark of rejeftion.
Even in the rage of a conflict this pipe is fometimes
offered j and if accepted, the weapons of deftrudtion
inftantly drop from their hands, and a truce enfues. It
feems the facrament of the favages ; for no compadt
is ever violated which is confirmed by a whiff from
this holy reed. When they treat of war, the pipe and
all its ornaments are ufually red, or fometimes red on¬
ly on one fide. The fize and decorations of the calu¬
met are for the moll part proportioned to the quality
of the perfons to whom they are prefented, and to the
importance of the occafion. The calumet of peace is
different from that of war. They make ufe of the for¬
mer to feal their alliances and treaties, to travel with
fafety, and to receive ftrangers 5 but of the latter to
proclaim war. It confiffs o.f a red done, like marble,
formed into a cavity refembling the head of a tobacco
pipe, and fixed to a hollow reed. They adorn it with
feathers of various colours; and name it the calumet
of the fun, to which luminary they prefent it, in ex-
pedfation of thereby obtaining a change of weather as
often as they defire. From the winged ornaments of
the calumet, and its conciliating ufes, writers compare
it to the caduceus of Mercury, which was carried by
the caduceatores, or meffengers of peace, with terms
to the hoftile dates. It is lingular, that the mod re¬
mote nations, and the mod oppofite in their other
cudoms and manners, diould in fome things have,
as it wTere, a certain confent of thought. The Greeks
and the Americans had the fame idea, in the inven¬
tion of the caduceus of the one, and the calumet of the
other.
Dance of the Calumet, is a folemn rite among the
Indians on various occafions. They dare not waih
themfelves in rivers in the beginning of dimmer, nor
tade of the new fruits, without performing it ; and
the fame ceremony ahvays confirms a peace or precedes
a war. It is performed in the winter time in their
cabins, and in fummer in the open fields. For this
purpofe they choofe a fpot among trees to diade
them from the heat of the fun, and lay in the middle
a large mat, as a carpet, fetting upon it the monitor, Calumny
or god, of the chief of the company. On the right cJ|x
hand of this image they place the calumet, as their ,
great deity, erefting around it a kind of trophy with
their arms. Things being thus difpoied, and the hour
of dancing come, thofe who Jare to fing take the mod
honourable feats under the fhade of the trees. The
company is then ranged round, every one, before he fits
dovvn, faluting the monitor, which is done by blowing
upon it the fmoke of their tobacco. Each perfon next
receives the calumet in rotation, and holding it with
both hands, dances to the cadence of the vocal mufic,
which is accompanied with the beating of a fort of
drum. During this exercife, he gives a fignal to one
of their warriors, wEo takes a bow, arrow', and axe,
from the trophies already mentioned, and fights him }
the former defending himfelf with the calumet only,
and both of them dancing all the while. This mock en¬
gagement being over, he who holds the calumet makes
a fpeech, in wEich he gives an account of the battles
he has fought, and the prifoners he has taken, and
then receives a cloak, or fome other prefent, from the
chief of the ball. He then refigns the calumet to ano¬
ther, w7ho, having afted a fimilar part, delivers it to a
third, who afterwards gives it to his neighbour, till at
laft the inftrument returns to the perfon that began the
ceremony, who prefents it to the nation invited to the
feaft, as a mark of their friendfhip, and a confirmation
of their alliance, when this is the occafion of the en-
tainment.
CALUMNYithe crime of accufing another falfely,
and knowingly fo, of fome heinous offence.
Oath of Calumny, fur amentum (or rather fusju-
randuni) Calumnice, among civilians and canonifts, was
an oath which both parties in a caufe w'ere obliged to
take ; the plantiff that he did not bring his charge,
and the defendant that he did not deny it, with a defign.
to abufe each other, but bf/caufe they believed their
caufe was iuft and good ; that they would not deny
the truth, nor create unneceffary delays, nor offer the
judge or evidence any gifts or bribes. If the plaintiff
refufed this oath, the complaint or libel wras dilmiffed ,
if the defendant, it was taken pro confeffo. 1 his cuftom
wras taken from the ancient athletre 3 who, before they
engaged, w'ere to fwear that they had no malice, nor
wmuld ufe any unfair means for overcoming each other.
'Tht juramentum calumnice is much difuled, as a great
occafion of perjury. Anciently the advocates and
proffers alfo took this oath 3 but of late it is difpenfed
with, and thought fufficient that they take it once for
all at their firft admiftion to praffice. See alfo Law,.
Part III. N° clxxxiv. 7.
CALVUS, Cornelius Licinius, a celebrated Ro¬
man orator, w'as the friend of Catullus 3 and flouriflred
64 B. C. Catullus, Ovid, and Horace, fpeak of him.
CALX properly fignifies lime, but has been ufed by
chemifts and phyficians for a fine pow'der remaining
after the calcination of metals. All metallic calces
are found to weigh more than the metal from which
they w'ere originally produced. This arifes from the
metal having combined with oxygen during the pro-
cefs of calcination or burning 5 and hence in the pre-
fetit chemical nomenclature they are called oxides.
Calx Nativa, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of marly
earth, of a dead whitiftr colour, which, if thrown into
water.
Calx
II
Canwea.
C A M
. but having their zones very broad and thick,
and laid alternately one on another, with no common
matter between ; ufually lefs tranlparent, and more
debafed with earth, than the onyxes.
I. One fpecies of the camma is the dull-looking
onyx, with broad, black, and white zones 5 and is the
camtea of the moderns, and the Arabian onyx. This
fpecies is found in Egypt, Arabia, Perfia, and the Ealt-
Indies. 2. Another fpecies of the cama;a is the dub
broad-zoned, green and white camaea, or the jafpi-
camseo of the Italians: it is found in the Eaft Indies,and
in fome parts of America. 3. The third is the hard
camaea, with broad white and chefnut-coloured veins.
4. The hard camcea, with bluilh, white, and flefh-co-
loured broad veins, being the fardonyx of Pliny’s time,
only brought from the Eaft; Indies.
CAMAIEU, or Camayeu, a word ufed to exprefs
a peculiar: fort of onyx: alfo by fome to exprefs a
ftone, whereon are found various figures, and repre-
fentations of landfcapes, &c. formed by a kind of lufus-
natura, fo as to exhibit pi&ures without painting.
The word comes from camahuia, a name the Orientals
give to the onyx, when they find, in preparing it,
another colour ■, as who ftiould fay, afecondjione. It is
of thefe caniaieux Pliny is to be underftood when he
fpeaks of the manifold pifture of gems, and the party-
coloured fpots of precious ftones : Gemmarum pittur*
tarn multiplex lapidumque tam difcolores tnacuU.
Camaieu is alfo applied by others to thofe precious
CAM [ 85 ]
■water, makes a confiderable bubbling and hiding noife, bafis
and has, without previous burning, the quality of mak¬
ing a cement like lime or plafter of Paris.
^ Calx Viva or ^uick-lime, that whereon no water
has been caft, in contradifthuftion to lime which has
been flaked by pouring water on it.
CALYBITES, the inhabitants of a cottage, an ap¬
pellation given to divers faints on account of their
long refidence in fome hut, by way of mortification.
The word is formed from tego, I cover;
whence x.xhv&'A, a little cot.— i he Romifti church com¬
memorates St John the Calybite on the 15th of De¬
cember. .
CALYCANTHEMiE, in Botany, an order ot
plants in the Tragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus,
in which are the following genera, viz; epilobium,
cenothera, jufliaea, ludivigia, oldenlandia, ifnarda, See.
See Botany, Natural Orders.
CALYCANTHUS. See Botany Index.
CALYCIFLORiE, in Botany, the 16th order m
Linnaeus’s Fragmenta methodi naturahs, confiding. of
plants which, as the title imports, have the ftamina
(the flower) inferted into the calyx. This order con¬
tains the following genera, viz. eleagnus, hippopnae,
ofyris, and trophis. See Botany.
CALYCIST/E, (fromcalyx the flower-cup), iyite-
matic botanifts, fo termed by Linnaeus, who have ar¬
ranged all vegetables from the different fpecies, ftruc-
profeflbr of botany at Montpelier, publifhed in 1720; thefe reprefentat.ons. See Cam*a. ... .
and Linnaeus’s Methodus Calycina, publifhed in is
Clajfes Plant arum, at Leyden, in 1738. See Botany
lliftory. r _
C ALYDON, in Ancient Geography, a town ot AMo-
lia, fituated feven miles and a half from the lea, and
divided by the river Evenus •, the country was anciently
called JEolis, from the TEolians its inhabitants. This
country was famous for the ftory of Meleager and the
Calydonian boar. r ,
cording to Homer, Ulyffes fuffered flnpwreck on her
chart, and ftaid with her feveral years. _
CALYPTRA, among botanifts, a thin membrana¬
ceous involucrum, ufually of a conic figure which co¬
vers the parts of fruaification. The capfules ot moit
of the moffes have calyptrae.
CALYX, among botanifts, a general term exprei-
fing the cup of a flower, or that part of a plant which
furrounds and fupports the other parts of the flower.
The cups of flowers are very various in their Itruc-
ture, and on that account diftinguifhed by feveral names,
asperianthium, involucrum, fpatha, gluma, See. bee Bo-
CALZADA, a town of Old Caftile in Spain, feat-
ed on the river Leglera. W. Long. 2. 47. N. Lat.
^ CAMiEA, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of the femi-
pellucid gems, approaching to the onyx ftruaure be-
in <r compofed of zones, and formed, on a cryftallme
Camaieu
II
Camaldu-
lians.
eie icpicicuicl«w..o. See Cam a: A.
Camaieu is alfo frequently applied to any kind ot
gem, whereon figures may be engraven either indent-
edly or in relievo. In this fenfe the lapidaries of Pans
are called in their ftatutes, cutters of catnayeux.
A fociety of learned men at Florence undertook to
procure all the cameos or camayeux and intaglios in the
p-reat duke’s gallery to be engraven j and began to
draw the heads of divers emperors in cameos.- _
Camaieu is alfo ufed for a painting,-wherein there
is only one colour ; and where the lights and fhadows
’ on a golden or azure ground,
[low, the French call it cirage ;
when gray, griffaile'. This kind of work is chiefly
ufed to reprefent baffo relievos: the Greeks call pieces,
of this fort
CAMALDULIANS, Camaldunians, or Ga-
maldomtes, an order of religious, founded by Rc„
muald, an Italian fanatic, in 1023, m the ho"1 e
defert of Camaldoli, otherwife called Campo Malduh,
fituated in the ftate of Florence, on the Apennines.
Their rule is that of St Benedift j and their houles,
by the ftatutes, are never tc^be lefs than five leagues
from cities. The Camaldulians have not borne that
title from the beginning of their order j til! the clofe
of the eleventh century they were called Romuald ins,
from the name of their founder, ddl that time, Ca-
maldulian was a particular name for thofe of the delert
Camaldoli; and D. Grand! obferves, was not given to
the whole order in regard it was m this monaftery that
the order commenced, but becaufe the regulation was
beft maintained here. j j 1 „
Guido Grandi, mathematician of the grand duke a
i!
Camarina.
CAM
Camalodu- Tufcany, and a^monk of this order, has publifhed Cn-
num maldulian Differtations, on the origin and eftablifhment
of it.
The Camaldulites were diftinguifhed into two clafles,
of which the one were coenobites, and the other
EREMITES.
CAMALODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the I rinobantes, the firft Roman colony in
Britain, of veterans under the emperor. From the Iti¬
neraries it appears to have flood where now Malden
Hands. It continued to be an open place under the
Romans j a place of pleafure rather than ftrength ; yet
not unadorned with Iplendid works, as a theatre and
a temple of Claudius: which the Britons confidered as
badges of flavcry, and which gave rife to feveral fedi-
tions and commotions. It Hands on a bay of the fea,
at the mouth of the Chelmer, in the county of EfTex :
the modern name is curtailed from the ancient.
CAMARANA, an ifland of Arabia, in the Red
fea, whofe inhabitants are little and black. It is the
bell of all the iHands in this fea, and here they fifh for
coral and pearls. N. Lat. x if. o.
CAMASSEI, or Camace, Andrea, painter of hi-
flory and landlcape, was born at Bevagna, and at firft
learned the principles of defign and colouring from
Domenichino ; but afterwards he ftudied in the fchool
of Andrea Sacchi, and proved a very great painter.
He was employed in St Peter’s at Rome, as alfo at St
John Lateran ; and his works are extremely admired,
for the fweetnefs of his colouring, the elegance of his
thoughts and defign, and likewife for the delicacy of his
pencil. Sandrart laments that the world was deprived
of fo promifing a genius, in the very bloom of life,
when his reputation was daily advancing. He died in
I^57. At St John Lateran are to be feen, the Battle
of Conftantine and Maxentius ; and the Triumph of
Conftantine ; which are noble and grand compofitions;
and they afford fufficient proofs of the happinefs of his
invention, and the correftnefs of his execution. Alfo
at Wilton, the feat of the earl of Pembroke, there is a
picture of Venus with the Graces, faid to be by the
hand of Camaffei.
CAMARCUM, in Ancient Geography, the capital
of the Nervii, a people of Gallia Belgica, (Antonine,
Peutinger) j before whofe time no mention was made
of it. Now Cambray, capital of the Cambrefis, in
French Flanders. E. Long. 3. 15. Lat. 50. 15,
CAM ARINA, in Ancient Geography, a city of Si¬
cily, built by the Syracufans on an eminence near the
fea, in the fouth of Sicily, to the weft of the promon¬
tory Pachynum, between two rivers, the Hipparis and
Oanus. Of fo famous a city nothing now7 remains but
its name and ancient w'alls, a mile and a half in com-
pafs, wuth the flight remains of houfes : now called
Camarana.
Cam akin a Pa/us, a marlh or lake, near the city Ca-
marina, and from which it took its name. In a time of
drought, the flench of the lake produced a peftilence j
Upon which the inhabitants confulted the oracle, whether
they fhould not quite drain it. The oracle diffuaded
them: they notwdthftanding drained it, and opened a
way for their enemies to come and plunder their city
hence the proverb Ne moveas Camarinam, that is, not
to remove one evil to bring on a greater. Now Lago di
1
[ 86 ] CAM
Camarana, fituated in a beautiful plain, under the very Camaytit
W'alls of Camarina, and of a triangular form. 11
CAMAYEU. See Camaieu. , CambIe*.f
CAMBAIA, or Campay, a town of Afia, in In¬
dia, and in the peninlula on this fide the Ganges ; ca¬
pital of a province of the fame name j but more com¬
monly called Guzerat. It is feated at the bottom of
a gulf of the fame name, on a fmall river; is a large
place with high walls, and has a pretty good trade.
The product and manufaftures are inferior to few
towns in India, for h; abounds in corn, cattle, and
filkj and cornelian and agate ftones are found in its ri¬
vers. The inhabitants are noted for embroidery j and
fome of their quilts have been valued at 40I. It is
fubjeft to the Great Mogul. E. Long. 72. 15. N.
Lat. 22. 30.
CAMBAYES, in commerce, cotton cloths made
at Bengal, Madras, and fome other places on the coaft
of Coromandel. They are proper for the trade of
Marfeilles, whither the Englilh at Madras fend great
numbers of them. Many are alfo imported into Hol¬
land. ^
CAMBER, according to our monkifh hiftorians,
one of the three fons of Brute, who, upon his father’s
death, had that part of Britain affigned him for his
fhare, called from him Cambria, now Wales.
CAMBER-Beam, among builders, a piece of timber
in an edifice cut archwife, or with an obtufe angle in
the middle, commonly ufed in platforms, as church
leads, and on other occafions where long and ftrong
beams are required.
CAMBERED decks, among {hip-builders. The
deck or flooring of a fhip is faid to be cambered,
or to lie cambering, when it is higher in the middle
of the (hip’s length, and droops towards the ftem
and Hern, or the two ends. Alfo when it lies irregu¬
lar ; a circumftance which renders the {hip very unfit
for war.
CAMBERT, a French mufician in the 17th cen¬
tury, was at firft admired for the manner in which he
touched the organ, and became fuperintendant of the
mufic to Anne of Auftria the queen mother. The
Abbe Perrin affociated him in the privilege he obtained
of his majefty, of fetting up an opera in 1669. Cam-
bert fet to mufic two paftorals, one entitled Pomona,
the other Ariadne, which were the firft operas given in
Fi ance. He alfo wrote a piece entitled The pains and
pleafures of love. Thefe pieces pleafed the public; yet,
in 1672, Lully obtaining the privilege of the opera,
Cambert was obliged to come to England, were he
became fuperintendant of the mufic to King Charles II.
and died there in 1677.
CAMBIO, an Italian word which fignifies exchange,
commonly ufed in Provence, and in fome other coun¬
tries, particularly Holland.
CAMBIST, a name given in France to thofe who
trade in notes and bills of exchange, The word cam-
biji, though a term of antiquity, is even now a technical
word, of fome ufe among merchants, traders, and bank¬
ers. Some derive it from the Latin cambium, or ra¬
ther cambio.
CAMBLET, or Chamblet, a fluff fometimes of
wool, fometimes filk, and fometimes hair, efpecial-
ly that of goats, with wool or filk : in fome, the
warp
CAM [ S? ] CAM
Cambodia warp is filk and wool twifted together, and the woof
H . hair.
, a^bogia. 'j’jjg true or oriental camblet is made of the pure
v hair of a fort of goat, frequent about Angora, and
which makes the riches of that city, all the inhabitants
whereof are employed in the manufa6ture and com¬
merce of camblets. It is certain w7e find mentioned in
middle-age waiters {luffs made of camels hair, un¬
der the denominations of cameletum and camehnum,
whence probably the origin of the term ; but thefe
are reprefented as ffrangely coarfe, rough, and prickly,
and feem to have been chiefly ufed among the monks by
way of mortification, as the hair flrirt of latter times.
We have no camblets made in Europe of the goats
hair alone ; even at Bruffels, they find it neceflary to
add a mixture of woollen thread.
England, France, Holland, and Flanders, are the
chief places of this manufadure. Bruffels exceeds them
all in the beauty and quality of its camblets : thofe of
England are reputed the fecond.
Figured Camblets, are thofe of one colour, whereon
are ftamped various figures, flowers, foliage, &c. by
means of hot irons, which are a kind of moulds, paffed
together with the fluff under a prefs. Thefe are chief¬
ly brought from Amiens and Flanders j the commerce
of thefe wras anciently much more confiderable than at
prefent.
Watered Cambists, thofe which, after weaving, re¬
ceive a certain preparation with water j and are after¬
wards paffed under a hot prefs, which gives them a
fmoothnefs and luftre.
Waved Camblets, are thofe whereon waves are im-
preffed, as on tabbies 5 by means of a calender, under
which they are paffed and repaffed feveral times.
The manufacturers, &c. of camblets are to take care
they do not acquire any falfe and needlefs plaits ; it
being almoft impoflible to get them out again. I his
is notorious even to a proverb j we fay a perfon is like
camblet he has taken his plait.
CAMBODIA, a kingdom of Afia, in the Eaft In¬
dies, bounded on the north by the kingdom of Laos,
on the eaft by Cochin-China and Chiapa, and on the
fouth and weft by the gulf and kingdom of Siam j
divided by a large river called Mecon. T he capital
town is of the fame name, feated on the weftern ftiore
of the faid river, about 150 miles north of its mouth.
This country is annually overflowed in the rainy
feafon, between June and OClober ; and its produc¬
tions and fruits are much the fame with thofe ulually
found between the tropics. E. Long. 104. 15. N. Lat.
12. 40.
CAMBODUNUM, (Itinerary) •, a town of the Bri-
gantes in Britain ; now in ruins, near Almonbury in
Yorkftiire. Weftchefter, (Talbot.) Alfo a town of
Vindelicia, on the Cambus ; now Kempten in Suabia.
CAMBOGI A, in Botany. A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants j
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or¬
der, Tricocca. The corolla is tetrapetalous ; the calyx
tetraphyllous •, and the fruit is a pome with eight cells,
and folitary feeds. There is but one fpecies, the
gutta, a native of India, which yields the gum-refin
known by the name of gamboge in the {hops. See
Gamboge.
CAMBRASINES, in commerce, fine linen made Cambra-
in Egypt, of which there is a confiderable trade at ^nes
Cairo, Alexandria, and Rofetta, or Rafchit. They Cambric
are called cambrajines from their refemblance to cam- c—
brics.
CAMBRAY, an archiepifcopal city, the capital of
the Cambrefis, in the Low Countries, feated on the
Scheldt. It is defended by good fortifications, and
has a fort on the fide of the river} and as the land is
low on that fide, they can lay the adjacent parts under
w’ater by means of fluices. Its ditches are large and
deep, and thofe of the citadel are cut into a rock. Clo¬
dion became mafter of Cambray in 445. The Danes
burnt it afterwards •, fince which time it became a free
imperial city. It has been the fubjeft of conteft be¬
tween the emperors, the kings of France, and the earls
of Flanders. Francis I. let it remain neutral during
the war with Charles V. but this laft- took poffeflion of
it in 1543. After this it was given to John of Mont-
luc by Henry III. of France, whom he created pripce
of Cambray $ but the Spaniards took it from Montluc
in 1593, which broke his heart. It continued under
the dominion of the houfe of Auftria till 1677? whet*
the king of France became mafter of it, in whofe
hands it has continued ever fince.
The buildings of Cambray are tolerably handfome,
and the ftreets fine and fpacious. The place or fquare
for arms is of an extraordinary largenefs, and capable
of receiving the whole garrifon in order of battle. I he
cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary is one of the
fineft in Europe. The body of the church is very large,
and there are rich chapels, the pillars of which are
adorned with marble tombs that are of exquifite work-
manfhip, and add greatly to the beauty of the place.
There are two galleries, one of which is of copper,
finely wrought. The door of the choir is of the fame
metal, and well carved. The fteeple of this church is
very high, and built in the form of a pyramid.; and
from its top you have a view of the city, which is one
of the fineft and moft agreeable in the Low Countries.
There are nine parifhes, four abbeys, and feveral con¬
vents for both fexes. The citadel is very advantage-
oufly fituated on high ground, and commands the
whole city. Cambray is one of the moft opulent and
commercial cities in the Low Countries ; and makes
every year a great number of pieces of cambric, with
which the inhabitants drive a great trade. E. Long.
3. 20. N. Lat. 50. ix-
Cambray, M. deFenelon, archbijhop of. See Fene-
lon.
CAMBRESIS, a province of France, in the Ne¬
therlands, about 25 miles in length. It is bounded on
the north and eaft by Hainault, on the fouth by. Picar¬
dy, and on the weft by Artois. It is a very fertile, and
populous country ; and the inhabitants are induftrious,
adlive, and ingenious. The trade confifts principally
in corn, ftieep, very fine wool, and fine linen cloth*
Cambray is the capital town-
CAMBRIA, a name for the principality of Wales.
CAMBRIC, in commerce, a fpecies of linen made
of flax, very fine and w’hite ; the name of wdiich was
originally derived from the city of Cambray, where
they were firft manufactured. They are now made at
other places in France.
The
CAM [ 8E
Oambriclge. The manufa^lure of cambrics hath long fince proved
‘—of extraordinary advantage to France.^ hor many
years it appeared that England did not in this article
contribute lefs than 200,000!. per annum to the inte-
reft of France. This proved motive fufficient to in¬
duce the parliament of Great Britain to ena£t many
faint ary laws to prevent this great lofs of our wealth.
See 18 Geo. II. c. 38. and 21 Geo. II. c. 26. See al-
fo flat. 32. Geo. II. c. 32. and 4 Geo. III. c. 37. which
regulates the cambric manufaftory, not long fince in¬
troduced into Winchelfea in Suffex ; but very foon
abolilhed. The cambrics now allowed in this country
•are manufactured in Scotland and Ireland. Any per-
fons conviCted of wearing, felling (except for _fxPor"
tation), or making up for hire any cambric or French
lawns, are liable to a penalty of 5I. by the two firit
.ilatutes cited above.
CAMBRIDGE, a town of England, and capital
of the county of that name. It takes the name of
Cambridge from the bridge over the Cam, which di¬
vides the town into two parts. Either it or a place in
the neighbourhood w7as ftyled Camboritutn, in the time
of the Romans. It fuffered much during the wars
with the Danes. Here was a caltle built by W illiam
the Conqueror, of which the gatehoufe yet remains,
and is now the county gaol. By Doomfday-book it
appears that it then had ten wards, containing 387
houfes. In William Rufus’s reign it was quite de-
ftroyed by Roger de Montgomery ; but Henry I. be¬
llowed many privileges upon it to encourage its rcfto-
ration, particularly an exemption from the powrer of
the Iheriff, on condition of its paying yearly into the
exchequer 100 merks (equivalent to 1000 pounds now),
and from tolls, laftage, pontage, paffage, and ftallage,
in all fairs of his dominions. It was afterwards often
plundered in the barons wars by the outlaws from the
itle of Ely, till Henry III. fecured it by a deep ditch.
In 1388, Richard II. held a parliament here.. In the
rebellion of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw again!! that
prince, the univerfity records tvere taken and burnt in
the market place. . r n
The modern town is about one mile long from loutti
to north, and about half a mile broad in the middle, di-
rninilbing at the extremities. It has 14 parifti churches,
of which two are without any towers. It contains above
1200 houfes-, but the private buildings are neither
elegant nor large, owing chiefly to their being held on
college or corporation leafes. It is governed by a
mayor, high ftewrard, recorder, 13 aldermen and 24
common council men, a tow-n clerk, &c. Its chief
trade is water carriage from hence to Downham, Lynn,
Ely, &c. The Jews being encouraged to fettle in
England by William I. and H. were very populous
here for feveral generations, and inhabited that flreet
now called the Jewry. They had a fynagogue, fince.
converted to a parifli church, called from the ftiape of
its tower Round Church ; though others are of opinion
that it was built by the Knights Templars, it bearing
a refemblance to the Temple church in London. The
market place is fituated in the middle of the town, and
confifts of two fpacious oblong fquares united together j
at the top of the angle (lands the (hire hall, lately
erefled at the expence of the county. At the back
of the (hire hall is the town hall and. gaol. In the
market place, fronting the (hire hall, is a remarkably
] CAM
handfome flone conduit, to which water is conveyed Cambrulge.
by an aqueduft, which was the benefaflion of the cele- v
brated Hobfon, a carrier in the reign of James I. who
was a native of this town. A fine road for the benefit
of the inhabitants and ftudents was made a few years
fince for four miles, from this town to Gogmagog hills,
purfuant to the will of Mr Worts. The late Dr Ad-
denbroke alfo left it 4000I. towards building and fur-
nifiring an hofpital for the cure of poor difeafed people
gratis } of which charity the mafter of Catharine hall
is a truftee : which hofpital has been eretted at the
fouth-eaft end of the town. At a little diflance from
Bennet college is the botanic garden of five acres, and a
large houfe for the ufe of the governors and the refi-
dence of the curator, given to the univerfity by the late
Dr Walker, who fettled an eftate on it towards its fup-
port j to which the late Mr Edward Betham added a
very confiderable benefadlion. I he town has fairs on
June 24. and Auguft 14.
The glory of Cambridge is its univerfity ; but when
it had its beginning is uncertain. At firft there was
no public provifion for the accommodation or mainte¬
nance of the fcholars; but afterwards inns began to be
erefted by pious perfons for their reception, and in
the time of Edward I. colleges began to be built and
endowed. This univerfity, not inferior to any in
Chriftendom, confifts of 12 colleges and 4 halls, which
have the fame privileges as the colleges. The whole
body, which is commonly about 1enjoys very
great privileges granted by feveral of our fovereigns *
but it was Jarfles I. who empowered it to fend two
members to parliament, as the town had done from
the firft. The univerfity is governed, 1. By a chan¬
cellor, who is always feme nobleman, and may b£
changed every three years, or continued longer by the
tacit confent of the univerfity. 2. By a high fteward,
chofen by the fenate, and holding his place by patent
from the univerfity. 3. By a vice-chancellor, who is
the head of feme college or hall, and chofen yearly by
the body of the univerfity, the heads of the colleges
naming two. 4* ^wo proftors chofen every year,
according to the cycle of colleges and halls j as are
two taxors, who with the proffers regulate the weights
and meafures, as clerks of markets. T he proffers
alfo infpeff the behaviour of the fcholars, who muft
not be out of their colleges after nine at night. Here
are alfo 2 moderators, 2 ferutators, a commiffary, pub¬
lic orator, 2 librarians, a regifter, a fchool-keeper, 3
efquire beadles and a yeoman beadle, 18 profeffors, and
the caput, confifting of the vice-chancellor, a doffor
of divinity, a doffor of laws, a doffor of phyfic, a re¬
gent and a non-regent mafter of arts. ‘Henry YL
granted it the power to print all books of any kind
within itfelf, a privilege which Oxford had not. The
fenate houfe of the univerfity is an elegant building of
the Corinthian order, coft near l6,OOOl. building j in
which on the north fide is a fine ilatue of George L
erefled in 1739 at the expence of the late Lord Town-
flrend j oppofite to this on the fouth fide is another of
George II. erefled in 1765 at the expence of the late
duke of Newcaftle : at the eaft end, on each fide of
the entrance, are two others j one, the late duke ot
Somerfet, after the Vandyke tafte j the. other, an
Italian emblematical figure of Gloria, rms is allowed
to be the moft fuperb room in England, being 101 feet
CAM
Cambridge.long, 42 broad, and 32 high; and it bas v,
1 v ' which can contain IOOO perfons. This building forms
the north lide of the quadrangle, as the fchools and pub¬
lic library do the welt, the fchools being the ground
floor, and the library over them furrounding a fmall
court. North of the philofophy fchool is the repolitory
of Dr Woodward’s foflils, ores, (hells, &c. The
do£for, togther with that colledfion and a part of his
library, left a fum of money to this univerfity for erec¬
ting a profefforlhip for natural philofophy, with a pro-
viiion of 150I. a-year for ever. At the louth-eafl cor¬
ner of this building is an elegant geometrical (lone (lair-
cafe which leads to the old library, and conlifts of 18
claffes} at the end of which is an elegant fquare room,
in which are depofited the MSS. and a valuable cabi¬
net of oriental books and curiofities, &c. This room
opens to two other rooms, containing 26 large dalles
confiding of 30,000 volumes prefented to the univerfity
by George 1. being the entire colle&ion of Dr Moore
i biihop of Ely, and purchafed of the do&or’s executors by
his majefly for 6000 guineas •, before which his majefly
gave the univetfity 2000I. to defray the expence of fit¬
ting up the apartments and eroding claffes for their
reception they confifl of the fird editions of the Greek
and Latin claflics and hidorians, and the greated part
of the works of the fird printers ■, large colledions of
prints by the greated mailers ; and a valuable MS. of
the Gofpels and Ads of the Apodles on vellum in
Greek and Latin capitals, given to the univerfity by
Theodore Beza, and fuppofed to be as old as any MS.
extant. The other part of the library has been re¬
built in an elegant manner, and forms the wed fide of
the intended quadrangle. The books which are con¬
tained in the lad room are part of the old library
augmented with a confiderable number of the bed
modern books, feveral of which arc prefents from foreign
fovereigns and eminent men. 1 he fouth fide of the
quadrangle is defigned for a building to contain the
printing office, &c. of the univerfity,. for which pre¬
parations began lately to be made by pulling down the
-old buildings on the* fpot. St Mary’s church forms
the ead fide of this quadrangle : here the univerfity
have their public fermons •, and the pulpit, which (lands
in the centre of the church and faces the chancel, has
no foundingboard. In a grand gallery over part of the
chancel is a feat for the chancellor, vjce-cbancellor, &c.
George I. when he gave the books, alfo edablilhed a
profeffor of modern hiflory and modern languages in
this univerfity, with a falary of 400I. for himfelf and
two perfons under him qualified to indru£l in that
branch 20 fcholars, to be nominated by the king,
each of whom is obliged to learn at lead two of the
languages. A fellowffiip is founded at Magdalen
college^ appropriated to the gentlemen of Norfolk,
and called the travelling Norfolk fellow/hip. All
the libraries in Cambridge, except that of King’s
college, are lending libraries: and thofe at Oxford
are (tudying libraries. The different colleges are as
follow :
1. St Peter’s, the mod ancient, and the fird on enter¬
ing the town from London, confiding of two courts, fe-
parated by a cloider and gallery. The larged is 144
feet long, and 84 broad. The buildings in this court
* have been lately repaired in an elegant manner. I he
leffer court is divided by the chapel, which is a fine
Vox. V. Part I.
[ 89 1 CAM
a gallery old building, 54 feet long, 27 broad, and 27 high.Cambndg^-
This college was founded 1257. There are three col¬
leges in Oxford which difpute the antiquity with this.
Cambridge and Oxford were univerfities long before
they were poffeffed of any colleges in their own right,
the dudents then lodging and boarding with the
townfmen, and they then hired hotels for their ex-
ercifes and difputations. A hotel or hall, now deno¬
minated Pythagoras's fchool, fituated on the well fide of
the river, is one of the ancient hotels that remain un-
demoliflred, and in which Erafmus read his firft Greek
leftures in England. 2. Clare hall, on the bank of
the river, over which it has an elegant (lone bridge,
was founded 1326, confiding of one grand court 150
feet long and in broad. The front of this building
that faces the fields has the appearance of a palace.
To this college a new chapel has been added. 3. Pem¬
broke hall is near St Peter’s college, and was founded
in 1343 j it confifls of two courts. It has an elegant
chapel built by Sir Chrid. Wren. 4. Corpus Chridi
or Bennet college, founded in T 350, has but a mean ap¬
pearance, but is poffeffed of a remarkably large col-
ledlion of valuable and curious ancient manufcripts.
5. Trinity hall, on the north of Clare hall, near the
river, was founded in I351 } it is a (mall but remark¬
ably neat building. 6. Gonvil and Caius college is
near the middle of the town, north of the lenafe houfe,
and has three courts. It was founded I34^» an(i au§-
mented 1557. 7. King’s college, the mod noble foun¬
dation in Europe, was fird endowed by Henry VI.
The old court refembles a decayed callle more than a
college. The new building is very magnificent, near
300 feet long. 1 he chapel is one of the fined pieces
of Gothic architefture now remaining in the world.
It is 304 feet long, 73 broad on the outfide and 40
within, and f)i high 5 and yet not a (ingle pillar to
fudain its ponderous roofs, of which it has two : the
fird is of done, mod curioufly carved ; die other of
wood, covered with lead, between which is a vacancy
of IQ feet. There is fuch a profufion of carvings both
within and without as is nowhere to be equalled.
Henry VII. enlarged it 188 feet in length, and Hen¬
ry VIII. gave the elegant flails and organ gallery,
with its inimitable carvings, where are the coats of
arms of that king and thofe of Anne Boleyn quarter¬
ed. He gave alfo the elegant painted glafs windows,
which are in fine prefervation, and were permitted by
Cromwell to be preferved when almoft every other in
England was dedroyed, as he had a particular regard
for this univerfity where he had his education, and
for the town which he had reprefented in parliament.
A new altar has been lately erefted, which correfponds
with the architedure of the building, embelliffied with
an antique painting of Chrid taking down from the
crofs, purchafed in Italy, and prefented to the college
by the earl of Carliile. In this chapel are put up the
Spaniffi colours taken at the redudion of Manilla by
Colonel Draper, a member of this college. This col¬
lege has an ancient (lone bridge over the Cam.
8. Queen’s college near the river, fouth of King s, was
founded 1448, and confills of two courts, with a fine
grove and gardens on both fidesof the river, count ded
with each other and the college by two wooden bridges,
one of which is of a curious drudure. 9. Catharine
hall is eaft of Queen’s, and its principal front on the
M weft.
CAM [ 90
Cambridge, weft, the moft extenfive and regular in the univerfity.
no." jt contains only one court 180 feet long and 120 broad,
and was founded in 1475. 10. Jefus college is at the
eaft end of the town, furrounded by groves and gar¬
dens. The principal front faces the fouth, 180 feet
long, regularly built and falhed : it was originally a
Benedi&ine convent, and converted to the prefent ufe
1576. 11. Chrift’s college is oppofite to St Andrew’s
church, on the eaft fide of the town ; and was founded
by Henry VIPs mother in 1505. It has lately had
CAM
Bedfordfhire and Huntingdonftiire, and on the north by Cambrldga.
Lincolnihire. Prior to the arrival of the Romans it dnre,
a thorough repair, and is now a neat and beautiful
ftrufture. 12. St John’s college was founded by the
fame lady in 1509, on the fite of a diffolved priory.
It conftfts of three courts, and has a large library filled
with fcarce and valuable books. To this college be¬
longs a fine ftone bridge over the river, which leads to
their grand walks, 13. Magdalen college, the only
one that Hands on the north fide of the river, near the
great bridge, confifts of two courts, and was founded
in 1519. 14. Trinity college is eaft: of the river, hav¬
ing St John’s college on the north and Caius’s col¬
lege and Trinity hall on the fouth. It contains two
large quadrangles, the firft of which is 344 feet long
and 280 broad. It has two noble entrances 5 and on
the north fide of it is the chapel, 204 feet long, 34
broad, and 44 high. It has every grand ornament,
and the much admired ftatue of Sir Ifaac Newton,
who was a ftudent in this college. The hall is above
100 feet long, 40 broad, and 50 high. The inner
court is efteemed the fineft in the univerfity, and fur-
pafies any in Oxford. It is very fpacious, and has an
elegant cloifter of ftone pillars, fupporting grand apart¬
ments •, on the weft is the library, the moft elegant
ftru&ure of the kind in the kingdom, 190 feet long,
40 broad, and 38 high within. Its entrance is by a
llaircafe, the fteps black marble, and the walls in-
crufted with ancient Roman monuments. The en¬
trance into the library is by folding doors at the north
end. Its infide appearance is inexpreftibly grand, hav¬
ing at the fouth end (lately erebled) a beautiful
painted glafs window of his prefent majefty in his robes j
and the cLfles are large, beautiful, and noble, w'ell
flocked with books, manufcripts, &c. Its outfide has
every fuitable embellilhment, and wras erefted by Sir
Chriftopher Wren at the expence of near 20,oool.
Under this building is a fpacious piazza of equal’di-
mentions ; out of which open three gates to a lawn
that leads to the river, over wThich is a new elegant
cycloidal bridge of three arches, leading to extenfive
walks. In the middle is a remarkable vifta. This col¬
lege was founded on the fite of two other colleges and
a hall in 1546 by Henry VIII. 15. Emanuel college
is at the fouth-eaft end of the town ; confifts of tw’o
courts, the principal of which is very neat; and was
built on the fite of a Dominican convent. It has been
lately in a great part rebuilt and elegantly embelliflred.
16. Sidney-Suflex college is in Bridge-ftreet. Its hall
is elegant, but the chapel remarkable only for Handing
north and fouth, as others do eaft and weft. The num¬
ber of inhabitants in the towm of Cambridge in 1801,
was 10,087.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE, an inland county of Eng¬
land, bounded on the eaft by Norfolk and Suffolk, on
the fouth by Effex and Hertfordlhire, on the weft by
was included in the ancient divifion of the Iceni; and
after their conqueft, in the third province of Flavia
Caefarienfis, which reached from the Thames to the
Humber. During the Heptarchy it belonged to the
kingdom of Eaft Angles, the fixth kingdom, w hich be-
gan in 575, and ended in 792, having had 14 kings j
and it is now included in the Norfolk circuit, the dio-
cefe of Ely, and province of Canterbury, except a
fmall part which is in the diocefe of Norwich. It is
about 40 miles in length from north to fouth, and 25
in breadth from eaft to weft, and is 130 miles in cir¬
cumference, containing near 570,000 acres. It has
about 17,400 houfes, 140,000 inhabitants: is divided
into 17 hundreds, in which are one city, Ely j 8 market
towns, viz. Cambridge which is the fhire town and a
celebrated univerfity, Caxton, Linton, Merch, New'-
market, Soham, Wifbeach, Thorney, and part of Roy-
fton ; 220 villages, 64 parifhes : lends 2 members to
parliament (exclufive of 2 for the town and 2 for the
univerfity), pays one part of the land tax, and pro¬
vides 480 men in the militia. Its only rivers are the
Cam, the Nene, and the Oufe. A confiderable traft of
land in this county is diftinguifhed by the name of the
Ifle of Ely. It confifts of fenny ground, divided by in¬
numerable channels and drains : and is part of a very
fpacious level, containing 300,000 acres of land, ex¬
tending into Norfolk, Suffolk, Huntingdonfhire, and
Lincolnihire. The Ille of Ely is the north divifion of
the county, and extends fouth almoft as far as Cam¬
bridge. The whole level of which this is part, is bound¬
ed on one fide by the fea, and on the others by up¬
lands : which taken togeth. . form a rude kind of fe-
micircle refembling a horle Ihut. The air is very dif¬
ferent in different parts of the country. In the fens it
is moift and foggy, and therefore not fo wholefome;
but in the fouth and eaft parts it is very good, thefe
being much drier than the other : but both, by late im¬
provements, have been rendered very fruitful, the
former by draining, and the latter by cinquefoil: fo that
it produces plenty of corn, efpecially barley, faffron,
and hemp, and affords the richeft pafiures. The rivers
abound with filli, and the fens with wild fowl. The
principal manufaftures of the county are malt, paper,
and balkets. As the above traft appears to have
been dry land formerly, the great change it has under¬
gone mull have been owing either to a violent breach
and inundation of the fea or to earthquakes. As the
towms in and about the fens were great lufferers by
the ftagnation of the waters in fummer and want of
provifions in winter, many attempts were made to
drain them, but without fuccefs, until the time of
Charles I. in w’hich, and that of his fon, the work
w'as happily completed, and an aft of parliament puffed,
by which a corporation was eftablilhed for its prelerva-
tion and government. By the fame aft, 83,000 acres
were veiled in the corporation and 10,000 in the king.
In thefe fens are a great many decoys, in which in¬
credible numbers of ducks, and other wild fowd, are
caught during the feafon. The population of the
county of Cambridge, as it wTas taken in 1801, amount¬
ed to 89,349 perfons.
New Cambridge, a town of New England about
three
New Cam¬
bridge.
CAM [
Cambridge, three miles from Bofton, remarkable for an univerfitycon-
lifting of three colleges. W. Long. 70. 4.N. Lat. 42. o.
Cambridge Manufcript, a copy of the Gofpels and
A£ts of the Apoftles in Greek and Latin. Beza
found it in the monaftery of Irenoeus at Lyons in the
year 1 562, and gave it to the univerfity of Cambridge
in 1582. It is a quarto ftze, and written on vellum j
66 leaves of it are much torn and mutilated, ten of
which are fupplied by a later tranfcriber. Beza con¬
jectures, that this manufcript might have exifted fo
early as the time of Irenaeus : Wetftein apprehends
that it either returned or was firft brought from Egypt
into France; that it is the fame copy which Druth-
mar, an ancient expofttor who lived about the year
840, had feen, and which, he obferves, was afcribed to
St Hilary ; and that R. Stephens had given a parti¬
cular account of it in his edition of the New Tefta-
ment in t 550. It is ufually called Stephens'1 s fecond
manufcript. Mill agrees with F. Simon in opinion,
that it was written in the weftern part of the world by
a Latin fcribe, and that it is to a great degree inter¬
polated and corrupted : he obferves that it agrees fo
much with the Latin Vulgate, as to afford reafon for
concluding, that it was correfted or formed upon a
corrupt and faulty copy of that tranflation. From
this and the Clermont copy of St Paul’s Epiftles, Beza
publiftied his larger Annotations in 1582.
CAMBYSES. See {lliftory of') Persia.
CAMDEN, William, the great antiquarian, was
born in London in the year 1551. His father was a
native of Litchfield in Staffordftiire, who fettling in
London, became a member of the company of paper-
ftainers, and lived in the Old Bailey. His mother was
of the ancient family of Curwen, of Workington, in
Cumberland. He was educated firft at Chrift’s hofpi-
tal, and afterwards at St Paul’s fchool : from thence
he was fent, in 1566, to Oxford, and entered fervitor
of Magdalen college ; but being difappointed of a de¬
my’s place, he removed to Broadgate hall, and fome-
what more than two years after, to Chrift-church,
where he was fupported by his kind friend and patron
Dr Thornton. About this time he wras a candidate for
a fellowftiip of All-fouls college, but loft it by the in¬
trigues of the Popifh party. In 1570, he fupplicated
the regents of the univerfity to be admitted bachelor of
arts ; but in this alfo he mifcarried. The following
year Mr Camden came to London, wdiere he profecu-
ted his favourite ftudy of antiquity, under the patro¬
nage of Dr Goodman, dean of Weftminfter, by whofe
intereft he was made lecond mafter of Weftminfter
fchool in 1575. From the time of his leaving the uni¬
verfity to this period, he took feveral journeys to dif¬
ferent parts of England, with a view to make obferva-
tions and colle£l materials for his Britannia, in which
he was now deeply engaged. In 1581 he became in¬
timately acquainted with the learned Prefident Briffon,
91 ] C A M
who was then in England; and in 1586 he publilhed Camden,
the firft edition of his Britannia; a work which, though :
much enlarged and improved in future editions, was
even then efteemed an honour to its author, and the
glory of its country. In 1 i;93 he fucceeded to the
head mafterfhip of Weftminfter fchool on the refigna-
tion of Dr Grant. In this office he continued till
1597, when he was promoted to be Clarencieux king
at arms. In the year 1600 Mr Camden made a tour
to the north, as far as Carlifle, accompanied by his
friend Mr (afterwards Sir Robert) Cotton. In 1606
he began his correfpondence with the celebrated Pre¬
fident de Thou, wffiich continued to the death of that
faithful hiftorian. In the following year he publiih-
ed his laft edition of the Britannia, which is that
from wffiich the feveral Englilh tranftations have been
made; and in 1608, he began to digeft his materials
for a hiftory of the reign of Queen.Elizabeth. In
1609, after recovering*from a dangerous illnefs, he
retired to Chiflehurft in Kent, where he continued to
fpend the fummer months duiing the remainder of his
life. The firft part of his annals of the queen did not
appear till the year 1615, and he determined that the
fecond volume ffiould not appear till after his death (a).
The work W’as entirely finifired in 1617; and from
that time he was principally employed in collefting
more materials for the further improvement of his
Britannia. In 1622, being now upwards of-70, and
finding his health decline apace, he determined to lofe
no time in executing his defign of founding a hiftory
lefture in the univerfity of Oxford. His deed of gift
was accordingly tranfmitted by his friend Mr Heather
to Mr Gregory Wheare, wffio wTas, by himfelf, ap¬
pointed his firft profeffor. He died at Chiflehurft in
1623, in the 73d year of his age; and was buried
wuth great folemnity in Weftminfter abbey in the fouth
aifle, where a monument of wffiite marble w'as erefled
to his memory. Camden wras a man of Angular mo-
defty and integrity ; profoundly learned in the hiftory
and antiquities of this kingdom, and a judicious and
confcientious hiftorian. He wTas reverenced and efteem¬
ed by the literati of all nations, and will be ever re¬
membered as an honour to the age and country wffiere-
in he lived. Befides the works already mentioned, he
was author of an excellent Greek grammar, and of fe¬
veral tradls in Hearne’s colledlion. But his great and
moft ufeful w-ork, the Britannia, is that upon which
his fame chiefly built. The edition above mention¬
ed, to which he put his laft hand, was correflly print¬
ed in folio, much augmented, amended where it was
neceffary, and adorned writh maps. It was firft tranf-
lated into Engiiffi, and publifhed in folio at London,
in 1611, by the laborious Dr Philemon Holland, a
phyfician of Coventry, who is thought to have con-
fulted our author himfelf; and therefore great refpeeft:
has been paid to the additions and explanations that
M'2 occur
(a) The reign of Queen Elizabeth was fo recent when the firft volume of the Annals was publilhed, tnat
many of the perfons concerned, or their dependents, were ftill living. It is no wmnder, therefore, that the ho-
neft hiftorian flrould offend thole whofe aftions would not bear inquiry. Some of his enemies were clamorous
and troublefome ; wffiich determined him not to publilh the fecond volume during his life ; but that pofterity
■might be in no danger of difappointment, he depofited one copy in the Cotton library, and tranfmitted another
to his friend Dupuy at Paris. It was firft printed at Leyden in 1625.
CAM [ 92 ] C A M
Camel occur therein, on a luppofition that they may belong
c || to Camden. Eut in a later edition of the fame tranfla-
tion, publifhed in 1636, the Doftor has taken liberties
which cannot either be defended or excufed. A new
tranflation, made with the utmoft fidelity from the laft
edition of our author’s work, was publifhed in 1695,
by Edmund Gibfon of Queen’s college in Oxford, af¬
terwards biihop of London ; in which, befides the ad¬
dition of notes, and of all that deferved to be taken
notice of in Dr Holland’s firft edition, which though
thrown out of the text, is preferved at the bottom of
the page, there are many other augmentations and im¬
provements, all properly diftinguifhed from the genuine
work of the author, as they ought to be : and the
fame judicious method obtained in the next edition of
the fame performance, which was juftly confidered as
the very belt book of its kind that had been hitherto
publifhed. But the public has been recently put in
polTeffion of a new tranilatior^ and ftill more improved
edition, by that learned and induflrious topographer
Mr Gough, under whofe hands it has been enlarged
to near double the fize of the laft of the preceding edi¬
tions.
CAMEL, in Zoology. See Camelus.
Camel, in Mechanics, a kind of machine ufed in
Holland for railing or lifting ftiips, in order to bring
them over the Pampus, which is at the mouth of the
river Y, where the ftiallownefs of the water hinders large
fhips from paffing. It is alfo ufed in other places, par¬
ticularly at the dock of Peterfburgh, the veffels built
here being in their paflage to Cronftadt lifted over the
bar by means of camels. Thefe machines were origi¬
nally invented by the celebrated De Wit, for the pur-
pofe above mentioned •, and were introduced into Ruf-
lia by Peter the Great, who obtained the model of
them when he worked in Holland as a common fhip-
wright. A camel is compofed of two feparate parts,
whofe outfides are perpendicular, and whofe infides are
concave, fhaped fo as to embrace the hull of a ftiip on
both fides. Each part has a fmall cabin with fixteen
pumps and ten plugs, and contains 20 men. They are
braced to a {hip underneath by means of cables, and
entirely enclofe its fides and bottom •, being then tow¬
ed to the bar, the plugs are opened, and the water ad¬
mitted until the camel finks with the drip and runs
aground. Then, the water being pumped out, the
camel rifes, lifts up the vefiel, and the whole is towed
over the bar. This machine can raife the fhip eleven
feet, or, in other words, make it draw eleven feet lefs
water.
CAMELFORD, a borough town of Cornwall in
England, confifting of about too houfes, badly built ;
but the ftreets are broad and well paved. W. Long.
5. 4. N. Lat. 50. 40. It fends two members to par¬
liament 5 and gives title of baron to Thomas Pitt, el¬
der brother of the great earl ofjChatham.
CAMELIA. See ^o-m^Tlndex.
CAMELODUM. Set Camalodunum.
CAMELOPARDALIS, in Zoology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of Ceryus. See Mammalia
Index.
CAMELUS, or Camel, in Zoology, a genus of
quadrupeds belonging to the order of pecora. See
Mammalia Index.
CAMEO. See Camaieu.
CAMERA TEolia, a contrivance for blowing the Camera
fire, for the fufion of ores, without bellows \ by means
of water falling through a funnel into a clofe veflel, Car|]era
which fends from it fo much air or vapour as conti- obfeura.
nually blows the fire : if there be the fpace of another y——
veffel for it to expatiate in by the way, it there lets
fall its humidity, which otherwife might hinder the
work. This contrivance was named camera JEoha by
Kircher.
Camera Lucida, a contrivance of Dr Hook for ma¬
king the image of any thing appear on a wall in a
light room, either by day or night. Oppofite to the
place or wall where the appearance is to be, make a
hole of at leal! a foot in diameter, or if there be a
high window with a cafement of this dimenfion in it,
this will do much better without fuch hole or cafement
opened.
At a convenient diftance, to prevent its being per¬
ceived by the company in the room, place the objeft
or piflure intended to be reprefented, but in an in¬
verted fituation. If the picture be tranfparent, refleft
the fun’s rays by means of a looking glafs, fo as that .<
they may pafs through it towards the place of repre-
fentation 5 and to prevent any rays from pafling afide
it, let the picture be encompafled with fome board or
cloth. If the objedt be a ftatue, or a living creature,
it mull be much enlightened by calling the fun’s rays
on it, either by refledfion, refradlion, or both. Be¬
tween this objedt and the place of reprefentation put
a broad convex glafs, ground to fuch a convexity as
that it may reprefent the objedl diftindtly in fuch
place. The nearer this is fituated to the objedl, the
more will the image be magnified on the wall, and the
further the lefs: fuch diverfity depending on the dif¬
ference of the fpheres of the glalfes. If the objedl
cannot be conveniently inverted, there mult be two
large glafles of proper fpheres, fituated at fuitable di-
ftances, eafily found by trial, to make the reprelenta-
tions eredl. This whole apparatus of objedl, glafles,
&c. with the perfons employed in the management of
them, are to be placed without the window' or hole,
fo that they may not be perceived by the fpedlators in
the room, and the operation itfelf will be eafily per¬
formed. Phil. Tranf. N° 38. p. 741, ^e(l'
Camera Ohfcura, or Dark Chamber, in Optics, a ma¬
chine, or apparatus, reprefenting an artificial eye 5
whereon the images of external objedts, received
through a double convex glafs, are exhibited diftindlly,
and in their native colours, on a wTite matter placed
within the machine, in the focus of the glafs.
The firft invention of this inftrument is aferibed to
Baptifta Porta. See his Magia Naturahs, lib. xvii.
cap. 6. firft publilhed at Frankfort about the year
1589 or 1591 ; the firft four books of this work wrere
publifhed at Antwerp in 1560.
The camera obfeura affords very diverting fpedlacles;
both by exhibiting images perfedlly like their objedls,
and each clothed in their native colours; and by ex--
prefling, at the fame time, all their motions ; which
latter no other art can imitate. By means of this in¬
ftrument, a perfon unacquainted with defigning will
be able to delineate objedls with the greateli accuracy
and juftnefs, and another well verfed in painting will
find many things herein to perfedl his art. See the
conftrudUon under Dioptrics.
CAM ER ARIA*
Garaeraria
CAM
CAMERARIA. See Botany Index.
CAMERARIUS, Joachim, one of the moft learn¬
ed writers of his time, was born in 1^00, at x^amberg,
a city of Franconia } and obtained great reputation by
his writings. He trandated into Latin Herodotus,
Demofthenes, Xenophon, Euclid, Homer, Theocritus,
Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoret, Nicephorus, &c. He
publidied a catalogue of the bifhops of the principal
lees ; Greek epiftles •, Accounts of his journeys, in
Latin verfe ; a Commentary on Plautus •, the Lives of
Helius Eobanus Heffus, and Philip Melandhon, &:c.
He died in 1574-
Camerarius, 'Joachim, fon of the former, and a
learned phyfician, was born at Nuremberg in 1534.
After having finilhed his ftudies in Germany, he went
into Italy, where he obtained the efteem of the learn¬
ed. At his return he was courted by feveral princes
to live with them ; but he was too much devoted to
books, and the ftudy of chemiftry and botany, to com¬
ply. He wrote a Hortus Medicus, and feveral other
ivorks. He died in 159S.
CAMERATED, among builders, the fame with
vaulted or arched.
CAMERET bay, in the province of Brittany in
France, forms the harbour of Breft. See Brest.
CAMERINO, a town of the ecclefiaftical ftate in
Italy, lituated in E. Long. 13. 7. N. Lat. 45. 5.
C AMERLINGO, according to Du Cange, figni-
fied formerly the pope’s or emperor’s treafurer : at pre¬
lent, camerlingo is nowhere ufed but at Rome, where
it denotes the cardinal who governs the ecclefiaftical
Bate, and udminifters juftice. It is the rnoft eminent
office at the court of Rome, becaufe he is at the head
of the treafury. During a vacation of the papal chair,
the cardinal camerlingo publifties edifts, coins money,
and exerts every other prerogative of a fovereign
prince ; he has under him a treafurer-general, auditor-
general, and 1 2 prelates called clerks of the chamber.
J CAMERON, John, one of the imffi famous di¬
vines among the Proteftants of h ranee in the 17th
century, was born at Glafgow in Scotland, wheie he
taught the Greek tongue j and having read ledlures
upon that language for about a year, travelled, and be¬
came profeflbr at feveral univerfities, and minifter at
Bourdeaux. He publilhed, 1. Theological leftures 5
2. Icon Johannis Gameronis ; and iome inifcellaneous
pieces. He died in 1625, aged 60.
CAMERON IANS, a fea or party in Scotland,
who feparated from the Prefbyterians in 1666, and
continued to hold their religious affemblies in the
fields.
The Cameronians took their denomination from
Richard Cameron, a famous field preacher, who refu-
fing to accept the indulgences to tender confciences,
granted by King Charles II. as fuch an acceptance
feemed an acknowledgment of the king’s fupremacy,
and that he had before a right to filence them, made
a defe&ion from his brethren, and even headed a re¬
bellion, in which he was killed. His followers were
never entirely reduced till the Revolution, when they
voluntarily fubmitted to King William.
The Cameronians adhered rigidly to the form of go¬
vernment eftabhffied in 1648-
Cameronians, or Cameronites, is alfo the denomi¬
nation of a party of Calvinilts in France, who afferted
93 1 cam 
that the will of man is only determined by the practi¬
cal judgment of the mind j that the caufe of men’s
doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which —
God infufes into them j and that God does not move
the will phyfically, but only morally, in virtue of its
dependence on the judgment of the mind. They had
this name from John Cameron, a famous profefior, firft
at Glafgow, where he wras born, in and after¬
wards at Bourdeaux, Sedan, and Saumur •, at which
laft place he broached his newr dodhine of grace and
free will, which was formed by Amyraut, Cappel, Bo-
chart, Daille, and others of the more learned among
the reformed minifters, who judged Calvin’s dodtrines
on thefe points too harffi. The Cameronians are a
fort of mitigated Calvinifts, and approach to the opi¬
nion of the Arminians. They are alfo called Univer-
falifls, as holding the univerfality of Chrift’s death \
and fometimes Amyraldifts. I he rigid adherents to
the fynod of Dort' accufed them of Pelagianifm, and
even of Manicheifm. The controverfy between the
parties^was carried on with a zeal and fubtihty fcarce
conceivable 5 yet all the queftion between them was.
only, Whether the will of man is determined by the
immediate adfion of God upon it, or by the interven¬
tion of a knowledge which God imprefles into the
mind ? The fynod of Dort had defined that God not
only illuminates the underftanding, but gives motion
to the will by making an internal change therein.
Cameron only admitted the illumination, whereby the
mind is morally moved , and explained the fentiment of
the fynod of Dort fo as to make the two opinions con-
fiftent.
CAMES, a name given to the fmall flender rods
of call; lead of which the glaziers make their turned,
lead.
Their lead being call into flender rods of twelve or
fourteen inches long each, is called the came ,■ fome¬
times alfo they call each of thefe rods a came, which
being afterwards drawn through their vice, makes then
turned lead.
CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, was the firft who
rendered the family of Furius illuftrious. He triumph¬
ed four times, was five times didftator, and was honour¬
ed with the title of the. fecond founder of Rome. . In a
word, he acquired all the glory a man can gain in his
own country. Lucius Apuleius, one of the tribunes,
profecuted him to make him give an account of the
fpoils taken at Veii. Camillus anticipated judgment^
and banifhed himfelf voluntarily. During his baniffi-
ment, inftead of rejoicing at the devaftation of Rome
by the Gauls, he exerted all his wifdom and bravery
to drive away the enemy and yet kept with^ the ut-
moft ftriftnefs the facred law of Rome, in refufing to
accept the command, which feveral private perfons 01-
fered him. The Romans who were befieged in the
capitol, created him di&ator in the year 363 j m
which office he afted with fo much bravery and con-
duft, that he entirely drove the army of the Gauls out
of the territories of the commonwealth. He died in
the 81ft year of his age, 365 years before the Chiiftian
^CAMILLI and Camilla:, in Antiquity, boys and
girls of ingenuous birth, who miniftered in the facn-
fices of the gods; and efpecially thofe who attended
the flamen dialis, or pvieft of Jupiter. The word leems.
^ ' borrowed
Games
. "n-
Canuili.
CAM
Camoens.
Caminha borrcr.ved from the language of the ancient Hetrurians,
where it hgnified minilter, and was changed from caf-
millus. The Tufcans alfo gave the appellation Carnil-
lus to Mercury, in quality of minifter of the gods.
CAMINHA, a maritime town of Portugal, in the
province of Entre-Duero-e-Minho, with the title of a
duchy. It is fituated at the mouth of the river Min-
ho, in W. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 41. 44.
CAMIS, or Kamis, in the Japanefe theology, de¬
note deified fouls of ancient heroes, who are fuppofed
ftill to intereft thcmfelves in the welfare of the people
whom they anciently commanded.
The camis anfwer to the heroes in the ancient Greek
and Roman theology, and are venerated like the faints
in the modern Roman church.
Befides the heroes or camis beatified by the confent
of antiquity, the mikaddos, or pontiffs, have deified
many others, and continue ftill to grant the apotheofis
to new worthies ; fo that they fwarm with camis : the
principal one is Tenjio Dai Sin, the common father of
Japan, to whom are paid devotions and pilgrimages
extraordinary.
CAMISADE, in the art of war, an attack by fur-
prife in the night, or at the break of day, when the
enemy is fuppofed to be a-bed. The word is faid to
have taken its rife from an attack of this kind ; where¬
in, as a badge or fignal to know one another by, they
bore a fhift, in French called chemife, or camife, over
their arms.
CAMIS ARDS, a name given by the French to
the Calvinifts of the Cevennes, who formed a league,
and took up arms in their own defence, in 1688.
CAMLETINE, a flight fluff, made of hair and
coarfe filk, in the manner of camblet. It is now out
of fafhion.
CAMMA, and Gobbi, two provinces of the king¬
dom of Loango in Africa. The inhabitants are con¬
tinually at war with each other. The weapons they
formerly ufed in their wars were the fhort pike, bows
and arrows, fword and dagger ; but fince the Euro¬
peans have become acquainted with that coafl, they
have fupplied them with fire-arms. The chief town
of Gobbi lies about a day’s journey from the fea.-—
Their rivers abound with a variety of fifh ; but are in-
fefled with fea horfes, which do great mifehief both by
land and water. The principal commerce with the
natives is in logwood, elephants teeth and tails, the
hair of which is highly valued, and ufed for feveral
curious purpofes.
CAMMIN, a maritime town of Germany, in Bran¬
denburg Pomerania, fituated in E. Long. 150. N. Lat.
54°*
CAMOENS, Louis de, a famous Portuguefe poet,
the honour of whofe birth is claimed by different cities.
But according to N. Antonio, and Manuel Correa, his
intimate friend, this event happened at Lifbon in 1517.
His family vvas of confiderable note, and originally
Spanifh. In 1370, Vafco Perez de Caamans, difgufl-
ed at the court of Caflile, fled to that of Lilbon, where
King Ferdinand immediately admitted him into his
council, and gave him the lordfhips of Sardoal, Pun-
nete, Marano, Amende, and other confiderable lands ;
a certain prdof of the eminence of his rank and abili¬
ties. In the war for the fucceffion, which broke’out
.on the death of Ferdinand, Camoens fided with the
f 94 1
CAM
king of Caflile, and was killed in the battle of Alja- Camcens
barota. But though John I. the viflor, feized a great
part of his eflate, his widow’, the daughter of Gonfalo
Tereyro, grand mafter of the order of Chrifl, and ge¬
neral of the Portuguefe army, was not reduced beneath
her rank. She had three fons who took the name of
Camoens. The family of the eldefl intermarried with
the firfl nobility of Portugal j and even, according to
Caftera, with the blood royal. But the family of the
fecond brother, whofe fortune was flender, had the fu-
perior honour to produce the author of the Lufiad.
Early in his life the misfortunes of the poet began.
In his infancy, Simon Vaz de Camoens, his father,
commander of a veffel, was fhipwrecked at Goa, where,
with his life, the greatefl part of his fortune was loft.
His mother, however, Anne de Macedo of Santarene,
provided for the education of her fon Louis at the uni-
verfity of Coimbra. What he acquired there, his
works difeover ; an intimacy with the claflics, equal to
that of a Scaliger, but directed by the tafte of a Mil-
ton or a Pope.
When he left the univerfity, he appeared at court.
He was handfome ; had fpeaking eyes, it is faid ; and
the fineft complexion. Certain it is, however, he was
a polilhed fcholar, which, added to the natural ardour
and gay vivacity of his difpofition, rendered him an
accomplilhed gentleman. Courts are the feenes of in¬
trigue j and intrigue wras falhionable at Lifbon. But
the particulars of the amours of Camoens reft un¬
known. This only appears : he had afpired above his
rank, for he was banilhed from the court ; and in fe¬
veral of his fonnets he aferibes this misfortune to
love.
He now retired to his mother’s friends at Santarene.
Here he renewed his ftudies, and began his poem on
the difeovery of India. John III. at this time prepa¬
red an armament againft Africa. Camoens, tired of
his inaftive obfeure life, w^ent to Ceuta in this expedi¬
tion, and greatly diftinguilhed his valour in feveral
rencounters. In a naval engagement wnth the Moors
in the ftraits of Gibraltar, in the conflifl of boarding,
he was among the foremoft, and loft his right eye.
Yet neither hurry of aflual fervice nor the diffipation
of the camp could ftifle his genius. He continued his
Lvfiadas, and feveral of his moft beautiful fonnets were
written in Africa, while, as he exprefled it,
One hand the pen, and one the fwmrd, employ’d.
The fame of his valour had now reached the court,
and he obtained permiffion to return to Lilbon. But,
while he folicited an eftablifhment which he had merit¬
ed in the ranks of battle, the malignity of evil tongues,
as he calls it in one of his letters, was injurioufly pour¬
ed upon him. Though the bloom of his early youth
was effaced by feveral years refidence under the fcorch-
ing heavens of Africa, and though altered by the lofs
of an eye, his prefence gave uneafinefs to the gentle¬
men of fome families of the firft rank wrhere he had
formerly vifited. Jealoufy is the chara£leriftic of the
Spaniards and Portuguefe ; its refentment knows no
bounds, and Camoens now found it prudent to banifh
himfelf from his native country. Accordingly, in
1553, he failed for India, with a refolution never to
return. As the fhip left the Tagus, he exclaimed, in
the words of the fepulchral monument of Scipio AM-
canus.
C A M
Camoens. Canus, Ingrata patria, non pojfidebis ojfa rnea !
t 95
Un¬
grateful country, thou (halt not poffefs my bones !”
But he knew not what evils in the call; would awake
the remembrance of his native fields.
When Camoens arrived in India, an expedition
was ready to fail to revenge the king of Cochin on
the king of Pimenta. Without any reft on fhore after
his long voyage, he joined this armament, and in the
conqueft of the Alagada iflands difplayed his ufual
bravery.
In the year following, he attended Manuel de Vaf-
concello in an expedition to the Red fea. Here, fays
Faria, as Camoens had no ufe for his fword, he em¬
ployed his pen. Nor was his activity confined to the
fleet or camp. He vifited Mount Felix and the adja¬
cent inhofpitable regions of Africa, which he lo ftrong-
ly piiftures in the Lufiad, and in one of his little pieces
where he laments the abfence of his miftrefs.
When he returned to Goa, he enjoyed a tranquillity
which enabled him to Beftow his attention on his epic
poem. But this ferenity was interrupted, perhaps by
his own imprudence. He wrote fome fatires which gave
offence : and by order of the viceroy Francilco Barre¬
to, he was banifhed to China.
The aceomplifhments and manners of Camoens foon
found him friends, though under the difgrace of ba-
rsiftiment. He was appointed commiffary of the de-
fundl in the ifland of Macao, a Portuguefe fettlement
in the bay of Canton. Here he continued his Lufiad j
and here alfo, after five years refidence, he acquired a
fortune, though fmall, yet equal to his wifhes. Don
Conftantine de Braganza was now viceroy of India j
and Camoens, defirous to return to Goa, refigned his
charge. In a (hip, freighted by himfelf, he fet fail ;
but was ftupwrecked in the gulf near the mouth of the
river Mehon on the coaft of China. All he had ac¬
quired wras loft in the waves ; his poems, which he
held in one hand, while he fwimmed with the other,
were all he found himfelf poffeffed of when he flood
friendlefs on the unknown ftrore. But the natives gave
him a moft humane reception : this he has immorta¬
lized in the prophetic fong in the tenth Lufiad ; and
in the feventh, he tells us, that here he loft the wealth
which fatisfied his willies.
Agora da efparanga ja adquinda, <&’c.
Now bleft with all the wealth fond hope could crave,
Soon I beheld that wealth beneath the ivave
For ever loft 5 
My life, like Judah’s heaven-doom’d king of yore,
By miracle prolong’d 
On the banks of the Mehon he wrote his beautiful
paraphrafe of the pfalm, where the Jews, in the fineft .
ftrain of poetry, are reprefented as hanging their harps
on the willows, by the rivers of Babylon, and weeping
their exile from their native country. Here Camoens
continued fome time, till an opportunity offered to
carry him to Goa. When he arrived at that city,
Don Conftantine de Braganza, the viceroy, whofe cha-
rafteriftic wras politenefs, admitted him into intimate
friendfliip, and Camoens was happy till Count Redon¬
do affumed the government. Thofe who had formerly
procured the banilhment of the fatirift, were filent
while Conftantine was in power 5 but now they exert¬
ed all their arts againft him. Redondo, when he en-
| CAM
tered on office, pretended to be the friend of Camoens j Camoens.
yet, with all that unfeeling indifference with which he
made his moft horrible witticifm on the Zamorin, he
fuffered the innocent man to be thrown into the com¬
mon prifon. After all the delay of bringing witnefl’es,
Camoens, in a public trial, fully refuted every accufa-
tion of his condudl while commifl'ary at Macao, and
his enemies were loaded with ignominy and reproach.
But Camoens had fome creditors, and thefe detained
him in prifon a confiderable time, till the gentlemen of
Goa began to be afhamed that a man of his Angular
merit ftiould experience fuch treatment among them.
He was fet at liberty 5 and again he affumed the pro-
feffion of arms, and received the allowance of a gen¬
tleman volunteer, a charadler at this time common in
Portuguefe India. Soon after, Pedro Barreto, ap¬
pointed governor of the fort at Sofala, by high promi-
fes, allured the poet to attend him thither. The go¬
vernor of a diftant fort, in a barbarous country, fhares
in fome meafure the fate of an exile. Yet, though
the only motive of Barreto was, in this unpleafant ii-
tuation, to retain the converfation of Camoens at his
table, it was his leaft care to render the life of his
gueft agreeable. Chagrined writh his treatment, and
a confiderable time having elapfed in vain dependence
upon Barreto, Camoens refolved to return to his na¬
tive country. A (hip, on the homeward voyage, at
this time touched at Sofala, and feveral gentlemen who
were on board were defirous that Camoens ftiould ac¬
company them. But this the governor ungeneroufly
endeavoured to prevent, and charged him with a debt
for board. Anthony de Cabra, however, and Hec¬
tor de Sylveyra, paid the demand 5 and Camoens,
fays Faria, and the honour of Barreto, were fold toge¬
ther.
After an abfence of 16 years, Cameons, in 1569, re¬
turned to Lifbon, unhappy even in his arrival, for the
peftilence then raged in that city, and prevented his
publication for three years. At laft, in I572> he
printed his Lufiad, which, in the opening of the firlt
book, in a moft elegant turn of compliment, he ad-
dreffed to his prince, King Sebaftian, then in his 18th
year. The king, fays the French tranflator, was fo
pleafed with his merit, that he' gave the author a pen-
fion of 4000 reals, on condition that he ftiould lefide
at court. But this falary, fays the fame writer, was
withdrawn by Cardinal Henry, who fucceeded to the
crown of Portugal, loft by Sebaftian at the battle of
Alcazar.
Though the great patron of one fpecies of literature,
a fpecies the reverfe of that of Camoens, certain it is,
that the author of the Lufiad was utterly neglefted by-
Henry, under whofe inglorious reign he died in all the
mifery of poverty. By fome, it is faid, he died in an
alms-houfe. It appears, however, that he had not
even the certainty of fubfiftence wLich thefe houfes
provide. He had a black fervant, who had grown old
with him, and who had long experienced his mafter’s
humanity This grateful Indian, a native of Java,
who, according to fome writers, faved his mafter’s life
in the unhappy ftiipwreck where he loft his effedls, beg¬
ged in the ftreets of Liihon for the only man in Portu¬
gal on whom God had beftow7ed thefe talents which
have a tendency to ere£t the fpirit of a downward age.
To the eye of a careful oblerver, the fate of Camoens
throws
CAM [ 9*5 ] C A M
Camomile, throws great light on that of his country, and will ap-
Camp. pear connetEled with it. The fame ignorance,
the fame degenerated fpirit, which fuffered Camoens
. to depend on his fhare of the alms begged in the ftreets
by his old hoary farvant, the lame fpirit which caufed
this funk the kingdom of Portugal into the molt ab-
jeft vafl'alage ever experienced by a conquered nation.
While the grandees of Portugal -were blind to the ruin
which impended over them, Caraoens beheld it with a
pungency of grief which haftened his exit. In one of
his letters he has thefe remar kable words : Em Jim ac-
caberey a vida, e verram todos (Jue fuy efeicoada a min-
ho patria, <h'c. “ I am ending the courfe of my life ;
the world will witnefs how I have loved my country.
I have returned, not only to die in her bofom, but to
die wdth her.”
In this unhappy fituation, in 1579, in his 626. year,
the year after the fatal defeat of Don Sebaftian, died
Louis de Camoens, the greateft literary genius ever
produced by Portugal ; in martial courage and fpirit
of honour, nothing inferior to her greateft heroes. And
in a manner fuitable to the poverty in which he died,
was he buried.
CAMOMILE. See Anthemis, Botany Index.
CAMP, the ground on which an army pitch their
tents. It is marked out by the quartermafter general,
- who appoints every regiment their ground.
The chief advantages to be minded in choofing a
camp for an army, are, to have it near the w’ater, in a
. country of forage, where the foldiers may find wood
for drefting their victuals } that it have a free commu¬
nication with garrifons, and with a country from
whence it may be fupplied with provifions ; and, if
poflible, that it be fituated on a rifing ground, in a dry
gravelly foil. Befides, the advantages of the ground
ought to be confidered, as marlhes, woods, rivers, and
, enclofures ; and if the camp be near the enemy, with
. no river or marlh to coVfer it, the army ought to be
.intrenched. An army always encamps fronting the
enemy ; and generally in two lines, running parallel
about 1500 yards diftance ; the horfe and dragoons, on
the wings ; and the foot, in the centre : fometimes a
, body of twm, three, or four brigades, is encamped be¬
hind the two lines, and is called the body of refet've.
The artillery and bread-waggons are generally encamp-
.ed in the rear of the two lines. A battalion of foot is
allowed 80 or 100 paces for its camp •, and 30 or 40
for an interval betwixt one battalion and another. A
fquadron of horfe is allowed 30 for its camp, and 30
for an interval, and more if the ground will allow it.
Where the grounds are equally dry, thofe camps are
always the moft healthful that are pitched on the banks
of large rivers 5 becaufe, in the hot feafon, fituations
of this kind have a ftream of frefti air from the water,
ferving to carry off the moift and putrid exhalations.
On the other hand, next to marflies, the worft encamp¬
ments are on low grounds clofe befet with trees ; for
then the air is not only moift and hurtful in itfclf, but
by ftagnating becomes more fufceptible of corruption.
However, let the fituation of camps be ever fo good,
they are frequently rendered infeflious by the putrid
effluvia of rotten ilrawq and the privies of the army,
more efpecially if the bloody flux prevails j in which
cafe the beft method of preventing a general infeftion,
.is to.leave the ground with the privies, foul ftraw, and
2
other filth, of the camp behind. This muff be fre- Camp,
quently done, if confiftent w’ith the military operations : —7“—
but wdien thefe render it improper to change the
ground often, the privies fliould be made deeper than
ufual, and once a-day a thick layer of earth thrown
into them till the pits are near full ; and then they are
to be well covered, and fupplied by others. It may
alfo be a proper caution to order the pits to be made
either in the front or the rear, as the then ftationary
winds may beft carry off their effluvia from the camp.
Moreover, it will be neceffary to change the ftraw fre¬
quently pas being not only apt to rot, but to retain the
infeftious fleams of the lick. But if frefli ftraw cannot
be procured, more care muft be taken in airing the
tents, as wrell as the old ftraw'.
The difpofition of the Hebrew encampment was at
firft laid out by God himfelf. Their camp was,of a
quadrangular form, furrounded with an enclofure of the
height of xo hands-breadth. It made a fquare of 1 2
miles in compafs about the tabernacle 5 and within this
wras another called the Levites camp.
The Greeks had alfo their camps fortified with gates
and ditches. The*Lacedemonians made their camp of
a round figure, looking upon that as the moft perfect
and defenfible of any form : we are not, howTever, to
imagine, that they thought this form fo effential to a
camp, as never to be difpenfed with wiien the circum-
ftances of the place required it. Of the reft of the Gre¬
cian camps, it may be obferved, that the moft valiant
of the foldiers were placed at the extremities, the
reft in the middle. Thus we learn from Homer, that
Achilles and Ajax were polled at the ends of the camp
before Troy, as bulwarks on each fide of the reft of
the princes.
The figure of the Roman camp wTas a fquare divided
into twm principal parts : in the upper part were the
general’s pavilion, or praetorium, and the tents of the
chief officers ; in the lower, thofe of inferior degree
were placed. On one fide of the praetorium flood the
quaeftorium, or apartment of the treafurer of the army :
and near this the forum, both for a market place and
the affembling of councils. On the other fide of the
praetorium wTere lodged the legati } and below it the
tribunes had their quarters, oppofite to their refpeftive
legions. Afide of the tribunes w7ere the praefebfi of
the foreign troops, over again!! their refpeiffive wdngs j
and behind thefe were the lodgments of the evocati,
then thofe of the extraordinarii and ablebli equites,
which concluded the higher part of the camp. Be¬
tween the two partitions was a fpot of ground called
principia, for the altars and images of the gods, anti
probably alfo for the chief enfigns. The middle of the
lower partition was affigned to the Roman horfe 5 next
to them were quartered the triarii j then the principes,
and clofe by them the haftati ”, afterwards the foreign
horfe, and laftly, the foreign foot. They fortified
their camp with a ditch and parapet, which they term¬
ed fojfa and vallum ; in the latter fome diftinguilh two
parts, viz. the agger or earth, and the fades or wooden
flakes driven in to fecure it. The camps were fome¬
times furrounded by walls made of hewn ftone 5 and
.the tents themfelves formed of the fame matter.
In the front of the Turkilh camp are quartered the
janizaries and other foot, whofe tents encompais their
aga: in the rear are the quarters of the fpahis and
other
GAM r 97 I CAM
Ciftip otVier horfemen. The body of the camp is poffeffed
II by the ftately tents or pavilions of the vizier or gene-
Campaign. rajs e|j-en(ji or chancellor, khaija or fteward, the
'~l” v tefterdar balhaw or lord treafurer, and kapillar kahia-
feer or mafter of the ceremonies. In the middle of
thefe tents is a fpacious field, wherein are eredled a
building for the divan, and a hafna or treafury. When
the ground is marked out for a camp, all wait for the
pitching of the tent lai/ac, the place where the courts
ef juftice are held } it being the difpofition of this that
is to regulate all the reft.
The Arabs ftill live in camps, as the ancient Scenites
did. The camp of the Affyne Emir, or king of the
' country about Tadmor, is defcribed by a traveller who
viewed it, as fpread over a very large plain, and pof-
fefling fo vaft a fpace, that though he had the ad¬
vantage of a riling ground, he could not fee the
utmoft extent of it. His own tent was near the mid¬
dle } fcarce diftinguilhable from the reft, except that
it was bigger, being made, like the others, of a fort of
haircloth.
Camp, is alfo ufed by the Siamefe, and fome other
nations in the Eaft Indies, as the name of the quarters
which they aftign to foreigners who come to trade with
them. In thefe camps, every nation forms, as it were,
a particular town, where they carry on all their trade,
not only keeping all their warehoufes and {hops there,
but alfo live in thefe camps with their whole families.
The Europeans, however, are fo far indulged, that at
Siam, and almoft everywhere elie, they may live either
in the cities or fuburbs, as they (hall judge moft con¬
venient.
CAMP-Jight, or K.AMP-fight, in law writers, denotes
the trial of a caufe by duel, or a legal combat of two
champions in the field, for decifion of fome contro-
verfy.
In the trial by camp fight, the accufer was, with
the peril of his own body, to prove the accufed guilty ;
and by offering him his glove, to challenge him to
this trial, which the other muft either accept of, or ac¬
knowledge himfelf guilty of the crime whereof he was
accufed.
If it were a crime deferving death, the camp-fight
was for life and death : if the offence deferved only
imprifonment, the camp fight was accomphfhed wnen
one combatant had iubdued the other, fo as either to
make him yield or take him prifoner. The accufed
had liberty to choofe another to fight in his ftead, but
the accufer was obliged to perform it in his own per-
fon, and with equality of weapons. No women were
permitted to be fpeftators, nor men under the age of
thirteen. The prieft and the people who looked. on,
were engaged filently in prayer, that the vidforj might
fall to him who had right. None might cry, ffiriek,
or give the leaft fign } which in fome places was. exe¬
cuted with fo much ftridnefs, that the executioner
flood ready with an axe to cut off the right hand or
foot of the party that (hould offend herein.
He that, being wounded, yielded himfelf, was at
the other’s mercy either to be killed or fuffered to live.
But if life were granted him, he wras declared infa¬
mous by the judge, and difabled from ever bearing
arms, or riding on horfeback.
CAMPAGNA. See-Campania.
CAMPAIGN, in the art of war, denotes the fpace
Von. V. Part I.
of time that an army keeps the field, or is encamped.— Campaign
The beginning; of every campaign is confiderably more I! .
unhealthy than if the men were to remain in quarters. , ‘ ^ ‘ 1
After the firft fortnight or three weeks encampment,
the ficknefs decreafes daily 5 the moft infirm being by
that time in the hofpitals, and the weather daily grow¬
ing warmer. This healthy ftate continues throughout
the fummer, unlefs the men get wet clothes or wet
beds ; in which cafe, a greater or lefs degree of the
dyfentery will appear in proportion to the preceding
heats. But the moft fickly part of the campaign be¬
gins about the middle or end of Auguft, whilft the
days are ftill hot, but the nights cool and damp, with
fogs and dews : then, and not fooner, the dyfentery
prevails j and though its violence is over by the begin¬
ning of October, yet the remitting fever gaining
ground, continues throughout the reft of the campaign,
and never entirely ceafes, even in winter-quarters, till
the frofts begin. At the beginning of a campaign the
ficknefs is fo uniform, that the number may be nearly
predifted j but for the reft of the feafon, as the dif-
eafes are then of a contagious nature, and depend fo
much upon the heats of fummer, it is impoffible to
forefee how many may fall fick from the beginning to
the end of autumn. It is alfo obferved, that the laft
fortnight of a campaign, if protradfted till the begin¬
ning of winter, is attended with more ficknefs than
the firft two months encampment : fo that it is bet¬
ter to take the field a fortnight fooner, in order
to return into winter-quarters fo much the earlier. As
to winter expeditions, though fevere in appearance,
they are attended with little ficknefs, if the men have
ftrong ftioes, quarters, fuel, and provifions. Long
marches in fummer are not wdthout danger, unlefs made
in the night, or fo early in the morning as to be over
before the heat of the day.
CAMPANACEiE, in Botany, an order of plants
in the Fragmenta methodi naluralis of Linnaeus, in
which are the following genera, viz. convolvulus, ipo-
maea, polemonium, campanula, roella, viola, &c. * * See Bo-
CAMPANELLA, Thomas, a famous Italian/3^>Isjatu’
philofopher, born at Stilo in Calabria, in 1568. He ra
diftinguiftied himfelf by his early proficiency in learn¬
ing j for at the age of 13 he was a peifeft mafter of
the ancient orators and poets. His peculiar inclina¬
tion was to philofophy, to which he at laft confined
his whole time and ftudy. In order to arrive at truth,
he {hook off the yoke of authority : by which means
the novelty of fome of his opinions expofed him to
many inconveniences j for at Naples he wTas thrown
into prifon, in which he remained 27 years, and du¬
ring this confinement wrote his famous work entitled
Atheifmus tnumphatus. Being at length fet at liberty,
he went to Paris, where he was gracioufiy received by
Louis XIII. and Cardinal Richelieu ; the latter pro¬
cured him a penfion of 2000 livres, and often confulted
him on the affairs of Italy. Campanella paffed the re¬
mainder of his days in a monaftery of Dominicans at
Paris, and died in 1639.
CAMPANI, Matthew, of Spoletto, curate, at
Rome, wrote a curious treatife on the art of cutting
glaffes for fpeftacles, and made feveral improvements
in optics, a {lifted by his brother and pupil Jofeph. He
died after 1678. ^
CAMPANIA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom ot
N Naples,
GAM
Campama. Naples, and in the farther principato, ,with a bifliop’s
^ Long. 15. 30. N. Lat. 40. 40.
Campania, or Campagna di Roma, anciently La-
tium, a province of Italy, bounded on the weft by the
Tiber and the fea, on the fouth-weft by the fea, on the
fouth by Terra di Lavoro, on the eaft by Abruzzo,
and on the north by Sabina. Though the foil is good,
it produces little or nothing, on account of the heavy
duties on corn j and though the waters are good, the
air is unwholefome. It is fubjeft to the Pope, and is
about 60 miles in length on the Mediterranean fea.
It has been generally thought that the air of this
country hath fomething in it peculiarly noxious du¬
ring the fummer-time 5 but Mr Condamine is of opinion
that it is not more unhealthy than any other marftiy
country. His account follows. “ It was after the in-
vafion of the Goths in the fifth and fixth centuries that
this corruption of the air began to manifeft itielf. The
bed of the Tiber being covered by the accumulated
ruins of the edifices of ancient Rome, could not but
raife itfelf confiderably. But what permits us not to
doubt of this faft is, that the ancient and well-preferved
pavement of the Pantheon and its portico is overflowed
every winter j that the water even riles there fometimes
to the height of eight or ten feet: and that it is not
poflible to fuppofe that the ancient Romans ihould
have built a temple in a place fo low as to be covered
with the waters of the Tiber on the leaft inundation.
It is evident, then, that the level of the bed of this river
is raifed feveral feet; which could not have happened
without forming there a kind of dikes or bars. The
choaking up of its canal necefiarily occafioned the over¬
flow and reflux of its waters in fuch places as till then
had not been fubjeft to inundations : to thefe over-
flowings of the Tiber were added all the waters that
efcaped out of the ancient aquedufts, the ruins of which
are ftill to be feen, and which were entirely broken and
deftroyed by Totila. What need, therefore, of any
thing more to infeft the air, in a hot climate, than the
exhalations of fuch a mafs of ftagnating waters depri¬
ved of any difcharge, and become the receptacle of a
thoufand impurities, as well as the grave of feveral mil¬
lions both of men and animals? The evil could not but
increafe from the lame caufes while Rome was expofed
to the incurfions and devaftations of the Lombards, the
Normans, and the Saracens, which lafted for feveral
centuries. I he air was become fo infe&ious there at
the beginning of the 13th century, that Pope Inno¬
cent III. wrote, that few people at Rome arrived to
the age of forty years, and that nothing was more
uncommon there than to fee a perfon of fixty. A very
iliovt time after, the popes transferred the feat of their
refidence to Avignon : during the feventy-two years
they remained there, Rome became a defert; the mo-
nafteries in it were- converted into ftables; and Gre¬
gory XI. on his return to Rome, in 1376, hardly
counted there 30,000 inhabitants. At his death began
the troubles of the great fchifm in the weft, which con¬
tinued for upwards of 50 years. Martin V. in whom
this fchifm ended in the year 1429, and his firft fuccef-
fors, were able to make but feeble efforts againft fo in¬
veterate an evil. It was not till the beginning of the
36th century that Leo X. under whom Rome began to
refume her wonted fplendour, gave himfelf fome trouble
about re-eftabliihing the falubrity of the air 1 but the
1 9s ]
GAM
city, being fliortly after befieged twice fucceffively by Campani.
into
form
the emperor Charles V. faw itfelf plunged again
all its old calamities; and from 85,000 inhabitants,
which it contained under Leo X. it was reduced under r~v
Clement VIII. to 32,000. In fhort, it is only fince the
time of Pius V. and Sextus V. at the end of the 16th
century, that the popes have conftantly employed the
neceffary methods for purifying the air of Rome and
its environs, by procuring proper difebarges for the
waters, drying up the humid and marftiy grounds, and-
covering the banks of the Tiber and other places repu¬
ted uninhabitable with fuperb edifices. Since that time
a perfon may dwell at Rome, and go in or out of it at
all feafons of the year. At the beginning, however, of
the prelent century, they were ftill afraid to lie out of
the city in fummer, when they had refided there ; as
they were alfo to return to it, when once they had
quitted it. They never ventured to fleep at Rome, even
in broad day, in any other houfe than their own.
They are greatly relaxed at prefent from thefe ancient
fcruples : I have feen cardinals, in the months of July
and Auguft, go from Rome to lie at Frafcati, Tivoli,.
Albano, &c. and return the next or the following days
to the city, without any detriment to their health: I
have myfelf tried all thefe experiments, without fuffer-
ing the leaft inconvenience from them: we have even
feen, in the laft war in Italy, two armies encamped
under the walls of Rome at the time when the heats
were moft violent. Yet, notwithftai?ding all this, the
greater part of the country people dare not ftill ven¬
ture to lie during that feafon of the year, nor even as
much as fleep in a carriage, in any part of the terri¬
tory comprehended under the name of the Campagna of
Rome'''
CAMPANIFORM, or Campanulated, an appel¬
lation given to flowers refembling a bell.
CAMPANINI, a name given to an Italian marble
dug out of tbe mountains of Carrara, becaufe, when it
is worked, it founds like a bell.
CAMPANULA, or bell-flowep.. See Botany
Index.
CAMPBELL, Archibald, earl and marquis of
Argyle, was tbe fon of Archibald earl of Argyle, by
the lady Anne Douglas, daughter of William earl of
Morton. Fie was born in the year 1598 ; and edu¬
cated in the profeflion of the Proteftant religion, ac¬
cording to the ftrifteft rules of the church of Scotland,
as it was eftablilhed immediately after the reformation*
During the commonwealth he was induced to fubrrrt to
its authority. Upon the reftoration, he was tried tor
his compliance; a ciime common to him with the whole
nation, and fuch a one as the moft loyal and affec¬
tionate fubjedl might frequently by violence be induced
to commit. To make this compliance appear the
more voluntary and hearty, there were produced in
court letters which he had wrote to Albemarle, while
that general governed Scotland, and which contained
expreflions of the moft cordial attachment to the efta-
bliftted government. But, befides the general indig¬
nation excited by Albemarle’s difeovery of this private
correfpondence, men thought, that even the higheft:
demonftrations of affedlion might, during jealous times,
be exacted a-s a neceffary mark of compliance from a
perfon of fuch diftindtion as Argyle; and could not, by
any equitable conftrudtion, imply the crime of trea-
fon..
C A M
[ 99 1
CAM
'Campbell, fon. The parliament, however, fcrupled not to pafs
^ feI1tence upon him, and he fuffered with great conltan-
cy and courage, „ a . .
Campbell, Archibald, earl of Argyle, fon to the
former, had from his youth dittinguilhed himfelf by his
loyalty and his attachment to the royal family. Though
his father was head of the covenanters, he himfelf re-
fufed to concur in any of their meafures •, and when a
commiffion of colonel wTas given him by the convention
of Hates, he forbore to aft upon it till it fliould be ra-
tilied by the king. By his refpeftful behaviour, as well
as by his fervices, he made himlelf acceptable to Charles
when t&at prince was in Scotland, and even after the
battle of Worcefter, all the misfortunes which attended
the royal caufe could not engage him to delert it. Un¬
der Middleton he obHinately perfevered to harafs and
infeft the victorious Engliihj and it was not till he re¬
ceived orders from that general, that he would fubmit
to accept of a capitulation. Such jealoufy of his loyal
attachments was entertained by the commonwealth and
proteftor, that a pretence was foon after fallen upon to
commit him to prifon •, and his confinement was rigo-
i?outly continued till the reftoration. The king, len-
flble of his fervices, had remitted to him his father s
forfeiture, and created him earl of Argyle 5 and when
a moft unjuft fentence was palled upon him by the Scots
parliament, Charles had anew remitted it. In the fub-
fequent part of this reign Argyle behaved himfelf du¬
tifully; and though he feemed not difpoled to go all
lengths with the court, he always appeared, even in his
oppofition, a man of mild difpofitjons and peaceable
deportment. , _
A parliament was fummoned at Edinburgh m ium-
mer 1681, and the duke was appointed commiflioncr.
Befides granting money to the king, and voting the
indefeafible right of fucceftion, this parliament enacted
a teft, wdiich all perfons pofTeffed of offices, civil, mili¬
tary, or ecclefiaftical, were bound to take. In this teft
the king’s fupremacy w^as afferted, the covenant renoun¬
ced, paffive obedience affented to, and all obligations
difclaimed of endeavouring any alteration in civil or ec¬
clefiaftical eftabliffiments. This was the ftate of the
teft as propofed by the courtiers; but the comitry par¬
ty propofed alfo a claufe of adherence to the Proteftant
religion, which could not with decency be rejectee!.
The whole was of an enormous length, confidered as
an oath ; and, what was worfe, a confeffion ot faith
was there ratified which had been impofed a little after
the reformation, and which contained many artic es
altogether forged by the parliament and nation. A-
mong others, the doftrine of refiftance was inculcated ;
fo that the teft being voted in a hurry, was found on
examination to be a medley of abfurdity and contra-
diftion. Though the courtiers could not reject the
claufe of adhering to the Proteftant religion, they
propofed, as a requifite mark of refpeft, that all princes
of the blood ffiould be exempted from taking that
oath. This exception was zealoufly oppofed by Ar¬
gyle; who obferved that the foie danger to be dreaded
for the Proteftant religion mutt proceed from the
perverfion of the royal family. By infilling on fuch
topics, he drew on himfelf the fecret indignation ot
the duke of York, of which he foon felt the fatal con-
fequences. . r n 1
When Argyle took the teft as a privy couruellor, he
fubjoined, in the duke’s prefence, an explanation which
he had beforehand communicated to that prince, and
which he believed to have been approved by him. It
was in thefe words. “ I have confidered the teft, and
am very defirous of giving obedience as far as I can. I
am confident that the parliament never intended to im-
pofe contradiftory oaths: therefore I think no man can
explain it but for himfelf. Accordingly I take it as far
as it is confident with itfelf and the Proteftant reli¬
gion. And I do declare that I mean not to bind my-
felf, in my ftation, and in a lawful way, from wifhing
and endeavouring any alteration, which I think to the
advantage of church or ftate, and not repugnant >.o thei
Proteftant religion and my loyalty : and this I under-
Hand as a part of my oath.” I he duke, as wras natural,
heard it wdth great tranquillity : no one took the leaft
offence : Argyle was admitted to fit that day in coun¬
cil: and it was impoffible to imagine that a capital of¬
fence had been committed where occafion feemed not
to have been given fo much as for a frown or repri¬
mand. _ . ,
Argyle was much furprifed a few days a.ter, to find
that a warrant wras iffued for committing him .o pri¬
fon ; that he wras indifted for high treafon, .eafirig-
making, and perjury ; and that from the innocent words
abovementioned an accufation was extrafted, by which
he was to forfeit life, honours, and fortune. It is need-
lefs to enter into particulars, where the iniquity ot the
whole is fo evidently apparent. Though the (word o^
juftice was difplayed, even her femblance was not put
on; and the forms of law were preferved to fanftny,
or rather aggravate, the oppreffion.. Of five judges,
three did not fcruple to find the guilt of trealon and
leafing-making to be incurred by the pnfoner: a jury
of 15 noblemen gave verdift againft him; and the king
being confulted, ordered the fentence to be pronounced,
but the execution of it to be fufpended till iuituer
orders. Argyle, however, faw no reafon to truft to
the juftice or mercy of fuch enemies : He made his e-
fcape from prifon, and till he could find a flnp for Hol¬
land he concealed himfelf during fome time m London.
The king heaid of his lurking place, but would not
fuller him to be arrefted. All the parts, however, of
his fentence, fo far as the government in Scotland had
power, were rigoroufly executed; his eftate confilcated,
his arms reverfed and torn. Having got over to Hol¬
land, he remained there during the remaining part ot
the reign of Charles II. But thinking himielt at li¬
berty, before the coronation of James II. to exert him¬
felf in order to recover the conftitution by force of arms,
he concerted meafures with the duke of Monmouth,
and went into Scotland, to affemble his friends : but
not meeting with the fuccefs he expe&ed, he was taken
prifoner ; and being carried to Edinburgh, was be¬
headed upon his former unjuft fentence, June 3°-l6°5‘
He Avowed great conftancy and courage under his mil-
fortunes: on the day of his death he ate his hinne very
cheerfully; and, according to cuftom, llept a5ter
a quarter of an hour or more, very foundly. At the
place of execution, he made a ffiort, grave, and religious
fpeech ; and, after folemnly declaring that he for¬
gave all his enemies, fubmitted to death with great
fU,cTMi,ELL, Archibald, firft doke of Argyle, fon
to the preceding, was an aftive promoter oi the revo-
N 2
lution.
CAM [ i
Campbell lutlon. He came over with the prince of Orange; was
admitted into the convention as earl of Argyle, though
his father’s attainder was not reverfed ; and in the claim
of rights the fentence againft him was declared to be,
what moil certainly it was, a reproach upon the nation.
The eftabliihment of the crown upon the prince and
princefs of Orange being carried by a great majority
in the Scotiih convention, the earl was fent from the
nobility, with Sir James Montgomery and Sir John
Dalrymple from the barons and boroughs, to offer the
crown, in the name of the convention, to their ma-
jefties, and tendered them the coronation oath ; for
which, and many other eminent fervices, he was ad¬
mitted a member of the privy council, and, in 1690,
made one of the lords of the treafury. He was af¬
terwards made a colonel of the Scots horfe guards; and,
in 1694, one of the extraordinary lords of feffion.
He was likewife created duke of Argyle, marquis of
Kintyre and Lorn, earl of Campbell and Cowall, Vif-
count of Tochow and Glenila, Lord Inverary, Mull,
Morvern, and Terrey, by letters-patent, bearing date
at Kenfington the 23d of June 1701. He fent over
a regiment to Flanders for King William’s fervice, the
officers of which were chiefly of his own name and fa¬
mily, who bravely diftinguifhed themfelves through the
whole courfe of the war. He manied Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir Lionel Falmaffi of Helmingham in
the county of Suffolk, by Elizabeth duchefs of Lau¬
derdale his wife, daughter and heirefs of William Mur¬
ray earl of Dyfart, by whom he left iffue two fons and
a daughter; namely, John duke of Argyle, the fubjeft
of the next article ; Archibald, who fucceeded his
brother as duke of Argyle ; and Lady Anne, married
to James Stuart, fecond earl of Bute, by whom fhe had
a fon afterwards earl of Bute. '
Campbell, 'John, fecond duke of Argyle, and alfo
duke of Greenwich and baron of Chatham, fon to the
fubjeft of the preceding article, was born on the 10th
of O&ober 1680; and, on the very day when his grand¬
father fuffered at Edinburgh, fell out of a window three
pair of flairs high without receiving any hurt. At
the age of 15, he had made a confiderable progrefs in
claffical learning. His father then perceived and en¬
couraged his military difpofition, and introduced him
to King William, who appointed him to the com¬
mand of a regiment. In this fituation he remained
till the death of his father in 1703 ; when becoming
duke of Argyle, he was foon after fworn of Queen
Anne’s privy council, made captain of the Scotch horfe
guards, and appointed one of the extraordinary lords
of feflion. In 1704, her majefly reviving the Scotifh
order of the thiille, his grace was inftalled one of the
knights of that order, and was foon after appointed
high-commiffioner to the Scotch parliament; where,
being of great fervice in promoting the intended union’
he was on his return created a peer of England, by the
titles of baron of Chatham and earl of Greenwich ', and
in 1710 was made knight of the garter. His grace
firll diftinguifhed himfelf in his military capacity at the
battle of Oudenarde; where he commanded as biigadier-
general, with all the bravery of youth and the con-
duft of a veteran officer. He was prefent under the
duke of Marlborough at the liege of Ghent, and took
poffeffion of the town.. He had alfo a confiderable (hare
in the viclory obtained over the French at the battle of
00 ] C A M
Malplaquet, by diflodging them from the wood of Sart, Campbell,
and gaining a poll: of great confequence. In this lharp —v"”—'
engagement, feveral mulket-balls paffed through the
duke’s clothes, hat, and peruke. Soon after this hot
aflion, he was fent to take the command in Spain ;
and after the redudion of Port Mahon, he returned to
England. His grace having now' a feat in the houfe
of lords, he cenfured the meafures of the miniftry wdth
fuch freedom, that all his places were difpofed of to
other noblemen: but at the acceffion of George I. he
recovered his influence. At the breaking out of the
rebellion in 1715, he wras made commander in chief of
his majelfy’s forces in North Britain ; and Was the
principal means and caufe of the total extin&ion, at
that time, of the rebellion in Scotland, without much
bloodlhed. In dired oppofition to him, or that part of
the army he commanded, at the head of all his Camp¬
bells w7as placed Campbell earl of Braidalbin, of the
lame family and kindred, by lome fatal error that
ever mifguided and milled that unhappy family of the
Stuarts and all its adherents. I he confequence wras
that both lets of Campbells, from family affedion,
refufed to ftrike a flroke, and retired out of the
battle. He arrived at London March 6th 1716,
and was in high favour : but, to the furprife of peo¬
ple of all ranks, he was in a fewT months diverted of
all his employments; and from this period to the year
1718, he fignalized himfelf in a civil capacity, by his
uncorrupted patriotifm and manly eloquence. In the
beginning of the year 1719, he was again admitted
into favour, appointed lord-ftew'ard of the houfehold,
and in April following was created duke of Green¬
wich. He continued in the adminiftration during all
the remaining part of that reign ; and, after his late
majefty’s acceffion, till April 1740; when he delivered
a fpeech with fuch warmth, that the miniftry being
highly offended, he was again dilmiffed from his em¬
ployments. To thefe, however, on the change of the
miniftry, he was foon reftored ; but not approving of
the meafures of the new miniftry more than thofe of
the old, he gave up all his ports for the laft time, and
never after engaged in affairs of ftate. He now en¬
joyed privacy and retirement; and died of a paralytic
diforder on the 4th of Odfober 1743. To the me¬
mory of his grace a very noble monument w as eredled
in Weftminfter-Abbey, executed by the ingenious Rou-
billiac.
The duke of Argyle, though never firft minifter,
was a very able ftatefman and politician, moft fteadily
fixed in thofe principles he believed to be right, and
not to be fhaken or changed. His delicacy and ho¬
nour were fo great, that it hurt him to be even fuf-
pedfed ; wutnels that application faid to be made to
him by one of the adherents of the Stuart family be¬
fore the laft rebellion in order to gain his intereft,
which was confiderable both in Scotland and England.
He immediately fent the letter to the fecretary of ftate ;
and it vexed him much even to have an application
made him, left any perfon fhould think him capable of
adling a double part. When he thought meafures
wrong or corrupt, he cared not who was the author,
how’ever great or powerful he might be ; wdtnefs his
boldly attacking the great duke of Marlborough in
the houle of lords, about his forage and army con-
Lafts in Flanders, in the very zenith of his power and
popularity^
CAM [ io
Campbell, popularity, though in all other ^fpech he was the
» —^— < moft able general of his time.. ^ I he duke of Aigyle
on all occafions (poke well, with a firm, manly, and
noble eloquence and feems to deierve the charadtei
given of him by Pope :
Argyle the Hate’s whole thunder born to wield,
And’ ihake alike the fenate and the field.
In private life, the duke’s conduft was highly ex¬
emplary. He was an affedionate hulband and an in¬
dulgent mailer. He feldom parted with his fervants
till a^e had rendered them incapable of their employ¬
ments ; and then he made provifion for their lubfift-
ence He was liberal to the poor, and particulaily to
perfons of merit in diilrefs: but though he was ready
to patronize deferving perfons, he was extremely cau¬
tious not to deceive any by layiih promifes or lead¬
ing them to form vain expeftations. He was a ilridt
economift, and paid his tradefmen punctually every
month ; and though he maintained the digmty of his
rank, he took care that no part oi his income mould
be wailed in empty pomp or unneceffary expences.
He was twice married •, and left five daughters, but
no male iffue. The titles of duke and earl of Green¬
wich and baron of Chatham became extinCt at his
death • but in his other titles he was fucceeded by
his brother Archibald earl of Ila, the fubjed of the
next article.
Campbell, Archibald, third duke of Argyle, bro¬
ther to the fubjed of the preceding article, was born
at Hamhoufe, in England, in June 1682, and was edu¬
cated at the univerfity of Glafgow. He afterwards
applied himfelf to the iludy of the law at Utrecht j but,
upon his father’s being created a duke, he betook
himfelf to a military life, and ferved fome time under
the duke of Marlborough. Upon quitting the army,
in which he did not long remain, he applied to the ac-
quifition of that knowledge which would enable him to
make a figure in the political world. In 1705, he was
conftituted treafurer of Scotland, and made a confidei-
able figure in parliament, though he was not more than
22 years of age. In 1706, he was appointed one of
the commiffioners for treating of the Union ; and
the fame year was created Lord Oronfay, Dunoon,
and Arrbis, Vifeount and Earl of May. In 1708, he
was made an extraordinary lord of leffion j and when
the Union was effeded, he was chofen one oi the Six¬
teen Peers for Scotland, in the firft parliament oi
Great-Britain j and was conftantly eletfed to every iu-
ture parliament till his death, except the fourth. In
1710, he was made juftice-general of Scotland. In
171! he was called to the privy council-, and upon
the acceffion of George I. he was nominated lord regi-
fter of Scotland. When the rebellion broke out in
j *7! r, he again betook himfelf to arms, in defence oi
the houfe of Hanover, and by his prudent conduft in
the Weft Highlands, he prevented General Gordon
at the head of three thoufand men, from penetrating
into the country and raifing levies. Lie afterwards
Joined his brother at Stirling, and was wounded at the
battle of Dumblain. In 1725, he was appointed keep¬
er of the privy feal *, and from this time, lie was en~
trufted with the management of Scotifti ailairs. In
1724, upon his refigning the privy feal, he was made
keeper of the great feal, which office he enjoyed till his
t ] CAM
death. Upon the deceafe of his brother, he became Campbelh
duke of Argyle, hereditary juftice-general, lieutenant, —v——*
ftieriff, and commiffary of Argyleihire and the Weftern
Lies, hereditary great mailer of the houfehold, heredi¬
tary keeper of Dunftaffnage, Carrick, and Several other
caftles. He was alfo chancellor of the univerfity of
Aberdeen j and laboured to promote the intereft cf
that, as well as of the other univerfities of Scotland.
He particularly encouraged the fchool of phyfic at
Edinburgh, which has now acquired fo high a reputa¬
tion. Having the chief management of Scotch affairs,
he was alfo extremely attentive to promote the trade,
manufa&ures, and improvements of his country. It
was by his advice that, after the rebellion in 1745,
the Highlanders were employed in the royal army. He
was a man of great endowments both natural and ac¬
quired, well verfed in the laws of his country, and pof-
feffed ccnfiderable parliamentary abilities. He was
likewife eminent for his fkill in human nature, had
great talents for converfation, and had colledle.d
one of the moft valuable private libraries in Great Bri¬
tain. He built himfelf a very magnificent feat at-
Inverary. The faculties of his mind continued found
and vigorous till his death, which happened fudden-
ly on the 15th of April 1761, in the 79th year ot
his age. He was married, but had no iffue j and
was fucceeded in his titles and the eftates of the
family by John Campbell, fourth duke of Argyle, ion
of the honourable John Campbell of Mammore, who
was the fecond fon of Archibald the ninth earl ot
Argyle. , . , , ...
The family of Argyle was heritable juftice gene¬
rals for Scotland till aboliffied by the jurifdiaion adh
They are ftill heritable mailers of the king’s houle-
hold in Scotland, and keepers of Dunftaffnage and
<1 trick
Campbell, John, an eminent hiftorical, biogra*
phical, and political writer, was born at Edinburgh,
March 8. 1707-8. His father, Robert. Campbell of
Glenlyon, Efqwas captain of hotle in a regiment
commanded by the then earl of Hyndford > and his
mother, Elizabeth, daughter of ^mith Efq , oi
Windfor in Berklhire, had the honour oi claiming a
defcent from the poet Waller. Our author their
fourth fon, was at the age of five years carried from
Scotland to Windfor, where he received the firft pim-
ciples of his education j and at a proper age, he w_as
placed out as clerk to an attorney, being intended for
the law. This profeffion, however, he never followed ^
but by a clofe application to the acqmhtion oi know¬
ledge of various kinds, became qualified to appear with
great advantage in the literary world. In 1736, be¬
fore he had completed his 30th year, he gave to the
public, in two volumes folio, “ The Military Hi-
ftory of Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlbo¬
rough,” enriched with maps, plans, and cuts, i ne
reputation hence acquired, occafioned hun ^ af¬
ter to be folicited to take a part m the Ancient
Univerfal Hiftory.” Whilft employed m this capital
work. Mr Campbell found leifure to entertain the
world with other produaions. In 1739; he
the “ Travels and Adventures of Edward Brown,
Efn •” 8vo. Li the fame year appeared his Me-
mol’s ol the Bathaw Duke de Ripperda,” Svo, repnnt-
ed, with improvements* in .740. Thefe memotr^wete
GAM [ x
Campbell, followed, In 1741, by the “ Concife Hlflory of SpaniOi
v America,” Bvo. In 1742, he was the author of “ A
Letter to a Friend in the Country, on the Publication
of f hurloe’s State Papers 5 giving an account of their
difcovery, importance, and utility. I he fame year
was diftinguifhed by the appearance of the ift and 2d
volumes of his “ Lives of the Engliih Admirals, and
other eminent Pntilh Seamen.The two remaining
volumes were completed in 1744; and the whole, not
long after, was tranflated into German. This was the
firft of Mr Campbell’s works to which he prefixed his
name ; and it is a performance of great and acknow¬
ledged merit. In 174^, he publiihed “ Hermippus
revived j’’ a fecond edition of which, much improved
and enlarged, came out in 1749, under the following
title : “ Hermippus Redivivus : or, the Sage’s Tri¬
umph over Old Age and the Grave. Wherein a me¬
thod is laid down for prolonging the life and vigour
of man. Including a Commentary upon an ancient
Infcription, in which this great fecret is revealed ; fup-
ported by numerous authorities. The whole interfper-
fed with a great variety of remarkable and well-atteft-
ed relations.” This extraordinary tradl had its origin
in a foreign publication ; but it was wrought up to
perfection by the additional ingenuity and learning of
Mr Campbell. In 1744 he gave to the public, in two
volumes folio, his “ Voyages and Travels,” on Dr
Harris’s plan, being a very diftinguiihed improvement
of that colleftion which had appeared in 1705. The
time and care employed by Mr Campbell in this im¬
portant undertaking did not prevent his engaging in
another great work, the “ Biographia Britannica,”
which began to be publifhed in weekly numbers in
1745> nnd extended to leven volumes folio : but our
author s articles were only in the firfl four volumes ^ of
which Dr Kippis obferves, they conftitute the prime
merit.
When the late Mr Dodfley formed the defign of
‘‘ The Preceptor,” which appeared in 1748, Mr
Campbell was to aflift in the undertaking *, and the
parts written by him were the Introduction to Chro-
nology, and the Difcourfe on Trade and Commerce,
both of which difplayeo an extenfive fund of knowledge
upon thefe fubjeCts. In 1750 he publifhed the firft
feparate edition of his “ Prefent State of Europe j” a
wTork which had been originally begun in 1746, in the
“ Mufeum,” a very valuable periodical performance^
printed for Dodfley. There is no production of our
author s that hath met with a better reception. It
has gone through fix editions, and fully deferved this
encouragement. The next great undertaking which
called for the exertion of our' author’s abilities and
learning, was “ The Modern Univerfal Hiftory.” This
extenfive wTork was published, from time to time, in
detached parts, till it amounted to 16 volumes folio ;
and a lecond edition of it, in 8vo, began to make its
appearance in 1759* I he parts of it written by Mr
Campbell were, the hiftories of the Portuguefe, Dutch
Spanifh, French, Swedilh, Danifh, and Offend Set¬
tlements in the Ealf-Indies ; and the Hiffories of the
Kingdoms of Spain, Portugal, Algarve, Navarre, and
that of I1 ranee, from Clovis to i6<{6. As our author
had thus diftinguifired himfelf in the literary world, the
4egree of LL. D. was very properly and honourably
1
02 1 CAM
Gonfei-red upon Iiim, June 18. 1754, by the univerfity Campbett.
ot Glalgow. t — ^ — T*
His principal and favourite work was, “ A political
Survey of Great Britain,” 2 vol. 410, publifhed a fhort
time before his death j in which the extent of his
knowledge, and his patriotic fpirit, are equally confpi-
cuous. Dr Campbell’s reputation was not confined to
his own country, but extended to the remoteff parts of
Europe. As a finking inftance of this, it may be
mentioned, that in the fpring of 1774, the emprefs of
Rufua was pleafed to honour him with the prefent of
her piClure, drawn in the robes worn in that country
m the days of John Bafiliowitz, grand duke of Mufcovy,
who. was contemporary with Queen Elizabeth. To
manifeft the doClor’s fenfe of her imperial majefty’s
goodnefs, a fett of the “ Political Survey of Biitain,”
bound in Morocco, highly ornamented, and accompa¬
nied with a letter deferiptive of the triumphs and feli¬
cities of her reign, was forwarded to St Peterfburg,
and conveyed into her hands by Prince Orloff, who
had refided fome months in this kingdom.
Dr Campbell in 1736 married Elizabeth, daughter
of Benjamin Vobe, of Leominfter, in the county of
Hereford, gentleman, with whom he lived nearly 40
years in the greateft conjugal harmony and happinefs.
So wholly did he dedicate his time to books, that he
feldom went abroad : but to relieve himfelf as much as
pofiible from.the inconveniences incident to a fedentary
life, it was his cuftom, when the weather would ad¬
mit,, to wTalk in his garden 5 or othervvife in fome room
of .his houfe, by way of exercife. By this method,
united with the firi&eft temperance in eating, and an
equal abfteniioufnefs in drinking, he enjoyed a good
ftate of health, though his con'ftitution was delicate.
His domeftic manner of living did not preclude him
fiom a very extenfive and honourable acquaintance.
His houfe, efpecially on a Sunday evening, was the
reiort of. the moft diftinguiflied perfons of all ranks,
and particularly of fuch as had rendered themfelves
eminent by their knowledge or love of literature. He
received foreigners, who wTere fond of learning, with
an affability and kindnefs which excited in them the
higheft refpeft and veneration 5 and his inftrudlive and
cheerful converfation made him the delight of his
friends in general. He was, during the latter part of
his lire, agent for the province of Georgia in North
America, and died at the clofe of the year 1773, in
the 67th year of his age. The doftor’s literary
knowledge was by no means confined to the fubjedls
on which he more particularly treated as an author ;
he was well acquainted with the mathematics, and
had read much in medicine. It hath been with
great reafon believed, that if he had dedicated his
ftudies to this laft’ fcience, he would have made a
very confpftuous figure in the medical profeffion. He
w’as eminently verfed in the different parts of facred li¬
terature ; and his acquaintance with the languages ex¬
tended not only to the Hebrew, Greek and Latin
among the ancient, and to the French, Italian, Spa¬
nifh, Portuguefe, and Dutch, among the modern 5 but
likewife to the Oriental tongues. He was particularly
fond of the Greek language. His attainment of fuch a
variety of knowledge was exceedingly aflified by a
memory furprifingly retentive, and which indeed afto-
nifbed
Campbell.
CAM [ 103 ] ’CAM
nulied every perfon with whom he was converfant. In
communicating his ideas, he had an uncommon readi-
nefs and facility } and the llyle of his works, which had
been formed upon the model of that of the celebrated
BHhop Sprat, was perfpicuous, eafy, flowing, and har¬
monious. To all thefe accomplilhments of the under-
ftanding, Dr Campbell joined the more important vir¬
tues of a moral and pious character. His diipofition
was gentle and humane, and his manners kind and
obliging. He was the tendereft of hulbands, a molt
indulgent parent, a kind mafter, a firm and fincere
friend. To his great Creator he paid the conftant and
ardent tribute of devotion, duty, and reverence-, and
in his correfpondences he fhowed that a fenfe of piety
was always nearelt his heart.
Campbell, George, D. D. was born at Aberdeen
in December 1719. He was educated at the gram¬
mar fchool in the lame town, and intended for the
employment of fignet-wnter, an occupation fimilar
to that of an Englifh attorney, in which he was bound
an apprentice. The love of ftudy, however, prevailed
over every oppofition : in 1741 he attended divinity
le&ures at Edinburgh before the term of his apprentice-
fhip was fully completed, and foon after became ^ regu¬
lar fludent in the univerfity of Aberdeen, attending the
leaures of Profeffor Lumfden in King’s, and Profeffor
Chalmers in Marifchal, college. In 1746 he was li-
cenl'ed to preach by the prefbytery of Aberdeen. In
1748 he obtained the living of Banchory lernan, in
which fituation he became a married man, and was
fortunate in pofleffing a lady “ remarkable lor the
fagacity of her underflanding, the integrity of her
heart, the general propriety of her conduft, and her
Ikill in the management of domeftic oeconomy.” Mu¬
tual happinefs was the confequence of this union, which
was not terminated till her death in 1792.^ In 3757
he w7as tranflated to Aberdeen, to be one of the mini-
fters of that town, and in 1759 was prefented to the
office of principal of Marifchal college.
Mr Hume’s Treatife on Miracles gave the new prin¬
cipal an opportunity of evincing that he was not un¬
worthy of his office. He oppofed it in a fermon preach¬
ed before the provincial fynod of Aberdeen, in I’jGo,
wffiich he was requefted to publilh $ but he preferred
the form of a differtation, and in that ftate font the
manufcript to Dr Blair, to be by him communicated
to the metaphyfician. Availing himfelf then of the re¬
marks of his friends, and his opponent, he gave it to
the world in 1763, with a dedication to Lord Bute :
but however defirable the patronage of the minifter
might be in other refpedls, it was of very little affift-
ance in giving circulation, in the literary world, to an
eflfay which, from the favourable impreffions of Blair
and" Hume, was eagerly read, and univerfally admired.
In 1771 he was elefted profeffor oi divinity in Ma¬
rifchal college, on which he refigned his office as one
of the minifters of Aberdeen : but as “ minifter of
Gray Friars, an office conjoined to the profefforlhip
about a century ago, he was obliged to preach once
every Sunday in one of the eftabliffied churches.” Few
perfons feem to have entertained truer notions of
the office of a teacher in an univerfity than our new
profeffor ; and the plan he had in view7, on entering
upon his le£tures, though expreffed in rather too ftrcng
language, may be recommended to every one who un- CampbetJ.
dertakes a fimilar employment.
“ Gentlemen, (he thus addreffes his pupils) the na¬
ture of my office has been much mifunderftood. It is
fuppofed, that I am to teach you every thing connec¬
ted with the ftudy of divinity. I tell you honeftly, that
I am to teach you nothing. Ye are not fchool-boys.
Ye are young men, wdio have finifhed your courfes of
philofophy, and ye are no longer to be treated as if ye
were at fchool. ' Therefore, I repeat it, I am to teach
you nothing but, by the grace of God, I will affift you
to teach yourfeives every thing.” In 1771 he publilhed
his excellent fermon on the Spirit of the Gofpel; and,
in 1776, his Philofophy of Rhetoric. In this latter
year, alio, he acquired the friendftiip of Dr Tucker by
a fermon, then much admired, and very generally read,
on the Duty of Allegiance, in w-hich he endeavours to
ftiow “ that the Britilh colonies in America had no
right, either from reafon or from fcripture, to throwT
off their allegiance and he ufes thofe vulgar argu¬
ments, which, as being purely political, and more
efpecially adapted to the fentiments of the majority of
that day, were very improper topics for the pulpit.
It is fo much the fafhion for divines to make the vary¬
ing politics of the hour the fubjeft of their difcourfes,
and in them to follow7 the fentiments of thoie whofe
patronage is deemed moft advantageous, that we mufi:
not be very fevere in our animadverfions on the prefent
occafion. In 1777 he chofe a better fubjeft for a dif-
courfe, wffiich he publilhed at the requeft of the So¬
ciety for propagating Chriftian Knowledge, and in
which the fuccels of the firft publilhers of the Gofpel is
ably treated as a proof of its truth. In 1779’
many of his countrymen, led aw7ay by the madnefs of
enthufiafm and fanaticifm, were ruftnng headlong into
the moft antichriftian praftice of perfecution, he pub¬
lilhed a very feafonable addrefs to the people of Scot¬
land, on the alarms which had been railed by the bill
in favour of the Roman Catholics.
In the fame year, alfo, he publilhed a fermon on the
Happy Influence of Religion on Civil Society. I he
laft work which he lived to bring before the public
was his Tranflation of the Four Gofpels, with prelimi¬
nary differtations, and explanatory notes, of which
it is unneceffary to fay any thing farther in this place
than that it is worthy of his talents and charafter.
In 1795 he refigned his profefforlhip, in a letter to
the moderator of the prelbytery of Aberdeen, which
they voted to be inferted in their records. Soon after
the refignation of his profefforlhip, he refigned alfo
the principallhip, on a penfion of 3C0I. a-year being
conferred on him by government 5 but this penfion
he poffeffed for a very fhort time, for, on the 31ft of
March, 1796, his laft illnefs feized him, and on the
next morning it wras follow7ed by a paroxyfm of the
pally, wffiich deftroyed his faculty of fpeecn, and un¬
der which he languilhed till he died. His funeral !er-
mon was preached on the 17th or April ny Dr Brown,
who had fucceeded him in the offices of piincipal and
profeffor.
His character, very juftly drawn by the fame gentle¬
man, we lhall now lay before our readers. “ Dr
Campbell, as a public teacher, w7as long admired for
the clearnels and copioufnefs with wffiich he illultrat¬
ed
C A M [ 104 ] C A M
Campbell, ed tlie great do&rines and precepts of religion, and
lj-" v the ftrength and energy with which he enforced them.
Intimately perfuaded of the truth and infinite confe-
guence of what revelation teaches, he was ftrongly de-
firous of carrying the fame convidtion to the minds of
his hearers, and delivered his difcourfes with that zeal
which flows from ftrong irrrpreflions, and that power
of perfuafion which is the refult of fincerity of heart,
combined with clearnefs of underftanding. He was
fatisfied, that the more the pure didlates of the gofpel
were ftudied, the more they would approve them-
lelves to the mind, and bring forth, in the affedlions and
condudf, all the peaceable fruits of righteoufnefs. The
unadulterated didlates of Chriftianity, he was, there¬
fore, only ftudious to recommend and inculcate ; and
knew perfedlly to difcriminate them from the inven¬
tions and traditions of men. His chief lludy ever was,
to diredt belief to the great objedls of pradtice 5 and,
without thefe, he viewed the mofl: orthodox profeflion
as “ a founding brafs, and a tinkling cymbal.” But,
befides the chaiadter of a preacher of righteoufnefs,
he had alfo that of a teacher of the fcience of divi¬
nity to fuftain. How admirably he difcharged this
duty, and with what effedt he conveyed the founded
and moll profitable inllrudlion to the minds of his fcho-
lars, let thofe declare who are now in various congre-
/ • . O
gations of this country, communicating to their fellow
Chriftians the fruits of their ftudies under fo able and
judicious a teacher. Difcarding all attachment to hu¬
man fyftems, merely confidered as fuch, he tied his faith
to the Word of God alone, pofieffed the happielt ta¬
lent in invefligating its meaning, and communicated to
his hearers the refult of his own inquiries, with a pre-
cifion and perfpicuity which brought light out of ob-
feurity, and rendered clear and fimple what appeared
intricate and perplexed. He expofed, without referve,
the corruptions which ignorance, craft, and hypocrify,
had introduced into religion, and applied his talent for
ridicule to the belt of all purpofes, to hold up to con¬
tempt the abfurdities with which the purelt and fu-
blimeft truths had been loaded.
“ Placed at the head of a public feminary of learn¬
ing, he felt all the importance of fuch a fituation, and
uniformly direfted his influence to public utility. His
enlarged and enlightened mind juftly appreciated the
extenfive confequence of the education of youth. He
anticipated all the effefts refulting to the great com¬
munity of mankind, from numbers of young men iffuing,
in regular fucceflion, from the univerfity over which he
prefided, and occupying the different departments of
focial life.
“ His benevolent heart delighted to reprefent to it-
felf the fludents under his direftion ufefully and ho¬
nourably difeharging the refpeflive duties of their dif¬
ferent profeffions j and fome of them, perhaps, filling
the moft diftinguilhed ftations of civil fociety. With
thefe profpefls before him, he conftantly diredted his
public condudt to their attainment. He never fuffered
his judgment to be warped by prejudice or partiality,
or his heart to be feduced by paflion or private intereft.
Thofe mean and ignoble motives by which manyr are
adluated in the difeharge of important trufts, approach¬
ed not his mind. A certain honourable pride, if pride
it may be called, diffufed an uniform dignity over the
whole of his behaviour. He felt the man degraded
1
by the perverfion of public charadler. His underftand- Campbell,
ing alfo clearly {hewed him even perfonal advantage at- "“■"'v
tached to fuch principles and pradlice, as he adopted
from a fenfe of obligation, and thofe elevated concep¬
tions of real worth which were fo congenial to his foul.
He fawr, he experienced, efteem, refpedt, and influence,
following in the train of integrity and beneficence; but
contempt,difgrace,averfion,and complete infignificance,
clofely linked to corruption and felfifhnefs. Little minds
are {educed and overpowered by felfifh confiderations,
becaufe they have not the capacity to look beyond the
prefent advantage, and to extend to the mifery that
Hands on the other fide of it. The fame circumflance
that betrays the perverfity of their hearts, alfo evinces
the wTeaknefs of their judghaents.
“ His reputation as a Writer is as extenfive as the
prefent intercourfe of letters j not confined to his own
country, but fpread through every civilized nation. In
his literary purfuits, he aimed not, as is very often the
cafe, with men of diflinguifhed literary abilities, mere¬
ly at eftablifhing his own celebrity, or increafing
his fortune ; but had chiefly at heart the defence of
the great caufe of Religion, or the elucidation of her
didlates.
“ At an early period he entered the lifls as a cham¬
pion for Chriftianity againft one of its acuteft oppo¬
nents. He not only triumphantly refuted his argu¬
ments, but even conciliated his refpedt by the handfome
and dexterous manner in which his defence was condudt-
ed. While he refuted the infidel, he fpared the man,
and exhibited the uncommon fpedlacle of a polemical
writer pofieffing all the moderation of a Chriftian. But
while he defended Chriftianity againft: its enemies, he
was defirous of contributing his endeavours to increafe,
among its profeffors, the knowledge of the facred wri¬
tings. Accordingly, in the latter part of his life, he
favoured the world with a work, the fruit of copious
erudition, of unwearied application for almoft thirty
years, and of a clear and comprehenfive judgment. We
have only to regret, that the other writings of the
New Teftament have not been elucidated by the fame
pen that tranflated the Gofpels. Nor were his literary
merits confined to theology, and the ftudies more im¬
mediately conne&ed with it. Philofophy, and the fine
arts, are alfo indebted to his genius and labours; and
in him the polite fcholar was eminently joined to the
deep and liberal divine.
“ Political principles will always be much affefled
by general charadter. This was alfo the cafe with Dr
Campbell. In politics, he maintained that moderation
which is the fureft criterion of truth and redlitude, and
was equally diftant from thofe extremes into which men
are fo apt to run in great political queftions. He che-
rilhed that patriotifm which confifts in wiftiing, and en¬
deavouring to promote, the greateft happinefs of his
country, and is always fubordinate to univerfal benevo¬
lence. Firmly attached to the Britifh conftitution, he
was animated with that genuine love of liberty which
it infpires and invigorates. He was equally averfe to
defpotifm and to popular anarchy ; the two evils into
which political parties are fo frequently hurried, to the ■
deftrudtion of all that is valuable to government. Par-
ty-fpirit, of whatever defeription, he confidered as ha¬
ving an unhappy tendency to pervert, to the moft per¬
nicious purpofes, the beft principles of the human mind,
and
GAM [ ic>5 ] CAM
jCampbel- and to clothe the moil iniquitous a£lions with the moft
town fpecious appearances. Although tenacious of thofe
II fentiments, whether in religion or politics, which he
Cam phono was convjnce(l to be rational and juft, he never fuffered
mere difference of opinion to impair his good will, to
obftruft his good offices, or to cloud the cheerfulnefs of
converfation. His own converfation was enlivened by
a vein of the moft agreeable pleafantry.”
CAMPBELTOWN, a parliament town of Ar-
gyleffiire in Scotland, feated on the eaftern fliore of
the peninfula of Kintyre or Cantyre, of which it is the
capital. It hath a good harbour •, and is now a very
confiderable place, though within thefe 50 years only
a petty fiftiing town. It has in faft been created by
the filhery : for it was appointed the place of rendez¬
vous for the buffes ; and above 260 have been feen
in the harbour at once. The inhabitants are reckon¬
ed to be upwards of 8000 in number. W. Long. 5. 10.
N. Lat. 54.
CAMPDEN, a fmall town of Gloucefterfliire in
England, containing about 200 houfes. It gives title
of Vifcount, by courtefy, to the earl of Gainlhorough
his fon. W. Long. 1. 50. N. Lat. $2,
CAMPEACHY, a town of Mexico in South A-
merica, feated on the eaft coaft of a bay of the fame
name, on the weft of the province of Yucataro. . It is
defended by a good wall and ftrong foits } but is nei¬
ther fo rich, nor carries on fuch a trade, as foimeily }
it having been the port for the fale of logwood, the
place where it is cut being about $0 miles diftant. It
was taken by the Engliffi in 1596 ; by the bucaneers
in 1678-, and by the Flibufters of St Domingo in
1685, who fet it on fire and blew up the citadel. W.
Long. 93. 7* N. Lat. 19* 20.
CAMPEACHY-Wood. See M ATOX Y LU M, BoTANY
Index.
CAMPEN, a ftrong town of Overyffel in the Uni¬
ted Provinces. It hath a citadel and a harbour 5 but
the latter is almoft choked up with fand. It w’as ta¬
ken by the Dutch in 1578, and by the French in 1672;
but they abandoned it the following year. It is feated
near the mouth of the river \ flel and Zuider Zee. E.
Long. 5. 35. N. Lat. 52. 38. _
CAMPESTRE, in antiquity, a fort ol cover lor
the privities, worn by the Roman foldiers in their field
exercifes ; being girt under the navel, and hanging
down to the knees. The name is fuppofed to be form¬
ed from campus, the field or place wffiere the Roman
loldiers performed their exercifes.
CAMPHORA, or Camphire, a folid concrete
fubfiance extraded from the wood of the laurus cam-
phora. See Chemistry, and Materia Medica In¬
dex. _
Pure camphire is very white, pellucid, fomewhat
unftuous to the touch ; of a bitterilh aromatic tafte,
yet accompanied with a fenfe of coolnefs j of a very
flagrant fmell, fomewhat like that of rofemary, but
much ftronger. It has been very long efteemed one of
the moft efficacious diaphoretics ; and has been cele¬
brated in fevers, malignant and epidemical diftempers.
In deliria, alfo, where opiates could not procure fleep,
but rather aggravated the fymptoms, this medicine has
often been obferved to procure it. All thefe effects,
however, Dr Cullen attributes to its fedative property,
and denies that camphire has any other medicinal vir-
Yol. V. Part L
tues than thofe of an antifpafmodic and fedative. He Camphuy-
allows it to be very powerful, and capable ol doing
much good or much harm. From experiments made Can|;);an,
on different brute creatures, camphire appears to be v——y—J
poifonous to every one of them. In fome it produced
fleep followed by death, without any other fymptom.
In others, before death, they were awakened into con-
vulfions and rage. It feems, too, to a6t chiefly on
the ftomach ; for an entire piece fwallowed, produced
the above-mentioned effedls with very little diminution
of weight.
CAMPHUYSEN, Dirk Theodore Raphael, an
eminent painter, was born at Gorcum in 1586. He
learned the art of painting from Diederic Govertze ;
and by a ftudious application to it, he very foon not
only equalled, but far furpaffed his mafter. He had
an uncommon genius, and ftudied nature with care,
judgment, and affiduity. His fubje&s were landfcapes,
moftly fmall, with ruinous buildings, huts of peafants
or views of villages on the banks of rivers, with boats
and hoys, and generally he reprefented them by moon¬
light. His pencil is remarkably tender and loft, his
colouring true nature and very tranfparent, and his ex-
pertnefs in perfpective is feen in the proportional di-
ftances of his objedls, which are excellently contrived,
and have a furprifing degree of nature and truth. As
he left off painting at an age when others are fcarcely
qualified to commence artifts, few' of his works are to
be met with, and they bring confiderable prices ; as
they cannot but give pleafure to the eye of every ob-
ferver. He painted his piftures with a thin body of
colour, but they are handled with Angular neatnefs
and fpirit. He pradtifed in his profeffion only till he
was 18 years of age, and being then recommended as
a tutor to the fons of the lord of Nieuport, he under¬
took the employment, and difcharged it with fo much
credit, that he was appointed fecretary to that noble¬
man. He excelled in drawing with a pen ; and the
defigns wdrich he finilhed in that manner are exceed-
ingly valued.
CAMPIAN, Edmund, an Englifli Jefuit, was born
at London, of indigent parents, in the year 154° '■> arjd
educated at Chrift’s hofpital, where he had the honour
to fpeak an oration before Queen Mary on her accel-
fion to the throne. He wTas admitted a fcholar of St
John’s college in Oxford at its foundation, and took
the degree of mafter of arts in 1564. About the fame
time he w'as ordained by a bilhop of the church of
England, and became an eloquent Proteftant preacher.
In 1566, when Queen Elizabeth was entertained by
the univerfity of Oxford, he fpoke an elegant oration
before her majefty, and was alfo refpondent in the phi-
lofophy aH in St Mary’s church. In 15,68, he was
junior proftor of the univerfity. In the following year,
he went over to Ireland, w'here he wrote a hiftoty of
that kingdom, and turned papift ; but being found
rather too affiduous in perfuading others to follow his
example, he wTas committed to prifon. He foon, how¬
ever, found means to make his efcape. He landed in
England in 1571 ; and thence proceeded to Douay
in Flanders, where he publicly recanted his former he-
refy, and was created bachelor of divinity. Fie went
foon after to Rome, where, in I573> I16 was Emitted
of the fociety of Jefus, and was fent by the general of
that order to Vienna, where he wrote his tragedy cal-
O led
Campidoc-
tores.
CAM [i
Campian led Necior et ambrojia, which was a£ted before the em¬
peror with great applaufe.
From Vienna he went to Prague in Bohemia, where
, he redded in the Jefuits college about fix years, and
then returned to Rome. From thence, in 1580, he was
fent by Pope Gregory XIII. with the celebrated Father
Parfons, to convert the people of England. From Pitts
we learn, that, fome time before, feveral Englilh ptiefts,
infpired by the Holy Ghoft, had undertaken to convert
their countrymen 5 that 80 of thefe foreign feminaries,
befides feveral others who by God’s grace had been
converted in England, were actually engaged in the
pious work with great fuccefs; that fome of them had
fuffered imprifonment, chains, tortures, and ignomini¬
ous death, with becoming conftancy and refolution :
but feeing at laft that the labour was abundant and
the labourers few, they folicited the affiftance of the
Jefuits ; requefting, that though not early in the morn¬
ing, they would at leaft in the third, fixth, or ninth
hour, fend labourers into the Lord’s vineyard. In con-
iequence of this felicitation, the above two were fent
to England. They arrived in an evil hour for Campian,
at Dover ; and were next day joyfully received by their
friends at London. He had not been long in England,
before Walfingham the fecretary of date, being in¬
formed of his uncommon affiduity in the caufe of the
church of Rome, ufed every means in his power to have
him apprehended, but for a long time without fuccefs.
However, he was at laft taken by one Elliot, a noted
prieji-taker, who found him in the houfe of Edward
Yates, Efq; at Lyford in Berklhire, and conduced him
in triumph to London, -with a paper on his hat, on
which was written Campian the 'Jefuit. He was im-
prifoned in the Tower 5 where, Wood fays, “ he did
undergo many examinations, abufes, wrackings, tor¬
tures 5” exquifitij)imis cruciatibus tortus, fays Pitts. It
is hoped, for the credit of our reformers, this torturing
part of the ftory is not true. The poor wretch, how¬
ever, was condemned, on the ftatute 25 Ed. III. for
high treafon ; and butchered at Tyburn, with two or
three of his fraternity. Howfoever criminal in the eye
of the law, or of the Englilli gofpel, might be the zeal
of this Jefuit for the falvation of the poor heretics of
this kingdom, biographers of each perfuafion unite in
giving him a great and amiable charafter. “ All wri¬
ters (fays the Oxford antiquary), whether Proteftants
or Popilh, fay, that he was a man of admirable parts j
an elegant orator, a fubtile philofopher and difputant,
and an exadt preacher whether in Engliftr or the Latin
tongue, of a fvveet difpefition, and a wHl-polilhed
man.” Fuller, in his church-hiftory, fays, “ he was of
a fweet nature, conftantly carrying about him the
charms of a plaufible behaviour, of a fluent tongue,
and good parts.” His Hiftory of Ireland, in two
books, was written in 1570*, and publilhed, by Sir
James Ware, from a manufeript in the Cotton library,
Dublin, 1633, folio. He wrote alfo Chronologia uni-
verfalis, a very learned work $ and various other trafts.
CAMPICURSIO, in the ancient military art, a
march of armed men for feveral miles, from and back
again to the camp, to inftrudt them in the military pace.
This exercife was nearly akin to the decurjio, from which
it only differed, in that the latter was performed by
horfemen, the former alfo by foot.
CAMPIDOCTORES, or Campiductor.es, in the
06 ] CAM
Roman army, were officers who inftrudled the foldiery Campkluo
in the difeipline and exercifes of war, and the art of t”r
handling their weapons to advantage. Thefe are alfo canius
fometimes called campigeni, and armidoclores.
CAMPIDUCTOR, in middle-age writers, fignifies
the leader or commander of an army, or party.
CAMPION, in Botany, the Englilh name of the
Lychnis.
Campion, a town of the kingdom of Tangut in
Tartary. It wras formerly remarkable for being a
place through which the caravans paffed in the road
from Bukharia to China. E. Long. 104. 53. N. Lat.
40. 25.
CAMPISTRON, a celebrated Irench dramatic
author, was born in 1636. Racine diredled his poe¬
tical talents to the theatre, and affifted him in his firit
pieces. He died in 1723.
CAMPITrE, in church hiftory, an appellation gi¬
ven to the Donatifts, on account of their affembling in
the fields for want of churches. For a fimilar reafon,
they were alfo denominated Montenfes and Rupitani.
CAMPLI, or Campoli, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the farther Abruzzo, fitu-
ated in E. Long. 13. 55. N. Lat. 42. 38.
CAMPO major, a town of the province of Alen-
tejo in Portugal. W. Long. 7. 24. N. Lat. 38. 50.
CAMPREDON, a town of Catalonia in Spain,
feated at the foot of the Pyrenean mountains. The
fortifications were demoliihed by the French in 1691.
W. Long. I. 56. N. Lat. 42. 20.
CAMPS, Francis de, abbot of Notre Dame at
Sigi, was born at Amiens in 1643 } and diftinguilhed
himfelf by his knowledge of medals, by writing a hi¬
ftory of France, and feveral other works. He died at
Paris in 1723.
CAMPYERE. See Veer.
CAMPUS, in antiquity, a field or vacant plain in
a city, not built upon, left vacant on account of lhow7s,
combats, exercifes, or other ufes of the citizens.
Camvvs Mail, in ancient cuftoms, an anniverfary
affembly of our anceftors held on May-day, when they
confederated together for the defence of the kingdom
againft all its enemies.
Campus Martins, a large plain in the fuburbs of an¬
cient Rome, lying between the Quirinal and Capitoline
mbunts and the Tiber, thus called becaufe confecrated
to the god Mars, and fet apart for military fports and
exercifes to which the Roman youth were trained, as
the ufe and handling of arms, and all manner of feats
of a&ivity. Here were the races run, either with cha¬
riots or Angle horfes j here alfo flood the villa publica,
or palace for the reception of ambaffadors, who were
not permitted to enter the city. Many of the public
comitia were held in the fame field, part of wdiich was
for that purpofe cantoned out. The place was alfo
nobly decorated with ftatues, arches, columns, porti¬
coes, and the like llrudlures.
Campus Sceleratus, a place without the walls of an¬
cient Rome, where the Veftals who had violated their
vows of virginity were buried alive.
CAMUL, a town of Afia, on the eaftern extremity
of the kingdom of Cialus, on the frontiers of Tangut.
E. Lon. 98. 5. N. Lat. 37. 15.
CA.MUS, a perfon with a low flat nofe, hollowed
in the middle.
The
CAN [ 107 ] CAN
Camus The Tartars are great admirers of camus beauties.
II Rubruquis obferves, that the wife of the great Jenghiz
Canaan. j^jian a celebrated beauty, had only two holes for a
' ,J~* nofe.
Camus, John Peter, a French prelate born in 1582.
He was author of a number of pious romances (the
tafte of his time), and other theological wmrks, to the
amount of 200 vols. His definition of politics is re¬
markable : yhrs non tam regendi, quat7i fallendi, homi¬
nes ; “ The art not fo much of governing, as of deceiv¬
ing mankind.'” He died in 1652.
CAN, in the fea-language, as can-pump, a veffel
wherewith feamen pour water into the pump to make
it go.
CAN-Buoy. See Buoy.
CAN-Hook, an inftrument ufed to fling a calk by the
ends of the ftaves: it is formed by fixing a broad and
flat hook at each end of a fhort rope •, and the tackle
by which the calk fo flung may be hoifled or lowered,
is hooked to the middle of the rope.
CANA, in Ancient Geography, a town on the con¬
fines of the Upper and Lower Galilee : memorable for
the turning water into wine (John). The birth place
of Simeon, called Canaanite from this place, and of Na¬
thanael.
CANAAN, the fourth fon of Ham. The irreve¬
rence of Ham towards his father Noah is recorded in
Gen. ix. Upon that occafion the patriarch curfed
him in a branch of his pofterity : “ Curfed,” fays he,
be Canaan 5 a fervant of fervants {hall he be unto
his brethren.” This curfe being pronounced, not
againft Ham the immediate tranfgreffor, but againft
his fon, who does not appear, from the words of Mofes,
to have been any ways concerned in the crime, hath
occafioned feveral conjeftures. Some have believed
that Noah curfed Canaan, becaufe he could not well
have curfed Ham himfelf, whom God had not long
before bleffed. Others think Mofes’s chief intent in
recording this prediction was to raife the fpirits of the
Ifraelites, then entering on a terrible war with the
children of Canaan, by the affurance, that, in confe-
quence of the curfe, that people were deftined by God
to be fubdued by them. For the opinion of thofe who
imagine all Ham’s race rvere here accurfed, feems re¬
pugnant to the plan words of Scripture, which con¬
fines the malediction to Canaan and his pofterity ; and
is alfo contrary to faft. Indeed, the prophecy of Noah,
that Canaan “ ftiould be a fervant of fervants to his
brethren,” feems to have been wholly completed in
him. It was completed with regard to Shem, not only
in that a confiderable part of the feven nations of the
Canaanites were made {laves to the Ifraelites, when
they took poffeflion of their land, as part of the re¬
mainder of them were afterwards enflaved by Solomon •,
but alfo by the fubfequent expeditions of the Affyri-
ans and Perfians, who were both defcended from Shem j
and under whom the Canaanites fuffered fabjeCtion, as
well as the Ifraelites *, not to mention the conqueft of
oart of Canaan by the Elamites, or Perfians, under
Chedorlaomer, prior to them all. With regard Jo Ja-
phet, we find a completion of the prophecy, in the
fucceffive conquefts of the Greeks and Romans in Pa-
leftine and Phoenicia, where the Canaanites were fet¬
tled ; but efpecially in the total fubverfion of the Car¬
thaginian power by the Romans ; befides fome inva-
fions of the northern nations, as the pofterity of l iio- Canaan,
garma and Magog ) wherein many of them, probably,
were carried away captive.
The pofterity of Canaan were very numerous. His
eldeft fon rvas Sidon, who at leaft founded and peo¬
pled the city of Sidon, and was the father of the Si-
donians and Phoenicians. Canaan had befides ten fons,
who were the fathers of fo many peoples, dwelling in
Paleftine, and in part of Syria ; namely, the Hittites,
the Jebufites, the Amorites, the Girgafites, the Hi-
yites, the Arkites, the Sinites, the Arvadites, the Ze-
marites, and Hamathites.
Land of Canaan, the country fo named from Ca¬
naan the fon of Ham. It lies between the Mediter¬
ranean fea and the mountains of Arabia, and extends
from Egypt to Phoenicia. It is bounded to the eaft
by the mountains of Arabia j to the fouth by the wil-
dernefs of Paran, Idumcea, and Egypt ; to the w’eft
by the Mediterranean, called in Hebrew the Great
fea j to the north by the mountains of Libanus. Its
length from the city of Dan (fince called Caefarea
Philippi, or Paneadis, which {lands at the foot of thefe
mountains) to Beerfheba, is about 70 leagues ; and its
breadth from the Mediterranean fea to the eafteru
borders, is in fome places 30. This country, which
w’as firft called Canaan, from Canaan the fon of Ham,
whofe pofterity poflefled it, was afterwards called Pa¬
leftine, from the people which the Hebrews call Phi-
liftines, and the Greeks and Romans corruptly Palef-
tines, who inhabited the fea coafts, and were firft
known to them. It likewife had the name of the
Land of Promife, from the promife God made Abra¬
ham of giving it to him ; that of the Land of Ifrae!,
from the Ifraelites having made themfelves mafters of
it ; that of Judah, from the tribe of Judah, which was
the moft confiderable of the twelve \ and lathy, the
happinefs it had of being fandlified by the prefence,
adftions, miracles, and death of Jelus Chrift, has given
it the name of the Holy Land, which it retains to this
day.
The firft inhabitants of this land therefore were the
Canaanites, who were defcended from Canaan, and the
eleven fons of that patriarch. Here they multiplied
extremely ; trade and war were their firft occupations j
thefe gave rife to their riches, and the feveral colonies
fcattered by them over almoft all the iflands and ma¬
ritime provinces of the Mediterranean. T he meafure
of their idolatry and abominations was completed,
when God delivered their country into the hands of
the Ifraelites. In St Athanafius’s time, the Africans
ftill faid they w7ere defcended from the Canaanites ;
and it is faid, that the Punic tongue was almoft en¬
tirely the fame with the Canaanitifh and Hebrew’, lan¬
guage. The colonies which Cadmus carried into I he-
bes in Boeotia, and his brother Cihx into Cilicia, came
from the flock of Canaan. The ifles of Sicily, Sar¬
dinia, Malta, Cyprus, Corfu, Majorca, and Minorca,
Gades and Ebufus, are thought to have been peopled
by the Canaanites. Bochart, in his large work en¬
titled Canaan, has fet all this matter in a good light.
Many of the old inhabitants of the north-weft oi
the land of Canaan, however, particularly on the coall
or territories of Tyre and Sidon, w7ere not driven out
by the children of Ifrael, whence this traft feems to
have retained the name of Canaan a great while a ter
O % thole
CAN [ 108 ] CAN
Canabac, thofe other parts of the country, which were better
Canada. ;nha!}itecl by the Israelites, had loll the faid name.
The Greeks called this traft inhabited by the old Ca-
naanites along the Mediterranean lea, Phoenicia •, the
more inland parts, as being inhabited partly by Ca-
naanites, and partly by Syrians, Syrophoenicia : and
hence the woman faid by St Matthew (xv. 22.) to be
a woman of Canaan, whofe daughter Jefus cured, is
faid by St Mark (vii. 26.) to be a Syrophoenician by
nation, as Ihe was a Greek by religion and language.
CANABAC, an illand which lies contiguous to Bu-
lam on the weilern coalt of Africa, and is inhabited by
a fierce people, governed by two kings or chiefs. It
would appear that the Canabacs had been very trouble-
fome to their neighbours ; for the inhabitants of fome
other iilands in that duller rejoiced at the fettlement
of the Englilh in Bulam, hoping to find in them a de¬
fence againit the ufurpations of this people.
CANADA, or the province of Quebec, an ex-
tenfive country of North America, bounded on the
north-eaft by the gulf of St Lawrence, and St John’s
river ; on the fouth-weft, by lands inhabited by the
favage Indians, which are frequently included in this
province 5 on the fouth, by the provinces of Nova
Scotia, New England, and New York^ and on the
north-weft, by other Indian nations. Under the name
of Canada, the French comprehended a very large
territory } taking into their claim part of New Scot¬
land, New England, and New York on the eaft ; and
extending it on the weft as far as the Pacific ocean.
That part, however, which was reduced by the Britilh
arms in the laft war, lies between 61 and 81 degrees
of weft longitude, and between 45 and 52 of north
latitude. The climate is not very different from that
of the northern Britiih colonies \ but as it is much
further from the fea, and more to the northward, than
moft of thofe provinces, it has a much feverer winter,
though the air is generally clear ; and, like moft of
thofe American trafts that do not lie to© far to the
northward, the fummers are very hot, and exceeding
pleafant. The foil in general is very good, and in
many parts extremely fertile; producing many diffe¬
rent forts of grains, fruits, and vegetables. The mea¬
dow grounds, which are w’ell watered, yield excellent
grafs, and breed vaft numbers of great and fmall cattle.
The uncultivated parts are a continued wood, compofed
of prodigioufly large and lofty trees, of which there
is inch a variety of fpecies, that even of thofe who
have taken moft pains to know’ them, there is not per¬
haps one that can tell half the number. Canada pro¬
duces, among others, two forts of pines, the white
and the red •, four forts of firs •, two forts of cedar and
oak, the white and the red ; the male and female ma¬
ple ; three forts of alh trees, the free, the mungrel,
and the baftard 5 three forts of walnut-trees, the hard,
the foft, and the fmooth ; vaft numbers of beech-trees
and white wood 3 white and red elms, and poplars.
The Indians hollow the red elms into canoes, fome of
which made out of one piece will contain 20 perfons:
others are made of the bark 3 the different pieces of
which they few together with the inner rind, and daub
over the feams wfith pitch, or rather a bituminous mat¬
ter refembling pitch, to prevent their leaking 3 the ribs
of thefe canoes are made of boughs of trees. In the
hollow’ elms, the bears and wild cats take up their
lodging from November to April. The country pro- Canada.
duces alfo a vaft variety of other vegetables, partial- v—^
larly tobacco, which thrives w’ell. Near Quebec is a
fine lead mine, and many excellent ones of iron have
been difcovered. It hath alfo been reported that filver
is found in fome of the mountains. The rivers are ex¬
tremely numerous, and many of them very large and
deep. The principal are, the Ouattauais, St John’s,
Seguinay, Deipaires, and Trois Rivieres 3 but all thefe
are fwallow’ed up by the great river St Lawrence. This
river iffues from the lake Ontario 3 and, taking its
courfe north-eaft, w’afhes Montreal, where it receives
the Ouattauais, and forms many fertile iilands. It con¬
tinues the fame courfe, and meets the tide upwards of
400 miles from the fea, where it is navigable for large
veffels; and below Quebec, 320 miles from the fea,
it becomes fo broad and fo deep, that ftiips of the line
contributed in the laft war to reduce that city. After
receiving in its progrefs innumerable ftreams, it at laft
falls into the ocean at Cape Rofiers, where it is 90
miles broad, and where the cold is intenfe and the fea
boifterous. This river is the only one upon which
any fettlements of note are as yet formed 3 but it is
very probable, that, in time to come, Canada, and
thofe vaft regions to the weft, may be enabled of them-
felves to carry on a confiderable trade upon the great
lakes of frefti wTater which thefe countries environ.
Here are five lakes, the leaft of which is of greater ex¬
tent than the frefh-W’ater lakes to be found in any other
part of the wmrld : thefe are the lake Ontario, which
is not lefs than 200 leagues in circumference 3 Erie,
or Ofw'ego, longer, but not fo broad, is about the
fame extent. That of the Huron fpreads greatly in
width, and is about 300 leagues in circuit 3 as alfo is
that of Michigan, though like lake Erie it is rather
long, and comparatively narrow7. But the lake Su¬
perior is larger than any of thefe, being not lefs than
500 leagues in circumference. All thefe are navigable
by any veffels, and they all communicate with each
other 3 but the paffage between Erie and Ontario is
interrupted by a moft ftupendous fall or cataraft,
called the fa//y of Niagara*. The river St Lawrence, * See 2\ia~
as already obferved, is the outlet of thefe lakes, by^ra.
which they dilcharge themfelves into the ocean. The
French built forts at thefe feveral ftraits, by which the
lakes communicate wfith one another, and on that
Rhere the laft of them communicates with the river.
By thefe, while the country was in their poffeffion,
they effeflually fecured to themfelves the trade of the
lakes, and preferved an influence over all the Indian
nations that lie near them.
The moft curious and interefting part of the natural
hiftory of Canada is the animals there produced. Thefe
are flags, elks, deer, bears, foxes, martins, wild cats,
ferrets, w’eafels, large fquirrels of a greyifh hue, hares
and rabbits. The fouthern parts, in particular, breed
great numbers of wild bulls, divers forts of roebucks,,
goats, wmlves, &c. The marfhes, lakes, and pools,
w’ith which this country abounds, fwarm with otters
and beavers, of w7hich the white are highly valued,
as well as the right black kind., A vaft variety of birds
are alfo to be found in the woods 3 and the river St
Lawrence abounds with fuch quantities of filh, that
it is affirmed by fome writers, this would be a more
profitable article than even the fur-trade.—There are
in
CAN [i
Canada, in Canada a multitude of different Indian tribes: but
 'f~—J tbefe are obferved to decreafe in number where the
Europeans are moft numerous ; owing chiefly to the
immoderate ufe of fpirituous liquors, of which they
are exceflively fond. Their manners and way of living
i See Amt- we have already particularly defcribedf. The principal
rica. towns are Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal. The
commodities required by the Canadians from Euiope
are, wine, or rather rum •, cloths, chiefly coarfe ; linens,
and wrought iron. The Indian trade requires rum,
tobacco, a fort of duffil blankets, guns, powder, balls,
and flints, kettles, hatchets, toys, and trinkets of all
kinds. While the country was in poffeffion of the
French, the Indians fupplied them with poultry ; and
the French had traders, who, like the_ original inha¬
bitants, traverfed the vaft lakes and rivers in canoes,
with incredible indulfry and patience, carrying their
goods into the remoteft parts of America, and among
nations entirely unknown to us. T hefe again brought
the furs, &c. home to them, as the Indians were there¬
by habituated to trade with them. lor this purpofe,
people from all parts, even from the diftance of 1000
miles, came to the French fair at Montreal, which be¬
gan in June, and fometimes lafted three months. On
this occaflon many folemnities were obferved, guards
•were placed, and the governor aflifted to preferve order
in fo great and various a concourfe of favage nations.
But fometimes great diforders and tumults happened j
and the Indians frequently gave for a dram all that
they were poffefled of. It is remarkable, that many
of thefe nations aftually palled by the Englilh fettle-
ment of Albany in New York, and travelled 200 miles
further to Montreal, though they could have purchafed
the goods they wanted cheaper at the former.
Since Britain became poffieffed of Canada, our trade
with that country has generally employed 34 fliips and
400 feamen 5 their exports, at an average of three
years, in Ikins, furs, ginfeng, fnake-root, capillaire,
and wheat, amount to 150,000!. I heir imports from
Great Britain are computed at nearly the fame lum. it
will, however, be almoft impoflible to overcome cer¬
tain inconveniences arifing from the violence of the
winter. This is fo exceflfive from December to April,
that the broadeft rivers are frozen over, and the fnow
lies commonly from four to fix feet deep on the ground,
even in thofe parts of the country which he three de¬
grees fouth of London, and in the temperate latitude of
Paris. Another inconvenience arifes from the falls in
the river St Lawrence below Montreal, which prevent
fliips from penetrating to that emporium of inland com¬
merce. Our communication therefore with Canada,
and the immenfe regions beyond it, will always be in¬
terrupted duripg the winter-feafon, until roads are form¬
ed that can be travelled without danger ii om lIic Indians.
For thefe favage people often commit hoftilities againft
us, without any previous notice ; and frequently, with¬
out any provocation, they commit the moil hoind ra¬
vages for a long time with impunity. c ^ a-
Canada was undoubtedly difcovered oy oebaftian
Cabot, the famous Italian adventurer, who failed un¬
der a commiffion from Henry VII. But though the
Englifh monarch did not think proper to make any ule
of this difcovery, the French quickly attempted it; we
have an account of their fifliing for cod on the banks of
Newfoundland, and along the fea-coaft of Canada, in
09 ] CAN
the beginning of the 16th century. About the year
1506, one Denys, a Frenchman, drew a map of the
gulf of St Lawrence ; and two years after, one Au-
bort, a fliip-mafter of Dieppe, carried over to France
fome of the natives of Canada. As the new country,
however, did not promife the fame amazing quantities
of gold and filver produced by Mexico and Peru, the
French for fome years neglefted the difcovery. At
laft, in the year 1523, Francis I. a fenfible and en-
terprifing prince, fent four {hips, under the command
of Verazani, a Florentine, to profecute difcoveries in
that country. The particulars of this man’s firft ex¬
pedition are not known. All we can learn is, that
he returned to France, and next year he undertook a
fecond. As he approached the coatt, he met with a vio¬
lent ftorm ; however, he came fo near as to perceive the
natives on the fhore, making friendly figns to him to
land. This being found impradflicable by realon of the
furf upon the coaft, one of the failors threw himfelf in¬
to the fea ; but, endeavouring to fwim back to the fliip,
a furge threw him on fliore without figns of life. Fie
however, treated by the natives with fuch care
Canada.
was,  
and humanity, that he recovered his ftrength, and was
allowed to fwim back to the Hrip, which immediately
returned to France. Tihis is all we know of \era-
zani’s fecond expedition. He undertook a third, but
was no more heard of, and it is thought that he and all
his company perifhed before he could form any colony.
In 1534, one Jaques Cartier of St Maloes fet fail, under
a commiflion from the French king, and on the 10th
of May arrived at Cape Bonavifta in Newfoundland.
He had with him two fmall fliips befides the one in
which he failed. He cruifed along the coaft of that
ifland, on which he difcovered inhabitants, probably
the EJkimaux. He landed in feveral places along the
coaft of the gulf, and took poffeflion of the country in
the king’s name- On his return, he was again fent
out with a commiflion, and a pretty large lorce .. he re¬
turned in 1535, and paffed the winter at St Croix j but
the feafon proved fo fevere, that he and his companions
muft have died of the fcurvy, had they not, by the ad¬
vice of the natives, made ule of the decodlion of the
tops and bark of the white pines. As Cartier, how-
ever, could produce neither gold nor filver, all that he
could fay about the utility of the fettlement was difre-
garded ; and in 1540, he was obliged to become pilot
to one M. Roberval, who was by the French king ap¬
pointed viceroy of Canada,.and who failed from France
with five veffels. Arriving ,at the gulf of St Lawrence,
they built a fort 5 and Cartier was left to command the
garrifon in it, while Roberval returned to France for
additional recruits to his new fettlement. At laft, ha-,
ving embarked in 1549, with a great number of adven ¬
turers, neither he nor any or his followers- were heard
of more.
This fatal accident fo greatly difeouraged the court
of France, that, for 50 years, no meafures were taken
for fupplying with neceffaries the fettlers that were left.
At laft, Henry IV. appointed the marquis de la Roche
lieutenant-general of Canada and the neighbouiing
countries. In 1598 he landed on the ifle of SaRe,
which he abfurdly thought to be a proper place for a
fettlement, though it was without any port, and with¬
out produft except briars. Here he left about 40 ma-
lefaftors, the refufe of the French jails. After cruizrn/
CAN [i
Canada, for foine time on the coaft of Nova Scotia, without be-
Canal. jng a|-)}e j-0 relieve thefe poor wretches, he returned to
” * France, where he died of a broken heart. His colony
muft have perilhed, had not a hrenchfhip been wreck¬
ed on the ifland, and a few Iheep driven upon it at the
lame time. With the boards of the Ihip they eredled
huts; and while the fheep lafted they lived on them,
feeding afterwards on filh. Their clothes wearing out,
they made coats of feal-lkins; and in this miferable con¬
dition they {pent feven years, wdien Henry ordered
them to be brought to France. The king had the cu-
riofity to fee them in their feal-lkin dreffes, and w’as fo
moved with their appearance, that he forgave them all
their offences, and gave each of them 50 crowns to be¬
gin the world anew'.
In 1600, one Chauvin, a commander in the French
navy, attended by a merchant of St Malo, called Pont-
grave, made a voyage to Canada, from whence he re¬
turned wdth a very profitable quantity of furs. Next
year he repeated the voyage with the fame good for¬
tune, but died while he w'as preparing for a third. The
many fpecimens of profit to be made by the Canadian
trade, at laft induced the public to think favourably of
it. An armament wras equipped, and the command of
it given to Pontgrave, with powers to extend his difco-
veries up the river St Lawrence. He failed in 1603, ha¬
ving in his company Samuel Champlain, who had been
a captain in the navy, and was a man of parts and fpi-
rit. It wras not, however, till the year 1608, that the
colony w'as fully eftablilhed. This was accomplifhed
by founding the city of Quebec, which from that time
commenced the capital of all the fettlements in Canada.
The colony, however, for many years continued in a
low wray, and was often in danger of being totally ex¬
terminated by the Indians. As the particulars of thefe
wars, however, could neither be entertaining, nor in¬
deed intelligible, to many of our readers, we choofe to
omit them, and in general obferve, that the French not
only concluded a permanent peace with the Indians,
but fo much ingratiated themfelves with them, that they
could writh the greateft eafe prevail upon them at any
time to murder and fcalp the Engliih in their fettle¬
ments. Thefe praflices had a confiderable lhare in
bringing about the laft wnir with France, W'hen the
’whole country was conquered by the Britifti in 1761.
The moft remarkable tranfadlion in this conqueft w'as
the fiege of Quebec ; for a particular account of which,’
fee that article. And for the tranfadlions here during
the late American war, fee America (United States
of)-
CANAL ©/Communication, an artificial cut in
the ground, fupplied’wdth w'ater from rivers, fprings,
&c. in order to make a navigable communication be¬
twixt one place and another.
The particular operations neceffary for making ar¬
tificial navigations depend upon a number of circum-
ftances. The fituation of the ground ; the vicinity or
connexion with rivers; the eafe or difficulty with
which a proper quantity of water can be obtained ;
thefe and many other circumftances neceffarily produce
great variety in the ftrufture of artificial navigations,
and augment or diminilh the labour and expence of
executing them. When the ground is naturally level,
and unconnefted with rivers, the execution is eafy, and
t '* navigation is not liable to be difturbed by ffioods;
1
10 ] CAN
but, when the ground rifes and falls, and cannot be re*
duced to a level, artificial methods of railing and lower¬
ing veffels muft be employed ; which likewife vary ac¬
cording to circumftances.
A kind of temporary lluices are fometimes employed
for raifing boats over falls or Ihoals in rivers by a very
fimple operation. Two polls or pillars of mafon-work,
with grooves, are fixed, one on each bank of the river,
at fome diftance below the Ihoal. The boat having
palled thefe polls, planks are let down acrofs the river
bv pullies into the grooves, by which the w'ater is dam¬
med up to a proper height for allowing the boat to pafs
up the river over the Ihoal.
The Dutch and Flemings at this day fometimes,
when obftrudled by cafcades, form an inclined plane or
rolling-bridge upon dry land, alongft which their vef¬
fels are drawn from the river below the cafcade into the
river above it. This, it is faid, was the only method
employed by the ancients, and is Hill ufed by the Chi-
nefe, who are faid to be entirely ignorant of the nature
and utility of locks. Thefe rolling-bridges confift ©f a
number of cylindrical rollers which turn eafily on pivots,
and a mill is commonly built near by, lo that the fame
machinery may ferve the double purpofe of working the
mill and drawing up veffels.
A Lock is a bafon placed lengthwife in a river or
canal, lined wdth walls of mafonry on each fide, and
terminated by twm gates, placed where there is a cafcade
or natural fall of the country ; and fo conftrudted, that
the bafon being filled with water by an upper lluice
to the level of the waters above, a veffel may afcend
through the upper gate ; or the water in the lock be¬
ing reduced to the level of the water at the bottom of
the cafcade, the veffel may defcend through the lower
gate ; for when the waters are brought to a level on
either fide, the gate on that fide may be eafily opened.
But, as the lower gate is {trained in proportion to the
depth of water itfupports, when the perpendicular height
of the water exceeds 12 or 13 feet, more locks than
one become neceffary. Thus, if the fall be 17 feet, two
locks are required, each having 84 feet fall; and if
the fall be 26 feet, three locks are neceffary, each
having 8 feet 8 inches fall. The fide-walls of a lock
ought to be very ftrong. Where the natural foun¬
dation is bad, they fhould be founded on piles and
platforms of wood : they Ihould likewife Hope out¬
wards, in order to refill the preffure of the earth from
behind.
Plate CXXXIV. fig. I. A perfpeftive view of part
of a canal: the veffel L, within the lock AC.—Fig. 2.
Seftion of an open lock : the veffel L about to enter.—
Fig. 3. Section of a lock full of water ; the veffel L
railed to a level with the water in the fuperior canal.—
Fig. 4. Ground fedlion of a lock. L, a veffel in the
inferior canal. C, the under gate. A, the upper
gate. GH, a fubterraneous paffage for letting water
from the fuperior canal run into the lock. KF, a fub¬
terraneous paffage for water from the lock to the infe¬
rior canal.
X and Y, (fig. 1.) are the two floodgates, each
of which confifts of two leaves, refting upon one an¬
other, fo as to form an obtufe angle, in order the bet¬
ter to refill the prefiure of the water. The firft (X)
prevents the water of the fuperior canal from falling
into the lock ; and the fecond (Y) dams up and fu-
llains
CAN [i
I- ftains the water in the lock. Thefe flood-gates ought
to be very ftrong, and to turn freely upon their hinges.
In order to make them ©pen and (hut with eafe, each
leaf is furnifhed with a long lever A. b, Ab ; Cb, C b.
They (hould be made very tight and clofe, that as little
water as pofiible may be loft.
By the fubtevraneous paffage G H (fig. 2, 3, & 4.)
which defcends obliquely, by opening the fluice G, the
tvater is let down from the fuperior canal D into the
lock, where it is ftopt and retained by the gate C
when (hut, till the water in the lock comes to be on a
level with the water in the fuperior canal D 5 as repre-
fented, fig. 3. When, on the other hand, the wa¬
ter contained by the lock is to be let out, the paffage
GH muft be (hut by letting down the (iuice G; the
gate A muft be alfo (hut, and the paflage K F opened
by rafting the (luice K : a free paflage being thus gi¬
ven to the water, it defcends through K F, into th^
inferior canal, until the water in the lock is on a level
with the water in the inferior canal B 5 as reprefented,
fig. 2. _
Now, let it be required to raife the veffel L (fig. 2.)
from the inferior canal B to the fuperior one L) ; if
the lock happens to be full of water, the fluice G muft
be (hut, and alfo the gate A, and the (luice K opened,
fo that the water in the lock may run out till it is on
a level with the water in the inferior canal B. When
the water in the lock comes to be on a level wdth the
whter at B, the leaves of the gate C are opened by the
levers C b, which is eafily performed, the water on each
fide of the gate being in equilibrio ; the veffel then
fails into the lock. After this the gate C and the
(luice K arefthut, and the (luice G opened, in order
to fill the lock, till the water in the lock, and con-
fequently the veffel, be upon a level wuth the water in
the fuperior canal D ; as is reprefented in fig. 3. The
gate A is then opened, and the vefiel pafles into the
canal D.
Again, let it be required to make a veflel defcend
from the canal D into the inferior canal B. If the
lock is empty, as in fig. 2. the gate C and (luice K
muft be (hut, and the upper fluice G opened, fo that
the water in the lock may rife to a level with the wa¬
ter in the upper canal D. Then open the gate A, and
let the veffel pafs through into the lock. Shut the
gate A and the fluice G •, then open the fluice K, till
the w^ater in the lock be on a level with the w^ater in
the inferior canal 5 then the gate C is opened, and
the veffel pafles along into the canal B, as w?as re¬
quired.
Scarcity of water becomes a very ferious inconveni¬
ence to navigation in thofe places where locks are ne-
ceflary, as, without a fufficient fupply, it murt be fre¬
quently interrupted. To fave wrater, therefore, has
been an important confideration in the conftruftion of
locks. Various attempts have been made for this pur-
pofe. We (hall here give an account of one which
has been propofed by Mr Playfair architeft in Lon¬
don. “ The nature and principle of this manner of
faving water, fays the inventor, confifts in letting the
water which has ferved to raife or fall a boat or
barge from the lock, pafs into refervoirs or cifterns,
whofe apertures of communication with the lock are
upon different levels, and which may be placed or
conftru&ed at the fide or (ides of the lock wffth which \
u ] CAN
they communicate, or in any other contiguous fitua- Canal,
tion that circumitances may render eligible j which
apertures may be opened or (hut at pleafure, fo that
the water may pafs from the lock to each refervoir
of the cgnal, or from each refervoir to the lock, in the
followung manner : The w'ater which fills the lock,
when a boat is to afcend or defcend, inftead of being
paffed immediately into the lower part of the canal, is
let pafs into thefe cifterns or refervoirs, upon different
levels 5 then, their communications with the lock being
(hut, they remain full until another veffel is wanted to
pafs; then, again, the cifterns are emptied into the
lock, which is thereby nearly filled, fo that only the re¬
mainder which is not filled is fupplied from the higher
part of the canal. Each of theie cifterns muft have a
furface not lefs than that of the lock, and muft con¬
tain half as much water as is meant to be expended for
the palling of each veflel. The ciltern the moft eleva¬
ted is placed twice its own depth (meafuring by the
aperture, or communicating opening of the cifterns)
under the level of the water in the higher part of the
canal. The fecond ciftern is placed once its own depth
under the firft, and fo on are the others* to the lowed $
which laft is placed once its own depth above the level
of the water in the lower part of the canal. The aper¬
tures of the intermediate cifterns, whatever their num¬
ber may be, muft all be equally divided into different
levels j the furface of the water in the one being al¬
ways on the level of the bottom of the aperture of the
ciftern which is immediately above. As an example
of the manner and rule for conftrutfting thefe cifterns,
fuppofe that a lock is to be conftrufted twelve feet
deep, that is, that the veffel may afcend or defcend twelve
feet in pafiing. Suppofe the lock fixty feet long and
fix feet wide, the quantity of water required to fill the
lock, and to pafs a boat, is 4320 cubic feet j and fup¬
pofe that, in calculating the quantity of water that can
be procured for fupplying the canal, after allowing for
wafte, it is found (according to the number of boats
that may be expetfed to pafs) that there will not be
above 800 cubic feet for each •, then it will be necef-
fary to fave five-fixths of the whole quantity that in the
common cafe would be neceffary : to do which ten cif¬
terns muft be made (the mode of placing which is ex-
preffed in the drawing, fig. 5. Plate CXXXIV,) each
of which muft be one foot deep, or deeper at plealure,
and each muft have a furface of 360 feet fquare, equal
to the furface of the lock. The bottom of the aper¬
ture of the lov/eft ciftern muft be placed one foot above
the level of the water in the lower part of the canal, or
eleven feet under the level of the high water 5 the fe¬
cond ciftern muft be two feet above the level of the
low water ; the third three feet, and fo on of the others j
the bottom of the tenth, or uppermoft ciftern, being
ten feet above the low water, and two feet lower than
the high water; and, as each ciftern muft be twelve
inches in depth, the furface of the water in the higher
ciftern will be one foot under the level of the water in
the upper part of the canal. The cifterns being thus
conftrufted, when the lock is full, and the boat to be
let down, the communications between the lock and the
cifterns, w7hich until then have all been (hut, are to be
opened in the following manner j firft, the communica¬
tion with the higher cittern is opened, which, being at
bottom two feet under the level of the water in the
lock
CAN [ ”
lock is Bilea to the depth of one foot, the water in the
lock*defcending one foot alfo at the fame time, a
communication^is then (hut, and the communication be
cillern is filled, there remains but two feet dept v\
ttr in the lock. The communication between the lock
l^d Slower part of the canal is then opened and the
luft two feet depth "^^ns!'h i "vident, that,
ffefd o' k: Veef L th ”f wat’er being let defcend
into thedo'wer par, of the canal
depth that defcends, or one-fixth of thej ,
r ^ :nftead of 4320 cubic feet being uted, there are
foie, mite . 1 remainder of the water
• SnS'S- "elxr rt
r, ^
emptied into the lock, which it fills one foot 5 the com-
munication being then (hut, the next lowdl “fern, or
the ninth, is -emptied into the lock, which s there y
fined another foot' and fo in manner all the othe
cifterns are emptied one after another, until the higher
cifte n being emptied, which fills the tenth foot of wa¬
ter in the lolk, there remains but two feet of water to
fill, which is done from the upper part of the canal, by
opening the higher fluice to pafs the boat, by that
means the fame quantity of water defcends from the
upper part of the canal into the lock, that in the other
■ call descended from the lock into the lower part of the
canal fo that, in both cafes, the fame quantity of wa¬
ter is faved, that is, five-fixthsmf what would be necef-
W were there no cifterns. Suppofe again that, upon
dm fame canal, and immediately after the twelve feet
lock, it would be advantageous to - conftrua one of
eighteen feet; then, in order not to ufe any greater
■quantity of water, it will be neceffary;to have fixteen
cifterns7 upon different levels, communicating with the
lock in the fame manner. Should again, a lock o
only fix feet be wanted, after that of eighteen, tjien it
will only be neceffary to have four afternoon different
levels, and fo of any other height of lock. The rule
is this: for finding the number and fize of the “fter »
each ciftern being the fame in fuperficies w^ A6 _loc
its depth muft be fuch as to contain one half the quan
tity of water meant to be ufed m the pafting of o e
boat. The depth of the lock, divided by the depth
neceffary for fuch a ciftern, will give, m all cafes, the
whole number of cifterns, and two more : deduft the
number two,-therefore, from the number which you
find by dividing the depth of the lock by the depth of
one ciftern, and you have always the number of ci¬
fterns required *, which are to be placed upon different
levels, according to the rule already given. I he above
is the principle and manner of ufing the lock, for a-
ving water in canals, and for enabling engineers to con-
ftrua locks of different depths upon the fame canal,
whhout ufing more water for the deep locks than for
the {hallow ones. With regard to the manner of dif-
pofing the cifterns, the circumftances of the ground,
2 1 CAN
the declivity, &c. will be the beft guide for the en-
Canal
^But'evenKlien water is abundant, if the declivity of
a country be fuch as to require numerous locks, na g-
tion fuffers great interruption from them. A met ho
by which boats could be raifed and lowered with
(■Treater facility, or in a ftiorter time than can be done
by means of locks is ftill a very defirable objecT of im¬
provement in inland navigation. For this pmpofe the
inclined plane has been often reforted to, and particu-
lady in China, where water-carriage is more generaffy
employed than in any country of Europe. But th s
method requires very powerful machinery or a great
number of bands, which has prevented it bom being
much praftifed in this country. Other cont™CeSD
1 • ti-,e ufe of locks have been propoled. EH
Auderfon, in his Agricultural Survey of the County
of Aberdeen, has defcnbed one, of which we flial g
an 7ccou,rt in his own words. This contrivance, he
obferves “ in the opinion of very good judges of mat-
tea'of this fort, to whom the plan has been (hewn,
has been deemed fully adequate to the purpofe of raifing
and lowering boats of a moderate fize, that is, oi
tons or downwards; and it is the opinion of moftmen
with whom I have converfed, who are beft acquainted
with the inland navigations, that a boat of from 10 to
1 r tons is better than thofe of a larger fize. Vv hen le
veral are wanted to be fent at once, they may be affixed
to one another, as many as the towing-horfe can con¬
veniently draw. Were boats of this fize adopted, and
were a/the boats on one canal to be of the iame di-
menfions, it would prove a great co"VenienC^ 1 fe
country in a ftate of beginning improvements, becaule
the expence of fuch a boat would be fo trifling, that
every farmer could have one for himfelf, and might of
courfe make ufe of it when he pkafed, by the aid of
his own horfe, without being obliged to have any de¬
pendence on the time that might iuit the convenience
of bis neighbour ; and if two or more boats were go g
from the fame neighbourhood, one horfe could ei
"Ttlraie t„ fuppofe that fig. 6 Plate CXXX1V
reprefents a bird’s-eye view of this Ample apparatus, as
f Pn from above. A is fuppofed to be the upper reach
ibrthe two" ?HU S^’tw fs
to the height of the water in the upper reach, and e e,
* confifts of a wooden cofc
t ^^t^ed t^ one oTS
w"’ a Th C mmtmicaL direaiy with the upper
b t Heine upon the fame plane with it, and fo
fe-rrSSSa
terruption. “ Third
CVAN^Vb.
><*/</ <?/ \i i/nur
Plate CXXXIX
/.shj <r.
3-'f
’i
<V?2
1
-
\
CAN [ 113 ] CAN
{( Tliird divifion. At i is reprefented another cof¬
fer, precifely of the fame dimenfions with the firft. Eut
here two fluices, which were open in the former, and
only reprefented by dotted lines, are fuppofed to be
ihut, fo as to cut off all communication between the
water in the canal and that in the coffer. As it was
impoffible to reprefent this part of the apparatus on fo
fmall a fcale, for the fake of illuftration it is reprefent¬
ed more at large in fig. 9. where A, as before, repre-
fents the upper reach of the canal, and h one of the
coffers. The fluice k goes into two cheeks of wood,
joined to the mafonry of the dam of the canal, fo as to
fit peifeclly clofe j and the fluice f fits, equally clofe,
into cheeks made in the fide of the coffer for that pur-
pofe ; between thefe two fluices is a fmall fpace 0.
The coffer, and this divifion 0, are to be fuppofed full
of water, and it will be eafy to fee that thefe fluices
may be let down, or drawn up at pleafure, with much
facility.
“ Fig. 10. reprefents a perpendicular fedfion of thefe
parts in the fame diredfion as in fig. 9. and in which
the fame letters reprefent the fame parts.
“ Things being thus arranged, you are to fuppofe
the coffer h to be fufpended, by means of a chain paffed
over the pulley, and balanced by n weight that is fuffi-
cient to counterpoife it, fufpended at the oppofite end
of the chain. Suppofe, then, that the counterpoife be
made fomewhat lighter than the coffer with its con¬
tents, and that the line m n (fig. 10.) reprefents a divi¬
fion between the folid fides of the dam of feparation,
which terminates the upper reach, and the wooden cof¬
fer, which had been clofed only by the preffure of its
own weight (being puflied a very little from A towards
E, beyond its precife perpendicular fwing), and that the
joining all round is covered with lifts of cloth put upon
it for that purpofe } it is evident that, fo long as the
coffer is fufpended to this height, the joining mull be
water-tight; but no fooner is it lowered down a little
than this joining opens, the water in the fmall divifion
e> is allowed to run out, and an entire feparation is made
between the fixed dam and this moveable coffer, which
may be lowered down at pleafure without lofing any
part of the water it contained.
<4 Suppofe the coffer now perfeflly detached, turn
to fig. 7. which reprefents a perpendicular fedion of
this apparatus, in the diredfion of the dotted line
(fig. 6.) In fig. 7. h reprefents * an end view of the
coffer, indicated by the fame letter as in fig. 6. fufpend¬
ed by its chain, and now' perfectly detached from all
other objefts, and balanced by a counterpoife i, which
is another coffer exadfly of the lame fize, as lovv down
as the level of the lower reach. From infpeaion only
it is evident, that, in proportion as the one of thele
weights rifes, the other muff defeend. for the pre-
fent, then, fuppofe that the coffer/a is by fome means
rendered more weighty than ?, it is plain it will de¬
feend while the other rifes •, and they will thus conti¬
nue till h comes down to the level of the lower reach,
and i rifes to the level of the higher one.
44 Fig. 8. reprefents a fedfion in the direftion AB
Vol. V. Part I.
(fig. 6.), in which the coffer i (feen in both fituations) Canak.
is fuppofed to have been gradually raifed from the level ~v™“
of the low'er reach B, to that of the higher one where
it nowr remains ftationary ; while the cofl'er h (which is
concealed behind the mafonry) has defeended in the
mean time to the level of the lower reach, where it
clofes by means of the junfture r r, fig. 10. (which
jumfture is covered with lifts of cloth, as before explain¬
ed at m n, and is of courfe become water-tight.) when,
by lifting the fluice t, and the correfponding fluice at
the end of the canal, a perfetl communication by wa¬
ter is eftabliflied between them. If, then, inftead of
w'ater only, this coffer had contained a boat, floated in¬
to it from the upper reach, and then lowered down, it
is very plain, that when thefe fluices were removed, after
it had reached the level of the lower reach, that boat
might have been floated out of the coffer with as much
facility as it was let into it above. Here then we have
a boat taken from the higher into the low er canal;
and, by reverfing this movement, it is very obvious
that it might be, with equal eafe, raifed from the lowjer
into the higher one. It now only remains that I
fhould explain by what means the equilibrium between
thefe counter-balancing weights can be detlroyed at
pleafure, and the motion of courfe produced.
44 It is very evident, that if the two correfponding
coffers be preciiely of the fame dimenfions, their weight
will be exactly the fame when they are both filled to
the fame depth of w'ater. It is equally plain, that
fhould a boat be floated into either or both of them,
whatever its dimenfions or weight may be, fo that it
can be contained afloat in the coffer, the weight of the
coffer and its contents will continue precifely the fame
as when it was filled with water only : hence, then,
fuppofing one boat is to be lowered, or one to be raifed
at a fime, or fuppofing one to be raifed and another
low'ered at the fame time—they remain perfectly i:t
equilibrium in either place, till it is your pleafure to
deftroy that equilibrium. Suppofe, then, for the pre-
fent, that both coffers are loaded with a boat in each,
the double fluices both above and below clofed ; and
fuppofe alfo that a flop-cock u, in the under edge of
the fide of the low'er coffer (fig. 8. and 10.), is opened,
fome of the w'ater which ferved to float the boat in the
coffer will flow out of it, and confequently that coffer
will become lighter than the higher one-, the upper
coffer will of courfe defeend, while the other mounts
upwards. When a gentle motion has been thus com¬
municated, it may be prevented from accelerating, mere¬
ly by turning the ftop-cock fo as to prevent the lofs
of more water, and thus one coffer will continue to
afeend, and the other to defeend, till they have affumed
their ftations refpetlively j when, in confequence of a
flop below, and another above, they are rendered fta¬
tionary at the level of the refpeftive canals (a).
“ Precifely the fame effeft will be produced w hen the
coffers are filled entirely with water.
44 It is unneceffary to add more to this explanation,
except to obferve, that the fpace for the coffer to de¬
feend into muff be deeper than the bottom of the lower
p canal,
(a) 44 It does not feem neceffary to adopt any other contrivance than the above for regulating the motions}
.but if it fhould be found neceflary, it would be eafy to put a ratch-wheel on the fame axle.
CAN f 13
Canals, canal, in order to allow a free defcent for the cofter to
—-v—- the requifite depth; and of courfe it will be neceffary
to have a fraall conduit to allow the water to get out of
it. Two or three inches free, below the bottom of the
canal, is all that would be neceffary.
« Where the height is inconliderable, there will be
no oceafion for providing any counterpoife for the
chain, as that will give only a fmall addition to the
weight of the undermoft coffer, fo as to make it pre¬
ponderate, in circumftances where the two coffers would
otherwife be in perfedb equilibrium : but, where the
height is confiderable, there will be a neceffity for pro¬
viding fuch a counterpoife •, as, without it, the chain,
by becoming more weighty every foot it delcended,
would tend to deftroy the equilibrium too much, and
accelerate the motion to an inconvenient degree. To
guard againft this inconvenience, let a chain of the fame
weight, per foot, be appended at the bottom of each
coffer, qf fuch a length as to reach within a few yards
of the ground where the coffer is at its greateft height
(fee fig. 7.) j it will add with its whole weight upon
the higheft coffer while in this pofition ; but, as that
gradually defeended, the chain would reach the ground,
and, being there fupported, its weight would be di-
minifhed in proportion to its defcent ; while the weight
of the chain on the oppofite fide, would be augmented
in the fame proportion, fo as to counterpoife each other
exadlly, in every fituation, until the uppermoft chain
was railed from the ground. After which it would
increafe its weight no more : and, of courfe, would then
give the under coffer that preponderance which is ne¬
ceffary for preferving the machine fleady. The under
coffer, when it reached its low-eft pofition, would touch
the bottom on its edges, w'hich would then fupport it,
and keep every thing in the fame pofition, till it was
made lighter for the purpofe of afeending.
“ What conftitutes one particular excellence ®f the
apparatus here propofed is, that it is not only unlimited
as to the extent of the rife or deprefllon of which it
is fufceptible (for it wmuld not require the expendi¬
ture of one drop more water to lower it 100 feet than
one foot) ; but it would alfo be eafy fo to augment
the number of pulleys at any one place as to admit of
two, three, four, or any greater number of boats be¬
ing lowered or elevated at the fame time ; fo that let*
the fucceffion of boats on fuch a canal be nearly as
rapid as that of carriages upon a highway, none of
of them need be delayed one moment to wrait an op¬
portunity of palling : a thing that is totally impracti¬
cable where water-locks are employed j for the inter-
courle, on every canal conftruCted with wTater-locks, is
neceft’arily limited to a certain degree, beyond which it
isimpoflible to force it.
“ For example : fuppofe a hundred boats are follow¬
ing each other, in fuch a rapid fucceffion as to be only
half a minute behind each other : By the apparatus
here propofed, they w'ould all be elevated precifely as
they came ; in the other, let it be fuppofed that the
lock is fo wTell conftru&ed as that it takes no more than
five minutes to clofe and open it ; that is, ten minutes
in the whole to each boat (for the lock, being once
filled, muft be again emptied before it can receive ano¬
ther in the fame direClion) : at this rate, fix boats only
could be paffed in an hour, and of courfe it would take
fixteen hours and forty minutes to pals the whole hun-
4 ] CAN
dred } and as the laft boat would reach the lock in the Canals,
fpace of fifty minutes alter the firft, it would be detain- v
ed fifteen hours and fifty minutes before its turn w'ould
come to be railed. This is an immenfe detention ; but
if a fucceffion of boats, at the fame rate, were to follow
continually, they never could pafs at all. In fliort, in
a canal conftrudled with water-locks, not more than fix
boats, on an average, can be palled in an hour, fo that
beyond that extent all commerce muft be flopped 5 but,
on the plan here propofed, fixty, or fix hundred, might
be palled in an hour, if neceffary, fo as to occalion no
fort of interruption whatever. Thefe are advantages
of a very important nature, and ought not to be over¬
looked in a commercial country.
“ This apparatus might be employed for innumer¬
able other ules as a moving power, which it would be
foreign to our prelent purpole here to fpecify. Nor
does its power admit ot any limitation, but that of the
ftrength of the chain, and of the coffers which are to
fupport the weights. All the other parts admit of
being made fo immoveably firm as to be capable oi iup-
porting almoft any affignable weight.
“ 1 will not enlarge on the benefits that may be deri¬
ved from this very fimple apparatus: its cheapnels, wl en
compared wdth any other mode of raifing and lowering
veffels that has ever yet been pradtifed, is very obvious j
the wafte of water it would occafion is next to nothing;
and when it is confidered that a boat might be railed
or lowered fifty feet nearly with the fame eafe as> five,
it is evident that the interruptions which arife from
frequent locks would be avoided, and an immenfe lav¬
ing be made in the original expence of the canal, and
in the annual repairs.
“ It is alfo evident, that an apparatus, on the fame
principle, might be eafily applied for raifing coals or
metals from a great depth in mines, wherever a very
fmall ftream of water could be commanded, and where
the mine was level-free.”
It is almoft needlefs to fpend time in enumerating
the many advantages which neceffarily refult from ar¬
tificial navigations. Their utility is now io apparent,
that moft nations in Europe give the higheft encou¬
ragement to undertakrngs of this kind wherever they
are praaicable. The advantages of navigable canals
did not efcape the obfervation of the ancients. From
the moft early accounts of fociety we read of attempts
to cut through large ifthmufes, in order to make a
communication by water, either betwixt different na¬
tions, or diftant parts of the fame nation, where land-
carriage was long and expenfive. Herodotus relates,
that the Cnidians, a people of Caria in Afia Minor,
defigned to cut the ifthmus which joins that peninfula
to the continent 5 but were fuperftitious enough to give
up the undertaking, becaufe they w7ere mterdidled by
an oracle. Several kings of Egypt attempted to join
the Red fea to the Mediterranean by a canal. It
was begun by Necos the fon of Pfammeticus, and
completed by Ptolemy II. After his reign it was
‘negledled, till it w^as opened in 635 under the cali¬
phate of Omar, but was again allowed to fall into difre-
pair ; fo that it is now difficult to difeover any traces
of it. Both the Greeks and Romans intended to
make a canal acrofs the ifthmus of Corinth, which joins
the Morea and Achaia, in order to make a navigable
paffage by the Ionian fea into the Archipelago. De-
0 metritis,
CAN [ i
metrius, Julius Crefar, Caligula, and Nero, made feve-
ral unfuccefsful efforts to open this pafiage. But, as
the ancients were entirely ignorant of the ufe of water-
locks, their whole attention was employed in making
level cuts, which is probably the principal reafon why
they fo often failed in their attempts. Charlemagne
formed a defign of joining the Rhine and the Danube,
in order to make a communication between the ocean
and the Black fea, by a canal from the river Almutz
which difcharges itfelf into the Danube, to the Reditz,
which falls into the Main, and this lafl falls into the
Rhine near MayTence ; for this purpofe he employed a
prodigious number of workmen ; but he met with fo
many obflacles from different quarters, that he was ob¬
liged to give up the attempt.
The French at prefent have many fine canals : that
of Briare was begun under Henry IV. and finiflied un¬
der the diredlion of Cardinal Richelieu in the reign of
Louis XIII. This canal makes a communication be¬
twixt the Loire and the Seine by the river Loing. It
extends 11 French great leagues from Briare to Mon-
targis. It enters the Loire a little above Briare, and
terminates in the Loing at Cepoi. There are 42 locks
on this canal.
The canal of Orleans, for making another commu¬
nication betrveen the Seine and the Loire, was begun
in 1675, and finifhed by Philip of Orleans, regent of
France, during the minority of Louis XV. and is fur-
nifhed with 20 locks. It goes by the name of the ca¬
nal of Orleans ; but it begins at the village of Com-
bleux, which is a fhort French league from the town
of Orleans.
But the greatefl and mofl ufeful work of this kind
is the jundlion of the ocean with the Mediterranean by
the canal of Languedoc. It was propofed in the reigns
of Francis I. and Henry IV. and was undertaken and
finifhed under Louis XIV. It begins with a large re-
fervoir 4000 paces in circumference, and 24 feet deep,
which receives many fprings from the mountain Noire.
This canal is about 64 leagues in length, is fupplied
by a number of rivulets, and is furnifhed with 104
locks, of about eight feet rife each. In fome places it
paffes over bridges of vaft height j and in others it cuts
through folid rocks for 1000 paces. At one end it
joins the river Garonne near Thouloufe, and terminates
at the other in the lake Tau, which extends to the. port
of Cette. It was planned by Francis Riquet in the
1666, and finifhed before his death, wdrich happened
in the 1680.
In the Dutch, Auflrian, and French Netherlands,
there is a very great number of canals •, that from Bru¬
ges to Oftend carries veffels of 200 tons.
The Chinefe have alfo a great number of canals ;
that which runs from Canton to Pekin extends about
825 miles in length, and wras executed about 800 years
ago.
It would be an endlefs talk to defcribe the number-
lefs canals in Holland, Ruffia, Germany, &c. We {hall
therefore confine ourfelves to fome of the more import¬
ant in our own country.
As the promoting of commerce is the principal in¬
tention of making canals, it is natural to expeft that
their frequency in any nation fhould bear fome propor¬
tion to the trade carried on in it, providing the fitua-
tion of the country will admit of them. I he prefent
5 ] c A N
date of Fmgland and Scotland confirms this obferva- Canal
tion. Though the Romans made a canal between the
Nyne, a little below Peterborough, and the Witham,
three miles below Lincoln, which is now almofl entire¬
ly filled up, yet it is not long fince canals were revived
in England. They are now however become very nu¬
merous, particularly in the counties of York, Lincoln,
and Cheihire. Moft of the counties betwixt the mouth
of the Thames and the Briftol channel are connebled
together either by natural or artificial navigations ;
thofe upon the Thames and Ifis reaching within about
20 miles of thofe upon the Severn. The duke of
Bridgew’ater’s canal in Chefhire runs 27 miles on a
perfect level; but at Barton it is carried by a very
high aqueduft bridge over the Irwell, a navigable
river j fo that it is common for veffels to be palling at
the fame time both under and above the bridge. It is
likewife cut fome miles into the hills, where the duke’s
coal-mines are wrought.
A navigable canal betwixt the Forth and Clyde in
Scotland, and which divides the kingdom in two parts,
was firft thought of by Charles II. for tranfports and
fmall (hips of war j the expence of which wTas to have
been 500,000!. a fum far beyond the abilities of his
reign. It was again projected in the year 1722, and a
furvey made 5 but nothing more done till 1761, when
the then Lord Napier, at his own expence, caufed
a furvey, plan, and eftimate on a fmall fcale to be made.
In 1764, the truftees for fifheries, &c. in Scotland cau¬
fed make another furvey, plan, and eftimate of a canal five
feet deep, which was to cort 79,000!. In 1766, a
fubfeription was obtained by a number of the moft re-
fpe&able merchants in Glafgow, for making a canal
four feet deep and twenty four feet in breadth ; but
when the bill was nearly obtained in parliament, it was
given up on account of the fmallnefs of the fcale, and
a new fubfeription fet on foot for a canal feven feet
deep, eftimated at 150,000!. This obtained the
fanftion of parliament ; and the work was begun in
1768 by Mr Smeaton the engineer. The extreme
length of the canal from the Forth to the Clyde is 35
miles, beginning at the mouth of the Carron, and end¬
ing at Dalmuir Burnfoot on the Clyde, fix miles be¬
low Glafgow, rifing and falling 160 feet by means of
39 locks, 20 on the eaft fide of the fummit, and 19
on the w’eft, as the tide does not ebb fo low in Clyde as
in the Forth by nine feet. Veffels drawing eight feet
water, and not exceeding nineteen feet beam and feven-
ty-three feet in length, pafs with eafe, the canal having
afterwards been deepened to upwards of eight feet.
The wdrole enterprife difplays the art of man in a high
degree. The carrying the canal through mois, quick-
fand, gravel, and rocks, up precipices and over valleys,
was attended with inconceivable difficulties. 1 here
are eighteen draw-bridges and fifteen aqueduR bridges
of note, befides fmall ones and tunnels. In the firfl
three miles there are only fix locks *, but in the fourth
mile there are no lefs than ten locks, and a very fine
aquedudl bridge over the great road to the weft of
Falkirk. In the next fix miles there are only four
locks which cany you to the fummit. 1 he canal
then runs eighteen miles on a level, and terminates by
one branch about a mile from Glafgow. In thiscourfe,
for a confiderable way, the ground is banked about
tw'enty feet high, and the water is fixteen feet deep,
P 2 and
C AN [ 116 ]
and two miles of it is made through a deep roofs. At
Kirkintilloch, the canal is carried over the water of
Logie on an acjuedudt arch of ninety feet bioae. i his
arch wras thrown over in tnree Itretcnes, having only a
centre of thirty feet, which was ihifted on I'mall rollers
from one ftretch to another j a thing new, and never
attempted before with an arch of thislize; yet the join¬
ings are as fairly ecjual as any other part, and admired as
a very fine piece of mafonry. On each fide there is a very
confiderable banking over the valley. 1 his work was
carried on till it came within fix miles of its junftion with
the Clyde-, when the fubfcription and a fubfequent loan
being exhaufted, the work was ftopt in 1775. The
city of Glafgow, however by means of a collateral
branch, opened a communication with the forth, which
has produced a revenue of about 6000I. annually ,
and, in order to finilh the remaining fix milts, the go¬
vernment in 1784 gave ^o,oool. out of the forfeited
efiates, the dividends arifing from this fum to be ap¬
plied to making and repairing roads in the Highlands
of Scotland. The W’ork was accordingly relumed 5
and by contradt, under a high penalty, was to be en¬
tirely completed in November 1789. The aquedudl
bridge over the Kelvin, which is fuppofed the great-
eft of the kind in the world, confifts of four arches, and
carries the canal over a valley 65 foot high, and 420
in length, exhibiting a very Angular effort of human
ingenuity and labour. I o fupply the canal with w-a-
ter w-as of itfelf a very great work. There is one re-
fervoir of 50 acres 24 feet deep, and another of 70
acres 22 feet deep, into which many rivers and fprings
terminate, which it is thought will afford a lutficient
fupply of water at all times. This whole undertaking
when finilhed coft about 200,2001. It is the greateft
of the kind in Britain, and of great national utility ;
though it is to be regretted that it had not been exe¬
cuted on a ft ill larger fcale, the locks being too ftiort
for tranfporting large mails.
This canal was completed in July 1790. On the
28th of this month, a track barge belonging to the
company of proprietors lailed from the bafon, near the
city of Glafgow to Bowling bay, where the canal joins
the river Clyde. The committee of management, ac¬
companied by the magiftrates of Glafgow, were the
firft voyagers on the new canal. On the arrival of the
veffel at Bowling bay, after defending from the laft,
lock into the Clyde, the ceremony of the junction of
the Forth and Clyde was performed by the chairman of
the committee, who, with the affiftance of the chief
engineer, difcharged into the river Clyde, a hogihead
of w-ater taken up from the river Forth, as a fymbol
of joining the w-eftern and eaftern feas together.
About the year 1801, a canal was finilhed between
Loch Gilp to Loch Crinan in Argylefliire. I he diftance
is about nine miles. This canal, which is called the Cri¬
nan canal, is intended to accommodate the trade of the
Weftern lilands and filheries. The veffels employed in
this trade w ill, by means of this canal, avoid the circui¬
tous and dangerous navigation round the Mull of Cantire.
Another canal was begun laft year (1803), which
is intended to open a communication between the Wef¬
tern fea, and the Murray frith, by the lochs or arms of
the fea, which ftretch inland on the weft fide, and by
Loch Nefs on the eaft.
CAN
Canal, in Anatomy, a dudt or paffage through Cananor
which any of the juices flow-. _ Canary.
CANANOR, a large maritime towm of Afia, on
the coaft of Malabar, in a kingdom of the fame name,
with a very large and fale harbour. It formerly be¬
longed to the Portuguefe, and had a ftrong fort to
guard it; but in 1683, the Dutch, together w-ith the
natives, drove them away ; and after they became ma¬
ilers of the town, enlarged the fortifications. They
have but a very fmall trade ; but there is a towm at
the bottom of the bay independent of the Dutch,
whole prince can bring 20,000 men into the field.
The Dutch fort is large, and the governor’s lodgings
are at a good diftance from the gate ; lb that, when
there was a Ikirmiih between the fadlory and the na¬
tives, he knew nothing of it till it was over. E. Long.
78. 10. N. Lat. 12. o.
Cananor, a fmall kingdom of Afia, on the coaft of
Malabar, whole king can raife a confiderable army.
The natives are generally Mahometans ; and the coun¬
try produces pepper, cardamoms, ginger, mirobolans,
and tamarinds, in which they drive a confiderable
trade.
CANARA, a kingdom of iVfia, on the coaft of
Malabar. The inhabitants are Gentoos, or Pagans;
and there is a paged or temple, called Ramtrut, which
is vifited every year by a great number of pilgrims.
Here the cuftom of burning the wives wdth their huf-
bands had its beginning, and is pradtifed to this day.
The country is generally governed by a woman, who
keeps her court at a town called Bay dor, twm days
journey from the fea. She may marry whom ftie pleafes;
and is not obliged to burn with her hufhand, like her
female fubje&s. They are fo good obfervers of their
laws, that a robbery or murder is fcarce ever heard of
among them. T he Canarans have forts built of earth
along the coaft, which are garrifqned with 200 or 300
foldiers, to guard againft the robberies of their neigh¬
bours. The lower grounds yield every year two crops
of corn or rice ; and the higher produce pepper, betel-
nuts, fanders wmod, iron, and fteel. 1 he Portuguefe
clergy here live very loofely, and make no Icruple of
procuring women for ftrangers.
CANARIA, in Ancient Geography, one of the For¬
tunate lilands, a proof that thefe were what are now
called the Canaries. Canaria had its name from its a-
bounding with dogs of an enormous fize, two of which
were brought to Juba king of Mauritania. See the
following article.
Canaria, or the Grand Canary, an ifland in
the Atlantic ocean, about 180 miles from the coaft
of Africa. It is about 100 miles in circumference, and
33 in diameter. It is a fruitful ifland, and famous for
the wine that bears its name. It alio abounds with
apples, melons, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, figs,
olives, peaches, and plantains. Phe fii and palm,
trees are the moft common. I he tow-ns are, Canary
the capital, Gualdera, and Geiia.
CANARY, or Cividad de Palmas, is the capital
of the ifland of Canaria, with an indifferent caftle, and.
a bilhop’s fee. It has alfo a court of inqurfition, and
the fupreme council of the reft of the Canary-iflands
as alfo four convents, two for men and twm for wo-
The town is about three miles in compafs, and
contains
men.
CAN [ 11
Canary, contains I 2,030 inhabitants. The houfes are only one
 v 1 ftory high, and flat at the top ; but they are well built.
The cathedral is a handfome ftrud'ture. W. Long,
j c. 20. N. I.at. 28. 4.
Canary IJlands, are fituated in the Atlantic ocean,
over againft the empire of Morocco in Africa. They
were formerly called the Fortunate IJlands, on ac¬
count of the temperate healthy air, and excellent
fruits. The land is very fruitful, for both wheat and
barley produce 130 f°r orie* f he cattL thrive well,
and the woods are full of all forts of game. i he Ca¬
nary finging birds are well known all over Europe.
There are here fugar-canes in great abundance •, but
the Spaniards firft planted vines here, from whence we
have the wine called Canary or Sack.
Thefe iflands were not entirely unknown .to the an¬
cients ; but they were a long while forgot, till John de
Betencourt difeovered them in 1402.. It is faid they
were firfl; inhabited by the Phoenicians, or Carthagi¬
nians, but on no certain foundation j nor could the in¬
habitants themfelves tell from whence they were deri¬
ved 5 on the contrary, they did not know there was
any other country in the world. Their, language,
manners, and culfoms, had, no refemblance to thoie ol
their neighbours. However, they were like the people
on the coaft of Barbary in complexion. They had no
iron. After the difeovery, the Spaniards foon got pol-
feffion of them all, under whofe dominion they are to
this day, except Madeira, which belongs.to the y’01111-
guefe. The inhabitants are chiefly Spaniards 5 though
there are fome of the firit people remaining, whom
they call Guanches, who are fomewhat civilized by their
intercourfe with the Spaniards. They are a hardy, ac¬
tive, bold people, and live on the mountains. I heir
chief food is goat’s milk. Their complexion is tawny,
and their nofes flat. The Spanilh veffels, when they
fail for the Weft Indies, always rendezvous at thele
iflands going and coming. Their number is 12. I.
Alegranza j 2. Canaria; 3. Ferro *, 4. Fuerteventura ;
r. Qomera; 6. Gratiofa ; 7. Lancerotta ; 8. Madeira ;
9. Palma; 10. Rocca ; 11. Salvages ; 12.. lenenff.
Weft longitude from 12 to 21. north latitude trom
27. 30. to 29. 30.
Can ary-Bird. See Fringilla. Thefe birds are
much admired for their finging, and take their name
from the place from whence they originally came, viz.
the Canary-iflands ; but of late years there is a iort ot
birds brought from Germany, and efpecially trom 1 irol,
and therefore called German birds, which are much
better than the others; though both are fuppmed to
have originally come from the fame place. * he cocks
never grow fat, and by fome country, people cannot be
diftinguifhed from common green-birds ; though the
Canary-birds are much luftier, have a longer tail, and
differ much in the heaving of the paffages of the throat
when they fing. Thefe birds being fo much efteemed
for their fong, are fometimes fold at a high price, ac¬
cording to the goodnefs and excellency of their notes ;
fo that it will always be advifable to hear one fmg. be¬
fore he is bought. In order to know whether he is in
good health, take him out of the ftore-cage, and put
him in a clean cage by himfelf; if he Hand up boldl> ,
without crouching or ftirinking in his feathers, look
with a brilk eye, and is not fubjeft to clap his head
under his wing, it is a fign that he is m good heal.h ,
7 ] 0 A N
but the greateft matter is to obferve his dunging : it he
bolts his tail like a nightingale after he has dunged, it
is a fign he is not in good health, or at leaft that he
will loon be fick ; but if his dung be very thin like
water, or of a flimy white without any blacknefs in
it, it is a fign of approaching death. When in per-
febf health, his dung lies round and hard, with a fine
white on the outfide, dark within, and dries quickly ;
though a feed-bird ieldom dungs fo hard, unleis he is
very young.
Canary-birds are fubjefl to many difeafes, particu¬
larly impofthumes which affeifl the head, caule tnem
to fall fuddenly from the perch, and die in a fliort
time, if not fpeedily cured. 1 he moft approved me¬
dicine is an ointment made of frelh butter and capon s
greafe melted together. Writh this the top of the
bird’s head is tokbe anointed for twro or three days,
and it will diffolve the impofthume : but if the medi¬
cine has been too long delayed, then, after three or four
times anointing, fee wfliether the place of his head be
foft; and if fo, open it gently, and let out the matter,
which wall be like the yolk of an egg ; when this is
done, anoint the place, and the bird will be cured. At
the fame time he muft have figs with his other food,
and in his water a ilice or two of liquorice, with white
fugar-candy.
Canary-birds are diftinguiflied by different names at
different times and ages: iuch as are about thiee years
old are called runts ; thofe above twro are named er/Jfs ,
thofe of the firft year under the care of the old ones,
are termed bi'anchers; thofe that are new-flown, ana
cannot feed themfelves, pujhers ; and thofe brought up
by hand, nejllings. ..
The Canaiy-birds may be bred with us; and, it
treated with proper care, they will become as vigorous
and healthful as in the country from whence they
have their name. The cages in which thefe birds'
are kept are to be made either of walnut-tree or
oak, wfith bars of wire ; becaufe thefe, being wroods Oi
ftrength, do not require to be ufed in. large pieces.
The common Ihape of cages, which is cylmdnc, is
very improper for thefe birds; for this allows httle
room to walk, and without that the birds uiually be¬
come melancholy.. The moft proper of all lhapes is
the high and long, but narrow'.
If thefe birds eat too much, they grow over-tat,
lofe their fhape, and their finging is fpoiled ; or at
leaft they become fo idle, that they will icarce evei
fing. In this cafe their vicluals are to be given.them in-
a- much fmaller quantity, and they will by this means
be recovered by degrees to all their beauty, and will
fing as at firft. n
At the time that they are about to bund their nelts,
there muft be put into their cages fome hay, dried
thoroughly in the fun: with this muft be mixed lome
mofs dried in the fame manner, and fome flag’s hair ;
and great care is to be taken of breeding the young,
in the article of food. As foon as the young birds
are eight days old, or fomewhat more, and are able to
eat and pick up food of themfelves, they are to be
taken out of the cage in which they were hatched, and
each put feparately into another cage, and hung up
in a room where it may never have an opportunity 01
hearing the voice of any other bird. Alter they have
been kept thus about eight days, they are to be .ex-
CAN f Ii3 { CAN
Canary, cited to ftng by a bird-pipe ; but tbis is not to be
Canca"(’ blowed too much, or in too {brill a manner, left they
iing themlelvesto death.
For the firft fifteen days the cages are to be covered
with a black cloth, and for the fifteen days following
with a gx-een one. Five leflbns in a day from the pipe
are fufficient for thefe young creatures ; and they muft
not be difturbed with feveral founds at the fame time,
left they confound and puzzle them : two leffons fhould
be given them early in the morning, one about the
middle of the day, and two or more at night.
The genius and temper of the feveral birds of this
kind are very different. The males are almoft always
melancholy, and will not ling unlefs they are excited
to it by hearing others continually finging about them.
The male bird of this kind will often kill the female
put to him for breeding ; and when there are feveral
females together with the males, they will often do
the fame to one another from jealoufy. It is therefore
not eafy to manage the article of their breeding well
in this particular, unlefs in this manner : let two female
birds be put into one cage, and when they have lived
together fome time, they will have contradled a fort of
love for one another, which will not eafily be diflblved.
Put a male bird into the cage with thefe two, and
every thing will go well ; their friendftiip will keep
them from quarrelling about his favours, and from dan¬
ger of his milchievous difpofition *, for if he attacks
one of them, in order to kill her, the other will imme¬
diately take her part and after a few of thefe battles,
the male will find that they are together an over¬
match for him at fighting, and will then diftribute his
favours to them, and there will not fail of being a
young breed or two, which are to be taken away from
their parents, and educated as before direifted. Some
males watch the time of the female’s laying, and de¬
vout the eggs as fall as (he depofites them ; and others
take the young ones in their beak as foon as hatched,
and crufit them to death againft the fides of the cage,
or fome other way deftroy them. When a male has
been known once to have been guilty of this, he is to
be ftiut up in a fmall cage, in the middle of the large
one in which the female is breeding her young, and
thus he will often comtort her with finging all day
long, while fire fits upon the eggs or takes care of the
young ones 5 and when the time of taking away, to
put them into feparate cages, is come, the male is to
be let out, and he will always after this live in friend-
fttip with the female.
If the male become fick during the time of the fe¬
male’s fitting or bringing up her young, he muft be
removed immediately, and only brought to the fide of
her cage at certain times, that fhe may fee him, till he
is perfectly cured ; and then he is to be (hut up again
in his cage in the middle.
Canary-birds are various in their notes ; fome having
a fweet fong, others a lowiih note, others a long fong,
which is beft, as having the greateft variety of notes ;
but they fing chiefly either the titlark or nightingale
notes. See Sons of Birds.
CANCALLE, a town of France, in Upper Brit¬
tany, by the fea-fide, where there is a road. Here the
Britifti landed in 175S, in their way to St Maloes,
■where they burnt a great number of (hips in the bar-
hour, and then retired without lofs. This town was in
2
their potvet; but they afted like generous enemies, and CanceKir
did no hurt to this nor any other on the coaft. \\ . •'
Long. o. 13. N. Lat. 4S.41. ,Can(3ahar‘
CANCELIER, in falconry, is when a light brown
hawk, in her {looping, turns two or three times upon
the wing, to recover herfelf before {he leizes.
CANCELLI, a term uled to damte lattice window's,
or thofe made of crols bars difpofed latticewife ; it is
alfo ufed for rails or ballufters inclofing the communion¬
table, a court of juftice, or the like, and for the network
in the infide of hollow bones.
CANCELLING, in the civil law, an a£! whereby
a perfon.confents that fome former deed be rendered
null and void. This is otherwile called refcifion. The
wmrd comes from the Latin cancel'are, to encompafs or
pale a thing round. lathe proper fenfe of the word,
to cancel, is to deface an obligation, by pafling the pen
from top to bottom, or acrofs it j which makes a kind
of chequer lattice, which the Latins call cancelli.
CANCER, in Zoology, a genus of infeifts belong¬
ing to the order of inlecfa aptera. This genus includes
the lobfter, the crab, the prawn, the ftirimp, and the
crawfifh. See Entomology Index.
Cancer, in Medicine, a roundifti, unequal, hard,
and livid tumour, generally feated in the glandulous
parts of the body, fuppofed to be fo called, becaufe
it appears at length with turgid veins {hooting out
from it, fo as to refemble, as it is thought, the figure
of a crab-fifli , or others fay, becaufe, like that fifti,
where it has once got, it is fcarce poflible to drive it
away. See Medicine Index.
Cancer, in Afronomy, one of the twelve figns, re-
prefented on the globe in the form of a crab, and thus
marked (03) in books. It is the fourth conftellation
in the ftarry zodiac, and that from which one qua¬
drant of the ecliptic takes its denomination. The rea-
fon generally afligned for its name as wjell as figure, is
a fuppofed refemblance which the fun’s motion in this
fign bears to the crab-fifti. As the latter walks back¬
wards, fo the former, in this part of his courfe, be¬
gins to go backwards, or recede from us : though the
difpofition of ftars in this fign is by others fuppofed to
have given the firft hint to the reprefentation of a
crab.
Tropic of Cancer, in Afronomy, a lefler circle of
the fphere parallel to the equator, and pafling through
the beginning of the fign Cancer.
CANCHERIZANTE, or Cancherizato, in the
Italian mufic, a term fignifying a piece of mufic that
begins at the end, being the retrograde motion from
the end of a fong, &c. to the beginning.
CANCROMA, or Boat-bill. See Ornithology
Index.
CANDAHAR, a province of Perfia, bounded on
the north by the province of Balk ; on the eaft, by
that of Cabul \ on the fouth, by Buchor and Sableftan j
and on the weft, by Sigeftan. There have been bloody
wars between the Indians and Perfians on account of
this province*, but in ibqo it fell to the Perfians. The
inhabitants are known by the name of Aghuans or
Afghans, who have often endeavoured to throw off the
yoke. But, in 1737, they were feverely punilhed for
fuch an attempt. See Persia.
Candahar, the capital of the above province, is
feated on a mountain j and being a place of great
trade,
CAN [ 119 ] CAN
Candaules trade, dias a confiderable fortrefs. The caravans that
II. travel from Perfia and the parts about the Cafpian fea
t Candia. tjie jncjjeSj choofe to pafs through Candahar,
v _ becaufe there is no danger of being robbed on this
road, and provifions are very reafonable. The religion
is Mahometanifm, but there are many Banians and
Guebres. E. Long. 67. 5. N. Lat. 33. o.
CANDAULES, the laft king of Lydia, of the
family of the Heraclides. See Lydia.
CANDELARES, (from candela, a candle), the
name of an order in the former editions of Linnaeus’s
Fragments of a natural method, confifting of thefe
three genera, rhi-zophora, nj[fa and mmufops. They
are removed, in the latter editions, into the order
Holoracea:.
C AND I A, the modern name of the ifland of Crete
(fee Crete). The word is a variation of Khunda,
which was originally the Arabian name of the metro¬
polis only, but in time came to be applied to the
whole ifland.
Candia came into the poffeflion of the Venetians
by purchafe in the year 1194, as related under the
article Crete j and foon began to flourilh under the
laws of that wife republic. The inhabitants, living
under the protedlion of a moderate government, and
being encouraged by their matters, engaged in com¬
merce and agriculture. The Venetian commandants
readily afforded to thofe travellers who vifited the
ifland, that affiftance which is necelfary to enable them
te extend and improve ufeful knowledge. Belon, the
naturalift, is lavifh in praife of their good offices, and
defcribes, in an interefting manner, the flouriffiing ftate
of that part of the ifland which he vifited.
The feat of government was eftabliffied at Candia.
The magiftrates and officers, who compofed the coun¬
cil, refitted there. The provifor-general was prefident.
He pofleffed the chief authority ■, and his power ex¬
tended over the whole principality. It continued in
the pofleffion of the Venetians for five centuries and
a half. Cornaro held the chief command at the time
when it was threatened with a ftorm, on the fide of
Conftantinople. 1 he Turks, for the fpace of a year,
had been employed in preparing a vaft armament. 1 hey
deceived the Venetian, by afluring him that it was in¬
tended againft Malta. In the year 1645, in the
rnidft of a folemn peace, they appeared unexpeftedly
before Crete with a fleet of 400 fail, having on board
60,coo land forces, under the command of four pa¬
chas. The emperor Ibrahim, under whom this ex¬
pedition was undertaken, had no fair pretext to offer
in juftification of his enterprize. He made ufe of all
that perfidy which charaflerifes the people of the eaft,
to impofe on the Venetian fenate. He loaded their
ambaffador with prefents, directed his fleet to bear for
Cape Matapan, as if they had been going beyond the
Archipelago ; and caufed the governors of Tina and
Cerigna to be folemnly affured, that the republic had
nothing to fear for her poffettions. At the very inttant
when he was making thofe affurances, ^iis naval ar¬
mament entered the gulf of Canea j and, patting be¬
tween that city and St Theodore, anchored at the
mouth of Platania.
The Venetians, not expe&ing this hidden attack,
had made no preparations to repel it. The Turks
landed without oppofition. The ifle of Sc Iheodore
is but a league and an half from Canea. It is only
three quarters of a league in compafs. The Venetians
had eredled two forts there ; one of -which, {landing
on the fummit of the higheft eminence, on the coart
of that little ifle, -was called Turluru •, the other, on a
lower fituation, was named St Theodore. It wras an
important objedl to the Muffulmans to make them-
felves matters of that rock, which might annoy their
ftiips. 'They immediately attacked it with ardour.
The firft of thofe fortreffes, being deftitute of foldiers
and cannon, was taken without linking a blowx The
garrifon of the other confifted of no more than 60
men. They made a gallant defence, and flood out till
the daft extremity 5 and when the Turks at lall pre¬
vailed, their number w-as diminifhed to ten, whom the
captain-pacha cruelly caufed to be beheaded.
Being now matters of that important poll, as well
as of Lazaret, an elevated rock, Handing about half
a league from Canea, the Turks invefted the city by
fea and land. General Cornaro was ftruck, as with a
thunder-clap, when he learned the defeent of the ene¬
my. In the whole ifland there were no more than,
a body of 3500 infantry, and a fmall number of ca¬
valry. The befieged city w’as defended only by 1000
regular troops, and a few' citizens, who w’ere able to
bear arms. He made hafte to give the republic notice
of his diftrefs; and potted himfelf off the road, that he
might the more readily fuccour the befieged city. He
threw a body of 250 men into the town, before the
lines of the enemy were completed. He afterwards
made feveral attempts to ftrengthen the befieged with
other reinforcements; but in vain. The Turks had
advanced in bodies clofe to the town, had carried a
half-moon battery, which covered the gate of Retirao j
and were battering the walls night and day with their
numerous artillery. The befieged defended themfelves
with refolute valour, and the fmalleft advantage which
the befiegers gained coft them dear. General Cor¬
naro made an attempt to arm the Greeks, particularly
the Spachiots, w ho boafted loudly of their valour. He
formed a battalion of thefe. But the fera of their va¬
lour was long patt. When they beheld the enemy,
and heard the thunder of the cannon, they took to
flight ; not one of them w'ould Hand fire.
When the fenate of Venice were deliberating on the
means to be ufed for relieving Canea, and endeavour¬
ing to equip a fleet, the Mahometan generals were
facrificing the lives of their foldiers to bring their en-
terprife to a glorious termination. In different en¬
gagements they had already loft 20,000 warriors) but,
defeending into the ditches, they had undermined the
w'alls, and blown up the moft impregnable forts with
explofions.of powder. The}' fprung one of thole mines
beneath the baftion of St Demetri. It overturned a
confiderable part of the wall, which crufhed all the
defenders of the baftion. That inftant the befiegers
fprung up with their fabres in their hands, and taking
advantage of the general confternation of the befieged
on that quarter, made themfelves matters of the port.
The befieged, recovering from their terror, attacked
them with unequalled intrepidity. About 400 men af-
failed 2000 Turks already firmly potted on the w'all,
and preffed upon them with fuch obftinate and daunt-
lefs valour, that they killed a great number, and drove
the reft down into the ditch. In this extremity, every
perfon
Candia.
Crandia.
CAN
[ I 20
The Greek monks
perfon in the city was in arms
took up muikets j and the women, forgetting the deli¬
cacy of their fex, appeared on the walls among the de¬
fenders, either fupplying the men with ammunition and
arms, or fighting themfelves \ and feveral of thofe dar¬
ing heroines loll their lives.
For 50 days the city held out againfl all the loices
of the Turks. If, even at the end of that time, the
Venetians had fent a naval armament to its relief, the
kingdom of Candia might have been faved. Doubtleis,
they were not ignorant of this well-known fadt. I he
north wind blows llraight into the harbour of Canea.
When it blows a little brifkly, the fea rages. It is
then impoffible for any fquadron of Ihips, hovvevei
numerous, to form in line of battle in the harbour, and
to meet an enemy. If the Venetians had let out fioin
;Cerigo with a fair wind, they might have reached
Canea in five hours, and might have entered the har-
hour with full fails, without being expofed to one
cannon-lhot •, while none of the Tuikilh {hips would
have dared to appear before them 5 or if they had ven¬
tured, mull have been driven back on the ihore, and
dalhed in pieces among the rocks. But, inftead of thus
taking advantage of the natural circumilances of tlw
place, they fent a few galleys, which, not daring to
double Cape Spada, coalted along the fouthern Ihore
of the ifland, and failed of accompliflung the defign of
their expedition. ‘ • r r
At laft, the Cancans, defpairing of relief from Ve¬
nice, feeing three breaches made in their walls, through
which the infidels might eafily advance upon them,
exhaufted with fatigue, and covered with wounds, and
reduced to the number of 500 men, who were obliged
to fcatter themfelves round the walls, which were half
a league in extent, and undermined in all quarters,
demanded a parley, and offered to capitulate. I hey
obtained very honourable conditions •, and after a glo¬
rious defence of two months, wrhich coll the Turks
20,000 men, marched out of the city ydth the ho¬
nours of war. Thofe citizens, who did not chufe to
continue in the city, were permitted to remove j and
the Ottomans, contrary to their ufual pradfice, faith¬
fully obferved their ftipulations.
The Venetians, after the lofs of Canea, retired to
Retimo. The captain-pacha laid fiege to the citadel
of the Sude, fituated in the entrance of the bay, on a
high rock, of about a quarter of a league in circum¬
ference. He raifed earthen-batteries, and made an in-
effe&ual attempt to level the ramparts. At laft, de¬
fpairing of taking it by affault, he left fome forces to
block it up from all communication, and advanced to-
wards Retimo. That city, being unwalled, was de¬
fended by a citadel, Handing on an eminence which
overlooks the harbour. General Cornaro had retired
thither. At the approach of the enemy, he advanced
from the city, and waited for them in the open field.
In the a£!ion, inattentive to his own fafety, he en¬
couraged the ibldiers, by fighting in the ranks. A
glorious death was the reward of his valour } but his
fall determined the fate of Retimo.
The Turks having landed additional forces on the
iiland, they introduced the plague, which was almoft
a conftant attendant on their armies. This dreadful
peft rapidly advanced, and, like a devouring fire, waft-
lug all before it, deftroyed moil part of the iuhabi-
2
] CAN
tants. The reft, flying in terror before its ravages,
efcaped into the Venetian territories, and the ifland v
was left almoft defolate. .
The fiege of the capital commenced in 1646, and
was protrafted much longer than that of iroy.
the year 1648, the Turks fcarce gained any advan¬
tages before that city. They were often routed by the
Venetians, and fometimes compelled to retire to Re¬
timo. At that period Ibrahim was folemnly depolcd,
and his eldeft fon, at the age of nine years, was raifed
to the throne, under the name of Mahomet I\'. Not.
fatisfied with confining the fultan to the horrors and
obfcurity of a dungeon, the partizans_ of his fon
ftrangled him on the 19th of Auguft, in the lame
year. That young prince, who mounted the throne
by the death of his father, was afterwards expelled,
from it, and condemned to pafs the remainder of his
life in confinement. _
In the year 16495 Fflein Pacha, who blockaded
Candia, receiving no fupplies from the Porte, was
compelled to raife the fiege, and retreat to Canea.
The Venetians were then on the fea with a ftrong fqua¬
dron. They attacked the Furkilh fleet in the bay ot
Smyrna, burnt 1 2 of their ftiips and two gallics, and
killed 6000 of their men. Some time after, the Ma¬
hometans having found means to land an army on Can¬
dia, renewed the fiege of the city, with gieater vi¬
and made themielves mafters of an advanced
Car.dia.
fort that was very troublefome to the befieged 5 which
obliged them to blow it up.
From the year 1650 till 1658, the \ enetians, con¬
tinuing mafters of the fea, intercepted the Ottomans
every vear in the ftraits of the Dardanelles, and fought
them m four naval engagements ; in which they de¬
feated their numerous fleets, funk a number of their
caravels, took others, and extended the terror of their
arms even to the walls of Conftantinople. T hat capi¬
tal became a fcene of tumult and diforder. T be Grand
Signior, alarmed, and trembling for his fafety, left,
the city with precipitation.
Such glorious fuccefs revived the hopes of the \ e-
netians, and depreffed the courage of the Turks. They
converted the fiege of Candia into a blockade, and
fuffered confiderable Ioffes. The fultan, in older to
exclude the Venetian fleet from the Dardanelles, and
to open to his own navy a free and fafe psffage, caufed
two fortreffes to be built at the entrance of the ftraits.
He gave orders to the pacha of Canea to appear again
before the walls of Candia, and to make every poffible
effort to gain the city. In the mean time, the repub¬
lic of Venice, to improve the advantages which they
had gained, made feveral attempts on Canea. In 1 660,
that city was about to furrender to their arms, when
the pacha of Rhodes, haftening to its relief, reinforced
the defenders with a body of 2000 men. He happily
doubled the extremity of Cape Melee, though within
fight of the Venetian fleet, which was becalmed oft
.Cape Spada, and could not advance one fathom to
oppofe an enemy confiderably weaker than them-
Kiopruli, fon and fucceffor to the vifir of that name,
who had long been the fupport of the Ottoman em¬
pire knowing that the murmurs of the people, againit
the 5long continuance of the fiege of Candia were
rifing to a height, and fearing a general revolt, which
C AN [ 12
dfmclia. would be fatal to himfelf and Ins mailer, fet out from
—v ' Byzantium about the end of the year 1666 at the
head of a formidable army. Having efcaped the Ve¬
netian fleet, which was lying off Canea with a view to
intercept him, he landed at Palio Cajlro, and formed
his lines around Candia. Under his command were
four pachas, and the flower of the Ottoman forces.
Thofe troops, being encouraged by the prefence and
the promifes of their chiefs, and fupported by a great
quantity of artillery, performed prodigies of valour.
All the exterior forts were deftroyed. Nothing now
remained to the befieged but the bare line of the walls,
unprotefled by fortrefles j and thefe being battered by
an inceffant difcharge of artillery, foon gave way on
all quarters. Still, however, what pofterity may per¬
haps regard as incredible, the Cancans held out three
years againfl: all the force of the Ottoman empire.
At laft they were going to capitulate, when the hope
of afliftance from France reanimated their valour, and
rendered them invincible. The expefted fuccours ar¬
rived on the a5th of [une 1669. They were conduct¬
ed by the duke of Noailles. Under his command
were a great number of French noblemen, who came
to make trial of their fkill in arms againfl; the
Turks.
Next day after their arrival, the ardour of the French
prompted them to make a general fally. The duke
of Beaufort, admiral of France, affumed the command
of the forlorn hope. He was the firlt to advance
againfl: the Muflulmans, and was followed by a nume¬
rous body of infantry and cavalry. They advanced
furioufly upon the enemy, attacked them within their
trenches, forced the trenches, and would have com¬
pelled them to abandon their lines and artillery, had
not an unforefeen accident damped their courage. In
the midft of the engagement a magazine of .powder
was fet on fire ; the foremoft of the combatants loft
their lives \ the French ranks were broken ; feveral of
their leaders, among whom was the duke of Beaufort,
difappeared for ever 5 the foldiers fled in diforder 5 and
the duke of Noailles, with difficulty, effedled a retreat
within the walls of Candia. The French accufed the
Italians of having betrayed them j and on that pretext
prepared to fet off fooner than the time agreed upon.
No entreaties of the commandant could prevail with
them to delay their departure ; fo they reimbarked.
Their departure determined the fate of the city. There
were now no more than five hundred men to defend
it. Morofini capitulated with Kiopruli, to whom he
furrendered the kingdom of Crete, excepting only the
Sude, Grabufa, and Spina-Longua. The grand-vifir
made his entrance into Candia on the 4th of October
7670, and -laid eight months in that city, infpefting
the reparation of its walls and fortrefles.
The three fortrefles left in the hands of the Vene¬
tians by the treaty of capitulation remained long after
in their pofleffion. At laft they were all taken, one
after another. In fhort, after a war of 30 years con¬
tinuance, in the courfe of which more than 200,000
men fell in the ifland, and it was deluged with ftreams
of Chriftian and Mahometan blood, Candia was en¬
tirely fubdued by the Turks, in whofe hands it ftill
continues.
Of the climate of Candia travellers fpeak with rap¬
ture. The heat is never exceflive 3 and in the plains
Vol. V. Part L
1 ] CAN
violent cold is never felt. In the warmeft days of Candia.
fummer the atmofphere is cooled by breezes from the““'v-™'
fea. Winter properly begins here with December and
ends with January 3 and during that flrort period fnow
never falls on the lower grounds, and the furface of
the water is rarely frozen over. Moft frequently the
weather is as fine then as it is in Britain at the begin¬
ning of June. Thefe two months have received the
name of winter, becaufe in them there is a copious fall
of rain, the Iky is obfcured with clouds, and the north
winds blow violently ; but the rains are favourable to
agriculture, the winds chafe the clouds towards the
fummits of the mountains, where a repofitory is form¬
ed for thofe waters which are to fertilize the fields 3
and the inhabitants of the plain fuffer no inconvenience
from thefe tranfient blafts. In the month of February,
the ground is overfpread with flowers and riling crops.
The reft of the year is almoft one continued fine day.
The inhabitants of Crete never experience any of thole
mortifying returns of piercing cold, which are fo fre¬
quently felt in Britain and even more fouthern coun¬
tries 5 and which, fucceeding fuddenly after the che-
rilhing heats of fpring, nip the bloflbming flowers, wi¬
ther the open buds, deftroy half the fruits of the year,
and are fatal to delicate conftitutions. The Iky is al¬
ways unclouded and ferene 3 the winds are mild and
refrefliing breezes. The radiant fun proceeds in fmil- ;
ing majefty along the azure vault, and ripens the fruits
on the lofty mountains, the riling hills, and the plains.
The nights are no lefs beautiful 3 their coolnefs is de¬
licious. The atmofphere not being overloaded with
vapours, the Iky unfolds to the obferver’s view a count-
lefs profufion of ftars 3 thofe numerous ftars fparkle
with the moft vivid rays, and ftrew the azure vault in
which they appear fixed, with gold, with diamonds,
and with rubies. Nothing can be more magnificent
than this fight, and the Cretans enjoy it for fix months
in the year.
To the charms of the climate other advantages are
joined which augment their value : There are fcarce
any morafles in the ifland 3 the waters here are never
in a ftate of flagnation 3 they flow in numberlefs
ftreams from the tops of the mountains, and form here
and there large fountains or fmall rivers that empty
themfelves into the fea 3 the elevated fituation cf their
fprings caufes them to dalh down with fuch rapidity,
that they never lofe themfelves in pools or lakes 3 con-
fequently infe£ls cannot depofit their eggs upon them,
as they would be immediately hurried down into the
fea 3 and Crete is not infefted like Egypt with thofe
clouds of infe&s which fwarm in the houfes, and whofe
fling is infufferably painful 3 nor is the atmofphere here
loaded with thofe noxious vapours which rife from
marfhy grounds.
The mountains and hills are overfpread with various
kinds of thyme, favoury, wild thyme, and with a mul¬
titude of odoriferous and balfamic plants 3 the rivulets
which flow down the vallies are overhung with myr¬
tles, laurel, and rofes 3 clumps of orange, citron, and
almond trees, are plentifully fcattered over the fields ;
the gardens are adorned with tufts of Arabian jafmine.
In fpring, they are beftrewed with beds of violets 3
fome extenfive plains are arrayed in faffron 3 the cavi¬
ties of the rocks are fringed with fweet fmelling ditta¬
ny. In a word, from the hills, the vales, and the
plains,
Canclia.
CAN [ 12
plains, on all hands, there arife clouds of exquifite per¬
fumes, which embalm the am, and render it a luxury
to breathe it.
As to tire inhabitants, the Mahometan men are ge¬
nerally from five feet and a half to fix feet tall. They
bear a flrong refemblance to ancient flatues} and it
muft have been after fuch models that the ancient ar-
tiifs wrought. The women alfo are generally beauti¬
ful. Their drefs does not reftrain the growth of any
part of their bodies, and their lhape therefore affumes
thofe admirable proportions with which the hand of
the Creator has graced his faireft workmanlhip on
earth. They are not all handfome or charming } but
fome of them are beautiful, particularly the luikiih
ladies. In general, the Cretan women have a riling
throat, a neck gracefully rounded, black eyes fparkling
with animation, a fmall mouth, a fine nofe, and cheeks
delicately coloured with the frefh vermilion of nealth.
.But the oval of their form is different from that of
Europeans, and the character of their beauty is pecu¬
liar to their own nation.
The quadrupeds belonging to the ifland are not of
a ferocious temper. There are no lions, tigers, bears,
wolves, foxes, or indeed any dangerous animal here.
Wild goats are the only inhabitants of the forefts that
overfpread the lofty mountains ; and thefe have no¬
thing to fear but the ball of the hunter ; hares inhabit
the hills and the plain 5 fiieep graze in fecurity on the
thyme and the heath ; they are folded every night, and
the fhepherd fieeps foundly without being dillurbed
with the fear that wild animals may invade and ravage
his folds.
The Cretans are very happy in not being expofed
to the troublefome bite of noxious infedls, the poifon
of ferpents, or the rapacity of the wild beafts of the
defert. The ancients believed that the iiland enjoyed
thefe fingular advantages, on account of its having
been the birth-place of Jupiter. “ The Cretans (fays
./Elian) celebrate in their fongs the beneficence of Ju¬
piter, and the favour which he conferred on their
ifland, which was the place of his birth and education,
by freeing it from every noxious animal, and even
rendering it unfit for nourifhing thofe noxious ani¬
mals that are introduced into it from foreign coun¬
tries.
Dittany holds the firfi: rank among the medicinal
plants which are produced in Crete. I he praifes be¬
llowed on the virtues of this plant by the ancients are
altogether extravagant ; yet wTe perhaps treat the me¬
dicinal virtues of this plant with too much contempt.
Its leaf is very baliamic, and its flower diffufes around
it a delicious odour. At prefent the inhabitants of
the ifland apply it with fuccefs on various occafions.
The leaf, when dried and taken in an infufion with a
little fugar, makes a very pleafant drink, of a finer fla¬
vour than tea. It is there an immediate cure for a
weak flomach, and enables it to recover its tone after
a bad digeftion.
Difeafes are very rare in a country whofe atrpo-
fpbere is exceedingly pure *, and in Candia, epidemical
dileafes are unknown. Fevers prevail here in fummer,
but are not dangerous •, and the plague would be whol¬
ly unknowm, had not the Turks deftroyed the lazarets
that were eftablifhed by the Venetians, for ftrangersto
do quarantine in. Since the period when thefe were
2 ] CAN
demolifhed, it is occafionally introduced by fhjps from Can^i:T‘ t
Smyrna and Conflantinople. As no precautions are ' ~ y
taken againft it, it gains ground, and fpreads over the
ifland from one province to another 5 and as the colds
and heats are never intemperate, it fometimes conti¬
nues its ravages for fix months at a time.
This fine country is infefled with a difeafe fome what
lefs dangerous than the plague, but wdrofe fymptems
are fome what more hideous 5 that difeafe is the leprofy.
In ancient times, Syria wjas the focus in which it ra¬
ged with moft fury : and from Syria it was carried in¬
to feveral of the iflands of the Archipelago. It is in-
feffious, and is inftantaneoufly communicated by con-
tad!. The vidlitns who are attacked by it, are driven
from fociety, and confined to little ruinous houfes on
the high way. They are flridlly forbidden to leave
thefe miferable dwellings, or hold intercourfe with any
perfon. Thofe poor wretches have generally befide
their huts a fmall garden producing pulfe, and feeding
poultry ; and with that fupport, and what they obtain
from paffengers, they find means to drag out a painful
life in circumftances of fhocking bodily diftrefs. I heir
bloated fkin is covered with a fcaly cruft, fpeckled with
red and white fpots ; which afflidl them with intolera¬
ble itchings. A hoarfe and tremulous voice iffues
from the bottom of their breads. Their words are
fcarce articulated j becaufe their diftemper inwardly
preys upon the organs of fpeech. Thefe frightful
fpeftres gradually lole the ufe of their limbs. Fhey
continue to breathe till fuch time as the w’hole mais o..
their blood is corrupted, and their bodies entirely in a
ftate of putrefadfion : The rich are not attacked by
this diftemper : it confines itfelf to the poor, chiefly
to the Greeks. But thofe Greeks obferve ftriaiy then-
four lents and eat nothing during that time but ialt
fifh, botorgo failed and fmoked, pickled olives, and
cheefe. They drink plentifully of the hot and muddy
wines of the ifland. The natural tendency of luch a
regimen muft be, to fire the blood, to thicken the
fluid part of i,t, and thus at length to bring on a le¬
profy.
Candia is at prefent governed by three pachas, who
refide refpedlively at Candia, Canea, and Retimo.
The firft, who is always a pacha of three tails, may
be confidered as viceroy of the ifland. Tie enjoys
more extenfive pow-ers than the others. 1 o him the
infpedfion of the forts and arfenals is intrufted. He
nominates to fuch military employments as fall vacant,
as well as to the governments of the Sude, Grabufa,
Spina Longua, and Gira-petra. I he governors of
thefe forts are denominated beys. Each of them has a
conllable and three general officers under him : one of
whom is commander of the artillery another ot the
cavalry 5 and the third of the janiffaries.
The council of the pacha confifts of a kyaia, who is
the channel through which all orders are iffued, and
all favours beftowed 5 an aga of the janiffaries, colonel-
general of the troops, who has the chief care of the
regulation of the police ; two topigi bachi ; a defter-
dar, who is treafurer-general for the imperial reve¬
nues ; a keeper of the imperial treafury •, and the chief
officers of the army. This government is entirely mi¬
litary, and the powder of the pacha ferafquier is abfo-
lute. The juftice of his fentences is never called in
queftion ; they are inftantly carried into execution.
CAN
CAN [ 123 ]
The people of the law are the mufti, who is the re¬
ligious head, and the cadi. The firft interprets thofe
laws which regard the divifion of the patrimony among
the children of a fa'mily, fucceflions, and marriages,—
in a word, all that are contained in the Koran 5 and
he alfo decides on every thing that relates to the cere¬
monies of the Muffulman religion. The cadi cannot
pronounce fentence on affairs conneffed with thefe
laws, without firft taking the opinion of the mufti in
writing, which is named Faitfa. It is his bufinefs to
receive the declarations, complaints, and donations of
private perfons; and to decide on fuch differences as
arife among them. The pacha is obliged to confult
thofe judges when he puts a Turk legally to death 5
but the pacha, who is dignified with three tails, fets
himfelf above all laws, condemns to death, and fees his
festence executed, of his own proper authority. All
the mofques have their itam, a kind of curate, whofe
duty is to perform the fervice. There are fchoolma-
fters in the different quarters of the city. Thefe per¬
fons are much refpe&ed in Turkey, and are honoured
with the title of effendi.
The garrifon of Candia confifts of 46 companies,
compofing a military force of about ten thoufand men.
All thefe forces do not refide conftantly in the city,
but they may be muftered in a very ihort time. They
are all regularly paid every three months, excepting
the janiffaries, none of whom but the officers receive
pay. The different gradations of this military body do
not depend on the pacha. The council of each com¬
pany, confifting of veterans, and of officers in aclual
fervice, has the power of naming to them. A perfon
can occupy the fame poft for no longer than two
years •, but the poft offorbagi, or captain, which is
purchafed at Conftantinople, is held for life. I he
oujla, or cook, is alfo continued in his employment as
long as the company to which he belongs is fatisfied
with him. Each company has its almoner, denomi¬
nated imam.
The garrifons of Canea and Retimo, formed on a
fimilar plan, are much lefs numerous. The firft con-
lifts of about 3000 men, the other of 500 \ but as all
the male children of the Turks are enrolled among the
janiffaries as foon as born, the number of thefe troops
might be greatly augmented in time of war j bnt, to
fay the truth, they are far from formidable. Moft of
them have never feen fire, nor are they ever exercifed
in military evolutions.
The pachas of Canea and Retimo are no lefs abfo-
lute, within the bounds of their refpe&ive provinces,
than the pacha of Candia. They enjoy the fame pri¬
vileges with him, and their council confifts of the fame
officers. Thefe governors chief objett is to get rich
as fpeedily as poflible j and in order to accompliffi that
end, they pradtife all the arts and cruelties of oppref-
fion, to fqueeze money from the Greeks. In truth,
thofe poor wretches run to meet the chains with which
they are loaded. Envy, which always preys upon them,
continually prompts them to take up arms. If fome
one among them happen to enjoy a decent fortune,
the reft affiduoufly feek fome pretence for accufing him
before the pacha, who takes advantage of thefe diffen-
fions, to feize the property of both the parties. It is
by no means aftoniftiing, that under fo barbarous a go¬
vernment, the number of the Greeks is daily diminillied.
There are fcarcely
in the illand, 65,000 of whom pay
the carach.
The Turks have not poffeffed the
ifland for more than 120 years; yet,
as they are not expofed to the fame
oppreffion, they have multiplied in
it, and raifed themfelves upon the
ruin of the ancient inhabitants.
Their number amounts to
The Jews, of whom there are not
many in the ifland, amount only to
Total is
This fertile country is in want of nothing but in-
duftrious hufbandmen, fecure of enjoying the fruit of
their labours. It might maintain four times its prefent
number of inhabitants.
Antiquity has celebrated the iiland of Crete as
containing lOO populous cities 5 and the induftry of
geographers has preferved their names and fituations.
Many of thefe cities contained no fewer than 30,000
inhabitants ;—and by reckoning them, on an average,
at 6000 each, we {hall in all probability be rather
within than beyond the truth. This calculation gives
for too cities 600,000
By allowing the fame number as inhabi¬
tants of the towns, villages, and all the reft
of the ifiand, 600,000
the whole number of the inhabitants of
ancient Crete will amount to 1,200,000
This number cannot be exaggerated. When Can¬
dia was in the hands of the Venetians, it was reckon¬
ed to contain nine hundred fourfcore and fixteen vil¬
lages.
It appears, therefore, that when the ifiand of Crete
enjoyed the bleffing of liberty, it maintained to the
number of 849,800 more inhabitants than it does at
prefent. But fince thofe happier times, flic has been
deprived of her laws by the tyranny of the Romans;
has groaned under the deftnuflive fway of the monarchs
of the lower empire ; has been expofed for a period of
j 20 years to the ravages of the Arabians $ has next
paffed under the dominion of the Venetians ; and has
at laft been fubje£led to the defpotifm of the Furks,
who have produced a dreadful depopulation in all the
countries which have been fubdued by their arms.
The Turks allow the Greeks the free exercife of
their religion, but forbid them to repair their churches
or monafteries ; and accordingly they cannot obtain
permiffion to repair their places of worftiip, or religious
houfes, but by the powerful influence of gold, from
this article the pachas derive very confiderable iums.
They have 1 2 biffiops as formerly, the firft of whom
affumes the title of archbifhop of Gortynia. He re-
fides at Candia •, in which city the metropolitan church
of the ifland ftands. He is appointed by the patriarch
of Conftantinople j and has the right of nominating to
all the other bifhoprics of the ifiand ; the names of
which are, Gortynia, Cnoffou, Mirabella, Hycra, Gi-
ra-petra, Arcadia, Cherronefe, Lambis, Milopotamo,
Retimo, Canea, Cilamo. Fhefe bifhoprics are nearly
the fame as under the reign of the Greek emperors.
(^2 T he
150,000 Greeks Candi
200,000 Turks.
200.
350,200 fouls.
C A N [ 124
Catulia. The patriarch wears a triple tiara, writes his fignature
jn re^ ancl anfwers for all the debts of the clergy.
To enable him to fulfil his engagements, he lays im-
pofitions on the reft of the bifhops, and particularly on
the monafteries, from which he draws very handfome
contributions. He is confidered as the head of the
Greeks, whom he protects, as far as his flender credit
goes. The orders of government are directed to him
on important occafions ; and he is the only one of all
the Greeks in the ifland^ who enjoys the privilege of
entering the city on horfeback.
Candia, is the capital of the above ifland, fituhted
on its northern coaft, in E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 35.
30. It ftands on the fame fituation which was for¬
merly occupied by Heraclea, and is the feat of govern¬
ment under the Turks. Its walls, which are more than
a league in compafs, are in good repair, and defended
by deep ditches, but not prote6!ed by any exterior fort.
Towards the fea, it has no attacks to fear 5 becaufe
the ftiallownefs of the harbour renders it inacceflible to
fhips of war.
The Porte generally commits the government of
this ifland to a pacha of three tails. The principal of¬
ficers, and feveral bodies of the Ottoman foldiery, are
ftationed here. This city, when under the Venetians,
was opulent, commercial, and populous 5 but it has
now loft much of its former ftrength and grandeur.
The harbour, naturally a fine bafon, in wftiich fhips were
fecurely fheltered from every ftorm, is every day be¬
coming narrower and fhallower. At prefent it admits
only boats, and fmall fhips after they have difcharged
a part of their freight. Thofe veffels, which the Turks
freight at Candia, are obliged to go almoft empty to
the port of Standie, whither their cargoes ai'e con¬
veyed to them in barks. Such inconveniences are
highly unfavourable to commerce 5 and as government
never thinks of removing them, the trade of Candia is
therefore confiderably decayed.
Candia, which wras embelliflred by the Venetians
with regular ftreets, handfome houfes, a fine fquare,
and a magnificent ciftern, contains at prefent but a
fmall number of inhabitants, notwithftanding the vaft
extent of the area enclofed within its walls. Several
divifions of the city are void of inhabitants. That in
which the market-place ftands is the only one which
difcovers any ftir of bufinefs, or fhow of affluence. The
Mahometans have converted moft of the Chriftian tem¬
ples into mofques } yet they have left two churches to
the Greeks, one to the Armenians, and a fynagogue
to the Jews. The Capuchins poifefs a fmall convent,
with a chapel in which the vice-conful of France hears
mafs. At prefent he is the only Frenchman who at¬
tends it, as the French merchants have taken up their
refidence at Canea.
Weft of the city of Candia is an extenfive range of
hills, which are a continuation of Mount Ida, and of
which the extremity forms the promontory of Dion.
On the way to Dion, we find Palio Caftro, on the
fhore ■, a name which the modern Greeks give indiffe¬
rently to all remains of ancient cities. Its fituation
correfponds to that of the ancient Panormus, which
flood north-weft from Heraclea.
The river which runs wmft of Candia w’as anciently
. knowm by the name of Triton ", near the fource of
which Minerva fprung from the brain of Jove. Loaxus
] GAN
is a little farther diftant. About a league eaft of that
city, the river Ceratus flow's through a delightful vale.
According to Strabo, in one part of its courfe it runs
by Gnoffus. A little beyond that, is another
Candiac
i!
Candle.
river fuppofed to be Therenus, on the banks of wfliich,
fable relates that Jupiter confummated his marriage
with Juno. For the fpace of more than half a league
round the wTalls of Candia there is not a Angle tree to
be feen. The Turks cut them all dowm in the time of
the fiege, and laid wrafte the gardens and orchards.
Beyond that extent, the country is plentifully covered
with corn and fruit trees. The neighbouring hills
are overfpread wfith vineyards, which produce the
malmfey of Mount Ida,—worthy of preference at the
table of the moft exquifite connoiffeur in wines. That
fpecies of wine, though litde known, has a fine fla¬
vour, a very pleafant relifti, and is highly efteemed in
the ifland.
CANDIAC, John Lewis, a premature genius,
born at Candiac in the diocefe of Nifmes in France, in
1719. In the cradle he diftinguifhed his letters : at
1 3 months, he knew them perfectly : at three years of
age, he read Latin, either printed or in manufcript: at
four, he tranflated from that tongue : at fix, he read
Greek and Hebrew', was mafter of the principles of
arithmetic, hiftory, geography, heraldry, and the fci-
ence of medals j and had read the beft authors on al¬
moft every branch of literature. He died of a com¬
plication of diforders, at Paris, in 1726.
CANDIDATE, a perfon who afpires to feme pub¬
lic office.
In the Roman commomvealth, they were obliged to
wTear a white gown during the tw’o years of their foli-
citing a place. This garment, according to Plutarch,
they wrore without any other clothes, that the people
might not fufpe6! they concealed money for purchafing
votes, and alfo that they might more eafily fhow to
the people the fears of thofe wounds they had received
in fighting for the defence of the commonwealth. The
candidates ufually declared their pretenfions a year be¬
fore the time of eletftiou, which they fpent in making
intereft and gaining friends. Various arts of popula¬
rity were praftifed for this purpofe, and frequent cir¬
cuits made round the city, and vifits and compliments
to all forts of perfons, the procefs of which w’as called
ambitus. See Ambitus.
CANDIDATI milites, an order of foldiers, a-
mong the Romans, who ferved as the emperor’s body¬
guards to defend him in battle. They were the talleft
and ftrongeft of the whole troops, and moft proper to
infpire terror. They were called candidati, becaufe
clothed in white, either that they might be more con-
fpicuous, or becaufe they were confidered in the w7ay-
of preferment.
CAND1SH, a confiderable province of Afia, in the-
dominions of the Great Mogul, bounded by Chytor
and Malva on the north, Orixa on the eaft, Decan on
the fouth, and Guzerat on the w'eft. It is populous
and rich \ and abounds in cotton, rice, and indigo.
Brampore is the capital towm.
CANDLE, a fmall taper of tallow, wax, or fper-
maceti \ the wick of which is commonly of feveral
threads of cotton, fpun and twifted together.
A tallow-candle, to be good, muft be half ffieep’s
and half bullock’s- tallow j for hog’s tallow makes the
candls
GAN [ 125 ] CAN
Candle, candle gutter, and always gives an offeniive fmell, with
"v a thick black fmoke. The wick ought to be pure, fuf-
ficiently dry, and properly twifted j otherwife the candle
will emit an inconftant vibratory flame, which is both
prejudicial to the eyes and infufficient for the difl:in£l
illumination of objefts.
There are two forts of tallow-candles ; the one dip¬
ped, the other moulded : the former are the common
candles ; the others are the invention of the fieur le
Brege at Paris.
As to the method of making candles in general:
After the tallow has been weighed, and mixed in the
due proportions, it is cut into very fmall pieces, that
it may melt the fooner; for the tallow in lumps, as it
comes from the butchers, would be in danger of burn¬
ing or turning black, if it were left too long over the
fire. Being perfectly melted and fkimmed, they pour
a certain quantity of water into it, proportionable to
the quantity of tallow. This ferves to precipitate to
the bottom of the veffel the impurities of the tallow
which may have efcaped the Ikimmer. No water, how¬
ever, mult be thrown into the tallow defigned for the
three firft dips > becaufe the wick, being ftill quite dry,
would imbibe the water, wThich makes the candles
crackle in burning, and renders them of bad ufe. 1 he
talloxv, thus melted, is poured into a tub, through a
coarfe fieve of horfe-hair, to purify it ftill more, and
may be ufed after having flood three hours. It will
continue fit for ufe 24 hours in fummer and 15 in win¬
ter. The wicks are made of fpun cotton, which the
tallow-chandlers buy in fkains, and which they wind up
into bottoms or clues ; whence they are cut out, with
an inftrument contrived on purpofe, into pieces of the
length of the candle required } then put on the flicks or
broaches, or elfe placed in the moulds, as the candles
are intended to be either dipped or moulded.
Wax-candles are made of a cotton or flaxen wick,
flightly twifted, and covered with white or yellow
wax. Of thefe, there are feveral kinds : fome of a
conical figure, u'ed to illuminate churches, and in
proceflions, funeral ceremonies, &c. (fee Iaper);
others of a cylindrical form, ufed on ordinary occa-
fions. The firft are either made with a ladle or the
hand. 1. To make wax-candles with the ladle. The
wicks being prepared, a dozen of them are tied by
the neck, at equal diftances, round an iron circle, fuf-
pended over a large bafon of copper tinned, and full
of melted wax : a large ladle full of this wax is poured
gently on the tops of the wicks one after another,
and this operation continued till the candle arrive at
Its deftined bignefs ; with this precaution, that the
three firft ladles be poured on at the top of the wick,
the fourth at the height of the fifth at 4? ani? t:^e
fixth at -t, in order to give the candle its pyramidal
form. Then the candles are taken down, kept warm,
and rolled and fmoothed upon a walnut-tree table, with
a long fquare inftrument of box, fmooth at the bottom.
2. As to the manner of making wax-candles by the
hand, they begin to foften the wax, by working it fe¬
veral times in hot water, contained in a narrow but
deep caldron. A piece of the w^ax is then taken out,
and difpofed by little and little around the wick,
which is hung on a hook in the wall, by the extre¬
mity oppofite to the neck j fo that they begin jvith
the big end, diminifhing ftill as they defcend towards.
the neck. In other refpe£ts the method is nearly the Candle,
fame as in the former cafe. However, it muft be ob- ^ '
ferved, that, in the former cafe, water is always ufed to
moiften the feveral inftruments, to prevent the wax from
flicking } and in the latter, oil of olives, or lard, for
the hands, &c. The cylindrical wax-candles are either
made as the former, with a ladle, or drawn. Wax,
candles drawn, are fo called, becaufe abtually drawn
in the manner of wire, by means of two large rollers
of wood, turned by a handle, which, turning back
wards and forwards feveral times, pafs the wick
through melted wax contained in a brafs bafon, and at
the lame time through the holes of an inftrument like
that ufed for drawing wire fattened at one fide of the
bafon.
If any chandlers mix with their wares any thing de¬
ceitfully, &c. the candles (hall be forfeited, by flat. 23
Eliz. ; and a tax or duty is granted on candles, by 8
and 9 Anne, cap. 6. made for fale, of one penny a
pound, befides the duty upon tallow, by 8 Anne, cap.
9. And by 24 Geo. III. cap. 11. an additional duty-
of a halfpenny a pound : and by the fame an addition¬
al duty of a halfpenny a pound is laid upon all candles
imported (except thofe of wax and fpermaceti, for which *
fee IVjx Candles'), fubjeft alfo to the two additional
<; per cents, impofed by 19 and 22 Geo. III. befides
the duty of 2^d. formerly impofed by 2 W. feflf. 2.
cap. 4. 8 Anne, cap. 9. and 9 Anne, cap. 6. And
every maker of candles, other than wax candles, for
fale, flrall annually take out a licenfe at il. The
maker of candles fhall, in four vveeks within the bills,
and elfewhere in fix weeks, after entry, clear olf the
duties on pain of double duty : nor fell any after de¬
fault in payment on. pain of double value ; 8 Anne,,
cap. 9. The makers of candles are not to ufa melting
houfes, without making a true entry, on pain of 1 col.
and to give notice of making candies to the excile of¬
ficer for the duties 5 and of the number, &c. or fhall
forfeit 50I. flat. II. Geo. I. cap. 30. See alfo
23 Geo. II. cap. 21. and 26 Geo. II. cap. 32. No
maker of candles for fale (hall begin to make candles,,
without notice firft given to the officers, unlefs from
September 29th to March 25th yearly, between fevem
in the morning and five in the evening, and from-
March 25th to September 29th, between five in the
morning and feven in the evening, on pain of xol.
10 Anne, cap. 26. The penalty of obftruaing the
officer is 20I. and of removing candles before they
are furveyed 20I. 8 Anne, cap. 9. . The penalty of
privately making candles is the forfeiture of the fame
and utenfils, and icol. 5 Geo.- III. cap. 43* And
the penalty of mingling weighed with unweighed
candles, of removing them before they are weighed, or
of concealing them, is the forfeiture of 100k 11 Geo-
cap. 30. Candles,.for which the duty hath been paid,
may be exported, and the duty drawn back ; but
no draw-back {hall be allowed on the exportation of
any foreign candles imported. 8 Ann. cap. 9. 23.
Geo. II. cap. 21*
The Roman candles were at firft; little firings dipt
in pitch, or furrounded with wax •, though afterward^
they made them of the papyrus, covered liicewife v\itu
wax •, and fometimes alfo of rufhes, by ft ripping off
the outer rind, and only retaining the pith. Tor reli¬
gious offices, wax candles were uled ; for vulgar mep
CAN [
Candle, thofe of tallow. Lord Bacon propofes candles ol divers
compoiitions and ingredients, as alfo of different forts of
wicks \ with experiments of the degrees of duration,
and light of each. Good houfewives bury their candles
in flour or bran, which it is faid increafes their lafting
almoft half.
Experiments to determine the real and comparative value
of burning Candles of different forts and fixes.
Numb, of
candles
in one
pound.
Small wick.
Large wick
l8y
J9
l64
I 2
10}
7i
8
Mould-
candles
Si
4
Weight
of one
candle.
The time
one can¬
dle lafted
Oz. Dr.
Hr. Min.
5t
8
1
o
!3
12
o
40
40
27
36
9
20
3
The time
that one
pound
will laft.
Hr. Min.
26
34
2
24
24
12
Q
15
39
20
The expence
in 12 hours
when candles
are at 6d per
dozen, which
alfo Ihows the
proportion of
the expence
at any price
per dozen.
F arthings and
100th parts.
4.85
5-7°
6.54
6.96
7-5°
8.94
8.47
9*53
Mouid-candl.
at 7s. per doz.
7.87
9.28
N. B. The time that one candle lafted was taken
from an average of feveral trials in each fize.
It is obfervable, in optics, that the flame of twm
candles joined, gives a much ftronger light than both
of them feparate. The obfervation was fuggefted by
Dr Franklin. Probably the union of the two flames
produces a greater degree of heat, whereby the vapour
is attenuated, and the particles of which light confifts
are more copioufly emitted.
Mr Nicholfon has made fome interefting obferva-
tions on the light afforded by lamps and candles,
which we fhall lay before our readers in his own
pPhllofopl. words f. “ We are acquainted with no means, (fays
^W.vol.i-he), unlefs we may except eleftricity, of producing
light but by combuftion, and this is moft probably of
the fame nature. The rude method of illumination
conftfts in fucceflively burning certain mafies of fuel
in the folid ftate. Common fires anfwer this pur-
pofe in the apartments of houfes, and in fome light-
houfes : fmall pieces of refinous wrood, and the bi¬
tuminous coal called kannel-coal, are in fome coun¬
tries applied to the fame ufe ; but the moft general
and ufeful method is that in w'hich fat oil, of an animal
or vegetable kind, is burned by means of a wick.
Thefe inftruments of illumination are either lamps or
candles. In the lamp, the oil muft be one of thofe
W'hich retains its fluidity in the ordinary temperature
of the atmofphere. The candle is formed of an oil, or
other material, which is not fufible but at a tempera¬
ture confiderably elevated.
“The method of meafuringthe comparative intenfities
of light is one of the firft requifites in an inquiry con¬
cerning the art of illumination. Two methods of con-
126 ] CAN
fiderable accuracy are deferibed in the Traite d'Optique
of Bouguer, of which an abridged account is given by
Dr Prieftley in his Optics. The firft of thefe twro me¬
thods has been ufed by others ftnee that time, and pro¬
bably before, from its very obvious nature, but parti¬
cularly by Count Rumford, who has given a deferip-
tion and drawings of an inftrument called the photome¬
ter, in the Philofophical Tranfadtions for 1794* Thm
principle it is grounded upon is, that if two Lights
Ihine upon the fame furface at equal obliquities, and
an opake body be interpofed, the two ftiadows it will
produce muft differ in blacknefs or intenfity in the
fame degree. For the fhadow formed by intercepting
the greater light will be illuminated by the fmaller
light only, and reverfely the other fhadow will be il¬
luminated by the greater light. That is to fay, in
ftiort, the ftronger light will be attended with a deeper
ftiadow. But it is eafy, by removing the greater light
to a greater diftance, to render the illumination it pro¬
duces at the common furface equal to that afforded by
the lefs. Experiments of this kind may be convenient¬
ly made by faftening a (beet of vdiite paper againlt
the w'all of a room. The twTo lights or candles intend¬
ed to be compared, muft then be placed fo that the
ray of light from each ftiall fall with nearly the fame
angle of incidence upon the middle of the paper. By
fome experiments made in this way in the year 1785,
I was fatisfied that the degree of illumination could be
thus afeertained to the 80th or 90th part of the whole.
“ By experiments of this kind many ufeful particulars
may be (hewn. Thus, for example, the light of a
candle, which is fo exceedingly brilliant wrhen firft:
fnuffed, is very fpeedily diminifhed to one-half, and is
ufually not more than one-fifth or one-fixth before the
uneafinefs of the eye induces us to fnuft’ it. Whence
it follow’s, that if candles could be made fo as not to
require fnuffing, the average quantity of light afforded
by the fame quantity of combuftible matter wTould be
more than doubled. In the fame way, likev'ife, fince
the coft and duration of candles, and the confumption
of oil in lamps, are eafily afcertainable, it may be
ftiewn w'hether more or lefs of light is obtained at the
fame expence during a given time, by burning a num¬
ber of fmall candles inftead of one of greater thicknefs.
From a fewT experiments already made out of the nu¬
merous and ufeful feries that prefents itfelf, I have rea-
fon to think that there is very much wafte in this ex-
penfive article of accommodation.
“ In the lamp there are three articles w'hich demand
our attention, the oil, the wick, and the fupply of air.
It is required that the oil Ihould be readily inflam¬
mable, without containing any fetid fubftance which may
prove offenfive, or mucilage, or other matter, to ob-
ftruft the channels of the wick. I do not know of any
procefs for meliorating oils for this purpofe, excepting
that of waffling with water containing acid or alkali.
Either of thefe is faid to render the mucilage of animal
oils more foluble in the veater •, but acid is preferred,
becaufe it is lefs difpofed to combine with the oil itfelf.
The office of the wick appears to be chiefly, if not fine¬
ly, to convey the oil by capillary attraftion to the
place of combuftion. As the oil is confumed and flies
off, other oil fucceeds, and in this way a continued
current of oil and maintenance of the flame are effedt-
ed. But as the wicks of lamps are commonly formed
Candle.
CAN [ i
of combuftible matter, it appears to be of fome confe-
qaence what the nature and ftruclure of this material
may be. It is certain that the flame afforded - by
a wick of rufh differs very confiderably from that
afforded by cotton 5 though perhaps this difference
may, in a great meafure, depend on the relative di-
menfions of each. And if we may judge from the dif¬
ferent odour in blowing out a candle of each fort,
there is fome reafon to fufpefl that the decompofition
of the oil is not effedled precilely in the fame manner
in each. We have alfo fame obfeure accounts of pre¬
pared wicks for lamps, which are ftated to poffefs the
property of facilitating the combuftion of very impure
oils, fo that they fliall burn for many hours without
fmoke or fmell.
“ The accefs of air is of the lafl importance in every
procefs of combuftion. When a lamp is fitted up with
a very (lender wick, the flame is final], and of a bril¬
liant white colour : if the wick be larger, the com¬
buftion is lefs perfedf, and the flame is brown : a ftill
larger wick not only exhibits a brown flame, but the
lower internal part appears dark, and is occupied by a
portion of volatilized matter, wdiich does not become
ignited until it has afeended towards the point. When
the wick is either very large or very long, part of this
matter efcapes combuftion, and fhews itfelf in the form
•of coal or fmoke. The different intenfity of the igni¬
tion of flame, according to the greater or lefs fupply
of air, is remarkably feen by placing a lamp with a
fmall wick beneath a fhade of glafs not perfe&ly
clofed below, and more or lefs covered above. While
the current of air through the glafs fhade is perfe&ly
free, the flame is white; but in proportion as the
aperture above is diminifhed, the flame becomes brown,
long, wavering, and fmoky } it inftantly recovers its
original whitenefs when the opening is again enlarged.
The inconvenience of a thick wick has been long fince
obferved, and attempts made to remove it: in fome in-
ftances by fubftituting a number of fmall wicks inftead
of a larger 5 and in others, by making the wick flat
inftead of cylindrical. The moft fcientific improve¬
ment of this kind, though perhaps lefs Ample than the
ordinary purpofes of life demand, is the well-known
lamp of Argand. In this the wick forms a hollow
cylinder or tube, which Aides over another tube of
metal, fo as to afford an adjuftment with regard to its
length. When this wick is lighted, the flame itfelf
has the figure of a thin tube, to the inner as well as
the outer furface of which the air has accefs from be¬
low. And a cylindrical fhade of glafs ferves to keep
the flame fteady, and in a certain degree to accelerate
the current of air. In this very ingenious apparatus
many experiments may be made with the greateft faci¬
lity. The inconvenience of a long wick, which fup-
plies more oil than the volume of flame is capable
of burning, and which confequently emits fmoke, is
feen at once by railing the wick 5 and on the other
hand, the efleft of a fhort wick, which affords a di¬
minutive flame merely for want of a fufficient fupply
of combuftible matter, is oblervable by the contrary
procefs.
“ The moft obvious inconvenience of lamps in ge¬
neral, arifes from the fluidity of the combuftible ma¬
terial, which requires a veffel adapted to contain it,
and even in the beft conftrufted lamps is more or lefs
27 ] CAN
liable to be fpilled. When the wick of a lamp is Candle,
once adjufted as to its length, the flame continues -—Y—
nearly in the fame ftate for a very confiderable time.
“ It is almoft unneceffary to deferibe a thing fo uni-
verfallyvknown as a candle. This article is formed of
a confiftent oil, which envelopes a porous wuck of
fibrous vegetable matter. The cylindrical form and
dimenfions of the oil are given either by calling it in a
mould, or by repeatedly dipping the wick into the
fufed ingredient. Upon comparing a candle with a
lamp, twm very remarkable particulars are immediately
feen. In the firft place, the tallow itfelf, which re¬
mains in the refufed ftate, affords a cup or cavity to
hold that portion of melted tallow which is ready to
flow into the lighted part of the rvick. In the fecond
place, the combuftion, inftead of being confined, as in
the lamp, to a certain determinate portion of the
fibrous matter, is carried, by a flow fucceflion, through
the whole length. Hence arifes the greater neceflity
for frequent fnuffing the candle ; and hence alfo the
ftation of the freezing point of the fat oil becomes of
great confequence. For it has been ftrown that the
brilliancy of the flame depends very much on the dia¬
meter of the wick being as {mall as poflible ; and this
reqixifite will be moft attainable in candles formed of a
material that requires a higher degree of heat to fufe it.
The wuck of a tallow candle muff be made thicker in
proportion to the greater fufibility of the material,
which would otherwife melt the fides of the cup, and
run over in ftreams. The flame will therefore be yel-
lowq fmoky, and obfeure, excepting for a fhort time
immediately after fnuffing. Tallow melts at the C)2d
degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer ; fpermaceti at the
133d degree; the fatty matter formed of flefh after-
long immerfion in water melts at 127°; the pda of
the Chinefe, at 145®; bees-wax at 142°; and bleach¬
ed w'ax at 155°. Turn of thele materials are well
known in the fabrication of candles. Wax in particu¬
lar does not afford fo brilliant a flame as tallow : but,
on account of its fufibility, the wdek can be made
fmaller ; which not only affords the advantage of a
clear perfefl flame, but from its flexibility it is difpofed
to turn on one fide, and come in contaft with the ex¬
ternal air, which completely burns the extremity of
the wick to white afties, and thus performs the office
of fnuffing. We fee, therefore, that the important ob-
je£f to fociety of rendering tallow candles equal to thofe
of wax, does not at all depend on the combuftibility of
the refpeftive materials, but upon a mechanical advan¬
tage in the cup, wffiich is afforded by the inferior de¬
gree of fufibility in the wax ; and that, to obtain this
valuable objefft, one of the following effe&s muft be
produced : Either the tallow muft be burned in a
lamp, to avoid the gradual progreffion of the flame
along the wick ; or fome means muft be deviled to
enable the candle to fnuff itfelf, as the wax candle
does ; or, laftly, the tallow itfelf muft be rendered lefs
fufible by fome chemical procefs. I have no great rea¬
fon to boaft of fuccels in the endeavour to effe<ft thefe;
but my hope is, that the fadfs and obfervations here
prefented may confiderably abridge the labour of others
in the fame purfuit.
“ The makers of thermometers and other fmall arti¬
cles with the blow-pipe and lamp, give the preference
to tallow inftead of oil, becaule its combuftion is more
complete,
GAN [12
Candle, complete, and does not blacken tlie glafs. In tkis
—operation, tbe beat of the lamp melts tbe tallow which
is occafionally brought into its vicinity by the work-
mam But for the ufual purpofes of illumination, it
cannot be fuppofed that a perfon can attend to fupply
the combuftible matter. Confiderable difficulties arife
in the projeft for affording this gradual fupply as
it may be wanted. A cylindrical piece of tallow was
inferred into a metallic tube, the upper aperture of
which was partly clofed by a ring, and the central
part occupied by a metallic piece nearly refembling
that part of the common lamp which carries the wick.
In this apparatus the piece laft defcribed was intended
to anfwer the fame purpofe, and was provided with a
fhort wick. The cylinder of tallow was fupported
beneath in fuch a manner that the metallic tube and
other part of this lamp w7ere left to reft with thi_ir
whole weight upon the tallow at the_ ring or con-
tradftion of the upper aperture. In this fttuation the
lamp was lighted. It burned for fome time with a very
bright clear flame, which, when compared with that
of a candle, poffeffed the advantages of uniform inten-
fity, and was much fuperior to the ordinary flame of a
lamp in its colour, and the perfect abfence of fmell.
After fome minutes it began to decay, and very foon
afterwards wrent out. Upon examination it was found,
that the metallic piece which carried the wdek had
fufed a fufficient quantity of tallow7 for the fupply du¬
ring the combuftion j that part of this tallow had flow¬
ed beneath the ring, and to other remote parts of the
apparatus, beyond the influence of the flame } in con-
fequence of which, the tube, and the cylinder of tallow
were faftened together, and the expe£led progreffion
of fupply prevented. It feems probable, that in every
lamp for burning confiftent oils, the material ought to
be fo difpofed that it may defeend to the flame upon
the principle of the fountain refervoir. I fhall not
here ftate the obftacles which prefent themfelves in the
profpeft of this conftruftion, but ftiall difmifs the fub-
jeft by remarking, that a contrivance of this nature
would be of the greateft public utility.
“ The wick of a candle, being furrounded by the
flame, is nearly in the fituation of a body expofed to
deftruftive diftillation in a clofe veffel. After lofing
its volatile produfts, the carbonaceous refidue retains
its figure, until, by the defeent of the flame, the exter¬
nal air can have accefs to its upper extremity. But,
in this cafe, the requifite combuftion, which might
fnuff it, is not effefted. For the portion of oil emitted
by the long wick is not only too large to be perfeftly
burned, but alfo carries off much of the heat of the
flame while it affumes the elaftic ftate. By this dimi-
niihed combuftion and increafed efflux of half-decom-
pofed oil, a portion of coal or foot is depofited on the
upper part of the wick, which gradually accumulates,
and at length affumes the appearance of a fungus.
The candle does not then give more than one-tenth of
the light emitted in its beft ftate. Hence it is that a
candle of tallow cannot fpontaneoufly fnuff itfelf. It
was not probable that the addition of a fubftance con¬
taining vital air or oxygene would fupply that principle
at the precife period of time required •, but, as experi¬
ment is the teft of every probability of this nature, I
foaked a wick of cotton in a folution of nitre, then
•dried it, and made a candle. When this came to be
8 ] CAN
lighted, nothing remarkable happened for a fliort time$
at the expiration of which a decrepitation follow’ed at
the low'er extremity of the flame, which completely
divided the wick where the blackened part commences.
The whole of the matter in combuftion therefore fell
off, and the candle was of courfe inftantly extinguifti-
ed. Whether this would have happened in all pro¬
portions of the fait or conftruftions of the candle 1
did not try, becaufe the fmell of azote was fufticiently
ftrong and unpleafant to forbid the ufe of nitre in the
purfuit. From various confiderations I am difpofed to
think that the fpontaneous^fnuffing of candles made of
tallow, or other fufible materials, will fcarcely be
effefted but by the difeovery of fome material for the
wftek which ihall be voluminous enough to abforb the
tallow-, and at the fame time fufficiently flexible to
bend on one fide.
“ The moft promifing fpeculation refpefting this moft
ufeful article, feems to diretft itfelf to the cup which
contains the melted tallow. The imperfefUon of this
part has already been noticed, namely, that it breaks
down by fufion, and fuffers its fluid contents to efcape.
The Chinefe have a kind of candle about half an inch
in diameter, which, in the harbour of Canton, is call¬
ed /obchock ; but whether the name be Chinefe, or the
corruption of fome European word, I am ignorant.
The wick is of cotton, wrapped round a fmall flick or
match of the bamboo cane. The body of the candle
is white tallow *, but the external part to the thicknefs
of perhaps one-thirtieth of an inch, confifts of a w7axy
matter coloured red. This covering gives a confider¬
able degree of folidity to the candle, and prevents its
guttering, becaufe lefs fufible than the tallow7 itfelf.
I did not obferve that the flick in the middle was
either advantageous or the contrary ; and, as I now
write from the recollection of this objeft at fo remote
a period as 25 years ago, I can only conjeClure that it
might be of advantage in throwing up a lefs quantity
of oil into the flame than would have been conveyed
by a wick of cotton fufficiently flout to have occupied
its place unfupported in the axis of the candle.
“ Many years ago I made a candle in imitation of
the lobchock. The expedient to which I had recourfe
confifted in adapting the wick in the ufual pewter
mould: wax wras then poured in, and immediately
afterwards poured out : the film of w7ax w hich adhered
to the inner furface of the mould foon became cool;
and the candle was completed by filling the mould
with tallow. When it was drawn out, it was found
to be cracked longitudinally on its furface, which 1
attributed to the contraClion of the wrax, by cooling,
being greater than that of the tallow7. At prefent f
think it equally probable that the cracking might have
been occafioned by too hidden cooling of the wax be¬
fore the tallow was poured in ^ but other ^ avocations
prevented the experiments from being varied and re¬
peated. It is probable that the Chinefe external coat¬
ing may not be formed of pure hard bleached wax.
“ But the moft decifive remedy for the imperfedh'on
of this cheapeft, and in other refpedfs beft material for
candles, w7ould undoubtedly be to diminifh its fufibili-
ty. Various fubftances may be combined with tallow,
either in the direft or indirect method. In the latter
way, by the decompofition of foap, a number of ex¬
periments were made by Berthollet, of which an ac¬
count
Candle-
CAN [ i
Candle, count is inferted in the memoirs of the academy at
-"-y Paris for the year 1780, and copied into the 26th vo¬
lume of the Journal de Phyfique. None of thefe point
direftly to the prefent object ; befides which, it is pro¬
bable that the foap made ufe of by that eminent che-
mift was formed not of tallow, but oil. I am not
aware of any regular feries of experiments concerning
the mutual aftion of fat oils and other chemical agents,
more efpecially fuch as may be directed to this im¬
portant object of diminilhing its folubility ; for which
reafon I lhall mention a few experiments made with
this view.
“ 1. Tallow was melted in a fmall lilver veflel. Solid
tallow finks in the fluid, and diffblves without any re¬
markable appearance. 2. Gum fandarach in tears was
not diflblved, but emitted bubbles, fwelled up, became
brown, emitted fumes, and became crifp or friable.
No folution nor improvement of the tallow. 3. Shell-
lac fwelled up with bubbles, and was more perfe&ly
fufed than the gum fandarach in the former experi¬
ment. When the tallow w^as poured off, it was thought
to congeal rather more fpeedily. The lac did not ap¬
pear to be altered. 4. Benzoin bubbled wdthout much
fwelling, was fufed, and emitted fumes of an agreeable
fmell, though not refembling the flowers of benzoin.
A flight or partial folution feemed to take place. The
benzoin wras fofter and of a darker colour than before,
and the tallow lefs confiftent. 5. Common refin unites
very readily u’ith melted tallow, and forms a more
fufible compound than the tallow itfelf. 6. Camphor
melts eafily in tallow, without altering its appearance.
When the tallow is near boiling, camphoric fumes fly
off. The compound appeared more fufible than tal¬
low. 7. The acid or flowers of benzoin diffolves in
great quantities without any ebullition or commotion.
Much fmoke arifes from the compound, which does
not fmell like the acid pf benzoin. Tallow alone does
not fume at a low heat, though it emits a fmell fome-
thing like that of oil-olive. When the proportion of
the acid was confiderable, fmall needled cryftals ap¬
peared as the temperature diminifhed. The appear¬
ances of feparation are different according to the quan¬
tity of acid. The compound has the hardnefs and con-
fiftence of firm foap, and is partially tranfparent. 8.
Vitriolated tartar, nitre, wdiite fugar, cream of tartar,
cryftallized borax, and the fait fold in the markets un¬
der the name of fait of lemons, but wThich is fuppofed
to be the effential fait of forrel, or vegetable alkali
fuperfaturated with acid of fugar, were refpettively
tried without any obvious mutual adtion or change of
properties in the tallow. 9. Calcined magnefia render¬
ed tallow opake and turbid, but did not feem to diffolve.
Its effedf refembled that of lime.
“ It is propofed to try the oxigenated acetous acid,
or radical vinegar 3 the acid of ants, of lugar, of borax,
of galls, the tanning principle, the ferous and gelati¬
nous animal matter, the fecula of vegetables, vegetable
gluten, bird-lime, and other principles, either by direft
or indiredt application. The objedt, in a commercial
point of view, is entitled to an extenfive and afliduous
inveftigation. Chemifts in general fuppofe the hard¬
nefs or lefs fufibility of wax to arife from oxygen, and
to this objedl it may perhaps be advantageous to. diredt
a certain portion of the inquiry. T. he metallic falts
and calces are the combinations from which this prin-
Vol. V. Part I.
19 ] CAN
ciple is mofi commonly obtained 3 but the comblna- Candle,
tions of thefe with fat oils have hitherto afforded little —
promife of the improvement here fought. The fub-
jedt is however fo little known, that experiments of
the loofeft and moft conjedtural kind are by no means
to be defpifed.”
Lighting a Candle by a fmall[park of ele&ricity. This
method, which is an invention of Dr Ingenhoufz, is
recorded in the Phil. Tianf. vol. Ixviii. It is done by
a fmall phial, having eight or ten inches of metallic
coating, or even lefs, charged with eledtricity, which
may be done at any time of the night by a perfon
who has an eledtric machine in his room. “ When I
have occafion to light a candle,” fays he, “ I charge
a fmall coated phial, whofe knob is bent outwards, fo
as to hang a little over the body of the phial 3 then I
wrap fome loofe cotton over the extremity of a long
brafs pin or a wire, fo as to flick moderately faff to
its fubftance. I next roll this extremity of the pin
wrapped up with cotton in fome fine powder of refin,
(which I always keep in readinefs upon the table for
this purpofe, either in a wide-mouthed phial or in a
loofe paper) 3 this being done, I apply the extremity
9f the pin or wire to the external coating of the char¬
ged phial, and bring as quickly as poflible the other
extremity wrapped round wuth cotton to the knob :
the powder of refin takes fire, and communicates its
flame to the cotton, and both together burn long e-
nough to light a candle. As I do not want more than
half a minute to light my candle in this way, I find it
a readier method than kindling it by a flint and fteel
or calling a fervant. I have found, that powder of
white or yellow refin lights eafier than that of brown.
The farina lycopodii may be ufed for the fame purpofe :
but it is not fo good as the powrder of refin, becaufe it
does not take fire quite fo readily, requiring a ftronger
fpark not to mifs: befides, it is foon burnt away. By
dipping the cotton in oil of turpentine, the fame ef¬
fect may be as readily obtained, if you take ajar fome-
what greater in fize. This oil will inflame fo much the
readier if you ftrew a few fine particles of brafs upon it.
The pin duff is the beft for this purpofe 3 but as this
oil is fcaltered about by the explofion, and when kind¬
led fills the room wdth much more fmoke than the
powder of refin, I prefer the laft.”
Candle Bombs, a name given to fmall glafs bubbles,
having a neck about an inch long, with a very flender
bore, by means of which a fmall quantity of water is
introduced into them, and the orifice afterwards clofed
up. This ftalk being put through the wick of a burn¬
ing candle, the vicinity of the flame foon rarefies the
water into fleam, by the elafticity of which the glafs
is broken with a loud crack.
Candle is alfo a term of medicine, and is reckoned
among the inftruments of furgery. Thus the candela
fumalis, or the candela pro fuffitu odorata, is a mafs of
an oblong form, confiding of odoriferous powders,
mixed up wdth a third or more of the charcoal of wil¬
low or lime tree, and reduced to a proper confiftence
with a mucilage of gum tragacanth, labdanum, or tur¬
pentine. It is intended to excite a grateful fmell with¬
out any flame, to correct the air, to fortify the brain,
and to excite the fpirits.
Medicated Candle, the fame with Bougie.
Candle. Sale or auflion by inch of candle, is when
R »
dandle-
berry
CAN [13
a fmall piece of candle, being lighted, the byftanders
are allowed to bid for the merchandife that is Idling ;
but the moment the candle is out, the commodity is
adjudged to the laft bidder.
There is alfo an excommunication by inch of can¬
dle •, when the finner is allowed to come to repentance
while a candle continues burning ; but after it is con-
fumed, he remains excommunicated to all intents and
purpofes.
RuJh-CANDLES, ufed in different parts of England,
are made of the pith of a fort of rufhes, peeled or llrip-
ped of the fkin, except on one fide, and dipped in melt¬
ed greafe.
Candle-IVoocI, flips of pine about the thicknefs of a
finger, ufed in New' England and other colonies to
burn inftead of candles, giving a very good light. The
French inhabitants of Tortuga ufe flips of yellow fan-
tal-wood for the fame purpofe, and under the fame de¬
nomination, which yields a clear flame though of a
green colour.
CANDLEBERRY tree. See Myrica, Botany
Index.
CANDLEMAS, a feaft of the church held on the
fecond day of February, in honour of the purification
of the Virgin Mary. It is borrowed from the praffice
of the ancient Chriftians, who on that day ufed abun¬
dance of lights both in their churches and procefifions,
in memory, as is fuppofed, of our Saviour’s being on
that day declared by Simon “ to be a light to lighten
the Gentiles.” In imitation of this cuftom, the Roman-
catholics on this day confecrate all the tapers and
candles which they ufe in their churches during the
whole year. At Rome, the Pope performs that ce¬
remony himfelf 5 and diftributes wax-candles to the
cardinals and others, who carry them in procefiion
through the great hall of the Pope’s palace. This
ceremony was prohibited in England by an order of
council in 1548.
Candlemas, (2d Feb.) is made one of the four
terms of the year for paying and receiving rents or
borrowed money, &c.—In the courts of law’, Candle¬
mas term begins 1 (fth January, and ends 3d February.
CANDLESTICK, an inftrument to hold a candle,
made in different forms, and of all forts of matter.
The golden candleftick was one of the facred uten-
fils made by Mofes to be placed in the Jewiih taber¬
nacle. It was made of hammered gold, a talent in
weight. It confiifed of feven branches fupported by
a bafe or foot. Thefe branches wrere adorned at equal
diftances with fix flowers like lilies, and with as many
bowls and knobs placed alternately. Upon the flock
and fix branches of the candleflick were the golden
lamps, which w7ere immoveable, wherein were put oil
and cotton.
Thefe feven lamps w’ere lighted every evening, and
extinguifhed every morning. The lamps had their tongs
or fnuffers to draw.the cotton in or out, and difhes
underneath them to receive the fparks or droppings of
the oil. This candleflick w'as placed in the antichamber
of the fanftuary on the fouth fide, and ferved to illu¬
minate the altar of perfume and the tabernacle of the
rhew’-bread. When Solomon had built the temple of
the Lord, he placed in it ten golden candlefticks of the
fame form as that defcribed by Mofes, five on the north
and five on the fouth fide of the holy ; But after the
o ] CAN
Babylonifh captivity, the golden candleflick was again Candy,
placed in the temple, as it had been before in the v
tabernacle by Moies. This facred utenfil, upon the
deftrudfion of the temple by the Romans, wras lodged
in the temple of Peace built by Vefpafian 5 and the re-
prefentation of it is flill to be feen on the triumphal
arch at the foot of Mount Palatine, on which Vefpafian’s
triumph is delineated.
CANDY, a large kingdom of Afia, in the ifland
of Ceylon. It contains about a quarter of the illand \
and as it is encompafied with high mountains, and co¬
vered with thick forefts, through which the roads and
paths are narrow and difficult, the king has them
guarded to prevent his fubjedfs from going into other
countries. It is full of hills, from whence rivulets pro¬
ceed which are full of fiffi j but as they run among the
rocks, they are not fit for boats : however, the inha¬
bitants are very dexterous in turning them to water
their land, which is fruitful in rice, pulfe, and hemp.
Since the illand of Ceylon fell into the hands of the
Engliffi, we have obtained fuller information refpedting
it. Mr Percival, who has publiffied an account of this
ifland, mentions the jealoufy, both of the Dutch and
of the natives, as difficulties which could not have been
eafily furmounted by travellers while it remained fub-
je£ toPIolland *. “ The interior of the ifland (he fays), * Account
owing to the jealoufy of the Dutch, has been little zx-of Ceylon,
plored by Europeans j and any traveller who might P* 23I-
have obtained the permiffion of the Butch to vifit it,
could not have executed his purpofe from the jealoufy
of the natives. Since the Candians have been driven
by their invaders into the mountains of the interior, it
has been their policy carefully to prevent any Europe¬
an from feeing thofe objefts which might tempt the
ivarice of his countrymen, or from obferving the ap¬
proaches by which an army could penetrate their moun¬
tains. If an European by any accident was carried in¬
to their territories, they took every precaution to pre¬
vent him from efcaping : and the guards ftationed
everywhere at the approaches, joined to the wide and
pathlefs woods which divide the interior from the coaft,
rendered fuch an attempt almoft completely defperate.
When an ambaflador was lent from any European go¬
vernment to the king of Candy, he was watched with
all that ftriftnefs and jealoufy, which the iufpicious
temper of uncivilized nations didlates. In an em-
baffy which I attended to the court of that monarch,
I had an opportunity of obferving hew careful the na¬
tives were to prevent ftrangers from making any ob-
fervations. Mr Boyd, who about twenty years ago
went on a fimilar embafly, wTas watched with the fame
particular circumfpeftion ; and has therefore been able
to add little to our flock of knowledge concerning the
interior.
“ The dominions of the native prince are complete¬
ly cut off on all fides from thofe of the Europeans by
almoft impenetrable woods and mountains. The paffes
which lead through thefe to the coafts are extremely
fteep and difficult, and fcarcely known even by the
natives themfelves. As foon as we advance from ten
to twenty miles from the coafts, a country prefents it-
felf greatly differing from the fea coaft, both in foil,
climate, and appearance. After afeending the moun¬
tains and palling the w’ttods, we find curfelves in the
midft of a country not advanced many ftages beyond
CAN f i
Candy, the firfl ftate of improvement, and which we are afto-
nilhed to find in the neighbourhood of the highly cul¬
tivated fields which furround Columbo. As we advance
towards the centre of the illand, the country gradually
rifes, and the woods and mountains which feparate the
feveral parts of the country become more deep and im¬
pervious.
“ It is in the midft of thefe faftneffes that the native
prince dill preferves thofe remains of territory and
power which have been left him by fuccedive invaders.
His dominions are now much reduced in fize •, for be-
fides the whole of the fea coads which were of any va¬
lue, the Dutch, in their various attacks during the lad
century, have contrived to get into their power every
traft from which they could derive either emolument
or fecurity. Thofe provinces which dill remain to
him are Nourecalva and Hotcourly towards the north
and north-wed 5 while. Matuly, comprehending the
didrifts of Bintana, Velas, and Panoa, with a few o-
thers, occupies thofe parts more to the eadward. To
the fouth-ead lies Ouvab, a province of fome note, and
giving the king one of his titles. The wedern parts
are chiefly included in the provinces of Cotemal and
Hotteracorley. Thefe different provinces are fubdi-
vided into corles or didrifts, and entirely belong to
the native prince. It is needlefs to recount the names
of thofe divifions which dretch towards the fea coad,
and are now chiefly in our poffeflion.
“ In the highefl and mod centrical part of the native
king’s dominions lie the corles or counties of Oudanor
and Tatanour, in which are fituated the two principal
cities. Thefe counties take the pre-eminence of all the
red, and are both better cultivated, and more populous
than any of the other didnfts, and are didinguilhed by
the general name of Conde Udda 5 conde or cande in
the native language fignifying a mountain, and udda
the greated or highed.
“ This province of Conde Udda is even more inaccef-
fible than the others, and forms as it were a feparate
kingdom of itfelf. On every fide it is furrounded by
lofty mountains covered with wood, and the paths by
which it is entered feem little more than the tracks of
wild beads. Guards are dationed all around to pre¬
vent both entrance and efcape ; for defence they might
feem entirely fuperfluous, did we not recolleft that the
perfeverance of the Dutch overcame all thefe obdacles,
and forced a xvay into the very centre of this natural
fortification.”
Candy, a town of Afia, and capital of a kingdom
of the fame name, in the ifland of Ceylon. It has been
often burnt by the Portuguefe, when they w^ere mailers
of thefe coads. It is fituated in E. Long. 79. I 2. N.
Lat. 7. 35.
We have the following defer? ption of Candy by Mr
Percival, whom w^e have already quoted, and who at¬
tended an embaffy to the king.
“ In the didrift of Tatanour lies Candy the royal
refidence and the capital of the native prince’s domi¬
nions. It is fituated at the didance of 80 miles from
Columbo, and twice as far from Trincomalee, in the
rnidd of lofty and deep hills covered with thick jun¬
gle. The narrow and difficult paffes by wffiich it is
approached are interfefted with thick hedges of thorn ;
and hedges of the fame fort are drawn round the hills
ji 1 CAN
in the vicinity of Candy like lines of circumvallation. Canuy,
I hrough them the only paffage is by gates of the fame Candying^
thorny materials, fo contrived as to be drawn up and '
let down by ropes. When the Candians are obliged
to retreat within thefe barriers, they cut the ropes, and
then it is impoffible to force a paffage except by burn¬
ing down the gates, winch from their green date,
and the condant annoyance of the enemy flickered
behind them, would prove an enterprife of time and
difficulty, ffhefe hedge-rows form the chief fortifica¬
tions of Candy. 1 he Malivagonga alfo nearly fur-
rounds the hill# on which it flands: that river is here
broad, rocky, and rapid ; a very drift guard is kept
on it, and every one who paffes or repaffes is clofely
wTatched and examined.
“ The city itfelf is a poor miferable-looking place,
furrounded by a mud wall of no drength whatever.
It has been feveral times burnt by Europeans, and
was once deferted by the king, who retired to a more
inacceffible part of his dominions. It is upon occafion
of the embaffy of General Macdowal, that any infor¬
mation concerning the prefent date of Candy has been
obtained j and even then it could be little more than
gueffed at, as the ambaffador and his fuite were ad¬
mitted only by torch-light, and always retired before
break of day. From what could then be obferved,
the city confifls of a long draggling flreet built on
the declivity of a hill; the houfes mean and low, but
with their foundations railed in fuch a manner above
the level of the flreet that they appear quite lofty to
paffengers. The reafon of this extraordinary tade is
to enable the king to hold his affemblies of the people
and to have his elephant and buffalo fights in the
dreet, wflthout interfering with the houles. When
the king paffes along the dreet, none of the inha¬
bitants are allowed to appear before their houfes,
or the paths on a level with them, as that would
be attended with the heinous indecorum of pla¬
cing a fubjeft higher than the prince defeended of the
fun.
“ At the upper end of this flreet, dands the palace,
a poor manfion for the abode of a king. It is fur¬
rounded with high done walls, and confiffs o^ two
fquares, one within the other. In the inner of thefe
are the royal apartments, and it is there that the court
is held and audiences given. The exterior of the pa¬
lace and the red of the city could be but very par¬
tially obferved by thofe who attended General Mac¬
dowal, owing to the preffure of the crowd, and the
dazzling glare of the torches. By every account in¬
deed which I have heard, Candy contains nothing
worthy of notice, and from the want of either wealth
or indudry among the inhabitants, it is not indeed
to be expefted that any thing could be met with in
this draggling village to attraft the attention of the
traveller.”
Candy, or Sugar-Candy, a preparation of fugar made
by melting and cryflalhzing it fix or feven times over,
to render it hard or tranfparent. It is of three kinds,
white, yellow, and red. The white comes from the
loaf-fugar, the yellow from the caffonado, and the red
from the mufeavado.
CANDYING, the aft of preferving fimples in
fubdance, by boding them in fugar. The perfor-
R 2 mance
CAN [13
Cawe, mance of tliis originally belonged to the apothecaries,
Canea. js now become a part of the bufinefs of the con-
'~~"v feftioner.
CANE. See Arundo and Calamus, Botany
Index.
Cane, denotes alfo a walking flick. It is cuflomary
to adorn it with a head of gold, filver, agate, &c.
Some are without knots, and very fmooth and even ;
others are full of knots about two inches diftance from
one another. Thefe lafl have very little elafticity, and
will not bend fo well as the others.
Canes of Bengal are the moft beautiful which the
Europeans bring into Europe. Some of them are fo
fine, that people work them into bowls or veffels, which
being varnifhed over in the infide, with black or yel¬
low lacca, will hold liquors as well as glafs or China
ware does j and the Indians ufe them for that pur-
pofe.
Cane is alfo the name of a long meafure, which dif¬
fers according to the feveral countries where it is ufed.-,
At Naples the cane is.equal to 7 feet inches Eng-
lifh meafure : the cane of Thouloufe and the Upper
Languedoc, is equal to the varre of Arragon, and
contains five feet 8^ inches 5 at Montpellier, Provence,
Dauphiny, and the Lower Languedoc, to fix Englifh
feet inches.
CANEA, a confiderable town of the ifland of Can-
dia, where a bafhaw refides. It was built by the Ve¬
netians, and occupies part of the fite of the ancient
Cydonia. It is but about two miles in compafs •, en¬
circled on the land fide with a Angle wall, extremely
thick", and defended by a broad and deep ditch, cut
through a bed of rock, which extends all around the
wall. By cutting it {till deeper, they might caufe the
fea to flow round its ramparts ; on which they have
raifed high platforms, that their great guns might
command a wider extent of the adjacent plain. The
city has only one gate, the gate of Retimo, protected
by a half-moon battery, which is the only exterior fort.
The fide which faces the fea is the bell fortified. On
the left of the harbour are four batteries, riling one above
another, and planted with a number of large cannons
of call metal, marked with the arms of Venice. The
firft of thefe batteries Hands clofe on the brink of the
fea. The right fide of the harbour is defended only
by a lirong wall, extending along a chain of pointed
rocks which it is dangerous for drips to approach. At
the extremity of this wall, there is an old caftle, falling
into ruins. Beneath that callle, the Venetians had im-
menfe arfenals, vaulted with Hone. Each of thefe
vaults was of fufficient length, breadth, and height, to
ferve as a work-drop for building a drip of the line.
The ground is Hoping, and the outermoft part of thefe
capacious arfenals is on a level with the fea •, fo that it
was very eafy to launch the drips built there into the
water. The Turks are fuffering that magnificent work
to fall into ruins.
The city of Canea is laid out on a fine plan. The
ilreets are large and ftraight $ and the fquares adorned
with fountains. There are no remarkable buildings
in it. Mod of the houfes are flat-roofed, and have on¬
ly one dory. Thofe contiguous to the harbour are
adorned with galleries, from which you enjoy a de¬
lightful profpeft. From the windows you difcover
the large bay formed between Cape Spada and Cape
2 ] CAN
Melee, and all the drips that are entering in or paf- CaneLa
fing out. The harbour, at prefent, receives drips of
200 tons burden } and it might be enlarged fo as to —,
admit the larged frigates. Its mouth is expofed to the
violence of the north winds, which iometimes fwell the
billowrs above the ramparts. But, as it is narrow, and
the bottom is good, drips that are well moored run no
danger. At the time when Tournefort vifited Crete,
Canea did not contain more than five or fix thoufand
inhabitants. But, at prefent, when the gates of Gira-
Petra, Candia, and Retimo are choaked up, the mer¬
chants have retired to Canea ; and it is reckoned to
contain 16,000 fouls. The environs of the town are ad¬
mirable '■) being adorned with foreds of olive-trees mix¬
ed with fields, vineyards, gardens, and brooks border¬
ed with myrtle-trees and laurel-rofes. The chief re¬
venue of this town confids in oil-olive. E. Long. 24.
15. N. Lat. 35. 28.
CANELLA. See Botany Index.
CANELLE, or Cane Land, a large country in the
idand of Ceylon, called formerly the kingdom of Cote?.
It contains a great numbei of cantons, the principal of
which are occupied by the Dutch. The chief riches of
this country confid in cinnamon, of which there are
large foreds. There are five towns on the coad, feme
forts, and a great number of harbours. The red of
the country is inhabited by the natives; and there are
feveral rich mines, from whence they get rubies, fap-
phires, topazes, cats eyes, and feveral other precious
llones.
CANEPHORiE, in Grecian antiquity, virgins who
wdren they became marriageable, prefented certain baf-
kets full of little curiofities to Diana, in order to get
leave to depart out of her train, and change their date
of life.
CANEPHORIA, in Grecian antiquity, a ceremo¬
ny which made part of a fead, celebrated by the Athe¬
nian virgins on the eve of their marriage day. At
Athens the canephoria confided in this, that the maid,
conduced by her father and mother, went to the tem¬
ple of Minerva, carrying with her a bafliet full of pre-
fents to engage the goddefs to make the marriage-
date happy ; or, as the fcholiad of Theocritus has it,
the bafliet was intended as a kind of honourable
amends made to that goddefs, the prote&rix of virgi¬
nity, for abandoning her party ; or as a ceremony to
appeafe her wrath. Suidas calls it a fedival in honour
of Diana.
Canephoria is alfo the name of a feflival in ho¬
nour of Bacchus, celebrated particularly by the Athe¬
nians, on which the young maids carried golden baf-
kets full of fruit, which balkets were covered, to con¬
ceal the mydery from the uninitiated.
CANES, in Egypt and other eaflern countries, a
poor fort of buildings for the reception of drangers and
travellers. People are accommodated in thefe with a
room at a fmall price, but with no other neceflaries j
fo that, excepting the room, there are no greater ac¬
commodations in thefe houfes than in the deierts, only
that there is a market near.
Canes Venatici, in AJlronomy, the Greyhounds, two
new condellations, fird edabliflred by Hevelius, between
the tail of the Great Bear and Bootes’s arms, above
the Coma Berenices. The fird is called njlenon, be¬
ing that next the Bear’s tail j the other char a. They
0 comprehend
CAN [i
Caneto comprehend 23 ftars, of which Tycho only obfer-
II ved two. The longitudes and latitudes of each are
.Cangiagio. gJven by Hevelius. In the Britifh Catalogue they
are 25-
CANETO, a ftrong towm of Italy in the duchy
of Mantua, feated on the river Oglio, which was
taken by the Imperialifls in 1701, by the French in
1702, afterwards by the Imperialifts, and then oy
the French in 1705. E. Long. 10. 45. N. Lat. 40.
^ GANG A, in the Chinefe affairs, a wooden dog
borne on the neck, by way of punilhment for divers^
offences. The canga is compofed of two pieces of
wood notched, to receive the criminal’s neck 5 the load
lies on his {boulders, and is more or lefs heavy accoM-
ing to the quality of his oftence. Some cangas weigh
20olb } the generality from 50 to 60. The manda¬
rins condemn to the punifhment of the canga. . Sen¬
tence of death is fometimes changed for this kind of
punifhment.
CANGE, Charles du Fresne, Sieur du, one of
the moft learned writers of his time, was born at A-
miens in 1601, and ttudied at the Jefuits college in
that city. Afterwards he applied himfelf to the iludy
of the law at Orleans, and gained great reputation by
his works j among which are, 1. I he hiiloiy of the
empire of Conftantinople under the French emperors.
1. John Cinnamus’s fix books of the hiftory of the
affairs of John and Manuel Comnenus, in Greek and
Latin, with hillorical and philological notes. 3.G/0/-
farium cul Scriptores me due et infinite Latirntatis.
GANG I, Ceangi, or Cangani, anciently a people
of Britain, concerning whofe fituations antiquaries have
been much perplexed. They are all the fame people.
Camden difeovered fome traces of them in many dif¬
ferent and diftant places, as in Somerfetlhire, Wales,
Derbyfhire, and Che fibre ; and he might have found
as plain veftiges of them in Devonfhire, Eorietfinie,
Effex, Wiltffiire, &c. Mr Horfiey and. others, are no
lefs oerplexed and undetermined in their opinions on
this fubjeft. But Mr Baxter feems to have difeovered
the true caufe of all this perplexity, by obferving that
the Cangi or Ceangi were not a diftindt nation feated
in one particular place, but fuch of the youth of many
different nations as were employed in pafturage, in
feeding the flocks and herds of their refpeflive tribes.
Almoft all the ancient nations of Britain had their
ceangi, their paftoritia pubes, the keepers of their flocks
and herds, who ranged about the country in great num¬
bers, as they were invited by the feafon and plenty of
pafture for their cattle. This is the reafon that vefti¬
ges of their name are to be lound in fo many different
parts of Britain ; but chiefly in thofe parts which are
moft fit for pafturage. Thefe ceangi of the different
Britiflr nations, naturally brave, and rendered ftill more
hardy by their way of life, were conftantly armed for
the proteftion of their flocks from wild beafts; and
thefe arms they occafionally employed in the uefence
of their country and their liberty.
CANGIAGIO, or Cambiasi, Ludovico, one of
the moft eminent of the Genoefe painters, was born
in 1 V27. His works at Genoa are very numerous j
and he was employed by the king of Spain to adorn
part of the Efcurial. It is remarked of him, that he
was not only a moft expeditious and rapid painter.
33 1 c A N
but alfo that he worked equally well wfith both hands j Canicula
and by that unufual power he executed, more defigns,
and finifiled more grand works with his own pencils,
in a much fhorter time, than moft other artifts could
do wdth feveral afiiftants. He died in 1685.
In the royal colle&ion at Paris there is a Sleeping
Cupid, as large as life, and likewife Judith with her
attendant, which are painted by Cangiagio, and are an
honour to that matter. And in the Pembroke collec¬
tion at Wilton is a picture, reputed the work of Can¬
giagio, reprefenting Chrift bearing his crofs.
CANICULA, is a name proper to one of the ftars
of the conftellation canis major, called alfo Amply the
dogjiar'j by the Greeks Sinus, Canicula is
the tenth in order in the Britannic catalogue j in
Tycho’s and Ptolemy’s it is the fecond. . It is fituated
in the mouth of the conftellation } and is of the firtt
magnitude, being the largeft and brighteft of all the
ftars in the heavens. From the rifing of this liar net
cofmically, or with the fun, but heliacally, that is, its
emerfion from the fun’s rays, which now happens about
the 15th day of Auguft, the ancients reckoned their
dies canicularcs, or dog days. The .Egyptians and E-
thiopians began their year at the rifing of tne Canicula,
reckoning to its rife again the next year, ^wh.ich is
called the annus cananus, or canicular year. Phis year
confifted ordinarily of 365 days, and every fourth year
of 366, by which it was accommodated to the civil
year. The reafon of their choice of the Canicula be¬
fore the other ftars to compute their time by, was not
only the fuperior brightnefs or that ftar, but becauio
its heliacal rifing was in Egypt a time of Angular note,
as falling on the greateft augmentation of the Nile,
the reputed father of Egypt. Epheftion adds, that
from the afpeft and colour of Canicula, the Egyptians
drew prognoftics concerning the riie of the Nile } and^
according to Florus, predifted the future ftate of the
year; fo that the firft rifing of this ftar was annually
obferved with great attention.
CANICULUM, or Caniculus, in the Byzantine
antiquities, a golden ftandifti or ink veffel, decorated
with precious ftones, wherein was kept the facred en-
caujlum, or red ink, wherewith the emperors figned their
decrees, letters, &c. The word is by fome derived
from canis, or caniculus ; alluding to the figure of a dog
which it reprefented, or rather becaufe it was fupported
by the figures of dogs. The caniculum was under the
care of a particular officer of ftate.
CANINA, the north part of the ancient Epirus, a
province of Greece, which nowr belongs to the d urks,
and lies off the entrance of the gulf of Venice. The
principal town is of tne fame name, and is feated on the
fea coaft, at the foot of the mountains of Chimera.
E. Long. 19. 25. N. Lat. 40. 55. r r ■ e
CANINANA, in Zoology, the name of a ipecies ot
ferpent found in ikmerica, and eltecmed one of the left
poifonous kinds. It grows to about two feet long ; and
is green on the back, and yellow on the belly. It feed >
on eggs and fmall birds •, the natives cut. off the head
and tail, and eat the body as a delicate difti.
CANINE, whatever partakes of, or has any rela¬
tion to, the nature, of a dog. r
Canine Appetite, amounts to much the lame with
Bulimy.
Canine Madnefs. See Medicine Index.
Canine
Canine
II
Cannabis.
CAN [13
Canine. Teeth, are two (harp-edged teeth in each
jaw ; one on each fide, placed between the incifores and
molares.
CANINI, John Angelo and Marc Anthony,
brothers and Romans, celebrated for their love of an¬
tiquities. John excelled in defigns for engraving on
Rones, particularly heads •, Marc engraved them. They
were encouraged by Colbert to publifh a fucceflron
of heads of the heroes and great men of antiquity,
defigned from medals, antique Hones, and other an¬
cient remains j but John died at Rome foon after the
work was begun : Marc Anthony, however, procured
afliftance, finifhed and publiihed it in Italian in 1669.
The cuts of this edition were engraved by Canini, Pi¬
card, and Valet; and a curious explanation is given,
which difcovers the (kill of the Caninis in hiflory and
mythology. The French edition of Amfterdam, in
1731, is ipurious. 7
C ANIS. or dog. See Mammalia Index.
Can is Major, the Great Dog, in AJIronomy, a con-
ftellation of the fouthern hemifphere, below Orion’s
feet, though fomewhat to the vveflward of him 5
whofe flars Ptolemy makes 29 ; Tycho obferved on¬
ly 13 •, Hevelius 21 j in the Britannic catalogue they
are 31.
Canis Minor, the Little Dog, m AJIronomy, a conflel-
Jation of the northern hemifphere ; called alio by the
Greeks, Procyon, and by the Latins Antecanis and
Canicula. The ftars in the conflellation Canis Minor,
are in Ptolemy’s catalogue, 2 ; in Tycho’s, 5 ; in He-
velius’s, 13 ; and in the Britilh catalogue, 14.
CANISIUS, Henry, a native of Nimeguen, and
one of the mod learned men of his time, was profeffor
of canon law at Ingolftadt ; and wrote a great number
of books; the principal of which are, 1. Sumtna Juris
Canomci. 2. Antique Lecliones, a very valuable work.
Pie died in 1609.
CANIl Z, the baron of, a German poet and
ftateftnan, was of an ancient and illuftrious family in
Brandenburg, and born at Berlin in 1654. five months
after his father’s death. After his early Rudies, he
travelled to France, Italy, Holland, and England *, and
upon his return to his country, was charged with im¬
portant negotiations by Frederic II. Frederic III.
employed him alio. Canitz united the flatefman with
the poet; and was converfant in many languages, dead
as well as living. His German poems were publilhed
for the tenth time, 1750, in 8vo. He is faid to have
taken Horace for his model, and to have writen purely
and delicately. But he did not content himfelf with
barely cultivating the fine arts in himfelf; he gave
all the encouragement he could to them in others.
He died at Berlin, in 1699, privy counfellor of Rate,
aged 45.
CANKER, a difeafe incident to trees, proceeding
chiefly from^the nature of the foil. It makes the bark
rot and fall. If the canker be in a bough, cut it off;
in a large bough, at fome diRance from the Rem ; in a
fmall one, clofe to it: but for over hot flrong ground,
the ground is to be cooled about the roots with pond
mud and cow dung.
Canker, among farriers. See Farriery Index.
CANNA, Indian reed. See Botany Index.
CANNABIS, Hemp. See Botany Index.
From the leaves of hemp pounded and boiled in
* ] CAN
water, the natives of the EaR Indies prepare an intoxi¬
cating liquor of which they are very fond. The plant,
when frefh, has a rank narcotic fmell ; the water in
which the (talks are foaked, in order to feparate the
tough rind for mechanic ufes, is faid to be violently
poifonous, and to produce is effects almofl as foon as
drank. The feeds alfo have fome fmell of the herb,
and their tafle is undtuous and fweetdh : they are
recommended, boiled in milk, or triturated with wa¬
ter into an emulfion, againfl coughs, heat of urine, and
the like. They are alfo faid to be ufeful in inconti¬
nence of urine, and for reflraining venereal appetites ;
but experience does not warrant their having any vir¬
tues of that kind.
CANNvE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apulia
on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river Aufidus,
rendered famous by a terrible overthrow’ which the
Romans here received from the Carthaginians under
Hannibal. 1 he Roman ccnfuls ^Tlmilius Paulus and
rFerentius Varro, being authorized by the fenate to
quit the defenfive plan, and flake the fortunes of the
republic on the chance of a battle, marched from Canu-
fium, and encamped a few miles eafl, in two unequal
divifions, with the Aufidus between them. In this po-
(ition they meant to wait for an opportunity of enga¬
ging to advantage ; but Hannibal, whofe critical fitua-
tion in a defolated country, without refuge or allies,
could admit of no delay, found means to inflame the
vanity of Varro by fome trivial advantages in (kirmifhes
between the light horfe. The Roman, elated with this
fuccefs, determined to bring matters to a fpeedy con-
clufion ; but, finding the ground on the fouth fide too
confined for the operations of fo large an army, eroded
the river; and Varro, refling his right wing upon the
Aufidus, drew out his forces in the plain. Hannibal,
whofe head quarters were at Cannae, no fooner per-
ceived the enemy in motion, than he forded the wrater
below, and marflialled his troops in a line oppofite to
that of his adverfaries.
The Romans were vaflly fuperior in number to the
Carthaginians ; but the latter were fuperior in cavalry.
The army of the former, confiding of 87,000 men,
was drawn up in the ufual manner; the haftati in the
firfi line, the principes in the fecond, and the triarii in
the third. The cavalry were pofled on the wings.—
On the right, the Roman knights flanked the legio¬
naries ; on the left, the cavalry of the allies covered
their owur infantry. The two confuls commanded the
tw7o w ings, iEmilius the right, and Terentius the left:
and the two proconfuls, Servilius and Attilius, the main
body. On the other hand, Plannibal, whofe army
confided of 40,000 foot and 10,000 horfe, placed his
Gaulifh and Spaniflr cavalry in his left wing, to face
the Roman knights ; and the Numidian horfe in his
right, over againfl the cavalry of the allies of Rome.
As to his infantry, he divided the African battalions
into two bodies ; one of which he pofled near the Gaul¬
ifh and Spanifh horfe, the other near the Numidian.
Between thefe two bodies wTere placed on one fide the
Gaulifh, on the other the Spanifh infantry, drawn up
in fuch a manner as to form an obtufe angle projedling
a confiderable way beyond the twm wings. Behind
this line he drew up a fecond which had no projec¬
tion. Afdrubal commanded the left w ing ; Maherbal
the right; and Hannibal himfelf, with his brother
CAN [ 135 ] CAN
Cannae. Mago, the main body. He had alfo taken care to port
’“""'v ‘ himfelf in fuch a manner, that the wind Vulturnus,
which rifes at certain dated times, fhould blow direftly
in the faces of the Romans during the fight, and cover
them with duft. The onfet was begun by the light-
finned infantry ; the Romans difcharging their jave¬
lins, and the baleares their Hones, with pretty equal
fuccefs } neverthelefs, the confuliEmilius was wounded.
—Then the Roman cavalry in the right wing ad¬
vanced againft the Gaulifh and Spanilh in Hannibal’s
left. As they were ihut in by the river Aufidus on
one fide, and by their infantry on the other, they did
not fight, as ufual, by charging and wheeling oft', and
then returning to the charge ; but continued fighting
each man againft his adverfary, till one of them was
killed or retired. After they had made prodigious
efforts on both fides to overbear each other, they all
on a fudden difmounted, and fought on foot with
great fury. In this attack the Gauls and Spaniards
foon prevailed j put the Romans to the route 5 and, pur-
fuing them along the river, ftrewed the ground with
their dead bodies, Afdrubal giving no quarter. This
action wras fcarce over, when the infantry on both fides
advanced. The Romans firft fell *ipon the Spaniards
and Gauls, who, as already obferved, formed a kind of
triangle projecting beyond the two wings. I hefe
gave ground, and, purfuant to Hannibal’s directions,
funk into the void fpace in their rear j by which means
they infenfibly brought the Romans into the centre of
the African infantry, and then the fugitives rallying,
attacked them in front, while the Africans charged
them in both flanks. The Romans being, by this art¬
ful retreat drawn into the fnare and furrounded, no
longer kept their ranks, but formed feveral platoons
in order to face every w7ay. Himilius, who was on the
right wing, feeing the danger of the main body, at the
head of his legionaries aCted the part both of a foldier
and general, penetrating into the heart of the enemy’s
battalions, and cutting great numbers of them in pieces.
All the Roman cavalry that were left, attended the
brave conful on foot 5 and, encouraged by his example,
fought like men in defpair. But, in the mean time,
Afdrubal, at the head of a detachment of Gaulifh and
Spanilh infantry brought from the centre, attacked
Himilius’s legionaries with fuch fury, that they wrere
forced to give ground and fly : the conful being all
covered with wounds, was at laft killed by feme of the
enemv who did not know7 him. In the main body,
the Romans, though invefted on all fides, continued to
fell their lives dear j fighting in platoons, and making
a great flaughter of the enemy. But being at length
overpowered, and dilheartened by the death of the two
proconfuls, Servilius and Attilius, who headed them,
they difperfed and fled, fome to the right, and others to
the left, as they could find opportunity ; but the Nu-
midian horfe cut moft of them in pieces : the w7hole
plain w7as covered with heaps of dead bodies, infomuch
that Hannibal himfelf, thinking the butchery too ter¬
rible, ordered his men to put a flop to it.— There is
a great difagreement among authors as to the number
of Romans killed and taken at the battle of Cannae.
According to Livy, the republic loft 50,000 men, in¬
cluding the auxiliaries. According to Polybius, of
6000 Roman horfe, only JO efcaped to "Veuufia with
Terentius Varro} and 3c0 auxiliary herfe. As
to the infantry, that wwiter tells us, that 70,000 of the
Roman foot died on the field of battle fighting like
brave men j and that 13,000 were made prifoners. v.
According to Dionyfius of Halicarnaflus, of 6000
horfe, only 370 efcaped the general flaughter, and of
80,000 foot, 3000 only were left. The moft moderate
computation makes the number of Romans killed to
amount to 45,000. The Icene of aftion is marked
out to pofteritv, by the name of Pezzo di Sangue^
“ Field of Blood.”
Thefe plains have more than once, fince the Punic
war, afforded room for men to accompliftr their mutual
deftrudlion. Melo of Bari, after raifing the ftandard
of revolt againft the Greek emperors, and defeating
their generals in feveral engagements, was at laft rout¬
ed here in 1019, by the Catapan Bolanus. Out of
250 Norman adventurers, the flower of Melo’s army,
only ten efcaped the flaughter of the day. In 1201,
the archbifhop of Palermo and his rebellious aflbeiates,
who had taken advantage of the nonage of Frederick
of Swrabia, w7ere cut to pieces at Cannae by Walter de
Brienne, fent by the Pope to defend the young king’s
dominions.
The traces of the town of Cannae are very faint,
confiding of fragments of altars, cornices, gates, walls,,
vaults, and under-ground granaries. It was deftroyed
the year before the battle : but being rebuilt, became
an epifcopal fee in the infancy of Chriftianity. It was
again ruined in the fixth century, but feems to have
fubfifted in a humble ftate many ages later 5 for w7e
read of its contending with Barletta for the territory,
which till then had been enjoyed in common by them;
and in 1284, Charles I. ifliied an edict for divid¬
ing the lands, to prevent all future litigation. The
profperity of the towns along the coaft, which increaf-
ed in wealth and population by embarkations for the
crufades and by traffic, proved the annihilation of the
great inland cities; and Cannae was probably aban¬
doned entirely before the end of the thirteenth cen¬
tury.
CANNEQUINS, in commerce, white cotton cloths
brought from the Eaft Indies. They are a proper
commodity for trading on the coaft of Guinea, parti¬
cularly about the rivers Senegal and Gambia. Thefe
linens are folded fquare-wife, and are about eight ells
long.
CANNEL coal. See Mineralogy Index.
CANNES, a towm of France, in Provence, and in
the viguerie of Grafle, feated on the coaft of the Me¬
diterranean fea, with a harbour and a caftle. E. Long.
7. 7. N. Lat. 43. 34.
CANNIBAL, a modern term for an anthropo-
phagus or man-eater, more efpecially in the Weft In¬
dies. See Anthropophagi.
CANNON, a military engine for throwing balls,
&c. by the help of Gunpowder.
The invention of brais cannon is by Laney aferibed
to J. Owen : he fays, that they were firft known in
England in the year 1535 ; but yet acknowledges,
that, in 1346, there were four pieces of cannon in the
Engliflr a'rmy at the battle of Crefly, and that thele
were the firft that were known in France. And Me-
zeray relates, that King Edw7ard, by five or fix pieces
of cannon, ftruck terror into the French army, it be¬
ing the firft time they had feen any of thefe thunder-
Carmse
11
Cannon.
CAN
Cannon ing machines \ though others affirm tnat cannon were
r) I' known alfo in France at the fame time ; but that the
Cal™ ( French king, in his hurry to attack the Englifh, and
“ sr~“J in confidence of victory, left all his cannon behind him
as ufelefs encumbrances (See Artillery). The Ger¬
mans carry the invention farther back, and attribute
it to Albertus Magnus, a Dominican monk, about the
vear 1250. Voffius rejefls all thefe opinions, and finds
cannon in China almoft 1700 years ago. According
to him, they were mounted by the emperor Kitey in
the year of Chrift 85. For further particulars of their
hiftory, &c. fee Gun and Gunnery.
For the calling of cannon, fee Foundery. For
their different parts, proportions, management, ope¬
ration, and effefls, fee Gunnery.
Cannon, with letter founders and printers, the
name of the largeft fize of letters they ufe.
CANNONADE, the application of artillery to
the purpofes of war, or the direftion of its efforts
again!! fome diftant objeft intended to be feized or
deftroyed, as a {hip, battery, or fortrefs. See Gun¬
nery.
Since a large ffiip of war may be confidered as a
combination of floating batteries, it is evident that the
efforts of her artillery muff be greaUy fuperior to thofe
of a fortrefs on the Vea coaft ; that is to fay, in gene¬
ral ; becaufe, on fome particular occafions, her fitua-
tion may be extremely dangerous, and her cannonading
ineffe&ual. Her fuperiority confifts in feveral circum-
ftances, as the power of bringing her different batte-
rij^ to converge to one point j of drifting the line of
her attack fo as to do the greateft poffible execution
againft the enemy, or to lie where (he will be the leaf!
expofed to his (hot ; and chiefly becaufe, by employ¬
ing a much greater number of cannon againft; a fort
than it can poffibly return, the impreflion of her artil¬
lery againft ftone walls foon becomes decifive and irre-
liftible. Befides thefe advantages in the attack, Ihe is
alfo greatly fuperior in point of defence : becaule the
cannon (hot, palling with rapidity through her fides
feldom do any execution out of the line of their flight,
or occalion much milchief by their fplinters j whereas
they very foon lhatter and deftroy the faces of a para¬
pet, and produce incredible havock among the men by
the fragments of the ftones, &c. A flrip may alfo re¬
treat wdien Ihe finds it too dangerous to remain longer
expofed to the enemy’s fire, or when her own fire can¬
not produce the defired effedE Finally, The fluctuating
lituation of a Ihip, and of the element on which Ihe
refts, renders the effedts of bombs very uncertain, and
altogether deftroys the effedt of the ricochet, or rolling
and bounding Ihot, which is fo pernicious and de-
ftrudtive in a fortrefs or land engagement. The chief
inconveniency to wdiich a Ihip is expofed, on the con-
trarv, is, that the low-laid cannon in a fort near the
brink of the fea, may ftiike her repeatedly on or under
the furface of the wrater, fo as to fink her before her
cannonade can have any confiderable efficacy.
CANO, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland, with
a town of the fame name. It is bounded by Zaara on
the north, by the river Niger on the fouth,* the king¬
dom of Agades on the wTeft, and that of Calhna on the
call. Some of the inhabitants are herdfmen, and o-
thers till the ground and dwHl in villages. It produces
corn, rice, and cotton. Here are alfo many deferts,
GAN
and mountains covered with woods, in which are wild Canobia
citrons and lemon trees. The wTalls and houfes of ^Jjcn
the town are made of clay, and the principal inha-
bitauts are merchants. E. Long. 16. 18. N. Lat.
21. 5.
CANOBIxl, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mi¬
lan, feated on the weftern bank of Lago Maggiore,
or the Greater Lake. E. Long. 8. 47. N. Lat.
45. 55.
CANOE, a fort of Indian boat or veffel, formed of
the trunk of a tree hollowed, and fometimes of feveral
pieces of the bark put together.
Canoes are of various fizes, according to the ufes
for which they may be defigned, or the countries
wherein they are formed. The largeft are made of the
cotton tree ; fome of them will carry between 20 and
30 hoglheads of fugar or molaffes. Some are made to
carry fail: and for this purpofe are fteeped in water
till they become pliant ; after wdiich their fides are ex¬
tended, and ftrong beams placed between them, on
which a deck is afterwards laid that ferves to fupport
their fides. The other forts very rarely carry fail, un-
lels when going before the'wdnd : their fails are made
of a fort of ftiort filk grafs or ruflies. They are com¬
monly rowed with paddles, which are pieces of light
wrood fomewhat refembling a corn Ihovel; and, inftead
of rowing with it horizontally like an oar, they ma¬
nage it perpendicularly. The fmall canoes are very
narrow, having only room for one perfon in breadth,
and feven or eight length-wife. The rowers, who are
generally American favages, are very expert in mana¬
ging their paddles uniformly, and in balancing the ca¬
noes with their bodies y wdiich would be difficult for a
ftranger to do, howT wHl accuftomed foever to the con¬
ducing of European boats, becaufe the canoes are ex¬
tremely light, and liable to be overturned. The Ame¬
rican Indians, when they are under the neceffity of
landing to avoid a wTater fall, or of crofting the land,
from one river to another, carry their canoes on their
heads, till they arrive at a place where they can
launch them again. This is the general conftruCion
of canoes, and method of managing them : but fome
nations have veffels going under the name of ca¬
noes, which differ confiderably from the above y as
the inhabitants of Greenland, Hudfon’s bay, Otaheite,
&c.
CANON, a perfon who poffeffes a prebend, or re¬
venue allotted for the performance of divine fervice,
in a cathedral, or collegiate church.
Canons are of no great antiquity : Pafchier obferves,
that the name canon was not known before Charle¬
magne y at leaft the firft we hear of are in Gregory de
Tours, who mentions a college of canons inftituted by
Baldwin XVI. archbifliop of that city, in the time of
Clotharius I. The common opinion attributes the
inftitution of this order to Chrodegangus, biftiop of
Metz, about the middle of the eighth century. .
Originally canons were only priefts, or inferior ec-
clefiaftics, who lived in community y refiding by the
cathedral church, to affift the bilhop y depending en¬
tirely on his will ; fupported by the revenues of the
bilhopric ; and living in the fame houfe, as his dome-
ftics, or counfellors, &c. They even inherited his
moveables, till the year 817* when this was prohibited
by the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, and a new rule fub-
J ftituted
[ >36 1
CAN [ 137 ] CAN
•Canons, ftituted in the place of that which had been appointed
• > 1 1 by Chrodegangus, and which was obferved for the
moft part in the weft till the 12th century. By de¬
grees, thefe communities of priefts, fhaking off their
dependence, formed feparate bodies; whereof the bi-
fhops, however, were ftill heads. In the tenth cen¬
tury, there rvere communities or congregations of the
fame kind, eftablifhed even in cities where there were
no biftiops: thefe were called collegiates, as they ufed
the terms congregation and college indifferently : the
name chapter, now given to thefe bodies, being much
more modern. Under the fecond race of the French
kings, the canonical, or collegiate life, had fpread it-
felf all over the country ^ and each cathedral had its
chapter, diftinft from the reft of the clergy. . They
had the name canon from the Greek Kxvav, which fig-
nifies three different things j a rule, a penfion or fixed
revenue to live on, and a catalogue or matricula} all
which are applicable to them.
In time, the canons freed themfelves from their
rules, the obfervance relaxed, and, at length, they
ceafed to live in community : yet they ftill formed bo¬
dies •, pretending to other fun&ions befides the cele¬
bration of the common office in the church ; yet af¬
firming the rights of the reft of the clergy : making
themfelves as a neceffary council of the biftrop •, taking
upon them the adminiftration of a fee during a vacan¬
cy, and the ele&ion of a biftrop to fupply it. There
are even fome chapters exempt from the jurifdi&ian of
the bifliop, and owning no head but their dean. Af¬
ter the example of cathedral chapters, collegiate ones
alfo continued to form bodies, after they had abandon¬
ed living in community. »
Canons are of various kinds 5 as,
Cardinal Canons, which are thofe attached, and, as
the Latins call it, incardinati to a church, as a prieft
is to a pariftr.
Domicellary Canons, were young canons, who not
being in orders, had no right in any particular chap¬
ters.
RxpeBative Canons, were fiich as, without having
* any revenue or prebend, had the title and dignities of
canons, a voice in the chapter, and a place in the
choir ; till fuch time as a prebend (hould fall.
Foreign Canons, were fuch as did not officiate xn the
canonries to which they belonged. Fo thefe rveie op-
pofed manfionary canons, or canons refidentiary.
Lay or honorary Canons, are fuch among the laity
as have been admitted, out of honour and refpeift, in¬
to fome chapter of canons.
Regular Canons, are canons that ftill live in com¬
munity 5 and who, like religious, have, in procefs of
time, to the practice of their rules, added the folemn
profeffion of vows. They are called regulars, to di-
ilinguifh them from thofe fecular canons wffio abandon
living in community, and at the lame time the ob¬
fervance of the canons made as the rule of the clergy,
for the maintenance of the ancient dilcipline. . I he
canons fubfifted in their fimplicity till the eleventh,
fome fay the twelfth century, when fome of them, fe-
parating from the community, took with them the
name of canons, or acephalous priefts, becaufe they
declined to live in community with the biftiop ; and
thofe who were left thenceforth acquired the denomi¬
nation of canons regular, and adopted moft of the pro-
Yol. V. Part I.
feflions of the rule of St Auguftine. This order of re- Canons,
gular canons of St Auguftine was brought into Eng- y“—
land by Adelwald, confeffor to Henry I. who erefted
a priory at Noftel in Yorkfhire ; and obtained for
them the church of Carlifie as an epifcopal fee, with
the privilege of choofing their own biftiop. They were
Angularly proteiffed and encouraged by Henry I. who
gave them the priory of Dunftable in 1107, and by
Queen Maud, who, in the following year, gave them
the priory of the Holy Trinity in London. It appears,
that under the reign of Edward I. they had fifty-three
priories.
Tertiary Canons, thofe who had only the third part
of the revenues of the canonicate.
Canon, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, is a law or rule,
either of doftrine or difeipline, enaifted efpecially by a
council, and confirmed by the authority of the fove-
reign.
Canons are properly decifions of matters of religion j
or regulations of the policy and difeipline of a church,
made by councils, either general, national, or provin¬
cial. Such are the canons of the council of Nice, or
Trent, &c.
There have been various colle£Iions of the canons
of the eaftern councils ; but four principal ones, each
ampler than the preceding.* The firft, according to
Uftier, A. D. 380, containing only thofe of the firft:
ecumenical council, and the firft provincial ones: they
were but 164 in number. To thefe, Dionyfius ExL
guus, in the year 520, added the 50 canons of the
apoftles, and thofe of the other general councils. The
Greek canons in this fecond colleftion end with thofe
of the council of Chalcedon ; to which are fubjoined
thofe of the council of Sardica, and the African coun¬
cils. The fourth and laft collection comes down as
low as the fecond council of Nice 5 and it is on this
that Balfamon and Zonaras have commented.
Apojlolical Canons, are thofe which have been ufu-
ally aferibed to St Clement. Bellarmin, Baronius, &c.
will have them to be genuine canons of the apoftles :
Cotelerius obferves, that they cannot be aferibed to the
apoftles or Clement, becaufe they are not received with
other books of Scripture, are not quoted by the writ¬
ers of the firft ages, and contain many things not a-
greeable to the apoftolical times : Hincmar, De Mar-
ca, Beveridge, &c. take them to be framed by the
biftiops who were the apoftles difciples in the fecond
or third century 5 S. Bafnage is of opiniqn, that they
were coflefted by an anonymous writer in the fifth
century 5 but Daille, &c. maintain them to have been
forged by fome heretic in the fixth century 5 and S.
Bafnage conjeCIures, that fome of them are ancient,
and others not older than the feventh century. The
Greek church allows only 85 of them, and the Latins
only 50; though there are 84 in the edition given of
them in the Corpu-s Juris Canonici.
Canon is alfo ufed for the authorized catalogue of
the facred writings. See Bible.
The ancient canon, or catalogue of the books of the
Old Teftament, was made by the Jews, and is ordina¬
rily attributed to Ezra j who is faid to have diftri-
buted them into the law, the prophets, and the ha-
giographa, to which our Sayiour refers, Luke, chap,
xxiv. ver. 44. The fame divifion is alfo mentioned by
Jofephus, cont. Appion.
S This
CAM [ 138 ] CAN
This is the canon allowed to have been followed by
the piimitive church, till the council of Carthage •,
and, according to St Jerome, this confided of no more
than 22 books 5 anfwering to the number of the He¬
brew-alphabet •, though at prefent they are clalTed into
24 divifions, containing Genefis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers, Deuteronomy, Jofiiua, Judges, Samuel,
Kings, Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the twelve minor
prophets, the Pfalms, the Proverbs, Job, Canticles,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclefiaftes, Efiher, Daniel, Ez¬
ra, comprehending the book of Nehemiah and the
Chronicles. However, this order is not univerfally
obferved either among Jews or Chriftians: nsr were
all the books above enumerated admitted into the ca¬
non in Ezra’s time. It is moil; likely, fays Dr Pri-
deaux, that the two books of Chronicles, Ezra, Ne¬
hemiah, Efther, and Malachi, were added in the time
of Simon the Juft, when the canon was completed.
But that council enlarged the canon very confiderably,
taking into it the books which we call apocryphal:
which the council of Trent has further enforced, en¬
joining all thefe to be received as books of Holy Scrip¬
ture, upon pain of anathema, and being attainted of
herefy. The Romanifts, in defence of this canon, fay,
that it is the fame with that of the council of Hippo,
held in 393 ; and with that of the third council of
Carthage, in 397, at which were prefent 46 bifhops,
and, among the reft, St Auguftine 3 who declared that
they received it from their fathers.
Their canon of the New Teftament perfe&ly agrees
with ours. It gonfifts of books that are w-ell known ;
fome of which have been univerfally acknowledged j
fuch are the four Gofpels, the A£ts of the Apoftles,
thirteen Epiftles of St Paul, one Epiftle of St Peter,
and one Epiftle of St John ; and others, concerning
which doubts were entertained, but which w-ere after¬
wards received as genuine 3 fuch are the epiftle to the
Hebrews, that of James, the fecond of Peter, the fe-
cond and third of John, that of Jude, and the Reve¬
lation. Thefe books were written at different times 3
and they are authenticated, not by the decrees of coun¬
cils, or infallible authority, but by fuch kind of evi¬
dence as is thought fufficient in the cafe of any other
ancient writings. They were very extenfively diflfufed 3
they were read in every Chriftian fociety 3 they were
valued and preferved with care by the firft Chriftians,;
they were cited by Chriftian writers of the fecond,
third, and fourth century, as by Irenaeus, Clement the
Alexandrian, Tertullian, Origen, Eufebius, &c. and
their genuinenefs is proved by the teftimony of thofe
who were contemporary with the apoftles themfelves,
and by tradition. The four Gofpels, and moft of the
other books of the New Teftament, were colle&ed
either by one of the apoftles,.or fome of their difci-
ples and fucceffors, before the end of the firft century.
The catalogue of canonical books furniftied by the
more ancient Chriftian writers, as Origen about the
year 210, Eufebiws and Athanafius in 315, Epiphanius
in 370, Jerome in 382, Auftin in 394, and many o-
thers, agrees with that which is now received among
Chriftians. For the time of writing the feveral books
of the New Teftament, fee the titles of the books
themfelves 3 as the Gofpjsl of St Matthew, Mark,
&c.
Some of the fathers diftinguilh the infpired writings
into three claffes ; proto-canonical, deutero-canonical, Canon,
and apocryphal. '
Pafchal Canon, a table of the moveable feafts, fhow-
ing the day of Eafter, and the other feafts depending
on it, for a cycle of 19 years.
The pafchal canon is fuppofed to be the calculation
of Eufebius of Caefarea, and to have been done by or¬
der of the council of Nice.
Canon, in monaftic orders, a book w-herein the re¬
ligious of every convent have a fair tranfcript of the
rules of their order, frequently read among them as
their local ftatutes. This is alfo called rcgula, as con¬
taining the rule and inftitution of their order.
The canon differs from the miffale, martyrologium,
and necrologium.
Canon, again, is ufed for the catalogue of faints
acknowledged and canonized in the Roman church.
Canon is alfo ufed, by way of excellence, in the
Romiftr church, for the fecret words of the mafs, from
the preface to the Pater ; in the middle of which the
priett confecrates the hoft. The common opinion is,
that the canon of the mafs corpmences with Te iq/tur,
&c. The people are to be on their knees, hearing the
canon 3 and are to rehearfe it to Yhemfelvcs, fo as not
to be heard.
Canon, in the ancient mufic, is a rule or method of
determining the intervals of notes.
Ptolemy, rejedling the Ariftoxenian way of meafur-
ing the intervals in mufic, by the magnitude of a tone
(which was fuppofed to be formed by the difference
between a diapente and a diateffaron), thought that
mufical intervals fhould be diftinguifhed, according to
the ratios or proportions w-hich the founds terminating
thofe intervals bear to one another, when confidered
according to their degree of acutenefs or gravity 3
which, before Ariftoxenus, was the old Pythagorean
way. He therefore made the diapafon confift in a
double ratio; the diapente, in a fefquialterate 3 the
diateffaron, in a fefquitertian 3 and the tone itfelf, in
a fefquiodlave 3 and all the other intervals, according
to the proportion of the founds that terminate them ;
wherefore taking the canon (as it is called) for a de¬
terminate line of any length, he fhows how this ca¬
non is to be cut accordingly, fo that it may reprefent
the refpedlive intervals : and this method anfwers ex¬
actly to experiment, in the different lengths of mufical
chords. From this canon, Ptolemy and his followers
have been called Canonici; as thofe of Ariftoxenus
were called Mt/fici.
Canon, in modern mufic, is a kind of fugue, which
they call a perpetual fugue, becaufe the different parts
beginning one after another, repeat inceffantly the fame
air.
Formerly, fays Zarlino, they placed, at the head of
perpetual fugues, particular direftions which ftiowed
how this kind of fugues was to be fung ; and thefe di¬
rections being properly the rules by which perpetual
fugues w-ere compofed were called canom, rules or ca¬
nons. From this cuftom, others taking the title for the
thing fignified, by a metonymy, termed this kind of
compofition canon. Such canons as are compofed with
the greateft facility, and of confequence moft generally
ufed, begin the fugue either with the oCtave or the
unifon ; that is to fay, that every part repeats in the
fame tone the melody of the preceding. In order to
form
CAN [ i
form a canon of this kind, it is only neceffary for the
compofer to make an air according to his tafte ; to add
{core as many parts as he choofes, where the voices
in o&ave or uniform repeat the fame melody 5 then
forming a Angle air from all thefe parts fucceffively exe¬
cuted, to try whether this fucceffion may form an en¬
tire piece which will give pleafure, as well in the har¬
mony as the melody.
In order to execute fuch a cation, he who fings the
fir ft part begins alone, and continues till the air is fi-
nifhed •, then recommences immediately, without any
fufpenfe of found or interruption of time ; as foon as
he has ended the firft couplet, which ought to ferve
for the perpetual fubjeft upon which the whole canon
has been compofed, the fecond part begins and repeats
the fame couplet, whilft the firft who had begun pur-
fues the fecond 1 others in fucccfhon begin, and pio-
ceed the fame way, as foon as he who precedes has
reached the end of the firft couplet. Thus, by incef-
fantly recommencing, an univerfal clofe can never be
found, and the canon may be repeated as long as the
.fingers pleafe. . ...
A perpetual fugue may likewife confift of parts which
begin with the intervals of a fourth or fifth *, or, in
other words, every part may repeat the melody of
the firft, a fourth or a fifth higher or lower. _ It is
then neceflary that the whole canon fhould be invent¬
ed di prima inten%ione, as the Italians fay j and that
fharps or flats ftiould be added to the notes, whofe na¬
tural gradations do not anfwer exaftly, by a fourt or
fifth, to the melody of the preceding part, and pro¬
duce the fame intervals with itfelf. Here the compo¬
fer cannot pay the leaft regard to modulation ; his on¬
ly care is, that the melody may be the fame, which
renders the formation of a canon more difficult ; for at
every time when any part refumes the fugue, it takes
a new key ; it changes the tone almoft at every note,
and what is ftill worfe, no part is at the fame time
found in the fame tone with another •, hence it rs that
this kind oi canons, in other refpetts far from being
eafy to be perufed, never produces a pleafing ettett,
however good the harmony may be, and however pro¬
perly it may be fung.
There is a third kind of canon, but very jcarce, as
well becaufe it is extremely difficult, as becaufe it is for
the moft part incapable of giving pleafure, and can
boaft no other merit but the pains which have been
thrown awav in its compofition. This may be called
a double canon inverted, as well by the inverfions which
are praftifed in it with refpeft to the melody of the
parts as by thofe which are found among the parts
themfelves in finging. There is fuch an artifice m
this kind of canon, that, whether the parts be fung in
their natural order, or whether the paper in which
they are fet be turned the contrary way, to fing them
backward from the end to the beginning, in fuch a
manner that the bafs becomes the upper part, and the
reft undergo a fimilar change, ftill you have pretty har¬
mony, and ftill a regular canonft he reader may con-
fult Rouffeau’s Dictionary in this article, where he is
referred to Plate I), fig. H. for two examples of ca¬
nons of this fort extrafted from Bontempi, who hke-
Wife gives rules for their compofition. But he adds,
that the true principle from which this rule is deduced
will be found at the word Syjleme, in his account of
39 1 CAN
the fyftem of Tartini, to which we muft likewlfe once Canoi-t.
more refer the reader $ as a quotation of inch length V“
muft have protraCted our article to an enormous ex-
tent.
To form a canon in which the harmony may be a
little varied, it is neceflary that the parts fhould not
follow' each other in a fucceflion too rapid, and that
the one Ihould only begin a Confiderable time after the
other. When they follow one another fo immediately
as at the diftance of a femibreve or a minim, the dura¬
tion is not fufficient to admit a great number of chords,
and the canon muft of neceffity exhibit a difagreeable
monotony *, but it is a method of compofing, without
much difficulty, a canon in as many parts as the com¬
pofer choofes. For a canon of four bars only, will
confift of eight parts if they follow each other at the
diftance of half a bar ; and by each bar which is add¬
ed, two parts will conftantly be gained.
The emperor Charles VI. who was a great mufician,
and compofed extremely well, took much pleafure in
compofing and finging canons. Italy is ftill replete with
moft beautiful canons compofed for this prince, by the
beft mailers in that country. lo what has been faid
by Roufleau, wre need only fubjoin, that the Knglilh
catch and the Italian canon are much the fame as any
intelligent reader may perceive, from comparing the
ftru&ure and execution of the Engliffi catch with the
account of canons which has now been given.
Canon, in Geometry and Algebra, a general rule
for the folution of all cafes of a like nature with the
prefent inquiry. Thus every laid ftep of an equation,
is a canon j and, if turned into words, becomes a rule
to folve all queftions of the fame nature with that pro-
pofed.
Canon Law, a colleftion of ecclefiaftical laws,
ferving as the rule and meafure of church govern-*
ment. # -r j v n
The power of making law's tvas exerciied by the
church before the Roman empire became Chriftiaru
The canon law that obtained throughout the weft, till
the 12th century, was the colleftion of canons made
by Dionyfius Exiguus in <?zo, the capitularies of Char¬
lemagne, and the decrees of the popes from Sircius to
Anaftafius.
The canon law, even when papal authority was at
its height in England, wTas of no force when it was
found to contradift the prerogative of the king, the
laws, ftatutes and cuftoms of the realm, or the do&rine
of the eftabliftied church.
The ecclefiaftical jurifdi&ion of the fee of Rome m
England was founded on the canon law ; and this
cieated quarrels between kings and feveral archbiftiops
and prelates who adhered to the papal ufurpation.
Befides the foreign canons, there were feveral laws
and conftitutions made here for the government of the
church : but all thefe received their force from the
royal affent ; and if, at any time, the ecclefiaftical
courts did, by their fentence, endeavour to enforce
obedience to fitch canons, the courts at common law,
upon complaints made, would grant prohibition. . e
authority veiled in the church of England of making
canons, was afcertaiued by a ftatute of Henry .
commonly called the acl of the clergfs fubmijjton ; by
which they acknowledged, that the convocation had
always been aflembled by the king’s writ j io that
J S a though
CAN
[ Ho ]
CAN
Canonical
punifli-
ments.
Canonefs though the power of making canons refided in the cler¬
gy met in convocation, their force was derived from
the authority of the king’s aflenting to and confirming
them.
The old canons continued in full force till the reign
of James I. when the clergy being alTembled in convo¬
cation, the king gave them leave to treat and confult
upon canons } which they did, and prefented them to
the king, who gave them the royal affent : thefe were
a colledlion out of the feveral preceding canons and in-
junftions. Some of thefe canons are now obfolete. In
the reign of Charles I. feveral canons were palled by
the clergy in convocation.
CANONESS, in the Romilh church, a woman
who enjoys a prebend, affixed, by the foundation, to
maids, without their being obliged to renounce the
world or make any vows.
CANONICA, in philofophical hiftory, an appella¬
tion given by Epicurus to his doctrine of logic. It
was called canonic a, as confiding of a few canons or
rules for directing the underftanding in the purfuit and
knowledge of truth. Epicurus’s canonica is reprefent-
ed as a very flight and infufficient logic by feveral of
the ancients, who put a great value on his ethics and
phyfics. Laertius even affures us, that the Epicureans
rejedled logic as a fuperfiuous fcience ; and Plutarch
complains that Epicurus made an unfkilful and pre-
pofterous ufe of fyllogifms. But thefe cenfures feem
too fevere. Epicurus was not averfe to the ftudy of
logic, but even gave better rules in this art than thofe
philofophers who aimed at no glory but that of logics.
He only feems to have rejedled the dialeflics of the
Stoics, as full of vain fubtleties and deceits, and fitted
rather for parade and difputation than real ui'e. The
ftrefs of Epicurus’s canonica confifls in his dofhine of
the criteria of truth. All queftions in philofophy are
either concerning words or things: concerning things,
we feek their truth ; concerning wmrds, their fignifica-
tion : things are either natural or moral 5 and the for¬
mer are either perceived by fenfe or by the underftan-
ding. Hence, according to Epicurus arife three cri-
terions of truth, viz. fenfe, anticipation or prsenotion,
and paffion. The great canon or principle of Epicu¬
rus’s logic is, that the fenfes are never deceived \ and
therefore, that every fenfation or perception of an ap¬
pearance is true.
CANONICAL, fomething that belongs to, or par-*
takes of, the nature of a rule or canon.
Canonical Hours, are certain dated times of the
day, configned, more efpeciaily by the Romifh church,
to the offices of prayer and devotion. Such are matins,
lauds, Jixth, ninth vefpers. In our country the cano¬
nical hours are from eight to twelve in the forenoon,
before or after which marriage cannot be legally per¬
formed in any parifh church.
Canonical Obedience, is that fubmiflion which, by
the ecclenadical laws, the inferior clergy are to pay to
their bidiops, and religious to their fuperiors.
Canonical Sins, in the ancient church, thofe which
were capital or mortal. Such efpecially w7ere idolatry,
murder, adultery, herefy, and fchifm.
Canonical Punijhments, are thofe which the church
may inflidt ; fuch as excommunication, degradation,
and penance in Roman Catholic countries, alfo fading,
alms, whipping, &c.
Canonical Life, the method or rule of living pre- Canonical
feribed by the ancient clergy who lived in community.
The canonical life was a kind of medium between the
monadic and clerical lives. Originally the orders ofs
monks and clerks were entirely didindt; but pious per-
fons, in procefs of time, indituted colleges of prieds
and canons, where clerks brought up for the minidry,
as well as others already engaged therein, might live
under a fixed rule, which, though fomewhat more eafy
than the monadic, was yet more redrained than the 1’e-
cular. This wTas called the canonical life, and thofe
who embraced it canons. Authors are divided about
the founder of the canonical life. Some will have it to
be founded by the apodles } others aicribe it to Pope
Urban I. about the year 1230, who is faid to have
ordered bifhops to provide fuch of their clergy as were
willing to live in community, with neceffaries out of
the revenues of their churches. The generality attri¬
bute it to St Augudine j who, having gathered a num¬
ber of clerks to devote themfelves to religion, inditut¬
ed a monadery within the epifcopal palace, where he
lived in community with them. Onuphrius Panvinius
brings the inditution fomewhat lowTer ; according to
him, Pope Gelafius I. about the year 495, placed the
fird regular canons of St Augudine in the Lateran
church.
Canonical Letters, in the ancient church, were a
fort of tedimonials of the orthodox faith, which the
biftiops and clergy fent each other to keep up the Ca¬
tholic communion, and didinguidr orthodox Chridians
from Arians and other heretics. They were denomi¬
nated canonical, either as being compofed according to
a certain rule or form, or becaufe they were given to
the canonici, that is, thofe comprehended in the canon
or catalogue of their church. When they had occafion
to travel into other diocefes or countries, dimifibry and
recommendatory letters, alfo letters of peace, &c. were
fo many fpecies of canonical letters.
Canonical is alfo an appellation given to thofe
epidles in the New Tedament more frequently called
catholic or general epidles.
CANONICUM, in a general fenfe, denotes a tax
or tribute.
Canonicum, is more particularly ufed in the Greek
church for a fee paid by the clergy to bidiops, arch-
bifhops, and metropolitans, for degrees and promo¬
tions.
Canonicum alfo denotes a due of fird fruits, paid
by the Greek laity to their bidiops, or, according to
Du Cange, to their prieds. The canonicum is adefled
according to the number of houfes or chimneys in a
place.
The emperor Ifaac Comnenus made a conditution
for regulating the canonicum of bidiops, wffiich was
confirmed by another made in 1086, by his nephew
Alexis Comnenus. A village containing thirty fires,
was to pay for its canonicum one piece of gold, two of
filver, one fheep, fix budiels of barley, fix of wheat
dour, fix meafures of wine, and thirty hens.
CANONIST, a perfon dulled in or who makes pro-
fefiion of the fiudy and prailice of the canon law. Ca-
nonids and civilians are ufually combined in the fame
perfons: and hence the title of doBor juris utnufque, or
legum doBor, ufually expreffed in abbreviature, L. L. D.
or J. U. D,
canonization;
life
I! .
Canonift.
Canoniza¬
tion
11
Canopus.
CAN [ 141 ]
CANONIZATION, a ceremony in the RomiOr
church, by which perfons decealed are ranked in the
catalogue of the faints. It fucceeds beatification.
Before a beatified perfon is canonized, the qualifica¬
tions of the candidate are ftri&ly examined into, in
fome confiftories held for that purpofe j after wdiich,
one of the confillorial advocates, in the prefence of
the pope and cardinals, makes the panegyric of the
perfon who is to be proclaimed a faint, and gives a
particular detail of his life and miracles : which done,
the holy father decrees his canonization, and appoints
the day.
On the day of canonization the pope officiates in
white, and their eminences are dreft in the fame colour.
St Peter’s church is hung with rich tapeftry, upon
which the arms of the pope, and of the prince or Hate
requiring the canonization, are embroidered in gold
and filver. An infinite number of lights blaze allround
the church, which is crowded with pious fouls, who
wait with devout impatience till the newT faint has made
his public entry as it were into paradiie, that they may
offer up their petitions to him without danger ol being
reje£!ed.
The following maxim with regard to canonization is
now obferved, though it has not been followed above a
century, viz. not to enter into the inquiries prior to ca¬
nonization, till 50 years, at lead, after the death of the
perfon to be canonized. By the ceremony of canoni¬
zation, it appears that this rite of the modern Romans
has fomething in it very like the apotheofis or deifica¬
tion of the ancient Romans, and, in all probability,
takes its rife from it} at lead: feveral ceremonies of the
fame nature are confpicuous in both.
CANONRY, the benefice filled by a canon. It dif¬
fers from a prebend, in that the prebend may fubfid
without the canonicate } whereas the canonicate is inle-
parable from the prebend : again, the right of luftra-
ges, and other privileges, are annexed to the canoni¬
cate, and not to the prebend.
CANOPUS, in AJtronomy, a dar of the fird mag¬
nitude in the rudder of Argo, a condellation of the
fouthern hemifphere.
Casopus, in Pagan mythology, one of the deities
of the ancient Egyptians, and according to fome, the
god of water. It is faid, that the Chaldeans, who
worfliipped fire, carried their fancied deity through po¬
ther countries to try its powers, in order that, if it obtain¬
ed the vitdory over the other gods, it might be acknow¬
ledged as the true objeft of wordup } and it having ea~
Illy fubdued the gods of wood, done, brafs, filver, and
gold, its prieds declared that all gods did it homage.
This the pried of Canopus hearing, and finding that
the Chaldeans had brought their god to contend with
Canopus, they took a large earthen veffel, in which
they bored feveral holes, which they afterwards dop-
ped"^ with wax, and having filled the veffel with w-ater,
painted it of feveral colours, and fitting the head oi an
idol to it, brought it out, in order to contend wnh the
Chaldean deity. The Chaldeans accordingly kindled
their fire all around it ; but the heat having melted the
wax, the w-ater gudred out through the holes, and ex-
tinguiffied the fire ; and thus Canopus conquered the
god of the Chaldeans.
Canopus, or Canobus, according to Strabo, had
Been Menelaus’s pilot, and had a temple ere&ed to him
CAN
in a town called Canopus, near one of the mouths of the Canopu*
Nile. Dionyfius mentions it : _
J Canola.
Ksc< re^e/ss A'AvkXxi cuo Kxvafiis. "< '-J
There ftands Canobus’ temple known to fame ;
The pilot who from fair Amycla came.
Voffius remarks on this occafion, the vanity of the
Greeks, who, as he conjeftures, hearing of an Egyp¬
tian deity named Canopus, took from thence an oppor¬
tunity of deifying the pilot of Menelaus w-ho bore the
fame name, and giving out that the Egyptian god Ca¬
nopus had been a Greek. F. Monfaucon gives feveral
reprefentations of this deity. One, in allufion to the
victory above-mentioned, throws out water on every
fide through little holes.
Canopus, or Canobus, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Lower Egypt, on the Mediterranean, a hun¬
dred and twenty ftadia, or fifteen miles, to the eaft of
Alexandria •, as old as the war of Troy, Canopus, or
Canobus, Menelaus’s fteerfman, being there buried.
Canopaei the gentilitious name ; famous for their luxu¬
ry and debauchery, (Strabo, Juvenal.) See Abou-
kir.
CANOPY, in Architecture and Sculpture, a mag¬
nificent kind of decoration, ferving to cover and crown
an altar, throne, tribunal, pulpit, chair, or the like..
The word is formed from the barbarous Latin canopeum,
of xavuTTiiov, a net fprend over a bed to keep off the gnats,
from x.avu-fy, a gnat.
Canopies are alfo borne over the head In proceffions
of ftate, after the manner of umbrellas. The canopy
of an altar is more peculiarly called ciboriutn.
The Roman grandees had their canopies, or fpread
veils, called thenfce, over their chairs : the like were al¬
fo in temples over the ftatues of the gods. The mo¬
dern cardinals Rill retain the ufe of canopies.
CANOS A, a town of Puglia in Italy, occupying
part of the file of the ancient Canufium. The old
city was founded by Diomedes, according to Strabo. It
afterwards became a Roman colony, and one of the
mofl confiderable cities of this part of Italy for extent,
population, and magnificence in building. The era of
Trajan feems to have been that of its greateft Splen¬
dour : but this pomp only ferved to mark it as a capi¬
tal objedl for the avarice and fury of the Barbarians.
Genferic, Totila, and Autharis, treated it with ex¬
treme cruelty. I he deplorable Rate to wffiich this Sivlnlume’j
province was reduced in 590 is concifely but flrongly Travels in
painted by Gregory the Great in thefe terms : “ On Sicily, °
every fide we hear groans $ on every fide w7e behold 4
crowds of mourners, cities burnt, caflles razed to the
ground, countries laid wrafie, provinces become de-
ferts, fome citizens led away captives, and others in¬
humanly maffacred.” No town in Puglia fuffered
more than Canofa from the outrages of the Saracens j
the conteRs between the Greeks and Normans increaf-
ed the meafure of its woes, wdnch was filled oy a con¬
flagration that happened when it was Rormed by Duke
Robert. In 1090, it was affigned, by agreement, to
Bohemund prince of Antioch, who died here in 1111.
Under the reign of Ferdinand the Third, this eflate
belonged to the Grimaldis. On their forfeiture,
the Affaititi acquired it, and Rill retain the title of
marquis, though the Capeci are the proprietors of the7
fieC Tlte
CAN [ 142 j CAN
Cantabria.
Canfo The ancient city flood in a plain between the hills
and the river Ofanto, and covered a large traft of
_ ground. Many brick monuments, though degraded
and flapped of their marble caflng, ftill atteft its ancient
grandeur. Among them may be traced the fragments
of aquedu&s, tombs, amphitheatres, baths, military co¬
lumns, and two triumphal arches, which, by their po-
fltion, feem to have been two city gates. The prelent
town ftands above, on the foundations of the old cita¬
del, and is a moft pitiful remnant of fo great a city,
not containing above three hundred houfes. The
church of Sabinus, built, as is faid, in the fixth cen¬
tury, is now without the enclofure. It is aftonilhing,
that any part of this ancient cathedral flrould have
withftood k> many calamities. Its altars and pave¬
ments are rich in marble $ and in a fmall court ad¬
joining, under an odlagonal cupola, is the maufoleum
of Bohemund, adorned in a minute Gothic ftyle.
CANSO, a fea port town of Acadia, or Nova Sco¬
tia, in North America, feated on a narrow ftrait which
feparates Nova Scotia from Cape Breton. Near this
town is a fine fifliery for cod. W. Long. 62. N. Lat.
46* ...
CANSTAT, a town of Swabia, in Germany, in the
duchy of Wiitemberg, fituated on the river Neckar, in
E. Long. 9. 9. N. Lat. 48. 51.
CANT, a quaint affefted manner of fpeaking, ad¬
apted chiefly to the lower fort. Skinner racks his in¬
vention for the origin of this word j which he fuccef-
fively deduces from the German, Flemifh, and Saxon
tongues. According to the general opinion, Cant is
originally the proper name of a Cameronian preacher
in Scotland, who by exercife had attained the faculty
of talking in the pulpit in fuch a tone and dialed as was
underftood by none but his own congregation : fince
Andrew Cant’s time, the word has been extended to
fignify all fudden exclamations, and whining unmufical
tones, efpecially in praying and preaching. But this
origin of the word has been difputed by others j and
perhaps the true derivation is from the Latin cantare
“ to fing.”
Cant is alfo applied to words and phrafes affefted
by particular perfons or profeflions for low ends, and
* See Cant- not authorized by the eftabliflied language *. The
ing Lan- difference between cant and technical feems to be this:
the former is reftrained to words introduced out of fol¬
ly, affedation, or impoflure : the latter is applied to
fuch as are introduced for the fake of clearnefs, preci-
fion, and fignificancy.
Cant is alfo tifed to denote a fale by audion. The
origin of the word in this fenfe is dubious j it may
come, according to fome, from quantum, how much ;
according to others, from cantare, to fing or cry aloud 5
agreeably to which, we fometimes alfo call it an out-
cry.
Cant Timbers, in fliip-building, thofe timbers which
are fituated at the two ends of a Ihip. They derive
their name from being canted, or raifed obliquely from
the keel j in contradiflindion from thofe whofe planes
are perpendicular to it. The upper ends of thofe on
the bow, or fore part of the Ihip, are inclined to the
ftern j as thofe in the after or hind part, incline to the
ftern poft above. See Smp-Building.
CANTABRIA, in Ancient Geography, a diftrid of
Xarraconenfis, on the Oceanus Caatabricus, or bay
of Bifcay 5 now Biscay. The inhabitants were fa-Cantabria*
mous for their w'arhke charader. In conjundion wfith v*
the Afturians f, they carried on defperate wars witht Set AJirh*
the Romans; but were fubdued by them about 25
years before Chrift. Being impatient, however, of a
foreign yoke, they in a few years revolted. Moft of
their youth had been already taken prifoners by the
Romans, and fold for flaves to the neighbouring na¬
tions : but having found means to break their chains,
they cut the throats of their mafters ; and returning in¬
to their own country, attacked the Roman garrifons with
incredible fury. Agrippa marched againft them with
great expedition ; but on his arrival, met with fo vi¬
gorous a refiflance, that his foldiers began to defpair
of ever being able to reduce them. As the Cantabrians
had waged war with the Romans for upwards of 200
years, they were well acquainted with their manner of
fighting, no way inferior to them in courage, and were
i^ow become defperate ; well knowing, that if they
Were conquered, after having fo often attempted to re¬
cover their liberty, they muft exped the moft fevere
ufage, and cruel flavery. Animated with this reflec¬
tion, they fell upon the Romans with a fury hardly to
be expreffed, routed them in feveral engagements, and
defended themfelves when attacked by the enemy with
fuch intrepidity, that Agrippa afterwards owned, that
he had never, either by fea or land, been engaged in a
more dangerous enterprife. That brave commander
was obliged to ufe entreaties, menaces, and to brand
fome of his legionaries with ignominy, before he could
bring them to enter the lifts with fuch a formidable
enemy. But having at laft, with much ado, prevailed
upon them to try the chance of an engagement in the
open field, he fo animated them by his example, that,
after a moft obftinate difpute, he gained a complete
victory, which indeed coft him dear, but put an end
to that deftru&ive war. All the Cantabrians fit to bear
arms were cut in pieces ; their caftles and ftrong holds
taken and razed ; a'nd their women, children, and
old men (none elfe being left alive), were obliged
to abandon the mountainous places, and fettle in the
plain.
Dr Wallis feems to make the Cantabrian the ancient
language of all Spain ; which, according to him, like
the Gauliib, gave way to a kind of broken Latin called
romance or romanjh ; which by degrees was refined in¬
to the Caftilian or prefent Spanifti. But we can hard¬
ly fuppofe, that fo large a country, inhabited by fuch a
variety of people, fpoke all the fame language. The
ancient Cantabrian, in effefl, is ftill found to fubfift in
the more barren and mountainous parts of the province
of Bifcay, Afturias, and Navarre, as far as Bayonne,
much as the Britifh does in Wales; but the people
only talk it: for writing, they ufe either the Spanilh
or French, as they happen to live under the one or the
other nation. Some attribute this to a jealoufy of fo¬
reigners learning the myfteries of their language;
others to a poverty of words and expreflions. The
Cantabrian does not appear to have any affinity with
any other known language, abating that fome Spanifti
words have been adopted in it for things whofe ufe the
Bifcayans were anciently unacquainted with. Its pro¬
nunciation is not difagreeable. The Lord’s prayer,
in the Cantabrian tongue, runs thus: Cure aita cerve-
tan aicena,fantifica bedt hire icena, ethor ledi hire refutna,
eguin
CAN [ 143 ] CAN
fCintahrica eguiii bedl hire vorondatea cervan hccala lurrean ere,
I! &c.
4 Can’aro-, CANTABRICA, in Botany: a fynonyme of a '
fpecies of Convolvulus.
CANTABRUM, in Antiquity, a large kind of flag
ufed by the Roman emperors, diftinguifhed by its pe¬
culiar colour, and bearing on it fome words or motto
of good omen, to encourage the fokliers.
CAN VACUZENUS, Johannes,of Conflantinople,
a celebrated ftatefman, general, and hiilorian, was
born in that city, of a very ancient and noble family.
He was bred to letters and to arms, and admitted to
the higheft offices of the flate. The emperor Andro-
nicus loaded him with wealth and honour •, made him
generaliffimo of his forces j and was defirous of hav¬
ing him join him in the government, but this he re-
fufed. Andronicus dying in 1341, left to Cantacu*
zenus the care of the empire, till his fon John Paleo-
logus, who was then but nine years of age, fhould be
fit to take it upon himfelf. This truft he faithfully
^ difcharged ; till the emprefs dowager and her fadlion
forming a party againfl him, declared him a traitor.
On this the principal nobility and the army befought
him to afcend the throne •, and accordingly he was
crowned on the 21ft of May 1342. This was follow¬
ed by a civil war, which laded five years 5 when he ad¬
mitted John a partner with him in the empire, and
their union was confirmed by his giving him his
daughter in marriage. Sufpicions and enmities how¬
ever, foon arifing, the war broke out again, and con¬
tinued till John took Conflantinople in 1355. A few
days after, Cantacuzenus, unwilling to continue the
effufion of blood, abdicated his fhare of the empire,
and retiring to a monaftery, took the habit of a
monk, and the name of Joafaphas. His wife alfo re¬
tired to a nunnery, and changed her name of Irene for
that of Eugenia. In this retirement he lived till the
year 1411, when he was upwards of 100 years of age.
Here he wrote a hiflory of his own times, a Latin
tranflation of which, from the Greek manufcript, was
publifhed by Pontanus at Ingolfladt, in 1603 : and a
fplendid edition was printed at Paris in 1645, in three
volumes folio, of the original Greek, and Pontanus’s
Latin verfion. He alfo wrote an apology for the Chri-
flian religion againfl that of Mahomet, under the name
of Chrijlodulus.
CANT A LIVERS, in ArchiteElure, pieces of wood
framed into the front or fldes of a houfe, to fufpend
the mouldings and eyes over it.
CANTAR, or Cantaro, an eaflern weight, of
different value in different places, equal at Acra in
Turkey to 603 pounds, at Tunis and Tripoli to .114
pounds.
Cantar is alfo an Egyptian weight, which is de¬
nominated a quintal, and confifts of a hundred or of
an hundred and fifty rotolos, according to the goods
they are to weigh.
Cantaro is alfo an Egyptian weight, which at
Naples is equivalent to 25 pounds, at Genoa to 150
pounds. At Leghorn there are three kinds of cantaros,
one weighing 150 pounds, another 151, and a third
160 pounds.
Cantaro is alfo a Spanilh liquid meafure, in ufe
efpecially at Alicant, containing three gallons.
Cantaro is alfo a meafure of capacity, ufed at Co- Gaidars'
chin, containing four rubis, the rubi 32 rotolos. II .
CAN FARINI, Simon, a famous painter, called temin
the Pefarefe, from his being born at Pefaro, was the
difciple of Guido j and copied the manner of his ma¬
iler fo happily, that it is often difficult to diftinguifh
between their works. He died at Verona in 1648.
CANTATA, in Majic, a fong or compofition, in¬
termixed with recitatives, airs, and different move--
ments, chiefly intended for a fingle voice, with a
thorough bafs, though fometimes for other inflru-
ments.
The cantata, when performed with judgment, has
fomething in it very agreeable ; the variety of the
movement not clogging the ear, like other compofi-
tions. It w*as firfl ufed in Italy, then in France, whence
it paffed to us.
C ANTAZARO, an epifcopal city of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the territory of Calabria
Ulterior. It is the refidence of the governor of the
province, and is feated near the fea, in E. Long. 17. o.
N. Lat. 38. 59.
CAN f ECROIX, a fmall territory of the Nether¬
lands, in Brabant, and in the quarter of Antwerp, with
the title of a principality ; there is a fmall town of the
fame name, but Lire is the capital.
CANTEMIR, Demetrius, fon of a prince of Mol¬
davia. Difappointed by not iucceeding his father in
that dignity, held under the Ottoman Porte, he went
over with his army to the Czar Peter the Great, againfl
wffiom he had been fent by the Grand Signior : he
fignalized himfelf in the czar’s fervice j and in the
republic of letters, by a Latin hiflory of the origin
and decline of the Ottoman empire, &.c. He died
in 1723.
Cantemir, Antiochus, efteemed the founder of the
Ruffian poetry, was the youngelt fon of the preced¬
ing. Under the molt ingenious profeffors, whom the
czar had invited to Peterfburgh, he learned mathe¬
matics, phyfic, hiflory, moral philofophy, and polite
literature; wdthout neglecting the fludy of the Holy
Scriptures, to which he had a great inclination. Scarce
had he iinifhed his academic courfe, when he printed a
Concordance of the Pfalms in the Ruffian language,
and was eleCled member of the academy. The af¬
fairs of flate in which he was foon after engaged, did
not make him negleCl his literary purfuits. In order
to make himfelf ufeful to his fellow citizens, he com-
pofed his fatires, to ridicule certain prejudices which
had got footing among them. When but 24 years of
age, he was nominated minifler at the court of Great
Britain ; and his dexterity in the management of pub¬
lic affairs was as much admired as his tafle for the
fciences. He had the fame reputation in France,
whither he w’ent in 1738, in quality of minifler ple¬
nipotentiary, and foon after was invefled wbth the
charaCler of ambaffador extraordinary. The wife and
prudent manner in which he conducted himfelf during
the different revolutions wdiich happened in Ruffia dur¬
ing his abfence, gained him. the confidence and efleem
of three fucceffive princes. Fie died of a dropfy, at
Paris, in 1744, aged 44. Befides the pieces already
mentioned, he wrote, 1. Some Fables and Odes. 2. A
tranflation of Horace’s Epiflles in Ruffian verfe. 3. A
CAN [ 144 ]
Canterbury, profe tranflation of Fontenelle’s Plurality of Worlds •, at mace.
-v—anc|, Algarotti’s Dialogues on Sight. The Abbe
Guafco has written his life in French, and tranflated
his fatires into that language.
CANTERBURY, a city of England, and capital
of the county of Kent, fituated in E. Long. 1. 15.
N. Eat. 51/16. It had the names of Durovernum
and Darvernum given it by the Romans, and Durober-
nia by Bede, which are thought to be derived from
Durwhetn, fignifying a-rapid ftream, fuch as the Stour,
on which it hands, is. The Britons call it Caer Kent,
i. e. the city of Kent j and its preient Enghfh n^me
is of the fame import, derived from the Saxon. Modern
Vv'riters in Latin call it Cantuana. Its great antiquity
appears not only from Antoninus’s Itinerary, but from
the military way which has been difcovered here, and
the caufeways leading to Dover and Lymme, befides
the coins and other curiofities found about it. 1 he
archiepifcopal and metropolitan dignity feems to have
been fettled here very early j and to prevent its being
removed, an anathema was decreed againll any who
fhould attempt it. After that, the city ilourifhed great¬
ly ; though it fuffered in common with other towns
during the Daniflr invafions, and at other times by the
cafuallies of fire. The city was given entirely to the
bifhops by William Rufus, and was held in'the utmoff
veneration in the Popifh times, efpecially after the
murder of Becket in the reign of Henry II. to whofe
fhrine fo great was the refort, and fo rich were the
offerings, that Erafmus, who was an eye witnefs. of its
wealth, fays the whole church and chapel in which he
was interred glittered with jewels } and at the diffolu-
tion, the plate and jewels filled two great chefts, each
of which required eight ftrong men to carry out. The
cathedral was granted by Ethelbert, king of Kent, up¬
on his converfion, to Auffin the monk, together with
his palace, and the royalty of the city and its territo¬
ries. This Auftin founded a monaftery for monks,
called from him Augujline. After the cathedral had
been feveral times deftroyed by fire and rebuilt, the
prefent was begun about the year 1174, and augment¬
ed and embelliihed by the fucceeding archbifhops, till
it was completed in the reign of Henry V. It is a
noble Gothic pile, and before the Reformation had 37
altars. A great many kings, princes, cardinals^ and
archbifhops, are buried in it. At the diffolution, Henry
VIII. feized all the revenues both of the church and
monaftery, except what he allotted for the maintenance
of a dean, 12 prebendaries, and fix preachers, whom
he eftablifhed in place of the monks. During the
grand rebellion, it fuffered much ; the ufurper Crom¬
well having made a liable of it for his dragoons. Af¬
ter the Reftoration, it was repaired, and made what it
now appears.
Befides the cathedral and other churches, as well as
a monaftery, the city had anciently a caftle on the
fouth fide, and ftrong walls, with towers, a ditch, and
rampart} it had alfo a mint and an exchange. As to
its government, it feems to have been entirely fubjedl
to the archbilhop, both in fpirituals and temporals ; at
Seaft from the time that William Rufus gave it folely
to Bilhop Anfelm, till the Reformation. It is now a
county of itfelf : and the corporation conlifts of a may-
■ or, recorder, 12 aldermen, a Iheriff, 24 common coun-
•t il men, a mace-bearer, fword-bearer, and four ferjeants
2
CAN
Every Monday a court is held at Guildhall Canterbury'
for civil and criminal caufes : and every other Fuefday
for the government of the city. Here were formerly __
2000 0/3000 French Proteftants employed in the filk
manufacture 5 but this branch is now greatly decayed
in the place, fince Spittalfields became fo flourifhing.
Befides the cathedral, it contains 15 parifti churches,
feven hofpitals, a free fchool, a houle of correction, a
gaol for criminals, and fumptuous -conduit for fupply-
ing the inhabitants with water. It confifts of lour
ft reels, difpofed in the form of a crofs, and divided in¬
to fix wards, which are about three miles in circumfe¬
rence. It is furrounded on all hands with hop grounds
much to its advantage, and is famed for its excellent
brawn.
The diocefe of Canterbury contains 257 parifties,
befides chapels, in Kent, and about ico more in other
diocefes. Thefe are called Peculiars; it being an an¬
cient privilege of this fee, that, wherefoever the arch-
bilhops had either manors or advowfons, the place was
exempted from the jurifdiftion of the ordinary of the
diocele where it was fituated, *and was deemed in the
diocefe of Canterbury. I his fee is valued in the king s
books at 28161. 17s. pid, but is reckoned to produce
a clear revenue of 8000I. a year. Fhe clergy’s tenths
come to 65il. 18s. 2id. This fee had many.great
privileges in the time of Popery, fome of which it ftill
retains. The archbithop is accounted primate and me¬
tropolitan of all England, and is the firft peer in the
realmhaving the precedence of all dukes not of the
blood royal, and of all the great officers of ftate. la
common fpeech he is ftyled ffis Grace, and he writes
himfelf Divina Providentia; whereas other biftrops ftyle
themfelves Divina PermiJJione. At coronations, he
places the crown on the king’s head j and, where-
ever the court may be, the king and queen are the
proper domeftic parifhioners of the archbilhop of Can¬
terbury. The bifhop of London is accounted his pro¬
vincial dean, the biffiop of Vvinchefler his fubdean,
the bilhop of Lincoln his chancellor, and the bilhop of
Rochefter his chaplain. This fee hath yielded to the
church 18 faints; to the church of Rome, 9 cardinals;
to the civil ftate of England, I 2 lord chancellors, 4
lord treafurers, and I lord chief juftice ; and 9 chan¬
cellors to the univerfity of Oxford. T. o this lee be¬
longs only one archdeacon, viz. of Canterbury, d o
the cathedral belongs an archbilhop, a dean, a chan¬
cellor, an archdeacon, 12 prebends, 6 preachers, 6
minor canons, 6 fubftitutes, 12 lay clerks, lochorifters,
2 mailers, 50 fcholars, and 12 almfmen.
Canterbury Pell, the Englilh name of a fpecies of
Campanula. See Botany Index.
CANTERUS, William, an.eminent linguift and
philologer, w7as born at Utrecht, in I541* -^e Hudied
at Louvain and Paris; and gave . furprifing proofs of
his progrefs in Greek and Latin literature. He after¬
wards vifiled the feveral univerfities of Germany and
Italy; and died at Louvain, in 1575, aged 33. He
underftood fix languages, befides that of his native
country; and, notwithftanding his dying fo young,
wrote feveral philological and critical works, among
which are, Kota, Scholia, Emcndationcs, et Explicationes,
in Euripidein, Sophoclem, Efchylum, Ciceronem, 1 / 0-
pertium, Jufonium, &c. and many tranflations of Greek
aUth0rS’ CANTHARIDES,
bell,
CanteruF.
CAN
[ H5 ]
CAN
Canticles.
Cantharldes" CANTHARIDES, in the Materia Medica, flies
which are employed to produce blifters on the fkin.
CANTHAR1S, in 'Zoology, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the order of infetla coleoptera. Linnaeus
enumerates 27 fpecies of the cantharis, moft of them
to be found in different parts of Europe. The can¬
tharis ufed in making bliftering plafters is ranked un¬
der the genus Meloe. See Entomology Index.
CANTHI, in slnatomy, cavities at the extremities
of the eyelids, commonly called the corners of the eye:
the greater of them, or the greater canthus, is next the
nofe j the leffer of them, or the little canthus, lies to¬
wards the temple.
CANTICLES, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, otherwife called the Song of Solomon; by the
Tews the Song of Songs, Canticum Canticorum. The
book of Canticles is ufually fuppofed to be an epitha-
lamium compofed by Solomon, on occafion of his mar¬
riage with the king of Egypt’s daughter. But thofe
who penetrate further into the myftery, find in it the
marriage of Jefus Chrifl with human nature, the church,
and good men. On this principle the Canticles is held
to be a continued allegory, wherein under the terms
of a common wedding, a divine and fpiritual marriage
is exprefled. This fong contains the adventures of
feven days and feven nights ; the exadt time allowed
for the celebration of marriage among the Hebrews.
The Jews themfelves, apprehending the book liable to
be underftood in a grofs and carnal manner, prohibited
the reading of it before the age of 30, and the fame
ufage anciently obtained in the Chriftian church. A-
mong the ancients, Theodore Mopfuetanus reje&ed
the book of Canticles as not divine. Divers rabbins
have alio queftioned its being written by infpiration.
It is alleged, that the name of God is not once found
in it. Mr Whifton has a difcourfe exprefs to prove
that the Canticles is not a facred book of the Old
Teftament. He alleges it indeed to have been writ¬
ten by King Solomon the fon of David •, but alferts
that it was compofed at the time when that prince,
blinded by his concubines, w^as funk in lull and idola¬
try. This he chiefly infers from the general chara&er
of vanity and diflblutenefs which reigns through the
Canticles: in which there is not, according to Whif¬
ton, one thought that leads the mind towards religion,
but all is wordly and carnal, to fay no worfe. For the
myftic feyfe, he aflerts it to be without foundation ;
and that the book is not cited as canonical by any
writer before the deftru&ion of Jerufalem. Mr Whif¬
ton wflll have it to have been taken into the canon be¬
tween the years 77 and 128, when allegories came in¬
to vogue, and the rabbins began to corrupt the text
of Scripture. Grotius, Nierembergius, the Dutch di¬
vines who criticifed F. Simon, Menetrier, Bafnage, and
fome others, feem alfo to take the Canticles for a pro¬
fane compofition, on a footing vrith the love pieces of
Catullus or Ovid. But this opinion is refuted by Mi-
chaelis, Majus, Witfius, Nat. Alexander, Outrein,
Francius, and others. Mr Whifton’s arguments have
been particularly confidered by Itchener, and alfo by
Dr Gill. R. Akiba finds the book of Canticles more
divine than the relt : the whole wmrld, according to
this rabbin, is not w'orth that day when the Canticles
was given to Ifraelj for, whereas all the hagiographers
are holy, the Canticles is the holy of holies.
Vol. V. Part I.
Cantium.
CANTIMARONS, or Catimarons, a kind of Cantima-
floats or rafts, ufed by the inhabitants of the coafl of r°ns
Coromandel to go a filhing in, and to trade along the
coafl:. They are made of three or four fmall canoes, _
or trunks of trees dug hollow, and tied together with
cacao ropes, with a triangular fail in the middle, made
of mats. The perfons who manage them are almoft
half in the water, there being only a place in the mid¬
dle a little railed to hold their merchandife : which
laft particular is only to be underflood of the trading
cantimarons, and not of thofe wflto go a-fifhing.
CANT IN, Cape, a promontory of the coaft of
Morocco in Africa, fituated in W. Long. 10. 2. N.
Lat. 33. 9.
CANTING, a fea phrafe, denotes the a£l of turn¬
ing any thing about.
Canting Language or DialeSl, is a myfterious fort
of jargon ufed by gypfies, thieves, and ftrolling beg¬
gars, to exprefs their fentiments to each other, without
being underftood by the reft of mankind. This dia¬
lect is not founded on any rules ; yet even out of that
irregularity many words feem to retain fomething of
fcholarftup j as togeman, a gown, from toga in the La¬
tin j pannam, bread, from pants; cafan, cheefe, from
cafeus, &c. It is obfervable, that, even unknown to
ourfelves, we have adopted fome of their terms into
our vulgar language*, as bite and bilk, to cheat; bounce,
to vapour; bowfe, ftrong drink; filch, to fteal; fog, to
whip; rig, game or ridicule; roaf, to rally; rhino, mo¬
ney. From the fame fource proceed the words fham,
banter, bubble, bully, fmrper, cutting, jhuffling, palm¬
ing, &c. An anonymous author has given a canting
didlionary, comprehending all the terms ufed by the
feveral tribes of gypfies, beggars, Ihoplifters, highway¬
men, foot-pads, and other clans of cheats and villains,
with a colleftion of fongs in the canting dialed: Lon¬
don, 1725, 8vo.
CANTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of Britain, literally denoting a headland : giving name
to a territory called Cantium, now Kent; and to a
people called Cantii (Cmfar), commended for their
great humanity and politenefs. The promontory nowr
the North Foreland. It is fuppofed that this was the
firft diftrift in Britain which received a colony from
the continent ; and that it had frequently changed its
mafters, by new colonies coming over from time to
time, and driving the inhabitants further north. In
the midft of all thefe revolutions it ftill retained its an¬
cient name (which was fo agreeable to its fliape and
fituation), and gave the fame name to all the fucceflive
tribes by which it was inhabited. Thofe who poffdfed
it at the time of the firft Roman invafion were evident¬
ly of Belgic origin,'and had come over fo lately, that
they differed in nothing from their countrymen on the
continent. “ The inhabitants of Kent (fays Ctefar) are
the moft civilized of all the Britons, and differ but
very little in their manners from the Gauls.” This
great refemblance between the people of Kent and
their neighbours on the continent, might be partly
owflng to the fituation of their country, which being
neareft to the continent, was moft frequented by
ftrangers from thence. It was this fituation alfo
which expofed them to the firft affaults of the Romans.
For Caefar, in both his expeditions into this ifland,
landed .in Kent} and therefore we many conclude,
T that
«
Canton.
GAN I
Cantium that the Cantii had a great {hare m the vigorous op-
pofition that was made to his landing, and in the le-
i veral battles and fkirmifhes which were fought againfl:
him after his landing -, particularly, they made a very
bold, but unfuccefsful attempt, upon his naval camp.
The Cantii did not make the fame vigorous refiftance
to the Romans on their next invafion in the reign of
Claudius. For Aulus Plautius, the Roman general
in that expedition, traverfed their country without
feeing an enemy j and as they now fubmitted to the
power of Rome without a ftruggle, fo they continued
in a ft ate of quiet fubmiflion to it to the very laft. The
fttuation of Cantium occalioned its being much fre¬
quented by the Romans, who generally took their way
through it in their marches to and from the continent.
Few places in Britain are more frequently mentioned
by the Roman writers than Rutupium and Portus
Rutupenfis, moft probably Richborough and Stonar.
Rutupium was the fame in thole times that Dover is
in ours ; the ufual place of embarking for, and land¬
ing from, the continent. Before the final departure of
the Romans out of Britain, Portus Dubris, now Do¬
ver, had become a confiderable place, and a well fre¬
quented harbour, where the third iter of Antoninus
ends, and from whence they often embarked for Gaul.
Portus Lemanus, fuppofed to be Lime near Weft
Hythe, was alfo a noted feaport in thefe times, and
the termination of the fourth iter of Antoninus. Du-
robrivae and Durovernum, now Rochefter and Can¬
terbury, were both Roman towns and ftations, and are
often mentioned in the Itinerary and other books.
Beftdes thefe, there were feveral other Roman ftations,
towns, and ports in Cantium, which need not be par¬
ticularly enumerated here. Cantium, in the moft per-
fe£t ftate of the Roman government, made a part of
the province which was called C&fanenjis.
CANTO, denotes a part or divifion of a poem, an-
fwering to what is otherwife called a book. The word
is Italian, where it properly fignifies fong. Taffo, Ari-
ofto, and feveral other Italians, have divided theirlonger
or heroic poems into cantos. In imitation of them,
Scarron has alfo divided his Gigantomachia, and Boi-
leau his Lutrin, into chants or longs. The like ufage
has been adopted by iome Lnglifh writers, as Butler,
who divides his Hudibras, and Dr Garth his Difpen-
fary, into cantos. A late tranllator of part of Virgil’s
.ZEneid has even fubdivided a book of Virgil into feve-
ral cantos.
Canto, in the Italian mufic, fignifies a fong: hence
canto fimplice is where all the notes or figures are equal,
and called alfo canto fer?no ; canto fgurato, that where
the figures are unequal, and exprefs different motions.
Canto alfo fignifies the treble part of a long : hence
canto concertante, the treble of the little chorus j canto
repieno, the treble of the grand chorus, or that which
lings only now and then in particular places. Canto
fignifies the firft treble, unlefs fome other word be add¬
ed to it, as fecondo ; in which cafe it denotes the fe-
cond treble.
CANTON, in Geography, denotes a fmall diftridt
or country conftituting a diftinft government : fuch
are the cantons of Switzerland.
Canton, Quang-tong, or Koanton,one of the fouth-
ern provinces of China 5 bounded on the north-eaft by
Fokien, on the north by Kiang-fi, on the weft by
14.6 "] CAN
Quang-fi and the kingdom of Tonking, and every¬
where elfe by the fea. The country is diverfified with
hills and plains, and the foil in general fo fertile that it
produces two crops annually. Befides many of the
fruits of Europe, and thofe common in other parts
of the Indies, the province of Canton produces lome
peculiar to itfelf. Abundance of valuable aromatic
woods are alfo to be met with in this province, as well
as eagle wood, ebony, &x. and in the mineral king¬
dom the province furnilhes gold, precious ftones, tin,
quickfilver, and copper. Silk and fugar are alfo culti¬
vated here, and pearls are fiihed up on the coafts 5 fo
that every thing which can contribute to the pleafure or
convenience of life is to be met with in Canton. “ One
begins (fays F. Piemare) to have an idea of China, on
entering the river Canton. Both fides of it prefent
large fields of rice which referable green meadows, and
extend beyond the reach of fight. They are inter¬
fered by an infinite number of fmall canals, in fuch a
manner that the barks which pafs and repafs in them
feem at a diftance, while the water which carries them
is concealed, to glide along the grafs. Farther inland
the country appears covered with trees, and cultivated
along the valleys j and the whole fcene is interfperfed
with villages, rural feats, and fuch a variety of de¬
lightful profpe61s, that one is never tired of viewing
them, and regrets to be obliged to pafs them fo
quickly.
All the coafts of this province abound with fiih, and
furnilh vaft numbers of crabs, oyfters, and tortoifes of
an immenfe fize. The inhabitants keep a prodigious
number of tame ducks, which they hatch in ovens or
dunghills, though it does not appear that they bor¬
rowed this cuftom from the Egyptians. The docility
of thefe creatures exceeds what we fhould be apt at^
firft to imagine. The inhabitants load a number of
fmall barks with them,'and carry them in flocks to
feed on the fea fhore, whete they find fhrimps and
other animals proper for their nourilhment. But
though the ducks from the different barks are thus
unavoidably mixed together in the aay time, they aie
eafily colle£ted by only beating on a bafon, on which
they immediately colle£l themlelves into different flocks,
and each returns to his proper bark.
In this province the Chinefe have alfo a method of
preferving not only the flefh of the ducks in luch a
manner that it lofes nothing of its original flavour,
but their eggs alfo. The latter operation is performed
by covering the eggs with a coat of clay mixed with
fait. When mixed in this manner, it feems that the
fait has the property of penetrating through the pores
of the fhell, and thus impregnating the fubftance in the
egg, which it could not do by fimple folution in water.
Canton, though it fuffered much in the Chinefe
wars, is at prefent one of the moft flourifhing provinces
Canton.
of the empire j and being at a great diftance from
court, its government is one of the moft important.
A great number of fortreffes, many of which are cities,
provided wdth numerous garrifons, have been built
along the roafts for the fuppreflion of pirates and
robbers ; for which purpofe alfo a certain number of
troops are kept properly polled in different parts, ox
the province. It is divided into ten diftrifls, which
contain as many cities of the firft clafs, and 84 of the
fecond and third. The air in general is warm but
healthvj
CAN [i
healthy, and the people are very induftrious. . They
poffefs in an eminent degree the talent of imitation ; fo
that if they are only (hown any European work, they
can execute others like it with furprifing exadtnefs. The
moft remarkable cities in the province befides Canton
the capital are, I. Chao-tcheou-fou, chiefly noted for a
monaftery of bonzes in its neighbourhood, to which
the adjacent country belongs, and the origin of which
is traced back for 800 or 900 years. It has under its
jurifdiaion fix cities of the third clafs ; near one of
thefe grows a reed ox which feveral inftruments are
made, which cannot be diftinguiihed from real ebony.
The air of Chao-tcheou-fou, however, is unhealthy ;
and great numbers of the inhabitants are carried off
annually by contagious diifempers, which prevail from
the middle of Oftober to the beginning of December.
2. Kao-tcheou-fou, fituated in a delightful and plentiful
country. In the neighbourhood is found a fingular
kind of ftone much refembling marble, on which are
natural reprefentations of rivers, mountains, landicapes,
and trees. Thefe ftones are cut into flabs, and made
into tables, &c. Crabs are alfo caught on the coafts
here, which very much refemble thofe of Europe *, but,
fays M. Grofier, they have this fingularity, that when
taken out of the water, they become petrified without
lofing any thing of their natural figure. _ 3. Kmn-
tcheou-fou, the capital of the ifland of Hai-nan. See
Hai-nan. , , • r
Canton, a large, populous, and wealthy city ot
China, capital of the province of that name, Hands on
the banks of the river Taa, or great river, which, near
the city, is wide and fpacious. The wall of the city
is pretty high, and about fix or feven miles in circum¬
ference, though not more than one third of the ground
is occupied by buildings, the other parts being appro¬
priated to pleafure grounds or to filh ponds. 1 he
country is extremely pleafant, and towards the eafl.
hilly, fo as to command a beautiful profpeft of the city
and fuburbs, the compafs of which, together, is about
ten miles. . .
The buildings of Canton are in general low, coniiitmg
of one ftory and a ground floor, which is covered with
earth or red tiles in order to keep it cool $ but the
houfes of the moft refpe&able merchants and mandarins
are comparatively lofty and well built. In different
parts of the city and fuburbs are jofs houfes or temples,
in which are placed the images worlhipped by the Chi-
nefe : before whom are placed, at particular fealons, a
vaft variety of fweetmeats,. oranges, great plenty of
food ready dreffed, and alfo incenfe, ivhich is kept per¬
petually burning.
The ftreets of Canton are long and narrow, paved
with flat ftones, adorned at intervals with triumphal
arches, which have a pleafing effeft, and much crowded
with peoole. On both fides are Ihops as in London,
appropriated to the fale of different commodities 5 and
a kind of awning is extended from houie to hou e,
which prevents the fun’s rays from incommoding either
inhabitants or paffengers. At the end of every lireet
is a barrier, which, with the gates of the city, are Ihut
in the evening. In China ftreet, which is pretty
long and confiderably wider than the reft, refide mer¬
chants ; whofe trade, fo far as refpeas china, lack¬
ered ware, fans, &c. is wholly confined to Europeans.
Moft of them fpeak the foreign languages tolerably
47 ] C A N
well, or at leaft fufficiently intelligible to Iranfaft bufi-
nefs. Befides thefe merchants, there is a company of ~
twelve or thirteen, called the Cohong ; who have an
exclufive right by appointment from authority to pur-
chafe the cargoes from the different {hips, and alio to
fupply them with teas, raw filks, &c. in return. I he
eftabliihment of the Cohong, though injurious to pri¬
vate trade, is admirably well adapted for the fecurity
of the different companies with which they traffic j
becaufe each individual becomes a guarantee for the
whole j fo that if one fail, the others confider them-
felves as refponfible.
In Canton there are no carriages ; all burdens are
carried by porters acrofs their (boulders on bamboos j
as are alio the principal people in fedan chairs, and the
ladies always. The ftreets of Canton may be traver-
fed from morning till evening without feeing a woman,
thofe excepted who are Tartars, and even thele but
very feldom.
On the wharf of the river, which is commodious and
pleafant, ftand the faftories of the different European
nations, viz. the Dutch, French, Swedes, Danes, Eng-
lifti, &c. In thofe refide the fupercargoes belonging
to their refpeftive companies, who are appointed to
difpofe of the cargoes brought to market ; to fupply
the (hips with others from Europe in return $ and, dur¬
ing their abfence, to contraft with the merchants for
fuch articles as may be judged neceffary for the next
fleet. Between the refidents of the factories the moft
perfect cordiality fubfifts j in each a common and
fplendid table is'kept at the company’s expence, and
vifits are reciprocally exchanged ; fo that nothing is
wanting to make refidence at Canton agreeable to an
European, but the pleafure naturally refulting from the
fociety of women.
The fide of the river next the city is covered with
boats, wffiich form a kind of towrn or ftreets, in which
live the poorer fort of the Chinefe, or rather the de-
fcendants of the Tartars. Some of the men come on
(bore in the morning to their refpe£tive employments,
and in thofe fampans, or boats which are not ftation-
ary, the women and alfo the men carry paffengers
from place to place in the fame manner as is done by
wherries on the Thames. On this river live many
thoufand fouls who never were permitted to come on
fliore ; whofe only habitation is their boat ; in which
the” eat, drink, fleep, carry on many occupations,
keep ducks, &c. and occafionally a hog. _
The manufaflures of Canton are principally carried
on in the fuburbs; though it has been frequently fup-
pofed that they were confined to the city ; and this, by
fome writers, has been given as a reaion why Euro¬
peans are not permitted to enter within the gates.
But this is a miftake •, and perhaps the true reafon for
this very fingular reftraint is, that the houies in which
they keep their women are chiefly within the city.
At Wampoa, a large commodious place for anchor¬
age, and which is about 12 or 14 miles from Canton,
the European veffels lie and unload their cargoes,
which are tranfmitted by lighters to the faftoriesj
and by the fame conveyance receive their reipeaive
freights. Between this place and the city are three
hoppo, or cuftomhoufes, at which the boats paffing and
repaffing are obliged to flop, and undergo with their
paiiengers an examination, in order to prevent mug-
* 6 T 2 8ling*
CAN [ 148 j CAN
gllng. The lighters jufl: mentioned, and alfo the cap¬
tain’s pinnace, are, however, excepted 5 the former
having proper officers on board for the purpofe, and
the latter being narrowly watched and examined at the
landing.
The weather at Canton is, in fummer, extremely
hot 5 and in the months of December, January, and
February, cold : the country is neverthelefs pleafant
and healthful, abounding with all the neceffaries and
delicacies of life, which may be procured on terms much
cheaper than in Europe. The 'number of inhabitants
has been eftimated at one million •, but later calcula¬
tions have made the number confiderably lefs. N. Lat.
23. 30. E. Long. 113. 20.
Canton, 'john, an ingenious natural philofopher,
was born at Stroud, in Gloucelterfhire, in 17x8; and
was placed, when young, under the care of a Mr Da¬
vis, of the fame place, a very able mathematician, with
whom, before he had attained the age of nine years, he
had gone through both vulgar and decimal arithmetic.
He then proceeded to the mathematics, and particularly
to algebra and aftronomy, wherein he had made a con-
fiderable progrefs, when his father took him from
fchool, and put him to learn his own bufmefs, which
was that of a broad cloth weaver. This circumftance
was not able to damp his zeal for the acquiiition of
knowledge. Ail his leifure time was devoted to the
affiduous cultivation of ailronomical fcience •, and, by
the help of the Caroline tables annexed to “ Wing’s
Alironomy,” he computed eclipfes of the moon and
other phenomena. His acquaintance with that fcience
he applied likewife to the con 11 rafting of feveral kinds
of dials. But the ftudies of our young philofopher
being frequently purfued to very late hours, his father,
fearing that they would injure his health, forbade him
the ufe of a candle in his chamber any longer than for
the purpofe of going to bed, and would himfelf often
fee that his injunftion was obeyed. The fon’s third:
of knowledge was, however, fo great, that it made him
attempt to evade the prohibition, and to find means of
fecreting his light till the family had retired to reft,
when he rofe to profecute undifturbed his favourite
purfuits. It was during this prohibition, and at thefe
hours, that he computed, and cut upon done, with no
better an indrument than a common knife, the lines of
a large upright fun dial, on which, befides the hour of
the day, was drown the rifing of the fun, his place in
the ecliptic, and fome other particulars. When this
was finilhed, and made known to his father, he permit¬
ted it to be placed before the front of his houfe, where
it excited the admiration of feveral gentlemen in the
neighbourhood, and introduced young Mr Canton to
their acquaintance, which was followed by the offer of
the ufe of their libraries. In the library of one of thefe
gentlemen, he found “ Martin’s Philofophical Gram-
mar,n which was the fird book that gave him a tade
for natural philofophy. In the poffeffion of another gen¬
tleman, a few miles from Stroud, he fird faw a pair of
globes *, an objeft that afforded him uncommon plea-
fare, from the great eafe with which he could folve
thofe problems he had hitherto been accudomed to
compute. The dial was beautified a few years ago at
the expence of the gentlemen at Stroud, feveral of
whom had been his fchoolfellows, and who continued
dill to regard it as a very didinguifhed performance. C
Among other perfons with whom he became acquaint- w
ed in early life, was the late reverend and ingenious Dr
Henry Miles of Tooting, a learned and refpeftable
member of the royal fociety, and of approved emi¬
nence in natural knowledge. This gentleman per¬
ceiving that Mr Canton poffeffed abilities too promifing
to be confined within the narrow dimits of a country
town, prevailed on his father to permit him to come
to London. Accordingly he arrived at the metropolis
March 4. 1737, and refided with Dr Miles at 'Footing
till the 6th of May following j when he articled him¬
felf for the term of five years, as a clerk to Mr Samuel
Watkins, mader of the academy in Spital-fquare. In
this fituation, his ingenuity, diligence, and good con-
duft, were fo well difplayed, that on the expiration
of bis clerkdiip in May 1742, he was taken into part-
nerdiip with Mr Watkins for three years j which gen¬
tleman he afterwards fucceeded in Spital-fquare, and
there continued during his whole life. In 1744, he
married Penelope, the elded daughter of Mr Thomas
Colbrooke, and niece to James Colbiooke, Efq. banker
in London.
Towards the end of 1745, eleftricity, which feems
early to have engaged Mr Canton’s notice, received a
very capital improvement by the difcovery of the fa¬
mous Leyden Phial. This event turned the thoughts
of mod of the philofophers of Europe to that branch
of natural philofophy ; and our author, who was one
of the fird to repeat and to purfue the experiment,
found his affiduity and attention rewarded by many
capital difcoveries. Towards the end of 1749> he was „
concerned with his friend, the late Mr Benjamin Ro¬
bins, in making experiments in order to determine to
wffiat height rockets may be made to afcend, and at
what didance their light, may be feen. In 1750 was
read at the Royal Society Mr Canton’s “ Method of
making artificial magnets, without the ufe of, and yet
far fuperior to, any natural ones.” This paper pro¬
cured him the honour of being elefted a member of
the fociety, and the prefent of their gold medal. The
fame year he was complimented with the degree of
M. A. by the univerfity of Aberdeen ; and, in I75I>
w’as chofen one of the council of the Royal Society.
In 1752, our philofopher was fo fortunate as to be
the fird perfon in England, who, by attrafting the
eleftric fire from the clouds during a thunder dorm,
verified Dr Franklin’s hypothefis of the fimilarity of
lightning and eleftricity. Next year, his paper en¬
titled, “ Eleftrical Experiments, with an attempt to
account for their feveral Phenomena,” was read at the
Royal Society. In the fame paper Mr Canton men¬
tioned his having difcovered, by a great number of ex¬
periments, that fome clouds were in a pofitive, and
fome in a negative, date of eleftricity. Dr Franklin,
much about the fame time, made the like difcovery in
America. This circumdance, together with our au¬
thor’s condant defence of the doftor’s hypothefis, in¬
duced that excellent philofopher, immediately on his
arrival in England, to pay Mr Canton a vifit, and gave
rife to a friendffiip which ever after continued without
interruption or diminution. In the “ Lady’s Diary,
for 1756,” our author anfwered the prize quedion that
had been propofed in the preceding year, i he que-
dioa
CAN [ 149 ] CAN
Canton.' fUon was, “ How can what we call the (hooting of
—“V'"—' ftars be belt accounted for *, what is the fubftance of
this phenomenon 5 and in what (late of the atmofphere
doth it molt frequently (how itfelf?” The folution,
though anonymous, was fo fatisfa&ory to his friend,
Mr Thomas Simpfon, who then conducted that work,
\ that he fent Mr Canton the prize, accompanied with a
note, in which he faid, he was fare that he was not mi-
ftaken in the author of it, as no one befides, that he
knew of, could have anfwered the queltion. Our phi-
lofopher’s next communication to the public, was a
letter in the “ Gentleman’s Magazine, for September
1759,” on the ele61rical properties of the tourmalin,
in which the laws of that wonderful (lone are laid down
in a very concife and elegant manner. On December
rjth, in the fame year, was read at the Royal Society,
“ An attempt to account for the regular diurnal va¬
riation of the Horizontal Magnetic Needle j and alfo
for its irregular variation at the time of an Aurora
Borealis.” A complete year’s obfervations of the di¬
urnal variations of the needle are annexed to the pa¬
per. On Nov. 5. 1761, our author communicated
to the Royal Society an account of the Tranfit of Ve¬
nus, June 6. 1761, obferved in Spital-fquare. Mr Can¬
ton’s next communication to the Society, was a letter
addreffed to Dr Benjamin Franklin, and read Feb. 4.
1762 ; containing fome remarks on Mr Delaval’s elec¬
trical experiments. On Dec. 16. in the fame year,
another curious addition was made by him to philofo-
phical knowledge, in a paper entitled, “ Experiments
to prove that water is not incomprefiible.” Thefe ex¬
periments are a complete refutation of the famous
Florentine experiments, which io many philofophers
have mentioned as a proof of the incompreffibility of
water. On St Andrew’s day, 1763, our author was
the third time elefted one of the council of the Royal
Society, and on Nov. 8. in the following year, were
read before that learned body, his farther Experi¬
ments and obfervations on the comprelTibility of wa¬
ter, and fome other fluids.” The eilablifhment of this
fa61:, in oppofition to the received opinion, formed on
the hafty decifion of the Florentine Academy, was
thought to be deferving of the fociety’s gold medal.
It was accordingly moved for in the council of 1764 '■>
and after feveral invidious* delays, which terminated
much to the honour of Mr Canton, it was prefented
to him Nov. 30. 1765.
The next communication of our ingenious author to
the Royal Society, which we (hall take notice of in
this place, was on Dec. 22. 1763, being An eafy
method of making a Phofphorus that will imbibe and
emit light like the Bolognian (tone ; with experiments
and obfervations.” When he firft fhowed to Dr Frank¬
lin the inftantaneous light acquired by fome of this
phofphorus from the near difcharge of an eleftrified
bottle, the do&or immediately exclaimed, “ And God
faid, Let there be light, and there was light.” i he
dean and chapter of St Paul’s having, in a letter to the
prefident, dated March 5. 1769, requefted the opinion
of the Royal Society relative to the beft and moil; ef-
fe&ual method of fixing ele&rical condu&ors. to pre-
ferve that' cathedral from damage by lightning, Mr
Canton was one of the committee appointed to take
ihe letter into confideration, and to report their opi¬
nion upon it. The gentlemen joined with him in this Cantoning
bufinefs were, Dr Watfon, Dr Franklin, Mr Delaval, Can]^rc
and Mr Wilfon. Their report was made on the 8th . j
of June following •, and the mode recommended by-
them has been carried into execution. The lad paper
of our author’s, which was read before the Royal So¬
ciety, was on Dec. 21. 1769; and contained “ Expe¬
riments to prove that the Luminoulnefs of the Sea
arifes from the putrefaction of its animal fubftances.”
In the account now given of his communications to
the public, we have chiefly confined ourfelves to fuch
as were the mod important, and which threw new and
didinguidied light on various objects in the philofophi-
cal world. Befides thefe he wrote a number of papers
both in earlier and in later life, which appeared in feve-
ral different publications, and particularly in the Gen¬
tleman’s Magazine.
The clofe and fedentary life of Mr Canton, arifing
from an unremitted attention to the duties of his pro-
feilion, and to the profecution of his philofophical in¬
quiries and experiments, probably contributed to (hort-
en his days. The diforder into which he fell, and
wdiich carried him off, was a dropfy. His death hap¬
pened on March 22. 1772, in the 54th year of his age.
CANTONING, in the military art, is the allotting
diftindl and feparate quarters to each regiment ; the
town where they are quartered being divided into as
many cantons as there are regiments.
CANTRED, or Cantreth, fignifies a hundred vil¬
lages. It is a Britifh word, compounded of the adjeftive
cant, i. e. hundred ; and tref, a town or village. In
Wales fome of the counties are divided into cantreds,
as in England into hundreds.
CANTYRE, from Cantierre, fignifying a “ head¬
land^” the fouthern divifion of the (hire of Argyle in
Scotland. It is a peninfula, ftretching 37 miles from
north to fouth, and feven miles in breadth. It is moft-
ly plain, arable, and populous •, inhabited promifcuoufly
by Highlanders and Lowlanders, the latter being in¬
vited to fettle in this place by the Argyle fam'dy, that
the lands might be the better cultivated. It gives the
title of marquis to the duke,, and is by Lochfyn divid¬
ed from Argyle Proper. Fhis locn is an inlet from
the fea, about 60 miles in length and four in breadth,
celebrated for its herring filhery. There are many
paltrv villages in this country, but no town of any con-
fequence except Campbelltown.
Cantyre w'as granted to the houfe of Argyle after the
fuppreflron of a rebellion of the (Macdonalds of the
Kies (and it is fuppofed of this peninfula) in the be¬
ginning of the laft century, and the grant, w'as after¬
wards ratified by parliament. The ancient inhabitants
were the Mac-donalds, Mac-eachrans, Mac-kays, and
Mac-maths.
Mull of Cantyre, the fouth cape or promontory of
the peninfula. There is here a lighthoufc 235 feet
above the fea at high water, fituated on the rocks call¬
ed the Merchants. Lat. 55. 22. Long. 5. 42. weft of
London. The found of Ida from the lightho.ufe bear¬
ing, by the compafs, N. by E. diftant 27 miles j the
fouth end of Ifta N. N. W. diftant 25 miles; the
north end of Rathlin ifland, N. W. by W. one half
W.; the Maiden Rocks, S. by W. one half W. di¬
ftant 14 miles; Copland light, S. by W. one half W,
diftant.-
Cant*
II
Canute
CAN [i
cHftant 31 miles. The lanthorn is feen from N. E.
I-4th E. from S. by W. l-4th W. and intermediate
, points of the compafs N. of thefe two points.
CANTZ, a town of Silefia in Germany. E. Long.
'16. 36. N. Lat. 51. 6.
C ANYAS, in commerce, a very clear unbleached
cloth of hemp, or flax, wove regularly in little fquares.
It is ufed for wmrking tapeftry with the needle, by
palling the threads of gold, fllver, filk or wool, through
the intervals or fquares.
Canvas is alio a coarfe cloth of hemp, unbleached,
fomewhat clear, which ferves to cover women’s flays,
alfo to ftiffen men’s clothes, and to make fome other of
their wearing apparel, &c.
Canvas is alfo ufed among the French for the mo¬
del or firfl: words whereon an air or piece of mufic is
compofed, and given to a poet to regulate and finifh.
The canvas of a fong contains certain notes of the
compofer, which Aiow the poet the meafure of the
verfes he is to make. Thus _Du Lot fays, he has can¬
vas for ten fonnets againft the Mufes.
Canvas is alfo the name of a cloth made of hemp,
and ufed for Ihip fails.
Canvas, among painters, is the cloth on which they
ufually draw their pictures ; the canvas being fmoothed
over with a flick ftone, then fized, and afterwards
whited over, makes what the painters called then primed
cloth, on which they draw their firft Iketches with coal
or chalk, and afterwards finilh with colours.
CANULA, in Surgery, a tube made of different
metals, principally of filver and lead, but fometimes of
iron.
They are introduced into hollow ulcers, in order to
facilitate a difeharge of pus or any other fubftance $ or
into wounds, either accidental or artificial, of the large
cavities, as the thorax or abdomen : they are ufed in
the operation of bronchotomy ; and by fome, after the
cutting for the ftone, as a drain for urine.
Other canulas are ufed for introducing cauteries,
either attual or potential, into hollow parts, in order
to guard the parts adjacent to that to be cauterized,
from injury. They are of various figures 5 fome being
oral, fome round, and others crooked.
CANUSIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Apulia, on the right or fouth fide of the Aufidus, to
the weft of Cannae, whither the Romans fled after (the
defeat fuftained there. It was famous for its red fhin-
ing wool w'hence thofe who wore clothes made of
it were called Canujinati. Now called Canosa ;
which fee.
CANUTE, the firft Danifti king of England after
Ironfide. He married Emma widow of King Ethelred ;
and put to death feveral perfons of quality who ftood
in his way to the crown. Having thus fettled his power
in England, he made a voyage to his other kingdom of
Denmark, in order to refill the attacks of the king of
Sweden ; and he carried along with him a great body
of the Englifli under the command of the earl of God¬
win. This nobleman had here an opportunity of per¬
forming a fervice by which he both reconciled the
king’s mind to the Englilh nation, and, gaining to
himfelf the friendfhip of his fovereign, laid the founda¬
tion of that immenfe fortune which he acquired to his
family. He was ftationed next the Swcdifti camp } and
obierving a favourable opportunity which he was ob-
50 ] CAN
liged fuddenly to feize, he attacked the enemy in the ^
night, drove them fuddenly from their trenches, threw
them into diforder, purfued his advantage, and obtained
a decifive vitlory over them. Next morning, Canute,
feeing the Englilh camp entirely abandoned, imagined
that thefe difaffeaed troops had deferted to the enemy j
and he was agreeably furprifed to find that they were
at that time engaged in purfuit of the difeomfited
Sw’edes. He was fo pleafed with this fuccefs, and the
manner of obtaining it, that he bellowed his daughter
in marriage upon Godwin, and treated him ever after
with the moll entire confidence and regard.
In another voyage which he afterwards made to
Denmark, Canute attacked Norway, and expelled the
juft but unwarlike Olaus from his kinguom, of which
he kept poffeflion till the death of that prince. He
had now by his conquefts and valour attained the ut-
moft height of his ambition; and having leifure from
wars and intrigues,-he felt the unfatisfaftory nature of
all human enjoyments : and equally weary of the glory
and turmoils of this life, he began to call his view to¬
wards that future exiftence, which it is fo natural for
the human mind, whether fatiated by profperity, or
difgutled with adverfity, to make the objeft of its at-
' tention. Unfortunately the fpirit which prevailed in
that age gave a wrong dire£lion to his devotion 5 and,
inftead of making atonement to thofe whom he had
formerly injured by his a6ls of violence, he entirely
employed himfelf in thofe exercifes of piety, which
the monks reprefented as moil meritorious. He built
churches ; he endowed monafteries •, he enriched eccle-
fiaftics ; and he bellowed revenues for the fupport of
chantries at Aflington and other places, wLere he ap¬
pointed prayers to be faid for the fouls of thofe wrho
had there fallen in battle againft him. He even under¬
took a pilgrimage to Rome, where he fojourned a con-
fiderable time} and, befides obtaining from the pope
fome privileges for the Englilh fchool eredled there, he
engaged all the princes through whofe dominions he was
obliged to pafs, to defift from thofe heavy impofitions
and tolls u’hich they were accuftomed to exa6l from
the Englilh pilgrims. By this fpirit of devotion, no
leis than by his equitable and politic adminiftration, he
gained in a good meafure the affe6lions of his fubjefls.
Canute, who w7as the greateft and moll powerful
prince of his time, fovereign of Denmark and Norway
as well as of England, could not fail to meet with
adulation from his courtiers*, a tribute which is libe¬
rally paid even to the meaneft and weakeft of princes.
Some of his flatterers breaking out one day in admi¬
ration of his grandeur, exclaimed that every thing
was poflible for him : upon which the monarch, it is
faid, ordered a chair to be fet on the fea Ihore ■while
the tide was making *, and as. the waters approached,
he commanded them to retire, and obey the voice
of him who wTas lord of the ocean. He feigned to fit
fome time in expeflation of their fubmiflion $ but when
the fea Hill advanced towards him, and began to walk
him with its billows, he turned to his courtiers, and
remarked to them, That every creature in the unive.rfe
was feeble and impotent, and that power refided wfith
one Being alone, in whofe hands w7ere all the elements
of nature, who could fay to the ocean, “ Thus far
{halt thou go, and no farther,” and who comd level
with his nod the moil towering piles of human pride
and
Canute.
CAN [ ij
Canzone and ambition. From that time, it is faid, he never
!l would wear a crown. He died in the 20th year of
Caoutchouc ^ re;gn. an(j was interred at Winchefler, in the old
monaftery.
CANZONE, in Mufic, fignifies, in general, a fong,
■where fome little fugues are introduced 5 but it is
fometimes ufed for a fort of Italian poem, ufually
pretty long, to which mufie may be compofed in the
ftyle of a cantata. If this term be added to a piece of
inftrumental mufic, it fignifies much the fame as can¬
tata •, if placed in any part of a fonata, it implies the
fame meaning as allegro, and only denotes that the part
to which it is prefixed is to be played or fung in a brilk
and lively manner.
CANZONETTA, a diminutive of canzone, denot¬
ing a little fliort fong. The canzonette Neapolitane
has two drains, each whereof is fung twice over, as
the vaudevilles of the French. The canzonette Siciliane
is a fpecies of jig, the meafure whereof is ufually
twelve eighths, and fix eighths, and fometimes both,
as rondeaus.
CAORLO, a fmall ifiand in the gulf of Venice, on
the coaft of Friuli, 20 miles fouth-weft of Aquileia,
fubjefl to Venice. It has a town of the fame name,
with a bilhop’s fee.
CAOUTCHOUC, Elastic Resin, or India rub¬
ber, a fubftance produced from the fyringe tree of
Cayenne and other parts of South America, and pof-
feffed of the mod Angular properties. No fubdance is
vet known which is io pliable, and at the fame time fo
eladic ; and it is farther a matter of curiofity, as being
capable of redding the aftion of very powerful men-
ftrua. From the account of M. de la Condamine, we
learn that this fubdance oozes out, under the form of
a vegetable milk, from incifions made in the tiee ,
and that it is gathered chiefly in time of rain, becaufe,
though it may be collefted at all times, it flows then
mod abundantly. The means employed to infpiffate
and indurate it", M. de la Borde fays, are kept a pro¬
found fecret. 1VI. Bomare, and others, affirm, that it
thickens and hardens gradually by being expofed to
the air •, and as foon as it acquires a folid confidence
it manifeds a very extraordinary degree of flexibility
and eladicity. Accordingly the Indians make boots
of it which water cannot penetrate, and which, when
fmoked, have the appearance ofj real leather. Bottles
are alfo made of it, to the necks of which aie fadened
hollow reeds, fo that the liquor contained in them may
be fquirted through the reeds or pipes by predfiure.
One of thefe filled with water is always prefented to
each of the gueds at their entertainments, who never
fail to make ufe of it before eating. This whimfical
cudom led the Portuguefe in that country to call the
tree that produces the refin pao di xn 1 inga ; and hence
the name of fermgat is given both to the tree and to
its refinous production. Flambeaux, an inch and a half
in diameter, and two feet long, are likewife made ot
this refin, which give a beautiful light, have no bad
fmell, and burn twelve hours. A kind of cloth is alfo
prepared from it, which the inhabitants of Quito apply
to the fame purpofe as our oil cloth and fail cloth. . It
is formed, in fine, by means of moulds, into a variety
of figures for ufe and ornament; and the procefs is laid
to be thus The juice, which is obtained by mcifion,
is fpread over pieces of clay formed into the defired
i ] CAN
fliape ; and as fad as one layer is dry, another is add- Caoutchouo
ed, till the veffel be of the proper thicknefs: the whole "V" J.
is then held over a drong fmoke of vegetables on fire,
whereby it hardens into the texture and appearance of
leather; and before the finilhing, while yet foft, is
capable of having any impreflion made on the outfide,
which remains ever after. When the whole is done,
the infide mould is picked out.
Since this refin has been known in Europe, its che¬
mical qualities and other intereding properties have
been very diligently invedigated. In particular, it
has been endeavoured to dilcover fome method of dif-
folving it in fuch a manner that it would affume difter-
ent figures, with equal eafe as when in its original date
fluid. In the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for
1768, we have an account of feveral attempts for this
purpofe, and how it may be effeCted.—The date of
vegetable milk in which the caoutchouc refin is found
when it comes from the tree, led M. Macquer to ima¬
gine that it was compofed of an oil and a watery mat¬
ter. From its wanting aromatic flavour, from its lit¬
tle volatility, and from its being incapable of folution
in fpirit of wine, he concluded that the oil which en¬
tered its compofition was not an elfiential, but a fatty,
one. Hence he thought it probable that it palled
from a fluid to a folid form by the evaporation of the
watery part, and that the oily folvents would reduce
it to a foft date. The fird trials he made for diffolv-
ing it were with linfeed oil, elfience of turpentine, and
feveral others. But all he could obtain by means of
thefe mendrua was a vifcid fubdance incapable of be¬
ing hardened, and totally void of eladicity. The rec¬
tified effential oil of turpentine was employed feeming-
ly with greater fuccefs. To feparate from this men-
druum the caoutchouc which it had diflblved, M. Mac¬
quer added fpirit of wine 5 but the confequence was,
that part only of the oil united with the ipirit 5 the
red remaining obdinately attached to the refin which
it had dilfiolved, and thus preventing it from affuming
a folid confidence. The author next endeavoured to
difiblve it by means of heat in Papin’s digeder. But
neither water, nor fpint of wine, although in this way
capable of dilfolving the harded bones, could produce
any other effeiS upon it than to render it more firm
than before. After this, he tried what effed the mil¬
ky juice of other vegetables would have upon it. He
ufed feveral kinds, particularly that of the fig. But,
in this way, he could obtain no lolution. From the
great volatility of ether, he was next induced to try it
as a mendruum ; and, for this purpofe, he prepared
fome with great attention. Fhe caoutchouc, cut into
little bits, and put into a proper veffel with as much
ether as was fufficient to cover it, was perfeblly dif-
folved without any other heat than that oi the atmo-
fphere. This folution was tranfparent and of an am¬
ber colour. It dill preferved the fmell of ether, but
mixed with the difagreeable odour of the caoutchouc,
and it is a little lefs fluid than pure ether. Upon its
being thrown into wTater, no milky liquor was produ¬
ced ; but there arofe to the furface a iolid membrane
which poffeffed the great eladicity and other peculiar
properties of the caoutchouc. He obferves, however,
that two pints of the bed ether, obtained by redlifying
eight or ten pints of the common ether by a^ gentle
heat, mud be ufed, in order to the fuccefs of the ope-
C A O [
Caoutchouc ration.—-The diftinguifhing properties of this fub-
‘ v ' fiance, viz. its folidity, flexibility, and elafticity, and
its quality of refilling the aftion of aqueous, fpirituous,
faline, oily, and other common folvents, render it ex¬
tremely fit for the conflrruflion of tubes, catheters,
and other inftruments, in which thefe properties are
wanted. In order to form this refin into fmall tubes,
M. Macquer prepared a folid cylindrical mould of
wax, of the defired fize and Ihape } and then dipping
a pencil into the ethereal folution of the refin, daubed
the mould over with it, till he had covered it with a
coat of refin of a fufficient thicknefs. The whole
piece is then thrown into boiling water j by the heat
of which the wax is foon melted, and rifes to the fur-
face, leaving the refinous tube completely formed be¬
hind.
Groffart informs us, that he has fucceeded very well
in employing the efiential oils of turpentine and laven¬
der as a folvent for the elaftic gum, and thus forming it
into tubes or giving it any Ihape that is wanted. When
the elaftic tube is prepared with oil of lavender, the
latter may be feparated by immerfing the tube in alco¬
hol, wdiich charges itfelf with the oil, and becomes a
good lavender water. Alcohol ferves another purpofe
befide taking up the effential oil. It accelerates very
much the drying of caoutchouc inftruments, which
are thus formed. Oil of turpentine appeared always
and the fmell which could
to have a kind of ftickinefs j
not be got rid of, by any means yet difcovered, was
another inconvenience.
Groffart propofes another folvent, which is eafily
procured, and is not liable to the inconvenience juft
mentioned. This felvent is water. “ I conceive
(fays he) it will appear ftrange to mention water as a
folvent of elaftic gum, that liquid having been always
fuppofed to have no aftion upon it. I myfelf refifted
the idea •, but reflefting that ether, by being faturated
with water, is the better enabled to aft on caoutchouc,
and that this gum when plunged into boiling water be¬
comes more tranfparent at the edges, I prefumed that
this effeft was not due fimply to the dilatation of its
volume by the heat. I thought that, at that tempe¬
rature, fame aftion might take place, and that a long-
continued ebullition might produce more fenfible ef-
fefts. I was not difappointed in my expeftations, and
one of thofe tubes was prepared without any other fol¬
vent than water and heat. I proceeded in the fame
manner as with ether : the elaftic gum dilates but very
little in boiling water 5 it becomes whitifh, but reco¬
vers its colour again by drying it in the air and light.
It is fufficiently prepared for ufe when it has been a
quarter of an hour in boiling water : by this time its
edges are fometimes tranfparent. It is to be turned
fpirally round the mould, in the manner we defcribed
before, and replunged frequently into the boiling wa¬
ter, during the time that is employed in forming the
tube, to the end that the edges may be difpofed to
unite together. When the whole is bound with
packthread, it is to be kept fome hours in boiling wa¬
ter *, after which it is to be dried, ftill keeping on the
binding.
“ If we wifh to be more certain that the connexion
is perfeft, the fpiral may be doubled ; but we muft al¬
ways avoid placing the exterior furfaces of the flips one
upon the other, as thofe furfaces are the parts which
152 ] C A O
moft refift the aftion of folvents. This precaution is Caoutchouc:
lefs neceffary when ether is employed, on account of ' " ‘v 1 '
its great aftion upon the caoutchouc.
“ It might be feared that the aftion of W’ater upon
caoutchouc would deprive us of the advantages which
might otherwife be expefted } but thefe fears will be
removed, if we confider that the affinities differ ac¬
cording to the temperatures *, that it is only at a very-
high temperature that water exercifes any fenfible ac¬
tion upon caoutchouc. I can affirm, that at 120° of
Reaumur’s thermometer (302° of Fahrenheit) this af¬
finity is not fuch as that the water can give a liquid
form to caoutchouc ; and it does not appear that we
have any thing to fear in praftice from a combination
between thefe two bodies, which, though it really is a
true folution, does not take place in any fenfible de¬
gree but at a high temperature. It is therefore at pre¬
lent eafy to make of caoutchouc whatever inftruments
it may be advantageous to have of a flexible, fupple,
and elaftic fubftance, which is impermeable to water
at the temperature of our atmofphere, and refills the
aftion of acids as well as that of moft other folvents.
As to the durability of thefe inftruments, fewr fubftan-
ces promife more than this, becaufe it may be foldered
afrefli in a damaged part. Any woven fubftance may
be covered with it 5 it is only required that the fub¬
ftance ftiould be of a nature not to be afted upon du¬
ring the preparation, either by ether or by boiling wa¬
ter 5 for thele two agents are th@fe which appear to me
to merit the preference. Artifts will frequently find
an advantage in employing ether, as it requires lefs
time •, fo that a perfon may make, in a fingle day, any
tube he may have occafion for. The expence of ether
is very little, fince it is needful only to difpofe the
caoutchouc to adhere ; and being brought into that
Hate, the caoutchouc may be kept in a veliel perfeftly
w-ell clofed. It would alfo diminilh the expence of
the ether, if, inftead of waffling it with a large quantity
of water, there ftiould be added to it only as much water
as it can take up.” Annales de Chitme, vol. xi. p. 149*
A refin fimilar to this was fome years ago difcover¬
ed by M. Poivre, in the Ille of France 5 and there are
various milky juices extrafted from trees in America
and elfewhere, which by previous mixtures and prepa¬
rations are formed into an elaftic refin, but of an infe¬
rior quality to that of Cayenne •, fuch, for inftance,
are the juices obtained from the Cecropia peltata, the
Ficus religiofa and Indie a, &c.
Of the genuine trees, thofe growing along the banks
of the river of the Amazons are defcribed by M. Con-
damine as attaining a very great height, being at the
fame time perfeftly ftraight, and having n© branches
except at top, which is but fmall, covering no more
than a circumference of ten feet. Its leaves bear fome
refemblance to thofe of the maniocs they are green on
the upper part, and white beneath. The feeds are
three in number, and contained in a pod confiding of
three cells, not unlike thofe of the ricinus or palma
Chri/ii; and in each of them there is a kernel, which
being ftripped and boiled in water produces a thick oil
or fat, anfwering the purpofe of butter in the cookery
of that country.
A method of diffolving this elaftic gum without e-
ther, for the purpofes of a varnilh or the like, is as fol¬
lows ; Take one pound of the fpirit of turpentine, and
CAD [ !53 ] GAP
cut into Very {mail pieces; laftic rings for lafcivious purpofes.—Among us it is
Caoutchouc- a pound of the gum . -
' v  pour the turpentine into a long-necked matrafs, which
mult be placed in a fand bath ; throw in the gum,
not all at once, but by little and little according as it
is perceived to diffolve : When it is entirely diffolved,
pour into the matrafs a pint of nut or linfeed oil, or
oil of poppies, rendered deficcative in the ufual man¬
ner with litharge : Then let the whole boil for a quar¬
ter of an hour, and the preparation is finiftied. This
would make an excellent varnifh for air balloons, were
it not fo expenfive on account of the price of the gum.
—Another method, invented by Mr Baldwin, is as
follows. Take any quantity of the caoutchouc, as
two ounces avoirdupois : cut it into fmall bits with a
pair of fciffars. Put a ftrong iron ladle (fuch as plum¬
bers or glaziers melt their lead in) over a common pit-
coal or other fire. The fire muft be gentle, glowing,
and without fmoke. When the ladle-ishot, much be¬
low a red heat, put a fingle bit into the ladle. If
black fmoke iflues, it will prefently flame and difap-
pear or it will evaporate without flame : the ladle is
then too hot. When the ladle is lefs hot, put in a fe-
cond bit, which will produce a white fmoke. This
white fmoke will continue during the operation, and
evaporate the caoutchouc : therefore no time is to be
loft ; but little bits are to be put in, a few at a time,
till the whole are melted. It ftrould be continually
and gently ftirred with an iron or brafs fpoon. T wo
pounds, or one quart, of the beft drying oil (or of
raw linfeed oil, which, together with a few drops of
neats foot oil, has flood a month, or not io long, on a
lump of quicklime, to make it more or lefs drying) is
to be put into the melted caoutchouc, and ftirred till
hot: and the whole poured into a glazed veffel, through
a coarfe gauze, or fine fieve. When fettled and clear,
which will be in a few minutes, it is fit for me, either
hot or cold.
The Abbe Clavigero informs us, that the elaftic
gum is called by the Mexicans Olin or 0///, and by the
Spaniards of that kingdom Vie: That it diftils from
the olquahuitl, which is a tree of moderate fize 5 the
trunk of which is fmooth and yellowifti, the leaves
pretty large, the flowers white, and the fruit yellow
and rather round, but angular 5 within which there are
kernels as large as filberts, and white, but covered
with a yellowifti pellicle : That the kernel has a bitter
tafte, and the fruit always grows attached to the bark
of the tree : That when the trunk is cut, the ule which
diftils from it is white, liquid, and vifcous-, afterwards
it becomes yellow7 ; and laftly of a leaden coiour,
though rather blacker, which it always retains. The
tree, he adds, is very common in the kingdom of Gua-
timala. . , .
Different trees, it would appear, yield the ela¬
ftic gum. Aublet, in his Hljloire des Plantes de la
Guiane (p. 871.), defcribes the tree, the fruit, and
manner of collecting the juice ; but never faw the
flower : he calls it, however, Hevea Guianenfis. In
Jacquin’s America, it is called Echites Corymbofa. The
younger Linnaeus, in his Supplementum Plantarum (p.
422), names it ^atropba Elajtica; but acknowledges
that" he only gives it this name from the ftruclure 01
the fruit having moft refemblance to that genus, his
dry foecies wanting the flowers.
Of the above gum, it is faid, the Chine.e make e-
Vol. V. Part I.
ufed by furgeons for injedling liquids, and by painters
for rubbing out black lead pencil marks, &c.
CAP, a part of drefs made to cover the head, much
in the figure thereof.
The ufe of caps and hats is referred to the year
1449, the firft feen in thefe parts of the world being
at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen : from that
time they began to take place of the hoods, or chape-
roons, that had been ufed till then. When the cap
was of velvet, they called it mortier ; when of wool,
Amply bonnet. None.but kings, princes, and knights,
were allowed the ufe of the mortier. The cap was the
head drefs of the clergy and graduates. Pafquier fays,
that it was anciently a part of the hood worn by the
people of the robe ; the fkirts whereof being cut off
as an encumbrance, left the round cap an eafy com¬
modious cover for the head ; which round cap being
aftewards aflumed by the people, thofe of the gown
changed it for a fquare one, firft invented by a French¬
man, called Patrouillet : he adds, that the giving of
the cap to the ftudents in the univerfities, was to de¬
note, that they had acquired full liberty, and were no
longer fubjedl to the rod of their fuperiors 5 in imita¬
tion of the ancient Romans, who gave zjnleus, or cap,
to their (laves, in the ceremony of making them free :
whence the proverb, Vocare fervos adpilemn. Hence,
alfo, on medals, the cap is the fymbol of Liberty,
whom they reprefent holding a cap in her right hand,
by'the point.
The Romans were many ages without any regular
covering for the head 1 when either the rain or fun
was troublefome, the lappet of the gow7n was thrown
over the head $ and hence it is that all the ancient fta-
tues appear bareheaded, excepting fometimes a wreath,
or the like. And the .ame ufage obtained among the
Greeks, where, at leaft during the heroic age, no caps
w’ere known. The fort of caps or covers of the head
in ufe among the Romans on divers occafions, were
the pitra, pileus, cucul/us, golems, and palliolum ; the
differences between which are often confounded by an¬
cient as well as modern writers.
The French clergy wear a (hallow kind of cap,
called calotte, which only covers the top of the head,
made of leather, fatin, wTorfted, or other fluff. The
red cap is a mark of dignity allowed only to thofe who
are raifed to the cardinalate. The fecular clergy are
diftinguifhed by black leathern caps, the regulars by
knit and worfted ones. _ .
Churchmen, and the members of univerfities, ftu¬
dents in law, phyfic, &c. as well as graduates, wear
fquare caps. In moft univerfities doflois are. diitin-
guiftied by peculiar caps, given them in affuming the
doftorate. Wickliff calls the canons of his time bi-
furcati, from their caps. Pafquier obferves, that, m
his time, the caps worn by the churchmen, &c. were
called fquare caps 5 though, in effeft, they were round
yellow caps.
The Chinefe have not the ufe ot the hat, hive us j
but wear a cap of a peculiar ftrudlure, which the law's
of civility will not allow them to put off: it is differ¬
ent for the different feafons of the year : that uled in
fummer is in form of a cone, ending at top m a point.
It is made of a very beautiful kind of mat, much va¬
lued in that country, '"'A ™,tV' rat,n : to this 1S
Cap.
u
added.
CAP [ 154 ] CAP
added, at top, a large lock of red filk, which falls all
round as low as the bottom } fo that, in walking, the
filk fluctuating regularly on all fides, makes a graceful
appearance : fometimes, initead of filk, they ufe a kind
of bright red hair, the luftre wdiereof no weather effa¬
ces. In winter they wear a plulh cap, bordered with
martlet’s or fox’s fkin 5 as to the reft, like thofe for
the fummer. Thefe caps are frequently fold for eight
or ten crowns j but they are fo fhort, that the ears are
expofed.
The cap is fometimes ufed as a mark of infamy ; in
Italy the Jews are diftinguifhed by a yelkw cap ; at
Lucca by an orange one. In France, thofe who had
been bankrupts were obliged ever after to wear a green
cap, to prevent people from being impofed on in any
future commerce. By feveral arrets in 1584, 1622,
1628, 1688, it was decreed, that if they were at any
time found without their green cap, their protection
ihould be null, and their creditors empowered to caft
them into piilon; but the fentence is not now exe¬
cuted.
Cap o/1 Maintenance, one of the regalia, or orna¬
ments of ftate, belonging to the kings of England, be¬
fore whom it w'as carried at the coronation and other
great folemnities. Caps of maintenance are alfo car¬
ried before the mayors of the feveral cities in Eng¬
land. *
Cap and Button, are twm fmall iflands, lying in
longitude 105° 48' 30" eaft ; and in latitude, the for-
mer 50 58' 30", the latter 50 49' fouth. They are
thus deferibed by Sir George Staunton.
“ At a little diftance they might be miftaken for
the remains of old caftles, mouldering into heaps of
ruins, wuth tall trees already growing upon the tops ;
but at a nearer view, they betrayed evident marks of a
volcanic origin. Explofions from fubterraneous fires,
produce, for the moft part, hills of a regular fiiape,
and terminating in truncated cones ; but when from a
iubaqueous volcano eruptions are thrown up above the
lurface of the fea, the materials, falling back into the
water, are more irregularly difperfed, and generally
leave the fides of the new creation naked and miftiapen,
as in the inftance of Amfterdam, and of thofe (mailer
(pots called, from fome refemblance in lhape, the Cap
and Button.
“ 1° the Cap were found two caverns, running ho¬
rizontally into the fide of the rock •, and in thefe were
a number of thofe birds nefts fo much prized by the
Chinefe epicures. They Teemed to be compofed of
fine filaments cemented together by a tranfparent vif-
cous matter, not unlike what is left by the foam of the
fea upon ftones alternately covered by the tide, or thofe
gelatinous animal fubftances found floating on every
coaft. The nefts adhere to each other, and to the
fides of the cavern, moftly in rows, w ithout any break
or interruption. The birds that build thefe nefts are
(mall gray fwallows, with bellies of a dirty white.
They were flying about in confiderable numbers; but
they were fo fmall, and their flight fo quick, that they
efcaped the (hot fired at them. The fame nefts are faid
alfo to be found in deep caverns, at the foot of the
higheft mountains in the middle of Java, and at a di¬
ftance from the fea, from which the birds, it is thought,
derive no materials, either for their food or the con-
ftru&ion of their nefts; as it does not appear probable
they fhould fly, in fearch of either, over the interme- Capacio,
diate mountains, which are very high, or againft the Capacity,
boifterous winds prevailing thereabouts. They feed ——v—^
on infects, which they find hovering over ftagnated
pools between the mountains, and for catching which
their wide-opening beaks are particularly adapted.
They prepare their nefts from the bed remnants of
their food. Their greateft enemy is the kite, who of¬
ten intercepts them in their paffage to and from the ca¬
verns, which are generally furrounded with rocks of
gray limeftone or white marble. The nefts are placed
in horizontal rorvs at different depths, from 50 to 500
feet. The colour and value of the nefts depend on the
quantity and quality of the infedls caught, and perhaps
alfo on the fituation where they are built. Their va¬
lue is chiefly determined by the uniform finenefs and
delicacy of their texture ; thofe that are white and
tranfparent being moft efteemed, and fetching often in
China their weight in filver. Thefe nefts are a confi¬
derable objeft of traffic among the Javanefe, and many
are employed in it from their infancy. The birds hav- *
ing fpent near two months in preparing their nefts, lay
each two eggs, which are hatched in about fifteen
days. When the young birds become fledged, it is
thought time to feize upon their nefts, which is done
regularly thrice a-year, and is effecled by means of
ladders of bamboo and reeds, by which the people de-
feend into the cavern ; but when it is very deep, rope
ladders are preferred. This operation is attended with
much danger ; and feveral break their necks in the at¬
tempt. The inhabitants of the mountains generally-
employed in it begin always by facrificing a buffalo ;
which cuftom is conftantly obferved by the Javanefe
on the eve of every extraordinary enterprife. They
alfo pronounce fome prayers, anoint themfelves with
fweet-feented oil, and fmoke the entrance of the ca¬
vern with gum-benjamin. Near fome of thofe caverns
a tutelar goddefs is w’orflupped, whofe prieft burns in-
cenfe, and lays his protedting hands on every perfon
preparing to defeend into the cavern. A flambeau is
carefully prepared at the fame time, with a gum which
exudes from a tree growing in the vicinity, and is net
ealily extinguifhed by fixed air or fubterraneous va¬
pours. The fwallow, which builds thofe nefts, is de¬
feribed as not having its tail feathers marked with
white fpots, which is a charadler attributed to it by
Linnaeus ; and it is poffrble that there are two fpecies
or varieties of the fwallowq whofe nefts are alike va¬
luable f.” t Embajfy fo
Cap, in fhip-building, a ftrong thick block ofc/jtna'
wood, ufe.d to confine two mafts together, when one
is eredled at the head of the other in order to lengthen
it. It is for this purpofe furnifhed with two holes
perpendicular to its length and breadth, and parallel
to its thicknefs : one of thefe is fquare, and the other
round : the former being folidly fixed upon the upper
end of the lower maft, whilft the latter receives the
maft employed to lengthen it, and fecures it in this
pofition.
CAPACIO, an epifcopal towm of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the hither Principato. E.
Long. 15. 18. N. Lat. 40. 40.
CAPACITY, in a general fenfe, an aptitude or
difpofition to hold or retain any thing.
Capacity, in Geometry, is the folid contents of any
CAP [ i.
Capacity body } alfo our hollow meafures for wine, beer, corn,
!' fait, See. are called meafures of capacity.
j Capacity, in Law, the ability of a man, or body
politic, to give or take lands or other things, or fue
actions.
Our law allows the king two capacities ; a natural,
and a political : in the firft, he may purchafe lands to
him and his heirs; in the fecond, to him and his fuc-
ceffors. The clergy of the church of England have
the like.
CAPARASON, or Caparison, the covering or
clothing laid over a horfe ; efpecially a fumpter horfe,
or horfe of Hate. The word is Spanilh, being an aug¬
mentative of cape, caput, head.
Anciently the caparafons were a kind of iron ar¬
mour, wherewith horfes were covered in battle.
CAPE, in Geography, a high land running out
with a point into the lea, as Gape Nord, Cape Horn,
the Cape of Good Hope, &c.
Cape Eih. See Cervus, Mammalia//zfl'eA’.
Cape Breton. See Breton.
Ckvv.-Coaf Cafle. See Coast.
Cape of Good Hope. See Good Hops.
Cape Verd. See Verd.
CAPELL, Edward, a gentleman well known by
his indefatigable attention to the works of Shakefpeare,
was a native of the county of Suffolk, and received his
education at the fchool of St Edmund’s Bury. In the
dedication of his edition of Shakefpeare, in 1768, to
the duke of Grafton, he obferves; that “ his father
and the grandfather of his grace, were friends, and to
the patronage of the deceafed nobleman he owed the
leifure which enabled him to beftow the attention of
20 years on that work.” The office which his grace
bellowed on Mr Capell was that of deputy-infpe6lor
of the plays, to which a falary is annexed of 200I. a-year.
So early as the year 174 5, as Mr Capell himfelf informs
us, (hocked at the licentioufnefs of Hanmer’s plan, he
firft projefled an edition of Shakefpeare, of the ftri£left
accuracy, to be collated and publifhed in due time,
ex fide codicum. He immediately proceeded to collefl
and compare the oldeft and fcarceft copies; noting the
original excellencies and defers of the rareft quartos,
and diftinguifhing the improvements or variations of
the firft, fecond, and third folios: and after many
years labour produced a very beautiful fmall odftavo,
in 10 volumes, with an “ Introduction.” There is
not, the authors of the Monthly Review obferve,
among the various publications of the prefent literary
era, a more fingular compofition than that “ Intro-
du&ion.” In ftyle and manner it is more obfolete
and antique than the age of which it treats. It is
Lord Herbert of Cherbury, walking the new pave¬
ment in all the trappings of romance ; but, like Lord
Herbert, it d'fplays many valuable qualities accom¬
panying this air of extravagance, much found fenfe,
and appropriate erudition. In the title-page of “ P.Ir
William Shakefpeare, his Comedies, Hiftories, and
Tragedies,” it w?as alfo announced and promulgated,
“ Whereunto wall be added, in fome other volumes,
notes critical and explanatory, and a body of various
readings entire.” “ The Introdu&ion” likewnfe de¬
clared, that thefe “ notes and various readings” would
be accompanied with another work, difclofing the
fources from which Shakefpeare “drew the greater
5 J CAP
part of his knowledge in mythological and claffical Capell
matters, his fable, his hiftory, and even the feeming 1!
peculiarities of his language—-to which,” fays Mr .C31^!!us‘
Capell, “we have given for title, The School of”"*'
Shakefpeare.” Nothing furely could be more pro¬
perly conceived than fuch defigns ; nor have we ever
met with any thing better grounded on the fubjeft of
“ the learning of Shakefpeare” than wffiat may be
found in the long note to this part of Mr Capell’s In-
troduftion. It is more folid than even the popular
“ Eflay” on this topic. Certain quaintnefles of ftyle,
and peculiarities of printing and pun&uation, attended
the whole of this publication. The outline, however,
was correft; and the critic, with unremitting toil,
proceeded in his undertaking. But while he was div¬
ing into the claffics of Caxton (to continue the Re¬
viewers account), and working his way under ground,
like the river Mole, in order to emerge with all his
glories j while he was looking forward to his tri¬
umphs, certain other a£live fpirits went to w’ork upon
his plan ; and, digging out the promifed treafures,
laid them prematurely before, the public, defeating the
effeft of our critic’s difeoveries by anticipation. Stee-
vens, Malone, Farmer, Percy, Reed, and a w-holc 1
hoft of literary ferrets, burrowed into every hole and
corner of the wTarren of modern antiquity, and over¬
ran all the country, whofe map had been delineated
by Edward Capell. Such a contingency nearly ftag-
gered the fteady and unfhaken perfeverance of our
critic, at the very eve of the completion of his la¬
bours, and as his editor informs us—for, alas ! at
the end of near 40 years, the publication was pofthu-
mous, and the critic himfelf no more !—he was almoft
determined to lay the work wholly afide. He perfevered,
however, by the encouragement of fome noble and wor¬
thy perfons 5 and to fuch their encouragement, and his
perfeverance, the public was, in 1783, indebted for
three large volumes in 4to, under the title of “ Notes
and various readings of Shakefpeare ; together with
the School of Shakefpeare, or Extracts from divers
Engliffi Books, that were in print in the Author’s
time } evidently fhowing from whence his feveral Fa¬
bles were taken, and fome parcel of his Dialogue. Al¬
fo farther Extrafis, which contribute to a due under-
ftanding of his Writings, or give a light to the Hiftory
of his Life, or to the Dramatic Pliftory ofhis Time. By
Edw. Capell.”—Befides the works already mentioned,
Mr Capell was the editor of a volume of ancient poems
called “ Prolufions and the alteration of “ Anthony
and Cleopatra,” as afted at Drury Lane in 1758. He
died January 24. 1781.
CAPELLA, in Hfronomy, a bright fixed ftar in
the left (boulder of the conftellation Auriga.
CAPELLE, a town of France, in Picardy, and in
the Tierache, eight miles from Guife. It was taken
by the Spaniards in 1636 ; but retaken the year after.
E. Long. 3. 59. N. Lat. 49. 58.
CAPELLETS. See Iarriery Index.
CAPELLUS, Lewis, an eminent French Prote-
ftant divine, born at Sedan in Champagne about the
year 1579. He was author of fome learned works :
but is chiefly knowm from the controverfy he engaged
in with the younger Buxtorf concerning the antiquity
of Hebrew7 points, which Capelins undertook to dil-
prove. His Critica Sacra was alfo an elaborate work,
U 2 and
CAP [ >55 1
and excited fome difputes. He died In 1658, having congregation
made an abridgement of his life in his work De gente
Caper
Caperdaiis; c^Z/fori.
^ CAPER. See Capparis, Botany Index.
Caper alfo denotes a veffel ufed by the Dutch for
cruifmg and taking prizes from the enemy 5 in which
fenfe, caper amounts to the fame with privateer. Ca¬
pers are commonly double officered, and crowded with
hands even beyond the rates of (hips of war, becauie the
thing chiefly in view is boarding the enemies.
CAPERNAUM, a city celebrated in the Goipels,
being the place where Jefus ufually refided during the
time of his miniftry. This city is nowhere mention¬
ed in the Old Teftament under this or any other name
like it •, and therefore it is not improbable that it was
one of thofe towns which the Jews built after their
return from the Babyloniffi captivity. It flood on
the fea coaft, i. e. on the coafl of the fea of Galilee, in
the borders of Zebulon and Nephtalim (Mat. iv. 15.),
and confequently towards the upper part thereof. It
took its name no doubt from an adjacent fpring, o
great repute for its clear and limpid water 5 and
which, according to Jofephus, was by the natives called
Capernaum. As this fpring might be fome inducement
to the building the town in the place where it flood,
fo its being a convenient wafting place from Galilee to
any part on the other fide of the fea, might be fome
motive to our Lord for his moving from Nazareth, and
making this the place of his moil conflant refidence.
Upon this account Capernaum was highly honoured,
and faid by our Lord himfelf to be exalted unto heaven j
but becaufe it made no right ufe of this fignal favour,
it drew from him the fevere denunciation, that it
fliould be brought down to hell (Matt. xi. 23.), which
has certainly been verified : for, as Dr Wells obferves,
fo far is it from being the metropolis of all Galilee, as
it once w7as, that it confifted long fince of no more than
fix poor filhermen’s cottages, and may perhaps be now
totally defolate. . ...
CAPEROLANS, a congregation of religious in
Italy, fo called from Peter Caperole their founder, in
the 15th century.
The Milanefe and Venetians being at war, the en¬
mity occafioned thereby fpread itlelf to the very (l°if'
ters. The fuperiors of the province of Milan, oi mi-
nor brothers, which extended itfelf as far as the ter¬
ritories of the republic of Venice, carried it lo haugh¬
tily over the Venetians, that thofe of the convent of
Brefcia refolved to ffiake off a yoke which, was grown
infupportable to them. I he iuperiors, informed of
this, expelled out of the province thofe whom they
confidered as the authors of this defign 5 the principal
of whom were Peter Caperole, Matthew de Tharvillo,
and Bonaventure of Brefcia. Peter Caperole, a man
of an enterprifing genius, found means to feparate the
convents of Brefcia, Bergamo, and Cremona, from the
province of IVIilan, and lubjedl them to the conven¬
tuals. This occafioned a law fuit between the vi¬
car general and thefe convents, which was deter¬
mined in favour of the latter ; and thefe convents,
in 1475, by the authority of Pope Sixtus IV. were
ere&ed into a diftinft vicariate, under the title of
that of Brefcia. This not fatisfying the ambition of
Caperole, he obtained, by the interpofition of the doge
of Venice" that this vicariate might be ere&ed into a
CAP
which was called from him Caperolans. Capequin
This congregation ftill fubfiflsin Italy, and is compoled £
of 24 convents, fituated in Brelcia, Bergamo, and Cie- , ,
mafco.
CAPEQUIN, a town of Ireland, in the county ol
Waterford, and province of Munfter, fituated on tne
river Blackwater. W. Long. 7. 50. N. Lat. 52. 5.
CAPESTAN, a town of France, in Lowmr Lan¬
guedoc, in the diocefe of Narbonne, and near the roy¬
al canal. E. Long. 3. 5* N. Lat. 43 35.
CAPH, a Jewifli meafure of capacity for things,
eftimated by Kimchi at the 30th part of the log, by
Arbuthnot at the 16th part of the hin or 32d of the
feah, amounting to five-eighths of an Englilh pint.. I he
caph does not occur in Scripture as the name of any
mealure.
CAPHAR, a duty which the Turks raifed on the
Chriftians who carry or fend merchandifes from Aleppo
to Jerufalem and other places in Syria.
This duty of caphar was firft impofed by the Chri¬
ftians themfelves, when they were in poffeffion of the
Holy Land, for the maintenance of the troops whicn
were planted in difficult paffes to obferve the Arabs
and prevent their incurfions. It is ftill continued, and
much increafed by the T urks, under pretence of de¬
fending the Chriftians againft the Arabs ; with whom,
neverthelefs, they keep a fecret intelligence, favouring
their excurfions and plunders.
CAPHTOR, in Ancient Geography, a towm or diftridl
of Higher Egypt : and hence the people called Caph-
tor'un or Caphtorei.—Caphtor is an ifland of Egypt,
Ai Caphtor, (Jeremiah) j probably one of thofe in the
Nile. Dr Wells fuppofes it to be Coptos, which flood
in a fmall ifland. Thence came the Capktorim or Caph-
toraei, in Paleftine ; who with the Philiftines confpired
to extirpate the Hevaei ; and whofe name was (wal¬
lowed up in that of the Philiftines.
CAPI-aga, or Cli?\-Agafli, a Turkifti officer who is
governor of the gates of the feraglio, or grand matter
of the feraglio.
The capi-aga is the firft dignity among the white
eunuchs : he is always near the perfon of the grand
fignior: he introduces ambaffadors to their audience :
nobody enters or goes out of the grand fignior s apart¬
ment but by his means. His office gives him the pri¬
vilege of wearing the turban in the ieiaglio, and of
going everywhere on horleback. He accompanies
the grand fignior to the apartment of the fultanas, but
flops at the door without entering. His appointment
is very moderate the grand fignior beais tne expence
of his* table, and allows him at the rate of about fixty
French livres per day 5 but his office brings him. in
abundance of prefents j no affair of confequence coming
to the emneror’s knowledge without patting through
his hand. ‘ The capi-aga cannot be baftiaw when he
quits his poft. -
CAPIAS, in Law, a writ of two forts 5 one before
judgment in an aftion, and the other after. That be¬
fore judgment is called capias ad refpondendum, where
an original is iffued out, to take the defendant, and
make him anfwer the plaintiff. That after judgment
is of divers kinds •, as, r .
Capias ad Satisfaciendum, a writ o. execution tha-.
iffues on a judgment obtained, and lies where any per¬
fon recovers in a perfonal action, as for deot, damages,
CAP
[ *57 1
CAP
See. in which cafes this writ iffues to the (heriff, com¬
manding him to take the body of him againft whom
the debt is recovered, who is to be kept in prifon till
he makes fatisfaftion.
Capias pro Fine is a writ lying where a perfon is
fined to the king, for fome offence committed againft
a ftatute, and he does not difeharge the fine accord¬
ing to the judgment ■, therefore his body ihall be taken
by this writ, and committed to gaol till the fine is
paid.
Capias Utlegatum, a writ which lies againft any one
outlawed, upon any adlion perfonal or criminal, by
which the flreriff is ordered to apprehend the party
outlawed, for not appearing on the exigent, and keep
him in fafe cufiody till the day of return, when he is
ordered to prefent him to the court, to be there farther
ordered for his contempt.
Capias in Withernam, a writ that lies for.cattle in
•withernam: that is, where a diftrefs taken is driven
out of the county, fo that the ftieriff cannot make de¬
liverance upon a replevin } then this writ iffues, com¬
manding the fine riff to take as many beafts of the dif-
trainer, &c.
CAPIGI, a porter or doorkeeper of the Turkifti
feraglio. There are about five hundred capigis or por¬
ters in the feraglio, divided into two companies one
confiding of three hundred, under a chief called Capigi-
Bajfa, who has a ftipend of three ducats per day; the
other confifts of two hundred, diftinguiflied by the
name of Cuccicapigi, and their chief Cuccicapigi-Baff'a,
who has two ducats. The capigis have from feven to
fifteen afpers per day; fome more, others lets. Their
bufinefs is to aflift the janizaries in the guard of the
fir ft and fecond gates ot the feraglio ; lometimes all
together; as when the Turk holds a general council,
receives an ambaffador, or goes to the mofque ; and
fometimes only in part ; being ranged on either fide
to prevent people catering with arms, any tumults
being made, &c. The word, in its original, fignifies,
^CAPILL AMENT, in a general fenfe, fignifies a
hair : whence the word is applied to feveral things,
which on account of their length or their finenefs re¬
ferable hairs : as,
Capillaments o/"the Nerves, in Nnatomy, tire fine
fibres or filaments whereof the nerves are compofed.
CAPILLARY, in a general fenfe, an appellation
given to things on account of their extreme finenefs or
refembling hair. . r
Capillary ’Tubes, in Fhyfics, are fmall pipes ot glais,
whofe canals are extremely narrow, their diameter be¬
ing only a half, a third, or a fourth of a line..
The afeent of water, &c. in capillary tubes, is a phe¬
nomenon tlrat has long embarraffed the philofophers ;
for let one end of a glafs tube open at both extremities
be immerged in water, the liquor within the tube wi
rife to a confiderable height above the external furface:
or if two or move tubes are immerged m the lame
fluid, one a capillary tube, and the other of a larger
bore, the fluid will afeend higher in the former than
in the latter ; and this will be in a reciprocal ratio oi
the diameters of the tubes. .
In order to account for this phenomenon, it will be
neceffary firft to premife, that the attradfion between
the particles of glafs and water is greater than the
attradlion between the particles of water themfelves : Capillary
for if a glafs tube be placed in a pofition parallel to
the horizon, and a drop of water be applied to the 1 ■
under fide of the tube, it will adhere to it : nor will
it fall from the glafs till its bulk and gravity are fo
far increafed, as to overcome the attradlion of the
glafs. Hence it is eafy to conceive how lenfibly iuch
a power muft adt on the furface of a fluid, not vifeid,
as water, contained within the imall cavity or bore of
a glafs tube ; as alfo that it will be proportionably
ftronger as the diameter of the bore is imaller ; for it
will be evident that the efficacy of the power is in the
mverfe proportion of the diameter, when it is confi-
dered, that fuch particles only as are in contadl with
the fluid, and thofe immediately above the furface, can
effedl it.
Now thefe particles form a periphery contiguous to
the furface, the upper part of which attradls and railes
the furface, while the lower part, which is in contadl
with it, fupports it: fo that neither the thicknels nor
length of the tube is of any confequence here; the peri¬
phery of particles only, which is always proportionable
to the diameter of the bore, is the only a&ing power.
The quantity of the fluid raifed will therefore be as the
furface of the bore which it fills, that is, as the dia¬
meter ; for otherwife the effedt would not be propor¬
tional to the caufe, fince the quantities are alvvays as
the ratio of the diameters; the heights therefore to
which the fluids will rile, in different tubes, will be in-
verfely as the diameters.
Some doubt whether the law holds throughout, ot
the afeent of the fluid being always higher as the tube
is fmaller; Dr Hook’s experiments, with tubes almoft
as fine as cobwebs, feem to fhow the contrary, d he
water in thefe, he obferves, did not rife fo high as one
would have expedled. The higheft he ever found
it was at 21 inches above the level of the water
in the bafon ; which is much flrort of what it ought
to have been by the law above mentioned. See Co-
Capillary VeJJels. Many Imall veflels of animal
bodies have been difeovered by the modern invention
of iniedling the veffels of animals with a coloured fluid,
which upon cooling grows hard. But though moft
anatomifts know the manner of filling the large trunks,
few are acquainted with the art of filling the capillaries.
Dr Monro, in the Medical Effays, has given what
after many trials he has found moft luccefsful. See
Injection.
CAPILLUS veneris. SeeAciANTUM, Botany
Index. * •
CAPILUPI, or Capilupus, Camillus, a native
of Mantua in the 16th century. He wrote a book,
entitled, The Stratagem; in which he relates not only
what was perpetrated at Paris during the maffacre on.
St Bartholomew’s day, but alfo the artful preparations
which preceded that horrid maffacre. . It is, however,
blended with a great number of falfities.
Capilupi, Laslius, an Italian poet, brother to the
former, made himfelf famous by fome Centos of Virgi .
The manner in which he applied Virgil’s expreflions to
reprefent things which the poet never dreamt ot, is
admired. His Cento againft women is very ingenious
but too fatirical. The poems of Capilupi are inferted
in the Dehdx Poe,arum hahrum. CAplsc0LUSj
CAP [ 158 ] CAP
Capifcolus CAPISCOLUS, or Capischolus, In ecclefiaftlcal
. ^ f v/riters, denotes a dignitary in certain cathedrals, who
1 “had the fuperintendency of the choir, or band of mufic,
anfw'ering to what in other churches is called chanter ox
precentor. The word is alfo written cabifcolus, and ca-
putfcholtf, q. d. the head of the fchool, or band of
mufic.
The capifcolus is alfo called fcolajlicus, as having the
inflruftion of the young clerks and choriflers, how to
perform their duty.
CAPITA, Distribution by, in Law, fignihes the
appointing to every man an equal fhare of a perfonal
elfatej when all the claimants claim in their own rights,
as in equal degrees of kindred, and not jure reprefenta-
tionis.
Capita, SucceJJion by, where the claimants are next
in degree to the anceftor, in their own right, and not
by right of reprefentation.
CAPITAL, of the Latin caput “ the head,” is
ufed, on various occafions, to exprefs the relation of a
head, chief, or principal : thus,
Cap ital City, in Geography, denotes the principal
city of a kingdom, flate, or province.
Capital Stock, among merchants, bankers, and
traders, fignifies the fum of money which individuals
bring to make up the common flock of a partnerfhip
when it is firil formed. It is alfo laid of the flock
which a merchant at firfl puts into trade for his account.
It likewife fignifies the fund of a trading company or
corporation, in which fenfe the word flock is generally
added to it. Thus wre fay, the capital flock of the
bank, &c. The word capital is oppofed to that of
profit or gain, though the profit often increafes the
capital, and becomes of itfelf part of the capital, when
joined with the former.
Capital Crime, fuch a one as fubjefts the criminal
*See Crime\o capital punifhment, that is, to lofs of life *.
tnvit^>Un''^>' Capital PiBure, in Painting, denotes one of the
finefl and moll excellent pieces of any celebrated
mafler.
Capital Letters, in Printing, large or initial letters,
rvherein titles, &c. are compoied ; with which all pe¬
riods, verfes, &c. commence •, and wherewdth alfo all
proper names of men, kingdoms, nations, &c. begin.
I he pradhee wThich, for fome time, obtained among our
printers, of beginning every fubflantive with a capital,
is now' juflly fallen into difrepute ; being a manifefl
perverfion of the defign of capitals, as w’ell as an of¬
fence againfl beauty and diflinftnefs.
Capital, in ArchiteBure, the uppermofl part of a
column or pilafler, ferving as the head or crowning,
and placed immediately over the fhaft, and under the
entablature. See Architecture.
CAPITANA, or Captain Galley, the chief or
principal galley of a ftate, not dignified with the title
of a kingdom. The capitana wras anciently the deno¬
mination of the chief galley of France, which the com¬
mander went on board of. But fince the fuppreffion
of the office of captain general of the galleys in 1669,
they have no capitana, but the firfl galley is called reale,
and the fecord parone.
CAPITANATA, one of the 12 provinces of the
kingdom of Naples, in Italy, bounded on the north by
the gulf of Venice, on the eaft by the Terra di Bari,
on the fouth by the Bafilicata and the Farther Princi-
I
pato, and on the weft by the county di Molife and aCapitaneate
Imall part of Hither Abiuzzo, It is a level country, , l!
without trees 5 the foil landy, the air hot : the land,,
however, near the rivers, is fertile in paftures. The
capital town is Manfredonia.
C A PIT ANE AT E, in a general fenfe, the fame
with capitania. Capitaneates, in PrulTia, are a kind of
noble feuds or eitates, which, befides their revenue,
raife their owners to the rank of nobility. They are
otherw'ife called JlaroJiies.
CAPITANEI, or Catanei, in Italy, was a deno¬
mination given to all the dukes, marquiles, and counts,
who were called capitanei regis. The lame appellation
wras alfo given to perfons of inferior rank who were
invefted with fees, formerly diftinguifhed by the appel¬
lation valafores majores.
CAPITANEUS, in ancient law wniters, denotes a
tenant in capite, or chief.
Capitaneus Ecclejice, the fame with advocate.
CAPITANIA, in Geography, an appellation given
to the 1 2 governments eilablifhed by the Portuguefe in
the Brafils.
CAPITATION, a tax or impofition railed on each
perion, in proportion to his labour, induftry, office,
rank, &c. It is a very ancient kind of tribute. The
Latins call it tributum, by which taxes on perfons are
diftinguifhed from taxes on merchandife, which w ere
called velhgaha.
Capitations are never praftifed among us but in exi¬
gencies of ftate. In France the capitation was intro¬
duced by Louis XIV. in 1695 \ and is a tax very dif¬
ferent from the faille, being levied from all perfons,
whether they be fubjedl to the taille or not. The cler¬
gy pay no capitation, but the princes of the blood are
not exempted from it.
CAPITE, in law, (from caput, i. e. rex ; whence
tenere in capite, is to hold of the king, the head or lord
paramount of all the lands in the kingdom) : An an¬
cient tenure of land, held immediately of the king, as
of the crown, either by knight’s fervice, or by foccage.
It is now abolifhed. See Tenure.
Capite Ccn/i, in antiquity, the loweft rank of Ro¬
man citizens, who in public taxes w'ere rated the leaft
of all, being fuch as never were worth above 365 affes.
They were fuppofed to have been thus called, btcaufe
they were rather counted and marfhalled by their heads
than by their eftates. The capite cenfi made part of
the fixth clafs of citizens, being below' the proletarii,
who formed the other moiety of that clafs. They were
not enrolled in the army, as being judged not able to
fupport the expence of w ar j for in thole days the fol-
diers maintained themfelves. It does not appear that
before Caius Marius any of the Roman generals lifted
the capite cenfi in their armies.
CAPITOL, Capitolium, in Antiquity, a famous
fort or caftle, on the Mons Capitolinus at Rome, where¬
in was a temple dedicated to Jupiter, thence alfo deno¬
minated Capitolinus, in which the fenate anciently af-
fembled ; and which ftill ferves as the city hall, or
townhoufe, for the meeting of the confervators of the
Roman people.—It had its name ca/C/o/, from caput, “ a
man’s head,” faid to have been found frefh, and yet
bleeding, upon digging the foundation of the temple
built in honour of Jupiter. Arnobius adds, that the
man’s name was Tolus, whence caput tohum.—The firft
foundations
GAP [ 159 J CAP
CapItoUne foundations of the capitol were laid by Tarquin the
jj Elder, in the year of Rome 139. His fucceffor Servius
1 ai''^ou railed the walls ; and Tarquin the Proud finilhed it in
the year 221. But it was not confecrated till the third
year after the expulfion of the kings, and eftablilhment
of the confulate. The ceremony of the dedication of
the temple was performed by the conful Horatius in
246.
The capitol conlifced of three parts ; a nave facred
to Jupiter, and two wings, the one confecrated to Juno,
the other to Minerva : it was afcended to by flairs; the
frontifpiece and Tides were furrounded with galleries, in
which thofe who were honoured with triumphs enter¬
tained the fenate at a magnificent banquet, after the fa-
crifice had been offered to the gods.
Both the infide and outfide were enriched with an
infinity of ornaments, the moll diftinguifhed of which
was the llatue of Jupiter with his golden thunderbolt,
his fceptre, and crown. In the capital alfo were a
temple to Jupiter the Guardian, and another to Juno,
with the mint; and on the defcent of the hill was the
temple of Concord. This beautiful edifice contained
the molt facred depofites of religion, fuch as the ancilia,
the books of the Sibyls, &c.
The capitol was burnt under Vitellius, and rebuilt
under Vefpafian. It was burnt a fecond time by light¬
ning under Titus, and reftored by Domitian.
Anciently the name capital was likewife applied
to all the principal temples in moft of the colonies
throughout the Roman empire ; as at Conftantinople,
Jerufalem, Carthage, Ravenna, Capua, &c.—That of
Thouloufe has given the name of capitouls to the eche-
vins or fheriffs.
CAPITOLINE games, annual games inflituted by
Camillas, in honour of Jupiter Capitolinus, and in com¬
memoration of the capitol’s not being taken by the
Gauls. Plutarch tells us that a part of the ceremony
confided in the public criers putting up the Pletrurians
to fale by auftion : they alfo took an old man, and ty¬
ing a golden bulla about his neck, expofed him to the
public derifion. Feflus fays they alfo dreffed him in a
pretexta.—There was another kind of Capitoline games,
inftituted by Domitian, wherein there were rewards
and crowns bellowed on the poets, champions, orators,
hiftorians, and muficians. Thefe lafl Capitoline games
were celebrated every five years, and became fo famous,
that inftead of calculating time by luflra, they began
to count by Capitoline games, as the Greeks did by
Olympiads. It appears, however, that this cuflom
was not of long continuance.
CAPITOLINUS, Julius, an hiftorian in the be¬
ginning of the fourth age under Dioclefian, to whom
he infcribed the Lives of Verus, Antoninus Pius, Clo-
dius Balbinus, Macrinus, the Maximins, and the Gor-
dians. He wrote other lives, which are moft of them
loft.
CAPITOUL, or Capitol, an appellation given
to the chief magiftrates of Thouloufe, who have the
adminiftration of juftice and policy both civil and mer¬
cantile in the city. The capitouls at Thouloufe are
much the fame with the echevins at Paris, and with
the confuls, bailiffs, burgornafters, mayors, and aider-
men, &c. in other cities. In ancient afts they are cal¬
led confutes, capitularii, or capitolini, and their body ca-
pitulum. From this lall come the words capitularii and
capitouls. The appellative capito/ini arofe hence, that Capitulate
they have the charge and cuftody of the townhoufe, .11
which was anciently called capital. Capitula.
The office lafts only one year, and ennobles the bear- ' ^ ‘ L .
ers. In fome ancient a£ls they are called capitulumno-
bihum Toloffc. Thofe who have borne it ftyle them-
felves afterwards burgelTes. They are called to all ge¬
neral councils, and have the jus tmaginum) that is, when
the year of their adminiftration is expired, their pic¬
tures are drawn in the townhoufe ; a cuftom which
they have retained from the ancient Romans, as may
be ieen in Sigonius.
CAPITULATE, an appellation given to the feve-
ral quarters or diftrifts of the city of Thouloufe, each
under the dire£lion of a capitoul : mwch like the wards
of London, under their aldermen. Thculoufe is now
divided into eight capitoulates or quarters, which are
fubdivided into moulans, each of which has its tithing-
man, whofe bufinefs is to inform the capitoul of what
paffes in his tithing, and to inform the inhabitants of
the tithing of the orders of the capitoul.
CAPITULAR, or Capitulare, denotes an aft
palled in a chapter, cither of knights, canons, or reli¬
gious.
The capitularia or capitulars of Charlemagne, Charles'
the Bald, &c. are the laws, both ecclefiaftical and civil,
made by thole emperors in the general councils or af-
femblies of the people ; which was the way in which
the conftitutions of rooft of the ancient princes were
made ; each perfon prefent, though a plebeian, fetting
his hand to them.
Some diftinguifh thefe from laws; and fay, they were
only fupplements to laws. They had their name, capl-
tulat's, becaufe divided into capitula, chapters, or fec-
tions. In thefe capitulars did the whole French jurif-
prudence anciently confift. In procefs of time, the
name was changed for that of ordinances.
Some diftinguilh three kinds of capitulars, accord¬
ing to the difference of their fubjefl matter : thofe on
ecclefiaftical affairs are really canons, extrafled fiom
councils ; thofe on fecular affairs, real laws ; thofe re¬
lating to particular perfons, or occafions, private regu¬
lations.
CAPITULATION, in Military affairs, a treaty
made between the inhabitants or garrifon of a place
befieged and the befiegers, for the delivering up the
place on certain conditions. The moft honourable and
ordinary terms of capitulation are, To march out at
the breach with arms and baggage, drums beating, co¬
lours flying, a match lighted at both ends, and fome
pieces of cannon, waggons and convoys for their bag¬
gage, and for their fick and wounded.
Capitulation in the German polity, a contradl
which the emperor makes with the eleflors, in the
name of all the princes and Hates in the empire, before
he is declared emperor, and which he ratifies before
he is raifed to that fovereign dignity. The principal
points which the emperor undertakes to obferve are,
1. To defend the church and empire. 2. To obferve
the fundamental laws of the empire. And, 3. To
maintain and preferve the rights, privileges, and im¬
munities of the eleflors, princes, and other ftates of
the empire, fpecified in the capitulation. Thefe arti¬
cles and capitulations are prefented to the emperor by
the electors only, without the concurrence of the other
ftates,
CAP [160] CAP
Capitulum dates, wlio have complained from time to time of fuch CAPPADOCIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia, Cappado.
H. proceedings*, and in the time of the Weftphalian comprehending all that country which lies between
Caponiere. treaty^ jn it was propofed to deliberate in the Mount Taurus and the Euxine iea. It was divided by
following diet, upon a way of making a perpetual ca- the Perfians into tw*o latrapies or governments; by the
pitulation $ but the eleftors have always found means Macedonians into two kingdoms, the one called Cap-
of eluding the execution of this article. In order, how- padocia ad Taurum ; the othei Cappadocia^ ad P on turn t
ever, to give fome fatisfadlion to their adverfaries, and commonly Pow/wj; for the hiftory, &c, of which
they have inlerted in the capitulations of the empe- laft, fee the article Pontus. .
rors, and in that of Francis I. in particular, a promife Cappadocia Magna, or Cappadocia properly fo call-
to ufe all their influence to bring the affair of a perpe- ed, lies between the 38th and 41ft degrees of north
tual capitulation to a conclufion. Some German au- latitude. It was bounded by Pontus on the north,
thors own, that this capitulation limits the emperor’s Lycaonia and part of Armenia Major on the fouth, Ga-
power ; but maintain that it does not weaken his fo- latia on the^wTeft, and by the Euphrates and part of Ar-
vereignty : though the moft part maintain that he is menia Minor on the eaft. The flrli king of Cappadocia
not abfolute, becaufe he receives the empire under con- we read of in hiftory was Pharnaces, who was prefeired
ditions, which let bound to an abfolute authority. to the crown by Cyrus king of Perfia, who g<ive him
CAPITULUM, in the ancient military art, was a his After Atofla in marriage. This is all we find re~
tranfverfe beam, wherein were holes through which corded of him, except that he w.’as killed in a war with
palled the firings whereby the arms of huge engines, the Hyrcanians. After him came a iucceflion of eight
as baliftse, catapultae, and fcorpions, were played or kings, of whom w*e know fearce any thing but that
worked. " t^ey continued faithful to the Perfian intereil. In the
Capitulum, in ecclefiaftical wrriters, denoted part time of Alexander the Great, Cappadociii A-as go\ern-
of a chapter of the Bible read and explained. In which ed by Ariarathes II. who, notw ithfianding the vafl
fenfe they faid, ire ad capitulum, “ to go to fuch a lec- conquefts and fame of the Macedonian monarch, con-
ture.” Afterwards the place or apartment where fuch tinued unfhaken in his fidelity to the Perfians.. Alex-
theological exercifes were performed was denominated ander was prevented by death from invading his domr-
domus capituli. "ions j hut Perdiccas marching againft him with a
CAPNICON, in Antiquity, chimney money, or a powerful and well difeiplined army, difperfed his for-
tax w’hich the Roman emperors levied for fmoke, and ces, and having taken Ariaiathes himfelf piiioner, cru-
which of confequence wras due from all, even the cified him with all thofe of the royal blood whom he
pooreft, who kept a fire. This was firft invented by could get into his powTer. Diodorus tells us that he
Nicephorus. was killed in the battle. He is faid to have reigned
CAPNOMANCY, a kind of divination by means 82 years. His fon Ariarathes III. having efcaped the
of fmoke, ufed by the ancients in their facrifices. The general daughter of the royal family, fled into Arme-
words come from y.ctTrvos fmoke, and p.x'nuci divination. nia, where he lay concealed till the civil diflenfions
The general rule w*as, wThen the fmoke wTas thin and which arole among the Macedonians gave him a fair
light, and rofe flraight up, it w7as a good omen •, if the opportunity of recovering his paternal kingdom. A-
contrary, it was an ill one. There was alfo another myntas, at that time the governor of Cappadocia, op-
i'pecies of capnomancy, confifling in the obfervation pofed him : but being defeated in a pitched a battle, the
of the fmoke rifing from poppy and jafmine feed cafl Macedonians wTere obliged to abandon all the ftrong
upon lighted coals. holds. Ariarathes, after a long and peaceable reign,
CAPO find, a large barren rock in the territory left his kingdom to his fon Ariaramnes II. He applied
of the Genoefe, which has a caftle on its eaftern peak, himfelf more to the arts of peace than war, in confe-
Near it is a fmall harbour of the fame name, 13 miles quence of which Cappadocia flouiiflied greatly during
eaft by fouth of Genoa. his reign. He w7as fucceeded by his fon Ariarathes IV.
Capo d'lfria, a confiderable town of Italy, in Iflria, who proved a very warlike prince,, and having over-
on the gulf of Triefte, with a biflrop’s fee, and fubjedl come Arface#, founder of the Parthian monarchy, con-
to the Venetians. The air is wholefome and tempe- fiderably enlarged his own dominions,
rate ; its principal revenue confifts in wine and fait. He w'as fucceeded by Ariarathes V. who marrying
E. Long. 14. o. N. Lat. 45. 48. the daughter of Antiochus the Great, entered into an
CAPON, a cock chicken, gelded as foon as left by alliance with that prince againft the Romans; but An-
the dam, or as foon as he begins to crow. They are tiochus being defeated, the king of Cappadocia wras
of ufe either to lead chickens, ducklings, pheafants, obliged to fue for peace, wddeh he obtained, after ha-
&c. and defend them from the kits and buzzards ; ving paid 200 talents by way of fine, for taking up
or to feed for the table, they being reckoned more de- arms againft the people of Rome. He afterwards af-
licate than either a cock or a hen. lifted the republic with men and money againft Perfeus
CAPONIERE, or Capponiere, in fortification, a king of Macedon, on which account he was by the fe-
covered lodgement funk four or five feet into the nate honoured with the title of the friend and ally
ground encompaffed with a little parapet about two of the Roman people. He left the kingdom in a very
feet high, ferving <0 fupport» feveral planks covered flouriftdng condition to his fon Mithridates, who on
with earth. The caponiere is large enough to contain his acceflion took the name of Ariarathes VI.
15 or 20 foldiers *, and is ufually placed in the glacis This prince, (furnamedP/Wc/>tf/er, from the filial re-
on the extremity of the counterfcarp, and in dry fpeft and love he flrowed his father.from his very in¬
moats ; having little embrafures for the foldiers to fire fancy) immediately renewed the alliance.wiuh Rome,
through. x Out of mere good nature, he reftored Mithrobuzanes
6 fon
CAP [ i
Cappado- fon to Ladriades, king of the LeJer Armenia, to his
cia’ father’s kingdom, though he forefaw that the Armeni¬
ans would lay hold of that opportunity to join Arta-
xias, who was then on the point of invading Cappa¬
docia. 1 heie differences, however, w7ere fettled be¬
fore they came to an open rupture by the Roman le¬
gates $ and Ariarathes feeing himfelf thus delivered from
an impending war by the mediation of the republic,
prefented the fenate with a golden crown j and offered
his fervice wherever they thought proper to employ
him. The fenate in return fent him a ftaff, and chair
of ivory j which were prefents ufually beffowed on thofe
only w’hom they looked upon as attached to their in-
teretf. Not long before this, Demetrius Soter king of
Syria had offered Ariarathes his filler in marriage, the
widow of Perfeus king of Macedon : but this offer the
king of Cappadocia wTas obliged to decline for fear of
offending the Romans ; and his fo doing was in the
higheft degree acceptable to the republic, who rec¬
koned him among the chief of her allies. Demetrius,
however,being greatlyincenfed at the flight put uponhis
lifter, fet up a pretender to the throne, one Orophernes,
a fuppofititious, or, as others call him, a natural fon
of the deceafed king. The Romans ordered Eu-
menes king of Pergamus to affift Ariarathes with all
his forces : which he did, but to no purpofe; for the
confederates were overthrown by Demetrius, and Ari¬
arathes was obliged to abandon the kingdom to his
rival. This happened about 159 years before Chrift,
and the ufurper immediately defpatched ambaffadors
to Rome with a golden crown. The fenate declined
accepting the prefent, till they heard his pretenfions to
the kingdom j and this Orophernes, by fuborned wit-
neffes, made appear fo plain, that the fenate decreed
that Ariarathes and he fhould reign as partners j but next
year Orophernes wras driven out by Attalus brother
to Eumenes, and his fucceffor to the kingdom of Per¬
gamus.
Ariarathes, being thus reftored, immediately de¬
manded of the Priennians 400 talents of gold which
Orophernes had depoftted with them. They honeffly
replied, that as they had been trufted with the money
hr Orophernes, they could deliver it to none but him-
' jfelf, or fuch as came in his name. Upon this, the king
entered their territories with an army, deftroying all
with fire and fword. The Priennians, howrever, ftill
perfevered in their integrity 5 and though their city was
befieged by the united forces of Ariarathes and Atta¬
lus, not only made an obftinate defence, but found
means to reftore the fum to Orophernes. At laft they
applied to the Romans for afliftance, wTho enjoined the
twro kings to raife the fiege, under pain of being de¬
clared enemies to the republic. Ariarathes immediate¬
ly obeyed ; and marching his army into Affyria, joined
Alexander Epiphanes againft Demetrius Soter, by
whom he had been formerly driven out of his kingdom.
In the very firft engagement Demetrius was flain, and
his army entirely difperfed, Ariarathes having on that
occafion given uncommon proofs of his courage and
conduff. Some years after, a war breaking out be¬
tween the Romans and Ariftonicus who claimed the
kingdom of Pergamus in right of his father, Ariarathes
joined the former, and w^as flain in the fame battle in
which P. Craflus proconful of Afia was taken, and the
Roman army cut in pieces. He left fix fons by his
Vol. V. Part I.
61 ] CAP
wile Laodice, on whom the Romans beflowed Lycao- CappaJa.
nia and Cilicia. But Laodice, fearing left her chil- cia'
dien, w'hen they came to age, fhould take the govern- 1 II,r~v-****
ment out of her hands, poiioned five of them, the
youngeft only having efcaped her cruelty by being con¬
veyed out of the kingdom. The queen herlelf was foon
after put to death by her fubjefts, wrho could not bear
her cruel and tyrannical government.
Laodice was fucceeded by Ariarathes VII. who,
foon ^after his acceflion, married another Laodice,
daughter of Mithridates the Great, hoping to find in
that prince a powerful friend to fupport him againft Ni-
comedes king of Bithynia w’ho laid claim to part of
Cappadocia. But Mithridates inftead of aflifting, pro¬
cured one Gordius to poifon his unhappy fon-in-law,
and, on his death, feized the kingdom, under pretence
of maintaining the rights of the Cappadocians againfl
Nicomedes, till the children of Ariarathes wrere in a
condition to govern the kingdom. The Cappadocians
at firft fancied themfelves obliged to their new pro-
teftor: but, finding him unwilling to refign the king¬
dom to the lawful heir, they rofe up in arms, and driv¬
ing out all the garrifons placed by Mithridates, pla¬
ced on the throne Ariarathes VIII. eldeft fon of their
deceafed king.
The new prince found himfelf immediately engaged
in a war with Nicomedes; but, being aflifted by Mx-
thridates, not only drove him out of Cappadocia, but
ftripped him of a great part of his hereditary domi¬
nions. On the conclufion of the peace, Mithridates,
feeking for fome pretence to quarrel wfith Ariarathes,
infilled upon his recalling Gordius, who had murdered
his father 5 which being rejetted wdth abhorrence, a war
enfued. Mithridates took the field fiift, in hopes of
overrunning Cappadocia before Ariarathes could be in
a condition to make head againft him ; but, contrary
to his expettation, he was met on the frontiers by the
king of Cappadocia with an army no w ay inferior to
his own. Hereupon he invited Ariarathes to a con¬
ference $ and, in fight of both armies, ftabbed him with
a dagger, which he had concealed under his garment.
This ftruck fuch terror into the Cappadocians, that
they immediately difperfed, and gave Mithridates an
opportunity of pofleffing himfelf of the kingdom with¬
out the leaft oppofition. The Cappadocians, however,
not able to endure the tyranny of his prefetts, foon
Ihook off the yoke ; and recalling the king’s brother,
who had fled into the province of Afia, proclaimed him
king. He was fcarce feated on the throne, how’ever,
before Mithridates invaded the kingdom at the head
of a very numerous army, and having drawn Ariara¬
thes to a battle, defeated his army wdth great (laugh¬
ter, and obliged him to abandon the kingdom. The
unhappy prince foon after died of grief j and Mithri¬
dates beftowed the kingdom on his fon, who wras then
but eight years old, giving him alfo the name of Jlria-
rathes. But Nicomedes Philopater king of Bithynia,
fearing left Mithridates, having now got pofleflion of
the whole kingdom of Cappadocia, ftiould invade his
territories, fuborned a youth to pafs himfelf for the
third fon of Ariarathes, and to prefent to them a peti¬
tion in order to be reftored to his father’s kingdom.
With him he fent to Rome Laodice, filler of Mithii-
dates, whom he had married after the death of her for¬
mer hufband Ariarathes. Laodice declared before the
X fenate,
C A P
t 162 3
CAP
Cappado- fenate, that (he had three fons by Ariarathes, and that
c'a- the petitioner was one of them 5 but ^ that fire had
been obliged to keep him concealed, left he fliould un¬
dergo the fame fate with his brothers. The fenate af-
fured him that they would at all events reinftate him
in his kingdom. But, in the mean time, Mithridates
having notice of thefe tranfaftions, defpatched Gordius
to Rome, to undeceive the fenate, and to perfuade
them that the youth to whom he had refigned the king¬
dom of Cappadocia was the lawful fon of the late king,
and grandfon to Ariarathes w'ho had loft his life in the
fervice of the Romans againft Ariftonicus. _ This un-
cxpe&ed embaffy put the fenate upon inquiring more
narrowly into the matter, whereby the whole plot was
difcovered } upon wThich Mithridates was ordered to
xefign Cappadocia, and the kingdom was declared
free. The Cappadocians, however, in a ihort time
fent ambaffadors to Rome, acquainting the fenate that
they could not live without a king. This greatly
furprifed the Romans, who had fuch an averfion to
royal authority but they gave them leave to cleft a
king of their own nation. As the family of Pharna-
ces wras now extinft, the Cappadocians cnole Ariooar-
zanes ; and their choice was approved by the fenate,
he having on all occaftons ftrowur himfelf a fteady friend
to the Romans. .. . . .
Ariobarzanes had fcarce taken polieftion ot his king¬
dom when he was driven out by Tigranes king of Ar¬
menia : who reftgned Cappadocia to the fon of hlithn-
dates, in purfuance of an alliance previoufty concluded
between the two parties. Ariobarzanes fled to Rome;
and, having engaged the fenate in his caufe, he re¬
turned into Alia with Sylla, who was enjoined to re-
ftore him to his kingdom. This was eaflly performed
by Sylla, who, with a fmall body of troops, routed
Gordius who came to meet him on the borders of Cap¬
padocia at the head of a numerous army. Sylla, how¬
ever, had fcarce turned his back, when Ariobarzanes
was again driven out by Anarathes the fon or IVIithri-
dates, on whom Tigranes had beftowed the kingdom
of Cappadocia. This obliged Sylla to return into A-
fia, where he w^as attended with his ufual fuccefs, and
Ariobarzanes was again placed on the throne. After
the death of Sylla, he was the third time forced by
Mithridates to abandon his kingdom 5 but Pompcy,
having entirely defeated Mithridates near Mount Stel¬
la, relfored Ariobarzanes to his throne, and rewarded
him for his fervices during the war, with the provinces
of Sophene, Gordiene, and great part of Cilicia. I he
king, however, being now advanced in years, and de-
firous of fpending the remainder of his lire in eafe,
refigned the crown to his Ion Arlobaizanes, in pre¬
fence of Pompey 3 and never afterwards troubled him¬
felf with affairs of ftate.
Ariobarzanes II. proved no lefs faithful to the Ro¬
mans than his father had been. On the breaking out
of the civil war between Ceefar and Pompey, he fided
with the latter 3 but after the death of Pompey, he
was received into favour by Ceefar, who even beftowed
upon him great part of Armenia. While Caifar was
engaged in a war with the Egyptians, Pharnaces king
of Pontus invaded Cappadocia, and ftripped Ariobar¬
zanes of all his dominions 3 but Ci-efar, ha\ mg defeated
Pharnaces, reftored the king of Cappadocia, and ho¬
noured him with new titles of friendfhip. After the
murder of Cmfar, Ariobarzanes, having refufed to join t
Brutus and Caflius, was by them declared an enemy to
the republic, and foon after taken prifoner and put
to death. He was fucceeded by his brother Ario¬
barzanes III. who was by Mark Antony deprived
both of his kingdom and life 3 and in him ended the
family of Ariobarzanes.
Archelaus, the grandfon of that general of the fame
name who commanded againft Sylla in the Mithridatic
war, w’as by Mark Antony placed on the throne of
Cappadocia, though nowife related either to the fa¬
mily of Pharnaces or Anobarzanes. His preferment
was entirely owfing to his mother Glaphyra, a woman
of great beauty, but of a loofe behaviour, who, in re¬
turn for her compliance w ith the defires of Antony,
obtained the kingdom of Cappadocia for her Ion. In
the war between Auguftus and Antony, he joined^ the
latter 3 but at the interceflion of the Cappadocians,
was pardoned by the emperor. He afterwards receiv¬
ed from him Armenia the leiTer, and Cilicia 7 ra-
chsea, for having afllfted the Romans in clearing the
feas of pirates who greatly infefted the coafts of Alia.
He contrafted a ftrift friendlhip with Herod the Great,
king of Judea 3 and even married his daughter Gla¬
phyra to Alexander, Herod’s fon. In the reign of
Tiberius, Archelaus was fummoned to appear before
the fenate 3 for he had alw'ays been hated by that em¬
peror, becaufe in his retirement at Rhodes he had paid
him no fort of refpeft. Phis had proceeded from no
averfion in him to Tiberius, but from the warning gi¬
ven by Archelaus to his friends at Rome. Por Caius
Cmfar, the prefumptive heir to the empire, was then
alive, and had been fent to compofe the differences of
the eaft 3 whence the friendfhip of T iberius wTas then
looked upon as dangerous. But wThen he came to the
empire, Tiberius, remembering the difrefpeft ftiown
him by Archelaus, enticed the latter to Rome by
means of letters from Livia, who promjfed him her fon
Tiberius’s pardon, provided he came in perfon to im¬
plore it. Archelaus obeyed the fummons, and haften-
ed to Rome 3 where he w^as received by the emperor
with great wrath and contempt, and ioon after accu-
fed as a criminal in the fenate. The crimes of which
he was accufed were mere fiftions 3 but his concern at
feeing himfelf treated as a malefaftor was fo great, that
he died fodn after of grief, or, as others fay, laid vio¬
lent hands on himfelf. He is faid to have reigned 50
^ On the death of Archelaus, the kingdom of Cappa¬
docia was reduced to a Roman province, and governed
by thofe of the equeftrian order. It continued iubjeft
to the Romans till the invafion of the eaftern empire
by the Turks, to whom it is now fubjeft, but has
no diftinguifhing modern name. In what was an¬
ciently called Cappadocia, however, the Turks have
four beglerbeglics, called Siwas, Treb&ond, Marajch,
and Cogni. . , , - c n
In the time of the Romans, the inhabitants ot Cap¬
padocia bore fo bad a charafter, and were reputed la
vitious and lewd, that, among the neighbouring na¬
tions, a wicked man was emphatically called a
docian. In after ages, however, their lewxl difpofiticn
was fo correfted and reftrained by the pure doftnnes
Cappado¬
cia.
CAP
[
Cappado1
cia
tans.
of ChrUViamty, that no country whatever has produced
greater champions of the Chriftian religion, or given
H to the church prelates of more unblemifhed charaders.
Capra Sal- Wc }mve now no fyftem of the Cappadocian laws,
and fcarce wherewithal to form any particular idea of
them. As to their commerce, they carried on a con-
fiderable trade in horfes, great numbers of which were
produced in their country j and we read of them m
Scripture as frequenting the fairs of Tyre with this
commodity. As Cappadocia abounded with mines oi
filver, brafs, iron, and alum, and afforded great ftore of
alabafter, cryftal, and jafper, it is probable that they
might fupply the neighbouring countries with theie
commodities. . . ,
The religion of the ancient Cappadocians was much
the fame with that of the Perfians. At Comana there
was a rich and ftately temple dedicated to Bellona ;
whofe battles the priefts and their attendants ufed to
reprefent on dated days, cutting and wounding each
other as if feized with an enthufiadic fury. No Ids
famous and magnificent were the temples of Apollo
Catanius, and of Jupiter : the lad of which had 3000
facred fervants, or religious votaries. The chid pried
was next in rank to that of Comana ; and, according
to Strabo, had a yearly revenue of 15 talents. Diana
Perfica was wordlipped in a city called CaJtabaUa,
where women, devoted to the wordnp of that godde s,
were reported to tread barefooted on burning coals,
without receiving any hurt. The temples of Diana at
Diofpolis, and of Anias at Zela, were likewife held in
great veneration both by the Cappadocians and Arme¬
nians, who Hocked to them from all parts. In the
latter were tendered all oaths in matters of confequence j
and the chief among the prieds was no way inferior in
dignity, power, and wealth, to any in the kingdom j
having a royal attendance, and an unlimited authority
over all the inferior fervants and officers of the temple.
The Romans, who willingly adopted all the fuperdi-
tions and fuperditious rites of the nations they con¬
quered, greatly increafed the revenues of this and
other temples; conferring the priedhood on fuch as
they thought mod fit for carrying on their defigns —
We are told that human lacrificesv were offered at Co¬
mana : and that this barbarous cudom was brought by
Oredes and his filler Iphigema from Paunca Scythica,
where men and women were immolated to Diana. But
this cudom, if ever it obtained in Cappadocia, was abo-
lilhed in the times of the Romans.
CAPPANUS, a name given by fome authors to a
worm that adheres to and gnaws the bottoms of ffiips 5
to which it is extremely pernicious, especially in the
Ead and Wed Indies ; to prevent this, feveral dups
have lately been (heathed with copper 5 the fird trial
of which was made on his majedy’s frigate the Alarm.
CAPPARIS. See Botany Index. _
The buds of this plant pickled with vinegar, &c.
are brought to Britain annually from Italy and die
Mediterranean. They are fuppofed to excite appetite
and affid digedion j and to be particularly ufeful as
detergents and aperients in obdru&ions of the liver
and fpleen. ,
C A.PRA, or Goat. See Mammalia Index.
Cavra Saltans, in Meteorology, a fiery meteor or ex¬
halation fometixnes feen in the atmofphere. It tonns
63 ] GAP
an infleaed line, refembling in fome meafure the ca- Caprak
perings of a goat *, whence it has its name. Capricorn.
CAPRALA, an ifie of Italy, in the Tulcan iea, to v 
the north-ead of Corfica, on which it depends. It is
pretty populous, and has a drong cadle for its defence.
It is about 15 miles in circumference. R. Long. 11.5.
N. Lat. 43. 15.
CAPRARIA. See Botany Index.
CAPRAROLA, one of the mod magnificent pa¬
laces in Italy, feated on a hill, in Roncignone, whole
foot is watered by the river Tircia. It was bunt by
Cardinal Farnefe j and has five fronts, in the middle ot
which is a round court, though all the rooms are fquare,^
and well proportioned. It is 27 miles north-wed ot
Rome.
CAPREiE. See Capri. .
CAPREOLUS, Elias, an excellent civilian, and
learned hidorian, born at Brefcia in Italy, wrote a
hidory of Brefcia, and other works : died m 1519.
CAPRI, (anciently Capre<t), a city and iliand at the
entrance of the gulf of Naples, E. Long. 14- 50, ”
Lat. 40. 4?.—The ifland is only four miles long and
one broad 5 the city is a bifhop’s fee, and fituated on a
high rock at the wed end of the idand. Capreae was
anciently famous for the retreat of the emperor Tibe¬
rius for feven years, during which he indulged himffilt
in the mod fcandalous debaucheries*. Before Tiberius See T,
came hither, Capri had attraaed the notice of Augus¬
tus, as a mod eligible retreat, though in fight of popu¬
lous cities, and almod in the centre of the empire. His
fucceffor preferred it to every other refidence j and in
order to vary his pleafures, and enjoy the advantages
as well as avoid the inconveniences of each revo ving
feafon, built 1 2 villas in different fituations, dedicated
to the 1 2 greater gods : the rums of iome of them aie
dill to be feen: at Santa Maria are extenfive vaults
and refervoirs; and on an adjoining brow are the re¬
mains of a lighthoufe 5 two broken columns indicate
the entrance of the principal court. ccoi mg o
Dion Caffius, this iiland was wild and barren before
the CaTars took it under their immediate proteaion .
at this day a large portion of its furface is uncul -
vated and impraaicable; but. every fpot that will
admit the hoe is indudrioutly tilled, and richly laden
with the choiced produftions of agriculture. Tim
odium attached to the memory of 1 ibeiius pioted -
tal to his favourite abode j fcarce was his death p o-
claimed at Rome, when the fenate iffued orders for the
demolition of every fabric he had raifed on the ifland,
which by way of punifhment was thenceforward de-
ftined to be a date prifon. The wife and fider of
Commoduswere baniffied to its inhofpitable rocks,
which were foon dained with their blood, ^ the mid¬
dle ages Capri became an appendage of the Amalfitan
republic, and after the downfal of that date, belonge
to the duchy of Naples. There dood a pharos on this
ifland, which, a few days before the death of I ibenus,
was overthrown by an earthquake..
CAPRIATA, Peter John, a civilian and hillori. ,
was born at Genoa. He wrote, ... Italian, the h.ftory
of the wars of Italy ; an Englifl. tranflauon of which
was printed in London in 1663. /•
CAPRICORN, in AJlronomy, one of the 12 figns
of the zodiac. See Astronomy Index.
CAP r 164 ] CAP
Capricorn, The ancients accounted Capricorn the tenth fign }
^P^ca- and when the fun arrived thereat, it made the winter
fii ~ folitice with rfegard to our hemifphere : but the ftars
having advanced a whole fign towards the call, Capri¬
corn is now rather the 1 ith fign ; and it is at the fun’s
entry into Sagittary that the folftice happens, though
the ancient manner of fpeaking is flill retained.
This fign is reprefented on ancient monuments, me¬
dals, &c. as having the forepart of a goat and the hind-
part of a fi(h, which is the form of an iEgipan 5 fome-
times fimply under the form of goat.
Tropic of Cafricorn, a leffer circle of the fphere,
which is parallel to the equinoflial, and at 230 30' di-
flance from it fouthwards 5 palling through the begin¬
ning of Capricorn.
CAPR1FICATION, a method ufed in the Levant,
for ripening the fruit of the domeftic fig tree, by means
of infefts bred in that of the rvild fig tree.
The moll ample and fatisfaflory accounts of this
curious operation in gardening are thofe of Tourne-
fort and Pontedera : the former, in his Voyage to the
Levant, and in a Pvlemoir delivered to the Academy of
Sciences at Paris in 1 705 ; the latter, in his Anthologia.
The fubftance of Tournefort’s account follows: “ Of
the thirty fpecies or varieties of the domeltic fig tree
which are cultivated in France, Spain, and Italy, there
are but two cultivated in the Archipelago. The firit
fpecies is called ornos, from the old Greek erinos, which
anfwers to caprificus in Latin, and fignifies a wild fig-
tree. The lecond is the domeftic or garden fig-tree.
The former bears fucceflively, in the fame year, three
forts of fruit, called fornites, cratitires, and orni; which,
though not good to eat, are found abfolutely neceflary
towards ripening thofe of the garden fig. Thefe fruits
have a lleek even Ikin ; are of a deep green colour 5
and contain in their dry and mealy infide feveral male
and female flowers placed upon diftinft footftalks, the
former above the latter. The fornites appear in Auguft,
and continue to November without ripening : in thefe
are bred fmall worms, which turn to a fort of gnats
nowhere to be feen but about thefe trees. In Oftober
and November, thefe gnats of themfelves make a punc¬
ture into the fecond fruit, which is called cratitires.
Thefe do not fhow themfelves till towards the end of
September. The fornites gradually fall away after the
gnats are gone ; the cratitires, on the contrary, remain
on the tree till May, and enclofe the eggs depofited by
the gnats when they pricked them. In May, the third
fort of fruit, called orni, begins to be produced by the
wild fig-trees. This is much bigger than the other
two ; and when it grows to a certain fize, and its bud
„ begins to open, it is pricked in that part by the gnats
of the cratitires, which are ftrong enough to go from
one fruit to another to depofite their eggs. It fome-
times happens that the gnats of the cratitires are flow
to come forth in certain parts, while the orni in thofe
very parts are difpofed to receive them. In this cafe,
the hufbandman is obliged to look for the cratitires in
another part, and fix them at the ends of the branc hes
of thofe fig-trees whofe orni are in a fit difpofition to
be pricked by the gnats. If they mifs the opportuni¬
ty, the orni fall, and the gnats of the cratitires fly awav.
None but thofe that are well acquainted with the cul¬
ture know the critical moment of doing this j and in
order to know it, their eye is perpetually fixed on the
bud of the fig ^ for that part not only indicates the Caprifka.
time that the prickers are to iffue forth, but alfo when don.
the fig is to be fuccefsfully pricked : if the bud is too' 
hard and compact, the gnat cannot lay its eggs; and
the fig drops when the bud is too open.
“ I he ule of all thefe three forts of fruit is to ripen
the fruit of the garden fig-tree, in the following man¬
ner : During the months of June and July, the pea-
fants take the orni, at the time their gnats are ready
to break out, and carry them to the garden fig-trees :
if they do not nick the moment, the orni fall; and the
fruit of the domeftic fig-tree, not ripening, will in a
very little time fall in like manner. The peafants are
fo well acquainted with thefe precious moments, that,
every morning, in making their infpedlion, they only-
transfer to their garden fig-trees fuch orni ns are well
conditioned, otherwife they lofe their crop. In this
cafe, however, they have one remedy, though an indif¬
ferent one ; which is, to lirew over the garden fig-trees
another plant in whofe fruit there is alfo a fpecies of
gnats which anfwer the purpofe in fome meafure.”
The caprification of the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans, defcribed by Theophraftus, Plutarch, Pliny, -
and other authors of antiquity, correfponds in every
eircumftance with what is pradlifed at this day in the
Archipelago and in Italy. Thefe all agree in declar-
ing, that the wild fig-tree, caprifcus, never ripened its
fruit •, but was abfolutely neceflary for ripening that
of the garden or domeftic fig, over which the hufband-
men fufpended its branches. The reafon of this fuc-
cefs has been fuppofed to be, that by the pundlures of
thefe infefts the veflels of the fruit are lacerated, and
thereby a greater quantity of nutritious juice derived
thither. Perhaps, too, in depofiting their eggs, the
gnats leave ,behind them fome fort of liquor proper to
ferment gently with the milk of the figs, and to make
their flelh tender. The figs in Provence, and even at
Paris, ripen much fooner for having their buds pricked
with a ftraw dipped in olive-oil. Plums and pears
likewiie, pricked by fome infects, ripen much the falt¬
er for it; and the flelh round fuch pundture is better
tailed than the reft. It is not to be difputed, that
confiderable changes happen to the contexture of fruits
fo pricked, juft the fame as to parts of animals pierced
with any fliarp inftrument. Others have fuppofed that
thefe infedts penetrated the fruit of the tree to which
they were brought, and gave a more free admilfion to
the air, and to the fun. Linnaeus explained the ope¬
ration, by fuppofing that the infedts brought the farina
from the wild fig, which contained male flowers only,
to the domeftic fig, which contained the female ones.
Hafleiquift, from wrhat he fawr in Paleftine, feemed to
doubt of this mode of frudlification. M. Bernard, in
the Memoirs of the Society of Agriculture, oppofes it
more decidedly. He could never find the infedt in the
cultivated fig ; and, in reality, it appeared to leave the
wuld fig, after the ftamina wTere mature, and their pol¬
len diflipated : befides, he adds, what they may have
brought on their wings mull be rubbed av ay, in the
little aperture wdnch they would form for themfelves.
At Malta, where there are feven or eight varieties of
the domeftic fig, this operation is only performed on
thofe which ripen lateft : the former are of a proper
fize, fine flavour, and in great abundance w ithout it j
fo that he thinks the caprification only haftens the
ripening.
CAP [ 165 ] G A P
Caprimul- ripening. He examined the parts of frunification of
gus the fig ; and he obferves, if this examination be made
'L previous to the ripening, that round the eye of the
■ . fig, and in the fubftance of its covering, may be feen
triangular dentated leaves, prefled one againft an¬
other ; and under thefe leaves are the ftamina, whole
pollen is deftined for the impregnation of the grains,
which fill the reft of the fruit. Thefe male organs are
much more numerous in the wild fig than in the do-
meftic ; and the ftamina ate found to contain a yellow
duft, which may be colle&ed when it is tipe. The
wild figs, when ripe, are not fucculent, and have no
tafte, though the grains are difpofed in the fame man¬
ner as in the other kind. The pith of the grain of
the wild fruit ferves as food to a fpecies of the cynips,
whole larva is white, till the moment of its transforma¬
tion j and it is by an opening, in the direftion of the
piftil, that the infeft penetrates the grain. From this
account it is thought probable that the infeft is only
communicated by accident to the domeftic fig, and
that the flowers of this genus are fometimes herma¬
phrodites. But the number of hermaphrodite flowers
being fewer on the cultivated than on the wild fig, the
feeds are fecundated more certainly and quickly by
the caprification ; and every botanift knows, that when
the impregnation is completed, the flower foon withers j
while, if by any accident it is delayed, it continues in
bloom much longer. This view of the fubjeft, there¬
fore, explains very completely the reafon why, in Mal¬
ta, the caprification is praftifed on the late kind of
figs, becaufe it haflens the formation and maturity of
the fruit.
CAPRIMULGUS, Goatsucker, or Fern owl.
See Ornithology Index.
CAPR.IOLES, in the Manege, leaps that a horfe
makes in the fame place -without advancing, in fuch a
manner, that, when he is at the height of the leap, he
jerks out with his hinder legs even and near. It is the
molt difficult of all the high manege. It differs from
a croupade, in this, that, in a croupade, a horfe does
not fhow his ffioes; and from a ballotade, becaufe in
this he does not jerk out. To make a horfe work
well at caprioles, he muft be put between two pillars,
and taught to raife firft his fore quarters, and then his
hind quarters while his fore ones are yet in the air;
for which end you muft give him the whip and the
poinfon.
CAPSA, in Ancient Geography, a large and ftrong
town of Numidia, ntuated amidft vaft deferts, wafte, un¬
cultivated, and full of ferpents, where Jugurtha kept
his treafure. In his time it was taken and razed by
Marius the Roman general, who put to death all the
citizens capable of bearing arms, and fold the reft for
flaves. It was, however, afterwards rebuilt by the Ro¬
mans, and ftrongly fortified ; but, on the decline of
their empire, rvas taken and demolilhed a fecond time,
by Occuba a famous Arab general. The walls of the
citadel are ftill remaining, and are monuments of the
ancient glory and ftrength of Capfa. They are 24 fa¬
thoms in height, and five in thicknefs, built of large
fquare ftones, and have now acquired the folidity and
firmnefs of a rock. The walls of the town were rebuilt
by the inhabitants fmce their firft demolition ; but were
afterwards deftroyed by Jacob Almanzar, who fent a
governor and troops into the province. In Manual’s
time Capfa was very populous, and abounded with Capfarius,
{lately mofques and other ftnnSlures of fuperb and ele- (-'al^~Icum,i
gant workmanffiip : but at prefent it is occupied by a ^
poor and indigent people, fleeced and oppreffed by the
Tunefe government. In the very centre of the city
{lands an enclofed fountain, which both fupplies the
people with drink, and affords them an agreeable bath.
The adjacent country is now cultivated, and produces
feveral kinds of fruits ; but the climate is unhealthy.
The inhabitants are remarkable for their peeviffinefs of
temper. Both men and women drefs handlomely ex¬
cept their feet, which they cover with coarfe fhoes of
bungling workmanlhip, and made of the rough {kins
of wild beafts, equally inconvenient and unbecoming.
E. Long. 9. 3. N. Lat. 33. 15.
CAPSAR1US, (from capfa, fatchel), in antiquity,
a fervant who attended the Roman youth to fchool,
carrying a fatchel with their books in it, fometimes
alfo called librarius.
Capsarius was allb an attendant at the baths to
whom perfons committed the keeping of their clothes.
Capsarius (from capfa, “ a chert,”), among the
Roman bankers, was he who had the care of the mo¬
ney cheft or coffer.
CAPSICUM, or Guinea-pepper. See Botany
Index.
The bell-pepper produces fruit fit for pickling; lor
which purpoie they muft be gathered before they ar¬
rive at their full fize, while their rind is tender. They
muft be flit down on one fide to get out the feeds,
after which they ftiould be foaked two or three days in
fait and water ; when they are taken out of this and
drained, boiling vinegar muft be poured on them in a
fufficient quantity to cover them, and clolely flopped
down for two months; then they fhould be boiled in
the vinegar to make them green ; but they want no
addition of any fpice, and are the wholefomeft and
beft pickle in the world. Another fpecies is ufed lor
making what is called cayan-butter or pepper-pots, by
the inhabitants of America, and which they efteem
the beft of all the fpices. The following is a receipt
for making of a pepper-pot: “ Fake of the ripe feeds
of this lort of capficum, and dry them well in the fun ;
then put them into an earthen or ftone pot, mixing
flour between every ftratum of pods; and put them in¬
to an oven after the baking of bread, that they may be
thoroughly dried : after which they muft be well
cleanfed from the flour ; and if any of the ftalks re¬
main adhering to the pods, they fhould be taken off,
and the pods reduced to a fine powder ; to every ounce
of this add a pound of wheat flour, and as much leaven
as is fufficient for the quantity intended. After this
has been properly mixed and wrought, it fliould be
made into fmall cakes, and baked in the fame manner
as common cakes of the fame fize : then cut them into
fmall parts, and bake them again, that they may be as
dry and hard as bifeuit; which being powdered and lift¬
ed, is to be kept for ufe.” This is prodigioufly hot and
acrimonious, fetting the mouth as it were on fire. It
is by fome recommended as a medicine for flatulencies ;
but it is greatly to be doubted whether all thofe hot
irritating medicines are not produ£Iive of more harm
than good, in this country at leaft. If the ripe pods of
capficum are thrown into the fire, they will rai'e Itrong
and noifome vapours, which occafion vehement Ineez-
Plate
cxxxv.
GAP [
Capfquares, ing, cougliing, and often vomiting, in thofe who are
Capftan. near the place, or in the room where they are burnt.
' Some perfons have mixed the powder of the pods witn
fnuff, to give to others for diverfion : but where it is
in quantity, there may be danger in ufing it j for it
will occafion fuch violent fits of fneezing, as may break
the blood veffels of the head.
CAPSQUARES, ftrong plates of iron which come
over the trunnions of a gun, and keep it in the car¬
riage. They are fattened by a hinge to the prize-
plate, that they may lift up and down, and form a
part of an arch in the middle to receive a third part of
the thicknefs of the trunnions : for two-thirds are let
into the carriage, and the other end is fattened by two
iron wedges called the fore-lochs and /’fj'r.
CAPSTAN, or Capstern, a ftrong maffy column
of timber, formed like a truncated cone, and having
its upper extremity pierced with a number of holes to
receive the bars or levers. It Is let perpendicularly
■down through the decks of a fhip j and is fixed in fuch
a manner, that the men, by turning it horizontally
with their bars, may perform any work which requires
-an extraordinary effort.
A capttern is compofed of feveral parts, where A is
the barrel, b the whelps, c the drumhead, and d the
fpindle. The whelps rife out from the main body of
the capftern like buttreffes, to enlarge the fweep, fo
that a greater quantity of cable, or whatever rope en¬
circles the barrel, may be wound about it at one turn,
without adding much to the weight of the capftern.
The whelps reach downwards from the lower part of
the drumhead to the deck. The drumhead is a broad
cylindrical piece of wood refembling a mill-ftone, and
fixed immediately above the barrel and whelps. On
the outfide of this piece are cut a number of fquare
holes parallel to the deck to receive the bars. The
fpindle or pivot d, which is fliod with iron, is the axis
or foot upon which the capftern refts, and turns round
in the faucer, which is a fort of iron focket let into a
wooden ftock or ftandard called ih.tjlep^ refting upon
and bolted to the beams.
Befides the different parts of the capftern above ex¬
plained, it is furnifhed with feveral appurtenances, as
.the bars, the pins, the pawls, the fwfter, and the fau¬
cer, already defcribed. The bars are long pieces of
wood, or arms, thruft into a number of fquare holes in
the drumhead all round, in which they are as the radii
of a circle, or the fpokes in the nave of a wheel. They
are ufed to heave the capftern round, which is done by
the men fetting their breafts againft them, and walking
about, like the machinery of a horfe mill, till the opera¬
tion is finifhed.*—The pins e, are little bolts of iron
thruft perpendicularly through the holes of the drum¬
head, and through a correfpondent hole in the end of
the bar, made to receive the pins when the bars are
fixed. They are ufed to confine the bars, and to pre¬
vent them from working out as the men heave, or when
the fhip labours. Every pin is faftened to the drum¬
head with a fmall iron chain ; and that the bars may
exaftly fit their refpe&ive holes, they are all numbered.
 The pawlsy, N° l. are fituated on each fide the cap¬
ftern, being two fhort bars of iron, bolted at one end
through the deck to the beams clofe to the lower part
of the whelps ; the other end which occafionally turns
round on the deck, being placed in the intervals of the
2
166 1 CAP
whelps, as the capftern turns round, prevents it rrom
recoiling or turning back by any hidden jerk of the ^
cable, as the fhip rifes on the fea, wdiich might greatly
endanger the men who heave. I here are alfo hanging
pawls gg, N° 3. ufed for the fame purpofes, reaching
from the deck above to the diumhead immediately
below it. The fwifter is a rope paffed horizontally
through holes in the outer end of the bars, and drawn
very tight j the intent of this is to keep the men ifeady
as they wralk round when the fliip rocks, and to give
room for a greater number to affift by pulling upon the
fwifter itfelf.
The moft frequent ufe of the capftern is to heave m
the cable, and thereby remove the fliip or draw up the
anchor. It is alfo ufed to wind up any weighty body,
as the mails, artillery, &c. In merchant fliips it is
likewife frequently employed to difcharge or take in
the cargo, particularly when confifting of weighty ma¬
terials that require a great exertion of mechanical
powTers to be removed.
There are commonly two capfterns in a man of war,
the main and the gear capftern tne former of which
has twro drumheads, and may be called a double one.
This is reprefented in N° 3. The latter is reprefented
in N° 2. .
Formerly the bars of the capftern went entirely
through the head of it, and confequently wTeie more
than double the length of the prefent ones f the holes
were therefore formed at different heights, as icpie-
fented in N° 1. But this machine had feveral incon¬
veniences, and has long been entirely difufed in the
navy. Some of thefe fort of capfterns, however, are
ftill retained in merchant fhips, and are ufually deno¬
minated crabs. The fituation of the bars in a crab, as
Capflan,-
Capfule.
ready for heaving, is reprefented in Nu 4..
To rig the Capstern, is to fix the bars in their re-
fpedlive holes, and thruft in the pins, in order to con¬
fine them.—Surge the Capstern, is the order to flack-
on the rope heaved round upon it, of which there are
generally two turns and a half about the barrel at
once, and fometimes three turns.—To Heave the Cap-
stern, is to go round with it heaving on the bars, and
drawing in any rope of which the purchafe is created.
—To Come-up the Capstern, is to let go the rope up¬
on which they had been heaving.— To Pawl the P-pp“‘
STERN, is to fix the pawls to prevent it from recoiling
during any paufe of heaving.
CAPSULE, in a general fenfe, denotes a recepta¬
cle or cover in form of a bag.
Capsule, among botanifts, a dry hollow feed-vef-
fel or pericarpium, that cleaves or fplits in fome de¬
terminate manner. See Pericarpium, Botany^Index.
This fpecies of feed-veffel is frequently fleftiy and
fucculent, like a berry, before it has attained maturi¬
ty ; but, in ripening, becomes dry, and often lo eja-
ftic as to dart the feeds from their departments with
confiderable velocity. This elafticity is remarkably
confpicuous in wuod forrel j baKavn impatiens ; A n-
can fpiraea, diofma j fraxinella ; jujlicia ; ruelha ; bar-
leria; lathraa ; and many others.—The general apti¬
tude or difpofition of this fpecies of feed-veffel to cleave
or feparate for the purpofe of difperfing its feeds, di-
flinguilhes it not lefs remarkably than its texture from
the pulpy or fucculent fruits of the apple, kerry» anc*
cherry kind. This opening of the caplule for ditchar-
J gmg
CAP
[ >67 ]
CAP
Sapfulae
atrabilia-
riae,
Captain.
ging its feeds when the fruit is ripe, is either at the
top, as in moft plants *, at the bottom, as in triglo-
chin ; at the fide, through a pore or fmaU hole, as in
i campanula and orchis j horizontally, as in plantain,
amaranthus, and anagallis *, or longitudinally, as in
convolvulus. AH fruit that is jointed opens at every
one of the joints, each of which contains a fingle feed.
Capfules, in fplitting, are divided, externally, into one
or more pieces, called by Linnaeus valves. 1 he in¬
ternal divifions of the capiules are called cells^ loci/la-
menta : thefe, in point of number, are exceedingly di-
verfified ; fome having only one cell, as the primrole \
and others many, as the water lily. Hence a capfule
is termed bilocular, tnlocular, &c. accoid-
ing as it has one, two, three, &c. cells or cavities.
Cavsulm Atrabi/iarbe, called alfo glandules renales,
and renesfuccenturiati. See Anatomy Index.
CAP PAIN, a military officer, whereof there are
feveral kinds, according to their commands. _
Captain of a Troop or Company, an inferior officer
who commands a troop of hori'e or a company of foot,
under a colonel. The duty of this officer is to be
careful to keep his company full of able-bodied iol-
diers : to vifit their tents and lodgings, to fee what is
wanting ; to pay them well; to caufe them keep them-
felves neat and clean in their clothes, and their arms
bright. He has power in his own company of making
ferieants, corporals, and lanfpefades. _
In the horfe and foot guards, the captains have the
rank of colonels. .
Captain General, he who commands in chief.
Captain Lieutenant, he who with the rank of cap¬
tain, but the pay of lieutenant, commands a troop or
company in the name and place of fome other peilon
who is difpenfed with, on account of his quality, from
performing the funftions of his poft. .
Thus the colonel being ufually captain of the firft
company of his regiment, that company is commanded
by his deputy under the title of Captain-lieutenant.
So in England, as well as in France, the king,
queen, dauphin, princes, &c. have ufually the tit e oi
captain of the guards, gens cTarmes &c. the real du¬
ty of which offices is performed by captam-lieute-
^Captain Reformed, one who, upon the reduftion
of the forces, has his commiffion and company iup-
preffed •, yet is continued captain, either as fecond to
another, or without any port or command at al .
Captain of a Ship of War, the officer who com¬
mands a thip of the line of battle, or a frigate carry-
inn 20 or more cannon. The charge of a captain in
his° majefly’s navy is very comprehenfive in as much
as he is not only anfwerable for any bad conduct m
the military government, navigation, and equipment
of the thip he commands, but alfo for any negleft of
duty or ill management in his inferior officers, whofe
feveral charges he is appointed to fupermtend and re-
^ On his firft receiving information of the condition
and quality of the ffiip he is appointed to command,
he muft attend her conftantly, and haften the neceffary
preparations to fit her for fea. So ftrift, indeed,. are
the injunaions laid on him by the lord high admiral,
or commiffioners of the admiralty, that he is forbid
to lie out of his ffiip, from his arrival on board to
the day of his difeharge, unlefs by particular leave
from the admiralty or from his commander in chief.
He is enjoined to ffiow a laudable example of honour
and virtue to the officers and men ; and to difeounte-
nance all diffolute, immoral, and diforderly practices,
and fuch as are contrary to the rules of fubordination
and difeipline 5 as well as to corredl thofe who are
guilty of fuch offences as are puniihable according to
the ufage of the fea. He is ordered particularly to
furvey all the military ftores which are fent on board,
and to return whatever is deemed unfit for fervice.
His diligence and application are required to procure
his complement of men •, obferving carefully to enter
only fuch as are fit for the neceffary duty, that the go¬
vernment may not be put t® unneceffary expence.
When his (hip is fully manned, he'is expefted to keep
the eftabliffied number of men complete, and fuperin-
tend the mufter himfelf if there is no clerk of the check
at the port. When his (hip is employed on a cruifing
ftation, he is expedled to keep the fea the whole length
of time previoufly appointed ; but it he is compelled
by fome unexpected accident to return to port loonei
than the time limited, he ought to be very cautious in
the choice of a good fituation for anchoring, oideiing
the mafter or other careful officers to iound and dilco-
ver the depths of water and dangers of the coaft. Pre¬
vious to any poffibility of an engagement with the
enemy, he is to quarter the officers and men to the ne¬
ceffary ftations according to their office and abilities,
and to exercife them in the management of the artil¬
lery, that they may be more expert in time ot battle.
His ftation in the time of an engagement is on the
quarter-deck : at which time fie is expe&ed to take all
opportunities of annoying his enemy, and improving
every advantage over him } to exhibit an example oi
courage and fortitude to his officers and crew | and to
place his (hip oppofite to his adverfary m fuch a pofi-
tion as that every cannon (hall do effeddual execution.
At the time of his arrival in port, after his return
from abroad, he is to affemble his officers, and draw
up a detail of the obfervations that have been made
during the voyage, of the qualities of the (hip as to
her trim, ballaft, ftowage, manner of failing, ^or the
Captain
intoi
mation and direflion of thofe who may fucceed
him in the command : and this account is to be figned
by himfelf and officers, and to be returned to the reh-
dent commiffioner of the navy at the port where the
(hip is difeharged. . , ,
Captain of a Mercbant-fhip, he who has the direc¬
tion of the ffiip, her crew, and lading, _&c. in (mall
(hips and (hort voyages, he is more ordinary called tne
mailer. In the Mediterranean, he is called the />tf-
troon.—The proprietor of the veffel appoints the cap¬
tain or mailer -, and he is to form the crew, and choofe
and hire the pilots, mates, and feamen 5 though, when,
the proprietor and mafter refide on the (ame Ipot, they
generally aft in concert together, ,
Captain Bafhaw, or Capondan Bafhaw, m the po¬
lity of the Turks, fignifies the Turkilh high admiral..
He poffeffes the third office of the empire, and is in¬
verted with, the fame power at fea .that the vizier has.
on (bore. Soliman II. inftituted this office in favour,
of the famous Barbaroffa, with abfolute authority over
the officers of the marine and arlenal, whom he may
puniffi, caffiier, or put to death, as foon as he is with.
CAP f 168 ] CAP
Caption out ihe Dardanelles. He commands in chief in all the
U . maritime countries, cities, cadles, &c. and, at Con-
1 ftantinople, is the firft magillrate of police in the vil¬
lages on the fide of the Porte, and the canal of the
Black fea. The mark of his authority is a large In¬
dian cane, which he carries in his hand, both in the
arfenal and with the army.—The captain balhaw en¬
joys two forts of revenues ; the one fixed, the other
cafual. The firil arifes from a capitation of the ifiands
in the Archipelago, and certain governments in Nato-
lia and Galipoli. The latter confifts in the pay of the
men who die during a campaign ; in a fifth of all prizes
made by the begs •, in the profits accruing from the la¬
bour of the flaves, whom he hires as rowers to the grand
fignior ; and in the contributions he exa£ls in all places
where he paflfes.
CAPTION, in Scots Law, a writ ififuing under
his majefty’s fignet, in his majefty’s name, obtained at
the inrtance of a creditor in a civil debt, commanding
meffengers at arms and other officers of the law to ap¬
prehend and imprifon the perfon of the debtor until he
pay the debt.—It is alfo the name of a writ iffued by
the court of felfion againft the agents of the court, to
return papers belonging to procefles or law fuits, or
otherwife to go to prifon.
CAPTIVE, a Have or a perfon taken from the
enemy.
Formerly captives in w?ar became the flaves of thofe
who took them j and though flavery, fuch as obtain¬
ed among the ancients, is now abolifhed, fome fha-
dow of it flill remains in refpeft of prifoners of w’ar,
who are accounted the property of their captors, and
have no right to liberty but by conceffion from them.
-■—The Romans ufed their captives with great feveri-
ty ; their necks were expofed to the foldiers to be
trampled on, and their perfons afterwards fold by pub¬
lic auftion. Captives wTere frequently burnt in the fu¬
neral piles of the ancient warriors, as a facrifice to the
infernal gods. Thofe of royal or noble blood had their
heads fhaven, and their hair fent to Rome to ferve as
decorations for female toys, &c. They w^ere led in
triumph loaded with chains through Rome, in the em¬
peror’s train, at leaf! as far as the foot of the Capito-
line mount, for they were not permitted to afcend the
facred hill, but carried thence to prifon. Thofe of
the prime quality wrere honoured with golden chains
on their hands and feet, and golden collars on their
necks. If they made their efcape, or killed them-
felves, to avoid the ignominy of being carried in tri¬
umph, their images or effigies were frequently carried
in their place.
CAPTIVITY, in a general fenfe, the Hate or con¬
dition of a captive.
Captivity, in facred hiftory, a punifiiment which
God inflifled upon his people for their vices and infi¬
delities. The firft of thefe captivities is that of Egypt,
from which Mofes delivered them; after which, are
reckoned fix during the government of the judges; but
the greateft and moft remarkable were thofe of Judah
and Ifrael, which happened under the kings of each of
thefe kingdoms. It is generally believed, that the ten
tribes of Ifrael never came back again after their dif-
perfion; and Jofephus and St Jerome are of this opi¬
nion : neverthelefs, wrhen W'e examine the writings of
the prophets, we find the return of Ifrael from capti-
i
vity pointed out in a manner almoft as clear as that of Capture,
the tribes of Benjamin and Judah: See Hcfea i. I o, 11. ^aPua-
Amos ix. 14. The captivities of Judah are generally *
reckoned four ; the fourth and laft of which fell in the
year of the wrorld 3416, under Zedekiah : and from
this period begins the 70 years captivity foretold by
Jeremiah.
Since the deftruftion of the temple by the Romans,
the Hebrews boaft that they have always had their
heads or particular princes, whom they call princes of
the captivity, in the eaft and weft. The princes of the
captivity in the eaft governed the Jews that dwelt in
Babylon, Aflyria, and Perfia ; and the princes of the
captivity in the weft governed thofe who dwelt in Ju¬
daea, Egypt, Italy, and in other parts of the Roman
empire. He who refided in Judaea commonly took up
his abode at Tiberias, and affumed the name of Rof?
chahhoth, “ head of the fathers or patriarchs.” He
prefided in affemblies, decided in cafes of confcience,
levied taxes for the expences of his vifits, and had offi¬
cers under him who were defpatched through the pro¬
vinces for the execution of his orders. As to the prin¬
ces of the captivity at Babylon, or the eaft, we know
neither the original nor fucceffion of them. It only
appears that they were not in being before the end of
the fecond century.
CAPTURE, a prize, or prey; particularly that of
a ftdp taken at fea. Captures made at fea were for¬
merly held to be the property of the captors after a
poffeflion of twenty-four hours ; but the modern au¬
thorities require, that before the property can be
changed, the goods muft have been brought into port,
and have continued a night intra prajidia, in a place
of fafe cuftody, fo that all hope of recovering them
was loft.
Capture alfo denotes an arreft or feizure of a cri¬
minal, debtor, &c. at land.
CAPUA, in Ancient Geography, a very ancient city
of Italy, in Campania, and capital of that diftrifl. It
is famous for the abode of Hannibal the Carthaginian
general after the battle of Cannae, and where Livy ac-
cufes him, but unjuftly, of having enervated himfelf
with pleafures *. It ftill retains the name, and is the * See CW-
fee of an archbiftiop. It is feated on the river Voltur-fiagy.
no, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 41. 7. The hiftory
of Capua is thus Ihortly deduced by Mr Swinburne.
“ It was a fettlement of the Ofci long before the
foundation of Rome. As the amazing fertility of the
land and a lucrative commerce poured immenfe wealth
upon its inhabitants, it became one of the moft exten-
five and magnificent cities in the w’orld. With riches
exceffive luxury crept in, and the Capuans grewT info-
lent ; but by their effeminacy they foon loft the power
of repelling thofe neighbouring nations which their
infolence had exafperated. For this reafon Capua was
continually expofed to the neceffity of calling in for-
reign aid, and endangering its fafety by the uncom¬
mon temntations it offered to needy auxiliaries. The
Reman foldiers fent to defend Capua were on the point
of making it their prey, and often the voice of the
Roman people was loud for a removal from the barren
unwholefome banks of the Tiber to the garden of
Italy, near thofe of the Volturno. Through well-
founded jealoufy of the ambition of Rome, or, as Livy
and other partial writers term it, natural inconftancy.
CAP [ ^9 ] CAR
Capua, the Capuans warmly efpoufed the quarrel of Carthage :
Capuchins. jqannibal made Capua his winter quarters after the
'tJ” v campaign of Cann&e *, and there, if we are to believe
hiftorians, his rough and hitherto invincible foldiers
were enervated by pleafure and indolence.
“ When through a failure of fupplies from Carthage
Hannibal was under a neceffity of remaining in Brut-
tium, and leaving the Capuans to defend themfelves,
this city, which had been long inverted, was furren-
dered at difcretion to the confuis Appius Claudius and
Q^Fulvius Flaccus. The fenators were put to death,
the nobles imprifoned for life, and all the citizens fold
and difperfed. Vibius, the chief of Hannibal’s friends,
avoided this ignominious fate, and efcaped from the
cruel vengeance of the Romans by a voluntary death.
—When the mob infilled upon the gates being thrown
open to the enemy, Vibius aflembled his fteady afib-
ciates, and fat down with them to a fuperb banquet,
after which each of the guefts fwallowed a poifonous
draught, and expired in full poffeflion of their free¬
dom. The buildings were fpared by the vitlor •, and
Capua rvas left to be merely a harbour for the hulband-
xnen of the plain, a warehoufe for goods, and a gra-
narv for corn 5 but fo advantageous a fituation could
not long be negledled ; colonies were fent to inhabit
it, and in procefs of time it regained a degree of im¬
portance.
“ Genferic the Vandal was more cruel than the Ro¬
man conquerors had been ; for he maffacred the inha¬
bitants, and burnt the town to the ground. Narfes
rebuilt it j but in 841 it was totally deftroyed by an
army of Saracens, and the inhabitants driven into the
mountains. Some time after the retreat of thefe fa-
vage invaders, the Lombards ventured down again in¬
to the plain •, but not deeming their force adequate to
the defence of fo large a circuit as the old city, they
built themfelves a fmaller one on the river, and called
it Capua.—They chofe the fite of Cafilinum, famous
in the fecond Punic war, for the refiftance made by
its garnfon again!! Hannibal. Since the foundation of
the new city, Old Capua has remained in ruins.
“ In 8 56, Landulph formed here an independent
earldom difmembered from the duchy of Benevento,
and in the courfe of a few generations Capua acquired
the title of a principality. In the nth century, the
Normans of Averfa expelled the Lombard race of
princes, and Richard their chief became prince of Ca¬
pua ; the grandfon of Tancred of Hauteville drove out
the defcendants of Richard, and united this ftate to
the reft of his poffeflions.
“ Capua is at prefent a neat little city, fortified ac¬
cording to the rules of modern art, and may be confi-
dered as the key of the kingdom *, though far removed
from the frontier, it is the only fortification that really
covers the approach to Naples.”
CAPUCHINS, religious of the order of St Francis
in its ftrifteft obfervance 5 deriving their name from
capuce, or capuchony a Huff cap, or cowl, wherewith
they cover their heads. They are clothed with brown
or gray 5 always barefooted ; are never to go in a
coach, nor ever {have their beard.—The Capuchins
are a reform made from the order of Minors, com¬
monly called Cordeliers, fet on foot in the 16th cen¬
tury by Matthew Bafchi, a religious obfervant of the
monaftery of Montefiafcone j who, being at Rome,
Vql. V. Part I.
was advertifed feveral times from heaven, to praflife Caput
the rule of St Francis to the letter. Upon this he made .
application to Pope Clement in 1525 : who gave him .
permiflion to retire into a folitude, with as many others
as chofe to embrace the rtrift obfervance. In 1528,
they obtained the pope’s bull. In 1529, the order
was brought into complete form : Matthew was eleft-
ed general, and the chapter made conftitutions. In
1543, t1lle right of preaching was taken from the Ca¬
puchins by the pope : but in 1545 it was rellored to
them again with honour. In 1578, there were alrea¬
dy 17 general chapters in the order of Capuchins.
CAPUT, the head. See Head.
Caput baronice, the head of the barony, in ancient
cuftoms, denotes the ancient or chief feat or caftle of a
nobleman, where he made his ufual refidence, and held
his court ; fometimes alfo called caput honoris, or the
head of the honour. The caput baronia; could not be
fettled in dowry 5 nor could it be divided among the
daughters, in cafe there was no fon to inherit; but
was to defcend entire to the eldeft daughter, cceiens
Jiliabus aliunde fatisfaBis.
Caput gallinagitiis, in Anatomy, is a kind of fep-
tum, or fpongy border, at the extremities or apertures
of each of the vejiculce feminales ; ferving to prevent
the feed coming from one fide, from rurtung upon, and
fo flopping, the difcharge of the other.
Caput lupinum. Anciently an outlawed felon was
faid to have caput lupinum, and might be knocked on
the head like a wolf, by any one that flrould meet
him ; becaufe, having renounced all law, he was to be
dealt with as in a ftate of nature, when every one that
fliould find him might flay him; yet now, to avoid
fuch inhumanity, it is holden that no man is entitled
to kill him wantonly and wilfully } but in fo doing he
is guilty of murder, unlefs it is done in the endeavour
to apprehend him.
Caput Mortuum, a Latin name given to fixed and
exhaufted refiduums remaining in retorts after diftilla-
tions. As thefe refiduums are very difterent, accord¬
ing to the fubftances diftilled, and the degree of heat
employed, they are by the more accurate modern che-
mifts particularly fpecified by adding a term denoting
their qualities ; as earthy rejiduum, charry ref dumn, fa-
line refduum, &c.
CARABINE, a fire arm flrorter than a mufket,
carrying a ball of 24 io the pound, borne by the light
horfe, hanging at a belt over the left ftiouldcr. The
barrel is two feet and a half long •, and is fometimes
furrowed fpirally within, which is faid to add to the
range of the piece.
CARABINEERS, regiments of light horfe, car¬
rying longer carabines than the reft, and fometimes
ufed on foot.
CARABUS. See Entomology Index.
CARACALLA, M.JAntoninus Bassianus, em¬
peror after his father Severus in 211, put the phyficians
to death for not defpatching his father, as he would
have had them. He killed his brother Getaj and put
Papinianus to death, becaufe he would not defend nor
excufe his parricide. In fliort, it is faid that 20,000
perfons was maffacred by his order. He married Ju¬
lia, his father’s widow. Going to Alexandria, he flew
the inhabitants, and applied to the magicians and aftio-
lopers. At laft, going from Edeffa to Mefopotamia,
® > Y one
GAR [ 170 ] CAR
fiaracalla one of his captains flew him, by order of Macrinus,
II . who fucceeded him. He died after he had reigned
Caracci. r i i ^
  . , iomewhat move than hx years.
Cara call A, in antiquity, a long garment, having
a fort of capuchin, or hood a-top, and reaching to the
heels 5 worn equally among the Romans by the men
and the women, in the city and the camp. Spartian
and Xiphilian reprefent the emperor Caracalla as the in¬
ventor of this garment, and hence fuppofe the appel¬
lation Caracalla was firfl given him. Others, with
more probability, make the caracalla originally a Gal¬
lic habit, and only brought to Rome by the emperor
above-mentioned, who firft enjoined the foldiery to
wear it. The people call it antoninian, from the fame
prince, wdio had borrowred the name of Antoninus.
The caracalla wTas a fort of caffock, or furtout. Sal-
mafius, Scaliger, and after them Du Cange, even take
the name cafaque to have been formed from that of ca-
raque, for caracal/a. This is certain from St Jerome,
that the caracalla, with a retrenchment of the capu¬
chin, became an eccleliaftical garment. It is defcribed
as made of feveral pieces cut and fewed together, and
hanging down to the feet ; but it is more than probable
there were fome made fhorter, efpecially out of Rome,
otherwife we do not fee how it could have fitted the
foldiers purpofes.
CARACCAS, a diftrift of Terra Firma in South
America, belonging to the Spaniards. The coaft is
rocky and mountainous, interfperfed with fmall fertile
valleys ; fubjeffed at certain feafons of the year to dry
north-weft winds, but bleffed in general with a clear air
and wholefome climate. A very great illicit trade is
carried on by the Englifn and Dutch with this province,
notwithftanding all the vigilance of the Spaniards, who
have fcouts perpetually employed, and breaftworks
raifed in all the valleys. A vaft number of cacao trees
are cultivated in this province 5 and it is reckoned that
the crop of cacao produced here amounts to more than
100,000 fanegas of 110 pounds each. The country of
Santa Fe confumes 20,000; Mexico a little more ; the
Canaries a fmall cargo ; and Europe from 50 to 60,000.
The cultivation of the plant employs 10 or 12,000 ne¬
groes. Such of them as have obtained their liberty
have built a little town called Nirva, into which they
wall not admit any white people. The chief towm is
likewife called Caraccas, and is fituated in N. Lat.
j o. 10. Dampier fays it ftands at a confiderable di-
ftance from the fea ; is large, wealthy, and populous;
and extremely difficult of accefs, by reafon of the fteep
and craggy hills over which an enemy muft take his
rout. The commerce of this town, to which the bay
of Guaira at tw’o leagues diftance ferves for a harbour,
was for a long time open to all the fubjedls of the
Spanifh monarchy, and is ftill fo to the Americans ;
but the Europeans are not fo well treated. In 1728
a company was formed at St Sebaftian, which obtained
an exclufive right of maintaining connexions with this
part of the new world. Four or five flops which they
difpatch every year, fail from thence, but they return
to Cadiz.
CARACCI, Lewis, Augustine, and Hannibal,
three celebrated painters of the Lombard fchool, all of
Bologna. Lewis was horn in 1555 ; and was coufin-
gtrman to Auguftine and Hannibal, who wrere brothers,
the fons of a tayior, who was yet careful to give them
a liberal education. They wrere both difciples of Caracci.
their coufxn Lewis. Auguftine gained a knowledge of
mathematics, natural philofophy, mufic, poetry, and
moft of the liberal arts; but, though painting was his
principal purfuit, he learned the art of engraving from
Cornelius Cort, and furpafied all the mafters of his
time. Hannibal, again, never deviated from his pencil.
—Thefe three painters, at length, having reaped all
the advantages they could by contemplation and prac¬
tice, formed a plan of affociation, continued always to¬
gether, and laid the foundation of that celebrated
fchool which has ever fince been knowm by the name of
Caracci's academy. Hither all the young ftudents, who
had a view of becoming mafters, reforted to be inftrudl-
ed in the rudiments of painting; and here the Ca¬
racci taught freely, and without referve, all that came.
Lewis’s charge was to make a colleftion of antique
ftatues and bafs reliefs. They had defigns of the belt
mafters, and a colleflion of curious books on all fub-
jedls relating to their art ; and they had a ikiiful ana-
tomift always ready to teach what belonged to the
knitting and motions of the mufcles, &.c. There were
often difputations in the academy ; and not only paint¬
ers, but men of learned profeffions, ptopofed queftions,
which were always decided by Lewis. Every body
w^as well received ; and though ftated hours were al¬
lotted to treat of different matters, yet improvements
might be made at all hours by the antiquities and the
defigns which were to be feen.
The fame of the Caracci reaching Rome, the cardi¬
nal Farnefe fent for Hannibal thither, to paint the gal¬
lery of his palace. Hannibal wras the more willing to go,
becaufe he had a great defire to fee Raphael’s works,
with the antique ftatues and bafs reliefs. The gufto
which he took there from the ancient fculpture, made
him change his Bolognian manner for one more learned
but lefs natural in the defign and in the colouring.—
Auguftine followed Hannibal, to affift him in his under¬
taking of the Farnefe gallery ; but the brothers not
rightly agreeing, Farnefe fent Auguftine to the court
of the duke of Parma, where he died in the year 1602,
being only 45 years of age. His moft celebrated piece
of painting is that of the Communion of St Jerome, in
Bologna.
In the mean while, Hannibal continued working in
the Farnefe gallery at Rome ; and, after inconceivable
pains and care, finiffied the paintings in the perfection
in which they are now7 to be feen. He hoped that the
cardinal would have rewarded him in fome proportion
to the excellence of his w7ork, and the time it took him
up, which was eight years; but he was difappointed.
The cardinal, influenced by an ignorant Spaniard, his
domeftic, gave him but a little above 200I. though it
is certain he deferved more than twice as many thou-
fands. When the money was brought him, he was fo
furprifed at the injuftice done him, that he could not
fpeak a word to the perfon who brought it. This con¬
firmed him in a melancholy to which his temper natu¬
rally inclined, and made him refolve never more to touch
his pencil ; which refolution he had undoubtedly kept
if his neceffities had not compelled him to break it. It
is faid, that his melancholy gained fo much upon him,
that at certain times it deprived him of the ufe of his
fenfes. It did not, how ever, put a flop to his amours ;
and his debauches at Naples, whither he had retired for
Caraft.
CAR [17
Caracol tlie recovery of his health, brought a diftemper upon
I* him, of which he died in i6zg, when he was 49 years
of age. His veneration for Raphael was fo great, that
it was his deathbed requeft to be buried in the lame
tomb with him 5 which was accordingly done, in the
pantheon or rotunda at Rome. There are extant fe-
veral prints of the bleffed Virgin, and fome other fub-
jefts, etched by the hand of this incomparable artift.
He is faid to have been a friendly, plain, honeft, and
open-hearted man 5 very communicative to his fcho-
lars, and fo extremely kind to them, that he generally
kept his money in the fame box with his colours,
where they might have recourfe to either as they had
occafion.
While Hannibal Caracci worked at Rome, Lewis
Was courted from all parts of Lombardy, efpecially by
the clergy, to make pi&ures in their churches ; and we
may judge of his capacity and facility, by the great
number of pi&ures he made, and by the preference
that was given him to other painters. In the midft
of thefe employments Hannibal folicited him to come
and aflift him in the Farnefe gallery j and fo ear-
neftly, that he could not avoid complying with his
requeft. He went to Rome j corre&ed feveral things
in that gallery ‘y painted a figure or two himfelf j and
then returned to Bologna, where he died in 1619,
aged 64.
CARACOL, in the manege, the half turn which a
horfeman makes, either to the right or left.—In the
army, the horfe always makes a caracol after each dif-
charge, in order to pafs the rear of the fquadron.
Caracol, in ArchiteSiurey denotes a ftaircafe in a
helix or fpiral form. .
CAR ACOLI, a kind of metal of which the Canb-
bees, or natives of the Leffer Antilles, make a fort of
ornament in the form of a crefcent, which they alfocall
caracoli.—This metal comes from the main land •, and
the common opinion is, that it is a compound of filver,
copper, and gold, fomething like the Corinthian brafs
among the ancients. Thefe metals are fo perfeftly
mixed and incorporated together, that the compound
w hich refults from them, it is faid, has a colour that
never alters, how long foever it remains in the fea or
under ground. It is lomewhat brittle } and they who
work at it are obliged to mix a large proportion of
gold with it, to make the compound more tough and
malleable. .
CARACT, or Carat, the name of that weight
which exprefles the degree of finenefs that gold is of.
The wmrd is alfo written carraH, carrot, karraB, and
harrat. Its origin is contefted : but the moll proba¬
ble opinion is, that of Rennet, who derives it from
careBa, a term which anciently denoted any weight,
and came not till of later days to be appropriated to
that which expreffes the finenefs of gold and the gravi¬
ty of diamonds. . ,
Thefe carrats are not real determinate weights, but
only imaginary. The whole mafs^be the weight what
it will, is conceived to be divided into 24 carats •, and
as many 24th parts as it contains of pure gold, it is
called gold of fo many carats ox fo ?natiy carats fne.
Thus gold of 18 carats is a mixture, of which 18 parts
are pure gold, and the other fix an inferior metal, &c.—
This is the common way of reckoning in Europe, and
at the gold mines in the Spanifh Weft Indies, but with
i ] CAR
fome variation in the fubdivifion of the carat : among
us, it is divided into four grains 5 among the Germans,
into 1 2 parts; and by the French, according to Mr
Helot, into 32. The Chinefe reckon by a different
divifion called touches, of which the higheit number, or
that which denotes pure gold, is 1005 io that 100
touches correfpond to our 24 carats, &c.
Caract is alfo a certain weight which goldfmiths
and jewellers ufe wherewith to weigh precious ftones
and pearls.—In this fenfe, the word is by fome flip-
pofed to be derived from the Greek xs^ccmv, a fruit
which the Latins call fillqua, and w'e carob bean; each
of which may w-eigh about four grains of wheat, whence
the Latin Jiliqua has been ufed for a weight of four
grains. This caraft weighs four grains, but they are
fometimes lighter than the grains of other weights.
Each of thefe grains is fubdivided in 4-, &c.
CARACTACUS, a renowned king of the ancient
Britifti people called Si/urcs, inhabiting South Wales.
Having valiantly defended his country feven years
againft the Romans, he was at length defeated ; and
flying to Cartifmunda, queen of the Brigantes (inha¬
bitants of Yoikfhire), was by her treacheroufly deli¬
vered up to the Romans, and led in triumph to the
emperor Claudius then at York j where his noble be¬
haviour, and heroic but pathetic fpeech, obtained him
not only his liberty, but the efteem of the emperor,
A. D. 52. .
CARAGROUTH, in. commerce, a filver coin of
the empire, weighing nine drachms. It goes at
Conftantinople for 120 afpers. There are four forts
of them, which are all equally current and of the fame
value.
CARAITES, in the ecclefiaftical hiftory of the
Jews, a religious feft among that people, whereof ther e
are ftill feme fubfifting in Poland, Ruflia, Conftanti¬
nople, Cairo, and other places of the Levant, whofe
diftinguiftiing tenet and pratfice it is, to adhere clofely
to the words and letter of the Scripture, exclufive of
allegories, traditions, and the like.
Leo of Modena, a rabbin of Venice, obferves, that
of all the herefies among that people, before the de-
ftrudlion of the temple, there is none now left but that
of the Caraim, a name derived from Micro, which fig-
nifies the pure text of the Bible, becaufe of their keep¬
ing to the Pentateuch, oblerving it to the letter, and
rejedling all interpretations, paraphrafes, and confti-
tutions of the rabbins. Aben Ezra, and lome other
rabbins, treat the Earaites as Sadducees } but Leo de
Juda calls them, more accurately, Sadducees reformed i
becaufe they believe the immortality of the foul, para-
dife, hell, refurre&ion, &c. which the ancient Saddu¬
cees denied. He adds, however, that they were doubt-
lefs originally real Sadducees, and fprung from among
them.
M. Simon, with more probability, fuppofes them to
have rifen hence ; that the more knowing among the
Jews oppofing the dreams and reveries of the rabbins,
and ufing the pure texts of Scripture to refute their
groundlefs traditions, had the name of Caraitn given
them } which fignifies as much as the barbarous Latin
Scripturarii; i. e. people attached to the text of Scrip¬
ture. The other Jews gave them the odious name Sad¬
ducees, from their agreement w;ith thofe fedlaries on
the head of traditions. Scaliger, \oftius, and Span-
Y 2 keim,
Caradr
if
Caraites.
CAR [ i;
Caraites. helm, rank the Caraites among the Sabeans, Magi,
Manichees, and Muffulmans, but by miftake : Wolf¬
gang, Fabricius, &c. fay the Sadducees and Efleni
were called Caraites, in oppofition to the Pharifees 5
others take them for the dodtors of the law fo often
mentioned in the Gofpel : but thefe are all conjedluers.
Jofephus and Philo make no mention of them ; which
(hows them to be more modern than either of thole
authors. In all probability, this fed! was not formed
till after the colledtion of the fecond part of the Tal¬
mud, or the Gemara 5 perhaps not till after the com¬
piling of the Mifchna in the third century. The Ca¬
raites themfelves pretend to be the remains of the ten
tribes led captive by Shalmanefer. Wolfius, from the
Memoirs of Mardacheus, a Caraite, refers their origin
to a maffacre among the Jewilh dodtors, under Alex¬
ander Jannaeus, their king, about 100 years before
Chriit : becaufe Simeon, fon of Schetach, and the
queen’s brother, making his efcape into Egypt, there
forged his pretended traditions ; and, at his return to
Jerufalem, publilhed his vifions 5 interpolating the law
after his own fancy, and fupporting his novelties on
the notices which God, he faid, had communicated by
the mouth of Mofes, whofe depofitary he was : he gain¬
ed many followers j and was oppofed by others, who
maintained, that all which God had revealed to Mofes
was written. Hence the Jews became divided into two
fedts, the Caraites and Traditionaries : among the firft,
Juda, fon of Tabbai, dirtinguilhed himfelf; among the
latter, Hillel. Wolfius reckons not only the Saddu¬
cees, but alfo the Scribes, in the number of Caraites.
Eut the addrefs of the Pharifees prevailed againft them
all; and the number of Caraites decreafed : Anan, in¬
deed, in the eighth century, retrieved their credit a
little j and Rabbi Schalomon in the ninth. They fuc-
ceeded pretty rvell till the fourteenth ; but fince that
time they have been declining.
The Caraites are but little known •, their works
coming only into very few hands, even among the
greatelf Hebraifts. Buxtorf never faw more than
one ; Selden two ; but Mr Trigland fays, he has re¬
covered enough to fpeak of them with affurance.
He afierts, that foon after the prophets had ceafed,
the Jews became divided on the fubjeft of works, and
fupererogation : fome maintaining their neceffity from
tradition ; whilfl others, keeping clofe to the written
lawq let them afide ; and it wras from thefe laft that
Caraitifm commenced. He adds, that after the return
from the Babylonilli captivity, the obfervation of the
law being to be re-ellablifhed, there were feveral prac¬
tices found proper for that end 5 and thefe once intro¬
duced, were looked upon as effential, and appointed by
Mofes ; w’hich wras the origin of Pharifaifm ; as a con¬
trary party, continuing to keep clofe to the letter,
founded Caraitifm.
I he modern Caraites, Leo of Modena obferves, have
their fynagogues and ceremonies ; they pretend to be
the foie proper Jews, or obfervers of the laws of
Mofes ; calling the reft by the term Rabbanim, or fol¬
lowers of the Rabbins : thefe hate the Caraites mortal¬
ly •, refufing to ally or even to converfe with them, and
treating them as mamzeitn, baftards; becaufe of their
rejecting the conftitutions of the rabbins relating to
marriages, repudiations, purifications of women, &c.
This averfion is fo great, that if a Caraite ftiould be .
2 ] CAR
come a Rabbinift, he would never be received by the Caraites
other Jewrs. ^ I!
The Caraites, however, do not abfolutely reje£t all a ^
kinds of traditions 5 but only fuch as do not appear
wTell grounded. Selden, who is very exprefs on this
point, in his Uxor Hebraica, obferves, that, befides the
mere text, they have certain interpretations, which
they call hereditary, and which are proper traditions.
Their theology only feems to differ from that of the
other Jews, in that it is purer, and clearer of fuperfti-
tion : they give no credit to the explications of the
Cabbalifts, chimerical allegories, nor to any conftitu¬
tions of the Talmud, but what are conformable to the
Scripture, and may be drawn from it by juft and necef-
fary confequences.
Peringer obferves of the Caraites in Lithuania, that
they are very different, both in alpedt, language, and
manners, from the Rabbiniils, wherewith the country
abounds. Their mother tongue is the Tuikilh ; and
this they ufe in their ichools and fynagogues. In vi-
fage they referable the Mahometan Tartars. Their
fynagogues are placed north and fouth ; and the reafon
they give for it is, that Shalmaneler brought them north-
W'ard : fo that in praying, to look to Jerufalem, they
muft turn to the fouth. die adds, that they admit all
the books of the Old Teftament ; contrary to the opi¬
nion of many of the learned, who hold that they rejedt
all but the Pentateuch.
Caleb, a Caraite, reduces the difference between them
and the Rabbinifts to three points : 1. In that they de¬
ny the oral law to have come from Mofes, and rejedl
the Cabbala. 2. In that they abhor the Talmud. 3. In
that they obferve the feafts, as the fabbaths, &c. much
more rigoroufty than the Rabbins do. To this may be
added, that they extend the degrees of affinity, where¬
in marriage is prohibited, almoft to infinity.
CARAMANIA, a confiderable province of Tur¬
key in Alia, in the fouth part of Natolia. Eajazet
united this province to his empire about the year 1488,
and fince that time it has continued in the poffeffion of
the Turks. Satalia was the capital city, but is now
much decayed.
CARAMANTA, a town of South America, and
capital of a province of the fame name in Terra Firma,
and in the audience of Santa Fe. W. Long. '72. 35.
N. Lat. 5. 18. The province of Caramanta is ex¬
tended on both fides the river Cauca •, and is bounded
on the north by the diftridl of Carthagena, on the
call by New Grenada, on the fouth by Popayan, and
on the weft by Popayan and by the audience of Pana¬
ma. It is a valley furrounded on every fide by very
high mountains.
CARANGA, an inconfiderable ifiand near Bonv
bay in the Eaft Indies. It affords nothing but lome
rice, fowls, and goats, for that market.
CAR ANNA, or Karan n A, a very fcarce gum
which comes from New Spain. It is faid to poffefs
many extraordinary medical virtues, but the prefent
pra&ice takes no notice of it.
CARANUS, the firft king of Macedon, and the
feventh of the race of the Heraclidae. See Mace¬
donia.
C ARAR A, a W'eight at Leghorn, and in other parts
of Italy, ufed in the fale of wool and cod fifh, equiva¬
lent to 60 pounds of that country.
CARAT,
Carat
Caravan-
fera.
CAR [ 173 ] CAR
CARAT. See Caract.
CARAVAGGIO, Michael Angelo. See An¬
gelo.
CARAVAN, or Karavanne, in the eaft, fignifies a
company or affembly of travellers and pilgrims, and
more particularly of merchants, who, for their greater
fecurity, and in order to aflifl: each other, march in a
body through the deferts, and other dangerous places,
which are infefted with Arabs or robbers.
There are four regular caravans which go yearly to
Mecca •, the firft from Uamafcus, compofed of the
pilgrims from Europe and Alia: the fecond from
Cairo, for the Mahomedans of Barbary •, the third
from Zibith, a place near the mouth of the Red fea,
where thofe of Arabia and India meet; the fourth
from Babylon, where the Perfians aflemble. Mod of
the inland commerce of the Eaft is carried on by ca¬
ravans. The late czar Peter the Great eftabliihed a
trade between Ruflia and China by means of a caravan.
M. Bougnon, geographer to the duke of Lorrain,
has given a treatife of the caravans of merchants in
Alia } wherein he {hows of what they are compofed,
how many forts there are 5 the feveral ufes of the dif¬
ferent foits of animals in them ; the prices given for
them, lie officers and men appointed to conduct them,
and the pay of each, with their manner of marching,
halting, fighting, retreating, &c. Caravans of this
kind are large convoys of armed men, merchants, and
travellers, wdth divers forts of animals for the carriage
of their provifions. There are commonly four chief
officers of a caravan, viz. the caravan bachi, or chief;
the captain guide ; captain of reft j and captain of
diftribution. The firft has abfolute command over all
the reft : the fecond is abfolute in the march 5 the of¬
fice of the third only commences when the caravan
flops and makes a flay : to the fourth it belongs to
difpofe of every part of the corps, in cafe of an attack
or battle •, he has alfo the infpeflion over the diftribu¬
tion of provifions, which is made under him by feveral
diftributors, who give fecurity to the mafter of the
caravan, and have each of them a certain number of
perfons, elephants, dromedaries, &c. to take care of
at their own peril. Fhe treafurer of the caravan
makes a fifth officer, who has under him feveral agents
and interpreters, wdro keep journals of all that pafles,
for the fatisfaiSlion of thole concerned in fitting out the
caravan.
Any dealer is at liberty to form a company, in or¬
der to make a caravan. He in whofe name it is raifed,
is confidered as the caravan bachi, or chief of the cara¬
van, unlefs he appoint fome other in his place. If there
are feveral merchants equally concerned, they eled a
caravan bachi j after wrhich, they appoint officers to
condud the caravan, and decide all controverfies that
may arife during the journey.
There are alfo fea caravans j eftabliftied on the fame
footing, and for the fame purpofe : fuch is the caravau
of veffels from Conftantinople to Alexandria.
CARAVANSERA, or Karavansera, a place ap¬
pointed for receiving and loading the caravans.
It is commonly a large fquare building, in the
middle of which there is a very fpacious. court; and
under the arches or piazzas that furround it there runs
a bank, raifed fome feet above the ground, where the
merchants^ and thofe who travel with them in an} ca¬
pacity, take up their lodgings as well as they can j the Caravanfac
beafts of burden being tied to the foot of the bank. raftoer
Over the gates that lead into the court, there are fome- carbuncle,
times little rooms, which the keepers of the caravan- y—
feras let out at a very high price to fuch as have a
mind to be private.
The caravanferas in the eaft are fomething of the
nature of the inns in Europe; only that you meet
with little accommodation either for man or beaft, but
are obliged to carry almoft every thing with you ;
there is never a caravanfera without a w'ell, or fpring
of water. Thefe buildings are chiefly owing to the
charity of the Mahometans: they are efteemed facred
dwellings, where it is not permitted to infult any per-
fon, or to pillage any of the effetfts that are depofited
there. There are alfo caravanferas where moft things
may be had for money j and as the profits of thefe are
confiderable, the magiftrates of the cities to whofe
jurifdidlion they belong, take care to ftore them well.
There is an infpe£tor, who, at the departure of each
caravan, fixes the price of the night’s lodging, from
which there is no appeal.
CARAVANSERASKIER, the fteward or keeper
of a Caravansera. He keeps an account of all the
merchandifes that are fold upon truft, and demands the
payments of the fums due to the merchants for what
has been fold in the caravanfera, on the feller’s paying
two per cent.
CARAVEL ; thus they call a fmall vefiel on the
coaft of France, which goes to filh for herring on the-
banks. They are commonly from 25 to 30 tons bur¬
den. Thofe which are defigned for the fame fiftiery in
the Britiftr channel are called by the French trinquarts;
thefe are from 1 2 to 15 tons burden.
CARAWAY. See Carum, Botany
CARBONADE, or Carbonado, in cookery ^
fleffi, fowl, or the like, feafoned and broiled on the
coals. ‘
CARBUNCLE, in Natural Hijlory, a very elegant
gem, whofe colour is deep red, with an admixture of
fcarlet.
This gem was known among the ancients by the
name of anthrax. It is ufually found pure and fault-
lefs, and is of the fame degree of hardnefs with the
fapphire : it is naturally of an angular figure ; and is
found adhering by its bafe, to a heavy and ferrugi¬
nous ftone of the emery kind : its ufual fize is near a
quarter of an inch in length, and two-thirds of that in
diameter in its thickeft parts : when held up againft
the fun, it lofes its deep tinge, and becomes exadftly
of the colour of a burning charcoal, whence the pro¬
priety of the name which the ancients gave it. It bears
the fire unaltered, not parting with its colour, nor be¬
coming at all the paler by it. It is found only in the
Eaft Indies, fo far as is yet known; and there but very
rarely.
Carbuncle, or AnthraXy in Medicine, an inflamma¬
tion which arifes, in time of the plague, wuth a veficle
or blifter almoft like that produced by burning.
Carbuncle, in Heraldry, a charge or bearing, con-
fifting of eight radii, four whereof make a common
crofs, and the other four a faltier.
Some call thefe radii buttons, or ftaves, becaufe round,
and enriched with buttons, or pearled like pilgrims
ftaves, and freouently tipped or terminated with flower-*
de-luces 2
CAR [ *74 ] _ , c
CarcafTe, de-luces: otliers blazon them, royal fcepters, placed in imp. ation tnat tne Au
Carcaffonne faltier) pale and fe{pe<
v CARCASSE, or Cargos, in the art of war, an
iron cafe, or hollow capacity, about the bignefs of a
bomb, of an oval figure, made of ribs of iron, filled
with combuilible matters, as meal powder, faltpetre,
fulphur, broken glafs, fhavings of horn, turpentine,
tallow, &c. It has two or three apertures out of which
the fire is to blaze, and the defign of it is to be thrown
out of a mortar, to fet houfes on fire, and do other exe¬
cution. It has the name carcajfe, becaufe the circles
which pafs from one ring or plate to the other feem
to reprefent the ribs of a human carcafe.
CARCASSONNE, an ancient city of France, in
Lower Languedoc, with a biihop’s fee. It is divided
into the upper and lower town. They afe both fur-
rounded with walls: and though their fituations are
different, they are both watered by the river Aude. The
upper town is feated on a hill, with a caftle that com¬
mands it, as well as the lower town. It is ftrong, not
only by its fituation on a craggy rock, but alfo by fe-
veral large towers wrhich are joined to its w-alls, and
which render it of difficult accefs. The cathedral
church is remarkable for nothing but its antiquity.
The lower towm is large, and built after the modern
tafte. The ftreets are very ffraight, and lead to a large
fquare in the middle, from whence may be leen the four
gates of the town. There is here a manufa&ure of
cloth. The neighbouring country is full of olive-trees j
and in the mountains there is a fine marble, commonly
called marble of Languedoc. E. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat.
43. 11.
This place bore a confiderable (hare in that celebra¬
ted crufade undertaken againft the Albigenfes in the
beginning of the 13th century, and which forms one
of the moll aftonilhing inliances of fuperllition and of
atrocious barbarity to be found in the annals of the
-world. When the royal pow-er was nearly annihilated,
during the reigns of the lalt kings of the Carlovingian
race in France, moll of the cities of Languedoc erect¬
ed themfelves into little independent Hates, governed
by their owrn princes. Carcaffonne was then under the
dominion of vifcounts. At the time when Pope Inno¬
cent III. patronized and commanded the profecution
of hoftilities againft the Albigenfes for the crime of
herefy, Raymond the reigning vifcount was included
in that proffription. Simon de Montfort, general of
the army of the church, invefted the city of Carcaffone
in 1209. The inhabitants, terrified at the fate of fe-
veral other places where the moll dreadful maffacres
had been committed, demanded leave to capitulate ;
but this a£l of mercy was only extended to them under
a condition equally cruel, incredible, and unparalleled
in hiftory, if w-e were not compelled to believe it by
the unanimous teftimony of all the cotemporary wri¬
ters. The people found in the place -were all obliged,
without diftindlion of rank or fex, to evacuate it in a
Hate of nudity; and Agnes the vifcountefs was not ex¬
empted, though young and beautiful, from this igno¬
minious and Ihocking punilhment. “ On les fit fortir
tout nuds de la ville de Carcaffonne (fays an ancient
author) afin qu’ils receuffent de la honte, en montrant
ces parties du corps que la purete de la langue n’ex-
prime point, defquelles ils avoient atufe, et s’en credent
fervis dans des crimes execrables.” It feems by this
I •
Card.
A R
; were accufed by their Carceres
enemies of fome enormities, piobably unjuft, and ft- 11
milar to thofe which religious enmity and prejudice ^
have attributed to the followers of Zinzendorf in the
prefent century.
CARCERES, in the ancient Circenfian games, were
inclofures in the circus, wherein the horfes were reftrain-
ed till the fignal was given for ftarting, when by an
admirable contrivance, they all at once flew open.
CARCHEMISH, in Ancient Geography, a town
lying upon the Euphrates, and belonging to the Af-
fyrians. Necho king of Egypt took it from the king
of Affyria, 2 Chr. xxxv. 20. Necho left a garril'on
in it, which was taken and cut to pieces, in the
fourth year of Jehoiachin king of Judah, by Nebu¬
chadnezzar king of Babylon, 2 Kings xxiii. 29. llaiah
(x. 9.) fpeaks of Carchemifh, and feems to lay, that
Tiglath-pilefer made a conqueft of it, perhaps from
the Egyptians. This is thought to be the fame city
with that called Circefium by the Greeks and Latins,
CARCINOMA, in Medicine ; the fame with Can¬
cer. See Medicine and Surgery Index.
CARD, among artificers, an inftrument confifting
of a block of v:ood, befet with fliarp teeth, ferving to
arrange the hairs of wool, flax, hemp, and t^ like :
there are different kinds of them, as hand-cards, ftock-
cards, &c. They are made as follows:
A piece of thick leather, of the fize intended for
the card, is ftrained in a frame for that purpofe; and
then pricked full of holes, into which the teeth or pieces
of iron wire are inferted. After which the leather is
nailed by the edges to a flat piece of wood, in the form
of an oblong fquare, about a foot in length and half
a foot in breadth, with a handle placed in the middle
of one of the longer fides.
The teeth are made in the following manner. The
wire being drawn of the fize intended, a Ikain or num¬
ber of wires are cut into proper lengths by means of a
gauge, and then doubled in a tool contrived for that
purpofe : after which they are bent into the proper
direction by means of another tool; and then placed
in the leather, as mentioned above.
Cards, among gamefters, little pieces of fine thin
pafteboard of an oblong figure, of feveral fizes ; but
moft commonly in Britain, three inches and a half
long and two and a half broad, on which are painted
feveral points and figures.
The moulds and blocks for making cards are exa£lly
like thofe that were ufed for the firft printed books.
They lay a ffieet of wet or moift paper on the block,
which is very {lightly done over with a fort of ink made
of lamp-black diluted in water, and mixed with fome
ftarch to give it a body. T hey afterwards rub it off
with a round lift. The court-cards are coloured by
means of feveral patterns, ftfed fane fles. Ihefe con-
fift of papers cut through with a penknife; and in thefe
apertures they apply feverally the various colours, as
red, black, &.c. Thefe patterns are painted with oil-
colours, that the brufties may not wear them out;
and when the pattern is laid on the pafteboard, they
{lightly pafs over it a bruffi full of colour, which, leav¬
ing it within the openings, forms the face or figure of
the card.
Among {harpers, divers forts of falfe and fraudulent
cards have been contrived; as, 1. Marked cards, where
the
CAR t 175 3 CAR
Cards, the aces, kxngs, queens, knaves, are marked on the cor-
ners of the backs with fpots of different number and
order, either with clear water or water tinged with
pale Indian ink, that thofe in the fecret may diltinguifh
them. Aces are marked with Angle fpots on two cor¬
ners oppofite diagonally ; kings with two fpots at the
fame corners ; knaves with the fame number tranfver-
fed. 2. Bree/"cards, thofe which are longer or broader
than the reft ; chiefly ufed at whift and piquet. The
broad cards are ufually for kings, queens, knaves, and
aces; the long for the reft. Their defign is to diredt the
cuttings, to enable him in the fecret to cut the cards dif-
advantageoufly to his adverfary, and draw the perfon
unacquainted rvith the fraud to cut them favourably
for the fharper. As the pack is placed either endwife
or fidewife to him that is to cut, the long or broad
cards naturally lead him to cut to them. Breef cards
are fometimes made thus by the manufadlurer; but, in
defeft of thefe, (harpers pare all but the breefs -with a
penknife or razor. 3. Corner bend, denotes four cards
turned down finely at one corner, to ferve as a fignal
to cut by. 4. Middle bend, or Kingfton-bridge, is
where the tricks are bent two different ways, which
caufes an opening or arch in the middle, to direft like-
wife the cutting.
Cards were invented about the year 1390, to divert
Charles VI. of France, who had fallen into a melan¬
choly difpofition. The inventor propofed, by the fi¬
gures of the four fuits or colours, as the French call
them, to reprefent the four claffes of men in the king¬
dom. By the cceurs (hearts) are meant the gens de
choeur, choir-men, or ecclefiaftics; and therefore the
Spaniards, who certainly received the ufe of cards from
the French, have copas, or chalices, inftead of hearts.
The nobility, or prime military part of the kingdom,
are reprefented by the ends or points of lances or pikes;
and our ignorance of the meaning or the refemblance
of the figure induced us to call them fpades : The Spa¬
niards have efpadas, fwords, in lieu of pikes, which are
of fimilar import. By diamonds are defigned the
order of citizens, merchants, or tradefmen, carreaux,
(fquare ftones, tiles, or the like) : The Spaniards have
a coin, diner os, which anfwers to it ; and the Dutch
call the French word carreaux ^ Jlreneen,^ ftones and
diamonds, from the form. Trejle, the trefoil-leaf, or
clover-grafs (corruptly called clubs}, alludes to the
huftrandmen and peafants. But how this fuit came to
be called clubs is not eaiily explained ; unlefs borrowing
the game from the Spaniards, who have bajlos ((laves
or clubs) inftead of the trefoil, we give the Spanifti
fignification to the French figure.
The hiftory of the four kings, which the French, in
drollery, fometimes call the cards, are David, Alex¬
ander, Caefar, and Charles ; which names were then,
and dill are on the French cards. Thefe refpeflable
names reprefent the four celebrated monarchies of the
Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Franks under Charle¬
magne. By the queens are intended Argine, Efther,
Judith, and Pallas (names retained in the French
cards), typical of birth, piety, fortitude, and wifdom,
the qualifications refiding in each perfon. Argine\%2cs\
anagram for regina, queen by defeent. By the knaves
were defigned the fervants to knights (for hnave ori¬
ginally meant only fervant} ; but French pages and
valets, now indifcriminately ufed by various oiders of
perfons, were formerly only allowed to perfons of qua-Cardamine
lity, efquires (efeuires), (hield or armour bearers. O- II
thers fancy that the knights themfelves were de-, Cardan, „
(igned by thofe cards; becaufe Hogier and Lahire
two names on the French cards, were famous knights
at the time cards w'ere fuppofed to have been in¬
vented.
Deceptions with Cards. See Legerdemain, fe£t. i.
CARDAMINE, in Botany : A genus of the fili-
quofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
39th order, Siliquofx. The filiqua parts afunder with
a fpring, and the valves roll fpirally backward ; the
ftigma is entire, and the calyx a little gaping. Of this
there are 15 fpecies ; but the mod remarkable is the
pratenfis, with a large purplifh flower. This grows
naturally in many parts of Britain, and is alfo called
cuckow flower. There are four varieties, viz. the (ingle,
with purple and white flowers, which are frequently in¬
termixed in the meadows; and the double, of both co¬
lours. The Angle forts are not admitted into gardens;
but the double deferve a place, as making a pretty ap¬
pearance during the time they are in flower. They
will thrive in a moift (liady border ; and are propagated
by parting their roots, which is bell performed in au¬
tumn. They delight in a foft loamy foil, not too ftiff.
By fome the plant is reckoned antifcorbutic.
CARDAMOM, in the Materia Medico. See Amo-
mum.
CAR.DAN, Jerom, one of the moil extraordinary
geniufes of his age, was born at Pavia on the 24th of
September 1501. As his mother was not married, (he
tried every method to procure an abortion, but without
effedl. She wras three days in labour, and they were
at lad obliged to cut the child from her. He was bom
with his head covered with black curled hair. When
he was four years old, he was carried to Milan ; his fa¬
ther being an advocate in that city. At the age of
20, he went to ftudy at the univerfity of that city ; and
two years afterwards he explained Euclid. In 1524,
he went to Padua ; and the fame year he was admitted
to the degree of mafter of arts: in the end of the fol¬
lowing year, he took the degree of dodtor of phyfic.
He married about the year 1531. For ten years before,
his impotency had hindered him from having know-'
ledge of a wToman ; which was a great mortification to
him. He attributed it to the evil influences of his
planet under which he was born. When he enume¬
rates, as he frequently does, the greateft misfortunes
of his life, this ten years impotency is always one. At
the age of 32, he became profeffor of mathematics at
Milan. In 1539, he was admitted member of the
college of phyficians at Milan ; in I543» reac^
public ledtures of medicine in that city, and at Pavia
the year following ; but difeonjanued them becaufe he
could not get payment of his (alary, and returned to
Milan. In 1552, he went into Scotland, having been
fent for by the archbifhop of St Andrew’s, who had
in vain applied to the French king’s phyiicians, and
afterwards to thofe of the emperor of Germany, d his
prelate, then 40 years old, had for ten years been af¬
flicted with a (hortnefs of breath, w hich returned every
eight days for the lad two years. He began to reco¬
ver from the moment that Cardan preferibed for him.
Cardan took his leave of him at the end of fix wrecks
and
CAR [ i
fCardan. and tliree days, leaving him prefcriptions which in two
f' ""“v years wrought a complete cure.
Cardan’s iourney to Scotland gave him an oppor¬
tunity of vifiting feveral countries. He croffed France
in going thither ; and returned through Germany, and
the Low Countries, along the banks of the Rhine. It
was on this occafion, he went to I..ondon, and calculated
King Edward’s nativity. This tour took up about
four months: after which, coming back to Milan, he
continued there till the beginning of Oftober 1552 ;
and then went to Pavia, from whence he was invited
to Bologna in 1562. He taught in this laft city till
the year 1570.}
at which time he w'as thrown into
prifon ; but fome months after he wras fent home to
his own houfe. He left Bologna in 1571 j. and wrent
to Rome, where he lived for fome time without any
public employment. Fie was however, admitted a
member of the college of phyficians, and received a
penlion from the pope. He died at Rome on the 2ill
of September 1575, according to Thuanus. This ac¬
count might be fufficient to fhow the reader that Car¬
dan was of a very fickle temper ^ but he will hare a
much better idea of his lingular and odd turn of mind
by examining what he himfelf has written concerning
his own good and' bad qualities. He paid himlelf con¬
gratulatory compliments for not having a friend 't, this
world ; but that in requittal, he was attended by an
aerial fpirit, emaned partly from Saturn and partly
from Mercury, who was the conftant guide of his ac¬
tions, and teacher of every duty to which he was bound.
He declared, too, that he was fo irregular in his man¬
ner of walking the ftreets, as induced all beholders to
point at him as a fool. Sometimes he walked very
flowly, like a man abforbed in profound meditation ;
then all on a fudden quickened his Heps, accompanying
them with very abfurd attitudes. In Bologna his de¬
light w'as to be drawn about in a mean vehicle with
three wheels. When nature did not vifit him with any
pain, he would procure to himfelf that difagree.able
fenfation by biting his lips fo wantonly, or pulling his
fingers to fuch a vehement degree, as fometimes to
force the tears from his eyes: and the reafon lie aflign-
ed for fo doing, was to moderate certain impetuous
fallies of the mind, the violence of which was to him
by far more infupportable than pain itfelf j and that
the fure confequence of fuch a fevere difcipline was the
enjoying the pleafure of health. He fays elfewhere,
that, in the greateft tortures of foul, he ufed to whip
his legs with rods, and bit his left arm $ that it was a
great relief to him to weep, but that very often he
could not ; that nothing gave him more pleafure than
to talk of things which made the whole company un-
eafy } that he fpoke on all fubje&s, in feafon and out
of feafon } and he was fo fond of games of chance, as
to fpend whole days in them, to the great prejudice of
his family and reputation, for he even flaked his furni¬
ture and his wife’s jewels.
Cardanus makes no fcruple of owning that he was
revengeful, envious, treacherous, a dealer in the black-
art, a backbiter, a calumniator, and addi&ed to all the
foul and deteflable exceffes that can be imagined : yet,
notwithftanding (as one would think) fo humbling a
declaration, there was never perhaps a vainer mortal,
or one that with lefs ceremony expreffed the high opi¬
nion he had of himfelf, than Cardanus was known to
76 ] CAR
do, as will appear by the following proofs, “ I have
been admired by many nations : an infinite number of
panegyrics, both id profe and verfe, have been compo-
fed to celebrate my fame. I was born to releafe the
world from the manifold errors under which it groaned.
What I have found out could not be difcovertd either
by my predeceffors or my cotemporaries; and that is
the reafon why thofe authors who write any thing wor¬
thy of being remembered, fcruple not to own that they
are indebted to me for it. I have compofed a book
on the dialeftic art, in which there is neither one fu-
perfluous letter nor one deficient. I finitlred it in feven
days, which feems a prodigy. Yet where is there a
perfon to be found, that can boaft of his having become
mafter of its do&rine in a year -1 And he that fhall have
comprehended it in that time, muff appear to have been
inftrufted by a familiar daemon.”
The fame capiicioufnefs obfervable in his outward
conduft is to be obferved in the compofition of his
works. We have a multitude of his treatifes in which
the reader is flopped almoft every moment by the ob-
fcurity of his text, or his digreflions from the point in
hand. In his arithmetical performances there are feve¬
ral difcourfes on the motions of the planets, on the
creation, and on the tower of Babel. In his dialeftic
wmrk, w7e find his judgment on the hiftorians and the
writers of epiftles. The only apology which he makes
for the frequency of his digreflions is, that they w7ere
purpofely done for the fooner filling up of his ftieet, his
bargain wdth the bookfeller being at fo much per flieet;
and that he worked as much for his daily fupport as
for the acquifition of glory. The Lyons edition of
his wTorks, printed in 1663, confifts of ten volumes in
folio.
It wTas Cardanus who revived in latter times all the
fecret philofophy of the Cabbala or Cabbalifts, which
filled the world with fpirits ; a likenefs to whom, he
aflerted, we might attain by purifying ourfelves with
philofophy. He chofe for himfelf, however, notwith¬
ftanding fuch reveries, this fine device, Tempus mea pof-
fej/ioy tempus mens ager : “ Time is my foie poffeflion,
and the only fund I have to improve.”
In faft, when w7e confider the tranfcendent qualities
of Cardan’s mind, we cannot deny his having cultiva¬
ted it with every fpecies of knowledge, and his having
made a greater progrefs in philofophy, in the medical
art, in aftronomy, in mathematics, &c. than the great-
eft part of his cotemporaries who had applied their
minds but to one of thofe fciences.
Scaliger affirms, that Cardan, having fixed the time
of his death, abftained from food, that this predi&ion
might be fulfilled, and that his continuance to live
might not difcredit his art. Cardan’s father, who wras
a doftor of medicine, and a profefior of civil and ca¬
non law, died in the fame manner in the year 1524,
having abftained from all fuftenance for nine days. His
fon tells us, that he had white eyes, and could fee
in the night-time.
CARDASS, a fort of card proper for carding flocks
of filk, to make cappadine of it. It is alfo the name
which the French give to thofe flocks of filk.
Cardasses, is alfo the name which, in the cloth
manufadlories of Lauguedoc, they give to a fort of
large card, which is ufed for carding the dyed wool,
defigned for making cloth of mixed colours.
CARDERS,
Canlarr,
Cardafs.
Carders
Cardigan.
GAR [ i
CARDERS, in the woollen manufa&ory, are per-
fons who prepare wool, &c. for fpinning, &c»
Carders, fpinners, weavers, fullers, Iheermen, and
dyers, not performing their duty in their occupations,
ftiall yield to the party grieved double damages ; to be
committed until payment. One juftice to hear and
determine complaints.
Carders, combers, forters, fpinners, or weavers,
conveying away, embezzling, or detaining any wool
or yarn, delivered by the clothier, or any other perfon,
{hall give the party grieved fuch fatisfaftion, as two
juftices, mayor, &c. {hall think fit: if not able or will¬
ing to make fatisfa&ion, for the firft offence to be
whipped, or fet in the docks in fome market-town, or
in any other town where the offence is committed : the
fecond offence to incur the like, or fuch further punifh-
ment by whipping, &c. as juftices {hall think proper.
Convi&ion by one witnefs on oath, or confeflion.
CARDI, Ludovico. See Civoli.
CARDIAC, in a general fenfe, fignifies all medi¬
cines beneficial to the heart, whether internally or ex¬
ternally applied. The word comes from the Greek
word cor ; the heart being reputed the imme¬
diate feat of their operation.
Cardiacs, in a more particular fenfe, denote medi¬
cines which raife the fpirits and give prefent ftrength
end cheerfulnefs *, thefe amount to the fame with what
are properly called cordials * Cardiacs are medicines
anciently fuppofed to exert themfelves immediately in
comforting and {Lengthening the heart : but the mo¬
dern phyficians rather fuppofe them to produce the ef¬
fect by putting the blood into a gentle fermentation,
whereby the fprings, before decayed, are repaired and
invigorated, and the tone and elafticity of the fibres of
the veffels reftored ; the confequence of which is a
more eafy and brifk circulation. .
CARDIALGIA, in Medicine, a violent fen fat ion
of heat or acrimony felt towards the upper or left ori¬
fice of the ftomach, though feemingly at the heart;
fometimes accompanied with palpitations of the heart,
fainting, and a propenfity to vomit : better known by
the name of cardiac pajjion, or heart-burn. See Me¬
dicine Index. .
CARDIFF, a town of Glamorganfhire, in South
Wales, feated on the river Tave, in a rich and fruitful
foil. It is a large, compadl, w?ell built town, having a
caftle, a wall, and four gates, built by Robert hitz-
Hamon, a Norman, about the year xioo. It is go¬
verned by the conftable of the caftle, 12 aldermen, 12
burgeffes, &c. and fends one member to parliament.
Here the affizes and feffions are held, befides feveral
courts. There is a handfome bridge over the river, to
which fmall velfels come to take in their lading. It has
now only one church; St Mary’s having been long hnce
thrown down by the undermining of the liver. Fne
caftle, though much decayed, makes a grand appear¬
ance even at this time j and the w'alls of the town are
very ftrong and thick. The church has a fine tower-
fteeple, and the town-hall is a good ftrudlure. . The
magiftrates are elefted every year by the majority of
the burgeffes. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Eat. 51. 30.
Cardiff gives title of Britifti Baron to the family ot
Bute in Scotland. . _ . .
CARDIGAN, the capital town of Cardiganlhire,
in South Wales, is feated near the mouth of the river
Vol. V. Part I.
Cardinal.
\
77 ] CAR
Teivy, on the Irilh channel. It is indifferently large Cardigan-
and well-built, containing three wards, one church, and ^nie
the county-goal. It is governed by a mayor, 13 aider-
men, 13 common-council men, &c. Here are the ruins
of a caftle which was built by Gilbert de Clare, about
the year 1160. It fends one member to parliament;
and has twro markets, held on Tuefdays and Saturdays.
W. Long. 4. 38. N. Lat. 52. 15.
CARDIGANSHIRE, a county of South Wales,
bounded on the north by Merionethlhire and Mont-
gomeryftiire, on the eaft by Radnorftrire and Breck-
nockftrire, on the wreft by the Irilh fea, and on the
fouth by Caermarthenftiire. Its length from north-
weft to fouth-eaft is about 44 miles, and its breadth
near 20. The air, as in other parts of Wales, varies
with the foil, which in the fouthern and weftern parts
is more upon a level than this principality generally is,
which renders the air mild and temperate. But as
the northern and eaftern parts are mountainous, they
are confequently more barren and bleak. However,
there are cattle bred in all parts ; but they have nei¬
ther wood nor coals of their own for fuel: they have
rich lead mines, and fiftr in plenty, wnth fowls both
tame and wild. The principal rivers are the Teivy,
the Ridol, and the Iftwith. This county hath five
market-towns, viz. Cardigan, Aberiftwith, Llanbad-
arnvawm, Llanbedar, and I regaron, with 77 parifhes 5
and was formerly computed to have upward of 3000
houfes, and 520,000 acres of land. It fends two mem¬
bers to parliament j one for the county, and one for
Cardigan.
CARDINAL, in a general fenfe, an appellation
given to things on account of their pre-eminence. The
word is formed of the Latin cardo, a hinge; it being
on thefe fundamental points that all the reft of the
fame kind are fuppofed to turn. I hus, juftice, pru¬
dence, temperance, and fortitude, are called the four
cardinal virtues, as being the bafis of all the reft.
Cardinal Flower. See Lobelia, Botany In¬
dex. .
Cardinal Points, in Cofmography, are the four m-
terfedlions of the horizon with the meridian, and the
prime vertical circle. Of thefe, two, viz. the inter-
fe&ions of the horizon and meridian, are called _ North
and South, with regard to the poles they are diredled
to. The other two, viz. the interfettions of the hori¬
zon and firft vertical, are called Eajf and Wejl. _
The cardinal points, therefore, coincide with the
four cardinal regions of the heavens ; and are 90° di-
ftant from each other. The intermediate points are
called collateral points.
Cardinal Points, in AJlrology, are the rifing and
fetting of the fun, the zenith, and nadir.
Cardinal Signs, in AJlronomy, are Aries, Libra,
Cancer, and Capricorn.
Cardinal Winds are thofe that blow from the car¬
dinal points.
Cardinal Numbers, in Grammar, are the numbers
one, two, three, &c. which are indeclinable *, in oppo-
fition to the ordinal numbers, firft, fecond, third,
fourth, &c.
Cardinal, an ecclefiaftical prince in the Romifti
church, being one who has a voice in the conclave at
the eledlion of a pope. Some fay the cardinals were
fo called from the Latin incardinatio, which iignifies
Z *
Cardinal.
GAR [ 17S j CAR
the adoption in any church made of a prieft of a fo¬
reign church, driven thence by misfortune ; and add,
that the ufe of the word commenced at Rome and
Ravenna j the revenues of the churches of which cities
being very great, they became the common refuge of
the unhappy prieifs of all other churches.
The cardinals compofe the pope’s council or fenate :
in the Vatican is a conftitution of Pope John, which
regulates the rights and titles of the cardinals ; and
which declares, that as the pope reprefents Mofes, fo
the cardinals reprefent the feventy ciders, who, under
the pontifical authority, decide private and particular
differences.
Cardinals, in their firft inflitution, were only the
principal priefls, or incumbents of the parilhes of Rome.
In the primitive church, the chief priefi. of a parifh,
who immediately followed the bifiiop, was called pref-
bytcr cardinally to diftinguifh him from the other petty
priefts, who had no church nor preferment; the term
was firft applied to them in the year 150 ; others fay,
under Pope Silvefter, in the year 300. Thefe cardi¬
nal priefts were alone allow-ed to baptize, and admini-
fter the eucharift. When the cardinal priefts became
bifhops, their cardinalate became vacant j they being
then fuppofed to be raifed to a higher dignity.—Un¬
der Pope Gregory, cardinal priefts, and cardinal dea¬
cons, were only fuch priefts and deacons as had a church
or chapel under their particular care : and this was the
original ufe of the wrord. Leo IV. in the council of
Rome, held in 853, calls them prejbyteros fui cardinisi
and their churches, parochias cardinales.
The cardinals continued on this footing till the
eleventh century : but as the grandeur and ftate of his
holinefs became then exceedingly augmented, he would
have his council of cardinals make a better figure than
the ancient priefts had done. It is true, they ftill
preferred their ancient title j but the thing expreffed
by it was no more. It was a good while, however,
before they had the precedence over biftiops, or got
the eleftion of the pope into their hands: but w’hen
they wTere once poffeffed of thofe privileges, they foon
had the red hat and purple •, and growing ftill in autho¬
rity, they became at length fuperior to the biihops, by
the foie quality of being cardinals.
Du Cange obferves, that originally there w'ere three
kindsvof churches : the firft or genuine churches were
properly called parifhes ; the fecond dtaconries, which
were chapels joined to hofpitals, and ferved by dea¬
cons ; the third wrere fimple oratories, where private
maffes w'ere faid, and were difeharged by local and re-
fident chaplains. He adds, that to diftinguilh the
principal or pariih churches from the chapels and ora¬
tories, the name cardinales was given to them. Ac¬
cordingly, pariih churches gave titles to cardinal priefts ;
and fome chapels alfo, at length, gave the title of car¬
dinal deacons.
Others obferve, that the term cardinal was given not
only to priefts, but alfo to biihops and deacons who
W'ere attached to certain churches, to diftinguih them
from thofe who only ferved them en paJJ'ant, and by
commiffion. Titular churches, or benefices, were a
kind of parilhes, i. e. churches, afiigned each to a cardi¬
nal prieft j with fome ftated diftrift depending on it,
and a font for adminiftering of baptifm, in cafes where
the bilhop himfelf could not adminifter it. Thefe car¬
dinals were fubordinate to the biihops; and according. Cardinal,
ly, in councils, particularly that held at Rome in 868, vr—-•
fubferibed after them.
It was not, however, only at Rome, that priefts
bore this name ; for we find there were cardinal priefts
in France : thus, the curate of the pariih of St John
de Vignes is called in old charters the cardinalpriejl of
that pariih.
The title of cardinal is alfo given to fome biihops,
quatenus biihops ; e. g. to thofe of Mentz and Milan :
the archbilhop of Bourges is alfo, in ancient waitings,
called cardinal; and the church of Bourges, a cardinal
church. The abbot of Vendome calls himfelf cardinalis
status.
The cardinals are divided into three claffes or orders j
containing fix biihops, fifty priefts, and fourteen dea¬
cons ; making in all feventy : which conftitute what
they call the [acred college. The cardinal biihops, who
are, as it were, the pope’s vicars, bear the titles of the
bilhopricks afligned to them ; the reft take fuch titles
as are given them : the number of cardinal biihops
has been fixed •, but that of cardinal priefts and dea¬
cons, and confequently the facred college itfelf, is al¬
ways fludluating. Till the year 1125, the college on¬
ly confifted of fifty-tw'o or fifty-three : the council of
Conftance reduced them to twenty-four 5 but Sixtus
IV. without any regard to that reftridfion, raifed them
again to fifty-three, and Leo to fixty-five. Thus, as
the number of cardinal priefts W’as anciently fixed to
twenty-eight, new titles w'ere to be eftablilhed, in pro¬
portion as newr cardinals were created. As for the
cardinal deacons, they were originally no more than
feven for the fourteen quarters of Rome ) but they
were afterwards increafed to nineteen, and after that
were again diminilhed.
Accordingly to Onuphrius, it was Pope Pius IV. who
firft ena£led, in 1562, that of the pope Ihould be chofen
only by the fenate of cardinals; whereas, till that time,
the eleftion was by all the clergy of Rome. Some
fay, the eledftion of the pope relied in the cardinals,
exclufive of the clergy, in the time of Alexander III.
in xi 60. Others go higher ftill, and fay, that Nicho¬
las II. having been eledled at Sienna, in 1038, by the
cardinals alone, occafioned the right of eleftion to be
taken from the clergy and people of Rome ; only lea¬
ving them that of confirming him by their confent $
which was at length, however, taken from them. See
his decree for this purpoie, iffued in the Roman coun¬
cil of 1059, in Hardouin’s A£la Conciliorum, tom. vi.
pt. i. p. 1 165. Whence it appears, that the cardinals
who had the right of iuffrage in the eledlion of his
fucceffors,'were diyivided by this pontiff into ffirv/z/zn/
bifhops and cardinal clerks: meaning by the former the
feven biihops who belonged to the city and territory
of Rome •, and by the latter, the cardinalprejhyters, or
minifters of the tw'enty-eight Roman parifties, or prin¬
cipal churches. To thefe were added, in procefs of
time, under Alexander III. and other pontiffs, new
members, in order to appeafe the tumults cccafioned
by the edibl of Nicholas II.
At the creation of a new cardinal, the pope per¬
forms the ceremony of opening and Ihuttinghis mouth j
which is done in a private confiftory. The fhutting
his mouth implies the depriving him of the liberty of
giving his opinion in congregations j and the opening
CAR [ ,
Cardinal his mouth, which is performed 15 days after, fignifies
Career t^le ta^‘n8 0^' ^'s redraint* However, if the pope hap-
■ -- ^ 1. f pens to die during the time a cardinal’s mouth is (hut,
he can neither give his voice in the election of a new
pope, nor be himfelf advanced to that dignity.
The drefs of a cardinal is a red foutanne, a rocket, a
fliort purple mantle, and a red hat.
The cardinals began to wear the red hat at the
council of Lyons, in 1243. The decree of Pope Ur¬
ban VIII. whereby it is appointed, that the cardinals
be addreffed under the title of eminence, is of the year
1630 ; till then, they were called illujirijjimi.
When cardinals are fent to the courts of princes, it
is in quality of legates a latere ; and when they are ap¬
pointed governors of towns, their government is call¬
ed by the name of legation.
Cardinal has alfo been applied to fecular officers.
Thus, the prime miniflers in the couit of the emperor
Theodofius, are called cardinales. Caffiodorus, lib. vii.
formal. 31. makes mention of the cardinal prince of
the city of Rome ; and in the lift of officers of the
duke of Bretagne, in 1447, we meet with one Raoul
de Thorel, cardinal of Qoillart, chancellor, and fervant
of the vifeount de Rohan : which ftiows it to have been
an inferior quality.
CARDIOID, in the higher geometry, an algebrai¬
cal curve, fo called from its refemblance to a heart.
CARDIOSPERMUM. See Botany Index.
CARDIUM, or Cockle, in Zoology, a genus of
infers belonging to the order of vermes tejlace*. The
{hell confifts of two equal valves, and the fides are equal.
There are 21 fpeexes of this genus. Common on all
fandy coafts, lodged a little beneath the fand 5 their
place is marked by a depreffed fpot. They are whole-
fome and delicious food.
CARDONA, a handfome town of Spain, in Cata¬
lonia, with a ftrong caftle, and the. title of a duchy.
Near it is an inexhauftible mountain of fait of feveral
colours, as red, white, carnation, and green : but when
waffied, it becomes white. There are alfo vineyards
•which produce excellent wine, and very lofty pine-
trees. It is feated on an eminence, near the river Car-
denero. E. Long. I. 26. N. Lat. 41. 42.
CARDUUS. See Botany Index.
Carduvs Benediclus, BleJJed thijlle. See Cnicus,
Botany Index.
CAREENING, in the fea-language, the bringing
a fhip to lie down on one fide, in order to trim and
caulk the other fide.
A ffiip is faid to be brought to the careen, when, the
moft of her lading being taken out, ffie is hulled down
on one fide, by a fmall veffel, as low as neceffary ; and
there kept by the weight of the ballaft, ordnance, &c.
as well as by ropes, left her marts ftiould be ftrained
too much •, in order that her fides and bottom may be
trimmed, feams caulked, or any thing that is faulty
under water mended. Hence, when a ffiip lies on one
fide when ffie fails, ffie is faid to fail on the careen.
CAREER, in the Manege, a place inclofed with a
barrier, wherein they run the ring.
The word is alfo ufed for the race or courfe of the
horfe itfelf, provided it do not exceed 200 paces.
In the ancient circus, the career was the fpace the
bigae, or quadrigae, were to run at full fpeed, to gain
the prize. See Circus*
79 ] CAR
Career, in Falconry, is a flight or tour of the bird,
about 120 yards. If Ihc mount more, it is called a
double career ; if lefs, a femi-career.
CARELIA, the eaftern province of Finland ; di¬
vided into Swediffi Carelia, and Mufcovite Carelia.
The capital of the latter is Povenza, and of the for¬
mer Weiburg.
CARELSCROON, a fea-port town of Sweden, in
Blekingia, or Bleking, on the Baltic fea, with a very-
good harbour defended by two forts. It was built
in 1679 ; and is very populous, with arfenals for the
marine : the houfe of the diredlor-general of the admi¬
ralty is in this town, and here the Swedes lay up their
royal navy. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 56. 15.
CARENTAN, a town of France in Lower Nor¬
mandy, and in the Contentin, with an ancient caftle.
W. Long. 1. 14. N. Lat. 49. 20.
CARET, among grammarians, a cbara<5ter marked
thus a, fignifying that fomething is added on the
margin, or interlined, which ought to come in where
the caret ftands.
CAREW, George, born in Devonffiire in 1557,
an eminent commander in Ireland, was made prefident
of Munfter by Queen Elizabeth 5 when, joining his
forces with the earl of Thomond, he reduced the Irifh
infurgents, and brought the earl of Defmond to his
trial. King James made him governor of Guernfey,
and created him a baron. As he was a valiant com¬
mander, he was no lefs a polite fcholar ; and wrote
Faccata Hibernia, a hiftory of the late wars in Ireland,
printed after his death, in 1633. He made feveral
colledlions for a hiftory of Henry V. which are digeft-
ed into Speed’s Hiftory of Great Britain. Befides
thefe, he collefled materials of Iriffi hiftory in four
large MSS. volumes, now in the Bodleian library, Ox¬
ford.
Carew, Thomas, descended from the family of
Carew in Gloucefterffiire, was gentleman of the privy
chamber to Charles I. who always efteemed him one
of the moft celebrated wits of his court. He was much
refpefled by the poets of his time, particularly by Ben
Johnfon and Sir William Davenant; and left behind
him feveral poems, and a mafque called Cce/um Britan-
nicum, performed at Whitehall on Shrove Tuefday
night, 1633, by the king, and feveral of his nobles
with their Ions. Carew was affirted in the contrivance
by Inigo Jones, and the mufic was let by Mr Henry
Lawes of the king’s chapel. He died in the prime of
life, about the year 1639.
Carew, Richard, author of the “ Survey of Corn¬
wall,” was the eldeft fon of Thomas Carew of Eaft
Anthony, and was born in 15 :5. When very young,
he became a gentleman commoner of Chrift-church
college, Oxford ; and at 14 years of age had the ho¬
nour of difputing, extempore, with the afterwards fa¬
mous Sir Philip Sydney, in the prefence of the earls
of Leicefter, Warwick, and other nobility. After
fpending three years at the univerfity, he removed to
the Middle Temple, where he refided the fame length
of time, and then travelled into foreign parts. Not
long after his return to England, he married, in 15775
Juliana Arundel, of Trerice. In 1581, Mr Carew was
made juftice of the peace, and in 1586 was appointed
high ffieriff of the county of Cornwall 5 about which
time he was likewife queen’s deputy lor the militia.
Z 2 la
CAR [ 18
Carew. In 1589, he was elefted a member of the college of
 v   Antiquaries, a diftinaion to which he was entitled by
his literary abilities and purfuits.. What particularly
engaged bis attention was his native county, his Sur¬
vey” of wdiich was publifhed, in 4^°> London, in
1602. It hath been twice reprinted, firft in 1723,
and next in 1769. Of this work Camden hath fpo-
ken in high terms, and acknowledges his obligations
to the author. In the prefent improved date of topo¬
graphical knowdedge, and fince Dr Borlafe s excellent
publications relative to the county of Cornwall, the
value of Carew’s “ Survey” muft have been greatly di-
minifhed. IVIr Gough remarks, that the hiflory and
monuments of this county w’ere faintly touched by
Carew •, but it is added, that he was a perfon extreme¬
ly capable of defcribing them, if the infancy of thofe
fludies at that time had afforded light and materials.
Another work of our author w'as a tranflation from the
Italian, entitled, “ The examination of Men’s Wits.
In which, by difcovering the variety of natures, is
fhowred for what profeflion each one is apt, and how
far he lhall profit therein.” This was publifhed at
London in 1594, an!I afterwards in 16045 and though
Richard Carew’s name is prefixed to it, hath been
principally afcnbed by fome perfons to his tathei. Ac¬
cording to Wood, Carew wrote alfo, The true and
ready Way to learn the Latin Tongue,” in anfwer to
a query, whether the ordinary method of teaching the
Latin by the rules of grammar be the beft mode of
inftrufting youths in that language ? This trad! is. in¬
volved in Mr Hartlib’s book upon the fame fubjedl,
and with the fame title. It is certain that Carew was
a gentleman of confiderable abilities and literatuie,
and that he was held in great eftjmation by fome of
the mofl eminent fcholars of his time. He w^as parti¬
cularly intimate with Sir Henry Spelman, who extols
him for his ingenuity, virtue, and learning.
Carew, George, brother to the fubjedt of the laft
article, W'as educated in the univerfity of Oxford, after
which he ftudied the law in the inns of court, and then
travelled to foreign countries for farther improvement.
On his return to his native country, he was called to
the bar, and after fome time wTas appointed fccretary
to Sir Chriftopher Hatton, lord chancellor of England.
This was by the fpecial recommendation of Queen
Elizabeth herfelf, who gave him a prothonotaryfhlp in
the chancery, and conferred upon him the honour of
knighthood. In 1597, Sir George Carew, who w’as
then a mafterin chancery, was fent ambaffador to the
king of Poland. In the next reign, he was one of the
commiflioners for treating with the Scotch concerning
an union between the two kingdoms ^ after which he
was appointed ambaffador to the court of France, where
he continued from the latter end of the year 1605 till
1609. During his refidence in that country, he form¬
ed an intimacy with Thuanus, to whom he commu¬
nicated an account of the tranfadlions in Poland whilft
he was employed there, which was of great fervice to
that admirable author in drawing up the 121ft book
of his hiftory. After Sir George Carew’s return from
France, he was advanced to the important poft of ma-
fter of the court of wards, which honourable fituation
he did not long live to enjoy j for it appears from a
letter written by Thuanus to Camden in the fpring
1613, that he was then lately deceafed. Sir George
3 ] CAR
Carew married Thomafine, daughter of Sir Francis Carex,
Godolphin, great grandfather of the lord treafurer Go- , Cai'ey-
dolphin, and had by her two fons and three daughters.
When Sir George Carew returned, in 1609, from his
French embaffy, he drew up, and addreffed to James I.
“ A Relation of the State of France, with the cha-
raflers of Henry IV. and the principal perfons of that
Court.” The charadlers are drawn from perfonal
knowledge and clofe obfervation, and might be of fer¬
vice to a general hiftorian of that period. The com-
pofition is perfpicuous and manly, and entirely free
from the pedantry which prevailed in the reign of
James I. but this is the lefs furprifing, as Sir George
Carew7’s tafte had been formed in a better aera, that of
Queen Elizabeth. The valuable traft we are fpeaking
oTlay for a long time in MS. till happily falling into
the hands of the earl of Hardwicke, it was communi¬
cated by him to Dr Birch, who publifhed it, in 1749*
at the end of his “ Hiftorical View of the Negotia¬
tions between the Courts of England, France, and
Bruffels, from 1592 to 1617.” That intelligent and
induftrious waiter juftly obferves, that it is a model
upon which ambaffadors may form and digeft their no¬
tions and reprefentations, and the late celebrated poet
Mr Gray hath fpoken of it as an excellent perform¬
ance.
CAREX, sedge-grass. See Botany Index.
CAREY, Harry, a man diftinguifhed by both
poetry and mufic, but perhaps more fo by a certain
facetioufnefs, which made him agreeable to every bo¬
dy. He publifhed in 17 20 a little colle&ion of poems;
and in 1732, fix cantatas, written and compofed by
himfelf. He alfo compofed fundry fongs for modem
comedies, particularly thofe in the “ Provoked Huf-
band he wrote a farce called “ The Contrivances.”
in which were feveral little fongs to very pretty airs of
his owrn compofition : he alfo made two or three little
dramas for Goodman’s-fields theatre, which were very
favourably received. In 1729, he publifhed by fub-
feription his poems much enlarged : with the addition
of one entitled “ Namby Pamby,” in which Am-
brofe Philips is ridiculed. Carey’s talent, fays his hi¬
ftorian, lay in humour and unmalevolent fatire : to ri¬
dicule the rant and bombaft of modern tragedies he
wrote one, to w’hich he gave the ftrange title o*
“ Chrononhotonthologos,” aifted in 1734. He alfo
wrote a farce called “ The Honeft Yorkfhireman.”
Carey wras a thorough Enghfhman, and had an unfur-
mountable averfion to the Italian opera and the fingers,
in it : he wrote a burlefque opera on the fubjeft of
the 4< Dragon of Wantley j and afterwards a lequel
to it, entitled, “ 1 he Dragonefs j” both which were
efteemed a true burleique upon the Italian opera. His
qualities being of the entertaining kind, he was led in¬
to more expences than his finances could bear, and
thus wras frequently in diftrefs. His friends, however,
were always ready to affift him by their little fubferip-
tions to his works : and encouraged by thefe, he re-
publifhed, in 1740, all the fongs he had ever compo¬
fed, in a colleftion, entitled, “ 1 he Mufical Century,
in 100 Englifh Ballads, &c.” and, in 1743, his.drama¬
tic works, in a fmall volume, 410. M ith all his mirth
and good humour, he feems to have been at times deep¬
ly affefled with the malevolence of fome of his own
profeflion, who, for reafons that no one can guefs at,
r were
CAR [ li
Cargaixirs were his enemies 5 and this, with the preiTure of his
II circumftances, is fuppofed to have occafioned his un-
Canbbee. tJmely en(] . forj about 1744, in a fit of defperation,
v he laid violent hands on himfelf, and, at his houfe in
Warner-ftreet, Cold-bath Fields, put a period to a
life, which, fays Sir John Hawkins, had been led with¬
out reproach. It is to be noted, and it is fomewhat
fingular in fuch a charafter, that in all his fongs and
poems on wine, love, and fuch kind of fubjecls, he
feems to have manifefted an inviolable regard for de¬
cency and good manners.
CARGADORS, a name which the Dutch give to
thofe brokers whole bufinefs is to find freight for (hips
outward bound, and to give notice to the merchants,
who have commodities to fend by fea, of the (hips that
are ready to fail, and of the places for which they are
bound.
CARGAPOL, or Kargapol, the capital of a ter¬
ritory of the fame name, in the province of Dwina, in
Mufcovy. E. Long. 36°. N. Lat. 63°.
CARGO denotes all the merchandifes and effefts
which are laden on board a (hip.
Sufier-CARGO, a perfon employed by merchants to
' go a voyage, overfee the cargo, and difpofe ol it to the
beft advantage.
C ART A,"in Ancient Geography, a country of the
Hithe£ Afia } whofe limits are extended by fome, while
they are contrafted by others. Mela and Pliny extend
the maritime Caria from jafus and Halicarnafius, to
Calynda, and the borders of Lycia. 1 he inland Caria
Ptolemy extends to the Meander and beyond. Car,
Canates, Canatis, CariJJa, and Cans, and Cairo, are
the gentilitious names } Canus and Cancus the epithets.
In Care periculum, was a proverbial faying on a thing
expofed to danger, but of no great value. The Cares
being the Swifs of thofe days, were hired and placed
in the front of the battle, (Cicero.) Cum Care Cariffa,
denoted the behaviour of clowns. T. he Cares came
originally from the iflands to the continent, being for¬
merly fub]eft to Minos, and called Le/eges . this the
Cretans affirm, and the Cares deny, making themfelves
aborigines. They are of a common original with the
Myfi and Lydi, having a common temple, of a very
ancient (landing, at Melafia, a town of Caria, called
Jovis Carii Delubrum, (Herodotus.) Homer calls the
Carians, barbarians in language.
CARIATI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Haples, and province of Hither Calabria, with a bi-
(hop’s fee, and the title of a principality. It is two
miles from the gulf of Taranto, and 37 north-eaft of
Cofenza. E. Long. 17. 19. N. Lat. 30. 38.
CARIBBEE islands, a clufter of iflands fituated
in the Atlantic ocean between 59 and 63 degrees of
weft longitude, and between 11 and 18 degrees of north
latitude. They lie in the form of a bow or femicircle,
ftretching almoft from the coaft of Florida north, to
near the river Oroonoque. ft hofe that lie neared the
eaft have been called the i'Vind’iDard JJlands, the others
the Leeward, on account of the winds blowing gene¬
rally from the eaftern point in thofe quarters. Abbe
Raynal conjeftures them to be the tops of very high
mountains formerly belonging to the continent, which
have been changed into iflands by fome revolution that
has laid the flat country under water. The direftion
of the Caribbee iflands, beginning from Tobago, is
i ] CAR
nearly north and N. N. W. This dire&ion is conti- Carlbbe's
nued, forming a line fomewhat curved towards the v
north-weft, and ending at Antigua. In this place the
line becomes at once curved ; and extending itfelf in a
ftraight direflion to the weft and north-w'eft, meets in
its courfe with Porto-Rico, St Domingo, and Cuba,
known by the name of the Leeward IJlands, wffiich are
feparated from each other by channels of various
breadths. Some of thefe are 6, others 15 or 20 leagues
broad ; but in all of them the foundings are from 100
to 120 or 150 fathoms. Between Grenada and St Vin¬
cent’s there is alfo a (mail archipelago of 30 leagues, in
which the foundings are not above ten fathoms. The
mountains in the Caribbee iflands run in the fame direc¬
tion as the iflands themfelves. The dire&ion is fo re¬
gular, that if we w?ere to confider the tops of thefe
mountains only, independent of their bafes, they might
be looked upon as a chain of hills belonging to the
continent, of which Martinico would be the moft north-
wefterly promontory. 'The fprings of water which flow
from the mountains in the Windward iflands, run all
in the weftern parts of thefe iflands. The whole eaftern
coaft is without any running water. No fprings come
down there from the mountains : and indeed they would
have there been ufelefs; for after having run over a very
ftiort trad of land, and with great rapidity, they would
have fallen into the fea. In Porto Rico, St Domingo,
and Cuba, there are a f^w rivers that difeharge them¬
felves on the northern fide, and wfliofe fources rile in the
mountains running from eaft to weft, that is, through
the whole length of thefe iflands. From the other fide
of the mountains facing thefouth, where the fea, flow¬
ing with great impetuofity, leaves behind it marks of
its inundations, feveral rivers flow down, the mouths of
which are capable of receiving the largeft fliipsi The
foil of the Caribbees confifts moftly of a layer of clay
or gravel of different thicknefs : under which is a bed
of (tone or rock. I he nature of iome of thole fons is
better adapted to vegetables than others. In thole
places where the clay is oner and more friable, and
mixes with the leaves and remains of plants, a layer of
earth is formed of greater depth than where the clay
is moifter. ft’he fand or gravel has different properties
according to its peculiar nature j wherever it is lefs
hard, lefs compaft, and lefs porous, fmall pieces fepa-
rate themlelves from it, which, though dry, preferve
a certain degree of cooinefs ufeful to vegetation. This
foil is called in America a pumice-Jlone foil. Where-
ever the clay and grav'd do not go through fuch modi¬
fications, the foil becomes barren, as foon as the layer
formed by the decompofition of the original plants is
deftroyed.—By a treaty concluded in January 1660,
between the French and Enghfti, the Canbs were
confined to the iflands of St Vincent’s and Dominica,
where all the fcattered body of this people were united^
and at that time did not exceed in number 6ooo men.
See St Vincent’s and Dominica.
As the Caribbee iflands are all between the tropics,
their inhabitants are expo(ed, allowing for tne varieties
refulting from difference of lituation and foil, to a per¬
petual heat, which generally increafes from the riling
of the fun till an hour after noon, and then declines m
proportion as the fun declines. The variations ot the
temperature of the air feem to depend rather on the-
wind than on the changes of the feafons. In thole
places
CAR [ 18
Caribbee places ivliere the wind does not blow, tbe air is excef-
Iflands. fively hot, and none but the eafterty winds contribute
/ to temper and refreth it : thofe that blow from the
fouth and w^eft afford little- relief j but they are much
lefs frequent and lefs regular than that which blows
from the eaft. The branches of the trees expofed to
the influence of the latter are forced round towards the
weft : but their roots are ftrcnger, and more extended
under the ground, towards the eaft than towards the
weft ; and hence they are eafily thrown down by ftrong
weft wdnds or hurricanes from that quarter. The eaft-
erly wind is icarce felt in the Caribbee iflands before
nine or ten o’clock in the morning-, increafes in propor¬
tion as the fun rifes above the horizon, and decreafes
as it declines. Towards the evening it ceafes entirely
to blow on the coafts, but not on the open fea. It has
alfo been obferved, that it blows with more force
and more regularity in the dog-days than at any other
time of year.
The rain alfo contributes to the temperature of the
Caribbee iflands, though not equally in them all. In
thofe places where the eafterly wdnd meets with no¬
thing to oppofe its progrefs, it difpels the clouds as
they begin to rife, and caufes them to break either in
the wTcods or upon the mountains. But whenever the
(forms are too violent, or the blowing of the eafterly
wind is interrupted by the changeable and temporary
effedl of the foutherly or w-eftfwly ones, it then begins
to rain. In the other Caribbee iflands, where this
wind does not generally blow, the rains are fo fre¬
quent and plentiful, efpecially in the winter feafon,
which lafts from the middle of July to the middle of
Obfober, that, according to the moft accurate obfer-
vations, as much rain falls in one week as in our cli¬
mates in a year. Inftead of thofe mild refrefliing
(bowers which fall in the European climates, the rains
of the Caribbee iflands are torrents, the found of which
might be miftaken for hail, were not that almoft to¬
tally unknown under lo burning a (ky. Thefe (howers
indeed refrefh the air ; but they occafion a dampnefs,
the effetts of which are not lefs difagreeable than fatal.
The dead muft be interred within a few hours after
they have expired. Meat wdll not keep fweet above
24 hours. The fruits decay, whether they are gathered
ripe or before their maturity. The bread muft be
made up into bifcuits, to prevent its growing mouldy.
Common wines turn four, and iron turns rufty, in a
day’s time. The feeds can only be preferved by con-
ftant attention and care, till the proper feafon returns
for fowing them. When the Caribbee iflands were
firft difcovered, the corn that was conveyed there for the
fupport of the Europeans, was fo foon damaged that it
became neceflary to fend it out in the ears. This ne-
ceffary precaution fo much enhanced the price of it,
that few were able to purchafe it. Flour wTas then
fubftituted in lieu of corn ; wdiich lowered indeed the
expences of tranfport, but had this inconvenience, that
it was fooner damaged. It was imagined by a mer¬
chant, that if the flour were entirely feparated from
the bran, it would have the double advantage of being
cheaper and keeping longer. He caufed it therefore
to be lifted, and put the fineft flour into ftrong calks,
and beat it clofe together with iron hammers, till it
became fo clofe a body that the air could fcarcely pe-
aetrate it. This method was found to anfwer the pur-
1
1
CAR
pofe •, and if, by it, the flour cannot be preferved as Caribhlan*
long as in our diy and temperate climates, it may be Car;(‘;nan<
kept for fix months, a year, or longer, according to w—4
the degree of care taken in the preparation.
How'ever troublefome thefe effcbls of the rain may
be, it is attended with fome others ftill more formi¬
dable j namely, frequent and dreadful earthquakes.-—.
Thefe happening generally during the time or towards
the end of the rainy feafon, and when the tides are
higheft, fome ingenious naturalifts have fuppofcd that
there might be a connexion between them. The wa¬
ters of the Iky and of the lea undermine, dig up, and
ravage the earth in feveral different ways. Among
the various Ihocks to which the Caribbee iflands are
expofed from the fury of the boifterous ocean, there is
one diftinguifhed by the name of raz de tnaree, or whirl¬
pool. It conftantly happens once, twice, or thrice,
from July to Oftober, and always on the weftern coafls,
becaufe it takes place after the time of the wefterly or
foutherly winds, or while they blow. The waves,
which at a diftance feem to advance gently within 400
or 500 yards, fuddenly fwell againft the Ihore, as if
adled upon in an oblique direftion by fome fuperior
force, and break with the greateft impetuofity. The
fhips which are then upon the coaft, or in the roads
beyond it, unable either to keep their anchors or to
put out to fea, are dallied to pieces againft tlft land,
and all on board moll commonly perilh. The hurri¬
cane is another terrible phenomenon in thefe iflands,
by which incredible damage is occafioned ; but happily
it occurs not often.
The produce of the Caribbee illands is exceedingly
valuable to the Europeans, confifting of fugar, turn,
molaffes, indigo, &c. a particular account of which is
given under the names of the refpedlive iflands as they
occur in the order of the alphabet.
CARIBBIANA, or Caribiana, the north-eaft:
coaft of Terra Firma, in South America, otherwife
called New Andalusia.
CARICA, the PAPAW. See Botany Index.
The fruit of one fpecies is by the inhabitants of the
Caribbee illands eaten with pepper and fugar as me¬
lons, but is much inferior to a melon in its native coun¬
try } but thofe which have ripened in Britain were de-
teftable : the only ufe to which Mr Miller fays he has
known them put was, when they were about half
grown, to foak them in fait water to get out the acrid
juice, and then pickle them for onangos, to which they
are a good fubftitute.
CARICATURA, in painting, denotes the conceal¬
ment of real beauties, and the exaggeration of ble-
mifties, but ftill fo as to preferve a refemblance ot the
objeft. The wTord is Italian j formed of canca, a load,
burden, or the like.
CAR1COUS, an epithet given to fuch tumours as
referable the figure of a fig. They are frequently found
in the piles.
CARIES, the corruption or mortification of a bone.
See Mfdicine and Surgery Index.
CARIGNAN, a fortified town of Piedmont, fituat-
ed on the river Po, about feven miles fouth of Turin.
E. Long. 7. 25. N. Lat. 44. 30.. It was taken in
1544 by the French j who demolifhed the forttfica-
tions, but fpared the caftle. It wras aifo taken, and re¬
taken, in 1691. . „ „ „ ^
’ y CARILLONS,
CAR [ 183 ] CAL
Carillons CARILLONS, a fpecies of chimes frequent in the
.11 Low Countries, particularly at Ghent and Antwerp,
>,,“1-"^ 11 a', and played on a number of bells in a belfrey, forming
a complete fcries or fcale of tones and femitones, like
thofe on the harpfichord and organ. There are petals
communicating with the great bells, upon which the
cari/loneur with his feet plays the bafs to fprightly airs,
performed with the two hands upon the upper fpecies
of keys. Thefe keys are projeffing flicks, wide enough
afunder to be ftruck with violence and velocity by
either of the hands edgewife, without the danger of
hitting the neighbouring key. The player is provided
with a thick leather covering for the little finger of
each hand, to guard againft the violence of the ftroke.
Thefe carillons are heard through a large town.
CARINA, a Latin term, properly fignifying the
heel of a fhip ; or that long piece of timber running
along the bottom of the fhip from head to ftern, upon
which the whole ftrufture is built or framed.
Carina is alfo frequently ufed for the whole capa¬
city or bulk of a fhip : containing the hull or all the
fpace below' the deck. Hence the word is alfo fome-
times ufed by a figure for the whole fhip.
Carina is alfo ufed in the ancient architedhire. The
Romans gave the name carina to all buildings in form
of a fhip, as we ftili give the name nave to the middle
or principal vault of our Gothic churches j becaufe it
has that figure.
Carina, among anatomifls, is ufed to denote the
fpina dorfi; as likewife for the fibrous rudiments or
embryo of a chick appearing in an incubated egg.
The carina confifts of the entire vertebra, as they appear
after ten or twelve days incubation. It is thus called,
becaufe crooked in form of the keel of a fhip.—Bota-
nifts alfo, for the like reafon, ufe the word carina, to
exprefs the kwer petalum of a papilionaceous flower.
Carin;e were alfo v/eepers or women hired among
the ancient Romans to wmep at funerals: they were
thus called from Carta, the country whence mofl of
them came.
CARINOLA, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and Terra di Lavoro. E. Long.
15. 5, N. Lat. 41. 15.
CARINTHIA, a duchy of Germany, in the circle
of Auftria, bounded by the archbifhopric of Saltzburg
on the north, and by Carniola and the Venetian terri¬
tories on the fouth, on the weft by Tyrol, and on the
call: by Stiria. A part of this country was anciently
called Carnia, and the inhabitants Carni; but the for¬
mer afterwards obtained the name of Carinthia, and the
latter Carantani or Carinthi. The air of this country
is cold, and the foil in general mountainous and bar¬
ren 5 but there are fome fruitful dales and valleys in it,
which produce wheat and other grain. The lakes,
brooks, and rivers, which are very numerous, abound
with fifli; and the mountains yield lead and iron, and
in many places are covered with woods. The river
Drave, which runs acrofs the country, is the moft con-
fiderable in Carinthia. The inhabitants are partly de-
feendants of the ancient Germans, and partly of the
Sclavonians or Wends. The ftates are conftituted as
in Auftria, and their afiemblies are held at Clagenfurt.
The archbithop of Saltzburg and the bifhop of Bam¬
berg have confiderable territories in this country. Chri-
ftianity was planted here m the 7th century. The
only profeflion tolerated at prefent is the Roman Ca- Caripr
tholic. The bifhops are thofe of Gurk, and Lavant, If
who are fubjeft to the archbifhop of Saltzburg. This
auchy was formerly a part of Bavaria. In the year » ^
1282, the emperor Rodolph I. gave it to Maynard
count of I yrol, on condition that when his male iflue
failed, it ftiould revert to the houfe of Auftria 5 which
happened in 1331. Carinthia has its particular go¬
vernor or land-captain, as he is called j and contributes
annually towards the expence of the military eftablilh-
ment 637,695 florins. Only one regiment of foot is
ufually quartered in it.
CARIPI, a kind of cavalry in the Turkifh army.
The caripi to the number of about ioco, are not flaves.
nor bred up in the feraglio, like the reft ; but are gene¬
rally Moors or renegade Chriftians, who having followT-
ed adventures, being poor, and having their fortune to
feek by their dexterity and courage, have arrived at
the rank of horfe guards to the Grand Signior.
CARISSA. See Botany Index.
CARITAS.—The poculum caritatis, or grace cup,
was afr extraordinary allowance of w ine or other liquors,
wherein the religious at feftivals drank in commemora¬
tion of their founders and benefaftors.
CARISBROOK castle, a caftle fituated in the
middle of the Me of Wight, where King Charles I. was
imprifoned. W. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 50. 40.
CAR1STO, an epifcopal city of Greece, in the
eaftern part of the ifland of Negropont, near Cape
Loro. E. Long. 24. 15. N. Lat. 38. 6.
CARKE, denotes the 30th part of a sarplar of
wool.
CARLE. See Churl.
CARLETON, Sir Dudley, was born in Oxford-
fhire, 1573, and bred in Chrift-church college. He
w ent as fecretary to Sir Ralph Winwood into the Low
Countries, when King James refigned the cautionary
towns to the States ; and w'as afterwards employed for
20 years as ambaffador to Venice, Savoy, and the
United Provinces. King Charles created him Vifcount
Dorchefter, and appointed him one of his principal fe~
cretaries of ftate ; in which office he died in 1631. He
w'as efteemed a good ftatefman, though an honeft man 5
and publiffied feveral political works.
CARL1NA, the carline thistle. See Botany
Index.
CARLINE, or Caroline thistle. See Carli-
na. It is laid to have been difeovered by an angel to
Charlemagne, to cure his army of the plague ; whence
its denomination.
Carline or Caroline, a filver coin current in the
Neapolitan dominions, and worth about 4d. of our
money.
Carlines, or Carlings, in a fhip, two pieces
of timber lying fore and alt, along from one beam to
another, direflly over the keel 5 ferving as a founda¬
tion for the whole body of the (hip. On thefe the
ledges reft, wffiereon the planks of the deck and other
matters of carpentry are made faft. I he carlines
have their ends let into the beams called culver-tail-
ways.
Carlins Knees, are timbers going athwart the ffiip,
from the fides to the hatchway, ferving to fuftain the
deck on both fides.
CARLINGFORP, a port town of Ireland, feated
on
84
CAR [ i
on Cariingford bay, in the comity of I-outb, and pro-
vince of Leinfter, miles north of Drogheda. W.
Long. 6. 24. N. Lat. 24. 5. _
CARLISLE, the capital city of the county of Cum¬
berland, feated on the fouth of the river Eden and be¬
tween the Petterel on the eaft, and the Caude on the
weft. It is furrounded by a ftrong ftone wall, and has
a pretty large caftle in the weftern part of it, as afto a
citadel in the eaftern part, built by Henry VUL It
ftouriftied in the time of the Romans, as appears from
the antiquities that are to be met with here, and the
Roman coins that have been dug up. At the departure
of the Romans this city was_ ruined by the Scots and
Pifts ; and was not rebuilt till the year 60O, by Eg-
frid who encompaffed it with a wall, and repaired the
church. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the whole coun¬
try was avain ruined, and the city laid defolate by the
incurfions°of the Norwegians and Danes. In this con¬
dition it remained till the time of William Rufus | who
repaired the walls and the caftle, and caufed the houfes
to be rebuilt. It was fortified by Henry I. as a bar¬
rier againft Scotland j he alfo placed a garnfon in it,
.and made it an epifcopal fee. It was twice taken by
the Scots, and afterwards burnt accidentally in t e
reign of Richard II. The cathedral, the fuburbs, and
j coo houfes, were deftroyed at that time. It is at
prefent in a good condition 5 and has three gates, the
Englifh on the fouth, the Scotch on the north, and
the Irifti on the weft. It has two panftres, and as many
churches, St Cuthbert’s and St Mary’s, the laft of
which is the cathedral, and is feparated from the town
by a wall of its own. The eaftern part, which is the
neweft, is a curious piece of workmanftup, 1 he choir
with the aides is 71 feet broad *, and has a ftately eait-
window 48 feet high and 30 broad, adorned with cu¬
rious pillars. The roof is elegantly vaulted with woodj
and is embellilhed with the arms of England and
France quartered ; as alfo with Piercy’s, Lucy s, W ar-
ren’s, Mowbray’s and many others. In the choir are
the monuments of three bifhops who are buried there
This fee was erefted in 1133 by King Henry I. and
made fuffragan to the archbilhop of York. I he ca¬
thedral church here had been founded a fhort ^e be¬
fore by Walter, deputy in thefe parts for King W dham
Rufus, and by him dedicated to the Virgin Mary. He
likewife built a monaftery, and filled it with canons
regular of St Auguftine. This foundation continued
till the diffolution of monafteries, when its lands were
added to the fee, and the maintenance of a dean, &c.
placed here in their room. The church was almoft
ruined by the ufurper Cromwell and his foldiers j and
has never fince recovered its former beauty, although
repaired after the Reftoration. This diocefe contains
the great eft part of the counties of Cumberland and
Weftmorland, in which are only 93 panlhes; but
thefe (as all the northern are) exceeding large 5 and of
them 18 are impropriations. Kerens one archdeacon,
viz. of Carlifle. The fee is valued in the king’s books
at *C3ol. 4s. U^d, but is computed to be worth an¬
nually 2800I. “The clergy’s tenth amounts only to
16x1. is- 7*d. To this cathedral belong a biftiop,
a dean a chancellor, an archdeacon, four prebendaries,
eight minor canons, &c. and other inferior officers and
^The Pi£ls wall, which was built acrofs the country
] GAR
from Newcaftte, terminates near this place. Carlifle
was a fortified place, and ftill has its governor and
lieutenant-governor, but no garrifon. It was taken by
the rebels, Nov. 15. 1745 i and was retaken by the
duke of Cumberland on the xoth of December fol ow¬
ing, and deprived of its gates. It is governed by a
mayor, twelve aldermen, twm bailiffs, &c. and has a
confiderable market on Saturdays. The manufactures
of Carlifle are chiefly of printed linens, for which near
3000I. per annum is paid in duties. . It is alio noted
for a great manufasfture of whips, in which a great
number of children are employed.—Salmons appear m
the Eden in numbers, fo early as the months of De¬
cember and January *, and the London and even New-
caftle markets are fupplied with early filh from this
river : but it is remarkable, that they do not vifit the
Elk in any quantity till April*, notwithftanding the
mouths of the two rivers are at a fmall diftance from
each other.—Carlifle fends two members to parliament,
and gives title of earl to a branch of the Howard fa-
CARLOCK, in commerce, a fort of ifinglafs, made
with the fturgeon’s bladder, imported from Arch-
ano-el. The chief ufe of it is for clarifying wme,
but is alfo ufed by the dyers. The beft carlock comes
from Aftracan, where a great quantity of fturgeon is
caught. ,
CARLOSTAD, or Carlstad, a town of Sweden,
in Wermeland, feated on the lake Wermer, in E. Long.
14. 4. N. Lat. 59. 16.
Carlostad, or Carljladt, a town of Hungary, ca¬
pital of Croatia, and the ufual refidence of _ the gover¬
nors of the province. It is feated on the river Kulp ,
in E. Long. 16. 5. N. Lat. 45. 34. . c .
CARLOWITZ, a fmall town of Hungary, in Scla-
vonia, remarkable for a peace concluded here between
the Turks and Chriftians in 1669. It is feated on the
weft fide of the Danube, in E. Long. 19. 5. N. Lat.
45*CARLSCRONA, or Carlscroon, afea port town
in the Baltic, belonging to Sweden. It derives its
origin and name from Charles XL who firft laid the
foundation of a new town in 1680, and removed the
fleet from Stockholm to this place, on account of its
advantageous fituation in the centre of the bwedfth
feas, and the fuperior fecurity of its harbour Ihe
greateft part of Carlfcrona Hands upon a fmall rocky
ifland, which rifes gently in a bay of the Baltic 5 the
fuburbs extend over another fmall rock, and along the
mole clofe to the bafon where the fleet is moored. 1 he
way into the town from the mainland is carried over
a dyke to an ifland, and from thence along two long
wooden bridges joined by a barren rock. _ I he town
' fpacious, and contains about 18,000 inhabitants.
Carlccls
i;
;arMcrona.
is ipacious, ana  
It is adorned with one or two handfome churches, and
a few tolerable houfes of brick *, but the generality of
buildings are of wood. The fuburbs are fortified^ to¬
wards the land by a ftone wall. The entrance into
the harbour, which by nature is extremely difficult
from a number of ffioals and rocky iflands, is ftill fur¬
ther fecured from the attack of an enemy’s fleet by two
ftrong forts built on two iflands, under the batteries
of which all veffels muft pafs.
Formerly veffels in this port when careened and
repaired, were laid upon their fides in the open^har-
CAR [ sSj: ] CAR
Carhladt hour, until a dock, according to a plan given by Pol-
11 heim, was hollowed in the (did rock : it was begun
Carmel. jn 1714., and finifhed in 1724; but as it was too
_ Y ™r- £or tjle acjmj{|^on Gf men Qf warj it has lately
been enlarged, and is now capable of receiving a (hip
of the firft rate. But new docks have been begun
upon a flupendous plan, worthy of the ancient Romans.
Accerding to the original fcheme, it was intended to
conllru£l 30 docks, for building and laying up the
larged drips, at the extremity of the harbour. A
large bafon, capable of admitting two men of war, is
defigned to communicate, by fiuices, with two fmaller
bafons, from each of which are to extend, like the
radii of a circle, five rows of covered docks: each row
is to be feparated by walls of done ; and each dock to
be provided with (luice gates, fo as to be filled or
emptied by means of pumps. Clofe to the docks,
magazines for naval dores, are to be condrufled, and
the whole to be enclofed with a done wall. The pro-
je£l: was begun in 1757 ’■> but was much neglefted until
the accedion of his prefent tnajedy, who warmly pa¬
tronized the arduous undertaking. At the commence¬
ment of the works, 25,000!. were annually expended
upon them •, w’hich fum has been leffened to about
6000I. per annum, and the number of docks reduced
to 20. The fird dock was finidred in 1779, and it
was computed that the whole number would be exe¬
cuted in 20 years.
CARLSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, and biflropric of Wurtfburg, feated on
the river Maine, in E. Long. 9. 51. N. Lat. 50. o.
CARLTON, a town in Norfolk held by this te¬
nure, that they (hall prefent 1000 herrings baked in
14 pyes to the king, wherever he diall be when they
fird come in feafon.
CARMAGNIOLA, a fortified town of Italy, in
Piedmont, with a good cadle. It w7as taken by the
French in 1691, and retaken by Prince Eugene the
fame year. It is feated in a country abounding in
corn, fiax, and filk, near the river Po, in E. Long.
7. 32. N. Lat. 44. 43.
CARMANIA, in /Indent Geography, a country of
Afia, to the ead of Perfia, having Parthiatothe north,
Gedrofia to the ead, to the fouth the Perfian gulf or
lea in part, and in part the Indian, called ihe Carma-
nian Sea ; didinguifhed into Carmama Deferta, and Car-
mania Propria, the former lying to the fouth of Par-
thia ; and to the fouth of that, the Propria, quite to
the fea. Its name is from the Syriac, Carma, figni-
fying a “ vine,” for which that country was famous,
yielding cluders three feet long. Nowt Kerman, or
Car!mania, a province of modern Perfia.
CARMEL, a high mountain of Paledine, danding
on the (kirts of the fea, and forming the mod remark¬
able headland on all that coad. It extends eadward
from the fea as far as the plain of Jezreel, and from
the city of that name quite to Cajfarea on the fouth.
It feems to have had the name of Carmel from its great
fertility ; this wTord, according to the Hebrew import,
fignifying the vine of God, and is ufed in Scripture to
denote any fruitful fpot, or any place planted with
fruit trees. This mountain, we are afiured, was very
fertile. Mr Sandys acquaints us, that, when well cul¬
tivated, it abounds with olives, vines, and variety of
fruits and herbs both medicinal and aromatic. Others,
Vol. V. Part I.
however, feprefent it as rather dry and barren ; which Carmelites,
perhaps may have happened from the negledt of agri- ‘■"“■"v
culture fo common in all parts of the Turkifh empire,
elpecially where they are expofed to the incurfions of
the Arabs. Carmel is the name of the mountain, and
of a city built on it 5 as well as of a heathen deity
wordiipped ih it, but without either temple or datue :
though anciently there mud have been a temple, as
we are told that this mountain was a favourite retreat
of Pythagoras, who (pent a good deal of time in the
temple, without any perfon with him. But what hath
rendered Mount Carmel mod celebrated and revered
both by Jews and Chridians, is its having been the re-
fidence of the prophet Elijah, who is fuppofed to have
lived there in a cave (which is there (hown), before he
was taken up into heaven.
CARMELITES, an order of religious, making
one of the four tribes of mendicants or begging friars }
and taking its name from Mount Carmel, formerly in¬
habited by Elias, Elilha, and the children of the pro¬
phets ; from whom this order pretends to defeend in
an uninterrupted fuccefilon. The manner in which they
make out their antiquity has fomething in it too ridi¬
culous to be rehearfed. Some among them pretend
they are defendants of Jefus Chrid ; others go fur¬
ther, and make Pythagoras a Carmelite, and the an¬
cient druids regular branches of their order. Phceas, a
Greek monk, fpeaks the mod reafonably. He fays,
that in his time, 1185, Elias’s cave was dill extant on
the mountain •, near which were the remains of a build¬
ing w7hich intimated that there had been anciently a
monadery ; that, fome years before, an old monk, a
pried of Calabria, by revelation, as he pretended, from
the prophet Elias, fixed there, and affembled ten bro¬
thers. In 1209, Albert, patriarch of Jerufalem, gave
the folitaries a rigid rule, which Papebroch has fince
printed. In 1217, or, according to others, 1226,
Pope Honorius III. approved and confirmed it. This
rule contained 16 articles; one of which confined them
to their cells, and enjoined them to continue day and
night in prayer ; another prohibited the brethren hav¬
ing any property 5 another enjoined fading from the
fead of the holy crofs till Eader, except on Sundays 5
abdinence at all times from defh rvas enjoined by ano¬
ther article •, one obliged them to manual labour ; an¬
other impofed a drift filence on them from vefpers
till the tierce the next day.
The peace concluded by the emperor Frederic II. *
with the Saracens, in the year 1229, fo difadvantage-
ous to Chridendom, and fo beneficial to the infidels,
occafioned the Carmelites to quit the Holy Land, un¬
der Alan the fifth general of the order. He fird fent
fome of the religious to Cyprus, wrho landed there in
the year C328, and founded a monadery in'the fored
of Fortania. Some Sicilians, at the fame time, leav¬
ing Mount Carmel, returned to their own country,
vFere they founded a monadery in the fuburbs of
Medina. Some Engiidi departed out of Syria, in the
year 1240, to found others in England. Others of
Provence, in the year 1244, founded a monadery in
the defert of Aigualates, a league from Marieilles :
and thus, the number of their monaderies increafing,
they held their European general chapter in the year
1245, at their monadery of Aylesford in England.—
This order is fo much increafed, that it has, at prefent,
A a 38
CAR [i
Carmen g8 provinces, befides the congregation of Mantua, in
which are 54 monafteries, under a vicar-general ; and
the congregations of Barefooted Carmelites in Italy
and Spain, which have their peculiar generals.
After the eflablilhment of the Carmelites in Europe,
their rule was in fome refpe&s altered 5 the fitft time,
by Pope Innocent IV. who added to the firft article a
precept of chaftity, and relaxed the nth which en¬
joins abftinence at all times from flefh, permitting them,
when they travelled, to eat boiled flefh : this pope
likewife gave them leave to eat in a common refeftory,
and to keep afles or mules for their ufe. Their rule
was again mitigated by the popes Eugenius IV. and
Pius II. Hence the order is divided into two branch¬
es, viz. the Carmelites of the ancient obfervance, called
the moderate, or mitigated; and thole of the JlriB ob¬
fervance, who are the barefooted Carmelites ; a reform
fet on foot in 1540, by S. Therefa, a nun of the con¬
vent of Avila, in Caftile : thefe laft are divided in¬
to two congregations, that of Spain and that of
Italy.
The habit of the Carmelites w'as at firft white, and
the cloak laced at the bottom with feveral lifts. But
Pope Honorius IV. commanded them to change it for
that of the Minims. Their fcapulary is a fmall wool¬
len habit of a brown colour, thrown over their {boul¬
ders. They wear no linen fhirts } but inftead of them
linfey-woolfey, which they change twice a week in the
fummer, and once a week in the wunter.
If a monk of this order lies with a woman, he is
prohibited faying mafs for three or four years, is de¬
clared infamous, and obliged to difcipline himfelf pub¬
licly once a-week. If he is again guilty of the fame
fault, his penance is doubled ; and if a third time, he
is expelled the order.
CARMEN, an ancient term among the Latins,
ufed in a general fenfe to fignify a verfe ; but more
particularly to fignify a fpell, charm, form of expia¬
tion, or execration, couched in a fewT words placed in
a myftic order, on which its efficacy depended. Pez-
ron derives the word carmen from the Celtic carm, the
Ihout of joy, or the verfes which the ancient bards fung
to encourage the foldiers before the combat.—Carmen
was anciently a denomination given alfo to precepts,
laws, prayers, imprecations, and all folemn formulae
couched in a few words placed in a certain order,
though written in profe. In which fenfe it wTas that
the elder Cato wrote a Carmen de moribus, which was
not in verfe but in profe.
CARMENTALIA, a feaft among the ancient Ro¬
mans, celebrated annually upon the lith of January,
in honour of Carmenta, or Carmentis, a prophetefs of
Arcadia, mother of Evander, with whom the came in¬
to Italy 60 years before the Trojan W’ar. i he folem-
nity was alfo repeated on the 15th of January, which
is marked in the old calendar by Carmentalia relata.
This feaft was eftablifhed on occafion of a great fecun¬
dity among the Roman dames, after a general recon¬
ciliation with their hufbands, with whom they had been
at variance, in regard of the ufe of coaches being
prohibited them by an edift of the fenate. 'Phis feaft
was celebrated by the women : he who offered the fa-
crifices was called facerdos carmentalis.
CARMINATIVES, medicines ufed in colics, or
other flatulent diforders, to difpel the wind.
86 ] CAR
The word comes from the Latin car miner e, to card
or teaze wool, and figuratively to attenuate and dif-
cufs wind or vapours, and promote their difeharge by
perfpiration. I hough I3r Quincy makes it more my-
fterious: He fays it comes from the word carmen, tak¬
ing it in the fenfe of an invocation or charm j and
makes it to have been a general name for all medicines
which operated like charms, i. e. in an extraordinary
manner. Hence, as the moft violent pains^ were fre¬
quently thofe arifing from pent-up wind, which imme¬
diately ceafe upon difperiion 5 the term carminative be¬
came* in a peculiar fenfe applied to medicines which
gave relief in windy cafes, as if they cured by enchant¬
ment : but this interpretation feems a little too far
ftrained.
CARMINE, a powder of a very beautiful red co¬
lour, bordering upon purple and ufed by painters in
miniature, though rarely, on account of its great pi ice.
The manner of preparing it is kept a fecret by the co¬
lour-makers j neither do any of thofe receipts which
have for a long time been publiftied concerning the pre¬
paration of this and other colours at all anlwer the
purpofe. See CoiovR-mahing.
CARMONA, a town of Italy in Friuli, and in the
country of GoritZ, feated on a mountain near the river
Indri. It belongs to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long.
5. ^7. N. Lat. 46. 15*
Carmona, an ancient town of Spain, in Andalufia.
The gate towards Seville is one of the moft extraor¬
dinary pieces of antiquity in all Spain. It is feated in
a fertile country, 15 miles eaft of Seville. W. Long-.
5. 37. N. Lat. 37. 34- „ T .
CARNATION. See Dianthus, Botany Index.
Carnation Colour, among painters, is underftood
of all the parts of a pifture, in general, which repre-
fent flefh, or wffiich are naked and without drapery.
Titian and Corregio in Italy, and Rubens and \ an-
dyke in Flanders, excelled in carnations.—In colour¬
ing for flefh, there is fo great a variety, that it is hard
to lay down any general rules for inftrrnftion therein j
neither are there any regarded by thole who have ac¬
quired a fkill this wav j the various colouring for car¬
nations may be eafil'y produced, by taking more or
lefs red, blue, yellow, or biftre, whether for the firft
colouring, or for the finiihing ; the colour for women
fhould be bluifh, for children a little red, both freffi
and gay ; and for men it fnould incline to yellow, efpe*
cially if they are old.
Carnation, among dyers. To dye a carnation, or
red rofe colour, it is dire&ed to take liquor of wheat
bran a fufficient quantity, alum three pounds, tartar
two ounces; boil them, and enter 20 yards of broad
cloth ; after it has boiled three hours, cool and waft
it • take frefh clear bran liquor a fufficient quantity,
madder five pounds ; boil and fodden according to art.
—The Bow dyers know that the folution of tm, being
put in a kettle to the alum and tartar, in another pro-
cefs, makes the cloth, &c. attraft the colour into it,
fo that none of the cochineal is left, but the whole is
abforbed by the cloth. r ,
CARNEADES, a celebrated Greek philofopner,
was a native of Cyrene in Africa, and founder of the
third academy. He was fo fond of ftudy, that he not
only avoided all entertainments, but even t0 ^
at his own table; his maid-fetvant Mellila was oblw
ged
Carmine
II
Carneades.
Camel
CAR [ >8/ ] , CAR
Carneades ged to put tlie victuals into his hand. He was an an¬
il . tagoniil of the Stoics } and applied himfelf with great
, Caine'a''eagernefs to refute the works of Chryfippus, one of the
moft celebrated philofophers of their fe£t. The power
of his eloquence -was dreaded even by a Roman fenate.
The Athenians being condemned by the Romans to
pay a fine of 500 talents for plundering the city of O-
ropus, fent ambafladors to Rome, who got the fine mi¬
tigated to too talents. Carneades the Academic,
Diogenes the Stoic, and Critolaus the Peripatetic,
w7ere charged with this embafly. Before they had an
audience of the fenate, they harangued to great multi¬
tudes in different parts of the city. Carneades’s elo¬
quence was dilfinguilhed from that of the others by its
ftrength and rapidity. Cato the Elder made a motion
in the fenate that thefe ambaffadors fhould be immedi¬
ately fent back, becaufe it was very difficult to difcern
the truth through the arguments of Carneades. The
Athenian ambaffadors (faid many of the fenators) were
fent rather to force us to comply with their demands,
than to folicit them by perfuafion ; meaning, that it
was impoffible to refill: the powrer ©f that eloquence
with which Carneades addrelfed himfelf to them. Ac¬
cording to Plutarch, the youth at Rome were fo
charmed by the orations of this philofopher, that they
forfook their exercifes and other diverfions, and were
carried wdth a kind of madnefs to philofophy ; the hu¬
mour of philofophizing fpreading like enthufiafm. This
grieved Cato, who wTas particularly afraid of the fub-
tility of wit and llrength of argument wdth which Car¬
neades maintained either fide of a queftion. Carneades
harangued in favour of juftice one day, and the next
day again!! it, to the admiration of all who heard him,
among whom were Galba and Cato, the greateft ora¬
tors of Rome. This was his element *, he delighted in
demoliffiing his owTn w7ork ", becaufe it ferved in the
end to confirm his grand principle, that there are only
probabilities or refemblances of truth in the mind of
man ; fo that of tw7o things directly oppofite, either
may be chofen indifferently. Quintilian remarks, that
though Carneades argued in favour of injullice, yet he
himfelf a£ted according to the Itrift rules of juftice.
The following was a maxim of Carneades : “ If a man
privately knew that his enemy, or any other perlon
whofe death might be of advantage to him, would
come to fit dowTn on grafs in which there lurked an
afp, he ought to give him notice of it, though it were
in the power of no perfon whatever to blame him for
being filent.” Carneades, according to fome, lived
to be 85 years old ; others make him to be 90 : his
death is placed in the 4th year of the ibzd Olym¬
piad.
CARNEDDE, in Britiffi antiquity, denote heaps
of ftones, fuppofed to be druidical remains, and thrown
together on occafion of confirming and commemorat¬
ing a covenant, Gen. xxxi. 46. They are very com¬
mon in the ille of Anglefey, and were alfo ufed as fe-
pulchral monuments, in the manner of tumuli; for Mr
Row'land found a curious urn in one of thefe carnedde.
Whence it may be inferred, that the Britons had the
cuftom of throwing ftones on the deceafed. From this
cuftom is derived the Welffi proverb, Karn anctyben,
111 betide thee.”
CARNEIA, in antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Apollo, furnanted Carneus, held in moft cities of
Greece, but efpecially at Sparta, where it was firft in-
ftituted.
The reafon of the name, as well as the occafion of
the inftitution, is controverted. It lafted nine days,
beginning on the 13th of the month Carneus. The
ceremonies were an imitation of the method of living
and difcipline ufed in camps.
CARNEL.—The building of ftiips firft with their
timber and beams, and after bringing on their planks,
is called camel work, to diftinguiffi it from clinch
wank.
Veffels alfo which go with mizen fails inftead of
main fails are by fome called camels.
CARNELIAN,in NaturalH/Jlory, a precious ftcne,
of which there are three kinds, diftinguiffied by three
colours, a red, a yellow, and a wffiite. The red is
very well known among us ; is found in roundiffi or
oval mafles, much like our common pebbles ; and is
generally met with between an inch and two or three
inches in diameter ; it is of a fine, compaft, and clofe
texture ; of a gloffy furface ; and, in the feveral fpe-
cimens, is of all the degrees of red, from the paleft
fieth-colour to the deepeft blood-red. It is generally
free from fpots, clouds, or variegations : but fometimes
it is veined very beautifully with an extremely pale
red, or with wffiite } the veins forming concentric cir¬
cles, or other lefs regular figures, about a nucleus, in
the manner of thofe of agates. The pieces of carne-
lian which are all of one colour, and perfectly free from
veins, are thofe which our jewellers generally make
ufe of for feals, though the variegated ones are much
more beautiful. The carnelian is tolerably hard, and
capable of a very good polifti: it is not at all affected
by acid menftruums : the fire divefts it of a part of
its colour, and leaves it of a pale red ; and a ftrong
and long-continued heat will reduce it to a pale dirty
Camifex.
gray.
The fineft carnelians are thofe of the Eaft Indies;
but there are very beautiful ones found in the rivers of
Silefia and Bohemia j and we have fome not defpicable
ones in England.
Though the ancients have recommended the carne¬
lian as aftringent, and attributed a number of fanciful
virtues to it, we know7 of no other ufe of the ftone
than the cutting feals on it ; to which purpofe it is
excellently adapted, as being not too hard for cutting,
and yet hard enough not to be liable to accidents, to
take a good polifli, and to feparate eafily from the
wax.
CARNERO, in Geography, a name given to that
part of the gulf of Venice which extends from the
weftern coaft of Iftria to the ifland of Groffa and the
coaft of Morlachia.
Carnero is likewife the name of the cape to the
weft of the mouth of the bay of Gibraltar.
CARNIFEX, among the Romans, the common
executioner. By reafen of the odioufnefs of his office,
the carnifex was exprefsly prohibited by the laws from
having his dwelling houfe within the city. In middle-
age writers carnifex alfo denotes a butcher.
Under the Anglo-Danifh kings, the carnifex w7as an
officer of great dignity •, being ranked with the archbi-
ffiop of York, Earl Goodwin, and the lord fteward.
Flor. Wigorn. ann. 1040, Rex Hardecanutus Alfmcum
Ebor. Archiep. Goodwinum comitem, Edricum difpenfa-
A a 2 Jorem%
Carniola,
Carnival.
CAR [ 188
torern, Thrond fuum carnificera, et ahos rnagnx digni¬
tatis viros Londinum mijit.
CARNIOLA, a duchy of Germany, bounded on
the foqth by the Adriatic fea, and that part of Idria
pofleffed by the republic of Venice ; on the north, by
Carinthia and Stiria ; on the eaft, by Sclavonia and
Croatia ; on the weft, by Friuli, the county of Gorzor
Goritz, and a part of the gulf of Venice •, extending
in length about no miles, and in breadth about 50.
It had°its ancient name Carnia, as well as the modern
one Carniola, from its ancient inhabitants the Garni, a
tribe of Scythians, otherwife called 'japides, whence
this and the adjacent countries were alio called Japi-
dia.
Carniola is full of mountains, fome of which are cul¬
tivated and inhabited, fome covered with wood, others
naked and barren, and others continually buried in
ihow. The valleys are very fruitful. Hete are like-
wife mines of iron, lead, and copper } but .ait mult oe
had from the fovereign’s magazines. There are fe-
veral rivers, befides many medicinal fprings and in¬
land lakes. The common people are very hardy,
going barefooted in winter through the fnow, with
open breafts, and fleeping on a hard bench without
bed or bolfter. Their food is alfo very coarfe and
mean. In winter, when the fnow lies deep on the
ground, the mountaineers bind either fmall balkets, or
long thin narrow boards, like the Laplanders, to their
feet, on which, with the help of a ftout ftaff or pole,
they defcend with great velocity from the mountains.
When the fnow is frozen, they make ufe of a fort of
irons or ikaitsh In different parts of the country the
inhabitants, efpecially the common fort, differ greatly
in their drefs, language, and manner of living. In
Upper . and Lower Carniola they wear long beards.
The languages chiefly in ufe are the Sclavonian or
Wendifh, and German *, the firft by the commonalty,
and the latter by people of falhion. I he duchy is di¬
vided into the Upper, Lower, Middle, and Inner,
Carniola. The principal commodities exported hence
are, iron, fteel, lead, quickfilver, white and red wine,
oil of olives, cattle, fheep, cheefe, linen, and a kind
of woollen fluff called tnahalan, Spanifli leather, ho¬
ney, walnuts, and timber ; together with all manner
of woodwork, as boxes, difhes, &c. Chriftianity was
firft planted here in the eighth century. Lutheranifm
made a conftderable progrels in it •, but, excepting the
Walachians or Ufkokes, who are of the Greek church,
and ftyle themfelves Staraver%i, i. e. old believers, all
the inhabitants at p re lent are Roman Catholics. . Car-
niola was long a marquifate or margravate } but in the
year 1231 was erefled into a duchy. As its propor¬
tion towards the maintenance of the army, it pays an¬
nually 363,171 florins: but only two regiments of foot
are quartered in it.
CARNIVAL, or Carnaval, a time of rejoicing,
a feafon of mirth, obferved with great folemnity by
the Italians, particularly at Venice, holding from the
twelfth day till Lent.
The word is formed from the Italian Carnavalle;
which M. Du Cange derives from Carn-a-val, by rea-
Ibn the flefli then goes to pot, to make amends for the
feafon of abftinence then enfuing. Accordingly, in
the corrupt Latin, he obferves, it was called Camele-
] GAR
vamen, and Carni/prhium ; as the Spaniards ftill deno- Carnivo-
minate it carnes tollendas. _ _ .
Feafts, balls, operas, concerts of mufic, intrigues,
marriages, &c. are chiefly held in carnival time. The
carnival begins at Venice the fecond holiday in Chrift-
mas: Then it is they begin to wear malks, and open
their playhoufes and gaming houfes *, the place of St
Miffk is filled with mountebanks, jack puddings, ped¬
lars, whores, and fuch like mob, who flock thither
from all parts. There have been no lefs than feven fo-
vereign princes and 30,000 foreigners here to partake
of thefe diverfions.
CARNIVOROUS, an epithet applied to thofe ani¬
mals which naturally feek and feed on fleih.
It has been a difpute among naturalifts, whether
man is naturally carnivorous. Thofe who take the ne¬
gative fide of the queftion, infift chiefly on the ftruc-
ture of our teeth, w7hich are moftly mcifores or mola-
res j not fuch as carnivorous animals are furnilhed
with, pnd which are proper to tear fleih in pieces : to
which it may be added, that, even when we do feed
on fiefli, it is not without a preparatory alteration by
boiling, roafting, &c. and even then that it is the
hardeft of digeftion of all foods. To thefe arguments
Dr Wallis fubjoins another, which is, that all quadru¬
peds which feed on herbs or piants have a long colon,
w ith a caecum at the upper end of it, or fomewhat equi¬
valent, which conveys the food by a long and large
progrefs, from the ftomach downwards, in order to its
flower paflage and longer ftay in the inteftines : but
that, in carnivorous animals, fuch caecum is wanting,
and inftead thereof there is a more Ihort and (lender
gut, and a quicker paffage through the inteftines.
Now, in man, the caecum is very, vifible : a ftrong
prefumption that nature, who is ftill confiftent with
herfelf, did not intend him for a carnivorous animal—■
It is true, the caecum is but fmall in adults, and feems
of little or no ufe •, but in a foetus it is much larger in
proportion : And it is probable, our cuftomary change
of diet, as we grow up, may occafion this flirinking.
But to thefe arguments Dr Tyfon replies, that if man
had been by nature defigned not to be carnivorous,
there would doubtlefs have been found, fomewhere on
the globe, people who do not feed on flefli ; which is
not the cafe. Neither are carnivorous animals always
without a colon and caecum \ nor are all animals car¬
nivorous which have thefe parts : the opolfum for in-
ftance, hath both a colon and caecum, and yet feeds
on poultry and other flefli •, whereas the hedgehog,
which has neither colon nor caecum, and fo ought to
be carnivorous, feeds only on vegetables. Add to
this, that hogs which have both, will feed upon tlefti
W'hen they can get it ; and rats and mice, which have
large ccecums, will feed on bacon as wej.t as bread and
cheefe. Laftly, The human race are furnifhed with
teeth neceffary for the preparation of all kinds of foods ;
from whence it would feem, that nature intended we
ftiould live on all. And as the alimentary ducft in the
human body is fitted for digefting all kinds of foods,
ought we not rather to conclude, that nature did not
intend to deny us any ?
It is no lefs difputed whether mankind were carni¬
vorous before the flood. St Jerome, Chryfcftome, Fhe-
odoret, and other ancients, maintain, tVat aft animal
R t »
which opinion is alfo lire-
C A
Carnofity food W’as then forbidden 7
11 nuoufly fupported among the moderns by Curcellaeus,
Carolina. amj refuted by Heidegger, Danzius, Eochart, &c.
See Antediluvians.
CARNOSITY is ufed by fome authors for a little
fleihy excrefcence, tubercle, or wen, formed in the
urethra, the neck of the bladder, or yard, which flops
the paffage of the urine.—Carnofities are very difficult
of cure : they are not ealily known but by introducing
a piobe into' the paffage, which there meets with re-
fiftance. They ufually arife from fome venereal mala¬
dy ill managed.
CARO, Annibal, a celebrated Italian poet, mas
born at Civita Nuovo in 1507. He became fecretary
to the duke of Parma, and afterwards to Cardinal
Farnefe. He was alfo made a knight of Malta. He
tranflated Virgil’s ALneid into his owm language, with
fuch propriety and elegance of expreffion, that he was
allowed by the beft judges to have equalled the origi¬
nal. He alfo tranflated Arittotle’s rhetoric, two ora¬
tories of Gregory Nazianzen, with a difeourfe of Cy¬
prian. He wrote a comedy 5 and a miiceliany of his
poems was printed at Venice in 15^4’ ■^■e died at
Rome in 1566.
CAROLINA, a province of North America, com¬
prehending the moft wefterly part of Florida, and ly¬
ing between 29 and 36 degrees of N. Lat. It is
bounded on the eaft by the Atlantic, and on the weft
by the river Miffiffippi, on the north by Virginia, on
the fouth by Georgia, and to the fouth of Georgia by
the Floridas. . .
This country is feated between the extremities ot
heat and cold, though the heat is more trouble fome in
fummer than the cold in winter j their winters being
very ftiort, and the frofty mornings frequently fuc-
ceeded by warm days. The air is generally ferene
and clear the greateft part of the year j but in Fe¬
bruary and March the inhabitants have a cuftom of
burning the woods, which caufes Inch a fmoke, as to
ftrangers w'ould feem to proceed from a fog or thick-
nefs in the air. The fmoke of the tar-kilns likewife
deceives ftrangers, and gives them an ill opinion of the
air of Carolina ; to which alfo conduces a cuftom of
the Indians of fetting fire to the woods in their hunt¬
ings, for many miles round. The great rains are in
winter, though they are not without heavy ftiowers at
midfummer ; add to thefe the conftant dews that fall
in the night, which refreftr the ground and fupply the
plants with moifture. In North Carolina, the north-
weft winds in the winter occafion very pinching wea¬
ther ; but they are not of long continuance. Wefter-
Iv winds bring very pleafant weather ; but the fouth-
erly are hot and unwholefome, occafioning fevers and
other diforders. Eut this muft be underftood of fum-
mer, for in winter they are very comfortable. The
depth of winter is tow’ards the latter end of February,
and then the ice is not ftrong enough to bear a man’s
weight. In Auguft and September there are lome-
times great ftorms and fqualls of wind, which are to
violent as to make lanes of ICO feet wide, more or lets,
through the woods, tearing up the trees by the roots.
Thefe ftorms generally happen once in about feven
years ; and are attended with dreadful thunder, light¬
ning, and heavy rains. They commonly happen about
the time of the hurricanes which rage fo fatally among
89 ] C A R
the iHands between the tropics j and feem to be occa- Car°h'l1F:-
fioned by them, or to proceed from the lame caufe .
but by the time they reach Carolina, their force is
much abated ; and the farther north they proceed, io
much the more do they decreaie in fury. I he foil on
the coaft is fandy 5 but farther up, the country is fo
fruitful that they have not yet been at the trouble to
manure their land. The grains moft cultivated are In¬
dian corn and rice, though any fort wdll thrive well
enough’, they have alfo pulfe of feveral forts, little
known in England. All kinds of garden fluff ulual in
England are cultivated here, and may be had in great
plenty. They export large quantities yearly of rice,
pitch, tar, turpentine, deer-fkins, and timber foi
building cyprefs, cedar, faffafras, oak, walnut, and
pine. Befides thele, they alfo fend out beef, pork,
tallow, hides, furs, wheat, peas, potatoes, honey,
bees-wax, myrtle-wax, tobacco, fnake-root, cotton,
feveral forts of gums and medicinal drugs. Indigo is
alfo cultivated in this province, but of an inferior qua¬
lity to that which comes from the Caribbee iflands. it
bath been attempted in vain to cultivate vines, and
produce filk, in this country ,• for though the Lofts
here do not continue long without intervals of warmer
weather, they are fufficient to check the growth of thetW Jty?.
vine, as W’ell as olives, dates, oranges, &c. Ihexxvi. .
furs are bought of the Indians with vermilion, lead,
gunpowder, coarfe cloth, iron, and fpirituous liquors.
As yet they have not a fufficient number ot handicrarti-
men 5 which renders labour very dear, and a fupply of
clothes from Europe neceffary. The afpeft of the
country is very fine, being adorned with beautiful ri¬
vers and creeks, and the woods with lofty timber,
which afford delightful and pleafant feats for the plan¬
ters, and render the fencing their lands very eaiy.
And as they have plenty of fiffi, wild-fowl, and vein-
fon, befides other neceffaries which this_ country pro¬
duces naturally, they live eafy and luxunoufly.
Their rivers are large, and navigable a great many
miles upon the country. They rife near the moun¬
tains, and abound with delicate filh, befides water-fowl
of different kinds. In iome there are iflands which
yield good pafture, without the annoyance of wild
bealls. The chief mountains are the Cherokee or Al-
leganv mountains, which are fituated north and north-
weft five or fix hundred miles diftant from the lea.
They arc very high ; and abound with trees, plants.
Hones, and minerals, of different kinds.
This country is divided into North and South Ca¬
rolina, and Georgia ; each of which, before the late
revolution, was under a particular governor. I he
North is fubdivided into four counties, Granville, Coi-
liton, Berkley, and Ciavenand South Carolina into
two, Clarendon and Albemarle.. This laft is alio di¬
vided into 14 parifhes or townfhips, each of which lias
a brick or timber church. The former likewife has
the fame number of pariffies. Charleftown is the ca¬
pital of the whole country.
Carolina was difeovered by Sebaftian Cabot about
the year 1500, in the reign of Henry VII. but the
fettling of it being neglefted by the Enghffi, a colony
of French Proteftants, by the encouragement of Ad¬
miral Coligni, were tranfported thither ; and named
the place of their firft fettlement^ in ho¬
nour of their prince, Charles IX. of France. but m
CAR [ 190 j CAR
Carolina, a fiioit time that colony was deflroyed by the Spa-
niards ; and no other attempt was made by any Euro¬
pean power to fettle there till the year 1664, when
800 Englilh landed at Cape Fear in North Carolina,
and took poffeffion of the country. In 1670 Cha. II.
of Britain granted Carolina to the lords Berkley, Cla-
yendon, Albemarle, Craven, and Afhly, Sir George
Carteret, Sir William Berkley, and Sir John Colliton.
The plan of government for this new colony was drawn
up by the. famous Mr Locke, who very wifely propo-
led an univerfal toleration in religious matters. The
only reftriclion in this refpedl was, that every perfon
claiming the proteflion of that fettlement, (hould, at
the age of 17, regifter himfelf in fome particular com¬
munion. To civil liberty, however, our philofopher
was not fo favourable •, the code of Carolina gave to
the eight proprietors who founded the colony, and to
their heirs, not only all the rights of a monarch, but
all the. powers of legiflation. The court, which w7as
compofed of this fovereign body, and called the Pala-
tinate Court, was invefted with the right of nominating
to all employments and dignities, and even of confer¬
ring nobility ; but with new and unprecedented titles.
They were, for inftance, to create in each county two
caciques, each of whom vras to be poffefled of 24,000
acres of land; and a landgrave, who was to have
80,000. The perfons on whom thefe honours Ihould
be beftow'ed wrere to compofe the upper houfe, and
their pofleffions were made unalienable. They had
only the right of farming or letting out a third part of
them at the moft for. three lives. The lower houfe
was compofed of the deputies from the feveral counties
and towns. The number of this reprefentative body
was to be increafed as the colony grew7 more populous.
No tenant was to pay more than about a fhilling per
acre, and even this rent was redeemable. All the in¬
habitants, however, both .'{laves and freemen, w7ere un¬
der an obligation to take up arms upon the firft order
from the Palatine court.
It w7as not long before the defers of this conftitu-
tion became apparent. The proprietary lords ufed
every endeavour to eftablifh an arbitrary government;
and, on the other hand, the colonilis exerted them-
lelves with great zeal to avoid fervitude. In confe-
quence of this flruggle, the whole province, diftradled
with tumults and dilfenfions, became incapable of
making any progrefs, though great things had bqen
expedled from its particular advantages of lituation.
I hough a toleration in religious matters was a part of
the original conftitution, dilfenlions arofe likewife on
that account. In 1705, Carteret, now Lord Gran¬
ville, who, as the oldeft of the proprietors, was foie
governor of the colony, formed a defign of obliging
all the non-conformills to embrace the ceremonies of
the Church of England-, and this a£f of violence,
though difavowed and rejefted by the mother-country,
inflamed the minds of the people. In 1720, while this
animofity was {fill fubfrfting, the province was attacked
by feveral bands of favages, driven to defpair by a
continued courfe of the moll; atrocious violence and
injuftice. Thefe unfortunate wuetches were all put to
the fword : but, in 1728, the lords proprietors having
refufed to contribute towards the expences of an ex¬
pedition, of which they were to {hare the immediate
benefits, were deprived of their prerogative, except
Lord Granville, who {till retained his eighth part. Caroline
The reft received a recompenfe of about 24,000!. The Jl
colony was taken under the immediate protection of . ‘
the crown, and from that time began to flourilh. The
divilion into North and South Carolina now7 took place,
and the fettlement of Georgia commenced in 1732.
See Georgia.
CAROLINE. See Carline.
Caroline-Books, the name of four books, compofed
by order of Charlemagne, to refute the fecond council
of Nice. Thefe books are couched in very harlli and
fevere terms, containing 120 heads of accufation againft
the council of Nice, and condemning the worfhip of
images.
CAROLOSTADIANS, or Carlostadians, an
ancient feet or branch of Lutherans, who denied the
real prefence of Chrift in the eucharilt.
They were thus denominated from their leader An¬
drew- Caroloftadius, who having originally been arch¬
deacon of Wittemberg, was converted by Luther, and
was the firft of all the reformed clergy who took a
v.-ife but difagreeing afterw-ards w7ith Luther, chiefly
in the point of the facrament, founded a feft apart.
The Caroloftadians are the fame w7ith w-hat are other-
wife denominated Sacramentarians, and agree in moft
things with the Zuinglians.
CAROLUS, an ancient Englifii broad piece of gold
{truck under Charles I. Its value has of late been at
2,3s. fterling, though at the time it was coined it is
faid to have been rated at 20s.
Carolus, a fmall copper coin, with a little filver
mixed with it, {truck under Charles VIII. of France.
The carolus was worth 12 deniers when it ceafed to
be current. Thofe which are {till current in trade in
Lorrain, or in fome neighbouring provinces, go under
the name of French fols.
CAROTIDS, in Anatomy, two arteries of the
neck, w-hich convey the blood from the aorta to the
brain -, one called the right, and the other the left,
carotid.
CARP, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of a fpe-
cies of cyprinus. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology
Index.
The carp is the moft valuable of all kinds of fifh for
{locking of ponds. It is very quick in its growth,
and brings forth the fpaw-n three times a-year, fo that
the increafe is very great. The female does not begin
to breed till eight or nine years old 5 fo that in breed¬
ing-ponds a fupply muft be kept of carp of that age.
The belt judges allow7, that, in flocking a breeding-
pond, four males ftiould be allowed to twelve females.
The ufual grow-th of a carp is two or three inches in
length in a year; but, in ponds which receive the fat¬
tening of common few7ers, they have been known to
grow from five inches to 18 in one year. A feeding-
pond of one acre extent will very well feed 300 carp
of three years old, 300 of two years, and 400 of
one year old. Carp delight greatly in ponds that have
marley tides; they love alio clay-ponds well Iheltered
from the winds and grown with weeds and long grafs
at the edges, which they Teed on in the hot months.
Carp and tench thrive very faft in ponds and rivers near
the fea, where the water is a little brackifh ; but they
are not fo well tailed as thofe which live in freih w7a-
ter. Grains, blood, chicken-guts, and the like, may at
times
CAR [ igi J CAR
Carpates times be thrown into carp-ponds, to help to fatten the
II filh. To make them grow large and fat, the growth
Carpenttab. grafs under the water fhould by all means poffible
be encouraged. For this purpofe, as the water de-
creafes in the fummer, the lides of the pond left naked
and dry ihould be well raked with an irqn rake, to de-
ftroy all the weeds, and cut up the furface of the
earth ; hay-feed fhould then be fown plentifully in
thefe places; and more ground prepared in the fame
manner, as the water falls more and more away. By
this means there will be a fine and plentiful growth of
young grafs along the fides of the pond to the water’s
edge ; and when the rains fill up the pond again, this
will be all buried under the water, and will make a
feeding-place for the fifh where they wull come early
in the morning, and will fatten greatly upon what they
find there.
CARPATES, or Alpes Bastarnic^, in Ancient
Geography, a range of mountains, running out between
Poland, Hungary, and Tranfylvania. Now called the
Carpathian Mountains.
CARPATHIUM Mare, (Horace, Ovid) ) the
fea that wellies the ifland Carpathus.
CARPATHUS, an ifland on the coaft of Afia, twm
hundred Itadia in compafs, and an hundred in length.
Its name is faid to be from its fituation on the coat! of
Caria. It lies between Rhodes and Crete, in the fea
which, from this ifland, is called the Carpathian fea,
and has to the north the Ionian, to the fouth the
Egyptian, to the w7eft the Cretan and African feas.
It is two hundred furlongs in compafs, and a hundred
in length. It had anciently, according to Strabo, four
cities ; according to Scylax, only three. Ptolemy
mentions but one, which he calls Pofidium. I his
ifland is now called Scarpanto.
CARP.TLA, a kind of dance anciently in ufe among
the Athenians and Magnefians, performed by two
perfons, the one afling a labourer, the other a robber.
The labourer, laying by his arms, goes to ploughing
and fowing, ftill looking warily about him as if afraid
of being furprifed : the robber at length appears ; and
the labourer, quitting his plough, betakes himfelf to
his arms, and fights in defence of his oxen. The
whole was performed to the found of flutes, and in
cadence. Sometimes the robber was overcome and
fometimes the labourer-, the vigor’s reward being the
oxen and plough. The defign of the exercife was to
teach and accuftom the peafants to defend themfelves
againft the attacks of ruffians.
CARPENTER, a perfon who pracdifes Carpen¬
try. The word is formed from the French charpen-
tier, which fignifies the fame, formed of charpente,
which denotes "timber j or rather from the Latin car-
pentanus, a maker of carpenta, or carriages.
Carpenter of a Ship, an officer appointed to exa¬
mine and keep in order the frame of a fliip, together
with her marts, yards, boats, and all other w-ooden
machinery. It is his duty in particular to keep the
fhip tightfor which purpofe he ought frequently to
review the decks and fides, and to caulk them when it
is neceflary. In the time of battle, he is to examine
up and down, with all poffible attention, in the lower
apartments of the ffiip, to ftop any holes that may
have been made by Ihot, with wooden plugs provided
©f feveral fizes.
CARPENI RA3, an epifcopai town of France, in Carpentras
the department of Vauclufe, and capital of Venaiffin. ^ II .
It is fubjedt to the pope and is feated on the river ' .
Aufon, at the foot of a mountain. E. Long. 5. 6. N.
Lat. 44. 4.
CARPENTRY, the art of cutting, framing,, and
joining large pieces of wood, for the ufes of building.
It is one of the arts fubfervient to architedfure, and is
divided- into houfe-carpentry and flrip-carpentry : the
firft is employed in raifing, roofing, flooring of houfes,
&c. and the fecond in the building of flupsf, barges, .j.
&c. The rules in carpentry are much the fame with Building.
thofe of Joinery; the only difference is, that carpen¬
try is ufed in the larger and coarfer work, and joinery ■>
in the fmaller and curious. See Centre, Roof, and
Strength of Materials.
CAR PENT UM, in Antiquity, a name common to
divers forts of vehicles, anfwering to coaches as well
as waggons, or even carts, among us. The carpentum
was originally a kind of car or vehicle in which the
Roman ladies were carried ; though in after times it
was alfo ufed in war. Some derive the word from
carro ; others from Carmenta the mother of Evander,
by a converfion of the m into p.
CARPET, a fort of covering of fluff, or other ma¬
terials, wrought with the needle or on a loom, which
is part of the furniture of a houfe, and commonly
fpread over tables, or laid upon the floor.
Perfian and Turkey carpets are thofe moft efteem-
ed ; though at Paris there is a manufadlory after the
manner of Perfia, where they make them little inferior,
not to fay finer, than the true Perfian carpets. They
are velvety, and perfeftly imitate the carpets which
come from the Levant. There are alfo carpets of
Germany, fome of wffiich are made of woollen fluffs,
as ferges, &c. and called fqu-are carpets : others are
made of wool alfo, but wrought with the needle, and
pretty often embelliflied wnth filk ; and, laftly, there
are fome made of dogs hair. We have likewife car¬
pets made in Britain, which are ufed either as floor-
carpets, or to cover chairs, &c. It is true, we are not
arrived at the like perfe&ion in this manufacture
with our neighbours the French; but may not this be
owing to the want of a like public encouragement ?
Carpet-Knights, a denomination given to gown-men
and others, of peaceable profeffions, who, on account
of their birth, office, or merits to the public, or the
like, are, by the prince, raifedtothe dignity of knight¬
hood.
They take the appellation carpet, becaufe they ufuaL
ly receive their honours from the king’s hands in the
court, kneeling on a carpet. By which they are di-
ftinguifhed from knights created in the camp, or field
of battle, on account of their military prowefs. Car¬
pet-knights poffefs a medium between thofe called
truck, or dunghill-knights, who only purchafe or merit
the honour by their wealth, and knights-bachelors, who
are created for their fervices in the war.
CARPI, a principality of Modena in Italy, lying’*
about four-leagues fronr that city. It formerly be¬
longed to the houfe of Pio ; the elder fons of whinin'
bore the title of Princes of St Gregory. In the be¬
ginning of the 14th century, Manfroy was the firfl:
prince of Carpi; but in the 16th, the emperor Charles V.
gave the principality to Alfonzo duke of Ferraras
Thb^
5
Carpi
CAR [ 192 ]
Tins nobleman, in recompenfe, gave to Albert Pio, was unknown.
11 to whom the principality of Carpi belonged of right,
Carpocra- ^ of ga{pU0i0 and fome other lands. Albert
i 1 vvas, however, at laft obliged to retire to Paris; where,
being {tripped of all his eftates, he died in with
the reputation of being one of the belt and braved men
of his age. The family of Pio is yet in being, and
continues attached to the French court. Some of
them have even been raifed to the purple, and dill
make a figure in Europe.
Carpi, a town of Italy in the duchy of Modena,
and capital of the lad mentioned principality. It has
a drong cadle, and is fituated in E. Long. 11. 12.
N. Lat. 44. 45.
Carpi, a town of the Veronefe in Italy, memorable
for a victory gained by the Impetialids over the French
in 1701. I As fubjeft to the Venetians; and is fitu¬
ated on the river Adige, in E. Long. 11. 39. N. Lat.
45- IO- r
Carpi, Ugo da, an Italian painter, of no very con-
fiderable talents in that art, but remarkable for be¬
ing the inventor of that fpecies of engraving on wood,
didinguidred by the name of chiaro-fcuro, in imitation
of drawing. This is performed by ufing more blocks
than one; and Ugo da Carpi ufually had three ; the
fird for the outline and dark fhadows, the fecond for
the lighter fhadows, and the third for the half tint. In
that manner he druck off prints after feveral defigns,
and cartons of Raphael; particularly one of the Sibyl,
a Defcent from the Crofs, and the Hidory of Simon
the Sorcerer. He died in 1500. d his art was brought
to a dill higher degree of perfection by Balthafar Pe-
ruzzi of Siena, and Parmigiano, who publidied feveral
excellent defigns in that manner.
Carpi, Girolamo da, hidory and portrait painter,
was born at Ferrara in 1501, and became a dilciple of
Garofala. When he quitted that mader, he devoted
his whole time, thoughts, and attention, to. dudy the
works of Correggio, and to copy them with a mod
critical care and observation; in which labour he Spent
feveral years at Parma, Modena, and other cities of
Italy, where the bed works of that exquifite painter
were preferved. He acquired fuch an excellence in
the imitation of Correggio’s dyle, and copying his
piClures, that many paintings finidied by him were ta¬
ken for originals, and not only admired, but were ea¬
gerly purchafed by the connoiffeuvs of that time. Nor
is it improbable that feveral of the paintings of Giro¬
lamo de Carpi pafs at this day for the genuine wTork
of Correggio himfelf. He died in 155^'
CARPINUS, the Horn-beam. See Botany Index.
CARPOBALSAM, in the Materia Medico, the
fruit of the tree which yields the true oriental balfam.
The carpobalfam is ufed in Egypt, according to Prof-
per Alpinus, in all the intentions in which the balfam
itfelf is applied: but the only ufe the Europeans make
of it is in Venice treacle and mithridate; and in thefe
not a great deal, for cubebs and juniper-berries are
generally fubdituted in its place.
CARPOCRATIANS, a branch of the ancient
Gnodics, fo called from Carpocrates, who in the fe¬
cond century revived and improved upon the errors
of Simon Magus, Menander, Saturninus, and other
Gnodics. He owned, with them, one foie principle
and father of all things, whole name as well as nature
CAR
The word, he taught, was created by CarpoHtui
angels, vadly inferior to the fird principle. He op- Cai.r]'ve;r;u
pofed the divinity of Jefus Chrid ; making him a mere C,
begotten carnally on the body of Mary by Jo-
feph, though poffeffed of uncommon gifts which let
him above other creatures. He inculcated a commu¬
nity of rvomen ; and taught, that the foul could not
be purified, till it had committed all kinds of abomi¬
nations, making that a neceffary condition of perfec¬
tion.
CARPOLITHT, or Fruit-stcne Rocxs of the
Germans, are compofed of a kind of jafper, of the
nature of the amygdaloides, or almond-llones. Ber¬
trand afferts that the latter are thofe which appear
to be compofed of elliptical pieces like petrified al¬
monds, though, in truth, they are only fmall oblong
pieces of calcareous done rounded by attrition, and
fometimes fmall muffel-fbells connefled by a dony con¬
cretion. The name of Carpolithi, however, is given
in general by writers on foffils to all forts of dony
concretions that have any refemblance to fruit of what¬
ever kind.
CARPUS, the wrist. See Anatomy Index.
CARR, a kind of rolling throne, ufed in tri¬
umphs, and at the fplendid entries of princes. See
Chariot.
The word is from the ancient Gaulifh, or Celtic,
Carr ; mentioned by Ctefar, in his Commentaries, un¬
der the name Carrus. Plutarch relates, that Camillus
having entered Rome in triumph, mounted on a carr
drawn by four white horfes, it was looked on as too
haughty an innovation.
Carr is alfo ufed for a kind of light open chariot.
The carr, on medals, drawn either by horfes, lions,
or elephants, ufually fignifies either a triumph or -an
apotheofis: fometimes a proceffion of the imaged of
the gods at a folemn fupplication, and fometimes of
thofe of fome illudrious family at a funeral. The carr
covered, and drawn by mules, only fignifies a confe-
cration, and the honour done any one of having his
image carried at the gates of the circus. See Conse¬
cration, &c.
CARRAC, or Carraca, a name given by the Por-
tuguefe to the veflels they fend to Brafil and the Eafl
Indies ; being very large, round built, and fitted for
fight as well as burden. Their capacity lies in their
depth, which is very extraordinary. They are nar¬
rower above than underneath, and have fometimes fe-
ven or eight floors ; they carry about 2000 tons, and
are capable of lodging 2000 men ; but of late they are
little ufed. Formerly they were alfo in ufe among
the knights of Rhodes, as well as among the Ge-
noefe, and other Italians. It is a cuftom among the
Portuguefe, when the carracs returned from India, not
to bring any boat or {loop for the fervice of the {hip
beyond the ifland of St Helena ; at which place they
fink them on purpofe; in order to take from the crew
all hopes or poflibility of faving themfelves, in cafe of
ftiipwreck.
CARRARA marble, among our artificers, the
name of a fpecies of white marble, which is called mar-
mor lunenfe, and ligujlriumby ancients: it is diftin-
guilhed from the Parian, now called the ftatuary mar¬
ble, by being harder and lefs bright.
CARRAVEIRA a town of Turkey in Europe,
with
t!arAige
if
Carrick-
Fergus.
CAR [ 193 ] CAR
witK a Greek archbifhop’s fee. E. Long. 22. 25. N.
Lat. 40. 27.
CARRIAGE, a vehicle ferving to convey perfons,
goods, merchandifes, and other things, from one place
to another.
For the conftruttion and mechanical principles of
wheel-carriages, fee Mechanics.
Carriage of a cannon, the frame or timber-work on
which it is mounted, ferving to point it for (hooting,
or to carry it from one place to another. It is made of
two planks of wood, commonly of one-half the length
of the gun, called the eheehs, and joined by three
wooden tranfums, llrengthened with three bolts of iron.
It is mounted on two wheels, but on a march has two
fore-wheels with limbers added. The principal parts
of a carriage are the cheeks, tranfum, bolts, plates,
trainbands, bridges, bed, hooks, trunnion holes, and
capfquare.
. Block-CARRMGE, a cart made on purpofe for carry¬
ing mortars and their beds from place to place.
Truck-CARRIAGE, two fliort planks of wood, fup-
ported on two axletrees, having four trucks of folid
wood for carrying rnortars or guns upon battery, where
their own carriages cannot go. They are drawn by
men.
CARRICK, the fouthern divifion of the {lure of
Ayr in Scotland. It borders on Galloway ; ftretches
32 miles in length ; and is a hilly country fit for pa-
flurage. The chief rivers are the Stinchar and Gir-
van, both abounding with falmon. Here are alfo feve-
ral lakes and forelts •, and the people on the coaft em¬
ploy themfelves in the herring-fifhery, though they
have no harbour of any confequence. The only towns
of this diftricl are Girvan and Ballantrae ; the former
at the mouth of the river of the fame name, and the
latter at the mouth of the Stinchar •, and Maybole, an
Inland town. The prince of Wales, as prince of Scot¬
land, is earl of Garrick.
Carrick on the Sure, a towm of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Tipperary and province of Muntler. W. Long.
7. 14. N. Lat. 52. 16.
CARRicK-Fergus, a towm of Ireland, in the county
of Antrim and province of Ulfter. It is a town and
county in itfelf, and fends twm members to parliament.
It is very rich and populous, with a good harbour ;
and is governed by a mayor, recorder, and Iheriffs.—It
has, however, been of far greater confequence than at
preient, as appears from the mayor having been admi¬
ral of a confiderable extent of coaft in the counties of
Down and Antrim, and the corporation enjoying the
cuftoms paid by all vcflels within thefe bounds, the
creeks of Belfaft and Bangor excepted. This grant
was repurchafed, and the cuftomhoufe transferred to
Belfaft.—Here is the fkeleton of a fine houfe built by
Lord Chichefter in the reign of James I. an old Go¬
thic church with many family monuments, and a very
large old caftle. The town was formerly walled round,
and fome part of the walls is ftill remaining entire.—
Carrick-ferg’us is feated on a bay of the fame name in
the Irilh channel •, and is noted for being the landing
place of King William in 1690. Here alfo Thurot
made a defcent in 1759, took poffefllon of the caftle,
and carried away hoftages for the ranfom of the town ;
but being foon after purfued by Commodore Elliot, his
three (hips were taken, and he himfelf was killed.
Vol. V. Part L
CARRIER, is a perfon that carries goods for others Carrier,
for hire. A common carrier, having the charge and Carrier-
carriage of goods, is to anlwer for the fame, or the , * t
value, to the owner. And where goods are deli¬
vered to a carrier, and he is robbed of them, he
fhall be charged and anfwer for them, becaufe of the
hire. If a common carrier who is offered his hire,
and who has convenience, refufes to carry goods, he
is liable to an aftion, in the fame manner as an inn¬
keeper who refufes to entertain a gueft. See As¬
sumpsit.
One brought a box to a carrier, with a large fum of Jacob's
money, and the carrier demanded of the owner what Laiv, DiSf,
was in it ; he anfwered, that it was filled with filks,
and fuch like goods : upon which the carrier took it,
and was robbed, and adjudged to make it good 5 but
a fpecial acceptance, as, provided there is no charge of
money, would have excufed the carrier.—A perion de¬
livered to a carrier’s book-keeper two bags of money
fealed up, to be carried from London to Exeter, and
told him that it was 200I. and took his receipt for
the fame, with promife of delivery for 10 s. per cent.
carriage and rilk : though it be proved that there was
400I. in the bags, if the carriage be robbed, he fhall
anfwer only for 2001. becaufe there was a particu¬
lar undertaking for that fum and no more 5 and his re¬
ward, which makes him anfwerable, extends no farther.
If a common carrier loles goods which he is intrufted
to carry, a fpecial a<ftion on the cafe lies againft him,
on the cuftom of the realm, and not trover j and fo of
a common carrier by boat. An aftion wall lie againft
a porter, carrier, or barge-man, upon his bare receipt of
the goods, if they are loft through negligence. Alfo
a lighter-man fpoiling goods he is to carry, by letting
water come to them, aftion of the cafe lies againft him,
on the common cuftom.
Carrier-Pigeon, or courier-pigeon, a fort of pigeon
ufed, when properly.-trained, to be fent with letters
from one place to another. See Columba.
Though you carry thefe birds hood-winked, 20,
30, nay, 60 or 100 miles, they will find their way in
a very little time to the place where they were bred.
They are trained to this iervice in Turkey and Perfia :
and are carried firft, while young, ftiort flights of half
a mile, afterwards more, till at length they will re¬
turn from the fartheft part of the kingdom. Every
baftiaw has a bafket of thefe pigeons bred in the fera-
glio, which, upon any emergent occafion, as in infur-
reftion, or the like, he difpatches, with letters braced
under their wings, to the feraglio; which proves a more
fpeedy method, as well as a more fafe one, than any
other ; he fends out more than one pigeon, however,
for fear of accidents. Lithgow allures us, thafone of
thefe birds will carry a letter from Babylon to Aleppo,
which is 30 days journey, in 48 hours. 'I his is alfo a
very ancient praftice: Hirtius and Brutus, at the fiege
of Modena, held a correfpondence with one another by
means of pigeons. And Ovid tells us, that I aurol-
thenes, by a pigeon ftained with purple, gave notice to
his father of his viftory at the Olympic Games, fend¬
ing it to him at jEgina.
In modern times, the moft noted were the pigeons of
Aleppo, which ferved as couriers at Alexandretta and
Bagdad. But this ufe of them has been laid afide for
the laft 30 or 4.0 years, becaufe the Curd robbers kill-
Bb ' ed
C .A R [ :
Catron, ed tlie pigeons. The manner of fending advice by
1 v ' them was this: they took pairs which had young ones,
and carried them on horfeback to the place fiom whence
they wilhed them to return, taking care to let them
have a full view. When the news arrived, the cor-
refpondent tied a billet to the pigeon’s foot, and let
her loofe. The bird, impatient to fee its young, flew
off like lightning, and arrived at Aleppo in ten hours
from Alexandretta, and in two days from Bagdad. It
was not difficult for them to find their way back, fince
Aleppo may be difeovered at an immenfe diftance.
This pigeon has nothing peculiar in its form, except its
noftrlls, which, inftead of being fmooth and even, ate
fwelled and rough.
CARRON, a fmall but remarkable river in Scot¬
land, rifing about the middle of the iflhmus between
the friths of Forth and Clyde. Both its fource, and
the place wffiere it emptieth itfelt into the fea, are
within the fhire of Stirling, which it divides into two
nearly equal parts. The whole length of its courfe,
which is from weft tb eaft, is not above 14 miles.
It falls into the frith of Forth about three miles to the
north-eaft of Falkirk. The ftream thereof is but
fmall, and fcarce deferves the notice of a traveller j
yet there is no river in Scotland, and few in the
whole ifland of Britain, whofe banks have been the
feene of fo many memorable tranfaftions. When the
Roman empire was in all its glory, and. had its eaftern
frontiers upon the Euphrates, the banks of Carton
were its boundaries upon the north-weft } for the
^ cee /... wall of Antoninus *, which was raifed to mark the
toninu/s' limits of that mighty empire, flood in the neighbour-
tVall. hood of this river, and ran parallel to it for feveral
miles.
Near the middle of its courfe, in a pleafant valley,
Hand twTo beautiful mounts, called the Hills of Dum-
f>ace, which are taken notice of by moft of the Scot-
ifh hiftorians as monuments of great antiquity. 1 he
whole ftrutture of thefe mounts is of earth j but they
are not both of the fame form and dimenfions. The
more eafterly one is perfectly round, refembling an
oven, and about fifty feet in height : And that this is
an artificial work does not admit of the leaft doubt j
but we cannot affirm the fame, with equal certainty,
of the other, though it has been generally fuppoied
%o be fo too. It bears no refemblance to the ekftern
one either in ffiape or fize. At the foundation it is
nearly of a triangular form ; but the fuperftru&ure is
quite irregular } nor does the height thereof bear any
proportion to the extent ox its bafe. 1 hefe mounts
are now planted with firs, which, with the panih-
church of Dunipace {landing in the middle between
them, and the river running hard by, give this valley
a very romantic appearance. The common account
given of thofe mounts is, that they were erefted as
monuments of a peace concluded in that place be¬
tween the Romans and the Caledonians, and that their
name partakes of the language of both people ; Dun
fignifying a hill in the old language of this iftand, and
Pax “ peace” in the language of Rome. The com-
pound word, Dunipace, fignifies “ the hills of peace.”
And we find in hiftory, that no lefs than three treaties
of peace were at different periods entered into between
the Romans and Caledonians •, the firft by Severus
“about the year 2<o 5 the fecond foon after, by his ifon
94 ] CAR
Caracalla 5 and- the third, by the ufurper Caraufius, ^Catron,
about the year 280; but of which of thefe treaties'
Dunipace is a monument, we do not pretend to deter¬
mine. If the concurring teftimony of hiftorians and
antiquaries did not agree m giving this original to them
mounts, we would be tempted to conje£lure that they
are fepulchral monuments. Human bones and urns
have been difeovered in earthen fabrics of this kind
in many parts of this ifland, and the little mounts or
barrows which are fcattered in great numbers about
Stonhenge in Salifbury plain are generally fuppofed to
have been the fepulchres of the ancient Britons. See
Barrows.
From the valley of Dunipace, the river runs for
fome time in a deep and hollow channel, with fteep
banks on both fides •, here it paffes by the foundations
of the ancient Roman bridge ; not far from which,
as is generally thought, was the feene of the memo¬
rable conference betwixt the Scotifli patriot William.
Wallace and Robert Bruce, father to the king of that
name, which firft opened the eyes of the latter to a
juft view, both of his own true intereft and that of his
country.
After the river has left the village and bridge of
Larbert, it foon comes up to another fmall valley,
through the midft of which it has now worn out to
itfelf a ftraight channel, whereas, in former ages,
it had taken a confiderable compafs, as appears by
the track of the old bed which is ftill vifible. The
high and circling banks upon the fouth fide give to
this valley the appearance of a fpacious bay ; and,
according to the tradition of the country, there was
once an harbour here : nor does the tradition feem
altogether groundlefs, pieces of broken anchors having
been found here, and fome of them within the me¬
mory of people yet alive. The ftream tides would
ftill flow near the place, if they were not kept back
by the dam-head built acrofs the river at Stenhoufe *
and there is reafon to believe, that the frith flowed
confiderably higher in former ages than it does at
prefent. In the near neighbourhood of this valley,
upon the fouth, ftand the ruins of ancient Camelon :
which, after it was abandoned by the Romans, was
probably inhabited, for fome ages, by the natives of
the country.
Another ancient monument, called Arthur’’s Oven,
once flood upon the banks of the Carron } but was, with
a fpirit truely Gothic, entirely demoliffied about 40
years ago. The corner of a fmall inclofure between
Stenhoufe and the Carron iron-works, is 'pointed out
as the place of its fituation. 1 his is generally fuppo¬
fed to have been a Roman work : though it is not
eafy to conceive what could be their motive ior ereft-
ing fuch a fabric, at fo great a diflance from any other
of their works, and in a fpot which at that time muft
have been very remote and unfrequented. The form
of it is faid to have been perfettly round, and rifing
perpendicular for lome yards at fiift, but afterwards
gradually contradled, till it terminated in a narrow ori¬
fice at the top. Antiquaries are not agreed whether
it had been a temple, or a trophy, or a maufoleum •, but
the moft common opinion is, that it had been a temple,
and, Buchanan thinks, a temple of Terminus. Fledlor
Boctius fays, that there were benches of ftone all around
it upon the infide $ and that there had been a large
ftone
CAR r 195 J CAR
Carron, ftone for facrificing upon, or an altar, upon tlie fouth
Carron- nj-
■*jrr v
, °r s' , As the Carron extends over the half of the ifthmus,
and runs fo near the ancient boundaries of the Ro¬
man empire, the adjacent country fell naturally to
be the fcene of many battles and rencounters. Hif-
torians mention a bloody battle fought near the river
between the Romans and the confederate army of the
Scots and Picfs in the beginning of the 5th century.
The fcenes of fome of Offian’s poems were, in the opi¬
nion of the tranflator, upon the banks of this river.
Here Fingal fought with Caracal, the fon of the king
of the world, fuppofed to have been the fame with
Caracalla, the fon of the Roman emperor Severus.
Here alfo young Ofcar the fon of Offian, performed
fome of his heroic exploits. Hereabout wras the
ftream of Crona, celebrated in the ancient compofi-
tions of the Gaelic bard •, poffibly that now called
the water of Bonny, which runs in the neighbour¬
hood of the Roman wall, and difchargeth itfelf into
the Carron at Dunipace. In thofe poems, mention is
made of a green vale upon the banks of this river,
with a tomb (landing in the middle of it, where
young Ofcar’s party and the tvarriors of Caros met.
\Ve only take notice of this as it ftrengthens the
conjefture hazarded above, that the mounts of Du-
nipace, efpecially the more eafterly of them, w-ere fe-
pulchral monuments.—About the dsftance of half a
mile from the river, and near the town of Falkirk,
lies the field of that battle which was fought by Wil¬
liam Wallace and the Englilh in the beginning of the
T4th century. It goes by the name of Graham's muir^
from the valiant John Graham, who fell there, and
whofe grave-ftone is dill to be feen in the church-yard
of Falkirk.
The river Carron, though it has long fince ceafed
to roll its dream amidd the din of arms, dill preferves
its fame, by lending its aid to trade and manufadlures \
(fee the next article.)—The mmr is navigable for fome
miles near its mouth, and a confiderable trade is carried
on upon it by fmall craft j for the convenience of which,
its channel has of late years been draightened and
• * See the much fhortened, and the great Canal * has its entrance
article Ca- from it.
«al' CARRON-Worhs, a large iron-foundery, two miles
north from Falkirk in Scotland. They are conveni¬
ently fituated on the banks of the Carron, three miles
above its entry into the frith of Forth. Above 100
acres of land have been converted into refervoirs and
pools, for water diverted from the river, by magnifi¬
cent dams built above two miles above the works, which,
after turning 18 large wheels for the feveral purpofes of
the manufafture, falls into a tide-navigation that con¬
veys their cadings to the fea.
Thefc works are the greated of the kind in Europe,
and w’ere edablidred in At prefent, the build¬
ings are of vad extent j and the machinery, condruc-
ted by Mr Smeaton, is the fird in Britain, both in
elegance and correftnels : there are 1600 men em¬
ployed, to whom is paid weekly above 650I. derling 5
w'hich has greatly enriched the adjoining country ;
6500 tons of iron are fmelted annually from the
mineral with pit-coal, and cad into cannon, cylin¬
ders &c. In* the founding of cannon, thefe works
have’ lately arrived at fuch perfedtion, that they make
above 5000 pieces a-year, many of which are cx« Carronade
ported to foreign dates 5 and their guns of new c. rJ^ )tf>
JlruEiion are the lighted and neated now in ufe, not *.
excepting brafs guns; the 32 pounder (hip-gun
weighing 42 hundred weight, the 6 poundef 8 hun¬
dred-weight and one-half, and the other calibers in
proportion.
The prefent proprietors are a chartered company,
with a capital of 150,000!. derling, a common fea],
&.c. but their dock is confined to a very few individuals.
CARRONADE, a (hort kind of ordnance, capa¬
ble of carrying a large ball, and ufeful in clofe engage¬
ments at fea. It takes its name from Carron, the
place where this fort of ordnance wTas fird made, or
the pririciple applied to an improved condruttion. Sec
the article Gunnery.
CARROT. See Daucus, Botany Index.
Deadly Carrot. See Thapsia, Botany Index.
CARROUSAL, a courfe of horfes and chariots,
or a magnificent entertainment exhibited by princes
on fome public rejoicing. It confids in a cavalcade of
feveral gentlemen, richly drefled and equipped after
the manner of ancient cavaliers, divided into fqua-
drons meeting in ibme public place, and praflifing
juds, tournaments, &c.—The lad carroufals were in
the reign of Louis XIV.—The word comes from the
Italian word ccrofel/o, a diminitive of carro, “ chariot.,f
Tertullian aferibes the invention of carroufals to Circe;
and will have then indituted in honour of the Sun, her
father ; whence fome derive the word from carrus, or
carrus foils. The Moors introduced ciphers, liveries,
and other ornaments of their arms, w ith trappings, &c.
for their horfes. The Goths added creds, plumes, &c.
CARRUCA, in Antiquity, a fplendid kind of carr,
or chariot, mounted on four wheels, richly decorated
with gold, filver, ivory, &c. in which the emperors,
fenators and people of condition, were carried. 1 he
W'ord comes from the Latin carrus, or Britifh carr,
which is dill the Iri(h name for any wheel-carriage.
Carruca, or Caruca, is alfo ufed in middle age
writers for a plough.
Carruca, or Caruca, alfo was fometimes ufed for
carrucata. See Carrucate.
CARRUCAGE (carucagium), a kind of tax an¬
ciently impofed on every plough, for the public fervice.
See Carrucate and Hidage.
Carrucage, Carucage, or Carnage, in hufband-
ry, denotes the ploughing of ground, either ordinary,
as for grain, hemp, and flax ; or extraordinary, as for
woad, dyers weed, rape, and the like.
CARRUCATE, (carrvcata), in our ancient laws
and hiflory, denotes a plough land, or as much arable
ground as can be tilled in one year with one plough.
In Doomfday Inquifition, the arable land is eftima-
ted in carrucates, the pafture in hides, and meadow' in
acres. Skene makes the carrucata the fame with hilda,
or hida terra ; Littleton the fame with foe.
The meafure of a carrucate appears to have differ¬
ed in refpeft of place as well as time. In the reign
of Richard I. it was eftimated at 60 acres, and in an¬
other charter of the fame reign at 100 acres : in the^
time of Edward I. at 180 acres ; and in the 23d of
Edward III. a carrrl^ate of land in Burcefler contained
112 acres, and in Middleton 150 acres.
By a ftatute under William III. for charging per-
B 2 fons
196
Carftairs.
CAR [
Carrying fons to the repair of the highways, a plough-land is rated
at fifty pounds per annum, and may contain houfes,
mills, wood, pallure, &c.
CARRYING, in Falconry, fignifies a hawk’s flying
away with the quarry. Carrying is one of the ill quali¬
ties of a hawk, which Are acquires either by a diflike of
the falconer, or not being fufficiently broke to the lure.
Carrying, among huntlmen. When a hare runs
on rotten ground (or even fometimes in a froft), and
it flicks to her feet, they fay Are carries.
Carrying, among riding-mafters. A horfe is faid
to carry low, when having naturally an ill-ihaped neck,
he lovrers his head too much. All horfes that arm
themfelves carry low, but a horfe may carry low with¬
out arming. A French branch or gigot is prefcribed
as a remedy againft carrying low.
A horfe is faid to carry well, when his neck is rai¬
led or arched, and he holds his head high and firm,
without conftraint.
Carry in a Windy a term ufed by our dealers in hor¬
fes to exprefs fuch a one as frequently tolfes his nofe
as high as his ears, and does not carry handfomely.
This is called carrying wind; and the difference be¬
tween carrying in the wind, and beating upon the
hand, is this : that the horfe who beats upon the hand,
fhakes the bridle and refifts it, wThile he ftiakes his
head 5 but the horfe that carries in the wind puts up hi^
head without ffraking, and fometimes beats upon the
hand. The oppofite to carrying in the w-ind, is arm¬
ing and carrying low : and even between thefe two
there is a difference in wind.
CARS, or Kars, a confiderable and ftrong town of
Afia, in Armenia, feated on a river of the fame name,
with a caftle almoft impregnable. E. Long. 43. 5°*
N. Lat. 41. 30.
CARSE, or Carfc of Gawry, a diftrift of Perthflrire
in Scotland. It lies on the north fide of the Fay, and
extends 14 miles in length from Dundee to Perth, and
is from two to four in breadth. It is a rich plain
country, cutivated like a garden, and producing as
good harvefts of wheat as any in Great Britain. It
abounds with all the neceffaries of life : but from its
low damp fituation, the inhabitants are fubjeft to agues,
and the commonalty are in great want of firing. In
this diftridl, not far from the Tay, Hands the houfe of
Errol, which formerly belonged to the earls of that
name, the chiefs of the ancient family of Hay, heredi¬
tary conftables of Scotland.
CARSTAIRS, William, an eminent Scots divine,
whofe merit and good fortune called him to a£l in
great fcenes, and to affociate with men to whole fo-
ciety and intercourfe his birth gave him few preten-
fions to afpire. A fmall village in the neighbourhood
of Glafgow was the place of his nativity. His father,
of whom little is known, exercifed the funtlions of a
clergyman.
Young Carftairs turned his thoughts to the profef-
fion of theology j and the perfecutions and oppref-
fions of government, both in regard to civil and reli¬
gious liberty, having excited his ftrongeft indignation,,
it became a matter of prudence that he ffiould profe-
cute his ftudies in a foreign univerfity. He went ac¬
cordingly to Utrecht; and his induftry and attention
feeing direfted with Ikill, opened up and unfolded thofe
] CAR
faculties which he was about to employ with equal ho- ^ Carflairs.^
nour to his country and himfelf. ' v
During his refidence abroad, he became acquainted
with Penfionary Fagel, and entered with warmth in¬
to the intereft of the prince of Orange. On his re¬
turn to Scotland to procure a licenle to teach doc¬
trines which he had ftudied with the greateft care, he
became difguffed with the proud and infolent conduct
of Archbiflrop Sharp, and prepared to revifit Holland ;
where he knew that religious liberty was refpedfed, and
where he hoped he might better his condition by the
connexions he had formed.
His expeftations were not vain. His prudence, his
referve, and his political addrefs, were ftrong recom¬
mendations of him to the prince of Orange and he
was employed in perfonal negotiations in Holland,
England, and Scotland. Upon the elevation of his
mailer to the Englilh throne, he was appointed the
king’s chaplain for Scotland, and employed in fet¬
tling the affairs of that kingdom. William, who car¬
ried politics into religion, was felicitous that epilco-
pacy ffrould prevail there as univerfally as in England.
Carrtaiis, more verfant in the affairs of his native
country, faw all the impropriety of this projeft, and the
danger that would arife from the enforcing of it. His
reafonings, his remonftrances, his intreaties, overcame
the firmnefs of King William. He yielded to con-
fiderations founded alike in policy and in prudence}
and to Carftairs Scotland is indebted for the full
eftablilhment of its church in the Prefbyterian form of
government.
The death of King William was a fevere affliXion
to him ; and it happened before that prince had pro¬
vided for him with the liberality he deferved.. He
was continued, however, in the office of chaplain for
Scotland by Queen Anne •, and he was invited to ac¬
cept the principality of the Univerfity of Edinburgh.
He was one of the minifters of the city, and four times
moderator of the general affembly. Placed at tbs
head of the church, he profecuted its intereft with
zeal and with integrity. Nor were his influence and
aXivity confined to matters of religion. They were
exerted with fuccefs in promoting the culture of the
arts and fciences. The univerfities of Scotland owe
him obligations of the higheft kind. He procured, in
particular, an augmentation of the falaries of their
profeffors j a circumftance to which may be aferibed
their reputation, as it enabled them to cultivate with
fpirit the different branches of knowledge.
A zeal for truth, a love of moderation and order,
prudence, and humanity, diftinguiffied Principal Car¬
ftairs in an uncommon degree. His religion had no
mixture of aufterity ? his iecular tranfaXions were at¬
tended with no imputation of artifice ; and the veifa-?
tility of his talents made him pafs with eafe from a
court to a college. He was among the laft who fuf-
fered torture before the privy council, in order to make,
him divulge the fecrets mtrufted to him, which he
firmly refilled^ and after the revolution, that inhu¬
man inftrument the thumb ferew wras given to him.
in a prefent by the council.—This excellent perfoa
died in 1715; mid in 1774 his State-papers and Letters y.
with an account of his life, were publilhed in one \oL
4to, by the Rev. Dr WCcrmick. ^
Carfitcai
Carte.
CAR [ 197
CARSUCAI, Rainier, a Jei'ait, born at Citerna
in. I'ufcany, in 1647, was the author of a Latin poem,
entitled, sirs bene fcribendl, which' is efteevned both for
the elegance of the ftyle and for the excellent precepts
it contains. He alfo wrote fome good epigrams. He
died in 1709.
CART AM A, a town of Spain in the kingdom of
Grenada, formerly very confiderable. It is feated at
the foot of a mountain, near the river Guadala-Medina,
in W. Long. 4. 28. N. Lat. 36.40.
CART, a land carriage with two wheels, drawn
commonly by horfes, to carry heavy goods, &c. from
one place to another. T he word feems formed from
the French charrette, which fignifies the fame, or
rather the Latin carreta, a diminutive of carrus. See
Carr.
In London and Weftminfter carts {hall not carry
more than twelve facks of meal, feven hundred and.
fifty bricks, one chaldron of coals, &c. on pain of for¬
feiting one of the horfes, (6 Geo. I. cap. 6.) By the
laws of the city, carr-men are forbidden to ride either on
their carts or horfes. They are to lead or drive them
on foot through the ftreets, on the forfeiture of ten
{hillings. (Stat. I Geo. I. cap. 57.) Criminals ufed
to be drawn to execution on a cart. Bawds and other
xnalefaflors are whipped at the cart’s tail.
Scripture makes mention of a fort of carts or drags
ufed by the Jews to do the office of threftiing. They
were fupported on low thick wheels, bound with iron,
which were rolled up and down on the iheaves, to
break them, and force out the corn. Something of
the like kind alfo obtained among the Romans, under
the denomination of plaujlra, of which Virgil makes
mention, (Georg. I.)
Tardaque Eleufince matris volventia plaujlra,
Tribulaque, traheaque. 
On which Servius obferves, that trohen denotes a cart
without wheels, and tnbuln a fort ot cart armed on all
fides with teeth, ufed chiefly in Africa for threfhing
corn. The Septuagint and. St Jerome reprefent thefe
carts as furnilhed with faws, infomuch that their furface
was beiet with teeth. David having taken Rabbah,
the capital of the Ammonites, ordered all the inhabi¬
tants to be crufhed to pieces under fuch carts, moving
on wheels fet with iron teeth ; and the king of Damaf-
cus is laid to have treated the Ifraelites of the land of
Gilead in the fame manner.
Cart-BoIc, in Law, fignifies wood to be employed in
making and repairing inftruments of hulbandry.
Carts of War, a peculiar kind of artillery anciently
in ufe among the Scots. They are thus deferibed in
an aft of parliament, A. D. 1456: ft is. thought
fpeidfull, that the King may requeift to certain of the
great burrous of the land that are of ony myght, to
mak carts of weir, and in ilk cart twa gunnis, and ilk
ane to have twa chalmers, with the remnant of the
graith that effeirs thereto, and an cunnand man to
fhut thame.” By another aft, A. D. 1471, the pre¬
lates and barons are commanded to provide fuch carts
of war againft their old enemies the Englilh.
CARTE. Thomas, the hiftorian, was the fon of
Mr Samuel Carte prebendary of Litchfield, and born
in 1686. When he was reader in the abbey-church
at Bath, he took occafion in a 30th. of Janmary fer-
mon, 1714, to vindicate
the Irilh maffacre, which
fy with Mr Chandler the
] CAR
Charles I. with refpeft to Cart*
drew him into a controver- . ^ 'j
difienting rninifter ; and on f'ar,c^' T
the accefilon of the prefent royal family he refufed
to take the oaths to government, and put on a lay
habit. He is laid to have afted as a kind of fecreta-
ry to Biihop Atterbury before his troubles : and in
the year 1722, being accufed. of high treafon, a re¬
ward of 1000I. was offered for apprehending him
but Queen Caroline, the great patronefs of learned
men, obtained leave for him to return home in fecu-
rity. Fie publiffted, I. An edition of Thuanus, in
feven volumes, folio. 2. The life of the firft Duke
of Ormond, three volumes, folio. 3. The Hirtory o£
England, four volumes, folio. 4. A Colleftion oforigi
nal Letters and Papers concerning the affairs of Eng¬
land, twm volumes oftavo ; and fome other works.
He died in April 1754. His Hiftory of England ends
in 1654. His defign was to have brought it down
to the Revolution •, for which purpofe he had taken
great pains in copying every thing valuable that could
be met with in England, Scotland, France, Ireland,
&c He had (as he himfelf fays, p. 43. of his Vindi¬
cation of a full an five r to a letter from a byftander),
“ read abundance of colleftions relating to the time of
King Charles II. and had in his power a feries ol me¬
moirs from the beginning to the end of that reign ^ in
which all thofe intrigues and turns at court, at the
latter end of that king’s life, which Biihop Burnet,
with all his gout for tales of feeret hiftory, and all his
genius for conjeftures. does not pretend to account for,
are laid open in the cleareft and moft convincing man¬
ner by the perlbn who wTas moft affefted by them,
and had the beft reafon to know' them.”—At hb'
death, all his papers came into the hands-of his widow,
who afterwards married Mr Jernegan, a member of the
church of Rome. They are now depofited in the Bod¬
leian library, having been delivered by Mr Jernegan.to
the univerfity, 1778, for a valuable confideration. Whilft
they were in this gentleman’s poffeffion, the earl of
Hardwick paid 200I. for the perulal of them, l1 or a
confideration of 3601.. IVIr IMacpherfon had the ufe of
them j and from thefe and other materials compiled
his hiftory and ftate-papers. Mr Carte was a man of
a ftrong conftitution and indefatigable application.
When the ftudies of the ciay w'ere over, he would eat
heartily j and in converfation w’as cheerful and enter¬
taining.
Cart E-Blanche, a fort of white paper, figned at
the bottom with a perfon’s name, and ibmetimes alfo’
fealed with his feal, giving another perfon power to
fuperferibe what conditions he pleafcs. Much like
this is the French blancjigne, a paper without writ¬
ing, except a fignature at the bottom, given by con¬
tending parties to arbitrators or friends, to fill up with
the conditions they judge re a ton able, in order to end-
the difference.
CARTEL, an agreement between two ftates for
the exchange of their prifoners of war.
Cartel fignifies alfo a letter of defiance or a chal¬
lenge to decide a controverly either in a tournament ot
in a fingle combat. See Duel..
Cartel Ship, a Ihip commiflioned in time ot war^ta
exchange the prifoners of any two hoftile powers j a; a.
to carry any particular requeft or propoial from one to.
another :
CAR [ r
Cartes, anuther: for this reafon, the officer who commands
^ her is particularly ordered to carry no cargo, ammuni¬
tion, or implements of war, except a fingle gun for the
purpofe of firing fignals.
CARTES, Rene des, defcended of an ancient fa¬
mily in Touraine in France, was one of the moft
eminent philofophers and mathematicians in the 17th
century. At the Jefuits College at La Fleche, he
made a very great progrefs in the learned languages
and polite literature, and became acquainted with
Father Marfenne. His father defigned him for the
army ; but his tender conftitution then not permitting
him to expofe himfelf to fuch fatigues, he was fent
to Paris, where he launched into gaming, in which he
had prodigious fuccefs. Here Marfenne pcrfuaded
him to return to ftudy ; which he purfued till he went
to Holland, in May 1616, where he engaged as a vo¬
lunteer among the Prince of Orange’s troops. While
he lay in garrifon at Breda, he wrote a treatife on mujic,
and laid the foundation of feveral of his works. He
was at the fiege of Rochelle in 1628 j returned to
Paris •, and, a few days after his return, at an affembly
of men of learning in the houfe of Monfignor Bagni,
the Pope’s nuncio, was prevailed upon to explain his
fentiments with regard to philofophy, when the nuncio
urged him to publifh his fyftem. Upon this he went
to Amfterdam, and from thence to Franeker, where
he began his metaphyfical meditations, and drew up his
difcourfe on meteors. He made a fhort tour to England j
and not far from London, made fome obfervations con¬
cerning the declination of the magnet. He returned to
Holland, where he finilhed his treatife on the world.
His books made a great noife in France ; and Hol¬
land thought of.nothing but difcarding the old philo-
fbphy, and following his. Voetius being chofen rec¬
tor of the univerfity of Utrecht, procured his philo¬
fophy to be prohibited, and wrote againft him ; but
he immediately publifhed a vindication of himfelf. In
1647, he took a journey into France, where the king
fettled a penfion of 3000 livres upon him. Chrillina,
queen of Sweden, having invited him into that king¬
dom, he went thither, where he was received with the
greateft civility by her majefty, who engaged him to
attend her every morning at five o’clock, to inftruft
her in philofophy, and defired him to revife and digeft
all his writings which were unpublilhed, and to form
a complete body of philofophy from them. She like-
wife propofed to allow him a revenue, and to form an
academy, of which he was to be the director. But
thefe defigns were broken off by his death in 1650.
His body was interred at Stockholm, and 17 years af¬
terwards removed to Paris, where a magnificent monu¬
ment was erefled to him in the church of St Gene-
vive du Mont. The great Dr Halley, in a paper
concerning optics, obferves, that though fome of the
ancients mention refraftion as an eft'eft of tranfpa-
rent mediums, Des Cartes was the firft who difcovered
the laws of refraftion, and reduced dioptrics to a fci-
ence. As to his philofophy, Dr Keill, in his introduc¬
tion to his examination of Dr Burnet’s theory of the
earth, fays, that Des Cartes was fo far from applying
geometry to natural philofophy, that his whole.fyftem
is one continued blunder on account of his negligence
in that point; the laws obferved by the planets in their
revolutions round the fun not agreeing with his thdory
1
98 ] CAR . K
of vortices. His philofophy has accordingly given way Carttfians,
to the more accurate difcoveries and demonftrations of ^arthage.
the Newtonian fyftem.
CARTESIANS, a fed! of philofophers, who ad¬
hered to the fyftem of Des Cartes, founded on the
two following principles, the one metaphyfical, the
other phyfical. The metaphyfical one is, 1 thinh, there¬
fore / am : the phyfical principle is, that nothing exijls
but fubflance. Subftance he makes of two kinds ; the
one a fubftance that thinks, the other a fubftance ex¬
tended \ whence adfual thought, and aflual extenfion,
are the efience of fubftance.
The effence of matter being thus fixed in extenfion,
the Cartefians conclude that there is no vacuum nor
any poffibility thereof in nature \ but that the univerfe
is abfolutely full : mere fpace is excluded by this prin¬
ciple j becaufe extenfion being implied in the idea of
fpace, matter is fo too. Upon thefe principles the
Cartefians explained mechanically how the world was
formed, and how the prefent celeftial phenomena came
to take place. See Astronomy Index. r
CARTHAGE, a famed city of antiquity, the capi-When
tal of Africa Propria 5 and which, for many years, founded,
difputed with Rome the fovereignty of the world.
According to Velleius Paterculus, this city was built
<55, according to Juftin and Trogus 72, according to
others 100 or 140 years before the foundations of
Rome ■were laid. It is on all hands agreed that the
Phoenicians were the founders.
The beginning of the Carthaginian hiftory, like
that of all other nations, is obfcute and uncertain. In
the 7th year of Pygmalion king of Tyre, his lifter E|jfa*or
Elifa, or Dido, is laid to have fled, with fome of her Dido’ e-
companions and vaffals, from the cruelty and avarice fcapes from
of her brother, who had put to death her hufband Si- ^ro*
chseus in order to get pofteffion of his wealth.
She firft touched at the illand of Cyprus, where flie
met with a prieft of Jupiter, who was defirous of
attending her ; to which fhe readily confented, and
fixed the priefthood in his family. At that time it
was a cuftom in the ifland of Cyprus, for the young
women to go on certain ftated days, before marriage,
to the fea fide, there to look for ftrangers, that might
poflibly arrive on their coafts, in order to proftitute
themfelves for gain, that they might thereby acquire a
dowry. Out of thefe the Tyrians fele&ed 80, whom
* they carried along with them. From Cyprus they
failed direftly for the coaft of Africa 5 and at laft
fafely landed in the province called Africa Propria, not
far from Utica, a Phoenician city of great antiquity.
The inhabitants received their countrymen with great
demonftrations of joy, and invited them to fettle among
them. The common fable is, that the Phoenicians
impofed upon the Africans in the following manner :
They defired, for their intended fettlement, only as
much ground as an ox’s hide would encompafs. This
requeft the Africans laughed at: but were furprifed,
when, upon their granting it, they faw Elifa cut the
hide into the fmalleft Ihreds, by which means it fur-
rounded a large territory •, in which fhe built the cita- Builds the
del called Byrfa. The learned, however, are now un-citadel Bye*
animous in exploding this fable : and it is certain that ^a-
the Carthaginians for many years paid an annual tribute
to the Africans for the giound they poffefled.
The new city foon became populous and flourilhing,
by
Carthage.
4
She kills
herfelf.
S
Spanilli
mines of
vaft fervice
to the Car¬
thaginians.
Firft treaty
between
Carthage
and Rome.
CAR [
by tbe acceffion of the neighbouring Africans, who
came thither at firft with a view of traffic. In a fiiort
time it became fo confiderable, that jfarbas, a neigh¬
bouring prince, thought of making bimfelf rnafter of
it without any effufion of blood. In order to this, he
defired that an embaffy of ten of the moft noble Car¬
thaginians might be fent him j and, upon their arrival*
propofed to them a marriage with Dido, threatening
war in cafe of a refufal. The ambafladors, being
afraid to deliver this meifage, told the queen that
Jarbas defired fome perfon might be fent him wffio
was capable of civilizing his Africans •, but that there
was no poffibility of finding any of her fubjecfs who
w’ould leave his relations for the converlation of fuch
barbarians. For this they veere reprimanded by the
queen ; who told them that they ought to be afhamed
of refufing to live in any manner for the benefit of
their country. Upon this, they informed her of the
true nature of their meflage from Jarbas 5 and that,
according to her own decifion, fhe ought to facrifice
herfelf for the good of her country. 1 he unhappy
queen, rather than lubmit to be the wife of fuch a
barbarian, caufed d funeral pile to be cretfted, and put
an end to her life with a dagger.
This is Juftin’s account of the death of Queen Di¬
do, and is the moft probable ; Virgil’s ftory of her
amour with Aiineas being looked upon as faoulous,
even in the days of Macrobius, as we are informed
by that hiftorian. How long monarchical government
continued in Carthage, or w-hat happened to this ftate
in its infancy, we are altogether ignorant, by realon
of the Punic archives being deftroyed by the Romans;
fo that there is a chafm in the Carthaginian hiftory
for above 300 years. It, however, appears, that from
the very beginning, the Carthaginians applied them-
felves to maritime affairs, and w7ere formidable by fea
in the time of Cyrus and Cambyfes. !rom Diodorus
Siculus and Juttin, it appears that the principal fup-
port of the Carthaginians were the mines of Spain, in
which country they leem to have eftablilhed themfelves
very early. By means of the riches drawn from theie
mines, they were enabled to equip fuch formidable
fleets as wTe are told they fitted out in the time of
Cyrus or Cambyfes. Juftin infinuates, that the firft
Carthaginian fettlement in Spain happened when the
city of Gades, now Cadiz, was but of late (landing, or
even in its infancy. The Spaniards finding this new
colony begin to flourilb, attacked it with a numerous
army, infomuch that the inhabitants were obliged to call
in the Carthaginians to their aid. The latter very readily
granted their requeft, and not only repulfed the Spa¬
niards, but made themfelves mailers of almoft the whole
province in which their new city Hood. By this fuc-
cefs, they were encouraged to attempt the conqueft of
the whole country : but having to do with very war¬
like nations, they could not pufti their conquefts to
any great length at firft ; and it appears from the ac¬
counts of Livy and Polybius, that the greateft part of
Spain remained unfubdued till the time of Hamilcar,
Afdrubal, and Hannibal.
About 503 years before the birth of Chrift, the
Carthaginians entered into a treaty with the Romans.
It related chiefly to matters of navigation and com¬
merce. From it we learn, that the wffiole illand of
Sardinia, and part of Sicily, were then fubjeft to
99 1 CAR
Carthage ; that they were very well acquainted with Cartfiage^
the coafts of Italy, and had made fome attempts up- v
on them before this time : and that, even at this early
period, a fpirit of jealoufy had taken place betw’een
the two republics. Some time near this period, the
Carthaginians had a mind to dilcontinue the tribute
they had hitherto paid the Africans for the ground on
W'hich their city Hood. But, notwithftanding all their
power, they were at prefent unfuccefsful ; and at
laft were obliged to conclude a peace, one of the ar¬
ticles of which was, that the tribute Ihould be conti¬
nued. 7.
By degrees the Carthaginians extended their power Sicily kiva-
over all the iflands in the Mediterranean, Sicily ex-^^ J1^
cepted ; and for the entire conqueft of this, they made ans_ * ‘ '
vaft preparations, about 480 years before Chrift. I heir
army confilted ot 300,000 men ; their fleet was com-
pofed of upwards of 2000 men of war, and 3000 tranl-
ports; and with fuch an immenfe armament, they
made no doubt of conquering the whole iiland in a
fingle campaign. In this, however, they found them¬
felves miferably deceived. Hamilcar their general
having landed his numerous forces, invefted Himera,
a city of confiderable importance. He carried on his
attacks wuth the greateft affiduity ; but was at laft at¬
tacked in his trenches by Gelon and Theron, the ty¬
rants of Syracufe and Agrigentum, who gave the
Carthaginians one of the greateft overthrows mention- 8
ed in hiftory. An hundred and fifty thoufand were They am
killed in the battle and purfuit, and all the reft taken
prifoners ; fo that of fo mighty an army not a fingle
perfon efcaped. Of the 2000 ftfips of war and 3000
tranfports, of which the Carthaginian fleet conliiled,
eight drips only, which then happened to be out at
lea, made their efcape : thefe immediately fet fail for
Carthage ; but were all call away, and every foul
periftred, except a few who were faved in a Imall boat,
and at laft reached Carthage with the difmal news of
the total lofs of the fleet and army. No words can
exprefs the confternation of the Carthaginians upon
receiving the news of lo terrible a dilafter. Ambal-
fadors wTere immediately dilpatched to Sicily, with
orders to conclude a peace upon any terms. I hey
put to fea wdthout delay ; and landing at Syracufe, ^
threw themfelves at the conqueror’s feet. They beg- Peace con-
ged Gelon, rvith many tears, to receive their city into eluded,
favour, and grant them a peace on whatever terms he
Ihould choofe to preferibe. He granted their requell,
upon condition that Carthage fliould pay him 2000
talents of filver to defray the expences of the war; that
they Ihould build twTo temples, where the articles of
the treaty Ihould be lodged and kept as facred ; and
that for the future they Ihould abftain from human fa-
crifices. This wTas not thought a dear purchafe of a
peace for which there was fuch occafion ; and to fliow
their gratitude for Gelon’s moderation, the Carthagi¬
nians complimented his wife Demaiata with a crown of
gold wTorth ico talents.
From this time we find little mention of the Car¬
thaginians for 70 years. Some time during this pe¬
riod, however, they had greatly extended their do¬
minions in Africa, and likewife thaken off the tribute JO
which gave them lo much uneafinets. 1 hey had Difpute
warm diiputes with the inhabitants of Cyrene the ca-
pital of Cyrenaica, about a regulation of the limits
II
Story of
the Phi-
l<zni.
GAR [ 200 ]
Carthage. 0f their refpe£tive territories. The confequence of it by Gelon
■" v thefe difputes was a war, ■which reduced both nations
fo low, that they agreed firft to a celfation of arms,
and then to a peace. At laft it was agreed, that
each ftate ihould appoint two commiflaries, who
(hould fet out from their refpeftive cities on the fame
day, and that the fpot on which they met {hould be
the boundary of both ilates. In coniequence of this,
two brothers called Philceni were fent out from Car¬
thage, who advanced with great celerity, while thofe
from Cyrene were much more flow in their motions.
Whether this proceeded from accident or defign, or
perfidy, we are not certainly informed ; but, be this
as it will, the Cyreneans finding themfelves greatly
outftripped by the Philaeni, accufed them of breach
of faith, afferting that they had fet out before the
time appointed, and confequently that the convention
between their principals was broken. The Philmni
defired them to propofe fome expedient whereby their
niifferences might be accommodated } promifing to
fubmit to it whatever it might be. The Cyreneans
- then propofed, either that the Philseni {hould retire
from the place where they were, or that they fhould be
•buried alive upon the fpot. With this laft condition
the brothers immediately complied, and by their death
gained a large extent of territory to the country.
The Carthaginians ever after celebrated this as a moil
brave and heroic adlion ; paid them divine honours ;
and endeavoured to immortalize their names by creel¬
ing two altars there, with fuitable infcriptions upon
them.
About the year before Chrift 412, fome difputes
happening between the Egellines and Selinuntines,
inhabitants of two cities in Sicily, the former called
in the Carthaginians to their affillance ; and this occa-
fioned a newr invafion of Sicily by that nation. Great
preparations were made for this war ; Hannibal, whom
they had appointed general, was empowered to raife
an army equal to the undertaking, and equip a fuit-
able fleet. They alfo appointed certain funds for de¬
fraying all the expences of the war, intending to ex¬
ert their whole force to reduce the iiland under their
fubjeftion.
The Carthaginian general having landed his forces,
and Selinis immediately marched for Selinis. In his way he took
uken; Emporium, a town fituated on the river Mazara 5 and
having arrived at Selinis, he immediately invefled it.
The befieged made a very vigorous defence 5 but at
laft the city was taken by ftorm, and the inhabitants
were treated with the utmoft cruelty. All were maf-
{acred by the favage conqueror, except the women who
fled to the temples : and thefe efcaped, not through
the merciful difpofition of the Carthaginians, but be-
caufe they were afraid, that if driven £0 defpair they
would fet fire to the temples, and by that means con-
fume the treafure they expefled to find in thofe places.
Sixteen thoufand were maffacred ; 2250 efcaped to
Agrigentum; and the women and children, about
5000 in number, were carried away captives. At the
fame time the temples were plundered, and the city
razed to the ground. .
After the redudlion of Selinis, Hannibal laid fiege
to Himera : that city he defired above all things to be¬
come mafter of, that he might revenge the death of
his grandfather Hamilcar, who had been {lain before
2
Sicily inva
.jded anew.
I3_
Emporium
CAR
His troops, fluftied with their late fuc- Cart iag<*.
cefs, behaved with undaunted courage : but finding his
battering engines not to anfwer his purpofe fufticient-
ly, he undermined the wall, fupporting it with large
beams of timber, to which be afterwards fet fire, and
thus laid part of it flat on the ground. Notwithftand-
ing this advantage, however, the Carthaginians were
feveral times repulfed with great {laughter j but at latl
they became mailers of the place, and treated it in the
fame manner as they had done Selinis. ^ After this,
Hannibal, difmiffing his Sicilian and Italian allies, re¬
turned to Africa.
The Carthaginians were now fo much elated, that
they meditated the reduction of the whole Hland. But
as the age and infirmities of Hannibal rendered him
incapable of commanding the iorces alone, they join¬
ed in commiffion with him Imilcar, the fon of Hanno,
one of the fame family. On the landing of the Car¬
thaginian army, all Sicily was alarmed, and the prin¬
cipal cities put themfelves into the bell ftate of defence j-
they were able. The Carthaginians immediately Agrigen-
marched to Agrigentum, and began to batter the walls turn be-
with great fury. The befieged, however, defended rieSct ;
themfelves with incredible refolution, in a fally burnt
all the machines raifed againft their city, and repulfed
the enemy with great {laughter. The Syracufans, in
the mean time, being alarmed at the danger of Agri¬
gentum, fent an army to its relief. On their approach
they were immediately attacked by the Carthaginians;
but after a {harp difpute the letter were defeated, and
forced to fly to the very w'alls of Agrigentum, with the
lofs of 6000 men. Had the Agrigentine commanders
now fallied out, and fallen upon the fugitives, in all
probability the Carthaginian army muft have been de-
ftroyed ; but either through fear or corruption, they
refufed to ftir out of the place, and this occafioned the l6
lofs of it. Immenfe booty was found in the city ; and and taken,
the Carthaginians behaved with their ufual cruelty,
putting all the inhabitants to the fvvord, not excepting
even thofe who bad fled to the temples.
The next attempt of the Carthaginians was defign-
ed againft the city of Gela : but the Gcleans, being
greatly alarmed, implored the protedftion of Syracufe ;
and, at their requeft, Dionyfius was fent to affift them
with 2000 foot and 400 horfe. The Geleans were
fo well fatisfied with his conduft, that they treated
him with the higheft marks of diftin&ion ; they even
fent ambaffadors to Syracufe to return thanks for the
important fervices done them by fending him thi¬
ther ; and foon after he was appointed generalifiimo
of the Syracufan forces and thofe of their allies againft
the Carthaginians. In the mean time Imilcar, having
razed the city of Agrigentum, made an incurfion
14 .
as likcwife
Himera.
into the territories of Gela and Comarina; which
having ravaged in a dreadful manner, he carried oft"
fuch immenfe quantity of plunder, as filled his whole ^
camp. He then marched againft the city : but though Geia bc_
it was but indifferently fortified, be met with a very fieged.
vigorous refiftance ; and the place held out for a long
time without receiving any affiftance from its allies.
At laft Dionyfius came to its afliftance with an army
of 50,000 foot and 1000 horfe. With thefe he at¬
tacked the Carthaginian camp, but was repulfed wiih
great lofs ; after which, he called a council of war, the
refult of whole delibsratioris was, that fince the enemy
was
Carthage.
18
Abandoned
by its inha¬
bitants.
Peace con¬
cluded.
Dionyfius
breaks the
treaty.
CAR f
was fo mucli fuperior to them in ftrength, it would be
highly imprudent to put all to the iilue of a battle j and
therefore, that the inhabitants (hould be perfuaded to
abandon the country, as the only means of faving their
lives. In confequence of this, a trumpet was lent to
Imilcar to delire a ceflfation of arms till the next day,
in order, as was pretended, to bury the dead, but in
reality to give the people of Gela an opportunity of
making their efcape. Towards the beginning of the
night the bulk of the citizens left the place j and he
himfelf with the army followed them about midnight.
To amufe the enemy, he left 2000 of his light-arm¬
ed troops behind him, commanding them to make
fires all night, and let up loud Ihouts as though the
army ftill remained in town. At day-break thefe
took the fame route as their companions, and purfued
their march with great celerity. The Carthaginians,
finding the city deferted by the greateft part of its
inhabitants, immediately entered it, putting to death
all who had remained 5 after which, Imilcar having
thoroughly plundered it, moved towards Camarina.
The inhabitants of this city had been likewife drawn
off by Dionylius, and it underwent the fame fate with
Gela.
Notwithftanding thefe fucceffes, however, Imilcar
finding his army greatly weakened, partly by the ca-
fualties of war, and partly by a plague which broke
out in it, fent a herald to Syracufe to offer terms of
peace. His unexpe£ted arrival was very agreeable
to the Syracufans, and a peace was immediately con¬
cluded upon the following terms, viz. That the Car¬
thaginians, befides their ancient acquifitions in Sicily,
fhould ftill poflefs the countries of the Silicani, the Se-
linuntines, the Himereans, and Agrigentines j that
the people of Gela and Camarina fhould be permitted
to refide in their refpe&ive cities, which yet fhould
be difmantled, upon their paying an annual tribute to
the Carthaginians j that all the other Sicilians fhould
preferve their independency except the Syracufans, who
fhould continue in fubje&ion to Hionylius.
The tyrant of Syracufe, however, had concluded
this peace with no other view than to gain time, and
to put himfelf in a condition to attack the Cartha¬
ginian territories with greater force. Having ac-
complifhed this, he acquainted the Syracufans with
his defign, and they immediately approved of it; upon
which he gave up to the fury of the populace the per-
fons and poffeffions of the Carthaginians who refided
in Syracufe, and traded there on the faith of treaties.
As there were nkmy of their fliips at that time in the
harbour, laden with cargoes of great value, the people
immediately plundered them •, and, not content with
this, ranfacked all their houfes in a moft outrageous
manner. This example was followed throughout the
whole ifland ; and in the mean time Dionyfius dif-
patched a herald to Carthage, with a letter to the fe-
nate and people, telling them, that if they did not im¬
mediately withdraw their garrifons from all the Greek
cities in Sicily, the people of Syracufe would treat them
as enemies. With this demand, however, he did not al¬
low them to comply j for without waiting for any an-
fwer from Carthage, he advanced with his army to
Mount Eryx, near which flood the city of Motya, a
Carthaginian colony of great importance j and this he
immediately invefted. But foon after, leaving his bro-
Vol. V. Part I.
201 1 CAR
ther Leptines to carry on the attacks, he himfelf went Carthage;
with the greateft part of his forces to reduce the cities ^
in alliance with the Carthaginians. He deftroyed
their territories with fire and iword, cut down all their
trees j and then he fat down before Egefta and Entella,
moft of the other towns having opened their gates at
his approach ; but thefe baffling his utmoft efforts, he
returned to Motya, and puftied on the fiege of that
place with the utmoft vigour.
The Carthaginians, in the mean time, though alarm¬
ed at the meffage fent them by Dionyfius, and though
reduced to a miferable fituation by the plague which had
broke out in their city, did not defpond, but fent offi¬
cers to Europe, with confiderable fums, to raife troops
with the utmoft diligence. Ten galleys were alfo fent^^^”
from Carthage to deflroy all the ftiips that were found ftroyed.
in the harbour of Syracufe. The admiral, according
to his orders, entered the harbour in the night, with¬
out being difeerned by the enemy ; and having funk
moft of the (hips he found there, returned without the
lofs of a man. 22
All this while the Motyans defended themfelves with Motva ta-
incredible vigour j while their enemies, defirous of C
revenging the cruelties exercifed upon their country¬
men by the Carthaginians, fought like lions. At laft:
the place was taken by ftorm, and the Greek foldiers
began a general maffacre. For feme time Dionyfius
was not able to reftrain their fury ; but at laft he
proclaimed that the Motyans fhould fly to the Greek
temples j which they accordingly did, and a flop was
put to the flaughter •, but the foldiers took care tho¬
roughly to plunder the town, in which they found a
great treafure.
The following fpring, Dionyfius invaded the Cartha¬
ginian territories, and made an attempt upon Egefta :
but here he was again difippointed. I he Carthagi¬
nians were greatly alarmed at his progrefs ; but, next
year, notwithftanding a confiderable lofs fuftained in
a fea-fight with Leptines, Himilco their general land¬
ed a powerful army at Panormus, feized upon Eryx,
and then advancing towards Motya, made himfelf ma¬
iler of it, before Dionyfius could fend any forces to its
relief. He next advanced to Meffana, which he like-
wdfe befieged and took ; after which moft of the Siculi
revolted trom Dionyfius. 32
Notw'ithftanding this defe<5lion, Dionyfius, finding Greeks de-
his forces ftill amount to 30 000 foot and 30CO horfe, catedatfea
advanced againft the enemy. At the fame time Lep-
tines was fent with the Syracufan fleet againft that of
the Carthaginians, but with pofitive orders not to
break the line of battle upon any account whatever.
But, notwithftanding thefe orders, he thought proper
to divide his fleet, and the confequence of this was a
total defeat •, above 100 of the Syracufan galleys being
funk or taken, and 20,000 of their men killed in the
battle or in the purfuit. Dionyfius, diftieartened by this iyracufe
misfortune, returned with his army to Syracufe, being _elieged by
afraid that the Carthaginian fleet might become ma- a*
fters of that city, if he fhould advance to fight the land 6
army. Himilco did not fail immediately to inveft the
capital 5 and had certainly become mafter of it, and
confequentlv of the whole ifland, had not a moft ma¬
lignant peftilence obliged him to defift from all further
operations. This dreadful malady made great havock
among his forces both by fea and land j and to com-
C c plete
CAR [ 202 ] CAR
Carthage.
25
Himilco
obliged to
return.
16
Another
invafion of
Sicily.
27
Syracufans
affifted by
the Corin¬
thians.
28
Tooliflicon-
dudh of the
Carthagini¬
an admiral.
plete his misfortunes, Dionyfius attacked him unex-
peftedly, totally ruined his fleet, and made himfelf
mafter of his camp.
Himilco, finding himfelf altogether unable to fuftain
another attack, was obliged to come to a private
agreement with Dionyfius j who for 300 talents con-
fented to let him efcape to Africa, with the fhattered
remains of his fleet and army. The unfortunate ge¬
neral arrived at Carthage, clad in mean and fordid
attire, where he was met by a great number of peo¬
ple bewailing their fad and inaufpicious fortune. Hi¬
milco joined them in their lamentations ; and being
unable to furvive his misfortunes, put an end to his
own life. He had left Mago in Sicily, to take care
of the Carthaginian interefts in the beft manner he
could. In order to this, Mago treated all the Sicilians
fubjefl to Carthage with the greateft humanity ; and
having received a confiderable number of foldiers from
Africa, he at lafl formed an army with which he ven¬
tured a battle 5 in this he was defeated, and driven
out of the field, with the lofs of 800 men , which
obliged him to defift from farther attempts of that
nature.
Notwithftanding all thefe terrible difafters, the Car¬
thaginians could not forbear making new attempts up¬
on the ifland of Sicily ; and about the year before
Chrift 292, Mago landed in it with an army of 80,000
men. This attempt, however, rvas attended with no
better fuccefs than before ; Dionyfius found means to
reduce him to fuch ffraits for want of provifions, that
he was obliged to fue for peace. This continued for
nine years, at the end of which the war was renewed
with various fuccefs. It continued with little interrup¬
tion till the year before Chrift 367, when the Syra-
cufan ftate being rent by civil diffenfions, the Car¬
thaginians thought it a proper time to exert them-
felves, in order to become mafters of the whole ifland.
They fitted out a great fleet, and entered into alliance
with Icetas, tyrant of Leontini, who pretended to have
taken Syracufe under his protection. By this treaty,
the two powers engaged to aflift each other, in order to
expel Dionyfius II. after which they were to divide
the ifland between them. The Syracufans applied for
fuccours to the Corinthians: and they readily fent
them a body of troops under the command of Timo-
leon an experienced general. By a ftratagem, he got
his forces landed at Taurominium. The whole of"
them did not exceed 1200 in number : yet with thefe
he marched againft Icetas, who was at the head of
5000 men : his army he furprifed at fupper, put 300
of them to the fword, and took 600 prifoners. He
then marched to Syracufe, and broke into one part of
the town before the enemy had any notice of his ap¬
proach : here he took poft, and defended himfelf with
fuch refolution, that he could not be diflodged by the
united power of Icetas and the Carthaginians.
In this place he remained for fome time, in expec¬
tation of a reinforcement from Corinth ; till the arri¬
val of which, he did not judge it praCficable to extend
his conquefts.—The Carthaginians being apprifed that
the Corinthian fuccours were detained by tempeftuous
weather at Thurium, polled a ftrong fquadron, under
Hanno their admiral, to intercept them in their paf-
fage to Sicily. But that commander, not imagining
the Corinthians would attempt a pafiage to Sicily in
fuch a ftormy feafon, left his ftation at Thimum, and Carthage,
ordering his feamen to crown themfelves with garlands, * -
and adorn their veffels with bucklers both of the Greek
and Carthaginian form, failed to Syracufe in a triumph¬
ant manner. Upon his arrival there, he gave the troops
in the citadel to underftand, that he had taken the fuc¬
cours Timoleon expedfed, thinking by this means to
intimidate them to furrender. But, while he thus
trifled away his time, the Corinthians marched with
great expedition to Rhegium, and, taking the advan¬
tage of a gentle breeze, were eafily wafted over into
Sicily. Mago, the Carthaginian general, was no fooner Cowardice
informed of the arrival of this reinforcement, than he of Mago.
was ftruck with terror, though the whole Corinthian
army did not exceed 4000 men 5 and, foon after, fear¬
ing a revolt of his mercenaries, he weighed anchor, in
fpite of all the remonftrances of Icetas, and fet fail for
Africa. Here he no fooner arrived, than, overcome
with grief and fhame for his unparalleled cowardice, he
laid violent hands on himfelf. His body was hung up¬
on a gallows or crofs, in order to deter fucceeding ge¬
nerals from forfeiting their honour in fo flagrant a
manner.
After the flight of Mago, Timoleon carried all be-Exploits of
fore him. He obliged icetas to renounce his alliance Timoieon.
with the ftate of Carthage, and even depofed him, and
continued his military preparations with the greateft
vigour. On the other hand, the Carthaginians pre¬
pared for the enfuing campaign with the greateft ala¬
crity. An army of 70,000 men was fent over, with a
fleet of 200 fhips of war, and 1000 tranfports laden
with warlike engines, armed chariots, horfes, and all
other forts of provifions. This immenfe multitude,
however, was overthrown on the banks of the Crime-
fus by Timoleon : 10,000 were left dead on the field
of battle 5 and of thefe above 3000 were native Car¬
thaginians of the beft families in the city. Above
15,000 were taken prifoners j all their baggage and
provifions, with 200 chariots, 1000 coats of mail, and
10,000 fliields, fell into Timoleon’s hands. The fpoil,
which confifted chiefly of gold and filver, was fo im¬
menfe, that the whole Sicilian army was three days in
collefling it and ftripping the flain. After this fignal
viffory, he left his mercenary forces upon the frontiers
of the enemy, to plunder and ravage the country $
while he himfelf returned to Syracufe with the reft of
his army, where he was received with the greateft de-
monftrations of joy. Soon after, Icetas, grown weary
of his private ftation, concluded a new peace with the
Carthaginians 5 and having aflembled an army, ven¬
tured an engagement with Timoleon : but in this he
was utterly defeated; and himfelf, with Eupolemus
his fon, and Euthymus general of his horfe, were
brought bound to Timoleon by their own foldiers.
The two firft were immediately executed as tyrants
and traitors, and the laft murdered in cold blood 3 Ice-
tas’s wives and daughters were likewife cruelly put to
death after a public trial. In a ftiort time after, Pda-
mercus,. another of the Carthaginian confederates, was
overthrown by Timoleon, with the lofs of 2000 men.
Thefe misfortunes induced the Carthaginians to con-peac^Tcor<t
elude a peace on the following terms: That all the eluded.
Greek cities ftiould be fet free 5 that the river Halycus
Ihould be the boundary between the territories of both
parties 3 that the natives of the cities, fubjeft to the
Carthaginians,
3*
War re¬
newed.
CAR [ 203 ]
Carthage. Carthaginians, fhould be allowed to withdraw, if they himfelf up in
-v pleafed, to Syracufe, or its dependencies, with their
families and effects; and laflly, that Carthage fhould
not, for the future, give any affiftance to the remain¬
ing tyrants againft Syracufe.
About 3x6 years before Chrift, -we find the Car¬
thaginians engaged in another bloody war with the
Sicilians, on the following occafion : Sofiftratus, who
had ufurped the fupreme authority at Syracufe, having
been forced by Agathocles to raife the fiege of Rhe-
gium, returned with his {battered troops to Sicily.
But foon after this unfuccefsful expedition he was ob¬
liged to abdicate the fovereignty and quit Syracufe,
With him were expelled above 600 of the principal
citizens, who were fufpefted of having formed a de-
fign to overturn the plan of government which then
prevailed in the city. As Sofiftratus and the exiles
thought themfelves ill treated, they had recourfe to
the Carthaginians, who readily efpoufed their caufe.
Hereupon the Syracufans having recalled Agathocles,
who had before been banifhed by Sofiftratus, appointed
him commander in chief of all their forces, principally
on account of the known averfion he bore that tyrant.
The war, however, did not then continue long; for
Sofiftratus and the exiles were quickly received again
into the city, and peace was concluded with Carthage :
the people of Syracufe, however, finding that Aga¬
thocles wanted to make himfelf abfolute, exacted an
oath from him, that he would do nothing to the pre-
Agathocles judice of the democracy. But, notwithftanding this
raifes him- oath, Agathocles purfued his purpofe, and by a ge¬
neral maflacre of the principal citizens of Syracufe
raifed himfelf to the throne. For fome time he was
obliged to keep the peace he had concluded with Car¬
thage ; but at laft finding his authority eftabliftied,
and that his fubjedls were ready to fecond his ambi¬
tious defigns, he paid no regard to his treaties, but im¬
mediately made war on the neighbouring ftates, which
he had exprefsly agreed not to do, and then carried
his arms into the very heart of the ifland. In thefe
expeditions he was attended with fuch fuccefs, that in
two years time he brought into fubje&ion all the
Greek part of Sicily. This being accomplifhed, he
committed great devaftations in the Carthaginian ter¬
ritories, their general Hamilcar not offering to give
him the leaft difturbance. This perfidious condufl
greatly incenfed the people of thofe diftridds againft
Hamilcar, whom they accufed before the fen ate. He
died, however, in Sicily; and Hamilcar the fon of
Gifco was appointed to fucceed him in the command
of the forces. The laft place that held out againft;
Agathocles wras Mefiana, whither all the Syracufan
exiles had retired. Pafiphilus, Agathocles’s general,
found means to cajole the inhabitants into a treaty ;
which Agathocles, according to cuftom, paid no re¬
gard to, but, as foon as he was in pofleftion of the
town, cut off all thofe who had oppofed his govern¬
ment. For, as he intended to profecute the war with
the utmoft vigour againft Carthage, he thought it a
point of good policy to deftroy as many of his Sicilian
enemies as poflible.
The Carthaginians in the mean time having landed
^t^e.Car* a powerful army in Sicily, an engagement foon enfued,
in which Agathocles wras defeated with the lofs of
7000 men. After this defeat he was obliged to flrut
33
felf to the
throne of
Syracufe,
„ 34
Defeated
thaginians,
and belie-
ged in Sy¬
racufe.
GAR
Syracufe, which the Carthaginians im- Carthage^
mediately invefted, and moft of the Greek ftates in the " 1 r
ifland fubmitted to them.
Agathocles feeing himfelf ftripped of almoft all his
dominions, and his capital itfelf in danger of falling
into the hands of the enemy, formed a defign, which,
were it not attefted by writers of undoubted authority, 35
would feem abfolutely incredible. This was no lefs invade3
than to transfer the war into Africa, and lay fiege to A-&ica’
the enemy’s capital, at a time when he himfelf was
befieged, and only one city left to him in all Sicily,
Before he departed, however, he made all the necef-
fary preparations for the defence of the place, and ap¬
pointed his brother Antandrus governor of it. He alfo
gave permiflion to all who were not willing to ftand
the fatigues of a fiege to retire out of the city. Many
of the principal citizens, Juftin fays 1600, accepted
of this offer •, but they were no fooner got out of the
place, than they were cut off by parties polled on the
road for that purpofe. Having feized upon their
eftates, Agathocles raifed a confiderable fum, which
was intended in fome meafure to defray the expence
of the expedition : however, he carried with him only
50 talents to fupply his prefent wants, being well af-
fured that he fhould find m the enemy’s country what¬
ever was neceffary for his fubfiftence. As the Cartha¬
ginians had a much fuperior fleet, they for fome time
kept the mouth of the harbour blocked up : but at
laft a fair opportunity offered ; and Agathocles hoift-
ing fail, by the a&ivity of his rowers foon got clear
both of the port and city of Syracufe. The Cartha¬
ginians purfued him with all poflible expedition j but,
notwithftanding their utmoft efforts, Agathocles got
his troops landed with very little oppofition. 3*?
Soon after his forces were landed, Agathocles burnt burns
his fleet, probably that his foldiers might behave with ^eel*
the greater refolution, as they faw no pofiibility of
flying from their danger. He firft advanced to a place
called the Great City. This, after a feeble refiftance,
he took and plundered. From hence he marched to
Tunis, which furrendered on the firft fummons; and
Agathocles levelled both places with the ground.
The Carthaginians were at firft thrown into the
greateft confternation •, but foon recovering themfelves,
the citizens took up arms with fo much alacrity, that
in a few days they had on foot an army of 40,000
foot and 1000 horfe, xvith 2000 armed chariots. The
command of this army they entrufted to Hanno and
Bomilcar, two generals between whom there fubfifted 37
a great animofity. This occafioned the defeat of their Carthagini-
whole army, with the lofs of their camp, though all "ns deleat-
the forces of Agathocles did not exceed 14,000 in'^’
number. Among other rich fpoils the conqueror found
many chariots of curious workmanfhip, which carried
20,000 pair of fetters and manacles that the enemy ^3
had provided for the Sicilian prifoners. After this de- Their me-
feat, the Carthaginians, fuppofing themfelves to have t^10d °f
fallen under the difpleafure of their deities on account
of their negledHng to facrifice children of noble fami-tjes_
lies to them, resolved to expiate this guilt. Accord¬
ingly 200 children of the firft rank were facrificed to
their bloody gods, befides 300 other perfons who vo¬
luntarily offered themfelves to pacify the wrath of thefe
deities.
After thefe expiations, Hamilcar was recalled from
C c s Sicily,
39
Hamilcar
makes an
affault on
Syracufe.
40
He raifes
the fiege.
CAR [
Carthage. Sicily. When the meflengers arrived, Hamilcar com¬
manded them not once to mention the vi&ory of Aga-
thocles; but, on the contrary, to give out among the
troops that he had been entirely defeated, his forces
all cut off, and his fleet deftroyed by the Carthagini¬
ans. This threw the Syracufans into the utmoft de-
fpair •, however, one Eurymnon, an Etolian, prevailed
upon Antandrus not to confent to a capitulation, but
to ftand a general affault. Hamilcar being informed
of this, prepared his battering engines, and made all
the neceflary preparations to rtorm the town without
delay. But while matters remained in this fltuation,
a galley, which Agathocles had caufed to be built im¬
mediately after the battle, got into the harbour of Sy¬
racufe, and acquainted the inhabitants with the cer¬
tainty of Agathocles’s viftory. Hamilcar obferving
that the garrifon flocked down to the port on this oc-
cafion, and expe&ing to find the walls unguarded, or¬
dered his foldiers to ereft fcaling-ladders, and begin
the intended affault. The enemy having left the ram¬
parts quite expofed, the Carthaginians mounted them
without being difcerned, and had almoft poffeffed them-
felves of an entire part lying between two towers, when
the patrol difcovered them. Upon this a warm difpute
enfued 5 but at laft the Carthaginians were repulfed
with lofs. Hamilcar, therefore, finding it in vain to
continue the fiege after fuch glad tidings had reftored
life and foul to the Syracufans, drew off his forces,
and fent a detachment of 5000 men to reinforce the
troops in Africa. He Hill entertained hopes, how¬
ever, that he might oblige Agathocles to quit Africa,
. and return to the defence of his own dominions. He
fpent fome time in making himfelf mafter of fuch ci¬
ties as fided with the Syracufans ; and after having
brought all their allies under fubjeflion, returned again
to Syracufe, hoping to furprife it by an attack in the
Is dcreated night-time. But being attacked while advancing
and taken ’ through narrow paffes, where his numerous army had
not room to a<ff, he was defeated with great daughter,
and himfelf taken prifoner, carried into Syracufe, and
put to death.
In the meantime the Agrigentines, finding that the
Carthaginians and Syracufans had greatly weakened
each other by this war, thought it a proper opportu-
fovereignty nity to attempt the fovereignty of the whole ifland.
of Sicily. They therefore commenced a war againft both parties;
and profecuted it with fuch fuccefs, that in a fhbrt
time they wrefted many places of note both out of the
hands of the Syracufans and Carthaginians.
Succefs of Africa the tyrant carried every thing before him.
Agathocles He reduced moft of the places of any note in the ter-
in Africa, ritory of Carthage ; and hearing that Elymas king of
Libya had declared againlt him, he immediately en¬
tered Libya Superior, and in a great battle overthrew
that prince, putting to the fword a good part of his
troops, and the general who commanded them ; after
which he advanced againft the Carthaginians with fuch
expedition, that he furprifed and defeated them with
the lofs of 2000 killed, and a great number taken
prifoners. He next prepared for the fiegc of Carthage
itfelf; and in order thereto advanced to a poll within
five miles of that city. On the other hand, notwith-
ftanding the great Ioffes they had already fuftained, the
Carthaginians, with a powerful army, encamped be¬
tween him and their capital. In this fituation Aga-
204 ] CAR
thocles received advice of the defeat of the Carthagi- Carthage,
nian forces before Syracufe, and the head of Hamilcar ' ^
their general. Upon this he immediately rode up to
the enemy’s camp, and fiiowing them the head, gave
them an accdunt of the total deftruftion of their army
before Syracufe. This threw them into fuch confter-
nation, that in all human probability Agathocles would
prifoner,
and put to
death.
41
Agngen-
tines at¬
tempt the
44
have made himfelf mafter of Carthage, had not an un-
expeffed mutiny arifen in his camp, which gave the
Carthaginians an opportunity of recovering from their
terror. ^
The year following an engagement happened, in He makes
which neither party gained any great advantage : but an alliance
foon after, the tyrant, notwithftanding all his vi6lo-
lies, found himfelf unable to carry on the war alone ; rt ’
and therefore endeavoured to gain over to his intereft
Ophelias, one of the captains of Alexander the Great.
In this he perfeftly fucceeded ; and to fuccour his
new ally the more effeftually, Ophelias fent to Athens
for a body of troops. Having fi.niftied his military
preparations, Ophelias found his army to confift of
10,000 foot and 600 horfe, all regular troops, be-
fides 100 chariots, and a body of 10,000 men, at¬
tended by their wives and children, as though he had
been going to plant a new colony. At the head of «
thefe forces he continued his march towards Agatho¬
cles for 18 days; and then encamped at Automalae,
a city about 3000 ftadia diftant from the capital of his
dominions. From thence he advanced through the
Regio Syrtica ; but found himfelf reduced to fuch ex¬
tremities, that his army was in danger of perilhing for
want of bread, water, and other provifions. They
were alfo greatly annoyed by ferpents and wild beafts,
wuth which that defert region abounded. The ferpents
made the greateft havock among the troops; for, be¬
ing of the fame colour with the earth, and extremely
venomous, many foldiers, who trod upon them with¬
out feeing them, were flung to death. At laft, after
a very fatiguing march of two months, he approached
Agathocles, and encamped at a fmall diftance from
him, to the no fmall terror of the Carthaginians, who
apprehended the moft fatal confequences from this ^
junflion. Agathocles at firft careffed him, and ad-whomhe
vifed him to take all poflible care of his troops tbattreacher-
had undergone fo many fatigues ; but foon after cutou% rnur"
him off by treachery, and then by fair words and pro-c
mifes perfuaded his troops to ferve under himfelf.
Agathocles now finding himfelf at the head of a
numerous army, affumed the title of King of Africa,
intending foon to complete his conquefts by the re-
dudlion of Carthage. He began with the fiege of
Utica, which was taken by affault. After this he
marched againft Hippo Diarrhytus, the Bilerta of the
moderns, which was alfo taken by ftorm ; and after
this moft of the people bordering upon the fea coafts,
and even thofe who inhabited the inland parts of the ,
country, fubmitted to him. But in the midft of thisis obliged
career of fuccefs, the Sicilians formed an affociation in to return
favour of liberty ; which obliged the tyrant to return
home, leaving his fon Archagathus to carry on the
war in Africa.
Archagathus, after his father’s departure, greatly Succefs of
extended the African conquefts. He fent Eumachus Archaga-
at the head of a large detachment to invade fome of^115,
the neighbouring provinces, while he himfelf, with
the
'48
He is red'i
ced to the
utmoft di-
ftrefs.
CAR [ 205 ] r , ^ ,A
cnh.-e *e greatest part of his aroty, obferved the motions his affiftance out of the harbour
of the Carthaginians. Eumachus falling into Numi-
dia firft took" the great city of Tocas, and conquer¬
ed feveral of the Numidian cantons. Afterwards he
b-fieged and took Phellina 5 which was attended with
the fubmiffion of the Afphodelodians, a nation, accor¬
ding to Diodorus, as black as the Ethiopians. He
then reduced feveral cities ; and being at laft elated
with fuch a run of good fortune, refolved to penetrate
into the morfe remote parts of Africa. Here he at
firft met with fuccefs ; but hearing that the barbarous
nations were advancing in a formidable body to give
him battle, he abandoned his conquefts, and retreated
with the utmoft precipitation towards the fea coafts,
after having loft abundance of men.
This unfortunate expedition made a great
tion for the worfe in the affairs of Archagathus. The
Carthaginians being informed of Eumachus’s bad iuc-
cefs, refolved to exert themfelves in an extraordinai>
manner to repair their former Ioffes. They divided
their forces into three bodies : one of thefe they lent
to the fea coafts, to keep the towns there in awe;
another they defpatched into the Mediterranean parts,
to preferve the allegiance of the inhabitants there ;
and the laft body they ordered to the Upper Africa,
to fupport their confederates in that country. Archa¬
gathus being apprifed of the motions of the Cartha¬
ginians, divided his forces likewife into three bodies.
One of thefe he fent to obferve the Carthaginian
troops on the fea coafts, with orders to advance af¬
terwards into the Upper Africa ; another under the
command of TEfchrion, one of his generals, he polled
at a proper diftance in the heart of the country, to
have an eye both on the enemy there and the barba¬
rous nations; and with the laft, which he led in per-
fon, he kept nearer Carthage, prcfervmg a commu¬
nication with the other two, in order to fend them
fuccours, or recal them, as the exigency of affairs
ftiould require.—The Carthaginian troops fent into
the heart of the country, were commanded by Han-
■no, a general of great experience, who being in^ri^-
ed of the approach of iEfchrion, laid an ambufcade
for him, into which he w^as drawn and cut off with 4000
foot and 200 horfe. Himilco, who commanded the
Carthaginian forces in Upper Africa, having advice
of Eumachus’s march, immediately advanced againit
him. An engagement enfued, in which the Greeks
were almoft totally cut off, or perilhed with thirft af¬
ter the battle, out of 8000 foot only 30, and of Sop
horfe only 40, having the good fortune to make their
Archagathus receiving the melancholy news of
thefe two defeats, immediately called in the detach¬
ments he had fent out to harafs the enemy, which
would otherwife have been inftantly put off. He was,
however, in a fhort time hemmed in on all fides, pn
fuch a manner as to be reduced to the laft extremity
for want of provifions, and ready every moment to
be fwallowed up by the numerous forces which fur-
rounded him. In this deplorable fituation Agathocles
received an exprefs from Archagathus, acquainting
him of the Ioffes he had fuftained and the fcarcity of
provifions he laboured under. Upon this the tyrant,
leaving the care of the Sicilian war to one Leptmes,
by a ftratagem got 18 Etrufcan fhips that came to
R
ms amitance cm u. • , »='<! >1'en e.n?a8inS
the Carthaginian fquadron which lay m its neighbour¬
hood, took five of their (hips, and made all tneir
men prifoners. By this means he became master of
the port, and fecured a paffage into it lor the mer¬
chants of all nations, which foon reftored plenty to
that city, where the famine before had begun to make
great havock. Supplying himfelf, therefore, with a
fufficient quantity of neceffaries for the voyage he
was going to undertake, he immediately fet fail tor
Africa 4.9 t
Upon his arrival in this country, Agathocles re- Agau.oc^ee
viewed his forces, and found them to confift ot 6ooo<At,ica.
Greeks, as many Samnites, Celtes, and Etruicans ;
befides 10,000 Africans, and 1500 horfe. As he
found his troops almoft in a ft ate of defpair, he thought
this a proper time for offering the enemy battle. 1 he
Carthaginians, however, did not think proper to ac¬
cept the challenge ; efpecially as by keeping clofe in
their camp, where they had plenty of every thing,
they could ftarve the Greeks to a furrender 5£
ftrikifig a flroke. Upon this Agathocles attacked the AC»ckf
Carthaginian camp with great bravery, made a C?n 1 enemy
derable impreffion upon it, and might perhaps have without
carried it, had not his mercenaries deferted him almoft fuccefs.-
at the firft onfet. By this piece of cowaidice he was
forced to retire with precipitation to his camp, whither
the Carthaginians purfued him very clofely, doing
great execution in the puriuit. ^ j-r 2*
g The next night, the Carthagimans faer.hced all
pvifoners of diftinaion as a grateful acknowledgment thaginiaH
to the gods for the vi&ory they had gained. VV bile catnp>
they were employed in this inhuman work, the wind,
fuddenly rifing, carried the flames to the facred ta¬
bernacle near the altar, which was entirely confumed,
as well as the general’s tent, and thofe of the princi¬
pal officers adjoining to it. A dreadful alarm took
place through the whole camp, which was heightened
by the great progrefs the fire made. For the foldiers
tents confifting of very combuftible materials, and tH
wind blowing in a moft violent manner, tne whole
camp was almoft entirely laid in afhes; and many ot
the foldiers endeavouring to carry off their arms, and
the rich baggage of their officers, perlftied m the
flames. Some of thofe who made their efcape met
with a fate equally unhappy : For, after Agathocles
had received the laft blow, the Africans deierted him,
and were in that inftant coming over in a body to the
Carthaginians. Thefe, the perfons who were flying
from the flames took to be the whole Syracufan ar¬
my advancing in order of battle to attack their camp.
Upon this a dreadful confufion enlued. Some toorc
to their heels ; others fell down in heaps one upon-
another; and others engaged their comrades, miU
taking them for the enemy. Five thoufand men loft
their lives in this tumult, and the reft thought proper
to take refuge within the walls of Carthage; nor
could the appearance of daylight, for fume time, 1 - 52
fipate their terrible apprehenfions. In the mean Anothe^m
time the African deferters, obferviiig the great con-
fufion the Carthaginians were in, and not knowing
the meaning of it, were fo terrified, that they thought
proper to return to the place from whence they came.
The Syracufans feeing a body of troops advancing to¬
wards them in good order, concluded that the enemy
^ were
GAR
. J3
He etcapes
privately.
, 54
Caufes of
the firft
Punic war.
CArA^e' were marching to attack them, and therefore imme
diaiely cried out, “ I o arms.” i he flames afcend-
ing out of the Carthaginian camp into the air, and
the lamentable outcries proceeding from thence, con¬
firmed them in this opinion, and greatly heightened
their confufion. The confequence was much the fame
as in the Carthaginian camp j for coming to blows
with one another inftead of the enemy, they fcarce re¬
covered their fenfes upon the return of light, and the
inteftine fray was fo bloody that it coft Agathocles
4000 men.
The laft difafler fo dilheartened the tyrant, that he
immediately fet about contriving means for making
his efcape^privately ; and this he at laft, though with
great difficulty, effefted. After his departure, his
two fons were immediately put to death by the fol-
diers, who, choofing a leader from among themfelves,
made peace with the Carthaginians upon the following
conditions : 1. That the Greeks fliould deliver up all
the places they held in Africa, receiving from them
^-,00 talents} 2. That fuch of them as were willing to
ferve in the Carthaginian army Ihould be kindly treat¬
ed, and receive the ufual pay j and 3. That the refl
fhould be tranfported to Sicily, and have the city of
Selinus for their habitation.
From this time, to that of their firft war with the
Romans, we find nothing remarkable in the hiftory
of the Carthaginians. The firft Punic war, as it is
commonly called, happened about 256 years before
Chrift. At that time the Carthaginians were poffef-
fed of extenfive dominions in Africa ; they had made
confiderable progrefs in Spain ; were mafters of Sardi¬
nia, Corfica, and all the iflands on the coaft of Italy 5
and had extended their conquefts to a great part of
Sicily. The occafion of the firft rupture between the
two republics was as follows: The Mamertines be¬
ing vanquiftied in battle, and reduced to great ftraits
by Hiero king of Syracufe, had refolved to deliver up
Meffina, the only city they now poffeffed, to that
prince, with whole mild government and ftrift pro¬
bity they were well acquainted. Accordingly, Hiero
was advancing at the head of his troops to take pof-
femon of the city, when Hannibal, who at that time
coinmanded the Carthaginian army in Sicily, prevent¬
ed him by a ftratagem. He came to meet Hiero,
as it were to congratulate him on his vitfoty ; and
amufed him, while fome of the Carthaginian troops
filed off towards Meffina. Hereupon the 'Mamer-*
tines, feeing their city fupported by a new reinforce¬
ment, were divided into feveral opinions. Some
were for accepting the proteftion of Carthage ; others
were for furrendering to the king of Syracufe : but
the greater part were for calling in the Romans to
-heir afidtance. Deputies were accordingly defpatch-
ed to Rome, offering the poffeflion of the city to the
wrXfl'-’ mrA m°Ving termS imPl°ring
proteamn. This, after feme debate, was agreed to-,
and the conful Appius Claudius received orders to at¬
tempt a paffage to Sicily, at the head of a powerful
army. Being obliged to ftay feme time at Rome
however, one Cams Claudius, a perfon of great intre¬
pidity and refolution, was defpatched with a few vef-
lels to Rhegmm. On his arrival there, he obferved
the Carthaginian fquadron to be fo much fuperior to
las own, that he thought it would be little better than
I
[ 2°6 ]
CAR
madnefs to attempt at that time to tranfport forces to Carthage,
Sicily. He croffed the ftraits, however, and had a "
conference with the Mamertines, in which he prevail¬
ed upon them all to accept of the protedlion of Rome j
and on this he made the neceffary preparations for
tranfporting his forces. The Carthaginians being in¬
formed of the refolutions of the Romans, fent a ftrong
fquadron of galleys under the command of Hanno, to 55
intercept the Roman fleet j and accordingly the Car-Hanno in-
thaginian admiral, coming up with them near the coaft tercePts
of Sicily, attacked them with great fury. During the n'onian
engagement, a violent ftorrn arofe, which daftied many ^
of the Roman veffels aguinft the rocks, and did a vaft
deal of damage to their fquadron j by which means
Claudius was forced to retire to Rhegium, and this he
accomplifhed with great diificulty. Hanno reftored
all the veffels he had taken ; Tmt ordered the deputies
fent with them to expoftulate with the Roman general
upon the infra&ion of the treaties fubfifting between
the two republics. This expoftulation, however juft,
produced an open rupture j Claudius foon after pof-
fefling himfelf of Meffina.
Such was the beginning of the firft Punic war, Cart^ • j.
which is laid to have lafted 24 years. The firft year, ans and Sy»
the Carthaginians and Syracufans laid fiege to Meffi-racufariS
na j but not aiffing in concert as they ought to have(,efeated
done, were overthrown by the conful Appius Claudi-^an^0'
us 5 and this defeat fo much difgufted Hiero with the * 4
Carthaginians, that he foon after concluded an alliance
with the Romans. After this treaty, having no enemy
to contend with but the Carthaginians, the Romans
made themfelves mafters of all the cities on the weftern
coaft of Sicily, and at the end of the campaign carried
back moft of their troops with them to take up their
winter-quarters in Italy.
The fecond year, Hanno the Carthaginian general Agrigen-
fixed his principal magazine at Agrigentum. Thisturn ta^en
place was very ftrong by nature, had been rendered by thc
almoft impregnable by the new fortifications raifed bymaaS‘
the Carthaginians during the preceding winter, and
was defended by a numerous garrifon commanded by
one Hannibal, a general of great experience in war.
For five months the Romans attempted to reduce the
place by famine, and had aftually brought the inhabi¬
tants to great diftrefs, when a Carthaginian army of
50.000 foot, 6000 horfe, and 60 elephants, landed at
Lilybaeum, and from thence marched to Heraclea,
within 20 miles of Agrigentum. There the general
received a deputation from fome of the inhabitants of
Erbeffa, where the Romans had their magazines, offer-
ing. to put the town into his hands. It was accordingly
delivered up 5 and by this means the Romans be¬
came fo much diftrefled, that they had certainly been
obliged to abandon their enterprife, had not Hiero
fupplied them with provifions. But all the affiftance
he was able to give could not long have fupported
them, as their army was fo much weakened by difor-
ders occafioned by famine, that, out of 100,000 men
of whom it originally confifted, fcarce a fourth part
remained fit for fervice, and could no longer fubfift on
fuch parfimonious fupplies. But in the mean time
Hannibal acquainted Hanno that the city wTas reduced
to the utmoft diftrefs; upon which he refolved to ven¬
ture an engagement, which he had before declined.
In this the Romans were vi&orious, and the city fur-
rendered
CAR [ 207 ] C A R
Carthage, rendered at difcretion, though Hannibal with the
greateft part of the garrifon made their efcape. This
ended the campaign ; and the Carthaginians being
greatly chagrined at their bad fuccefs, fined Hanno
of an immenfe fum of money, and deprived him of his
command, appointing Hamilcar to fucceed him in the
command of the land army, and Hannibal in that of
^5 the fleet.
They build The third year, Hannibal received orders to ravage
a fleet, the coaft of Italy ; but the Romans had taken care
to poft detachments in fuch places as were moll pro¬
per to prevent his landing, fo that the Carthaginian
found it impoflible to execute his orders. At the fame
time, the Romans, perceiving the advantages of being
mafters of the fea, fet about building 120 galleys.
While/his was doing, they made themfelves mafters
of moft of the inland cities, but the Carthaginians re¬
duced or kept fteady in their intereft moft of the ma¬
ritime ones •, fo that both parties were equally fuccefs-
ful during this campaign.
The fourth year, Hannibal by a ftratagem made
himfelf mafter of 17 Roman galleys ; after which he
committed great ravages on the coadt of Italy, whither
he had advanced to take a view of the Roman fleet,
and defeat ®ut was afterwards attacked in his turn, loft the
the Cartha- greateft part of his flaps, and with great difficulty
ginians at made his own efcape. Soon after he was totally de-
^ea' feated by the conful Duillius, with the lofs of 80 flaps
taken, 13 funk, 7000 men killed, and as many taken
prifoners. After this vidlory Duillius landed in Sici¬
ly, put himfelf at the head of the land forces, relieved
Segefta, befieged by Hamilcar, and made himfelf ma¬
fter of Macella, though defended by a numerous gar-
^ rifon.
Siciliansde- The fifth year a difference arofe between the Ro-
feated by mans and their Sicilian allies, which came to fuch a
the Cartha-fieight:, that they encamped feparately. Of this Ha-
gmiatis. milcar availed himfelf, and attacking the Sicilians in
their entrenchments, put 4000 of them to the fword.
He then drove the Romans from their polls, took fe-
veral cities from them, and overran the greateft part
of the country. In the mean time, Hannibal, after
his defeat, failed with the lhattered remains of his fleet
to Carthage: but in order to fecure himfelf from pu-
nilhment, he fent one of his friends with all fpeed, be¬
fore the event of the battle was known there, to ac¬
quaint the fenate, that the Romans had put to fea
with a good number of heavy ill-built veffels, each
of them carrying fome machine, the ufe of which
the Carthaginians did not underftand *, and alked whe¬
ther it was the opinion of the fenate that Hannibal
ftiould attack them ? Thefe machines were the corvi,
which were then newly invented, and by means of
which, chiefly, Duillius had gained the viftory. The
fenate were unanimous in their opinion that the Ro¬
mans fhould be attacked ; upon which the meffenger
acquainted them with the unfortunate event of the bat¬
tle. As the fenators had already declared themfelves
for the engagement, they fpared their general’s life,
and, according to Polybius, even continued him in
the command of the fleet. In a Ihort time, being re¬
inforced by a good number of galleys, and attended by
Jbme officers of great merit, he failed for the coaft of
Sardinia. He had not been long here, before he was
furprifed by the Romans, who carried elf many of his
fhips, and took great numbers of his men prifoners. Carthage-^
This fo incenfed the reft, that they feized their unfor- v
tunate admiral, and crucified him j but who was his
immediate fucceffor does not appear. 61
The fixth year, the Romans made themfelves ma-Corfica and
fters of the illands of Corfica and Sardinia. Hanno, re"
who commanded the Carthaginian forces in the latter, ^
defended himfelf at a city called Olbia with incredible mans,
bravery ; but being at laft killed in one of the attacks,
the place was furrendered, and the Romans foon be¬
came mafters of the whole ifland. 62
The feventh year, the Romans took the town of The Ro-
Myteftratum, in Sicily, from whence they marched p1311 armf
towards Camarina, but in their way were furrounded
in ?. deep valley, and in the moft imminent danger of ’
being cut off by the Carthaginian army. In this ex- Rel-CUgd b
tremity, a legionary tribune, by name M. Ca/purnius the hrweiy
F/arnma, defired the general to give him 300 chofen of a legio-
men 5 promifing, with this fmall company, to find narym"
the enemy fuch employment as flrould oblige them to bune'
leave a paflage open for the Roman army. He per¬
formed his promifc with a bravery truly heroic j for,
having feized, in fpite of all oppofition, an eminence,
and entrenched himfelf on it, the Carthaginians, jea¬
lous of his defign, flocked from all quarters to drive
him from his poll. But the brave tribune kept their
whole army in play, till the conful taking advantage
of the diverfion, drew his army out of the bad fitua-
tion in which he had imprudently brought it. The
legions were no fooner out of danger, than they ha-
ftened to the relief of their brave companions : but all
they could do was to fave their bodies from the infults-
of their enemies ; for they found them all dead on the
fpot, except Calpurnius, who lay under a heap of dead
bodies all covered with wounds, but ftill breathing.
His wounds were immediately dreffed, and it fortu¬
nately happened that none of them proved mortal; and
for this glorious enterprife he received a crown of gra~
men. After this the Romans reduced feveral cities,
and drove the enemy quite out of the territory of the
Agrigentines; but were repulled with great lofs be¬
fore Lipara.
The eighth year, Regulus, who commanded the Carthagini-
Roman fleet, obferving that of the Carthaginians lying a“s ^efeat-
along the coafi: in diforder, failed with a fquadron °f the^Vo^ ^
ten galleys, to obferve their number and ftrength, or- mans,
dering the reft of the fleet to follow him with all ex¬
pedition. But as he drew too near the enemy, he was
furrounded by a great number of Carthaginian galleys.
The Romans fought with their ufual bravery 5 but be¬
ing overpowered with numbers, were obliged to yield.
The conful, however, found means to make his efcape,
and joined the reft of the fleet 5 and then had his full
revenge of the enemy, 18 of their fhips being taken,
and eight funk.
The ninth year, the Romans made preparations for RCgUius ;n,
invading Africa. Their fleet for this purpofe confift-vades Afri-
ed of 330 galleys, each of them having on board 120 ca*
foldiers and 300 rowers. The Carthaginian fleet con-
fifted of 360 iail, and was much better manned than
that of the Romans. The two fleets met near Ecno-
mus, a promontory in Sicily 5 where, after a bloody
engagement, which lafted the greater part of the day,
the Carthaginians were entirely defeated, with the
lofs of 30 galleys funk, and 63 taken with all their
men.
tioti.
67
Succefs of
llegulus.
CAR [2
Carthage, men. Tlie Romans loft only 24 galleys, winch were
' v 1 all funk.—After this vi&ory, the Romans having re¬
fitted their fleet, fet fail for the coaft of Africa with
all expedition. The firft land they got fight of was
Cape Hermea, where the fleet lay at anchor for feme
time waiting till the galleys and tranfports came up.
From thence they coafted along till they arrived be¬
fore Clupea, a city to the eaft of Carthage, where
66 they made their firft defeent.
Carthagim- No words can exprefs the confternation of the Car-
■ans in great thaginians on the arrival of the Romans in Africa,
confterna- The inhabitants of Clupea were fo terrified, that, ac¬
cording to Zonaras, they abandoned the place, which
the Romans immediately took pofleflion of. Having
left there a ftrong garrifon to fecure their (hipping,
and keep the adjacent territory in awe, they moved
nearer Carthage, taking a great number of towms $
they likewife plundered a prodigious number of vil¬
lages, laid vaft numbers of noblemen’s feats in aflies,
and took above 20,000 prifoners. In (hort, having
plundered and ravaged the whole country, almoft to
the gates of Carthage, they returned to Clupea loaded
with the immenfe booty they had acquired in the ex¬
pedition.
The tenth year, Regulus puftied on his conquefts
with great rapidity. To oppofe his progrefs, Hamil-
car was recalled from Sicily, and with him Boftar and
Afdrubal were joined in command. Hamilcar com¬
manded an army juft equal to that of Regulus. The
other two commanded feparate bodies, which were
to join him or aft apart as occafion required. But,
before they were in a condition to take the field, Re¬
gulus. purfuing his conquefts, arrived on the banks of
the Bagrada, a river which empties itfelf into the fea
at a fmall diftance from Carthage. Here he had a
monftrous ferpent to contend with, which, according
to the accounts of thofe days, infe&ed the waters of
the river, poifoned the air, and killed all other ani¬
mals with its breath alone. When the Romans went
to draw water, this huge dragon attacked them ; and,
twdfting itfelf round their bodies, either fqueezed them
to death, or fwallowed them alive. As its hard and
thick feales were proof againft their darts and arrow’s,
they w7ere forced to have recourfe to the baliftae, which
they made ufe of in fieges to throw great ftones, and
to beat down the walls of befieged cities. With thefe
they difeharged fhow’ers of huge ftones againft this
new enemy, and had the good luck w ith one of them,
to break his back-bone •, which difabled him from
twifting and winding his immenfe body, and by that
means gave, the Romans an opportunity of approac h-
ing and difpatching him wuth their darts. But his
dead body corrupted the air and the water of the ri¬
ver ; and fpread fo great an infedlion over the whole
country, that the Romans were obliged to decamp.
We are told that Regulus fent to Rome the (kin of
this monfter, w’hich w as 120 feet long *, and that it
was hung up in a temple, where it w7as preferved to
the time of the Numantine war.
.ucicai* Having pafled this river, he befieged Adis, ox Adda,
Carthagini-not far from Carthage, which the enemy attempted
ans; to relieve j but as they lay encamped among hills and
rocks, where their elephants, in which the main ftrength
of their army confifted, could be of no ufe, Regulus
attacked them in their camp, killed 17,000, of them
08 ] CAR
and took 50OO prifoners, and 18 elephants. Upon Cartilage,
the fame of this vi&ory, deputations came from all
quarters, infomuch that the conqueror in a few days
became mafter of 80 towns : among which were
68
He kills a
mon ftrous
ferpent.
I69
Defeats the
the
70
city and port of Utica. This increafed the alarm at and redu-
Carthage j which was reduced to defpair, when Re-“s ft16™
gulus laid fiege to Tunis, a great city about nine miles
from the capital. The place was taken in fight of the
Carthaginians, who, from their walls, beheld all the
operations of the fiege, without making the leaft at¬
tempt to relieve it. And to complete their misfor¬
tunes, the Numidians, their neighbours, and impla¬
cable enemies, entered their territories, committing
everywhere the moft dreadful devaftations, which (oon
occafioned a great fcarcity of provifions in the city.
The public magazines were foon exhaufted : and, as
the city was full of felfilh merchants, who took ad¬
vantage of the public diftrefs, to fell provifions at an
exorbitant price, a famine enfued, with all the evils
which attend it.
In this extremity Regulus advanced to tie very H;s
gates of Carthage 5 and having encamped under thefalsof
walls, fent deputies to treat of a peace w’ith the fe-peace re-
nate. The deputies w7ere received with inexpreffibleJe<aed'
joy *, but the conditions they propofed were luch that
the fenate could not hear them without the greateft
indignation. They were, x. That the Carthaginians
(hould relinquifh all claims to Sardinia, Corfica, and
Sicily. 2. That they (hould reftore to the Romans
all the prifoners they had taken from them fince the
beginning of the war. 3. That if they cared to re¬
deem any of their owm prifoners, they (hould pay fo
much a-head for them as Rome (hould judge reafon-
able. 4. That they (hould for ever pay the Romans
an annual tribute. 5. That for the future they fhould
fit out bur one man of war for their owm ufe, and 50
triremes to ferve in the Roman fleet, at the expence
of Carthage, when required by any of the future con-
fuls. Thefe extravagant demands provoked the fe-
nators, who loudly and unanimoufly rejected them $
the Roman deputies, however, told them that Regu¬
lus would not alter a (ingle letter of the propofals,
and that they muft either conquer the Romans or
obey them. 73
In this extreme diftrefs, feme mercenaries arrived Xa^thippus
from Greece, among w hom w7as a Lacedemonian, by appointed
name Xanthippus, a man of great valour and experi- ^ai°d the
ence in w7ar. This man, having informed himfelf of carthagini-
the circumftances of the late battle, declared publicly, an army,
that their overthrow7 was more owing to their own v
mifeonduft than to the fuperiority of the enemy. This
difeourfe being fpread abroad, came at laft to the
knowledge of the fenate ; and by them, and even by
the defire of the Carthaginian generals themfelves,
Xanthippus was appointed commander in chief of their
forces. His firft care w7as to difeipline his troops in a
proper manner. He taught them how to march, en¬
camp, widen and clofe their ranks, and rally after the
Lacedemonian manner under their proper colours.
He then took the field with 1 2,000 foot, 4000 horfe,
and 100 elephants. The Romans were furprifed at
the fudden alteration they obferved in the enemy’s
conduft : but Regulus, elated with his laft fuccefs,
came and encamped at a fmall diftance from the Car¬
thaginian army in a vaft plain, where their elephants
and
[
CAR
Carthage, and horfe had room to aft. The two , ,
' . 1 parted by a river, which Regulus boldly paffed, by
which means he left no room for a retreat in caie ot
any misfortune. The engagement began with great
lam a,wr. fury ; but ended in the total defeat ot the Romans
lv defeated, who, except 2000 that efcaped to Clupea, (Were all
and Regu- or taken prifoners, and among the latter was
lus taken. Regulus himfelf. The lofs of the Carthaginians fcarce
exceeded 800 men. _ _ ,, r , .
The Carthaginians remained on the field ot battle
till they had dripped the {lain-, and then entered t eir
74 metropolis, which was almort the only place left them,
He is cruel- in great triumph. They treated all them pnfoners
ly ufed. with great humanity, except Regulus j but as for him,
he had fo infulted them in his profpenty, that they
could not forbear ftiowing the higheft marks ot their
refentment. According to Zonaras and others, he
was thrown into a dungeon, where he had only luite-
nance allowed him barely fufficient to keep him alive.
Nay, his cruel mafters, to heighten his other torments,
ordered a huge elephant (at the fight of which ani¬
mal, it feems, he was greatly terrified) to be conttantly
placed near him j which prevented him from enjoying
any tranquillity or repofe. _ _ , . .
Carthagmi- The eleventh year of this war the Carthaginians,
ans defeat- elated with their vidfory over Regulus, began to talk m
ed by fea a ver drain, threatening Italy itfelf with an in-
and land. vafio^ Tq prevent this, the Romans took care to
garrifon all their maritime towns, and fitted out a new
Let. In the mean time, the Carthaginians befieged
Clupea and Utica in vain, being obliged to abandon
their enterprife, upon hearing that the Romans were
equipping a fleet of 35o fail. The Carthag.mans ha.
ving with incredible expedition refitted their old vel-
fels and built a good number of new- ones, met the
Roman fleet off Cape Hermea. An engagement en-
i'ued in which the Carthaginians were utterly defeated j
104’of their (hips being funk, so taken, and 15,000
of their foldiers and rowers killed in the aftim!. 1 be
Romans purfued their courfe to Clupea, where they
were no fooner landed, than they found themfelves at¬
tacked by the Carthaginian army, under the two
Hannos, father and fon. But, as the brave Xanthip-
pus no longer commanded their army, notwithftanding
the Lacedemonian difcipline he had introduced among
them, they were routed at the very firft onfet, with
the lofs of 9000 men, and among them many ot their
chief lords. .. . , . ,
76 Notwithftanding all their viftones, however, the
SS!to Romans found themfelves now obliged for want of
abandon provifions, to evacuate both Clupea and Luca, and
abandon Africa altogether. Being defirous of hgna-
lizing the end of their confulate by fome important
conqueft on Sicily, the confuls fleered for that ifland,
contrary to the advice of their pilots, who reprefented
their danger, on account of the feafon being 10 far ad¬
vanced. Their obftinacy proved the deftruaion ot
77 the whole fleet-, for a violent ftorm arifing, out of
Tbeir fleet 570 veffels only 80 efcaped fliipwreck, the reft being
totally de- {'wall0wed up by the fea, or daflied againlt the rocks,
ftroyed by ^ by far t^e greateft lofs that Rome had ever
a florin. fuqa;nec} . f0r befides the {hips that were caft away
with their crews, a numerous army was deftroyed,
with all the riches of Africa, which had been by Re¬
gulus amaffed and deposed in Clupea, and were now
Vol. V. Part I.
Africa.
200 ] CAR
armies were from thence tranfporting to Rome. The whole coaft
from Pachinum to Camerina was covered with dead
bodies and wrecks of fliips j fo that hiftory can fcarce
afford an example of fuch a dreadful diiafter.
The twelfth year, the Carthaginians hearing of this
misfortune of the Romans, renewed the w'ar m Sicily
with frefh fury, hoping the w-hole ifland, which was
now left defencelefs, would fall into their bands. Car-
thalo, a Carthaginian commander, befieged and took 78
Aericentum. The town he laid in aflies, and demo-Agrigen-
lilhed the walls, obliging the inhabitants to fly to O- ^ dae)en
lympium. Upon the news of this fucceis, Aldrubai ftroyed by
was fent to Sicily with a large reinforcement of troops, the Cartha-
and ICO elephants. They likewife fitted out a fqua-ginians.
dron, with which they retook the ifland of Corcyra,
and marched a ftrong body of forces into Mauritania
and Numidia, to punilh the people of thofe countries
for {bowing a difpofition to join the Romans. In oi-
cily the Romans p:.ffeffed themfelves of Cephalodmm
and Panormus, but were obliged by Carthalo to raile
the. fiege of Drepanum with great lofs.
The 13th year, the Romans fent out a fleet of 2n° nsfit'oUt
galleys, which appeared off Lilybaeum in bicily-, butanew fleet,
finding this place too ftrong, they fleered from thence
to the eaftern coaft of Africa, where they made feve-
ral defeents, furprifed fome cities, and plundered ieve-
ral towns and villages. They arrived fafe at Panormus,
and in a few days fet fail for Italy, having a fair wind So.
till they came off Cape Palinurus, where fo violent a Which is
ftorm overtook them, that 160 of their galleys and
great number of their tranfports were loft j upon which * -
the Roman fenate made a decree, that for the 1‘ut)*re
no more than 50 veffels Ihould be equipped j and that
thefe Ihould be employed only in guarding the coaft ot
Italv, and tranfporting the troops into Sicily.
The 14th year, the Romans made themlelves ma¬
fters of Himera and Lipara in Sicily ; and the Car¬
thaginians conceiving new hopes of conquering that
ifland, began to make frerti levies in Gaul and Spam,
and to equip a new fleet. But their treafures being
exhaufted, they applied to Ptolemy king ot P-gyP1*
intreating him to lend them 2000 talents : but he be¬
ing refolved to ftand neuter, refufed to comply with
their requeft > telling them that he could not, with¬
out breach of fidelity, aflift one friend agamft another.
However, the republic of Carthage making an effort,
equipped a fleet of 200 fail, and raifed an army ot
20.000 men, horfe and foot, and 140 elephants ap- 81
pointing Afdrubal commander in chief _ both of theTheyftt,
fleet and army. The Romans then finding the g(eat then
advantages of a fleet, refolved to equip one, notwith-
ftanding all former difafters ; and while the vefiels
were building, two confuls were chofen, men of va¬
lour and experience, to fuperfede the afting ones m
Sicily. Metellus, however, one of the former con¬
fuls, being continued with the title o(f proconful, found
means to draw Afdrubal into a battle on disadvan¬
tageous terms near Panormus, and then fallymg out ha2
upon him, gave him a moft terrible overthrow,
Twenty thoufand of the enemy were killed, and(jefeate(j>
many elephants. An hundred and four elephants
were taken with their leaders, and fent to Rome,
where they were hunted and put to death in t e
The 1 Sth year the Romans befieged Lilybaeum ;
D d *nd
83
Lilybaeum
befieged by
the Ro¬
mans.
* See Lily
laum.
84
They are
defeated at
fea by the
Carthasri-
8S
A Roman
fleet utterly
deftroyed
by a florin
85
Hamilcar
Barcas fent
into Sicily.
GAR [2
Carthage, and the fiege continued during the rell of the firft
Punic war, and was the only thing remarkable that
happened during that time *. The Carthaginians,
on the firft news of its being befieged, fent Regulus
with fume deputies to Rome to treat of a peace : but
iuftead of forwarding the negotiation, he hindered it :
and notwithftanding he knew the torments prepared
for him at Carthage, could not be prevailed upon to
flay at Rome, but returning to his enemies country,
was put to a molt cruel death. During this fiege,
the Roman fleet under Claudius Pulcher was utterly de¬
feated by Adherbal the Carthaginian admiral. Ninety
of the Roman galleys were loll in the adtion, 8000 of
their men either killed or drowned, and 20,coo taken
and fent prifoners to Carthage j and the Carthaginians
gained this fignal viftory without the lofs of a fingle
{hip, or even a fingle man. Another Roman fleet met
with a flill feverer fate. It confided of 120 galleys,
800 tranfports, and was laden with all fort of military
flores and provilions. Every one of thefe vellels was
lod by a dorm, with all they contained, not a fingle
plank being faved that could be ufed again ; fo that
the Romans found themfelves once more deprived of
their whole naval force.
In the mean time, the Carthaginian foldiery having
fhown a difpofition to mutiny, the fenate fent over
Hamilcar Barcas, father of the famous Hannibal, to
Sicily. He received a charte blanche from the fenate
to aft as he thought proper •, and by his excellent
conduft and refolution, fliowed himfelf the greated
general of his age. He defended Eryx, which he had
taken by furprife, with fuch vigour, that the Romans
would never have been able to make themfelves maders
of it, had they not fitted out a new fieet at the ex¬
pence of private citizens, which, having utterly defeat¬
ed that of the Carthaginians, Hamilcar, notwithiland-
ing all his valour, was obliged to yield up the place
wdn’ch he had fo long and lo bravely defended. The
following articles of a peace were immediately drawn
up between the two commanders. 1. The Carthagi¬
nians diall evacuate all the places which they have in
Sicily, and entirely quit that idand. 2. They fhall,
in 20 years, pay the Romans, at equal payments every
year, 2200 talents of filver, that is, 437,250!. Ster-
l’ng* 3- Phey {hall redore the Roman captives and
deferters without ranfom, and redeem their own pri-
foners with money. 4. They diall not make war up¬
on Hiero king of Syracufe, or his allies. Thefe ar¬
ticles being agreed to, Hamilcar furrendered Eryx up¬
on condition that all his foldiers diould march out with
him, upon his paying for each of them 18 Roman denarii.
Hodages were given on both fides, and deputies were
rent to Rome to procure a ratification of the treaty
by the fenate. After the fenators had thoroughly
informed themfelves of the date of affairs, two more
articles were added, viz. 1. That 1000 talents fhould
be paid immediately, and the 2200 in the fpace of 10
years at equal payments. 2. That the Carthaginians
diould quit all the little iflands about Italy and Sicily,
and aever more come near them with (hips of war, or
raife mercenaries in thofe places. Necedrty obliged
Hamilcar to confent to thefe terms ; but he returned
to Carthage with a hatred to the Romans, which he
did not even fuffer to die with him, but tranfmitted to
Ids fon the great Hannibal.
87
Peace with
the Ro¬
mans.
10 ] CAR
I he Carthaginians were no foon got out of this Carthage,
bloody and expenfive war, than they found themfelves u“—v——»
engaged in another, which was like to have proved fa-- rss
tal to them. It is called by ancient hidorians the Li- the'war*
byan war, or the war with the mercenaries. The prin- with the
cipal occafion of it was, that when Hamilcar returned rnercen&.
to Carthage, he found the republic fo much impover-r^es*
idled, that, far from being able to give thefe troops
the largeffes and rewards promifed them, it could not
pay them their arrears. He had committed the care
of tranfporting them to one Gifco-^ who, being an of¬
ficer of great penetration, as though he had forefeen
what wTould happen, did not fhip them off all at once,
but in fmall and feparate parties, that thofe who came
fird might be paid off and fent home before the arrival
of the red. The Carthaginians at home, however, did
not aft with the fame prudence. As the date was ai¬
med entirely exhauded by the late war, and the im-
menfe fum of money, in confequence of the peace, paid
to the Romans, they judged it w-ould be a laudable ac¬
tion to fave fomething to the public. They did not
therefore pay off the mercenaries in proportion as they
arrived, thinking it more proper to wait till they
all came together, with a view of obtaining fome
remiffion of their arrears. But being foon made fen-
fible of their wrong conduft on this occafion, by
the frequent diforders thefe barbarians committed in
the city, they with fome difficulty prevailed upon
the officers to take up their quarters at Sicca, and
canton their troops in that neighbourhood. To in¬
duce them to this, however, they gave them a fum
of money for their prefent fubfidence, and promifed
to comply with their pretenfions when the remainder
of their troops arrived from Sicily. Here, being w hol¬
ly immerfed in idlenefs, to which they had long been
ftrangers, a negleft of difeipline enfued, and of courfe
a petulant and licentious fpirit immediately took place.
They were now determined not to acquiefce in recei¬
ving their bare pay, but to infid upon the rewards Ha¬
milcar had promifed them, and even to compel the
date of Carthage to comply with their demands by $(J
force of arms. 1 he fenate being informed of the Imprurlent
mutinous difpofition of the foldiery, difpatched Han-condiIft of
no, one of the fuffetes, to pacify them. Upon his^acno*
arrival at Sicca, he expatiated largely upon the po¬
verty of the date, and the heavy taxes with which
the citizens of Carthage were loaded } and therefore,
indead of anfwering their high expeftations, he de-
fired them to be fatisfied with receiving part of their
pay, and remit the remainder to ferve the preffing
exigencies of the republic. The mercenaries being
highly provoked, that neither Hamilcar, nor any
other of the principal officers who commanded them
in Sicily, and w’ere the bed judges of their merit,,
made their appearance on this occafion, but only
Hanno, a perfon utterly unknown, and above all
others utterly difagreeable to them, immediately had
recourfe to arms. Affembling therefore in a body, to
the number of 20,000, they advanced to Tunis, and
immediately encamped before that city.
The Carthaginians being greatly alarmed at the
approach of fo formidable a body to Tunis, made
large conceffions to the mercenaries, in order to bring
them back to their duty : but, far from being foften-
ed, they grew more infolent upon thefe conceffions,
taking
CAR [21
Carrha-re. taking tliem for the effe<as of fear: and therefore
Were altogether averfe to thoughts of accommoda¬
tion. The Carthaginians, making a virtue of ne-
ceffity, fliowed a difpofition to fatisfy them in all
points, and agreed to refer themfelves to the opinion
of fome general in Sicily, which they had all along
defired j leaving the choice of fuch commander entire¬
ly to them. Gifco was accordingly pitched upon to
mediate this affair, the mercenaries believing Hamilcar
to have been a principal caufe of the ill treatment they
met with, fince he never appeared among them, and,
according to the general opinion, had voluntarily re-
figned his commilfxon. Gifco foon arrived at Tunis
with money to pay the troops \ and after conferring
with the officers of the feveral nations apart, he ha¬
rangued them in fuch a manner, that a treaty w'as
upon the point of being concluded, when Spendius and
Mathos, two of the principal mutineers, occafioned a
tumult in every part of the camp. Spendius was by
nation a Campanian, who had been a {lave at Rome,
and had tied to the Carthaginians. The apprehen-
fions he was under of being delivered to his old mailer,
by whom he was fure to be hanged or crucified,
prompted him to break off the accommodation. Ma¬
thos was an African, and free born 3 but as he had
been adfive in railing the rebellion, and was well ac¬
quainted with the implacable difpofition of the Car¬
thaginians, he knew that a peace muft infallibly prove
his ruin. He therefore joined with Spendius, and in-
finuated to the Africans the danger of concluding a
treaty at that junfture, which could not but leave them
fingly expofed to the rage of the Carthaginians. This
fo incenfed the Africans, wko were much more nu¬
merous than the troops of any other nation, that they
immediately affembled in a tumultuous manner. The
foreigners foon joined them, being infpired by Spen¬
dius with an equal degree of fury. Nothing was now
to be heard but the molt horrid oaths and impre¬
cations againft Gifco and the Carthaginians. Who¬
ever offered to make any remonftrance, or lend an ear
to temperate counfels, wras ftoned to death by the en¬
raged multitude. Nay, many perfons loft their lives
barely for attempting to fpeak, before it could be
known wkether they were in the intereft of Spendius
or the Carthaginians.
In the midft of thefe commotions, Gifco behaved
with great firmnefs and intrepidity. He left no me¬
thods untried to foften the officers and calm the
minds of the foldiery j but the torrent of fedition was
now fo ftrong, that there was no poftibility of keeping
it within bounds. They therefore feized upon the
military cheft, dividing the money among themfelves
in part of their arrears, put the perfon of Gifco un¬
der an arreft, and treated him as well as his attend¬
ants with the utmoft indignity. Mathos and Spen¬
dius, to deftroy the remoteft hopes of an accommo¬
dation with Carthage, applauded the courage and refo-
lution of their men, loaded the unhappy Gifco and
p0 his followers with irons, and formally declared war
The merce-againft the Carthaginians. All the cities of Africa,
nariesde- to whom they had fent deputies to exhort them to
clare war. recover their liberty, foon came over to them, ex¬
cept Utica and Hippo Diarrhytus. Ry this means
their army being greatly increafed, they divided it
into two parts, with one of which they moved to-
1 ] CAR
wards Utica, whilft the other marched to Hippo, in Carthage,
order to befiege both places. The Carthaginians, in
the mean time, found thcmfelves ready to fink under
the preffure of their misfortunes. After they had
been haraffed 24 years by a moil cruel and deftruc-
tive foreign war, they entertained fome hopes of en¬
joying repofe. The citizens of Carthage drew their
particular fubfiftence from the rents or revenues of
their lands, and the public expences from the tribute
paid from Africa } all which they were not only de¬
prived of at once, but, wkat was worfe, had it direftly
turned againft them. They were deftitute of arms
and forces either by fea or land 3 had made no prepa¬
rations for the fuftaining of a fiege, or the equip¬
ping of a fleet. They fuffered all the calamities inci¬
dent to the moft ruinous civil war } and, to complete
their mifery, had not the leaft profpea of receiving
afliftance from any foreign friend or ally. Notwith-
ftanding their deplorable fituation, however, they did
not defpond, but purfued all the meafures neceffary to
put themfelves into a pofture of defence. Hanno was
appointed commander in chief of all their forces 3 and
the moft ftrenuous efforts wrere made, not only to repel
all the attempts of the mutineers, but even to reduce
them by force of arms.
In the mean time Mathos and Spendius laid fiege
to Utica and Hippacra at once 3 but as they were
carried on by detachments drawn from the army for
that purpofe, they remained with the main body of
their forces at Tunis, and thereby cut off all commu¬
nication betwixt Carthage and the continent of Afri¬
ca. Ry this means the capital was kept in a kind of
blockade. The Africans likewife haraffed them by
perpetual alarms, advancing to the very walls of Car¬
thage by day as well as by night, and treating with
the utmoft cruelty every Carthaginian that fell into
their hands. _ 9*
Hanno was defpatched to the relief of Utica with They are
a good body of forces, ICO elephants, and a large tlefea,:ed by
train of battering engines. Having taken a view ofHann0‘
the enemy, he immediately attacked their intrench-
ments, and after an obftinate dilpute forced them.
The mercenaries loft a vaft number of men 3 and con-
fequently the advantages gained by Hanno were fo
great, that they might have proved decifive, had he 92
made a proper ufe of them : Rut becoming fecure af-He is h's
ter his victory, and his troops being everywhere off^urndefeat-
their duty, the mercenaries, having rallied their for¬
ces, fell upon him, cut off many of his men, forced the
reft to fly into the town, retook and plundered the
camp, and feized all the provifions, military ftores, &c.
brought to the relief of the befieged. Nor was this
the only inftance of Hanno’s military incapacity.
Notwithftanding he lay encamped in the moft advan¬
tageous manner near a town called Gorza, at wkich
place he twice overthrew' the enemy, and had it in his
powrer to have totally ruined them, he yet neglefted to
improve thofe advantages, and even fuffered the merce¬
naries to pofiefs themfelves of the ifihmus, which join¬
ed the peninfula on which Carthage flood, to the con- ^
tinent of Africa. . . Hamilcar
Thefe repeated miftakes induced the Carthaginians Barcas ap-
once more to place Hamilcar Barcas at the head ofpointed to
their forces. He marched againft the enemy with^^m^nd
10,000 men, horfe, and foot, being all the troops the
D d 2 Carthaginians
G A R . _ [ 2
Carthage. Carthaginians could then aflemble for their defence ; a
' v ' full proof of the low ftate to which they were at that
time reduced. As Mathos, after he had poffeffed
himfelf of the ifthmus, had polled proper detachments
in two palfes on two hills facing the continent, and
guarded the bridge over the Bagrada, which through
Hanno’s neglect he had taken, Hamilcar faw liule
probability of engaging him upon equal terms, or in¬
deed of coming "at him. Obferving, however, that
on the blowing of certain winds, the mouth of the ri¬
ver was choked up with fand, fo as to become pal-
fable, though with no fmall difficulty, as long as thefe
winds continued j he halted for fome time at the
river’s mouth, without communicating his defign to
any perfon. As foon as the wind favoured his intend¬
ed projeft, he paffed the river privately by night, and
immediately after his paffage, he drew up the troops
in order of battle ; and advancing into the plain where
his elephants were capable of adling, moved towards
Mathos who was polled at the village near the bridge.
This daring a£tion greatly furprifed and intimidated
the Africans. However, Spendius receiving intelli¬
gence of the enemy’s motions, drew a body of 10,000
men out of Mathos’s camp, with which he attended
Hamilcar on one fide, and ordered i5»ooo from Utica
to obferve him on the other, thinking by this means to
furround the Carthaginians, and cut them all off at one
He defeats ftroheT By feigning a retreat, Hamilcar found means
them. 1 2 to engage them at a difadvantage, and gave them a
total overthrow, with the lofs of 6000 killed and
2000 taken prifoners. The reft lied, fome to the
town at the bridge, and others to the camp at Utica.
He did not give them time to recover from their de¬
feat, but purfued them to the town near the bridge
before mentioned 5 which he entered without oppofi-
tion, the mercenaries flying in great confufion to Tu¬
nis ; and upon this many towns fubmitted of their own
accord to the Carthaginians, whilft others w^ere redu¬
ced by force.
Not wi th ft and i n g thefe difafters, Mathos pulhed on
the fiege of Hippo with great vigour, and appointed
Spendius and Autaritus, commanders of the Gauls, with
a ftrong body, to obferve the motions of Hamilcar.
Thefe tw'o commanders, therefore, at the head of a
choice detachment of 6000 men drawn out of the
camp at Tunis, and 2000 Gallic horfe, attended the
Carthaginian general, approaching him as near as
they could with fafety, and keeping clofe to the Ikirts
of the mountains. At laft Spendius, having received
a ftrong reinforcement of Africans and Numidians,
and poffeffing bimfelf of all the heights furrounding
the plain in which Hamilcar lay encamped, refolved
not to let flip fo favourable an opportunity of attack¬
ing him. Had a battle now enfued, Hamilcar and
his army muft in all probability have been cut off;
but by the defertion of one Naravafus a young Nu-
midian nobleman, with 2000 men, he found himfelf
enabled to offer his enemies battle. The fight was
Mercena obftinate and bloody ; but at laft the mercenaries were
ries again entirely overthrown, with the lofs of 10,000 men kill-
defeated. ed and 4000 taken prifoners. All the priibners that
w’ere willing to enlift in the Carthaginian fervice Ha¬
milcar received among his troops, fupplying them with
the arms of the foldiers who had fallen in the engage¬
ment. To the reft he gave full liberty to go where
2 ] CAR
they pleafed, upon condition that they fhould never Carthage,
for the future bear arms againft the Carthaginians 5 v——'
informing them at the fame time, however, that as
many violators of this agreement as fell into his hands
muft expeft to find no mercy. 9^
Mathos and his affociates, fearing that this affefted ^eyput:^
lenity of Hamilcar might occafion a defection among t°e ^aarJhda_
the troops, thought that the beft expedient w’ould be gjnian pri-
to put them upon fome aftion, fo execrable in its na- loners,
ture that no hopes of reconciliation might remain. By
their advice, therefore, Gifco, and all the Carthagi¬
nian prifoners wrere put to death ; and when Hamil¬
car fent to demand the remains of his countrymen, he
received for anfwer, that whoever prefumed hereafter
to come upon that errand, ftiould meet with Gifco’s
fate : after which they came to a refolution to treat
with the fame barbarity all fuch Carthaginians as
ftiould fall into their hands. In return for this enor¬
mity, Hamilcar threw all the prifoners that fell into
his hands to be devoured by wild beads; being con¬
vinced that compaffion ferved only to make his ene¬
mies more fierce and untradlable.
The war w7as now carried on generally to the ad¬
vantage of the Carthaginians; neverthelefs, the male-
contents ftill found themfelves in a capacity to take
the field wuth an army of 50,000 men. They watch¬
ed Hamilcar’s motions, but kept on the hills, care¬
fully avoiding to come down into the plains, on ac¬
count of the Numidian horfe and Carthaginian ele¬
phants. Hamilcar, being much fu’perior in Ikill to
any of their generals, at laft ftmt them up in a poll,
fo fituated, that it was impoffible to get out of it. Here
he kept them ftri£lly befieged : and the mercenaries,
not daiing to venture a battle, began to fortify their
camp, and furround it wuth ditches and intrenchments. They are
They were foon preffed by famine fo forely, that they befieged by
were obliged to eat one another : but they w'ere driven Hamilcar*
defperate by the confcioufnefs of their guilt, and there¬
fore did not defire any terms of accommodation. At
laft being reduced to the utmoft extremity of mifery,
they infifted that Spendius, Autaritus, and Zarxas,
their leaders, fhould in perfon have a conference with
Hamilcar, and make propofals to him. Peace was ac¬
cordingly concluded upon the following terms, viz.
That ten of the ringleaders of the malecontents fhould
be left entirely to the mercy of the Carthaginians, and
that the troops fhould all be difaimed, every man re¬
tiring only in a Angle coat. The treaty wras no fooner
concluded, than Hamilcar, by virtue of the firft article,
feized upon the negotiators themfelves ; and the army
being informed that their chiefs were under arreft, had 5g
immediately recourfe to arms, as fufpefting they were 40,000 or
betrayed ; but Hamilcar, drawing out his army in or- them de-
der of battle, furrounded them, and either cut them to
pieces, or trod them to death wuth his elephants. 1 he
number of wretches who perifhed on this occafion
amounted to above 40,000.
After the deftruftion of the army, Hamilcar in¬
verted Tunis, whither Mathos had retired with all
his remaining forces. Hamilcar had another general,
named Hannibal, joined in the command with him.
Hannibal’s quarter wras on the road leading to Car¬
thage, and Hamilcar’s on the oppofite fide. I he
army was no fooner encamped, than Hamilcar caufed
Spendius, and the reft of the prifoners, to be led out
CAR
[
21
99
Hannibal
taken and
feated and
taken pri-
foner.
Cartilage, in tne view of the befieged, and crucified near the
 walls. Mathos, however, obferving that Hannibal did
not keep fo good a guard as he ought to have done,
made a {ally, attacked his quarters, killed many of his
men, took feveral prifoners, among whom was Hanni-
a— bal himfelf, and plundered his camp. Taking the
crucified by body of Spendius from the crofs, Mathos immediately
Mathos. fubftituted Hannibal in its room ; and 30 Carthagi¬
nian prifoners of diftinftion were crucified around him.
Upon this difafter, Hamilcar immediately decamped,
and ported himfelf along the fea coaft, near the mouth
of the river Bagrada.
The fenatc, though greatly terrified by this unex-
pe&ed blow, omitted no means neceffary for their
prefervation. They fent 30 fenators, with Hanno
at their head, to confult with Hamilcar about the
proper meafures for putting an end to this unnatural
war, conjuring, in the moft prerting manner, Hanno
to be reconciled to Hamilcar, and to facrifice his pri¬
vate refentment to the public benefit. This, with
fome difficulty, was effe&ed 5 and the two generals
came to a full refolution to a£t in concert for the
good of the public. The fenate at the fame time,
'' ordered all the youth capable of bearing arms to be
prefled into the fervice : by which means a ftrong rein-
100 forcement being fent to Hamilcar, he foon found him-
Mathos en-felf in a condition to acl offenfively. He now. defeat-
tirely de- ed the enemy in all rencounters, drew Mathos into fre¬
quent ambufcades, and gave him one notable overthrow
near Leptis. This reduced the rebels to the neceflity
of hazarding a decihve battle, which proved fatal to
them. The mercenaries fled almoft at the firft onfet 5
moft of their army fell in the field of battle, and in the
purfuit. Mathos, with a ferv, efcaped to a neighbour¬
ing town, ■where he rvas taken alive, carried to Car¬
thage, and executed; and then by the reduflion of the re¬
volted cities an end was put to this war, which, from
the exceffes of cruelty committed in it, according to
Polybius, went among the Greeks by the name of the
inexpiable war.
During the Libyan war, the Romans, upon fome
abfurd pretences, wrefted the jfland of Sardinia from
the Carthaginians 5 which the latter not being able to
101 refift, were obliged to fubmit to. Hamilcar finding
Hamilcar’s his country not in a condition to enter into an jmme-
fchcme to war with Rome, formed a fchemc to put it on a
tha^e'with level witl1 that haughty republic. This was by making
Rome."1 1 an entire conqueft of Spain, by which means the Car¬
thaginians might have troops capable of coping with
the Romans. In order to facilitate the execution of
this fcheme, he infpired both his fon-in law Afdrubal,
and his fon Hannibal, with an implacable averfion to
the Romans, as the great oppofers of his country’s
grandeur. Having completed all the neceflary prepa¬
rations, Hamilcar, after having greatly enlarged the
Carthaginian dominions in Africa, entered Spain,
where he commanded nine years, during which time
he fubdued many warlike nations, and amafled an im-
menfe quantity of treafure, which he diftributed partly
amongft his troops, atd partly amongft the great men
at Carthage ) by wdrich means he fupported his inte-
rerts with thefe two powerful bodies. At laft, he was
His^death. killed in a battle, and was fuccecded by his (bn-in-law
15 * Afdrubal. This general fully anfwered the expefta-
tions of his countrymen \ greatly enlarged their domi-
3 ] GAR
nions in Spain } and built the city of New. Carthage, Caithak^.
now Carthagena. He made fuch progrefs in his con- — ‘
quefts, that the Romans began to grow' jealous. They
did not, however, choofe at prefent to come to an open
rupture, on account of the apprehenfions they were
under of an invafion from the Gauls. They judged
it moft proper, therefore, to have recourfe to milder
methods ; and prevailed upon Afdrubal to conclude a 103
new treaty xvith them. The articles of it were, Afdrubal s
1. That the Carthaginians (hould not pafs the Iberus.^®^™
2. That the Saguntines, a colony of Zacynthians, andinans>
a city fituated between the Iberus and that part of
Spain fubjeft to the Carthaginians, as well as the other
Greek colonies there, {hould enjoy their ancient rights
and privileges. 1.°4
Afdrubal, after having governed the Carthaginian^.^
dominions in Spain for eight years, was treacheroully
murdered by a Gaul, whofe mafter he had put to death.
Three years before this happened, he had written to
Carthage, to defire that young Hannibal, then tw'enty-
two years of age, might be fent to him. Fhis icquei
was complied with, notwithftarding the oppofition ol
Hanno : and from the firft arrival of the young man
in the camp, he became the darling of the whole army.
The great refemblance he bore to Hamilcar rendered
him extremely agreeable to the troops. Every ta¬
lent and qualification he feemed to poflefs, that con¬
tribute towards forming a great man. After the
death of Afdrubal, he was fainted general by the I0-
army with the higheft demonftrations of joy. He im-Succeeded
mediately put himfelf in motion : and in the firft earn-Jjytlanm-
paign conquered the Olcades, a nation feated. near lhe1Tiajies vaft.
Iberus. The next year he fubdued the Vaccaei, another conquefts
nation in that neighbourhood. Soon after, the Car-in Spain,
psetani, one of the moft powerful nations in Spain, de¬
clared againft the Carthaginians. Their army confift-
ed of 100,000 men, with which they propofed to at¬
tack Hannibal on his return from the Vaccaei ; but by
a ftratagem they w'ere utterly defeated, and the whole
nation obliged to fubmit.
Nothing now remained to oppofe the progrefs of
the Carthaginian arms but the city of Saguntum.
Hannibal, how7ever, for fome time, did not think pro¬
per to come to a rupture wuth the Romans by attack¬
ing that place. At laft; he found means to embroil
fome of the neighbouring cantons, elpecially the Tur- He attack,
detani, or, as Appian calls them, the Torboletce, with Saguntum.
the Saguntines, and thus furniftied himfelf with a pre¬
tence to attack their city. Upon the commencement
of the liege, the Roman fenate delpatched tw:o am-
bafladors t® Hannibal, with orders to proceed to Car¬
thage in cafe the general refufed to give them latisiac-
tion. They w7ere fcarce landed, when Hannibal, who
was carrying on the liege of Saguntum with great
vigour, fent them word that he had fomething elfe to
do than to give audience to ambafladors. At laft,
however, he admitted them j and, in anfwer to their
remonftrances, told them, that the Saguntines had
drawn their misfortunes upon themfelves, by commit¬
ting hoftilities againft the allies of Carthage ; and at
the fame time defired the deputies, if they had any
complaints to make of them, to carry them to the le-
nate of Carthage. On their arrival in that capital,
they demanded that Hannibal might be deliveied up
to the Romans to be puniftied according to his deierts •,
and
C x\ R [ 21
"tlanhage. and tLis not being complied with, war was immediately
declared between the two nations.
io7 The Saguntines are faid to have defended them-
and takes fe|ves for eig}lt months with incredible bravery. At
laft, however, the city was taken, and the inhabitants
were treated with the utmoft cruelty. After this con-
queft, Hannibal, put his African troops into winter
quarters at New Carthage $ but in order to gain their
affe£Hon, he permitted the Spaniards to retire to their
Iog refpeflive homes.
He fets out The next campaign, having taken the neceffary
for Italy, meafures for fecuring Africa and Spain, he pafled the
Iberus, fubdued all the nations betwixt that river and
the Pyrenees, appointed Hanno commander of all the
new conquered diilrift, and immediately began his
inarch for Italy. Upon muflering his forces, after
they had been weakened by fieges, defertion, morta¬
lity, and a detachment of 10,000 foot and 1000 horfe,
left with Hanno to fupport him in his new port, he
found them to amount to 50,000 foot and 9000 horfe,
all veteran troops, and the bell in the wmild. As
they had left their heavy baggage with Hanno, and
were all light-armed, Hannibal eafily croffed the Py¬
renees ; paffed by Rufcino, a frontier town of the
Gauls, and arrived on the banks of the Rhone with¬
out oppofition. This river he palled, notwithftand-
ing of fome oppofition from the Gauls ; and was for
i’ome time in doubt whether he fhould advance to en¬
gage the Romans, who, under Scipio, were bending
their march that way, or continue his march for Italy.
But to the latter he was foon determined by the ar¬
rival of Magilus, prince of the Boii, who brought rich
prefents with him, and offered to condudt the Cartha¬
ginian army over the Alps. Nothing could have hap¬
pened more favourable to Hannibal’s affairs than the
arrival of this prince, fince there was no room to doubt
the fincerity of his intentions. For the Boii bore an
implacable enmity to the Romans, and had even come
to an open rupture with them, upon the firft news that
Italy wras threatened wdth an ^invafion from the Car-
109 thaginians.
He crofles It is not known with certainty where Hannibal
the Alps, began to afeend the Alps. As foon as he began his
march, the petty kings of the country affembled their
forces in great numbers; and taking poffefiion of the
eminences over which the Carthaginians muff neceffa-
rily pafs, they continued haraffmg them, and were no
fooner driven from one eminence than they feized on
another, difputing every foot of land with the enemy,
and deftroying great numbers of them by the advan¬
tage they had of the ground. Hannibal, howTever,
having found means to poffefs himfelf of an advanta¬
geous poll, defeated and difperfed the enemy; and
foon after took their capital city, where he found the
prifoners, horfes, &c. that had before fallen into the
hands of the enemy, and like wife corn fufficient to
ferve the army for three days. At laft, after a moft
fatiguing march of nine days, he arrived at the top of
the mountains. Here he encamped, and halted two
days, to give his wearied troops fome repofe, and to
wait for the ftragglers. As the fnow had lately fallen
in great plenty, and covered the ground, this fight ter¬
rified the Africans and Spaniards, w'ho were much af-
fefted with the cold. In order, therefore, to encourage
them, the Carthaginian general led them to the top of
3
4 ] CAR
the higheft rock on the fide of Italy, and thence gave Carthage,
them a view of the large and fruitful plains of Infix-v"-—
bria, acquainting them that the Gauls, wdiofe country
they faw, w7ere ready to join them. He alfo pointed
out to them the place whereabout Rome flood, telling
them, that by climbing the Alps they had fealed the
walls of that rich metropolis; and having thus anima¬
ted his troops, he decamped, and began to defeend the
mountains. The difficulties they met wdth in their
defeent were much greater than thofe that had occur¬
red W'hile they afeended. They had indeed no enemy
to contend with, except fome fcattered parties that
came to Ileal rather than to fight; but the deep fnow'S,
the mountains ef ice, craggy rocks, and frightful pre¬
cipices, proved more terrible than any enemy. After
they had for fome days marched through narrow, fteep,
and ffippery wrays, they came at laft to a place which
neither elephants, horfes, nor men, could pafs. The
way which lay betw'een tw7o precipices wras exceeding
narrow7; and the declivity, which w7as very fteep, had
become more dangerous by the falling away of the
earth. Here the guides flopped; and the w7hole ar¬
my being terrified, Hannibal propofed at firft to march
round about, and attempt fome other way: but all
places round him being covered wdth fnow, he found
himfelf reduced to the neceftity of cutting a w7ay into
the rock itfelf, through wdffch his men, horfes, and
elephants, might defeend. This wrork was accom-
pliftied with incredible labour; and then Hannibal, ,
having fpent nine days in afeending, and fix in de-
feending, the Alps, gained at length Infubria; and,
notwithftanding all the difafters he had met with by
the way, entered the country with all the boldnefs of
a conqueror.
Hannibal, on his entry into Infubria, review'ed his
army; when be found that of the 50,000 foot, with
whom he fet out from New Carthage five months and
15 days before, he had now but 20,000, and that his
9000 horfe were reduced to 6000. His firft: care,
after he entered Italy, was to refrefh his troops; who
after fo long a march, and fuch inexpreflible hard-
fhips, looked like as many fkeletons raifed from the
dead, or favages born in a defert. He did not, how¬
ever, fuffer them to languifh long in idlenefs ; but,
joining the Infubrians, who were at war with the
Taurinians, laid liege to Taurinum, the only city in Xaurmum
the country, and in three days time became mafter oftaken.
it, putting all w7ho refifted to the fword. This ftruck
the neighbouring barbarians with fuch terror, that of
their own accord they fubmitted to the conqueror, and
fupplied his army with all forts of provifions.
Scipio, the Roman general, in the mean time, who
had gone in queft of Hannibal on the banks of the
Rhone, was furprifed to find his antagonift had crof¬
fed the Alps and entered Italy. He therefore return¬
ed wdth the utmoft: expedition. An engagement en-
fued near the river Ticinus, in which the R°mans t},*
wTere defeated. The immediate confequence was, that man, de-
Scipio repaffed that river, and Hannibal continued his frated near
march to the banks of the Po. Here he ftaid two Ticinus.
days, before he could crofs that river over a bridge of
boats. He then fent Mago in purfuit of the enemy,
who having rallied their fcattered forces, and repafled
the Po, wrere encamped at Placentia. Afterwards
having concluded a treaty with feveral of the Gallic
cantons,
Garth age.
113
They are
again de¬
feated.
CAR [ 2
cantons, he joined his brother with the reft of the
array, and again offered battle to the Romans: but
this they thought proper to decline ; and at laft the
conful, being intimidated by the defertion of a body
of Gauls, abandoned his camp, paffed the Trebia, and
pofted himfelf on an eminence near that river. Here
he drew lines round his camp, and waited the arrival
of his colleague with the foixes from Sici)y.
Hannibal being apprifed of the conful’s departure,
fent out the Numidian horfe to harafs him on his
march *, himfelf moving with the main body to fup-
port them in cafe of need. The Numidians arriving
before the rear of the Roman army had quite paf¬
fed the Trebia, put to the fword or made prifoners
all the ftragglers they found there. Soon after, Han¬
nibal coming up, encamped in light of the Roman
army on the oppofite bank. Here having learned
the character of the conful Sempronius lately arrived,
he foon brought him to an engagement, and entire¬
ly defeated him. Ten thoufand of the enemy re¬
tired to Placentia •, but the reft were either killed
or taken prifoners. The Carthaginians purfued the fly¬
ing Romans as far as the Trebia, but did not think pro¬
per to repafsthat river on account of the excefiive cold.
Hannibal, after this a&ion upon the Trebia, or¬
dered the Numidians, Celtiberians, and Lufitanians,
to make incurfions into the Roman territories, where
they committed great devaftations. During his ftate
of ina&ion, he endeavoured to win the affeftions of
the Gauls, and likewife of the allies of the Romans j
declaring to the Gallic and Italian prifoners, that he
had no intention of making war upon them, being
determined to reftore them to their liberty, and pro-
te<ft them againft the Romans: and to confirm them
in their good opinion of himr he difmiffed them all
113 without ranfom.
They are Next year having croffed the Apennines, and pe-
feated ne’arnetrate^ lnto Hannibal received intelligence
tlie lake that the new conful Flaminius lay encamped with
the Roman army under the w7alls of Aretium. Hav¬
ing learned the true chara£!er of this general, that
he was of a haughty, fierce, and rafh difpofition,
he doubted not of being foon able to bring him to a
battle. To inflame the impetuous fpirit of Flami¬
nius, the Carthaginian general took the road to Rome,
and, leaving the Roman army behind him, deftroyed
all the country through which he paffed with fire and
fword j and as that part of Italy abounded with all
the elegancies as wHl as neceffaries of life, the Ro¬
mans and their allies fuffered an incredible lofs on
this occafion. The rafh conful was inflamed with
the utmoft rage, on feeing the ravages committed by
the Carthaginians; and therefore immediately ap¬
proached them with great temerity, as if certain of
viflory. Hannibal in the mean time kept on, ftill
advancing towards Rome, having Crotona on the
left hand, and the lake Thrafymenus on the right;
and at laft, having drawn Flaminius into an ambuf-
cade, entirely defeated him. The general himfelf,
with 15.000 of his men, fell on the field of battle.
A great number w'ere likewife taken prifoners; and
a body of 6000 men, wdio had fled to a towra in Etru¬
ria, furrendered to Maherbal the next day. Hanni¬
bal loft only 1500 men on this occailon, moft of
•whom were Gauls though great numbers, both of
Thrafyme
aus.
15 ] CAR
his foldiers and of the Romans, died of their wounds. Carthage.
Being foon after informed that the conful Servilius had' v ^
detached a body of 4000, or, according to Apian, ^ R0^an
8000 horfe from Ariminum, to reinforce his colleague detachment
in Etruria, Hannibal fent out Maherbal, with all the cut to
cavalry, and lonie of the infantry, to attack him.— pieces or
The Roman detachment confifted of chofen men, and1'^*1"11*
was commanded by Centenius a patrician. Maher¬
bal had the good fortune to meet wuth him, and after
a fhort difpute entirely defeated him. Two thoufand
of the Romans were laid dead on the fpot; the reft,
retiring to a neighbouring eminence, w'ere furrounded
by Maherbal’s forces, and obliged next day to fur-
render at difcrction ; and this difafter, happening within
a few days after the defeat at the lake Thrafymenus,
almoft gave the finilhing ftroke to the Roman affairs.
The Carthaginian army was now fo much troubled
with a fcorbutic diforder, owing to the unwholefome
encampments they had been obliged to make, and
the moraffes they had paffed through, that Hannibal
found it abfolutely neceffary to repofe them for fome
time in the territory of Adria, a moft pleafant and
fertile country. In his various engagements with the
Romans, he had taken a great number of their arms,
wdth which he now armed his men after the Roman
manner. Being now likewife mafter of that part of
the country bordering on the fea, he found means to
fend an exprefs to Carthage with the newrs of the glo¬
rious progrefs of his arms. The citizens received
this news wdth the moft joyful acclamations, at the
fame time coming to a refolution to reinforce their ar¬
mies both in Italy and Spain, with a proper number
of troops. 115
The Romans being now in the utmoft confterna-Dibius Ma-
tion, named a di&ator, as was their cuftom in times
of great danger. The perfon they chofe to this of-tor<
flee was Fabius Maximus, furnamed Verrufcofus; a
man as cool and cautious as Sempronius and Flaminius
w-ere warm and impetuous. He fet out with a defigu
not to engage Hannibal, but only to watch his motions
and cut off his provifions, which he knew was the moft
proper way to deftroy him in a country fo far from
his owra. Accordingly he followed him through Um¬
bria and Picenum, into the territory of Adria, and
then through the territories of the Marrucini, and Fren-
tani, into Apulia. When the enemy marched, he fol¬
lowed them: when they encamped, he did the fame :
but for the moft part on eminences, and at fome dift-
ance from their camp, watching all their motions,
cutting off their ftragglers, and keeping them in a con¬
tinual alarm. This cautious method of proceeding
greatly diftreffed the Carthaginians, but at the fame
time raifed difeontents in his own army. Blit neither
thefe difeontents, nor the ravages committed by Han¬
nibal, could prevail upon Fabius to alter his meafures.
The former, therefore, entered Campania, one of the
fineft countries of Italy. The ravages he committed
there raifed fuch complaints in the Roman army, that
the di&ator, for fear of irritating his foldiers, w'as
obliged to pretend a defire of coming to' an engage¬
ment. Accordingly he followed Hannibal with more
expedition than ufual ; but at the fame time avoided,.
under various pretences, an engagement with more
care than the enemy fought it. Hannibal finding he-
could not bv any means bring the dictator to a battle,
refolvcd
116
He is out¬
witted by
Hannibal.
CAR [ 21
Carthage, refolved to quit Campania, which he found abound-
^ v  ■' jug more with fruit and wine tnan corn, and to re¬
turn to Samnium through the pafs called. Eribanus.
Fabius concluding from his march that this was his
defign, got there before him, and encamped on Mount
Callicula, which commanded the pafs, after having
placed feveraCbodies in all the avenues leading to it.
Hannibal was for fome time at a lofs wdiat to do ;
but at laft contrived the following ftratagem, which
Fabius could not forefee nor guard againft. Being
encamped at the foot of Mount Callicula, he ordered
Afdrubal to pick out of the cattle taken in the coun¬
try 2000 of the llrongeft and nimbleft oxen, to tie
faggots to their horns, and to have them and the
herdfmen ready without the c&tnp. After lupper,
when all was quiet, the cattle were brought in good
order to the hill, where Fabius had placed fome Ro¬
man parties in ambufli to flop up the pafs. Upon a
fignal given, the faggots on the horns of the oxen
were let on fire; and the herdfmen, fupported by
fome battalions armed with fmall javelins, drove them
on quietly. The Romans feeing the light of the
fires, imagined that the Carthaginians were marching
by torch light. However, labius kept clofe in his
camp, depending on the troops he had placed in am-
bufcade ; but when the oxen, feeling the fire on their
heads, began to run up and down the hills, the Ro¬
mans in ambufii thinking themfelves furrounded on all
fides, and climbing the w7ays where they faw leaft
light, returned to their camp, leaving the pafs open to
Hannibal. Fabius, though rallied by his foldiers for
being thus overreached by the Carthaginian, ftillcon-
tinued to purfue the fame plan, marched dire&ly after
Hannibal, and encamped on fome eminences near him.
Soon after this, the di&ator was recalled to Rome ;
and as Hannibal, notwithftanding the terrible ravages
he had committed, had all along fpared the lands of
Fabius, the latter was fufpefted of holding a fecret cor-
refpondence w'ith the enemy. In his abfence, Minu-
cius, the general of the horfe, gained fome advantages,
which greatly tended to increafe the difcontent with
the delator, infomuch that before his return Minu-
cius was put upon an equal footing with himfelf. The
general of the horfe propofed that each fiiould com¬
mand his day; but the dictator chofe rather to divide
ny the army, hoping by that means to fave at leaft a part
Minuciusinof it. Hannibal foon found means to draw Minucius
great dan- t0 an engagement, and by his mafterly fkill in laying
fieved^" the Roman general was furrounded on eve-
Fabius. 7 ry fide, and would have been cut off with all his troops,
had not Fabius haftened to his afiiftance, and relieved
him. Then the two armies uniting, advanced in good
order to renew the fight; but Hannibal, not caring
to venture a fecond aflion, founded a retreat, and re¬
tired to his camp ; and Minucius, being afhamed of
his raftmefs, refigned the command of the army to
n8 Fabius.
The Ro- The vear following, the Romans augmented their
ma"s utte^*army to 87,000 men, horfe and foot, under the com¬
at Ganns niand of fEmilius Paulus and Terentius Varro, the
confuls for the year; and Hannibal being redu¬
ced to the greateft ftraits for want of provifions,
refolved to leave Samnium, and penetrate into the
heart of Apulia. Accordingly he decamped in the
night; and by leaving fires burning, and tents
6 ] CAR
(landing in his camp, made the Romans believe for Carthage,
fome time that his retreat was only feigned._ When 'T—*
the truth was difcovered, jEmilius was againft pur-
fuing him ; but in this he was feconded by few befides
Servilius, one of the confuls of the preceding year;
Terentius and all the other officers being obftinately
bent on purfuing the enemy. They accordingly over¬
took them at Cannte, till this time an obfcure village in
Apulia *. A battle enfued at this place, as memorable * See Can*
as any mentioned in hiftory; in which the Romans,n,s'
though almoft double in number to the Carthaginians,
were put to flight with moft terrible (laughter ; at leaft
45,000 of them being left dead on the field of battle, and
10,000 taken prifoners in the aftion or purfuit. The
night was fpent in Hannibal’s camp in reading and re¬
joicings, and next day in dripping the dead bodies of the
unhappy Romans; after which the vidorious general
invefted their two camps, where he found 4000 men.
The immediate confequence of this vidory, as Han-Confequen.
nibal had forefeen, was a difpofition of that part °fc?s°^is
Italy called the Old Province, Magna Grecia, Taren-V1 0 'J
turn, and part of the territory of Capua,^ to fubmit to
him. The neighbouring provinces likewife difcovered
an inclination to (hake oft* the Roman yoke, but want¬
ed firft to fee whether Hannibal was able to proted
them. Flis firft march was into ‘Samnium, being in¬
formed that the Hirpini and other neighbouring na¬
tions were difpofed to enter into an alliance with the
Carthaginians. He advanced to Compfa, w'hich opened
its gates to him. In this place he left his heavy bag¬
gage, as well as the immenfe plunder he had ac¬
quired. After which he ordered his brother Mago,
with a body of troops deftined for that purpofe, to pof-
fefs himfelf of all the fortreffes in Campania, the moft
delicious province of Italy. The humanity Hannibal
had all along (hown the Italian prifoners, aswHl.as
the fame of the complete vidory he had lately obtain¬
ed, wrought fo powerfully upon the Lucani, Bruttii,
and Apulians, that they expreffed an eager defire of
being taken under his protedien. bsay, even the
Campanians themfelves, a nation more obliged to the
Romans than any in Italy, except the Latins, diico-
vered an inclination to abandon their natural friends. I2Q
Of this the Carthaginian general receiving intelligence, Capua fub-
he bent his march towards Capua, not doubting but nuts to
that, by means of the popular fadion there, he {houhHanm a
eafily make himfelf mafter of it; which accordingly
happened. Soon after this place had made its fub-
miflron, many cities of the Bruttii opened their gates
to Hannibal, wdio ordered his brother Mago to take
poffeffion of them. Mago was then defpatched to
Carthage, with the important news of. the .vidory at
Cannae, and the confequences attending it. Upon
his arrival there, he acquainted thefenate, that Hanni- 121
bal had defeated fix Roman generals, four of whom Mago’s ac-
were confuls, one didator, and the other general ^nibai’s
horfe to the didator : that he had engaged fix con- fucceis>
fular armies, killed two confuls, wounded one, and
driven another out of the field, w ith fcarce 50 men to
attend him : that he had routed the general of the
horfe, who was of equal pow?er with the confuls ; and
that the didator was efteemed the only general fit to
command an army, merely becaufe he had. not the.
courage to engage him : and as a demonftrative proot
of what he advanced, he produced, according to feme
authors.
CAR [2
Carthage, authors, three bufhels and a half of gold rings, taken
; from knights and fenators who had been killed in the
various engagements.
Hannibal Hitherto we have feen Hannibal furprifmgly vi&o-
ffcperior to rious j and, indeed, if we confider what he had already
eener?'fher ^one, we exploits fuperior to thofe of
mentioned any ot^cr general, either ancient or modern. Other
in hiftory. commanders have been celebrated for viftories gained
over barbarous and uncivilized nations. Alexander
the Great invaded and overran the empire of Perfia j
but that kingdom w’as then funk in lloth and effemi¬
nacy, fo as to be an eafy conqueft : but had that
great commander turned his arms againft the weftern
nations, who were of a more martial difpofition, it is
more than probable he had not conquered fo eafdy.
Hannibal, on the other hand, lived at a time when
the Romans were not only the moft powerful, but the
mofl warlike nation in the whole vrorld. That nation
he attacked with an army of only 26,000 men, with¬
out refources either for recruits, money, or provi-
fions, except what he could procure in the enemy’s
country. With thefe he had for three years refilled
the Roman armies •, which had been hitherto invin¬
cible by all other nations. Their armies had been com¬
manded by generals of different tempers, difpofitions,
and abilities : the Ioffes they fuftained are by the
Roman waiters imputed to the faults of the generals
themfelves j but experience had abundantly fhown,
that thefe commanders, with all their faults, wrere able
to conquer the mofl warlike nations, when command¬
ed by another than Hannibal. In the battles fought
with the Romans he had deflroyed 200,000 of their
men, and taken 50,000 prifoners; yet from the time
of the battle of Cannae, the affairs of this great man
Cauie of totally declined. The reafon of this is, by the Roman
the decline hiltorians, faid to be, that when he put his army into
winter quarters in Capua, he fo enervated himfelf and
his army by debaucheries in that place, that he be¬
came no longer capable of coping with the Roman
forces. But this feems by no means to have been the
cafe } for the Roman hiflorians themfelves own, that,
after the battle of Cannae, he gave their armies many
and terrible defeats, and took a great number of towns
in their light.
The true reafon of that reverfe of fortune which
Hannibal now experienced, was his not having fuf-
ficient refources for recruiting his army. On the firft
news, indeed, of his fuccefs at Carthage, a body of
4000 Numidian cavalry, 40 elephants, and 1000 talents
of filver, w’ere granted by the fenate. A large de¬
tachment of Spanifh forces wras alfo appointed to fol¬
low them ; and that thefe lad might be ready in due
time, Mago fet out immediately for Spain to raife
20,000 foot and 4000 horfe there. Had this ample
fupply been fent with proper expedition, it is by no
means probable that the Romans would have had any
eccafion to refleft upon Hannibal’s conduct at Capua.
That general would undoubtedly have obliged the
haughty republic to fubmit to the fupeiior force of his
arms the next campaign. But, notwithftanding the
influence of the Barcinian faftion at Carthage, Hanno
and his adherents found means not only to retard the
march of the fupplies intended, but even to diminifh
their number. Mago, through the artifices of that
infatuated party, could obtain an order for only
Vox.. V. Part I.
ot his af¬
fairs.
17 ] CAR
I 2,000 foot and 2500 horfe 5 and even with this incon- Carthage
fiderable body of troops he was fent into Spain. Han- '"w~»
nibal being thus deferred by his country, found him¬
felf obliged to aft on the defenfive ; his army amount¬
ing to no more now than 26,000 foot and 9000 horfe.
But though obliged to aft in this manner, he was
only hindered from conquering *, the utmoft efforts of
the whole Roman powrer not being able to drive this
fmall army out of Italy for more than 14 years.
The Romans, though greatly reduced, were notMeafures
yet exhaufted. They were able ilill to fend twm con-taken
fular armies into the field, fully recruited and in good1*16
order ; and as neither the Gauls nor Italians were na¬
tural allies of the Carthaginians, they did not fail to
abandon them on the firll reverfe of fortune. After
the Romans had recovered from the conflernation in¬
to which they wrere throwm by the defeat at Cannae,
they chofe a diftator, and recalled Marcellus, the con¬
queror of Syracufe, from Sicily. All the young Ro¬
mans, above 17 years of age, of what rank foever,
wrere obliged to inlift themfelves •, as w7ere alfo thofe
wrho had already ferved their legal time. By this means
four legions and x0,000 horfe wrere foon raifed in the
city. The allies of Rome, the colonies, and the mu-
nicipia, furniflied their contingence as ufual. To thefe
were added 8000 of the youngefl and ftrongeit Oaves
in the city. The republic purchafed them of their
mafters, but did not oblige them to ferve without their
own confent, which they gave, by anfwering Vo/o
“ I am willing }” whence they w7ere called vo/oner, to ^
diflinguifh them from the other troops. As the Ro¬
mans, after the lofs of fo many battles, had no fwords,
darts, or bucklers, left in their magazines, the volones
were fupplied with the arms which had been formerly
taken from the enemy, and hung up in the public
temples and porticoes. The finances of Rome were
no lefs exhaufled : but this defeft was fupplied by the
liberality of her citizens. The fenators fhowing the ex¬
ample, were followed firfl by the knights, and after-
w7ards by all the tribes ; who flripping themfelves of
all the gold they had, brought it to the public trea-
iury. The fenators only referved their rings, and the
bullce about their children’s necks. As for the filver
coin, it was now7, for the firll time, alloyed with cop¬
per, and increafed in its value. Thus the finances
were put into a good condition, and a competent army
raifed.
This w7as plainly the lafl effort the Romans could
make j and could Hannibal have procured a fufficient
fupply of men and money to enable him to cope w7ith
this army, and to break it as he had done the others
before, there could have been no more refiflance made
on their part. Pie began, howxver, to be in want of
money 5 and to procure it, gave the Roman prifoners
leave to redeem themfelves. Thefe unhappy men
agreed to fend ten of their body to Rome to negotiate
their redemption ; and Hannibal required no other fe- I2.-
curity for their return but their oath. Carthalo was They refufe
fent at the head of them to make propofals of peace j r° treat ot
but upon the firft news of his arrival, the diftator fenH01'66,
a liftor to him, commanding him immediately to de¬
part the Roman territory ; and it was refolved not to
redeem the captives. Upon this Hannibal fent the
moft confiderable of them to Carthage ; and of the rtfl
he made gladiators, obliging them to fight with one
E e another,
CAR [ 2
Carthage, another, even relations with relations, for the entertain-
ment of the troops. ....
, All this time Cneius and_ Publius Scipio had car-
defeated by rieh on the war in Spain with great fuccefs againll
the Ro- the Carthaginians. Atdrubal had been ordered to en-
mans m tej- Italy with his army to affift Hannibal j but being
Spain. defeated by the Romans, was prevented. The di&a-
tor and fenate of Rome, encouraged by this news,
carried on the preparations for the next campaign
with the greateft vigour, whilft Hannibal remained in¬
active at Capua. This inaCtion, however, feems to
have proceeded from his expectation of luccours bom
Africa, which never came, and which delay occafioned
his ruin. The Roman dictator now releafed from
prifon all criminals, and perions confined for debt,
who W'ere willing to inlift themfelves. Of thefe he
formed a body of 6000 ft>ot, armed with the broad
fwords and bucklers formerly taken from the Gauls.
Then the Roman army, to the number of about 25,000
men, marched out of the city under the command of
the dictator ; while Marcellus kept the remains of
Varro’s army, amounting to about 15,000 men, at
Cafilinum, in readinefs to march whenever there ftiould
be occafion.
Thus the Roman forces were ftill fuperior to thofe
of Hannibal*, and as they now faw the neceflity of
following the example of Fabius Maximus, no engage¬
ment of any confequence happened the firft year after
the battle of Cannae. Hannibal made a fruitlefs at-
X2y tempt upon Nola, expeCting it would be delivered up
Marcellus to him ; but this was prevented by Marcellus, who had
gains an ad-entered that city, and Tallying unexpectedly from three
vantage o- gates upon t]ie Carthaginians, obliged them to retire
verHanm- confufion> wjth the lofs of 5000 men. This
was the firft advantage that had been gained by the
Romans where Hannibal had commanded in perfon,
and raifed the fpirits of the former not a little. They
W'ere, however, greatly dejeCted, on hearing that the
conful Pofthumius Albinus, with his whole army, had
been cut off by the Boii, as he w7as crofting a foreft.
Upon this it was refolved to draw ail the Roman for¬
ces out of Gaul and other countries, and turn them
againft Hannibal; fo that the Carthaginian flood daily
more and more in need of thofe fupplies, W'hich yet
Hannibal never arrived from Carthage. He reduced,^how'ever,
takes feve- the cities of Nuceria, Cafilinum, Petelia, Confentia,
ral cities. Crotona, Locri, and feveral others in Great Greece,
before the Romans gained any advantage over him, ex¬
cept that before Nola, already mentioned. The Cam¬
panians, who had efpoufed the Carthaginian intereft,
raifed an army of 14,000 of their own nation in fa¬
vour of Hannibal, and put one Marius Alfius at the
head of it ; but he was furprifed by the conful Sem-
pronius, who defeated and killed him, with 2000 of
his men. It was now found that Hannibal had con¬
cluded a treaty of alliance, offenfive and defenfive, with
Philip king of Macedon *, but to prevent any difturb-
ance from that quarter, a Roman army was fent to
Macedon. Soon after this Marcellus defeated Han-
featecl by nibal in a pitched battle, having armed his men with
Marcellus. long pikes ufed generally at lea, and chiefly in board¬
ing of (hips *, by which means the Carthaginians were
pierced through, while they were totally unable to
hurt their adverfaries with the fhort javelins they car¬
ried. Marcellus purfued them clofe j and before they
18 ] CAR
got to their camp, killed 5000, and took 600 pri- Carthage,.
foners *, lofing himfelf about 1000 men, who were trod 7
down by the Numidian horfe, commanded by Han- 130
nibal in perfon. After this defeat the Carthaginian He is de-
general found himfelf deferted by 1 200 of his beft a
horfe, partly Spaniards, and partly. Numidians, who fl0rl£
had croffed the Alps with him. This touched him fo
fenfibly, that he left Campania, and retired into A-
Pu^a* . . .
The Romans ftill continued to mcreafe their forces;
and Hannibal, not having the fame refources, found it
impoflible to aft againft fo many armies at pnce. Fa¬
bius Maximus advanced into Campania, whither Han¬
nibal was obliged to return in order to lave Capua.
He ordered Hanno, however, at the head of 17,000
foot and 1700 horfe, to feize Beneventum ; but he
was utterly defeated, fcarce 2000 of his men being 1^ He^ •
alive. Hannibal himlelf, in the mean time, advanced
to Nola, where he was again defeated by Marcellus. and begins
He now began to lofe ground ; the Romans retook to lofe
Cafilinum, Accua in Apulia, Arpi, and Aternum; 8round*
but the city of Tarentum was delivered up to him by
its inhabitants, d he Romans then entered Campa¬
nia, and ravaged the whole country, threatening Ca¬
pua with a fiege. The inhabitants immediately ac¬
quainted Hannibal with their danger ; but he was fo
intent upon reducing the citadel of Tarentum, that he
could not be prevailed upon to come to their afliftance.
In the mean time Hanno was again utterly defeated by
Fulvius, his camp taken, and he himfelf forced to fly
into Bruttium, with a fmall body of horfe. The con-
fuls then advanced with a defign to befiege Capua in
form. But in their way, Sempronius Gracchus, a
man of great bravery, and an excellent general, was
betrayed by a Lucanian and killed, which proved a
very great detriment to the republic. Capua, how-
ever, was foon after invefied on all fides j and the be-^e^e{j ^
fieged once more fent to Hannibal, who now came to the Ro-
their affiftance with his horfe, his light-armed infantry, mans,
and 33 elephants. He found means to inform the
iieged of the time he defigned to attack the ^omansjin va,n
ordering them to make a vigorous fally at the fame attempts to
time. The Roman generals, Appius and Fulvius,relieve it.
upon the firft news of the enemy’s approach, divided
their troops *, Appius taking upon him to make head
againft the garrifon, and Fulvius to defend the in-
trenchments againft Hannibal. The former found no
difficulty in repulfing the garrifon ; and would have
entered the city with them, had he not been wounded
at the very gate, which prevented him from purfuing
his defign. Fulvius found it more difficult to with-
ftand Hannibal, whofe troops behaved themfelves with
extraordinary refolution. A body of Spaniards and
Numidians had even the boldnefs to pafs the ditch,
and in fpite of all oppofition, climbing the ramparts,
penetrated into the Roman camp ; but not being pro¬
perly feconded by the reft, they were all to a man cut
in pieces. The Carthaginian general was fo diffieart-
ened at this, efpecially after the garrifon was repulied,
that he founded a retreat, which was made in good
order. His next attempt for the relief of Capua was
to march to Rome, where he hoped his aPProac^ 65
would llrike fo much terror, that the armies would be
called from before Capua } and that the Capuans might
not be diffieartened by his fudden departure, he found
means
CAR [2
Carthage, means to acquaint them with his defign. The news
<• r—J of his approach caufed great confternation in the me¬
tropolis. Some of the fenators were for calling all the
armies in Italy into the neighbourhood of Rome, as
thinking nothing lefs was able to refrlt the terrible Car¬
thaginian. But Fabius told them that Hannibal’s de-
fign was not. to take Rome, but relieve Capua*, upon
which Fulvius was recalled to Rome with 15,000 loot
and 1000 horfe ; and this obliged Hannibal again to
He furprifesretire. He then returned before Capua fo fuddenly
and defeats that he furprifed Appius in his camp, drove him out
Appius. Qf with the lofs of a great number of men, and obli¬
ged him to intrench himfelf on lome eminences, where
^ he expefted to be loon joined by his colleague Fulvius.
Capua fub- As Hannibal, however, now expefted to have all the
nuts to the Roman forces upon him, he could do nothing more for
Romans. the re{;ef Qf (japua • which was of confequence obliged
to fubmit to the Romans.
Centenius A little before the furrender of Capua, Hannibal
I'enula de- came up with a Roman army commanded by one IVI.
feated by Centenius Penula, who had fignalized himfelf on many
occalions as a centurion. This rath man, being intro¬
duced to the fenate, had the affurance to tell them,
that if they would truft him with a body of only 5000
men, he would give a good account of Hannibal. I hey
gave him 8000, and his army was foon increafed to
double that number. He engaged the Carthaginians
on Hannibal’s firft offering him battle $ but after an
engagement of two hours, was defeated, himfelf and
as auu me all his men being (lain except about ioqd. Soon
prsetor Ful-after, having found means to draw the praetor Cneius
“”’c Fulvius into an ambufcade, Hannibal cut in pieces
almoft his whole army, confiding of 18,000 men.
In the mean time Marcellus was making great pro*
grefs in Samnium. The city of Salapia was betray¬
ed to him } but he took other two by affault. In the
lad of thefe he found 3000 Carthaginians, whom he
put to the fword 5 and carried off 240,000 bufhels of
wheat, and 110,000 of barley. I his, however, was
by no means a compenfation for the defeat which Han-
Hannibal;
*33
ss alfo the
Vius.
139
And the
proconful
Fulvius nibal foon after gave the proconful Fulvius
Centuma- 1  1 and nut- nfP with
Ins.
Centuma-
lus, whom he furprifed and cut off, with 13,000 of
his men. .
After this defeat the great Marcellus advanced with
kis army to oppofe Hannibal. Various engagements
happened without any thing decidve. In one of them
the Romans are faid to have been defeated, and in
another Hannibal *, but notwithdanding thefe, it was
neither in the power of Marcellus, nor any other Ro-
mart general, totally to defeat or dilperie the. aimy
Marcellus commanded by Hannibal in .perfon. Nay, in the
drawn into eleventh year of the war, Hannibal found means to de¬
an ambuf- coy into an ambufcade and cut off the great IMaicel-
lus himfelf j the contequence of which was, that the
Romans wTere obliged to raife the fiege of Locii, with
the lofs of all their military engines.
Hitherto the Carthaginians, though no longer the
an ananc favourites of fortune, had lod but little ground } but
total'y ru- now ^ey met with a blow which totally ruined their
dTiw nfthe affairs* This was the defeat of Afdrubal, Hannibal’s
Afdrubal. brother, who had left Spain, and was marching to his
a didance. He eroded the Pyrenees, without any dif¬
ficulty j and, as the filver mines had iupplied him with
a very confiderable quantity of treafure, he not on¬
ly prevailed upon the Gauls to grant him a paifage
cade and
killed
I4I . .
Carthagini
an affairs
19 ] GAR
through their territories, but likewife to furnifh him Cartliagr,
with a confiderable number of recruits. Meeting with
many favourable circumdances to expedite his march,
he arrived at Placentia looner than the Romans or
even his brother Hannibal expelled* Had he conti¬
nued to ufe the fame expedition with which he fet
out, and hadened to join his brother, it would have
been utterly impodible to have faved Rome *, but, fit¬
ting down betore Placentia, he gave the Romans an
opportunity of affembling all their forces to attack
him. At lad he w*as obliged to raife the fiege, and
began his march for Umbria. Fie fent a letter to ac¬
quaint his brother of his intended motion ; but the
meffenger was intercepted : and the two confuls, join¬
ing their armies, with united forces fell upon the
Carthaginians. As the latter w’ere imeiior both in
numbers and xefolution, they were utterly defeated,
and Afdrubal was killed. About the fame time,Han->
nibal himfelf is faid to have differed feveral defeats,
and was retired to Canufium ; but, on the fatal news
of his brother’s defeat and death, he was filled with
defpair, and retired to the extremity of Bruttium :
where, affembling all bis forces, he remained for a
confiderable time in a ftate of inadlion, the Romans
not daring to difturb him y fo foimidaole did they
efteem him alone, though every thing about him went
to wreck, and the Carthaginian affairs feemed not
far from the verge of deftru&ion. Livy tells us, that
it was difficult to determine whether his conduct was
more wonderful in profperity 01 in adverfity. Not-
withftanding which, Bruttium being but a fmall pro¬
vince, and many of its inhabitants being either forced
into the fervice, or forming themfelves into parties of
banditti, fo that a great part of it remained unculti¬
vated, he found it a difficult matter to fubfift there,
efpecially as no manner of fupplies were fent him from
Carthage. The people there w^ere as folicitous about
preferving their poffeifions in Spain, and as little con¬
cerned about the fituation of affairs in Italy, as if Han¬
nibal had met with an mninterrupted courfe of fuccefs,
and no difafter befallen him fince he firff entered that
country. f T42
All their folicitude, however^ about the affairs of The great
Spain, was to no purpofe j their generals, one after progreis of
another, were defeated by the Romans. They had^PjoAfn-
indeed cut off the two Scipios ; but found a much
more formidable enemy in the young Scipio, after¬
wards furnamed Africanm. He overthrew them in
conjunftion with Mafiniffa king of Numidia ; and the
latter thereafter abandoned their intereft. Soon af¬
ter, Syphax, king of the Mafsefylii, was likewife per-
fuaded to abandon their party. Scipio alfo gave the
Spaniffi Reguli a great overthrow, and reduced the
cities of New Carthage, Gades, and many other im¬
portant places. At laft the Carthaginians began to
open their eyes when it was too late. Mago was or¬
dered to abandon Spain, and fail w*ith. all expedition
to Italy. He landed on the coafl of Liguria wdth an jyjag0 ian<j9
army of 12,000 foot and 2000 horfe ; where he fur-m Italy,
urifed Genoa, and alfo feized upon the towm and port
of Savo. A reinforcement was fetit him to this place,
and new levies went on very brifkly in Liguria 5 but
the opportunity w*as part, and could not be. recalled.
Scipio having carried all before him in Spain, paffed
over into Africa, where he met with no enemy capable
E e 2
in Ainca.
t4S
Mago and
Hannibal
-recalled.
146
Hannibal’s
alter his
arrival in
Africa.
CAR
Carthage, of oppofing his progrefs. The Carthaginians then,
'--1' " v n feeing themfelves on the brink of deftruftion, were
.I."t^andsobliged to recal their armies from Italy, in order to
lave their city. Mago, who had entered Infubria, was
defeated by the Roman forces there ; and having re¬
treated into the maritime parts of Liguria, met a
courier who brought him orders to return dire&ly to
Carthage. At the fame time, Hannibal wras likewife
recalled. When the meflengers acquainted him with
the fenate’s pleafure, he expreffed the utmoft indigna¬
tion and concern, groaning, gnalhing his teeth, and
fcarce refraining from tears. Never banilhed man, ac¬
cording to Livy, fhowed fo much regret in quitting
his native country, as Hannibal did at going out of
that of the enemy.
The Carthaginian general was no fooner landed in
proceedings Africa, than he fent out parties to get provilions for
the army, and buy horfes to remount the cavalry.
He entered into a league w-ith the regulus of the
Areacidae, one of the Numidian tribes. Four thoufand
of Syphax’s horfe came over in a body to him •, but as
he did not think proper to repofe any confidence in
them, he put them all to the iword, and diftributed
their horfes among his troops. Vermina, one of Sy¬
phax’s fons, and Mafetulus, another Numidian prince,
likewife joined him with a confiderable body of horfe.
Moft of the fortreffes in Mafiniffa’s kingdom either
furrendered to him upon the firft fummons, or were
taken by force. Narce, a city of confiderable note
there, he made himfelf mailer of by llratagem. Ty
chaeus, a Numidian regulus, and faithful ally of Sy-
phax, w'hofe territories were famous for an excellent
breed of horfes, reinforcing him alfo with 2000 of
his bell cavalry, Hannibal advanced to Zama, a
towm above five days journey diftant from Carthage,
where he encamped. Fie thence fent out fpies to
obferve the pollure of the Romans. Thefe being
brought to Scipio, he was fo far from inflifting any
punilhment upon them, wdiich he might have done by
the laws of war, that he commanded them to be led
about the camp, in order to take an exadl furvey of
it, and then difmified them. Hannibal admiring the
noble affurance of his rival, fent a mefifenger to defire
with Scipio. an interview wuth him : which, by means of Mafiniffa,
he obtained. The two generals, therefore, efcorted by
equal detachments, of horfe, met at Nadagara, where,
by the affiftance of two interpreters, they held a pri¬
vate conference. Hannibal battered Scipio in the moll
jrefined and artful manner, and expatiated upon all
thofe topics which he thought could influence that ge¬
neral to grant his nation a peace upon tolerable terms-,
amonglt other things, that the Carthaginians would
willingly confine themfelves to Africa, fince inch was
the will of the gods, in order to procure a lading peace,
whilll the Romans would be at liberty to extend their
conquefts to the remoteft nations. Scipio anfwered, that
that Romans w-ere not prompted by ambition, or any
finifter views, to undertake either the former or prefent
war againll the Carthaginians, but by juftice and a
proper regard for their allies. He alfo obferved, that
the Carthaginians had, before his arrival in Africa, not
only made him the fame propofals, but likew-ife agreed
to pay the Romans 5000 talents of filver, reftore all
the Roman prifoners without ranfom, and deliver up
all their galleys. He infilled on the perfidious conduct
220 ] GAR
of the Carthaginians, who had broke a truce concluded Carthage*
with them ; and told him, that, fo far from granting —y——>
them more favourable terms, they ought to expedl
more rigorous ones j which if Hannibal would fubmit
to, a peace would enfue j if not, the decilion of the
difpute mull be left to the fword.
H7
He has an
interview
148
This conference, betwixt two of the greatell gene-The battle
rals the world ever produced, ending w ithout fuccefs, of Zarpa.’
they both retired to their refpeclive camps j where
they informed their troops, that not only the fate
of Rome and Carthage, but that of the whole world,
was to be determined by them the next day. An
engagement enfued *, in which, as Polybius informs *sce ^
us, the furprifing military genius of Hannibal dif- ma.
played itfelf in an extraordinary manner. Scipio
likewife, according to Livy, palled a high encomium
upon him, on account of his uncommon capacity in
taking advantages, the excellent arrangement of his
forces, and the manner in which he gave his orders
during the engagement. She Roman general, in¬
deed, not only approved his conduct, but openly de¬
clared that it was fuperior to his own. Neverthelefs,
being valtly inferior to the enemy in horfe, and the
Hate of Carthage obliging him to hazard a battle with
the Romans at no fmall difadvantage, Hannibal wTasHannibal
utterly routed, and his camp taken. He fled firll to totally
Thon, and afterwards to Adrumentum, from wThenceroutet*-
he w-as recalled to Carthage ; where being arrived,
he adviled his countrymen to conclude a peace with
Scipio on whatever terms he thought proper to pre-
fcribe. ISO
Thus was the fecond wmr of the Carthaginians withpeace con„
the Romans concluded. The conditions of peace eluded,
were very humiliating to the Carthaginians. They
were obliged to deliver up all the Roman deferters, fu¬
gitive Haves, prifoners of war, and all the Italians
whom Hannibal had obliged to follow- him. They
alfo delivered up all their ihips of w-ar, except ten
triremes, all their tame elephants, and were to train up
no more of thefe animals for the fervice. They w-ere
not to engage in any w-ar without the confent of the
Romans. They engaged to pay to the Romans, in
50 years, 10,000 Euboic talents, at equal payments.
They were to reftore to Mafiniffa all they had ufurp-
ed from him or his anceftors, and to enter into an
alliance with him. They w-ere alfo to affift the Ro¬
mans both by fea and land, whenever they w-ere call¬
ed upon fo to do, and never to make any levies either
in Gaul or Liguria. Thefe terms appeared fo into¬
lerable to the populace that they threatened to plunder
and burn the houfes of the nobility 5 but Hannibal
having affembled a body of 6000 foot and 500 horfe
at Marthama, prevented an infurreflion, and by his
influence completed the accommodation.
The peace between Carthage and Rome was Scarce-CarIt^ag;nrji
ly figned, when Mafiniffa unjuftly made himfelf mailer ans oppref-
of part of the Carthaginian dominions in Africa, un-fed by Ma-
der pretence that thefe formerly belonged to his fa-fin)ha.
mily. The Carthaginians, through the villanous me¬
diation of the Romans, found themfelves under a ne-
ceffity of ceding thefe countries to that ambitious
prince, and of entering into an alliance with him. The
good underftanding between the two powers continued
for many years afterw-ards -, but at laft Pdafinifia vio¬
lated the treaties fubfifting betwixt him and the Car¬
thaginian
Carthage.
154 ,
Hannibal
files to An
tiochus.
153
Iniquitous
proceed¬
ings of Ma
finiffa and
the Ro-
CAR [ 42
tlMgmian republic, ami not a little contributed to its
fubverfion.
After the conclufion of the peace, Hannibal fliil
kept up his credit among his countrymen. He was
intruded with the command of an army againft fome
neighbouring nations in Africa ; but this being dis¬
agreeable to the Romans, he was removed from it, and
raifed to the dignity of prsetor in Carthage. Here he
continued for fome time, reforming abufes, and put¬
ting the affairs of the republic into a better condi¬
tion } but this Hkewife being difagreeable to the Ro¬
mans, he was obliged to fly to Antiochus king of Sy¬
ria. After his flight, the Romans began to look up¬
on the Carthaginians with a fufpicious eye ; though
to prevent every thing of this kind, the latter had or¬
dered two fhips to purfue Hannibal, had confifcated
his effefts, rafed his houfe, and by a public decree
declared him an exile. Soon after, difputes arifmg
between the Carthaginians and Mafiniffa, the latter,
notwithftanding the manifeft iniquity of his proceed¬
ings, was fupported by the Romans. That prince,
grafping at further conquefts, endeavoured to embroil
the Carthaginians with th£ Romans, by afferting that
the former had received ambaffadors from Perfeus
king of Macedon *, that the fenate affembled in the
temple of iEfculapius in the night time, in order to
confer with them ; and that ambaffadors had been de-
fpatched from Carthage to Perfeus, in order to con¬
clude an alliance with him. Not long after this, Ma¬
finiffa made an irruption into the province of Tyfca,
where he foon poffeffed himfelf of 70, or, as Appian
will have it, 50 towns and caftles. This obliged the
Carthaginians to apply with great importunity to the
Roman fenate for redrefs, their hands being fo tied up
by an article in the laft treaty, that they could not re¬
pel force by force, in cafe of an invafion, without their
confent. Their ambaffadors begged, that the Roman
fenate would fettle once for all what dominions they
•were to have, that they might from thenceforth know
what they had to depend upon j or if their fate had
any way offended the Romans, they begged that they
would punilh them themfelves, rather than leave them
expofed to the infults and vexations of fo mercilefs a
tyrant. Then proftrating themfelves on the earth,
they burft out into tears. But, notwithftanding the
impreftion their fpeech made, the matter was left un¬
decided ; fo that Mafiniffa had liberty to purfue his
rapines, as much as he pleafed. But whatever villa-
nous defigns the Romans might have with regard to
the republic of Carthage, they affe&ed to ftiow a great
regard to the principles of juftice and honour. They
therefore fent Cato, a man famous for committing
enormities under the fpecious pretence of public fpirit,
into Africa, to accommodate all differences betwixt
Mafiniffa and the Carthaginians. The latter very well
knew their fate, had they fubmitted to fuch a media¬
tion ; and therefore appealed to the treaty concluded
with Scipio, as the only rule by which their condudft
and that of their adverfary ought to be examined.
This unreafonable appeal fo incenfed the righteous Ca¬
to, that he pronounced them a devoted people, and
from that time refolved upon their deftruftion. For
fome time he was oppofed by Scipio Nafica 3 but the
people of Carthage, knowing the Romans to be their
inveterate enemies, and refle&ing upon the iniquitous
1 ] CAR
treatment they had met with from them ever iince the
commencement of their difputes with Mafiniffa, were
under great apprehenftons of a vifit from them. To
prevent a rupture as much as pofiible, by a decree of
the fenate, they impeached Afdrubal general of the
army, and Carthalo, commander of the auxiliary for¬
ces, together with their accomplices, as guilty of high
treafon, for being the authors of the war againft the
king of Numidia. They fent a deputation to Rome,
to difeover what fentiments were entertained there of
their late conduft, and to know what fatisfa<ftion the
Romans required. Thefe meffengers meeting with a
cold reception, others were defpatched, who returned
with the fame fuccefs. This made the unhappy citi¬
zens of Carthage believe that their deftru&ion was re¬
folved upon 3 which threw them into the utmoft de-
fpair. And indeed they had but too juft grounds for
fuch a melancholy apprehenfion, the Roman fenate
now difeovering an inclination to fall in with Cato’s
meafures. About the fame time, the city of Utica,
being the fecond in Africa, and famous for its rmmenle
riches, as well as its equally commodious and capaci¬
ous port, fubmitted to the Romans. Upon the poftel-
fion of fo important a fortrefs, which, by reafon of its
vicinity to Carthage, might ferve as a place of arms in 154
the attack of that city, the Romans declared war a-Wardeclar-
gainft the Carthaginians without the leaft hefitation. _
In confequence of this declaration, the confuls M. ^ar.
Manlius Nepos, and L. Marcius Cenforinus, were de-t^age,
fpatched with an army and fleet to begin hoftilities
with the utmoft expedition. The land forces confifted
of 80,000 foot and 4000 chofen horfe 3 and the fleet
of 50 quinqueremes, befides a vaft number of tranf-
ports. The confuls had fecret orders from the fenate
not to conclude the operations but by the deftrudlion
of Carthage, without which, it was pretended, the re¬
public could not but look upon all her poffeflions as in-
fecure. Purfuant to the plan they had formed, the
troops were firft landed at Lilybamm in Sicily, from
whence, after receiving a proper refrefhment, it was •
propofed to tranfport them to Utica. jgg
The anfwer brought by the laft ambaffadors to Car- Ambaffa-
thage had not a little alarmed the inhabitants of that dors fent to
city. But they were not yet acquainted with the re-110"16’
folutions taken at Rome. They therefore fent frefh
ambaffadors thither, whom they inverted with full
powers to aft as they thought proper for the good
of the republic, and even to fubmit themielves with¬
out referve to the pleafure of the Romans. But the
moft fenfible perfons among them did not expeft any
great fuccefs from this condefcenfion, fince the early
fubmiflion of the Uticans had rendered it infinitely lefs
meritorious than it would have been before. How¬
ever, the Romans feemed to be in fome meafure fatis-
fied with it, fince they promifed them their liberty,
the enjoyment of their laws, and in fhort, every thing
that was dear and valuable to them. This threw them
into a tranfport of joy, and they wanted words to ex-
tol the moderation of the Romans. But the fenate The Re-
immediately daftied all their hopes, by acquainting
them that this favour was granted Voltages'0
that they would fend 300 young Carthaginian noble-
mpn 0f the firft diftinftion to the praetor Fabius at
Lilybaeum, within the Ipace of 30 days, and comply
with all the orders of the confuls. Fhefe hard terms
filled
military
machines,
&c.
G A R [2
Carthage, filled tlie whole city with inexprefiible grief: but the
hoftages were delivered j and as they arrived at Lily-
boeum before the 30 days were expired, the ambaffa-
dors were not without hopes of foftening their hard¬
hearted enemy. But the confuls only told them,
that upon their arrival at Utica they fhould learn the
further orders of the republic.
The minifters no fooner received intelligence of the
Roman fleet appearing off Utica, than they repaired
thither, in order to know the fate of their city. The
confuls however did not judge it expedient to com¬
municate all the commands of the republic at once,
left they fhould appear fo harfla and fevere, that the
Carthaginians would have refufed to comply with
and all the them. They firft, therefore, demanded a fufficient
Carthagini- fupply of corn for the fubfiftence of their troops. Se¬
an arms, condly, That they fhould deliver up into their hands
all the triremes they were then mafters of. Thirdly,
That they fhould put them in pofleflion of all their
military machines. And fourthly, That they fhould
immediately convey all their arms into the Roman
camp.
As care was taken that there fhould be a conve¬
nient interval of time betwixt every one of thefe de¬
mands, the Carthaginians found themfelves enfnared,
and could not rejeft any one of them, though they
i-g fubmitted to the laft with the utmoft reluctance and
They com- concern. Cenforinus now imagining them incapable
mand them 0f fijftaining a fiege, commanded them to abandon
the^r efty their city, or, as Zonaras will have it, to demolifh it j
permitting them to build another 80 ftadia from the
fea, but without walls or fortifications. This terrible
decree threw the fenate and every one elfe into de-
fpair j and the whole city became a feene of horror,
madnefs, and confufion. The citizens curfed their an-
ceftors for not dying glorioufly in the defence of their
country, rather than concluding fuch ignominious trea¬
ties of peace, that had been the caufe of the deplora¬
ble condition to which their pofterity was then redu¬
ced. At length, when the firft commotion was a little
abated, the fenators aflfembled, and refolved to fuftain
The Car- a fiege. They were ftripped of their arms and defli-
thagimans tute of provifions ; but defpair raifed their courage,
and made them find out expedients. They took care
to fhut the gates of the city 5 and gathered together on
the ramparts great heaps of ftones, to ferve them in-
ftead of arms in cafe of a furprife. They took the ma-
lefaClors out of prifon, gave the Oaves their liberty,
and incorporated them in the militia. Afdrubal was
recalled, who had been fentenced to die only to pleafe
the Romans ; and he was invited to employ 20,000
men he had raifed againft his country in defence of it.
Another Afdrubal was appointed to command in Car¬
thage ; and all feemed refolute, either to fave their ci¬
ty or perifh in its ruins. They wanted arms; but, by
order of the fenate, the temples, porticoes, and all
public buildings, were turned into workhoufes, where
men and women were continually employed in making
arms. As they encouraged one another in their work,
and loft no time in procuring to themfelves the necef-
faries of life, which were brought to them at ftated
hours, they every day made 144 bucklers, 300 rwords,
1000 darts, and 500 lances and javelins. As to ba-
liftae and catapuhae, they wanted proper materials for
them) but their induftry fupplied that defeat. Where
refolve to
fultain a
fiege.
160
They make
new arms.
22 ] GAR
iron and brafs were wanting, they made ufe of filver Cartiag*.
and gold, melting down the llatues, vales, and even ' -v—'
the utenfils of private families ; for, on this occafion,
even the molt covetous became liberal. As totv and
flax were wanting to make cords for working the ma¬
chines, the women, even thofe of the firft rank, freely
cut off their hair and dedicated it to that ufe. With¬
out the walls, Afdrubal employed the troops in get¬
ting together provifions, and conveying them fafe into
Carthage ; fo that there was as great plenty there as
in the Roman camp.
In the mean time the confuls delayed drawing near
to Carthage, not doubting but the inhabitants, whom
they imagined deftitute of neceflaries to fuftain a fiege,
would, upon cool refleftion, fubmit ; but at length,
finding themfelves deceived in their expe&ation, they
came before the place and invefted it. As they were
ftill perfuaded that the Carthaginians had no arms,
they flattered themfelves that they ftiould eafily carry I(jr
the city by aflault. Accordingly they approached The city
the walls in order to plant their fealing ladders j but attacked by
to their great furprife they difeovered a prodigious
multitude of men on the ramparts, Ihining in the ar- are repUif.
mour they had newly made. The legionaries were fo cd.
terrified at this unexpefted fight, that they drew back,
and would have retired, if the confuis had not led
them on to the attack 5 which, however, proved un-
fuccefsful ; the Romans, in fpite of their utmoft ef¬
forts, being obliged to give over the enterprife, and
lay afide ail thoughts of taking Carthage by aflTault.
In the mean time, Afdrubal, having collefted from all
places fubjeft to Carthage a prodigious number of
troops, came and encamped within reach of the Ro¬
mans, and foon reduced them to great ftraits for want,
of provifions. As Marcius, one of the Roman con¬
fuls, was polled near a marlh, the exhalations of the
ftagnating waters, and the heat of the feafon, infefted
the air, and caufed a general ficknefs among his men.
Marciusj therefore, ordered his fleet to draw as near
the fhore as poflible, in order to tranfport his troops
to a healthier place. Afdrubal being informed of Part of ^
this motion, ordered all the old barks in the harbour Romanflee?
to be filled with faggots, tow, fulphur, bitumen, and deftroyed,
other combuftible materials •, and then taking advan¬
tage of the wind, which blew towards the enemy, let
them drive upon their {hips, which were for the moft
part confumed. After this difafter, Marcius was call¬
ed home to prefide at the eleftions ; and the Cartha¬
ginians looking upon the abfence of one of the con¬
fuls to be a good omen, made a bulk fally in the night j
and would have furprifed the conful’s camp, had not
^Emilianus, with fome fquadrons, marched out of the
gate oppofite to the place where the attack was made,
and, coming round, fell unexpectedly on their rear, and
obliged them to return in diforder to the city.
Afdrubal had polled himfelf under the walls of a
city named Nepheris, 24 miles diftant frem Carthage,
and lituated on a high mountain, which feemed inac-
ceflible on all fides. From thence he made incurfions
into the neighbouring country, intercepted the Roman
convoys, fell upon their detachments fent out to forage,
and even ordered parties to infult the confular army in
their camp. Hereupon' the conful refolved to drive
the Carthaginian from this advantageous poll, and fet
out for Nepheris. As he drew near the hills, Afdru¬
bal
163
The Ro-
dange
faved by
Scipio ./E-
milianus.
CAR [
Carthage, bal lutldenly appeared at the head of hts army in order
 ' of battle, and fell upon the Romans with incredible
fury. The confular army fuftained the attack with
great refolution ; and Afdrubal retired in good order
to his port, hoping the Romans would, attack him
there. But the conful, being now convinced of his
danger, refolved to retire. This Afdrubal no fooner
in great perceived, than he rufhed down the hill, and lailing
upon the enemy’s rear, cut a great number of them in
pieces. The whole Roman army was now faved by
the bravery of Scipio iEmilianus. At the head of 300
horfe, he fuftained the attack of all the forces com¬
manded by Afdrubal, and covered the legions, while
they paffed a river in their retreat before the enemy.
Then he and his companions threw themfelves into
the ftream, and fwam acrofs it. When the army, had
crofted the river, it was perceived that four manipuli
were wanting; and foon after they were informed that
they had retired to an eminence, where they refolved
to fell their lives as dear as poffible. Upon this news
./Emilianus, taking with him a choien body of hone,
and provifions for two days, crofted the river, and flew
to the afliftance of his countrymen. He feized. a hill
over againft that on which the four manipuli were
polled 3 and, after fome hours repofe, marched againft
the Carthaginians who kept them invefted ; fell upon
them at the head of his fquadron with the boldnels of
a man determined to conquer or die ; and, in fpite of
all oppolition, opened a way for his fellow foldiers to
efcape. On his return to the army, his companions,
who had given him over for 10ft, carried him to. his
quarters in a kind of triumph ; and the manipuli he
had faved gave him a crown of gramen. By thefe and
fome other exploits, Aimilianus gained fuch reputation,
that Cato, who is faid never to have commended any
body before, could not refufe him the praifes he de-
ferved ; and is faid to have foretold that Carthage
would never be reduced till Scipio /Emilianus was em¬
ployed in that expedition.
The next year, the war in Africa fell by lot to the
conful L. Calpurnius Pifo ; and he continued to em¬
ploy Atmilianus in feveral important enterprifes, in
which he was attended with uncommon fuccefs. He
took feveral caftles ; and in one of his excurfions, found
1
CAR
164
He gains
over the means to have a private conference with Phameas, ge-
CarrhaginU^ under Afdrubal, of the Carthaginian cavalry,
oflKtrfe. ar>d brought him over, together with 2200 of his
horfe, to the Roman intereft. Under the conful Cal¬
purnius Pifo himfelf, however, the Roman arms were
unfuccefsful. He invefted Clupea ; but was obliged
to abandon the enterprife, with the lofs of a great
number of men killed by the enemy in their falli.es.
From this place he went to vent his rage on a city
newly built, and thence called Neapolis, which pro-
feffed a ftria neutrality, and had even a fafeguard from
the Romans. The conful, however, plundered the
place, and ftripped the inhabitants of all their effedls.
After this he laid fiege to Hippagreta, which employ¬
ed the Roman fleet and army the whole fummer ; and,
on the approach of winter, the conful retired to Utica,
without performing a Angle aflion worth notice during
the whole campaign.
Heischo- The next year Scipio JEmilianus was choien conlul,
frnconful and ordered to pafs into Africa ; and upon his arrival,
the face of affairs was greatly changed* At the time
of his entering the port of Utica., 3500 Romans were Cartilage.
in great danger of being cut in pieces before Carthage. " v
Thefe had feized Megalia, one of the fuburbs of the
city : but as they had not furnifhed themfelves with
provifions to fubfift there, and could not retire, being
clofely invefted on all fides by the enemy’s troops, the
praetor Mancinus, who commanded this detachment,
feeing the danger into which he had brought himfelf,
defpatched a light boat to Utica, to acquaint the Ro¬
mans there writh his fituation. iEmilianus received this
letter a few hours after his landing ; and immediately
flew to the relief of the befieged Romans, obliged the
Carthaginians to retire within their walls, and fafely
conveyed his countrymen to Utica. Having then
drawn together all the troops, iEmilianus applied him¬
felf wholly to the fiege of the capital. 166
His firft attack was upon Megalia ; which he car- Cruelties o£
tied by affault, the Carthaginian garrifon retiring into Afdrubal,
the citadel of Byrfa. Afdrubal, who had commanded
the Carthaginian forces in the field, and was now go¬
vernor of the city, was fo enraged at the lofs of Me¬
galia, that he caufed all the Roman captives taken in
the two years the w'ar lafted, to be brought upon the
ramparts, and thrown headlong, in the fight of the
Roman army, from the top of the wall; after having,
with an excefs of cruelty, commanded their hands and
feet to be cut off, and their eyes and tongues to be
torn out. He was of a temper remarkably inhuman ;
and it is faid that he even took pleafure in feeing fome
of thefe unhappy men flayed alive. Almilianus, in the
mean time, was bufy in drawing lines of circumvalla-
tion and contravallation acrofs the neck of land wdiich
joined the ifthmus on which Carthage flood to the 167
continent. By this means, all the avenues on the land ^-“hags
fide of Carthage being fhut up, the city could receive ^
no provifions that way. His next care was to raife a i/nd.
mole in the fea, in order to block up the old port, the
new one being already fhut up by the Roman fleet ;
and this great work he effe&ed with immenfe labour.
The mole reached from the weftern neck of land, of
which the Romans were mafters, to the entrance of the
port; and was 90 feet broad at the bottom and So at
the top. The befieged, when the Romans firft began
this furprifing work, laughed at the attempt ; but
were no ids alarmed than lurprifed, when they beheld
a vaft mole appearing above water, and by that means
the port rendered inaccefiible to fhips, and quite ufe- x5g
lefs. Prompted by defpair, however, the Carthagi- The befie-
nians, with incredible and almoft miraculous induftry, ge.^ig
dug a new bafon, and cut a paffage into the fea, by'
which they could receive the provifions that were fent
them by their troops in the field. \\ ith the fame di¬
ligence and expedition, they fitted out a fleet of 50
triremes ; which to the great furprife of the Romans,
appeared fuddenly advancing into the fea through this
new canal, and even ventured to give the enemy battle.
The aftion lafted the whole day, with little advantage
on either fide. The day after, the conful endeavoured
to make himfelf mafter of a terrace which covered the
city on the fide next the fea ; and on this occafion the
befieged fignalized themfelves in a moft remarkable They fet
manner. Great numbers of them, naked and unarmed, ^re to the
went into the water in the dead of the night, with un- ma*
lighted torches in their hands ; and having, partly by
fwimming, partly by wading, got within reach oi the
Roman
' wide baton.
169
Ckrthajre.
170
V aftflaugh-
ter of the
Carthagi¬
nians.
I7I
Cotho ta¬
ken.
Romans en-
ter the city.
CAR [2
Roman engines, they ftruck fire, lighted their torches
and threw them with fury againft the machines. The
fudden appearance of thefe naked men, who looked
like fo many monfters flatted up out of the fea, fo ter¬
rified the Romans who guarded the machines, that
they began to retire with the utmoft confufion. The
conful, who commanded the detachment in perfon,
and had continued all night at the foot of the terrace,
endeavoured to flop his men, and even ordered thofe
who fled to be killed. But the Carthaginians, per¬
ceiving the confufion the Romans were in, threw them-
felves upon them like fo many wild beafts j and having-
put them to flight only with their torches, they let
fire to the machines, and entirely confumed them.—
This, however, did not difcourage the conful ; he re¬
newed the attack a few days after, carried the terrace
by aflault, and lodged 4000 men upon it. As this
was an important port, becaufe it pent in Carthage on
the fea fide, iEmilianus took care to fortify and fe-
cure it againft the fallies of the enemy j and then,
winter approaching, he fufpended all further attacks
upon the place till the return of good weather. Dur-
ing the wdnter feafon, however, the conful w’as not
inactive. The Carthaginians had a very numerous ar¬
my under the command of one Diogenes, ftrongly en¬
camped near Nepheris, w'hence convoys of provifions
■were fent by fea to the befieged, and brought into
the new bafcn. To take Nepheiis, therefore, w^as to
■ deprive Carthage of her chief magazine. This zEmili-
anus undertook, and fucceeded in the attempt. He
firft forced the enemy’s intrenchments, put 7©,000 of
them to the fword, and made 10,000 prifoners j all
the inhabitants of the country, who could not retire
to Carthage, having taken refuge in this camp. After
this he laid fiege to Nepheris, which was reduced in
22 days. Afdrubal being dilheartened by the defeat
of the army, and touched with the mifery of the be¬
fieged, now reduced to the utmoft extremity for wrant
of provifions, offered to fubmit to what conditions the
Romans plealed, provided the city wras fpared 5 but
this was abfolutely refufed.
Early in the fpring, .iEmilianus renev-ed the fiege
of Carthage ; and in order to open himfelf a way into
the city, he ordered Laelius to attempt the redudfion
of Cotho, a fmall -ifland which divided the two ports.
Atmilianus himfelf made a falfe attack on the citadel,
in order to draw the-enemy thither. This ftratagem
had the defired effedt : for the citadel being a place'of
the greateft importance, moft of the Carthaginians
haftened thither, and made the utmoft efforts to re-
pulfe the aggreffors ; but in the mean time Lselius
having, with incredible expedition, built a wooden
bridge over the channel which divided Cotho from the
ifthmus, entered the ifland, fcaled the walls of the
fortrefs which the Carthaginians had built there, and
made himfelf mafter of that important poft. The pro-
conful, who was engaged before Byrfa, no fooner un-
derftood, by the loud fhouts of the troops of Lselius,
that he had made himfelf mafter of Cotho, than he
abandoned the falfe attack, and unexpedfedly fell on
the neighbouring gate of the city, which he broke
down, notwithftanding the {bowers of darts that were
inceffantly difcharged upon his. men from the ramparts.
As night coming on prevented him from proceeding
farther, he made a lodgment within the gate, and
24 ] CAR
waited there for the return of day, with a defign to Carthage
advance through the city to the citadel, and attack it1 wr-—
on that fide, which was but indifferently fortified. Pur-
fuant to this defign, at day break, he ordered 4000
freih troops to be fent from his camp ; and having fo-
lemnly devoted to the infernal gods the unhappy Car¬
thaginians, he began to advance at the head of his
men through the ftreets of the city, in order to at¬
tack the citadel. Having advanced to the market
place, he found that the way to the citadel lay through
three exceeding fteep ftreets. The houfes on both
fides were very high, and filled with Carthaginians,
who overwhelmed the Romans as they advanced with
darts and ftones ; fo that they could not proceed till
they had cleared them. To this end aEmilianus in
perfon, at the head of a detachment, attacked the firft
houfe, and made himfelf mafter of it fword in hand.
His example was followed by the officers and foldiers,
who wmnt on from houfe to houfe, putting all they
met with to the fword. As fall as the houfes were
cleared on both fides, the Romans advanced in order of
battle towards the citadel j but met with a vigorous
tefiftance fiom the Carthaginians, who on this occafion
behaved with uncommon refolution. From the market
place to the citadel, two bodies of men fought their
way every ftep, one above on the roofs of the houfes,
the other below in the ftreets. The {laughter was in-
expreffibly great and dreadful. The air rung with
fhrieks and lamentations. Some were cut in pieces,
others threw' themfelves down from the tops of the
houfes; fo that the ftreets were filled with dead and
mangled bodies. But the deftruftion was yet greater, w^h ir
when the proconful commanded fire to be fet to that fet on fire,
quarter of the town which lay next to the citadel.
Incredible multitudes, who had efcaped the fwords of
the enemy, periftied in the flames, or by the fall of the
houfes. After the fire, which lafted fix days, had de-
moliftied a fufficient number of houfes, iEmilianus or¬
dered the rubbiffi to removed, and a large area to
be made, where all the troops might have room to
aft. Then he appeared with his whole army before
Byrfa j which fo terrified the Carthaginians, who had
fled thither for refuge, that firft of all 25,000 women,
and then 30,000 men, came out of the gates in fuch
a condition as moved pity. They threw themfelves
proftrate before the Roman general, aflcing no favour
but life. This was readily granted, not only to them
but to all that were in Byrfa except the Roman de-
ferters, whofe number amounted to 900. Afdrubal’s Cruelty an3
wife earneftly entreated her hufhand to fuffer her to cowardice
join the fuppliants, and carry wuth her to the pro-Afdru"
conful her twm fons who were as yet very young
but the barbarian denied her requeft, and rejeffed her
remonftrances with menaces. The Roman deferters,
feeing themfelves excluded from mercy, refolved to die
fword in hand, rather than deliver themfelves up to the
vengeance of their countrymen. Then Afdrubal, find¬
ing them all refolved to defend themfelves to the laft
breath,, committed to their care his wife and children ;
after which, he in a moft cowardly and mean-fpirited
manner, came and privately threw himfelf at the con¬
queror’s feet. The Carthaginians in the citadel no
fooner underftood that their commander had abandoned
the place, than they threw open the gates, and put
the Romans in poffeffion of Byrfa. They had now
Carthage.
I’5 ..
Afdrubai s
wife de-
ftroys her-
felf and
two chil¬
dren.
176
Tarthage
plundered,
177
and utter¬
ly deftroy
ed.
CAR [2
no enemy to contend with but the 900 deferters, who,
being reduced to defpair, retreated into the temple of
JEfculapius, which was as a fecond temple within the
firft. There the proconful attacked them ■, and thefe
unhappy wretches, finding there was no way to efcape,
fet fire to the temple. As the flames fpread, they re¬
treated from one part of the building to another, till
they got to the roof. There Afdrubal’s wife appeared
in her bell apparel, and having uttered the mod: bitter
imprecations againft her hufband, whom flie faw {land¬
ing below with AhnilianuS, “ Bafe coward (faid Ihe),
the mean things thou haft done to fave thy life {hall
not avail thee : thou {halt die this inftant, at leaft in
thy two children.” Having thus fpoken, flie ftabbed
both the infants with a dagger •, and while they were
vet draggling for life, threw them both from the top
of the temple, and then leaped down after tnem into
the flames.
/Emilianus delivered up the city to be plundered,
but in the manner prefcnbed by the Roman military
law. The foldiers were allowed to appropriate to
thetnelvcs all the furniture, utenflls, and brafs money,
they ihould find in private houfes ; but all the gold
and filver, the ftatu.es, pidtures, &c. were referved to
be put into the hands of the quaeftors. On this occa-
fion the cities of Sicily, which had been often plundered
by the Carthaginian armies, recovefed a number of
ftatues, pidlures, and other valuable monuments ; a-
mong the reft the famous brazen bull, which Phalaris
had ordered to be caft, and ufed as the chief inftru-
ment of his cruelty, was reftored to the inhabitants of
A'rrigentum. As ALtmlianus was greatly inclined to
fpare what remained of this {lately metropolis, he wrote
to the fenate on the fubjedl, from whom he received
the following orders: 1. The city of Carthage, with
Byrfa and Megalia, {hall be entirely deftroyed, and
no traces of them left. 2. All the cities that have
lent Carthage any afliftance {hall be difmantled. 3.
The territories of thole cities which have declared for
the Romans (hall be enlarged with lands taken from
the enemy. 4. All the lands between Hippo and
Carthage {hall be divided among the inhabitants of
Utica. 5. All the Africans of the Carthaginian ftate,
both men and rvomen, fhall pay an annual tribute to
the Romans at fo much per head. 6. The rvhole
country, which was fubjedft to the Carthaginian {late,
{hall be turned into a Roman province, and be governed
by a praetor, in the fame manner as Sicily. Laftly,
Rome {hall fend commiflioners into Africa, there to
fettle jointly with the proconful the ftate of the new
province. Before /Emilianus deftroyed the city, he
performed thefe religious ceremonies which were re¬
quired on fuch occafions: he firft facrificed to the
gods, and then caufed a plough to be drawn round
the walls of the city. After this, the towers, ramparts,
walls, and all the works which the Carthaginians had
raifed in the courfe of many ages, and at a vaft ex¬
pence, were levelled with the ground j and laftly, fire
was fet to the edifices of the proud metropolis, which
confumed them all, not a fingle houfe efcaping the
flames. Though the fire began in all quarters at the
fame time, and burnt with incredible fury, it con¬
tinued for 1 7 days before all the buildings were con-
fumed.
Thus fell Carthage, about 146 years before the
Vol. V. Part 1.
25 1 CAR
birth of Chrift ; a city whofe deftruflion ought to be Carthage.
attributed more to the intrigues of an abandoned fac¬
tion, compofed of the mofl: profligate part of its citi¬
zens, than to the power of its rival. The tveafure which
Aimilianus carried off, even after the city had been
delivered up to be plundered by the foldiers, was im-
menfe, Pliny making it to amount to 4,470,000 pounds
weight of fiiver. The Romans ordered Cartnage ne¬
ver to be inhabited again, denouncing dreadful im¬
precations againft thofe who, contrary to this pro¬
hibition, Ihould attempt to rebuild any part of it, 178
efpecially Byrfa and Megalia. Notwith{landing this, Rebuilt,
however, about 24 years after, C. Gracchus, tribune
of the people, in order to ingratiate himfelf with them,
undertook to rebuild it *, and, to that end conduced
thither a colony of 6000 Roman citizens. The work¬
men, according to Plutarch, were terrified by many
unlucky omens at the time they were tracing the limits
and laying the foundations 01 the new city } which
the fenate being informed of, would have fufpended
the attempt. But the tribune, little affefted with fuch
prefages, continued to carry on the work, and finilhed
it in a few days. From hence it is probable that only
a flight kind of huts w'ere erefted 5 but whether
Gracchus executed his defign, or the work was entire¬
ly difcontinued, it is certain that Carthage was the
firll Roman colony ever fent out of Italy. According
to fome authors, Carthage w’as rebuilt by Julius Cafar j
and Strabo, who flouriftied in the reign of Tiberius,
affirms it in his time to have been equal, if not fupe-
rior, to any other city in Africa. It was looked upon
as the capital of Africa for feveral centuries after the
commencement of the Chnftian era. Maxentius laid
it in affies about the fixth or feventh year of Conftan-
tine’s reign. Genferic, king of the \ andals, took it
A. D. 439 *, but about a century afterwards it was
re-annexed to the Roman empire by the renowned 179
Belifarius. At laft the Saracens, under Mohammed’s Utterly cle-
fucceffors, towards the clofe of the feventh century,
fo completely deftroyed it, that there are now fcarce cens-
any traces remaining.
At the commencement of the third Punic w?ar, Car¬
thage appears to have been one of the fr ft cities in 180
the world.—It was feated on a peninfula 360 ftadia or ’rs ancient
45 miles in circumference, joined to the continent by ^'andelir-
an ifthmus 23 ftadia or three miles and a furlong in
breadth. On the w-eft fide there projected from it a
long trafl of land half a ftadium broad ; which {hoot¬
ing out into the fea, feparated it from a lake or mo-
rafs, and was ftrongly fortified on all fides by rocks and
a fingle wall. In the middle o"’ the city Hood the ci¬
tadel of Byrfa, having on the top of it a tempk facred
to iEfculapius, feated upon rocks on a very high hill,
to which the alcent was by 60 fteps. On the fouth
fide the city was furrounded by a triple wall, 30 cu¬
bits high ; flanked all round by parapets and towers,
placed at equal diftances of 480 feet. Every tower
had its foundation funk 32 feet deep, ahd was four
{lories high, though the walls were but two : they
were arched } and, in the lowrer part, correfponding
in depth wuth the foundation above-mentioned, were
flails large enough to bold 300 elephants, with their
fodder, &c. Over thefe were flails and other conve¬
niences for 4000 horfes ; and there was likew'ife room
for lodging 20,000 foot and 4000 cavalry, without
6 F£ in
CAR [ 226 '] CAR
Carthage. Jn the leaft incommoding the inhabitants. There were
' two harbours, fo difpofed as to have a communication
with one another. They had one common entrance
70 feet broad, and fhut up with chains. The firft was
appropriated to the merchants ; and included in it a
vail: number of places of refrelhment, and all kinds of
accommodation for feamen. The fecond, as well as
the illand of Cothon, in the midll of it, W’as lined
with large quays, in which wrere dilfinfl receptacles for
fecuring and Iheltering from the weather 220 Ihips of
war. Over thefe were magazines of all forts of naval
ftores. The entrance into each of thefe receptacles
was adorned with two marble pillars of the Ionic or¬
der } fo that both the harbour and ifland reprefented
on each fide two magnificent galleries. Near this
ifiand was a temple of Apollo, in which was a llatue of
the god all of mafly gold ; and the infide of the temple
all lined with plates of the fame metal, weighing 1000
talents. The city wTas 23 miles in circumference, and
at the time we fpeak of contained 700,000 inhabitants.
Of their power we may have fome idea, by the quan¬
tity of arms they delivered up to the Roman confuls.
The wdiole army was aftonilhed at the long train of
carts loaded with them, which were thought fufficient
to have armed all Africa. At leaft it is certain, that
on this occafion were put into the hands of the Ro¬
mans 2000 catapultae, 200,000 complete fuits of ar¬
mour, wuth an innumerable quantity of fwords, darts,
javelins, arrows, and beams armed writh iron, which
were thrown from the ramparts by the baliftae.
The charadler tranfmitted of the Carthaginians is
extremely had ; but w^e have it only on the authority
of the Romans, wTho being their implacable enemies,
cannot be much relied upon. As to their religion,
manners, &c, being much the fame wuth the Phoeni¬
cians, of which they were a colony, the reader is re¬
ferred for an account of thefe things to the article
Phoenicia.
On the ruins of Carthage there now ftands only a
fmall village called Melcha. The few remains of Car¬
thage confift only of fome fragments of walls and 17
citterns for the reception of rain water.
There are three eminences, which are fo many maf-
fes of fine marbles pounded together, and were in all
probability the fites of temples and other diftinguifh-
ed buildings. The prefent ruins are by no means the
remains of the ancient city deftroyed by the Romans j
who after taking it entirely, erafed it, and ploughed up
the very foundations : fo truly they adhered to the
well-known advice perpetually inculcated by Cato the
Rider, Delenda ejl Carthago. It was again rebuilt by
the Gracchi family, who conduifted a colony to re*
. people it : and continually increafing in fplendour, it
became at length the capital of Africa under the Ro¬
man emperors. It fubfifted near 700 years after its
firft demolition, until it was entirely deftroyed by the
Saracens in the beginning of the 7th century.
It is a fingular circumftance that the two cities of
Carthage and Rome ftiould have been built juft op-
pofite one to the other; the bay of Tunis and the
mouth of the Tiber being in a direft line.
Littora littorihus contraria,JIuclihus undas,
Anna armis. Virg. TEn. iv. 627.
New Carthage, a confiderable town of Mexico, in
the province of Cotta Rica. It is a very rich trading Cartfca*
place. W. Long. 86. 7. N. Lat. 9. 5. ( g^na.
CARTHAGENA, a province of South America,1 v
and one of the moft confiderable in New Caftile, on
account of the great trade carried on by the capital j
for the country itfelf is neither fertile, rich, nor popu¬
lous. The capital city, called likewife Carthagena, is
fituated in W. Long. 77. N. Lat. 11. on a fandy ifland,
by moft writers called a peninfula *, which forming a
narrow paflage on the fouth-w’eft, opens a communi¬
cation with that called Tierra Bomba, as far as Bocca
Chica. The little ifland which now joins them w-as
formerly the entrance of the bay ; but it having been
filled up by orders of the court, Bocca Chica became
the only entrance : this, however, has been filled up
fince the attempt of Vernon and Wentworth, and the
old paflage again opened, On the north fide the
land is fo narrowq that, before the wall was begun,
the dyjance from fea to fea was only 35 toifes j but
afterwards enlarging, it forms another illand on this
fide \ fo that, excepting thofe two places, the whole
city is entirely furrounded by fait water. To the eaft-
W'ard it has a communication, by means of a wooden
bridge, wfith a large fuburb called Xcmani, built on
another ifland, wdiich is alfo joined to the continent
by a bridge of the fame materials. The fortifications
both of the city and fuburbs are built after the mo¬
dern manner, and lined with freeftone 5 and, in time
of peace, the garrifon confifts of ten companies of 77
men each, befides militia. The city and fuburbs are
wrell laid out, the ftreets ftraight, broad, uniform, and
well paved. All the houfes are built of ftone or brick,
only one ftory high, well contrived, neat, and furnilh-
ed with balconies and lattices of W’ood, which is more
durable in that climate than iron, the latter being foon
corroded by the acrimonious quality of the atmo-
fphere. The climate is exceedingly unhealthy. The
Europeans are particularly fubjeft to the terrible dif-
eafe called the black vomit, which fweeps off multitudes
annually on the arrival of the galleons. It feldom
continues above three or four days ; in which time the
patient is either dead or out of danger, and if he reco¬
vers, is never fubjeft to a return of the fame diftemper.
—T’his difeafe has hitherto foiled all the art of the
Spanifli phyficians j as has alfo the leprofy, which is
very common here. At Carthagena, likewife, that
painful tumour in the legs, occafioned by the entrance
of the Dracunculus or Guinea-wrorm, is very common
and troublefome. Another diforder peculiar to this
country, and to Peru, is occafioned by a little infeft
called Nigua, fo" extremely minute as fcarce to be vi-
fible to the naked eye. This infefl breeds in the duft,
infinuates itfelf into the foies of the feet and the legs,
piercing the fkin with fuch fubtility, that there is no
being aw^are of it, before it has made its way to the
fldh. If it is perceived in the beginning, it is extracted
with little pain •, but having once lodged its head, and
pierced the fkin, the patient muft undergo the pain of
an incifion, without which a nidus would be formed,
and a multitude of infedls ingendered, which would
foon overfpread the foot and leg. One fpecies of the
nigua is venomous 5 and when it enters the toe, an in¬
flammatory fwelling, greatly refembling a venereal
bubo, takes place in the groin.
Carthagena, a fea port town of Spain, in the
kingdom
CAR
tkrtkamus kingdom of Murcia, and capital of a territory of the
11 fame name ; built by Aidrubal, a Carthaginian general,
Cartiiagi- an(j name£l after Carthage. It has the bell harbour
. , in all Spain, but nothing elfe very confiderable j the
bilhop’s fee being transferred to Toledo. In 1706
it was taken by Sir John Leake : but the duke of
Berwick.retook it afterwards. W. Long. o. 58. N.
Lat. 37. 36.
CARTHAMUS. See Botany Index. The car-
thamus tinftorius is at prefent cultivated in many parts
of Europe, and alfo in the Levant, from whence great
quantities of it are annually imported into Britain for
the purpofes of dyeing and painting. The good qua¬
lity of this commodity is in the colour, which is of a
bright faffron hue : and in this the Britiih carthamus
very often fails j for if there happens much rain during
the time the plants are in flower, the flowers change to
a dark or dirty yellow, as they likewife do if the
flowers are gathered with any moifture remaining upon
them.—The feeds of carthamus have been celebrated as
a cathartic ; but they operate very flowly, and for the
moft part diforder the ftomach and bowels, elpecially
when given in fubftance : triturated with diflilled aro¬
matic waters, they form an emulfion lefs offenfive, yet
inferior in efficacy to the more common purgatives.
They are eaten by a fpecies of Egyptian parrot, which
is very fond of them ; to other birds or beads they
would prove a mortal poifon.
CARTHUSIANS, a religious order, founded in
the year 1080, by one Brudo. The Carthufians, fo
called from the defert of Chartreux, the place of their
inftitution, are remarkable for the aufterity of their
rule. They are not to go out of their cells, except to
church, without leave of their fuperior, nor fpeak to
any perfon without leave. They mull not keep any
portion of their meat or drink till next day j their beds
are of draw, covered with a felt j their clothing two
hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hofe, and a cloak,
all coarfe. In the refeftory, they are to keep their
eyes on the diih, their hands on the table, their atten¬
tion on the reader, and their hearts fixed on God.
Women are not allowed to come into their churches.
It is computed that there are 172 houfes of Carthu¬
fians ; whereof five are of nuns, who praftice the fame
auderities as the monks. They are divided into 16
provinces, each of which has two vifitors. There have
been feveral canonized faints of this order, four cardi¬
nals, 70 archbidiops and biffiops, and a great many
very learned writers.
Carthusian Powder, the fame with kermes mine¬
ral. See Kermes.
CARTILAGE, in Anatomy, a body approaching
to the nature of bones *, but lubricous, flexible, and
eladic. See Anatomy Index.
Srit. Zool. CARTILAGINOUS, in Ichthyology, a title given
75* to all fifh whofe mufcles are fupported by cartilages
indead of bones: and comprehends the fame genera
of filh to which Linneeus has given the name of amphi¬
bia nantes : but the word amphibia ought properly to be
confined to fuch animals as inhabit both elements; and
can live, wuthout any inconvenience, for a confiderable
time, either on land or in water ; fuch as tortoifes,
frogs, and feveral fpecies of lizards ; and among the
quadrupeds, hippopotami, &c. &c.
Many of the cartilaginous fifli are viviparous, being
CAR
excluded from an egg, which is hatched within them. Carfme!,
The egg confids of a white and a yolk ; and is lodged Gditon. ^
in a cafe formed of a -thick tough fubdance, not unlike
foftened horn : fuch are the eggs of the ray and flmrk
kinds. Some again differ in this refpeft, and are ovi¬
parous ; fuch is the Jlurgeon, and others.
They breathe either through certain apertures be¬
neath, as in the rays ; on their fides, as in the Jharhs,
&c. ; or on the top of the head, as in the pipe JiJh :
for they have not covers to their gills like the bony
fiffi.
CARTMEL, a town of Lancalhire in England.
It is feated among the hills called Cartmel-lells, not
far from the fea, and near the river Kent ; adorned
with a very handfome church, built in the form of a
crofs like a cathedral. The market is tvell lupplied
with corn, Iheep, and fiffi. W. Long. 2. 43. N. Lat.
*4* I5' ...
CARTON, or Cartoon, in Painting, a defign
drawn on drong paper, to be afterw'ards chalked through,
and transferred on the frefli plafier of a wall to be
painted in frefco. It fs alfo ufed for a defign coloured,
for working in mofaic, tapedry, &c. The word is
from the Italian cartoni {carta “ paper,” and oni
“ large,”) denoting many ffieets of paper paded on
canvas, on which large defigns are made, whether co¬
loured or with chalks only. Of thefe many are to be
feen at Rome, particularly by Domenichino. Thofe
by Andrea Mantegna, which are at Hampton Court*
were made for paintings in the old ducal palace at
Mantua. But the mod famous performances of this
fort are,
The Cartoons of Raphael, fo defervedly applauded
throughout Europe by all authors of refined tade, and
all true admirers of the art of defign, for their various
and matchlefs merit, particularly with regard to the
invention, and to the great and noble expreffion of
fuch a variety of charafters, countenances, and mod
expreffive attitudes, as they are differently afte£led and
properly engaged, in every compofition. Thefe car.
toons are feven in number, and form only a fmall part
of the facred hidorical defigns executed by this great
artid, while engaged in the chambers of the Vatican
under the aulpices of Popes Julius II. and Leo X.
When finiflied, they were fent to Flanders, to be
copied in tapedry, for adorning the pontifical apart¬
ments ; which tapedries were not fent to Rome till fe¬
veral years after the deceafe of Raphael, and even in all
probability were not finiffied and fent there before the
terrible fack of that city in the time of Clement VII.
when Raphael’s fcholars had fled from thence, and
none left to inquire after the original cartoons, vshich
lay neglefted in the dorerooms of the manufactory.
The great revolution alfo which followed in the Low
Countries prevented their being noticed amidd the en¬
tire negleft of the works of art. It was therefore a
mod fortunate circumdance that thefe feven efcaped
the wreck of the others, wffiich wTere torn in pieces,
and remain difperfed as fragments in different collec¬
tions. Thefe feven were purchafed by Rubens for
Charles I. and they have been fo roughly handled
from the fird, that holes were pricked for the weavers
to pounce the outlines, and other parts almod cut
through in tracing alfo. In this date perhaps they as
fortunately efcaped the fale amongd the royal collec-
F f 2 tion,
[ 227 ]
CAR
by the difproportioned
[
Cartouche tion, by the difproportioned appraifement of thefe
feven at 300I. and the nine pieces, being the Triumph
of Julius Caefar, by Andrea Mantegna, appraifed at
loool. They feem to have been taken fmall notice
of till King William built a gallery, purpofely to re*
ceive them, at Hampton Court 5 whence they were
moved, on their fuffering from damps, to the Queen’s
Palace. They are now at Windfor Caftle, and open
to public infpedtion.
CARTOUCHE, in Archite&ure and Sculpture, an
ornament reprefenting a fcroll of paper. It is ufually
a flat member, with wmvings to reprefent fome in-
fcription, device, cipher, or ornament of armoury.—
They are, in architecture, much the fame as modil-
lions j only thefe are fet under the cornice in ■wainf-
cotting, and thofe under the cornice at the eaves of a
houfe.
Cartouche, in the military art, a cafe of wood,
about three inches thick at the bottom, girt with mar¬
line, holding about four hundred mulket balls, befides
fix or eight balls of iron, of a pound weight, to be
fired out of a hobit, for the defence of a pafs, &c.
A cartouche is fometimes made of a globular form,
and filled with a ball of a pound weight ; and fome¬
times it is made for the guns, being of a ball of half
or quarter a pound tveight, according to the nature of
the gun, tied in form of a bunch of grapes, on a tom-
pion of wood, and coated over. Thefe were made in
the room of partridge-fliot.
CARTRIDGE, in the military art, a cafe of pafte-
board or parchment, holding the exadf charge of a
fire-arm. Thofe for mufkets, carabines, and piftols,
hold both the powder and ball for the charge ; and
thofe of cannon and mortars are ufually in cafes of
pafteboard or tin, fometimes of wood, half a foot long,
adapted to the caliber of the piece.
Cartridge-Box, a cafe of wood or turned iron, co¬
vered with leather, holding a dozen mulket cartridges.
It is tvorn upon a belt, and hangs a little lower than
the right pocket hole.
CARTWRIGHT, William, an eminent divine
and poet, born at Northway, near Tewkibury, in
Gloucefterfliire, in September 1611. He finifhed his
education at Oxford ; aftenvards went into holy or¬
ders, and became a moft florid preacher in the univer-
fity. In 1642, he had the place of fuccentor in the
church of Salifbury 5 and, in 1643, was chofen junior
profror in the univerfity. ITe was alfo metaphyfical
reader there. Wit, judgement, elocution, a graceful
perfon and behaviour, occafioned that encomium of
him from Dean Fell, “ That he was the utmofl: that
man could come to.” He was an expert linguift j
an excellent orator ; and at the fame time tvas efteem-
ed an admirable poet. There are extant of his, four
plays, and fome poems. He died in 1643, aged 33.
CARVAGE, (carvagium,') the fame with Carru-
CAGE.
Henry III. is faid to have taken carvage, that is,
two marks of filver of every knight’s fee, towards the
marriage of his filler Ifabella to the emperor. Car¬
vage could only be impofed on tenants in capite.
Carvage alfo denotes a privilege whereby a man is
exempted from the fervice of carrucage.
C ARUC ATURIUS, in ancient law books, he that
held land in foccage, or by plough tenure.
1 CAR
CARUCATE. See Carrucate.
CARVER, a cutter of figures or other devices in
wood. See Carving.
Carvers anfwer to what the Romans called fculptores,
who were different from calatores, or engravers, as thefe
lall wrought in metal.
Carver is alfo an officer of the table, whofe bufi-
nefs is to cut up the meat, and diftribute it to the
guefts. The word is formed from the Latin carptor,
which fignifies the fame. The Romans alfo called
him carpus, fometimes fciffbr, fcindendi magijler, and
JlruBor.
In the great families at Rome, the carver was an
officer of fome figure. There were mailers to teach
them the art regularly, by means of figures of animals
cut in wood. The Greeks alfo had their carvers, called
hxrgci, q. d. deribitores, or difiributors. In the pri¬
mitive times, the mailer of the feall carved for all his
guells. Thus in Homer, when Agamemnon’s ambaf-
iadors were entertained at Achilles’s table, the hero
himfelf carved the meat. Of latter times, the fame of¬
fice on folemn occafions was executed by fome of the
chief men of Sparta. Some derive the cullom of dif-
tributing to every guell his portion, from thofe early
ages when the Greeks firll left off feeding on acorns,
and learned the ufe of corn : The new diet was fo
great a delicacy, that to prevent the guelts from quar¬
relling about it, it was found neceffary to make a fair
dillribution.
In Scotland, the king has a hereditary carver in the
family of Anllruther.
CARUI, or Carvi, in Botany. See Carum, Bo¬
tany Index.
CARVING, in a general fenfe, the art or a£l of
cutting or fafliioning a hard body, by means of fome
lharp inllrument, efpecially a chiffel. In this fenfe
carving includes llatuary and engraving, as well as cut¬
ting in wood.
Carving, in a more particular fenfe, is the art of
engraving or cutting figures in wood. In this fenfe
carving, according to Pliny, is prior both to llatuary
and painting.
To carve a figure or defign, it mull be firll drawn
or palled on the vrood 5 which done, the reft of the
block not covered by the lines of the defign, are to
be cut away with little narrow-pointed knives. The
wood fitteft for the ufe is that which is hard, tough,
and clofe, as beech, but efpecially box : to prepare
it for drawing the defign on, they walh it over with
white lead tempered in water} which better enables
it either to bear ink or the crayon, or even to take
the impreflion by chalking. When the defign is to
be palled on the wood, this whitening is omitted, and
they content themfelves with feeing the rvood well
planed. Then wiping over the printed fide of the fi¬
gure wTith gum tragacanth diffolved in water, they clap
it fmooth on the wood, and let it dry : which done,
they wet it fiightly over, and fret off the furface of the
paper gently, till all the ftrokes of the figure appear
diftinflly. This done, they fall to cutting or carving,
as above.
CARUM. See Botany Index.
CARUNCULA, or Caruncle, in Anatomy, a
term denoting a little piece cf flelh, and applied to fe-
veral parts of the human body. Thus,
Camcate
II
Camncula,
Carvucvlm
CAR I 2
Carvncvue Myrtiformes, in Anatomy, flefliy knobs
Cary.
Carunculas —    „ , ,
Myrtifor- about the fr/.e of a myrtle berry, fuppofed to owe their
mes origin to the breaking of the hymen. See Anatomy
Index.
i Caruncles, in the urethra, proceeding from a go¬
norrhoea, or an ulceration of the urethra, may be re¬
duced by introducing the Bougie.
CARUS, a hidden deprivation of fenfe and motion,
affe&ing the whole body. See Medicine Index.
Carus, Marcus Aurelius, was raifed from alow fta-
tion, by his great merit, to be emperor of Rome in
2R2. He Pnowed himfelf worthy of the empire ; fub-
dued its enemies 5 and gave the Romans a profpedl of
happy days, when he was unfortunately killed by light¬
ning in 284.
CARWAR, a town of Aha, on the coaft of Mala¬
bar in the Eaft Indies, and where the Eaft India Com¬
pany have a fa&ory, fortified with two baltions. The
valleys about it abound in corn and pepper, which
laft is the beft in the Eaft Indies. The woods on
the mountains abound with quadrupeds, fuch as ti¬
gers, wolves, monkeys, wild hogs, deers, elks, and a
fort of beeves of a prodigious fize. The religion of
the natives is Paganifm *, and they have a great many
ftrange and fuperftitious cuftoms. E. Long. 73. 7.
N. Lat. 15. o.
CARY A, -IE, (Stephanus) ; Carya, -arum, (Pau-
fanias) ; a town of Laconia, between Sparta and the
borders of Meffenia; where flood a temple of Diana,
thence called Caryatis, -idis, ; whofe annual feftival,
called Carya, -arum, was celebrated by Spartan vir¬
gins with dances. An inhabitant, Caryates, and Ca¬
ryatis. Caryatis apis a Laconian bee, (Stephanus.)
Carxje, -arum, in Ancient Geography, a place in
Arcadia, towards the borders of Laconia. Whether
from this of Arcadia, or that of Laconia, the Columna
caryatides of Vitruvius and Pliny (which were ftatues
of matrons in ftoles or long robes) took the appella¬
tion, is difputed.
CARY, Lucius, Lord Vifcount Falkland, was
born, in Oxfordlhire about the year 1610 •, a young
nobleman of great abilities and accompliihments. About
the time of his father’s death in 1633, he was made
gentleman of the privy chamber to King Charles I.
and afterwards fecretary of ftate. Before the afiem-
bling of the long parliament, he had devoted himfelf
to literature, and every pleafure which a fine genius,
a generous difpofition, and an opulent fortune, could
afford : when called into public life, he flood foremoft
in all attacks on the high prerogatives of the crown ;
but when civil convulfions came to an extremity, and
it was neceffary to choofe a fide, he tempered his zeal,
and defended the limited powers that remained to mo¬
narchy. Still anxious, however, for his country, he
feems to have dreaded equally the profperity of the
royal party, and that of the parliament *, and among
his intimate friends, often fadly reiterated the word
peace. This excellent nobleman freely expofed his
perfon for the king in all hazardous enterprifes, and
was killed in the 34th year of his age at the battle
of Newberry. In Wellwood’s Memoirs we are told,
that whilft he was with the king at Oxford, his ma-
jefty went one day to fee the public library, where he
was fhown among other books a Virgil, nobly printed,
and exquifitely bound. The Lord Falkland, to di-
29 ] CAR
vert the king, would have his majefty make a trial
of his fortune by the Sortes Virgilianae, an ufual kind
of divination in ages paft, made by opening a Virgil.
The king opening the book, the paffage which hap¬
pened to come up, was that part of Dido’s impreca¬
tion againft iEneas, iv. 615, &-C. which is thus tranf-
lated by Dryden.
“ Opprefs’d with numbers in th’ unequal field,
“ His men difcourag’d, and himfelf expell’d j
“ Let him for luccour fue from place to place.
“ Torn from his fubjedls and his fon’s embrace,” &c.
King Charles feeming concerned at this accident, the
Lord Falkland, who obferved it, would likevvife try his
own fortune in the fame manner •, hoping he might fall
upon fome paffage that could have no relation to his
cafe, and thereby divert the king’s thoughts from any
impreflion the other might make upon him : but the
place Lord Falkland ftumbled upon was yet more fuit-
ed to bis deftiny than the other had been to the king’s 5
being the following expreflions of Evander, upon the
untimely death of his fon Pallas, /En. xi. 152.
“ O Pallas ! thou haft fail’d thy plighted vrord,
“ To fight with caution, not to tempt the fword,
“ I warn’d thee, but in vain 5 for well I knew
“ What perils youthful ardour would purlue ;
“ That boiling blood would carry thee too far ;
“ Young as thou wert in dangers, raw to war.
“ O curft effay of arms, difaftrous doom,
“ Prelude of bloody fields and fights to come !”
He wrote feveral things both poetical and political 3
and in fome of the king’s declarations, fuppofed to be
penned by Lord Falkland, we find the firft regular de¬
finition of the Englifli conftitution that occurs in any
compofition publiibed by authority. His predeceffor,
the firft Vifcount Cary, was ennobled for being the firft
who gave King James an account of Queen Elizabeth’s
death.
Cary, Robert, a learned Englilb chronologer, bom
in Devonftiire about the year 1615. On the Reftora-
tion, he was preferred to the archdeaconry of Exeter,
but on fome pretext was ejected in 1664, and fpent the
reft of his days at his re&ory of Portlemoth, where he
died in 1688. He publifhed Ralalogia Chronica, a
chronology of ancient times, in three parts, didaftical,
apodeiftical, and canonical; and tranflated the hymns
of the church into Latin verfe.
CARYTES, in antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Diana furnamed Caryatis, held at Caryum, a city ol
Laconia. The chief ceremony was a certain dance faid
to have been invented by Caftor and Pollux, and per¬
formed by the virgins of the place. During Xerxes’s
invafion, the Laconians not daring to appear and cele¬
brate the cuftomary foletnnity, to prevent incurring the
anger of the goddefs by fuch an intermiffion, the neigh¬
bouring fwains are faid to have affembled and fung pa-
ftorals or bucolifini, which is faid to have been the ori¬
gin of bucolic poetry.
CARYATIDES,or Cari axes. SeeARCHiTECTURE.
CARYL, Joseph, a divine of the laft century, bred
at Oxford, and fome time preacher to the fociety of
Lincoln’s-Inn, an employment he filled with much ap-
plaufe. He became a frequent preacher before the
long parliament, a licenfer of their books, one of the
aflembly
CAR
L ]
CAR
■Caryl affembly of divines, and one of tlie triers for the ap-
probation of minitlers j in all which capacites he fliow-
Car>hishy " ed a man confiderable parts and learning,
■ but with great zeal againft the king’s perfon and
caufe. On the reftoration of Charles II. he was filen-
ced by the aft of uniformity, and lived privately in
London, where, befides other works, he diftinguifhed
himfelf by a laborious Expojltion of the Book of Job ;
and died in x 672.
CA'RYLL, John, a late Englilh poet, was of the
Roman Catholic perfuafion, being fecretary to Queen
Mary the wife of James II. and one who followed the
fortunes of his abdicating mafter; who rewarded him,
firft with knighthood, and then with the honorary
titles of Earl Caryll and Baron Dartford. How long
he continued in that fervice is not known 5 but he
was in England in the reign of Queen Anne, and re¬
commended'the fubjeft of the “ Rape of the Lock”
to Mr Pope, who at its publication addreffed it to him.
He was alfo the intimate friend of Pope’s “ Unfor¬
tunate Lady.” He was the author of two plays :
1. “ The Englilh Princefs, or the Death of Richard III.
1667,” 4to.j 2. “ Sir Salomon, or the Cautious Cox¬
comb, 1671,” 4to *, and in 1700, he publilhed “ The
Pfalms of David, tranflated from the Vulgate,” X2mo.
In Tonfon’s edition of Ovid’s Epiftles, that of “ Bri-
feis to Achilles” is faid to be by Sir John Caryll $
and in Nichols’s Seleft Colleftion of Mifcellany Poems,
vol. ii. p. I. the firlt eclogue of Virgil is tranllated by
the fame ingenious poet. He was living in 1717,
and at that time muft have been a very old man. See
three of his letters in the “ Additions to Pope,” vol. ii.
p. 114.
CARYOCAR, in Botany ; a genus of the tetragy-
nia order, belonging to the poiyandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is quinquepartite, the petals five, the ftyles
more frequently four. The fruit is a plum, with nu-
cleufles, and four furroxvs netted.
CARYOPHYLL/EJ, in Botany, the name of a
very numerous family or order in Linnaeus’s Fragments
of a Natural Method; containing, befides the clafs of the
fame name in Tournefort, many other plants, which
from their general appearance feem pretty nearly al¬
lied to it. The following are the genera, viz. Agro-
Itema, Cucubalus, Dianthus, Drypis, Gypfophila,
Lychnis, Saponaria, Silene, Velazia, Alfine, Arenaria,
Bufonia, Cerailiura, Cherleria, Glinus, Holofleum,
Loefiingia, Mochringia, Polycarpon, Sagina, Spergula,
Stellaria, Minuart a, Mollugo, Ortegia, Pharnaceum,
Queria. All the plants of this order are herbaceous,
and moftly annual. Some of the creeping kinds do not
rife an inch, and the talk ft exceed not feven or eight
feet. See Botany, Natural Orders.
CARY’OPHYLLUS, the Pink, in Botany. See
Dianthus.
Caryophyllus, the Clove tree. See Botany
Index.
The caryophyllus aromaticus is a native of the Moluc¬
ca iflands, particularly of Amboyna, where it is princi¬
pally cultivated. The clove tree refembles, in its bark
the olive, and is about the height of the laurel, which it
alfo refembles in its leaves. No verdure is ever feen under
it. It has agreatnumber of branches, at the extremities of
which are produced vaft quantities of dowers, that are
firft white, then green, and at laft pretty red and hard.
When they arrive at this degree of maturity, they are, Curyophyl-
properly fpeaking, cloves. As they dry, they affume a •*us' $
dark yellowilh call ; and when gathered, become of a
deep brown. The feafon for gathering the cloves is
from Oftober to February. The boughs of the trees
are then ftrongly fhaken, or the cloves beat down
with long reeds. Large cloths are fpread to receive
them, and they are afterwards either dried in the
fun or in the fmoke of the bamboo cane. The cloves
which efcape the notice of thofe who gather them,
or are purpofely left upon the tree, continue to grow
till they are about an inch in thicknefs ; and thefe
falling off, produce new plants, which do not Lear
in lefs than eight or nine years. Thofe which are
called mother cloves are inferior to the common fortj
but are preferved in fugar by the Dutch ; and in long
voyages, eaten after their meals, to promote digeftion.
The clove, to be in perfeftion, muft be full fized,
heavy, oily, and eafily broken ; of a fine fmell, and of
a hot aromatic tafte, fo as almoft to burn the throat.
It fhould make the fingers fmart when handled, and
leave an oily moifture upon them when preffed. In
the Eaft Indies, and In fome parts of Europe, it is fo
much admired as to be thought an indifpenfable ingre¬
dient in almoft every diflx. It is put into their food,
liquors, wnnes , and enters likewife the compofition of
their perfumes. Confidered as medicines, cloves are
very hot ftimulating aromatics, and poffefs in an
eminent degree the general virtues of fubftances of
this clafs. Their pungency refides in their refin j
or rather in a combination of refin with effential oil:
for the fpirituous extraft is very pungent; but if the
oil and the refin contained in this extraft are fepa-
rated from each other by diftillation, the oil will be
very mild ; and any pungency which it does retain,
proceeds from fome fmall portion of adhering refin,
and the remaining refin wull be infipid. No plant,
or part of any plant, contains fuch a quantity of oil as
cloves do. From 16 ounces Newman obtained by di¬
ftillation twTo ounces and two drachms, and Hoffmann
obtained an ounce and a half of oil from two ounces
of the fpice. The oil is fpecifically heavier than wa¬
ter. Cloves acquire weight by imbibing water ; and
this they will do at fome confiderable diftance. The
Dutch, who trade in cloves, make a confiderable ad¬
vantage by knowing this fecret. They fell them al¬
ways by w'eight j and when a bag of cloves is order¬
ed, they hang it, for feveral hours before it is fent in,
over a veffel of water, at about twm feet dittance from
the furface. This will add many pounds to the weight,
which the unw’ary purchafer pays for on the fpot.
This is fometimes praftifed in Europe, as well as in
the Spice Iflands; but the degree of^noifture muft be
more carefully watched in the latter; for there a bag
of cloves will, in one night’s time, attraft fo much wa¬
ter, that it may be preffed out of them by fqueezing,
them with the hand.
The clove tree is never cultivated in Europe. At
Amboyna the Company have allotted the inhabitants
4000 parcels of land, on each of which they were at
firft allowed, and about the year 1720 compelled, to
plant about 125 trees, amounting in all to 500,000.
Each of thefe trees produces annually, on an average,
more than two pounds of cloves ; and confequ ntly
the colieftive produce muff wreigh more than a mil¬
lion
CAS [23
Caryota Hon. The cultivator is paid with the fpecie that is
II. conftantly returned to the Company, and receives fome
Ca(as‘ unbleached cottons which are brought from Coreman-
V ' del.
CARYOTA. See Botany Index.
CASA, in ancient and middle-age writers, is ufedto
denote a cottage or houfe.
Ca$a Santa, denotes the chapel of the holy virgin at
Loretto.—The Santa Cafa is properly the houfe, or
rather chamber, in which the bleffed virgin is faid to
have been born, where fire was betrothed to her fpoufe
Jofeph, where the angel laluted her, the Holy Ghoft
overfhadowed her, and by confequence where the Son
of God was conceived or incarnated. Of this building
the Catholics tell many wonderful ftories too childilh
to tranfcribe. The Santa Cafa or holy chamber con-
filts of one room, forty-four fpans long, eighteen
broad, and twenty-three high. Over the chimney, in
a niche, Hands the image called the great Madona or
Lady, four feet high, made of cedar, and, as they fay,
wrought by St Luke, who was a carver as well as a
phyfician. The mantle or robe (he has on, is covered
with innumerable jewels of ineftimable value. She has
a crown, given her by Louis XIII. of France, and a
little crown for her fon.
CASXL, a ftrong town of Italy in Montferrat,
with a citadel and a bilhop’s fee. It was taken by
the French from the Spaniards in 1640 ; and the duke
of Mantua fold it to the French in 1681. In 1695 it
was taken by the Allies, who demolifhed the fortifica¬
tions ; but the French retook it, and fortified it a-
gain. The king of Sardinia became mafter of it in
1706, from whom the French took it in 1745 5 how¬
ever the king of Sardinia got poffeffion again in 174^*
It is feated on the river Po, in E. Long. 8. 37. N. Lat.
54- 7*
CASAL-Maggiore, a fmall ftrong town of Italy, in
the duchy of Milan, feated on the river Po. E. Long.-
11. 5. N. Lat. 45. 6.
CASA-NOVA, Marc Antony, a Latin poet, bom
at Rome, fucceeded particularly in epigrams. The
poems he compofed in honour of the illuftrious
men of Rome are alfo much efteemed. He died in
1527-
CASAN, a confiderable town of Afia, and capital
of a kingdom of the fame name in the Ruffian em¬
pire, with a ftrong caftle, a citadel, and an archbi-
ffiop’s fee. The country about it is very fertile in all
forts of fruits, corn, and pulfe. It carries on a great
trade in furs, and furniffies wood for the building of
ffiips. The kingdom of Cafan is bounded on the north
by Permia, on the eaft by Siberia, on the fouth by the
river Wolga, and on the weft by the province of Mof-
cow. E. Long. 53. 25 N. Lat. 55. 38.
CASAS, Bartholomew de las, biftiop of Chiapa,
diftinguiffied for his humanity and zeal for the con-
verfion of the Indians, was born at Seville in 1474 5
and went with his father who failed to America with
Chriftopher Columbus in 1493. At his return to
Spain, he embraced the ftate of an ecclefiaftic, and ob¬
tained a curacy in the ifland of Cuba : but fome time
after quitted his cure in order to procure liberty for
the Indians, whom he faw treated by the Spaniards
in the moft cruel and barbarous manner, wffiich natu¬
rally gave them an unconquerable averlion to Chrifti-
i ] CAS
anity. Bartholomew exerted himfelf with extraor- Cafati,
dinary zeal, for 50 years together, in his endeavours Cafaubon,
to perfuade the Spaniards that they ought to treat the
Indians with equity and mildnefs j for which he fuf-
fered a number of perfecutions from his countrymen.
At laft the court, moved by his continual remon-
ftrances, made law’s in favour of the Indians, and gave
orders to the governors to obferve them, and fee
them executed*. He died at Madrid in 1566, aged * See the
92. He wrote feveral works, which breathe nothing article
but humanity and virtue. The principal of them are ^exie9‘
I. An account of the deftruftion of the Indies. 2. Se¬
veral treatifes in favour of the Indies, againft Dr Se¬
pulveda, who wrote a book to juftify the inhuman bar¬
barities committed by the Spaniards. 3. A very curi¬
ous, and now fcarce, work in Latin, on this queftion,
“ Whether kings or princes can, confiftently wfith
confcience, or in virtue of any right or title, alienate
their fubje&s, and place them under the dominion of
another fovereign ?”
CAS ATI, Paul, a learned Jefuit, born at Placentia
in 1617, entered early among the Jefuits j and after
having taught mathematics and divinity at Rome, w’as-
fent into Sweden to Queen Chriftina, whom he pre¬
vailed on to embrace the Popiffi religion. He w’rote,
1. Vacuum profcriptum. 2. ‘Terra tnachinis mota. 3. Me-
chanicorum, libn 0B0. 4. De Igne DiJJertationes ; which
is much efteemed. 5. De Angelis D 'jputatio Theolog.
6. Hydro/}atica: Differtationes. 7. Optica- D fputationes.
It is remarkable that he wrote this treatife on optics
at 88 years of age, and after he w7as blind. He alfo
wrote feveral books in Italian.
CASAUBON, Isaac, was born at Geneva in 15593
and Henry IV. appointed him his library keeper in
1603. After this prince’s death, he went to Eng¬
land with Sir Henry Wotton, ambaffador from King
James I. where he vras kindly received and engaged
ia w’riting againft Baronius’s annals. He died not long
after this, in 1614 j and was interred in Weftminfter-
abbey, where a monument was eredted to him. Pie
w’as, greatly ikilled in the Greek, and in criticifm j
publiffied feveral valuable commentaries ; and received
the higheft eulogiums from all his cotemporaiies.
Casaubon, Meric, a fon of the preceding, was
born at Geneva in 1599. He W’as bred at Oxford, and
took the degree of mafter of arts in 1621. The fame
year he publilhed a book in defence of his father againft
the calumnies of certain Roman Catholics j which
gained him the favour of King James I. and a confi¬
derable reputation abroad. He w’as made prebendary
of Canterbury by Archbiffiop Laud. In the beginning
of the civil war he-loft all his fpiritual promotions, but
ftill continued to publiffi excellent works. Oliver Crcm-
w’ell, then lieutenant general of the parliament’s forces,
would have employed his pen in writing the hiftory of
the late w7ar ; but he declined it, owning that this
fubjedl would oblige him to make fuch refledlions as
w7ould be ungrateful, if not injurious, to his lordfhip.
Notw’ithftandng this anfwer, Cromwell, fenfible of his.
worth, ordered three or four hundred pounds to be
paid him by a bookfeller in London, whofe name was
Cromwell, on demand, without requiring from him
any acknowdedgement of his benefadtor. But this offer
he rejedled, though his circumftances w7ere then mean.
At the fame time it was propofed by his friend Mr
Greaves,
CAS [23
Cafurina Greaves, wlio belonged to the library at St James’s,
ii that, if Cafaubon would gratify Cromwell in the re-
Cafe- quell above mentioned, all his father’s books, which
were then in the royal library, having been purchafed
by King James, fhould be rellored to him, and a pen-
fion of 300I. a-year paid to the family as long as the
younveil fon of Dr Cafaubon Ihould live 5 but this alfo
was refufed. He likewife refilled handfome offers
from Chriftina queen of Sweden, being determined
to fpend the remainder of his life in England. At the
Reftoration he recovered all his preferments, and con¬
tinued writing till his death in 1671. He was the au¬
thor of an Englilh tranflation of Marcus Aurelius An¬
toninus’s Meditations, and of Lucius Floras j editions
of feveral of the clafiics, with notes j a treatjfe ot ufe
and cuftom; a treatife of enthufiafm •, with many
other works *, and he left a number of MSS. to the
univerfity of Oxford.
CASURINA. See Botany Index.
CASCADE, a deep fall of water from a higher in¬
to a lower place. The word is French, formed of the
Italian cafcata, which fignified the fame j of cafcaro,
“ to fall,” and that from the Latin cadere.
Cafcades are either natural, as that at Tivoli, &c.
or artificial, as thole of erfailles, &c. and either fall-
jng with a gentle defcent, as thofe of Sceaux 5 or in
form of a buffet, as at I rianon or dowm ffeps, in
form of a perron, as at St Cloud j or from bafon to
bafon, &c.
CASCAIS, a town of Eftremadura in Portugal,
fituated at the mouth of the river Tagus, 17 miles eaft
-of Lifbon. W. Long. 10 15. N. Lat 3S. 40.
CASCARILLA. See Clutia and Croton.
CASE, among grammarians, implies the different
inflexions or terminations of nouns, ferving to exprefs
the different relations they bear to each other j and to
the things they reprefent. See Grammar.
Case'alfo denotes a receptacle for various articles j
as a cafe of knives, of lancets, of piftols, See.
Case, in printing, a large flat oblong frame pla¬
ced aflope, divided into feveral compartments or little
iquare cells; in each of which are lodged a number of
types or letters of the fame kind, whence the compofi-
tor takes them out, each as he needs it, to compofe his
matter. See Printing.
Case is alfo ufed for a certain numerous quantity
of divers things. Thus a cafe of crown glafs contains
ufually 24 tables, each table being nearly circular, and
about three feet fix inches diameter 5 of Newcaftle
glafs, 35 tables-, of Normandy glafs, 25.
Case Hardening of Iron, is a luperficial converfion
of that metal into fteel, by the ordinary method of
converfion, namely, by cementation with vegetable or
mineral coals. This operation is generally praXifed
upon fmall pieces of iron wrought into tools and in-
ftruments to which a fuperficial converfion is fufficientj
and it may be performed conveniently by putting the
pieces of iron to be cafe-hardened, together with the
cement, into an iron box, which is to be clofely fhut
and expofed to a red heat during fome hours. By this
cementation a certain thicknefs from the furface of
the iron will be converted into fteel, and a proper hard-
nefs may be afterwards given by fudden extinXion of
the heated pieces of converted iron in a cold fluid.
See Steel.
2 ] CAS
Case Shot, in the military art, mulket balls, ftones,
old iron, &c. put into cafes, and fliot out of great
guns. .
CASEMENT, or Casemate, in Architecture, a
hollow moulding, which tome architeXs make one-
fixth of a circle, and others one fourth.
Casement is alfo ufed in budding, for a Inffe
moveable window, ufually within a larger, being made
to open or turn on hinges,
CASERN, in fortification, lodgings built in garri-
fon towns, generally near the tampan, or in the vrafte
places of the town, for lodging foldiers of the garrifon.
There are ufually two beds in each cafern for fix fol¬
diers to lie, who mount the guard alternately j the
third part being always on duty.
CASERTA, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in tne derra de Lav010,
with the title of a duchy, feated at the foot of a moun¬
tain of the fame name, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat.
41- 5*
CASES, Peter-James, of Paris, the moft eminent
painter of the French ichooi. d he churches of Pans
and of Variables abound with his works. He died in
17 C4, aged 79. _ in,
CASH, in a commercial ftyle, fignifies the flock or
ready money which a merchant or other perfon has in
his prefent dilpofal to negotiate j fo called from the
French term tctijfe, i. e. “ cheft or coffer,” for the keep¬
ing of money.
M. Savary ftrow’S that the management of the caih
of a company is the moft confiderable aiticle, and that
whereon its good or ill luccefs depends.
CASH-Book. See Book-Keeping.
CASHEL, or Cashil, a town of Ireland in the
county of Tipperary, and province of Munfter, with
an archbi(hop’s fee. d he ruins of the ord cathedial
teftify its having been an extenfive as well as handfome
Gothic ftmXure, boldly towering on the celebrated
rock of Caftiel, which taken together form a magni¬
ficent objeX, and bear honourable teftimony to the la¬
bour and ingenuity, as well as the piety and zeal, of
its former inhabitants. It is feen at a great diftance,
and in many direXions. Adjoining it are the ruins
of the chapel of Cormac M‘Culinan, at once king and
archbifhop of Cafhel, fuppofed to have been the firft ftone
building in Ireland and feems, by its rude imitation
of pillars and capitals, to have been copied after the
Grecian architeXure, and long to have preceded that
which is ufually called Gothic. Cormac M Culinan
was a prince greatly celebrated by the Irifti hiftorians
for his learning, piety, and valour. He wrote, m his
native language, a hiftory of Ireland, commonly called
the Pfalter of Cafhel, which is ftill extant, and contains
the moft authentic account we have of the annals of
the country to that period, about the year 900. On the
top of the rock of Caftiel, and adjoining the cathedral,
is a lofty round tower, which proudly defied the too
fuccefsful attempts of Archbifhop Price, who in this
century unroofed and thereby demolifhed the ancient
cathedral founded by St Patrick. In the choir are
the monuments of Myler Magrath, archbilhop of this
fee, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and fome ot Her
curious remains of antiquity. Caihel was formerly t e
royal feat and metropolis of the kings of Muniier j
and on the afeent to the cathedral is a large
CAS [ 233 ] CAS
Cartiew wliicL every new king of Munfter was, as the xnhabi-
nut( tants report from tradition, formerly proclaimed. Ca-
CaHmiire *s at Pre^ent ^ut to what we may fuppofe it
-' - 1 to have been in ancient days. The archbifhop’s pa¬
lace is a fine building. Here is a very handfome mar¬
ket houfe, a feffions houfe, the county infirmary, a
charter fchool for twenty boys and the fame number of
girls, and a very good barrack for two companies of
foot. Dr Agar finilhed a very elegant church which
was begun by his predecefibr. W. Long. 7. 36. N.
Lat. 52. 16.
CASHEW nut. See Anacardium, Botany
Index.
CASHIER, the calh-keeper \ he who is charged
with the receiving and paving the debts of a fociety.—
In the generality of foundations, the calhier is called
treafurer.
Cashiers of the Bank, are officers who fign the notes
that are iffued out, examine and mark them when re¬
turned for payment, &c.
CASHMIRE, a province of Afia in the dominions
of the Mogul. It is fituated at the extremity of Hin-
doftan, northward of Lahore, and is bounded on the
one fide by a ridge of the great Caucafus, and on the
other by the little Tartarian Thibet and Moultan.
The extent of it is not very confiderable; but being
girt in by a zone of hills, and elevated very confider-
ably above an arid plain, which ftretches many miles
around it, the fcenes which it exhibits are wild and
pi£turefque. Rivers, hills, and valleys, charmingly
diverfify the landfcape. Here, Mr Sullivan * informs
Hbapfodies. us> a cakade rulhes from a foaming precipice j there
a tranquil ftream glides placidly along •, the tinkling
rill, too, founds amidft the groves; and the feathered
chorifters fing the fong of love, clofe ffieltered in the
glade.
At what time Caffimire came under the dominion
of the Mogul government, and how long, and in what
manner it was independent, before it v/as annexed to the
territories of the houfe of Timur, are points that are
beyond our prefent purpofe. Though inconfiderable as
to its revenues, it wTas uniformly held ifi the higheft
eftimation by the emperors of Hindoftan. Thither
they repaired in the plenitude of their greatnefs, when
the affairs of date would admit of their abfence ; and
there they diverted themfelves of form and all the op-
preffive ceremony of ftate. The royal manner of tra¬
velling to Calhmire was grand, though tedious and un¬
wieldy, and Ihowed, in an eminent degree, the fplen-
dour and magnificence of an eaftern potentate. Au-
rengzebe, \xz are told, feldom began his march to
that country, for a march certainly it was to be call¬
ed, without an efcort of 80,000 or 100,000 fighting
men, befides the gentlemen of his houfehold, the at¬
tendants of his feraglio, and moft of his officers of
ftate. Thefe all continued with him during the time
he was on the road, which generally was a month*,
but no fooner xvas he arrived at the entrance of thofe
aerial regions, than, with a feleft party of friends, he
Separated from the reft of his retinue, and wdth them
afcended the defiles which led him to his Eden.
The temperature of the air of Caftimire, elevated
as it is fo much above the adjoining country, together
with the ftreams which continually pour from its moun¬
tains, enables the hufbandman to cultivate with fuccefs
V®!,. V. Part I.
the foil he appropriates to agriculture 5 whilft the gar- Cafimfr
dener’s labour is amply repaid in the abundant produce ^ ^
of his fruit. In fhort, nature wears her gayeft cloth- 1
ing in this enchanting fpot. The rivers fupply the in¬
habitants with almoft every fpecies of firti; the hills
yield Sweet herbage for the cattle : the plains are co¬
vered with grain of different denominations ; and the
woods are ftored wdth variety of game. The Carti-
mireans, according to our author, feem a race diftinft
from all others in the eaft : Their perfons are more
elegant, and their complexions more delicate and more
tinged with red.
On the decadence of the Mogul power in Hindo¬
ftan, Caftimire felt fome of the ravages of war. It is
now however in peace; and the inhabitants are defi-
rous of keeping it fo. They are fprightly and inge¬
nious, and have feveral curious manufaftures much
valued in India. They are all Mahometans or idola¬
ters. Caftimire is the capital town.
CASIMIR, the name of feveral kings of Poland.
See (Hifory of) Poland.
Casimir, Matthias Sorbiewjki, a Polifli Jefuit, bom
in 1597. He was a moft excellent poet-, and is, fays
M. Baillet, an exception to the general rule of Ari-
ftotle and the other ancients, which teaches us to e-x-
pedl nothing ingenious and delicate from northern cli¬
mates. His odes, epodes, and epigrams, have been
thought not inferior to thofe of the fineft wits of
Greece and Rome. Dr Watts has tranflated one or
two of his fmall pieces, which are added to his Lyric
Poems. He died at Warfaw in 1640, aged 43. There
have been many editions of his poems, the belt of which
is that of Paris, 1759.
CASING of timber WORK, among builders, is
the plaftering the houfe all over the outfide with mor¬
tar, and then {hiking it while wet, by a ruler, with
the corner of a trowel, to make it referable the joints
of freeftone. Some direfl it to be done upon heart-
laths, becaufe the mortar would, in a little time, de¬
cay the fap laths; and to lay on the mortar in two
thickneffes, viz. a fecond before the firft is dry.
CASK, or Casque, a piece of defenfive armour
wherewith to cover the head and neck; otherwife call¬
ed the head-piece and helmet *. The word is French, * ^ee Hd*
cafque, from caff cum or caficus, a diminutive of caflismcU
“ a helmet.” Le Gendre obferves, that anciently, in
France, the gens d’armes all wore cajks. The king
wore a cajl gilt 5 the dukes and counts filvered 5 gen¬
tlemen of extraftion poliftxed fteel 5 and the reft plain
iron.
The calk is frequently feen on ancient medals, where
we may obferve great varieties in the form and faftiion
thereof; as the Greek faftiion, the Roman faftiion, &c.
F. Joubert makes it the moft ancient of all the co¬
verings of the head, as well as the moft univerfal.
Kings, emperors, and even gods themfelves, are feen
therewith. That which covers the head of Rome has
ufually two wings like thofe of Mercury: and that of
fome kings is furnifhed with horns like thofe of Jupiter
Ammon ; and fometimes barely bulls or rams horns,
to exprefs uncommon force.
Cask, in Heraldry, the fame with helmet. See He¬
raldry, N°45.
Cask, a veflel of capacity, for preferving liquors of
divers kinds; and fometimes alfo dry goods, as fugar,
G g almonds.
✓
CAS [ 234 ] CAS
Caflcet, almonds, &c.—A cafk of fugar Is a barrel of that
Canon, commodity, containing from eight to eleven hundred
weight, A ca{h. of almonds is about three hundred
weight.
CASKET, in a general fenfe, a little coffer or ca¬
binet. See Cabinet.
Caskets, in the fea language, are fmall ropes made
of linnet, and fattened to gromets, or little rings upon
the yards 5 their ufe is to make fall the fail to the yard
when it is to be furled.
Bug. Brit. CASLON, William, eminent in an art of the
and Ante- greate|l confequence to literature, the art of letter-
d^‘s founding, was born in 1692, in that part of the town
by Kichols. Hales Owen which is fltuated in Shroplhire. Though
he juftly attained the chara&er of being the Coryphm-
us in that employment, he was not brought up to the
bufinefs ; and it is obferved by Mr Mores, that this
handiwork is fo concealed among the artificers of it,
that he could not difeover that any one had taught it
to another, but every perfon who had ufed it had
learned it of his own genuine inclination. Mr Gallon
ferved a regular apprenticelhip to an engraver of orna¬
ments on gun barrels; and after the expiration of his
term, carried on this trade in Vine-ftreet, near the
Minories. He did not, however, folely confine his
ingenuity to that inftrument, but employed himfelf
likewife in making tools for the bookbinders, and for
the chafing of filver-plate. Whilft he was engaged in
this bufinefs, the elder Mr Bowyer accidentally faw, in
a bookfeller’s Ihop, the lettering of a book uncom¬
monly neat; and inquiring who the artift was by whom
the letters were made, was hence induced to feek an
7 acquaintance with Mr Gallon. Not long after, Mr
Bowyer took Mr Gallon to Mr James’s foundery, in
Bartholomew-clofe. Gallon had never before that
time feen any part of the bufinefs and being aficed by
his friend, if he thought he could undertake to cut
types, he requefted a lingle day to confider the mat¬
ter 5 and then replied that he had no doubt but he
could. Upon this anfwer, Mr Bowyer, Mr Betten-
ham, and Mr Watts, had fuch a confidence in his abi¬
lities, that they lent him 500!. to begin the undertak¬
ing, and he, applied himfelf to it wfith equal affiduity
and fuccefs. In 1720, the fociety for promoting Chri-
ttian knowledge, in confequence of a reprefentation
from Mr Solomon Negri, a native of Damafcus in Sy¬
ria, wdio was w’ell Ikilled in the Oriental tongues, 'and
had been profeffbr of Arabic in places of note, deemed
it expedient to print, for the ufe of the Eaftern church¬
es, the New Tettament and Pfalter, in the Arabic
language. Thele were intended for the benefit of the
poor Chriftians in Paleftine, Syria, Mefopotamia, A-
rabia, and Egypt, the conftitution of which countries
did not permit the exercife of the ait of printing. Up¬
on this occafion Mr Gallon was pitched upon to cut the
fount ; in his fpecimens of which he diftinguilhed it by
the name of Englilh Arabic. Under the farther en¬
couragement of Mr Bowyer, Mr Bettenham, and Mr
Watts, he proceeded with vigour in his employment j
and he arrived at length to fuch perfection, that he
not only freed us from the neceflity of importing types
from Holland, but in the beauty and elegance of thofe
made by him he fo far exceeded the productions of the
bell artificers, that his workmanlhip was frequently ex¬
ported to the continent. In Ihort, his foundery be¬
came, in procefs of time, the moft capital one that ex- Calpian fea.
ills in this or in foreign countries. Having acquired —v——/
opulence in the courfe of his employment, he was put
into the commiffion of the peace for the county of Mid-
dlefex. Towards the latter end of his life, his eldeft
fon being in partnerllup with him, he retired in a great
meafure from the aCtive execution of bufinefs. His
death happened in January 1766.
CASPIAN sea, a large lake of fait water in Alia,
bounded by the province of Aftrakan on the north,
and by part of Perfia on the fouth, eaft, and weft. It
is upwards of 400 miles long from fouth to north, and
300 broad from eaft to weft. This fea forms feveral
gulfs, and embraces between Aftrakan and Aftrabad
an incredible number of fmall Hands. Its bottom.is
mud, but fometimes mixed with Ihells. At the diftance
of fome German miles from land it is 500 fathoms deep;
but on approaching the Ihore it is everywhere fo
ftiallow, that the Imalleft veflels, if loaded, are obliged
to remain at a diftance.
When we confider that the Cafpian is enclofed on
all fides by land, and that its banks are in the neigh¬
bourhood of very high mountains, we eafily fee why
the navigation in it ihould be perfeClly different from
that in every other fea. There are certain winds that
domineer over it with fuch abfolute fway, that veffels
are often deprived of every refource 5 and in the whole
extent of it there is not a port that can truly be called
fafe. The north, north-eaft, and eaft winds, blow' mofi:
frequently, and occafion the moft violent tempefts. A-
long the eaftern fhore the eaft winds prevail; for which
reafon veffels bound from Perfia to Aftrakan always
direCt their courfe along this fhore.
The furface of the Cafpian fea is lower than the
ocean. Although its extent is immenfe, the variety
of its produftions is exceedingly fmall. This undoubt¬
edly proceeds from its want of communication with the
ocean, which cannot impart to it any portion of its in-
exhauftible ftores. But the animals which this lake
nourifhes multiply to fuch a degree, that the Ruffians,
who alone are in condition to make them turn to ac¬
count, juftly confider them as a never-failing fource of
profit and wealth. It will be underftood that wre
fpeak of the filh of the Cafpian, and of its fifheries,
which make the foie occupation and principal trade of
the people inhabiting the banks of the Wolga and of
the Ja'ik. This bufinefs is diftinguiftied into the great
and leffer fiflteries. The fifh comprehended under the
firft divifion, fuch as the fturgeon and others, abound
in all parts of the Cafpian as well as in the rivers that
communicate with it, and which they afeend at fpawn-
ing time. The fmall fifties, fuch as the falmon and
many others, obferve the general lawT of quitting the
fait waters for the frefti •, nor is there an inftanee of
one of them remaining conftantly in the lea.
Seals are the only quadrupeds that inhabit the Caf¬
pian } but they are there in fuch numbers as to afford
the means of fubfiftence to many people in that coun¬
try as well as in Greenland. The varieties of the fpe-
cies are numerous, diverfified, however, only by the
colour. Some are quite black, others quite white j
there are fome whitifli, fome yellowifh, fome of a
moufe colour, and fome ftreaked like a tiger. I hey
crawl by means of their fore feet upon the Hands,
where they become the prey of the fiftiermen, who kill
them
CAS [ 235 ] C A' S
Cafpian lea. them with long clubs. As foon as one is despatched,
»——Y-'*—' he is fucceeded by feveral who come to the affiftance
of their unhappy companion, but come only to fliare
his fate. They are exceedingly tenacious of life, and
endure more than thirty hard blows before they die.
They will even live for feveral days after having re¬
ceived many mortal wrounds. They are moft terrified
by fire and fmoke j and as foon as they perceive them,
retreat with the utmoft expedition to the fea. Thefe
animals grow fo very fat, that they look rather like
oil bags than animals. At Aftrakan is made a fort of
gray foap with their fat mixed with pot-afhes, which is
much valued for its property of cleanfing and taking
greafe from woollen fluffs. The greateft numbers of
them are killed in fpring and autumn. Many fmall
veflels go from Aftrakan merely to catch feals.
If the Cafpian has few quadrupeds, it has in propor¬
tion ftill fewer of thofe natural produdlions which are
looked upon as proper only to the fea. There have
never been found in it any zoophytes, nor any animal
of the order of molufca. The fame may almoft be
faid of (hells; the only ones found being three or four
fpecies of cockle, the common mufcle, fome fpecies of
fnails, and one or two others.
But to compenfate this fterility, it abounds in birds
of different kinds. Of thofe that frequent the (hores
there are many fpecies of the goofe and duck kind,
of the ftork and heron, and many others of the wader
tribe. Of birds properly aquatic, it contains the grebe,
the crefted diver, the pelican, the cormorant, and al¬
moft every fpecies* of gull. Crows are fo fond of fifh,
that they haunt the ftiores of the Cafpian in prodigious
multitudes.
The waters of this lake are very impure, the great
number of rivers that run into it, and the nature of its
bottom, affe&ing it greatly. It is true, that in gene¬
ral the waters are fait; but though the whole weftern
fihore extends from the 46th to the 35th degree of
north latitude 5 and though one might conclude from
analogy that thefe waters would contain a great deal
of fait, yet experiments prove the contrary: and it is
certain that the faltnefs of this fea is diminiftied by the
north, north-eaft, and north-weft winds j although rve
may with equal reafon conclude, that it owes its falt¬
nefs to the mines of fait which lie along its two banks,
and which are either already known or wdll be known
to pofterity. The depth of thefe waters alfo diminiftt-
es gradually as you approach the fhores, and their
faltnefs in the fame way grows lefs in proportion to their
proximity to the land, the north winds not unfrequent-
ly caufing the rivers to difcharge into it vaft quantities
of troubled water impregnated with clay. Thefe va¬
riations which the fea is expofed to are more or lefs
confiderable according to the nature of the winds;
♦hey afteft the colour of the river waters to a certain
diftance from the ihore, till thefe mixing with thofe of
the fea, which then refume the afcendency, the fine
green colour appears, which is natural to the ocean,
and to all thofe bodies of water that communicate
with it.
It is well known, that befides its fait tafte, all fea
water has a fenfible bitternefs, which muft be attri¬
buted not only to the fait itfelf, but to the mixture of
different fubftances that unite with it, particularly to
different forts of alum, the ordinary effe6l of different
combinations of acids. Befides this, the waters of theCaipiao fea-
Cafpian have another tafte, bitter too, but quite di~
ftinft, which affefls the tongue with an impreflion
fimilar to that made by the bile of animals; a property
wdiich is peculiar to this fea, though not equally fen¬
fible at all feafons. When the north and north-weft;
winds have raged for a confiderable time, this bitter
tafte is fenfibly felt; but when the wind has been
fouth, very imperfedlly. We (hall endeavour to ac¬
count for this phenomenon.
The Cafpian is furrounded on its weftern fide by the
mountains of Caucafus, which extend from Derbent
to the Black fea. Thefe mountains make a curve
near Aftrakan, and directing their courfe towards the
eaftern fliore of the Cafpian, lofe themfelves near the
mouth of the Jafk, where they become fecondary
mountains, being difpofed in ftrata. As Caucafus is
an inexhauftible magazine of combuftible fubftances, it
confequently lodges an aftonifhing quantity of metals
in its bowTels. Accordingly, along the foot of this im-
menfe chain of mountains, we fometimes meet with
warm fprings, fometimes fprings of naphtha of dif¬
ferent quality j lometimes we find native fulphur,
mines of vitriol, or lakes heated by internal fires. NoW
the foot of Mount Caucafus forming the immediate
weftern fhore of the Cafpian fea, it is very eafy to
imagine that a great quantity of the conftituent parts
of the former muft be communicated to the latter :
but it is chiefly to the naphtha, which abounds fo much
in the countries which furround this fea, that we muft;
attribute the true caufe of the bitternefs peculiar to
its waters ; for it is certain that this bitumen flows
from the mountains, fometimes in all its purity, and
fometimes mixed with other fubftances which it ac¬
quires in its paffage through fubterranean channels,
from the moft interior parts of thefe mountains to the
fea, where it falls to the bottom by its fpecific gravity.
It is certain too, that the north and north w’eft winds
detach the greateft quantities of this naphtha ; whence
it is evident that the bitter tafte muft be moft fenfible
when thefe winds prevail. We may alfo comprehend
why this tafte is not fo ftrong at the furface or in the
neighbourhood of the fhore, the waters there being
lefs impregnated with fait, and the naphtha, which is
united with the w’ater by the fait, being then either
carried to a diftance by the winds, or precipitated to
the bottom.
But it is not a bitter tafte alone that the naphtha
communicates to the waters of the Cafpian : thefe wa¬
ters were analyzed by M. Gmelin, and found to con¬
tain, befides the common fea fait, a confiderable pro¬
portion of Glauber fait, intimately united with the for¬
mer, and which is evidently a produdlion of the naph¬
tha.
As the waters of the Cafpian have no outlet, they
are difcharged by fubterranean canals through the
earth, where they depofite beds of fait ; the furface of
which correfponds with that of the level of the fea.
The two great deferts which extend from it to the eafl
and weft are chiefly compofed of a faline earth, in
which the fait is formed by effiorefdence into regular
cryftals 5 for which reafon fait fhowers and dews are
exceedingly common in that neighbourhood. The fait
of the marfhes at Aftrakan, and that found in eftlo-
refcence in the deferts, is by no means pure fea fait,
G g 2 but
GAS [ 236 ] CAS
Cafque but much debafed by the bitter Glauber fait we men-
II tioned above. In many places indeed it is found with
Call ana. ^ cryftajs 0f a iozenge {hape, which is peculiar to it,
without any cubical appearance, the form peculiar to
cryftals of lea ialt.
A great deal has been written on the fucceffive aug¬
mentation and decreafe of the Cafpian fea, but with
little truth. There is indeed to be perceived in it a
certain rife and fall of its waters ; in which, however,
no observation has ever difcovered any regularity.
Many fuppofe (and there are ftrong prefumptions in
favour of the fuppofition), that the fhores of the Cal-
pian were much more extenlive in ancient times than
they are at prefent, and that it once communicated
with the Black fea. It is probable too, that the level
of this laft fea was once much higher than it is at pre¬
fent. If then it be allowed, that the waters of the
Black fea, before it procured an exit by the llraits of
Conftantinople, rofe Several fathoms above their pre¬
fent level, which from many concurring circumftances
may eafily be admitted, it will follow, that all the
plains of the Crimea, of the Kuman, of the Wolga,
and of the Jai'k, and thofe of Great Tartary beyond
the lake of Aral, in ancient times formed but one fea,
which embraced the northern extremity of Caucafus
by a narrow ftrait of little depth 5 the veftiges of which
are ftill obvious in the river Mantylch.
CASQUE, or Cask. See Cask.
CASS AD A. See Jatrofha, Botany Index.
CASSANA, Nicolo, called NiColetto, an emi¬
nent Italian painter, was born at Venice in 1659, and
became a difciple of his father Giovanni Francefco
Calfana, a Genoefe, who had been taught the art of
painting by Bernardino Strozzi. He loon diftinguifh-
ed himfelf not only by the beauty of his colouring,
but by the gracefulnefs of his figures in hiftorical com-
pofitions, as well as in portrait. The moft eminent
perfonages folicited him to enrich their cabinets with
fome of his performances j and were more particularly
defirous to obtain their portraits, becaufe in that branch
he excelled beyond competition. The grand duke of
Tufcany, who was an excellent judge of merit in all
profeffions, and as liberal an encourager of it, invited
Nicoletto to his court •, and he there painted the por¬
traits of that prince and the princefs Violante his con-
fort. Thefe performances procured him uncommon
applaufe, as well as a noble gratuity, and he was em¬
ployed and carefled by the principal nobility of Flo¬
rence. Befide feveral hiftorical fubjefls painted by
this mafter while he refided in that city, one was a
very capital defign ; The fubjedt of it was the Confpi-
racy of Catiline ; it confifted of nine figures as large as
life, down to the knees ; and the two principal figures
were reprefented as with one hand joined in the pre¬
fence of their companions, and in their other hand hold¬
ing a cup of blood. Some of the Englixh nobility on.
their travels fat to him for their portraits; which being
fent to London, and highly admired, Nicoletto wras
invited to. England, with ftrong aflurances of a ge¬
nerous reception ; and on his arrival he experienced
the kindnefs, the refpeft, and the liberality, fo pecu¬
liar to the natives of that kingdom. He had the ho¬
nour of being introduced to the prefence of Queen
Anne, and to paint her portrait j in which he fucceed-
td fo happily, that the queen diftinguiftied him by
many marks of favour and honour ; but he had not the CafTana
happinefs to enjoy his good fortune for any length of
time, dying in London, univerfally regretted, in the i " ' .
year 1713.
CassanA, Giovanni Agoflino, called Id Abate Caffa-
na, was brother to the preceding, and born in 1664.
He was educated along with him by their father
Francefco Caffana, and he finifhed his ftudies at Ve¬
nice, where his brother Nicolo refided for fome time.
Although he compofed and defigned hiftorical fubjedls
with expertnefs, and with a correctnefs of outline equal
to his brother; yet from prudence and fraternal affec¬
tion, he declined to interfere with him, and chofe
therefore to defign and paint all forts of animals and
fruits. In that ityle he arrived at a high degree of
excellence, imitating nature with exadlnefs, beauty,
and truth : exprefling the various plumage of his birds,
and the hairs of the different animals, with fuch tender-
nefs and delicacy as rendered them eftimable to all
judges and lovers of the art. His works were admit¬
ted into the colledtions of thofe of the firft rank, and
accounted ornaments of thofe repofitories of what is
curious or valuable. Fie alfo painted fruits of thofe
kinds which were the moft uncommon, or naturally of
odd and Angular colours ; and fuch fifties as feemed
worthy to excite admiration by their unufual form,
colour, or appearance. But befides thofe fubjefts, he
fometimes painted the portraits of particular perfons
of diftindtion, which he defigned, coloured and touch¬
ed, with the fame degree of merit that was vifible in all
his other performances. At laft he determined to
vifit Genoa, where his family had lived in efteem ; and
took with him feveral piblures which he had already
fmiftied. Flis intention vras to difplay his generofity,
and to appear as a perfon of more wealth and of great¬
er confequence than he really was; and to iupport that
charafter, he beftowed his pictures on feveral of the
principal nobility of that city. But, unhappily, he
experienced no grateful return for all that prodigal
munificence : he reduced himfelf by that vain liberali¬
ty to the moft neceftitous circumftances; was deprived
of the means to procure for himlelf even the common
neceffaries of life ; and wafted away the remainder of
his days in the bitternefs of poverty, mifery, and ne-
gledl.
CASSANDER, king of Macedon after Alexan¬
der the Great, was the ion of Antipater. He mads
feveral conquefts in Greece, aboliflied democracy at
Athens, and gave the government of that ftate to
the orator Demetrius. Olympias, the mother of Alex-
ander, having caufed Aridaeus and his wife Eurydice,
wuth others of Caffander’s party, to be put to death j
he befieged Pydne, whither the queen had retired, took
it by a ftratagem, and caufed her to be put to death.
He married Theffalonica the filler of Alexander the
Great ; and killed Roxana and Alexander, the wife
and fon of that conqueror. At length he entered into
an alliance with Seleucus and Lyfimachus, againft An-
tigonus and Demetrius; over whom he obtained a
great victory near Ipfus in Phrygia, 301 years before
the Chriftian era, and died three years after, in the
19th year of his reign.
CASSANDRA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter
of Priam and Hecuba, wras beloved of Apollo, who
promifed to beftaw on her the fpirit of prophecy, pro-!
vided
Cafline.
CAS [ 237 ]
Caflano vided {he would confent to his love. Caffandra feemed Japan is with
to accept the piopofal 5 but had no fooner obtained
, that gift, than (he laughed at the tempter, and broke
her word. Apollo, being enraged, revenged himfelf,
by caufing no credit be given to her prediftions,
hence ihe in vain prophefied the ruin of Troy. Ajax,
the fon of Oileus, having raviflied her in the temple yd:
Minerva, he was (truck with thunder. She fell intf)
the hands of Agamemnon, who loved her to diftrac-
tion 5 but in vain did (he predict that he would be af-
faflinated in his own country. He was killed, with
her, by the intrigues of Clytemneftra j but their death
was avenged by Oreftes.
CASSANO, a town of Italy in the duchy of Milan,
rendered remarkable by an obftinate battle fought
there between the Germans and French in 1705. It
is fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria, and is feated on the
river Adda, in F. Long. 10. o. N. Lat. 45* 20.
Cassano, a town of Italy in Calabria citerior, in
the kingdom of Naples, with a bilhop’s fee. E. Long.
16. 30. N. Lat. 39. 55.
CASS AVI, or Cassada. See Jatropha, Bo¬
tany Index.
CASSEL, a town of French Flanders, and capital
of a chatellany of the fame name : It is feated .on a
mountain, where the terrace of the caftle is ftill to
be feen j and from whence there is one of the fineft
profpe&s in the world ; for one may fee no lefs than
3 2 towns, with a great extent of the fea, from whence
it is diftant 15 miles. E. Long. 2. 27. N. Lat. 50. 48.
Cassel, the capital city of the landgravate of
Heffe-Caflel, in the circle of the Upper Rhine.in Ger¬
many ; (fee Hesse-Cassel). It is divided into the
Old, New, and High Towns. The New Town is bed
built, the houfes being of done, and the dreets broad.
The houfes of the Old Town, which is within the
walls, are modly of timber 5 but the dreets are broad,
and the market places fpacious. The place is drongly
fortified, but the fortifications are not regular. It con¬
tains about 3 2,000 inhabitants, of whom a great pro¬
portion are French Protedants. Thefe have edabliih-
ed feveral manufadlories in the place, particularly in
the woollen branch. It is feated on the declivity of a
hill near the river Fulva, in E. Long. 9. 28. N. Lat..
51. 20.
CASSIA. See Botany Index.
Cassia Lignea. See Laurus.
CASSIDA. See Scutellaria, Botany Index.
Cassida, in Zoology, a genus of infe&s belonging,
to the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
CASSIMER, or Casimer, the name of a thin
tweeled woollen cloth, much in fadiion for dimmer
ufe.
CASSIMIRE, or Cashmire. See Cashmire.
CASSINE. See Botany Index. The Spaniards
who live near the gold mines of Peru, are frequently
obliged to drink an infufion of this herb in order to
moiden their breads ; without which they are liable to
a fort of fuffocation, from the drong metallic exhala¬
tions that are continually proceeding from the mines.
In Paraguay, the Jefuits make a great revenue by im-
norting the leaves of this plant into many countries,
under the name of Paraguay or South fea tea, which
is there drank, in the fame manner as that of China o&.
GAS
us. It is with difficulty preferved in CaffinL
England. ' '
CASSINI, Johannes Dominicus, a mod excellent
adronomer, was born at Piedmont in 1635* early
proficiency in adronomy procured him an invitation to
be mathematical profelfor at Bologna when he was no
more than 15 years of age : and a comet appearing in-
1652, he difcovered that comets were not accidental
meteors, but of the fame nature, and probably govern¬
ed by the fame laws, as the planets. In the lame year
he folved a problem given up by Kepler and Bullialdus
as infolvable, which was, to determine geometrically
the apogee and eccentricity of a planet from its true
and mean place. In 1663, he was appointed infpeclor
general of the fortifications of the cadle of Urbino, and
had afterwards the care of all the rivers in the ecclefi-
adical date : he dill however profecuted his adronomi-
cal dudies, by difeovering the revolution of Mars round
his own axis ; and, in 1666, publiffied his theory of
Jupiter’s fatellites. Caffini was invited into France by
Louis XIV. in 1669, where he fettled as the fird pro-
feflbr in the royal obfervatory. In 1677 he demon-
drated the line of Jupiter’s diurnal rotation j and in
1684 difcovered four more fatellites belonging to Sa¬
turn, Huygens having found one before. He inhabited
the royal obfervatory at Paris more than forty years j
and when he died in 1712, was fucceeded by his only
fon James Caffini.
Cassini, James, another celebrated adronomer, was
the younger fon of the former. He was born at Paris
18th February 1677. It would appear that his early
dudies were conduced in his father’s houfe, where,
from the purfuits and dudies of his father, mathematics,
and their application to adronomy, it is probable, were
not negledled. He became a dudent afterwards at the
Mazarine college, at the time that the cehebrated Va-
rignon was profeflbr of mathematics.. With the affid-
ance of this eminent man young Gaffini made fuch pro-
grefs, that at 15 years of age he fupported a mathema¬
tical thefis with great honour.. At the age of 17 he
was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences;
and the fame year he accompanied his father in a jour¬
ney to Italy, where he adided him in the verification
of the meridian at Bologna and other meafurements.
After his return he performed fimilar operations in a
journey into Holland, and he difcovered fome errors in
the meafure of the earth by Snell, the refult of which
was communicated to the Academy in 1702. In 1696
he made alfo a vifit to England, where he wras made a
member of the Royal Society. In 1712. he fucceeded
his father as adronomer royal at the obfervatory of
Paris. In 1717 he gave to the Academy his refearches
on the didance of the fixed dars ; in which he (hewed
that the wffiole annual orbit, of near 20a millions of
miles diameter, is but as a point in comparifon of that
didance. The fame year he communicated alto his
difeoveries concerning the inclination of the orbits of
the fatellites in general, and efpecially of thofe of Sa¬
turn’s fatellites and ring. In 1725 he undertook ta
determine the caufe of the moon’s libration, by wffiich
(he (hews fevretimes a little towards one fide, and fome-
times a little on the other, of that half which is con.-*
monly behind or hid from our view7.
In 1732 an important quedion in adronomy enga¬
ged*
Caffini.
CAS [ 23S
ged tdie ingenuity of our author. His father had de-
termined, by his obfervations, that the planet Venus re¬
volved about her axis in the fpace of 23 hours; and
M. Bianchini had publiflied a work in 1729, in which
lie fettled the period of the fame revolution at 24 days
8 hours. From an examination of Bianchini’s obfer¬
vations which were upon the fpots in Venus, he dif-
covered that he had intermitted his obfervations for the
fpace of three hours, from which caufe he had probably
miftaken new fpots for the old ones, and fo had been
led into the miftake. He alfo determined the nature
and quantity of the acceleration of the motion of Ju¬
piter at half a fecond per year, and of that of the re¬
tardation of Saturn at two minutes per year ; that
thefe quantities would go on increafing for 2000 years,
and then would decreafe again. In 1740 he publifh-
ed his Aftronomical Tables, and his Elements of
Aftronomy j very extenfive and accurate wmrks.
Aftronomy was the principal objefl of our author’s
confideration, but he did not confine himfelf abfolutely to
that purfuit, but made occafional excurfions into other
fields.. We owe to him Experiments on Eleddricity,
Experiments on the Recoil of Fire-arms ; Refearches
on the Rife of the Mercury in the Barometer at dif¬
ferent Heights ; Refleflions on the perfecting of Burn-
> and fome other memoirs.
One of the molt important objeCts of the French
academy was the meafurement of the earth. In 1669
Picard meafured a little more than a degree of lati¬
tude to the north of Paris $ but as that extent appear¬
ed too fmall from which to conclude the whole circum¬
ference with fufficient accuracy, it was refolved to
continue that meafurement on the meridian of Paris to
the north and the fouth, through the whole extent of
the country, Accordingly, in 1683, the late M. de
la Hire continued that on the north fide of Paris, and
the older Caffini that on the fouth fide. The latter
was affifted in 1700 in the continution of this opera¬
tion by his fon our author. The fame work was
farther continued by the fame academicians 5 and,
finally, the part left unfiniflied by De la Hire in the
north was finiihed in 1718 by our author, with the late
Maraldi, and De la Hire the younger.
d hefe operations produced a confiderable degree of
precifion. From this meafured extent of fix degrees,
it appeared alfo, that the degrees were of different
lengths in different parts of the meridian ; and our
author concluded, in the volume publilhed for 1718,
that they decreafed more and more towards the pole,
and that therefore the figure of the earth was that of
an oblong fpheroid, or having its axis longer than the
equatorial diameter. He alfo meafured the perpendicu¬
lar to the fame meridian, and compared the meafured di-
ftance with the differences of longitude as before deter¬
mined by the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites: from which
he concluded that the length of the degrees of longi¬
tude was fmaller than it would be on'a fphere, and
that therefore again the figure of the earth was an
oblong fpheroid, contrary to the determination of
Newton by the theory of gravity. Newton was in¬
deed of all men the moft averfe from Controverfy 5
but the other mathematicians in Britain did not
tamely fubmit to conclufions in direfl oppofition to
the fundamental do&rine of this philofopher. The
eonfequence was, that the French government fent
] CAS
two different fets of meafurers, the one to meafure
a degree at the equator, the other at the polar circle j
and the comparifon of the whole determined the figure
to be an oblate fpheroid, contrary to Caffini’s deter¬
mination.
After a long and laborious life, James Caffini died
ifffApril 1756) and was fucceeded in the Academy and
Obfervatory by his fecond fon. He publifhed, A Trea-
tife on the Magnitude and Figure of the Earth ; as al¬
fo, The Elements or Theory of the Planets, with
Tables; befide a great number of papers in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy, from the year 1699 to 1755.
Cassini de Thury, Cefar Francois, a celebrated
French aftronomer, direftor of the obfervatory, and
member of moft of the learned focitties of Europe,
was born at Paris June 17. 1714. He was the fecond
fon of J ames Caffini, wThofe occupations and talents he
inherited and fupported with great honour. He re¬
ceived his firft leffons in aftronomy and mathematics
from MM. Maraldi and Camus 5 and made fuch a ra¬
pid progrefs, that wdien he was not more than ten
years of age he calculated the phafes of a total eclipfe
of the fun. At the age of eighteen he accompanied
his father in his two journeys undertaken for drawing
the perpendicular to the obfervatory meridian from
Strafbourg to Breft. A general chart of France was
from that time devifed ; for which purpofe it w’as necefi-
fary to traverfe the country by feveral lines parallel and
perpendicular to the meridian of Paris. Our author
was charged with the conduft of this bufinefs; in
which he was fo fcrupulous as to meafure again what
had been meafured by his father. This great work wras
publilhed in I74°» with a chart Ihewing the new me¬
ridian of Paris, by two different feries of triangles, paf-
fing along the fea coafts to Bayonne, traverfing the
frontiers of Spain to the Mediterranean and Antibes,
and thence along the eaftern limits of France to Dun¬
kirk, with parallel and perpendicular lines defcribed at
the diftance of 6000 toifes from one another, from fide
to fide of the country.
Our author made a tour in 1741, in Flanders, in the
train of the king. This gave rife, at his majefty’s in-
ftance, to the chart of France j relative to which Caflini
publilhed different works, as well as a great number of
the Iheets of the chart itfelf. He undertook, in 1761,
an expedition into Germany, for the purpofe of con¬
tinuing to Vienna the perpendicular of the Paris meri¬
dian ; to unite the triangles of the chart of France with
the points taken in Germany ; to prepare the means of
extending into that country the fame plan as in
h ranee ; and thus to eftablilh fucceffively for all Eu¬
rope a moft ufeful uniformity.—Our author was at
Vienna the 6th of June 1761, the day of the tranlit
of the planet Venus over the fun, of which he obferved
as much as the ftate of the weather would permit him
to do, and publilhed the account of it in his Voyage en
Allemagne.
Caffini, always meditating the perfeftion of his
grand defign, profited of the peace of 1783 to propofe
the joining of certain points taken upon the Englilh
coaft with thofe which had been determined on the
coaft o!T ranee, and thus to conneft the general chart
of the latter with that of the Britilh Hies, as he had
before united it wdth thofe of Flanders and Germany.
The propofal was favourably received by the Enghlh
government,
Caflini dfj
Thury.
CAS [ 239 ] CAS
Caffiodorus, government, and prefently carried into effe6l under
Caffiopeia. the direction of the Royal Society, by the late General
Roy-
Between the years 1735 and 1770, M. Cafllni pub-
lifhed, in the volumes of Memoirs of the French Aca¬
demy, a great number of pieces, confining chiefly of
aftronomical obfervations and queftions ; among which
are refearches concerning the parallax of the fun, the
moon, Mars, and Venus 5 on aftronomical refractions,
and the effeCl caufed in their quantity and laws by the
weather ; numerous obfervations on the obliquity of
the ecliptic, and on the law of its variations. He cul¬
tivated aftronomy for 50 years, the moft important for
that fcience that ever elapfed for the magnitude and
variety of objefts ; and in which he commonly fuftain-
ed a principal (hare.
M. Caflini was of a very ftrong and vigorous confti-
tution, which carried him through the many laborious
operations in geography and aftronomy which he con-
dufted. An habitual retention of urine, however, ren¬
dered the laft twelve years of his life very painful and
diftrefling, till it was at length terminated by the fmall-
pox the 4th of September 1784, in the 71ft year of his
age. He was fucceeded in the academy, and as di¬
rector of the obfervatory, by his only fon John-Do-
minic Caffini, the fourth in order of direCt defcent who
has filled that honourable ftation. Hutton's Math. Diet.
CASSIODORUS, Marcus Aurelius, fecretary
of ftate to Theodoric king of the Goths, was born at
Squillace, in the kingdom of Naples, about the year
470. He was conful in 514, and was in great credit
under the reigns of Athalaric and Vitiges $ but at 70
years of age retired into a monaftery in Calabria, where
he amufed himfelf in making fun dials, water-hour
\ glaffes, and perpetual lamps. He alfo formed a libra¬
ry ; and compofed feveral works, the beft edition of
which is that of Father Garet, printed at Rouen in
1679. Thofe moft efteemed are his Divine Inftitu-
tions, and his Treatife on the Soul. He died about
the year 562.
CASSIOPEIA, in fabulous hiftory, wife to Ce-
pheus king of Ethiopia, and mother of Andromeda.
She thought herfelf more beautiful than the Nereides,
who defired Neptune to revenge the affront; fo that
he fent a fea monfter into the country, which did much
harm. To appeafe the god, her daughter Andromeda
was expofed to the monfter, but was refeued by Perfeus;
who obtained of Jupiter, that Cafliopeia might be placed
after her death among the ftars: hence the conftella-
tion of that name.
Cassiopeia, in AJlronomy, one of the conftellations
of the northern hemifphere, fituated next to Cepheus.
In 1572, there appeared a new ftar in this conftella-
tion, which at firft furpaffed in magnitude and bright-
nefs Jupiter himfelf; but it diminifhed by degrees, and
at laft difappeared, at the end of eighteen months. It
alarmed all the aftronomers of that age, many of whom
wrote differtations on it j among the reft Tycho Brahe,
Kepler, Maurolycus, Lvcetus, Gramineus, &c. Beza,
the landgrave of Heffe, Rofa, &c. wrote to prove it a
comet, and the fame which appeared to the Magi at
the birth of Jefus Chrift, and that it came to declare
his fecond coming ; they were anfwered on this fub-
jeCI by Tycho. The ftars in the conftellation Caflio¬
peia, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 13 ; in Hfivelius’s, Caffis
37 ; in Tycho’s, 465 but in the Britannic catalogue II
Mr Flamftead makes them 55. Cafiumar.
CASSIS, in antiquity, a plated or metalline helmet;
different from the galea, which was of leather.
CASSITERIA, in the hiftory of fofiils, a genus of
cryftals, the figures of which are influenced by an ad¬
mixture of fome particles of tin.
The cafliteria are of two kinds; the whitifh pellu¬
cid cafliterion, and the brown cafliterion. The firfl
is a tolerably bright and pellucid cryftal, and feldom
fubjedl to the common blemiflies of cryftal : it is of a
perfefk and regular form, in the figure of a quadrila¬
teral pyramid: and is found in Devonftiire and Cornwall
principally. The brown caffiterion is like the former
in figure : it is of a very fmooth and gloffy furface,
and is alfo found in great plenty in Devonfhire and
Cornwall. *“
CASSITERIDES, in Ancient Geography, a clufter
of iflands to the weft of the Land’s End ; oppofite to
Celtiberia, (Pliny) •, famous for their tin, which he
calls candidum plumbum, formerly open to none but the
Phoenicians ; who alone carried on this commerce from
Gades, concealing the navigation from the reft of the
world, (Strabo). The appellation is from CaJJiteros, the
name for tin in Greek. Now thought to be the Scil-
ly iflands, or Sorlings, (Camden).
CASSIUS, Spurius, a renowned Roman general
and conful, whofe enemies accufing him of afpiring to
royalty, he was thrown down from the Tarpeian rock.
485 years before Chrift 5 after having thrice enjoyed
the confular dignity, been once general of the horfe
under the firft dictator that was created at Rome, and
twice received the honour of a triumph.
Cassius, Longinus, a celebrated Roman lawyer,
flourifhed 113 years before Chrift. He was fo in¬
flexible a judge, that his tribunal was called the Rock
of the impeached. It is from the judicial feverity of
this Caffius, that very ievere judges have been called
Caffiani.
Cassius, Caius, one of the murderers of Julius
Caefar : after his defeat by Mark Antony at the battle
of Philippi, he ordered one of his freed men to put
him to death with his own fword, 41 years before
Chrift. See Rome.
CASSOCK, or Cassula, a kind of robe or gown,
worn over the reft of the habit, particularly by the
clergy. The word caffock comes from the French
caffaque, a horfeman’s coat.
CASSONADE, in commerce, calk-fugar, or fugar
put into calks or chefts, after the firft purification, but
w’hich has not been refined. It is fold either in pow¬
der or in lumps; the whiteft, and that of which the
lumps are largeft, is the beft. Many imagine it to
fweeten more than loaf fugar ; but it is certain that it
yields a great deal more feum.
CASSOWARY. See Struthio, Ornithology
Index.
CASSUMAR, in the Materia Medica, a root re-
fembling that of zedoaiy.
It is cardiac and ludorific, and famous in nervous
cafes; it is allb an ingredient in many compofitions,
and is preferibed in powders, bolufes, and infufions.
Its dofe is from five to fifteen grains.
CASSUMBAZAR,
GAS [ 240 ] CAS
CaiTv.mba- C ASSUMEAZAR, a town of India, in Afia, fitu-
Zjj‘r ated on the river Ganges, in the province of Bengal.
Caftagno. E* Long. 37. and_N. Lat. 24.
-v~—CAST is peculiarly ufed to denote a figure or fmall
ftatue of bronze. See Bronze.
Cast, among founders, is applied to tubes of wax
fitted in divers parts of a mould of the fame matter 5
by means of which, when the wax of the mould is re¬
moved, the melted metal is conveyed into all the parts
which the wax before poffeffed.
Cast, alfo denotes a cylindrical piece of brafs or
copper, flit in two, lengthwife, ufed by the founders
in fand, to form a canal or conduit in their moulds,
; whereby the metal may be conveyed to the different
■.pieces intended to be caff.
Cast, among plumbers, denotes a little brazen fun¬
nel at one end of a mould, for calling pipes without
foldering, by means of which the melted metal is pour-
-ed into-the mould.
Cast, 01 Cqfte, in fpeaking of the eaftern affairs,
denotes a tribe, or number of families, of the fame
rank and profeflion. The divifion of a nation into
calls chiefly obtains in the dominions of the Great
Mogul,.kingdom of Bengal, illand of Ceylon, and the
great pftftinfula oppofite thereto. In each of thefe
there are, according to Father Martin, four principal
calls, viz. the call of the bramins, which is the firll
and moll noble j the call of the rajas, or princes, who
.pretend to be defcended from divers royal families j
the call of the chputres, which comprehends all the
artificers j and that of xht.panas, the lowrell and molt
contemptible of all: though Henry Lord, it mull be
pbferved, divides the Indians.about Surat into four cq/is,
fomewhat differently from Martin, viz. into bramins,
or prielts 5 cutlery, or foldiers j Jhuddery, which we call
.banians, or merchants j and wyfe, the mechanics or
artificers. Every art .and trade is confined to its pro¬
per caj}, nor is allowed to be exercifed by any but thofe
whofe fathers profeffed the fame. So that a tailor’s
fon can never rile to be a painter, nor a painter’s fon
fall to be a tailor; though there are fome employ¬
ments that 3are proper to all the calls, e. g. every body
may be a foldier or a merchant. There arc alfo di¬
vers calls which are allowed to till the ground, but not
all. . T he call of parias is held infamous, infomuch
that it is a difgrace to have any dealings or converfa-
tion with them ; and there are fome trades in the call
of cboutres, which debafe their profeffors almoll to the
fame rank. Thus fhoemakers, and all artificers in lea¬
ther, as alfo filhermen, and even fhepherds, are reputed
no better than parias.
CASTAGNO, Andrea Dal, hillorical painter,
was born at a fmall village called Cajlagno, belonging
to the territory of Tufcany, in 1409 : and being de¬
prived of his parents, w^as employed by his uncle to
attend the herds of cattle in the fields; but, having
accidentally feen an ordinary painter at work in the
country, he obferved him for fome time with furprife
.and attention, and afterwards made fuch efforts to imi¬
tate him, as allomlhed all who faw his produ^lions.
The extraordinary genius of Andrea became at lalt a
common topic of difcourfe in Florence ; and fo far
excited the curiofity of Bernardetto de Medici, that
-be fent for Andrea ; and perceiving that he had pro-
2
mifing talents, he placed him under the care of the Cadagn©
bell mailers who were at that time in Florence. An- I!
drea diligently purfued his lludies, devoted himfelf en- ■ Calt^il0' »
tirely to practice under the direftion of his inllrudlors,
became particularly eminent in defign, and in a few
years made fo great a progrefs, that he found as much
employment as he could poflibly execute. He painted
only in dillemper, and frefco, with a manner of colour¬
ing that was not very agreeable, being rather dry and
hard, till he learned the fecret of painting in oil from
Domenico Venetiano, who had derived his knowledge
of, that new difcovery from Antonello da Medina.
Andrea was the firll of the Florentine artills wdio
painted in oil; but although he was in the highell de¬
gree indebted to Domenico for difclofing the fecret,
yet he fecretly envied the merit of the man who
taught him the art; and becaufe his own works feem-
ed be much lefs admired than thofe of Domenico,
he determined to affaflinate his friend and benefac¬
tor. He executed his defign with the utmoll ingra¬
titude and treachery (for Domenico at that time lived
with him, and painted in partnerfldp with him), and
he llabbed him at a corner of a llreet fo fecretly, that
he efcaped, unobferved and unfufpefled, to his own
houfe, where he compofedly fat down to wmrk ; and
thither Domenico w’as foon after conveyed, to die in
the arms of his murderer. The real author of fo in¬
human a tranfadlion was never difcovered, till An¬
drea, through remorfe of confcience, difclofed it on his
deathbed, in 1480. He finilhed feveral confiderable
wrorks at Florence, by which he gained great riches#
and as great a reputation ; but when his villanous mif-
condudl became public, his memory was ever after
held in the utmoll deteliation. The moll noted wmrk
of this mailer is in the hall of jullice at Florence,
reprefenting the execution ©f the confpirators againft
the houfe of Medicis.
CASTALIAN spring. See Castalius.
CASTALIO, S ebastian, was born at Chatillon,
on the Rhone, in the year 1515. Calvin conceived
fuch an elleem and friendlhip for him, during the flay
he made at Stralburg in 1540 and 1541, that he lodg¬
ed him fome days at his houfe, and procured him a re¬
gent’s place in the college of Geneva. Caftalio, after
continuing in this office near three years, was forced
to quit it in the year 1544, on account of fome par¬
ticular opinions which he held concerning Solomon’s
Song, and Chrift’s defcent into hell. He retired to
.Bafil, where he wTas made Greek profeffor, and died
in that place in 1564, aged 48. He incurred the
high difpleafure of Calvin and Theodore Beza, for
differing with them concerning predeftination and the
punilhmeut of heretics. His works are very confi¬
derable both on account of their quality and number.
In 1545, he printed at Bafil four books of dialogues,
containing the principal hiftories of the Bible in ele¬
gant Latin : fo that youth might thereby make a pro¬
ficiency in piety and in the Latin tongue at the fame
time. But his principal work is a Latin and French
tranflation of the Scripture. He began the Latin
tranflation at Geneva in 1542, and finilhed it at Bafil
in 155O. It wras printed at Bafil in 1551, and dedi¬
cated by the author to Edward VI. king of England.
The French verfion wras dedicated to Henry II. .of
France,
GAS [ 241 1 CAS
Caftalius France, and printed at Bafil in The fault which
!i has been moil generally condemned in his Latin tranf-
a e ' lation, is the affectation of ufing only claffical terms.
CASTA LI US fons (Strabo, Paufanias); Cajlalia%
(Pindar, Virgil) •, A fountain at the foot of Mount
Parnaffus, in Phocis, near the temple of Apollo, or
near Delphi; facred to the Mufes, thence called Ca-
Jlalides. Its murmurs were thought prophetic, (Nen¬
nius, Lucian.) See the articles Delphi and Par¬
nassus.
CASTANEA. See Fagus. Botany Index.
CASTANETS, Castagnettes, or Castanet-
tas, a kind of mufical inftrument, wherewith the
Moors, Spaniards, and Bohemians, accompany their
dances, farabands, and guitars. It confifts of two
little round pieces of wood dried, and hollowed in
manner of a fpoon, the concavities whereof are placed
on one another, faftened to the thumb, and beat from
time to time with the middle finger, to direft their
motion and cadences. The cqflanets may be beat
eight or nine times in the fpace of one meafure, or fe-
tond of a minute.
CASTANOVITZ, a town of Croatia, fituated on
the river Unna, which divides Chrillendom from Tur¬
key. E. Long. 17. 20. N. Lat. 45. 40. It is fubjeCl
to the houfe of Auftria.
CASTEL, Lewis Bertrand, a learned Jefuit, was
torn at Montpelier in 1688, and entered among the
fefuits in 1703. He ftudied polite literature in his
youth j and at length applied himfelf entirely to the
ftudy of mathematics and natural philofophy. He
diftinguiflred himfelf by wrriting on gravity ) the ma¬
thematics j and on the mufic of colours, a very whim-
’ lical idea, which he took great pains to reduce to
praftice. His piece on gravity, entitled Traite' de la
Penfateur uuwerfelle, wTas printed at Paris, in 1724.
He afterwards publilhed his Mathematique univerfelle ;
which occafioned his being unanimoully chofen a fel¬
low of the Royal Society of London, without the
leaf! felicitation. Pie was alfo a member of the aca¬
demies of Bourdeaux and Rouen : but his Clavecin
vculaire made the moft noife > and he fpent much
time and expence in making an harpfichord for the
«ye, but without fuccefs. He alfo wTote for and
againft Sir Ifaac New'ton, and publifhed feveral other
Vmrks; the principal of wdiich are, Le Plan du Mathema¬
tique abregee, and a treatife entitled Optique des Couleurs.
He led a very exemplary life, and died in 1757.
CASTEL AMARA, a town of Italy, in the king¬
dom of Naples, and the Hither Principato, with a
bifhop’s fee and a good harbour. E. Long. 14. 15.
N. Lat. 41. 40.
CASTEL-ara-conese, a ftrong towm of Italy, in
the ifland of Sardinia, wuth a bifhop's fee, and a good
harbour. It is feated on the N. W. coaft of the illand,
in E. Long. 8. 57. N. Lat. 40. 56.
CdSTEL-Branco, a town of Portugal, and capital
of the province of Beira ; feated on the river Lyra,
35 miles N. W, of Alcantara. W. Long. 8. o. N. Lat.
39- 35-
CASTEL-Franco, a very fmall, but Well fortified fron¬
tier town of the Bolognefe, in Italy, belonging to the
, Pope.
CAirfL-de-Vlde, a fmall ftrong town of Alentejo,
Vox.. V. Part I.
It was taken by Philip V. W. Long. 6. 25. N. Lat. Cnfle1;
39- I5- ' l| .
Castei-FoIiI, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, feat- CafteI ariuf
en on an inacceffible eminence, between Gironne and
Campredon, about 15 miles from each, and near the
river Fulva.
CASTEi-Gandvlpho, a town of Italy, in the territory
of the church, with a caftle, to which the pope retires
in the fummer feafon •, 10 miles S. by E. of Rome.
E. Long. 12. 46. N. Lat. 41. 44.
Castel-Novo, a ftrong town of Dalmatia, fubje&
to the Venetians; feated on the gulf of Cataio, in
E. Long. 18. 45. N. Lat. 42. 25.
CASTEL-Rodrigo, a town of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Tra-los-Montes, in W. Long. 7. 1. N. Lat,
41. o.
Castel-Novo de-Carfagnana, a toxvn of Italy, in the
Modenefe, with a ftrong fortrefs. It is the capital of
the valley of Carfagnana, and feated on the river Ser-
chio, 17 miles above Lucca.
CASTEL-del-Ovo, a fmall ifland in the Tufcan fea,
in the gulf of Naples, near a town of that name, to
which it is joined by a ftone bridge. The fortrefs is
called Caftel del Ovo, in which there is always a good
garrifon.
CASTELBAR, a towm of Ireland, in the county of
Mayo, and province of Connaught, 35 miles N. of
Galway. W. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 53. 4^.
CASTELL, Edmund, D. D. a learned Englifh di¬
vine of the 17th century, diftinguiftied by his fldll in
the eaftern languages. He was educated at Cam¬
bridge ; where he was mafter of Catharine hall, and
Arabic profefibr ; and wTas at length canon of Canter¬
bury. He had the greateft {hare in the Polyglott Bible
of London; and wrote the Heptaglottoh pro feptem Orien-
ta/ibus, &c. On this excellent work, which occupied
a great part of his life, he beftowed incredible pains
and expence, even to the breaking of his conftitution,
and exhaufting of his fortune, having expended no
lefs than i2,oool. upon that wmrk. At length, when
it w;as printed, the copies remained unfold upon his
hands. He died in 1685 ; and lies buried in the
churchyard of Higham Gobyon in Bedfordflrire, of
which he was reftor. It appears from the infeription
on his monument, which he eredled in his lifetime, that
he U'as chaplain to Charles II. He bequeathed all his
oriental manuferipts to the univerfity of Cambridge, on
condition that his name fliould be written on every co¬
py in the colle£lion.
CASTELLA, a towm of the Mantuan, in Italy,
about five miles north-eaft of the city of Mantua.
E. Long. it. 15. N. Lat. 45. 30.
CASTELLAN, the name of a dignity or charge
in Poland : The caftellans are fenators of the king¬
dom, but fenators only of the lower clafs, wrho, in
diets, fit on low feats, behind the palatines, or great
fenators. They are a kind of lieutenants of provinces,
and command a part of the palatinate under the palatine,
CASTELL ANY, the territory belonging to any
city or town, chiefly ufed in France, and Flanders :
Thus we fay, the caftellany of Lifle, Ypres, &c.
CASTELLARIUS, the keeper, or curator, of a
caftellum. Gruter gives an ancient fepulchral inferip.
tion in memory of a cajlel/arius.
H h CASTELLATIO,
CAS
Caitellatio
.11
Caftiglione.
[ 242 1
CAS
CASTELLATIO, in middle-age writers, the aft
of building a caftle, or of fortifying a houfe, and
rendering it a cafUe.—By the ancient Engiilh laws,
caftellation was prohibited without the king’s fpecial
licenfe.
CASTELLI, Bernard, an Italian painter, was
born at Genoa in 1557 ; and excelled in colouring and
in portraits. He was the intimate friend of Taffo, and
took upon himfelf the talk of defigning and etching
the figures of his Jerufalem Delivered. He died at
Genoa in 1629.
Valerio Caltelli, one of his fons, was born at Ge¬
noa in 1625, and furpaiTed his father. He particu¬
larly excelled in painting battles 5 which he compofed
with fpirit, and executed them with fo pleafing a va¬
riety, and fo great freedom of hand, as gained him
univerfal applaufe. His horfes are admirably 'drawn,
thrown into attitudes that are natural and becoming,
full of motion, adlion, and life. In that ilyle of
painting he fhowed all the fire of Tintoretto, united
with the fine tafte of compofition of Paolo Veronefe.
He died in 1659. The works of this mailer are not
very frequent) but they are defervedly held in very
high elleem. It is believed that a greater number of
his eafel pictures are in the colledlions of the nobility
and gentry of England, than in any other part of
Europe.
CASTELLORUM operatio, caftle work, or
fervice and labour done by inferior tenants for the
building and upholding of caftles of defence ; towards
■which fome gave perfonal affiftance, and others paid
their contributions. This was one of the three neceffary
charges to which all lands among the Anglo-Saxons
W'ere exprefsly fubjedl.
CASTELVETRO, Lewis, a native of Modena,
of the 16th century, famous for his Comment on Arif-
totle's Poetics. He was profecuted by the inquifition
for a certain book of Melanflhon, which he had tranf-
lated into Italian. He retired to Bafil, where he
died.
CASTIGATION, among the Romans, the punilh-
ment of an offender by blows, or beating with a wand
or fwitch. Caftigation was chiefly a military punilh-
ment 5 the power of inflicling of which on the foldiery
was given to the tribunes. Some make it of two kinds j
one with a Hick or cane, called fujligatio; the other
with rods, called Jlagellatio : the latter was the moll
difhonourable.
CAS TIGATORY for Scolds. A woman indidl-
ed for being a common fcold, if convicted, lhall be
placed in a certain engine of corredlion, called the
trebuciet cajiigatory, or clicking fooli which, in the
Saxon language, fignifies the folding fool; though now
it is frequently corrupted into the ducking fool; be-
caufe the refidue of the judgment is, that when fhe
is placed therein, Ihe fhall be plunged in water for her
punilhment.
CASTIGLIONE, Giovanni Benedetto, a cele¬
brated painter, was born at Genoa in 1616. His
firll mailer was Gio-Battilla Paggi. Afterwards he
lludied under Andrea Ferrari ; and lallly perfefted him¬
felf from the inllruflions of Anthony Vandyck, who
at that time refided at Genoa. He painted portraits,.
Eifiorical pieces, landfcapes, and callles ; in the latter of
•which he is faid chiefly to have excelled j as alfo in fairs,
Caltde.
markets, and all kinds of rural fcenes. By this mailer Caltiglione
we have alfo a great number of etchings, which are all
fpirited, free, and full of talle. The effe£l is, in gene- v
ral, powerful and plealing 3 and many of them have a
more harmonized and finilhed appearance than is ufual
from the point, fd little aflilted by the graver. His
drawing of the naked figure, though by no means cor-
re£l, is notwithllanding managed in a Ilyle that indi¬
cates the hand of the mailer.
His fon, Francefco, was bred under himfelf, and ex¬
celled in the fame fubjedls 3 and it is thought that many
good paintings which are afcribed to Benedetto, and
are frequently feen at files, or in modern collections,
are copies after him by his fon Francefco, or perhaps
originals of the younger Caltiglione.
Castigmone, a fmall but llrong town of Italy,
in Mantua, with a caltle. It was taken by the Ger¬
mans in 1701, and the French defeated the Imperi-
alills near it in 1706. E. Long. 10. 29. N. Lat. 43.
23. .
CASTIGLIONI, Balthazar, an eminent Italian
nobleman, delcended from an illultrious and ancient
family, and born at his own villa at Cafalico in the
duchy of Milan in 1478. He lludied painting, fculp-
ture, and architecture, as appears from a book he-
wrote in favour of thefe arts j and excelled fo much
in them, that Raphael Urbino, and Buonaroti, though
incomparable artills, never thought their works com¬
plete without the approbation of Gount Caltiglioni.
When he was 26 years of age, Guido Ubaldo, duke
of Urbino, fent him ambaffador to Pope Julius II.
He was fent upon a fecond embaffy to Louis XII. of
France, and upon a third to Henry VII. of England.
After he had defpatched his bufinefs here, he return¬
ed, and began his celebrated work, entitled the Cour¬
tier ; which he completed at Rome in 15x6. This
work is full of moral and political inltruCtion : and if
we feek for the Italian tongue in perfection, it is faid
to be nowhere better found than in this performance.
A verlion of this work, together with the original
Italian, was publilhed at London in 1727, by A. P.
Caltiglioni, a gentlemen of the fame family, who re¬
fided there under the patronage of Dr Giblon bilhop of
London. Count Caltiglioni was fent by Clement VII.
to the court of the emperor Charles V. in quality of
legate,;and died at Toledo in 1529.
CASTILE, New, or The Kingdom of Toledo,
a province of Spain, bounded on the north by Old
Caltile, on the ealt by the kingdoms of Arragon and
Valencia, on the fouth by thofe of Murcia and Anda-
lufia, and on the welt by the kingdom of Leon. It
is divided into three parts 3 Argaria to the north,
Mancha to the ealt, and Sierra to the fouth. Madrid
is the capital. Both thefe provinces are very well wa~
tered with rivers, and the air is generally pure and
healthy 3 but the land is mountainous, dry, and uncul-.
tivated, through the lazinefs of the inhabitants. The
north part produces fruits and wine, and the fouth
good paltures and fine wool. Thefe provinces are di¬
vided by a long chain of mountains, which run from
eaft to well.
Castile, Old, a province of Spain,, with the title
of a kingdom. It is about 192 miles in length, and iij
in breadth 3 bounded on the fouth by New Caltile,
on the ealt by Arragon and Navarre, on the north by
Bifcay
C ' A S t 2 43
Caflile Bifcay and Afturias, and on the well; by the kingdom the
11 of Leon. Burgos is the capital town.
Cafting^ CASTiLE-de-Oro, a large and fertile country in
v South America, lying to the weft of the Oroonoko. It
comprehends eight governments ; vix. Terra Firma,
Proper Carthagena, St Martha, Rio de la Hacha, Ve¬
nezuela, New Andalufia, Popayan, and the kingdom of
New Granada.
CASTILLAN, or Castillane, a gold coin cur¬
rent in Spain, and worth fourteen rials and fixteen
deniers.
Castillan, is alfo a weight ufed in Spain for weigh¬
ing gold. It is a hundredth part of a pound Spanilh
weight. What they commonly call a weight of gold
in Spain is always underftood of the caftillan.
CASTILLARA, a town of the Mantuan in Italy,
fttuated fix miles north-eaft of the city of Mantua.
E. Long. ii. 25. N. Lat. 45. 20.
CASTILLON, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Gironde, fttuated on the river Dordogne, 16
miles eaft of Bourdeaux. W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 44.
5°.
CASTING, in foundry, the running of metal into
a mould, prepared for that purpofe.
Casting of Metals, of Letters, Bells, &c. See the
article Foundry.
Casting in Sand or Earth, is the running of metals
between two frames, or moulds, filled with fand or earth,
wherein the figure that the metal is to take has been
imprefled en creux, by means of the pattern.
Casting, among fculptors,implies the taking ofcafts
and imprefiions of figures, bufts, medals, leaves, &c.
The method of taking of cafts of figures and bufts
is moft generally by the ufe of plafter of Paris, i. e.
alabafter calcined by a gentle heat. The advantage of
ufing this fubftance preferably to others is, that not-
withftanding a flight calcination reduces it to a pul-
verine ftate, it becomes again a tenacious and cohering
body, by being moiftened with water, and afterwards
fuffered to dry ; by which means either a concave or
a convex figure may be given by a proper mould or
model to it when wet, and retained by the haidnefs
it acquires wrhen dry : and from thefe qualities, it is
fitted for the double purpofe of making both cafts, and
moulds for forming thofe cafts. The particular manner
_ of making cafts depends on the form of the fubjeft to
be taken." Where there are no proje&ing parts, it is
very Ample and eafy ; as likewife wdiere there are
fuch as form only a right or any greater angle with
the principal furface of the body : but where parts pro-
ieft in lefter angles, or form a curve inclined towards
the principal furface of the body, the work is more dif¬
ficult.
The firft ftep to be taken is the forming the mould.
In order to this, if the original or model be a bafs re¬
lief, or any other piece of a flat form, having its lur-
face firft well greafed, it muft be placed on a proper
table, and furrounded by a frame, the fides of wLich
muft be at fuch a diftance from it as will allow a pro¬
per thicknefs for the fides of the mould. As much
plafter as wall be fufficient to cover and rife to fuch a
thicknefs as may give fufficient ftrength to the mould,
as alfo to fill the hollow betwixt the frame and the
model, muft be moiftened with water, till it be juft
cf fuch confiftence as will allow it to be poured upon
] CAS
  model. This muft be done as foon as poflible; Calling.
or the plafter would concrete or fet, fo as t-o become •
more troublefome in the working, or unfit to be ufed.
The wdiole muft then be fuffered to remain in this
condition, till the plafter has attained its hardnefs;
and then the frame being taken away, the preparatory
caft or mould thus formed may be taken oft' from the
fubjeft entire.
Where the model or original fubjedl is of a round
or ereft form, a different method muft be purfued ;
and the mould muft be divided into feveral pieces : or
if the fubjedt confifts of detached and projefting parts,
it is frequently moft expedient to caft fuch parts fepa-
rately, and afterwards join them together.
Where the original fubjeft or mould forms a round,
or fpheroid, or any part of fuch round or fpheroid,
more than one half the plafter muft be ufed without
any frame to keep it round the model ; and muft be
tempered with water to fuch a confiftence, that it may
be wrought wdth the hand like very foft pafte j but
though it muft not be fo fluid as when prepared for
flat-figured models, it muft yet be as moift as is com¬
patible with its cohering fufftciently to hold together ;
and being thus prepared, it muft be put upon the mo-
cUd, and compreffed rvith the hand, or any flat inftru-
ment, that the parts of it may adapt themfelves, in the
moft perfeft manner, to thofe of the fubjedt, as well
as to be compacl with refpedl to themfelves. When
the model is fo covered to a convenient thicknefs, the
whole muft be left at reft till the plafter be fet and
firm, fo as to bear dividing without falling to pieces,
or being liable to be put out of its form by flight vio¬
lence ; and it muft then be divided into pieces, in or¬
der to its being taken off from the model, by cutting
it with a knife with a very thin blade : and being di¬
vided, muft be cautioufly taken off, and kept till dry j
but it muft be always carefully obferved, before the
reparation of the parts be made, to notch them acrofs
the joints or lines of the divifion, at proper diftances,
that they may with eafe and certainty be properly con¬
joined again 5 which would be much more precarious
and troublefome without fuch direflive mark®. The
art of properly dividing the moulds, in order to make
them feparate from the model, requires more dexterity
and fkill than any other thing in the art of calling •,
and does not admit of rules for the moft advantageous
conduft of it in every cafe. Where the fubjecl is of
a round or fpheroidal form, it is bell to divide the
mould into three parts, which will then eafily come off
from the model : and the fame will hold good of a
cylinder or any regular curved figure.
The mould being thus formed, and dry, and the
parts put together, it muft be firft greafed, and placed
in fuch a pofition that the hollow may lie upwards,
and then filled with plafter mixed with water, in the
fame proportion and manner as was direfted for the
calling the mould : and when the caft is perfectly fet
and dry, it muft be taken out of the mould, and re¬
paired where it is neceffary 5 which finiflies the ope¬
ration.
This is all that is required with refpeft to fubjedls
where the furfaces have the regularity above-men¬
tioned : but where they form curves which interfed
each other, the conduct of the operation muft be va¬
ried with refpeft to the manner of taking the caft of
H h ,2 the
CAS [J44]. CAS
gafting* the mould from olF the fubjefl or model; and where per hagings, or fine cotton plucked or cut till it Is Carting,
tllere are long projeaing parts, fuch as legs or arms, very fhort, (hould be mixed with the afhes or fand be- 1 w~->
they Ihould be wrought in feparate cafts. The opera- fore they are added to the clay to make the compofi-
tor may eafily judge, from the original fubje&s, what tion for the mould. The proportion fhould be according
parts will come off together, and what require to be to the degree of cohefion required j but a fmall quan-
feparated : the principle of the whole confifts only in tity will anfwer the end, if the other ingredient of the
this, that where under-workings, as they are called, oc- compofition be good, and the parts of the mould proper-
cur, that is, where ver a ftraight line drawn from the ly linked together by means of the wires above direfted.
bafis or infertion of any projection, would be cut or There is a nethod of taking cafts in metals from
croffed by any part of fuch projection, fuch part can- fmall animals, and the parts of vegetables, which may
not be taken off without a divifion 5 which mull be be praCtifed for fome purpofes with advantage : par-
made either in the place where the projection would ticularly for the decorating grottoes or rock work
crofs the rtraight line ; or, as that is frequently difficult, where nature is imitated. The proper kinds of animals
the whole projection muft be feparated from the main are lizards, brakes, frogs, birds, or infeCts ; the cafts
body, and divided alfo lengthwife into two parts; and of which, if properly coloured, will be exaCt reprefen-
where there are no projections from the principal fur- tations of the originals.
faces, but the body is fo formed as to render the fur- This is to be performed by the following method,
face a compofition of fuch curves, that a ftraight line A coffin or proper cheft for forming the mould being
being drawn parallel to the furface of one part would prepared of clay, or four pieces of boards fixed toge-
be cut by the outline, in one or more places, of ano- ther, the animal or parts of vegetables muft be fufpend-
thtr part, a diviiion of the whole fhould be made, fo ed in it by a firing ; and the leaves, tendrils or other
as to reduce the parts of it into regular curves, which detached parts of the vegetables, or the legs, wings,
muft then be treated as fuch. &c. of the animals, properly feparated and adjufted,
In larger malles, where there would otherwife be a m their right pofition by a fmall pair of pincers 1 a due
great thicknefs of the plafter, a core or body may be quantity of plafter of Paris and calcined talk, in equal
put within the mould, in order to produce a hollow in quantities, with fome alumen plumofum, muft then
the caft ; which both faves the expence of the plafter, be tempered wdth w'ater to the proper confiftence for
anl-J^n^eis t^ie ca^ ^g^ter* cafting ; and the fubjeft from whence the caft is to
This core may be of wmod, where the forming a be taken, alfo the fides of the coffin, moiftened
hollow^ of a ftraight figure, or a conical one with the with fpirit of wine. The coffin or cheft muft then
balls outward, will aniwer the end : but if the cavity be filled with the tempered compofition of the plafter
require to be round, or of any curve figure, the core and talk, putting at the fame time a piece of ftr^ight
cannot be then drawn while entire ; and confequently flick or wood to the principal part of the body of the
fhould be of fuch matter as may be taken out piece- fubjeft, and pieces of thick wire to the extremities of
meal. In this cafe, the core is belt formed of clay; the other parts, in order that they may form, when
which muft be worked upon wires to give it a tenacity, drawm out after the matter of the mould is properly
and fufpended in the hollow of the mould by crofs fet and firm, a channel for pouring in the melted me-
wires lying over the mouth ; and when the plafter is tal, and vents for the air ; which otherwife by the
fufficiently let to bear handling, the clay muft be pick- rarefaction it would undergo from the heat of the me-
by -a Pr°per inftrument- tal would blow it out or burft the mould. In a ffiort
Where it is defined to render the plafter harder, the time the plafter and talk will fet and become hard
water wuth w-hich it is tempered Ihould be mixed wdth when the flick and wires may be drawn out, and the*
parchment fize properly prepared, which will make it frame or coffin in which the mould was caft taken away:
very firm and tenacious. and the mould muft then be put firft into a moderate
In the fame manner, figures, bulls, &c. may be heat, and afterwards, when it is as dry as it can be ren-
. all of lead, or any other metal, in the moulds of pla- dered by that degree, removed into a greater ; witich
iter ; only the expence of plafter, and the tedioufnefs may be gradually increafed till the whole be red hot»
of its becoming fufliciently dry, when in a very large The animal or part of any vegetable, which wras in¬
mats, to bear the heat of melted metal, render the ufe eluded in the mould, will then be burnt to a coal; and
of clay compounded with fome other proper materials, may be totally calcined to affies, by blowing for fome
pre eiable where large fubjeCls are in queftion. The time gently into the channel and paffages made for
f Ai’-? c Cafe’ fllOUld be Waflied °Ver d11 I1 be Per- Pouring in the metal, and giving vent to the air, which
e ,rCC rom gravel or ftones ; and then mixed with will, at the fame time that it deflroys the remainder
a * nia otj r??re bne *anc^ to Prevent it cracking ; of the animal or vegetable matter, blow out the afhes.
u’ ea <5 an > c°ai aihes lifted fine may be ufed. The mould muft then be fuffered to cool gently ; and
nt er p .t er 01 c ay be employed for the cafting in will be peifedl; the deftrudtion of the fubftance of the
r^ai1 ’J1 lS tXtierncueedfary to have the mould per- animal or vegetable having produced a hollow of a fi¬
fed y dry : otherwife the moiflure, being rarefied, will gure correfpondent to it : but it may be neverthelefs
make an explofion that will blow the metal out of the proper to ffiake the mould, and turn it upfide down,
mould, and endanger the operator, or at leaft crack the as alfo to blow with the bellows into each of the airl
mouW in inch a manner as to fruftrate the operation, vents, in order to free it wholly from any remainder of
Where the parts of a mould are larger, or projed much, the affies ; or where there may be an opportunity of
and confequently require a greater tenacity of the filling the hollow with quickfilver without expence, it
matter t rey are ormed of to keep them together, will be found a very effedual method of clearing the
"oc s 0 prepare.- like thole defigned for pa- cavity, as all duft, afhes, or fmall detached bodies, will
nec eft aril y
GAS [ 24^ ] CAS
Cafling.
Phil. Comm,
of Arts.
ffaturalijls
Companion.
neceffarily rife to the furface of the quickfilver, and be
poured out with it. The mould being thus prepared, it
mud be heated very hot when ufed, if the caft be made
with copper or brafs : but a lefs degree will ferve for
lead or tin; and the matter being poured in, the mould
muft be gently ftruck ; and then fuffered to reft till it
be cold; at which time it muft be carefully taken from
the caft, but without the lead; force ; for fuch parts of
the matter as appear to adhere more ftrongly, muft be
foftened by foaking in water till they be entirely loof-
ened, that none of the more delicate parts of the caft
may be broken off or bent.
Where the alumen plumofum, or talk, cannot eafi-
ly be procured, the plafter may be ufed alone •, but it
is apt to be calcined by the heat ufed in burning the ani¬
mal or vegetable from whence the caft is taken, and to
become of too incohering and crumbly texture j or,
for cheapnefs, Sturbridge or any other good clay, wafti-
ed over, till it be perfeftly fine, and mixed with an equal
part of fand, and fome flocks cut fmall, may be employ¬
ed. Pounded pumice ftone and plafter of Paris, taken
in equal quantities, and mixed with waftied clay in the
fame proportion, is faid to make excellent moulds for
this and parallel.ufes.
Cafts of medals, or fuch fmall pieces as are of a fimi-
lar form, may be made in plafter by the method direft-
ed for bafs relievos.
Indeed there is nothing more required than to form
a mould by laying them on a proper board, and having
furrounded them by a rim made by the piece of a card
or any other pafteboard, to fill the rim with foft tem¬
pered plafter of Paris j which mould, when dry, will
ferve for feveral cafts. It is neverthelefs a better me¬
thod to form the mould of melted fulphur; which will
produce a (harper impreflion in the caft, and be more
durable than thofe made of plafter.
The cafts are likewife frequently made of fulphur,
which being melted muft be treated exactly in the fame
manner as the plafter
For taking cafts from medals, Dr Lewis recom¬
mends a mixture of flowers of brimftone and red
lead : equal parts of thefe are to be put over the fire
in a ladle, till they foften to the confiftence of pap :
then they are kindled with a piece of paper, and rtir-
red for fome time. The veflel being afterwards co¬
vered clofe, and continued on the fire, the mixture
grows fluid in a few minutes. It is then to be poured
on the metal, previoufly oiled and wiped clean. The
cafts are very neat j their colour fometimes a pretty
deep black, fometimes a dark gray : they are very du¬
rable ; and when foiled, may be waftied clean in fpirits
of wine.
Dr Lettfom recommends tin foil for taking off cafts
from medals. The thinneft kind is to be ufed. It
(hould be laid over the fubjedt from which the impref-
fion is to be taken, and then rubbed with a brufti, the
point of a (kewer, or a pin, till it has perfeflly re¬
ceived the impreflion. The tin foil (hould now be
pared clofe to the edge of the medal, till it is brought
to the fame circumference : the medal muft then be
reverfed, and the tin foil will drop off into a chip box
or mould placed ready to receive it. Thus the con¬
cave fide of the foil will be uppermoft, and upon this
plafter of Paris, prepared in the ufual manner, may
be poured. When dry, the whole is to be taken
out, and the tin foil flicking on the plafter will give
a perfedt reprefentation of the medal, almoft equal in ‘
beauty to filver. If the box or mould is a little larger
than the medal, the plafter running round the tin foil
will give the appearance of a white frame or circular
border 5 whence the new made medal will appear more
neat and beautiful.
Carting.
Cafts may be made likewife with iron, prepared
in the following manner : “ Take any iron bar, or
piece of a fimilar form ; and having heated it red-
hot, hold it over a veffel containing water, and
touch it very (lightly with a roll of fulphur, which
will immediately diffolve it, and make it fall in drops
into the water. As much iron as may be wanted
being thus diffolved, pour the water out of the vef¬
fel : and pick out the drops formed by the melted
iron from thofe of the fulphur, which contain little
or no iron, and will be diftinguilhable from the other
by their colour and weight.” The iron will, by
this means, he rendered fo fufible, that it will run
with lefs heat than is required to melt lead ; and may
be employed for making cafts of medals, and many
other fuch purpofes, with great convenience and ad¬
vantage.
Impreflions of medals, having the fame effetft as
cafts, may be made alfo of ifinglafs glue, by the fol¬
lowing means. Melt the ifinglafs, beaten, as when
commonly ufed, in an earthen pipkin, with the ad¬
dition of as much water as wfill cover it, ftirring it
gently till the whole is diffolved ; then with a brufti
of camels hair, cover the medal, which ftiould be
previoufly w7ell cleanfed and warmed, and then laid
horizontally on a board or table, greafed in the part
around the medal. Let them reft afterwards till the
glue be properly hardened ; and then, with a pin,
raife the edge of it; and feparate it carefully from
the medal: the caft will be thus formed ‘by the glue
as hard as horn ; and fo light, that a thoufand will
fcarcely wreigh an ounce. In order to render the re¬
lief of the medal more apparent, a fmall quantity of
carmine may be mixed with the melted ifinglafs j or
the medal may be previoufly coated with leaf gold
by breathing on it, and then laying it on the leaf,
which 'will by that means adhere to it; but the ufe of
leaf gold is apt to impair a little the iharpnefs of the
impreffion.
Impreflions of medals may be likexvife taken in
putty ; but it ftiould be the true kind made of calx of
tin, and drying oil. Thefe may be formed in the
moulds, previoufly taken in plafter or fulphur; or
moulds may be made in its own fubftance, in the man¬
ner dire&ed for thofe of the plafter. Thefe impref-
fions will be very (harp and hard ; but the greateft
difadvantage that attends them, is thoir drying very
(lowly, and being liable in the mean time to be da¬
maged.
Impreffions of prints, or other engravings, may be
taken from copperplates, by cleanfing them thorough¬
ly, and pouring plafter upon them ; but the effedt in
this w'ay is not ftrong enough for the eye} and there¬
fore the following method is preferable, where fuch
impreflions on plafter are defired.
Take vermilion, or any other coloured pigment, fine¬
ly powftered, and rub it over the plate: then pafs a
folded piece of paper, or the flat part of the hand, over
the
CAS [ 246 ] CAS
Calling, the plate, to take off the colour from the lights or parts
"'’’""V where there is no engraving; the proceeding muff then
be the fame as where no colour is ufed. This laft
method is alfo applicable to the making of impreffions
of copperplates on paper with dry colours ; for the
plate being prepared as here directed, and laid on the
paper properly moiftened, and either paffed under the
rolling prefe, or any other way ftrongly forced down
on the paper, an impreflion of the engraving will be
obtained.
Impreflions may be likewife taken from cop¬
perplates, either on plafter or paper, by means of
the fmoke of a candle or lamp ; if, inftead of rub¬
bing them with any colour, the plate be held over
the candle or lamp till the whole furface become
black, and then wiped off by the flat of the hand, or
paper.
Thefe methods are not, however, of great ufe in the
cafe of copperplates, except where impreffions may
be defired on occafions where printing ink cannot be
procured : but as they may be applied likewife to the
taking impreflions from fnuff boxes, or other engraved
fubjedls, by which means defigns may be inftantly bor¬
rowed by artifts or curious perfons, they may in fuch
inttances be very ufeful.
The expedient of taking impreflions by the fmoke
of a candle or lamp may be employed alfo for bota¬
nical purpofes in the cafe of leaves, as a perfedl and
durable reprefentation of not only the general figure,
but the contexture and difpofition of the larger fibres,
may be extemporaneoufly obtained at any time.. The
fame may be neverthelefs done in a more perfedt man-
- ner, by the ufe of linfeed oil, either alone, or mixed
with a fmall proportion of colour, where the oil can be
conveniently procured: but the other method is valu¬
able on account of its being pradlicable at almofi: all fea-
fons, and in all places, wfithin the time that the leaves
will keep frelh and plump. In taking thefe impreflions
it is proper to bruife the leaves, fo as to take off the
projections of the large ribs, which might prevent the
other parts from plying to the paper.
Leaves, as alfo the petals, or flower leaves, of
plants, may themfelves be preferved on paper, with
their original appearance, for a confiderable length of
time, by the following means.—Take a piece of paper,
and rub it over wuth ifinglafs glue treated as above di¬
rected for taking impreflions from medals ; and then
lay the leaves in a proper pofition on the paper. The
glue laid on the paper being fet, brufli over the leaves
with more of the fame ; and that being dry likewdfe,
the operation will be finifhed, and the leaves fo fecured
from the air and moifture, that they will retain their
figure and colour much longer than by any other treat¬
ment.
Butterflies, ror other fmall animals of a flat figure,
may alfo be preferved in the fame manner.
Casting is alfo fometimes ufed for the quitting,
laying, or throwing afide any thing; thus deer caff
their horns, fnakes their Ikins, loblters their fhells,
hawks their feathers, &c. annually.
Cajling of feathers is more properly called moulting
or mewing.
A horfe cafs his hair, or coat, at leaft once a-year,
viz. in the fpring, when he cafts his winter coat ; and
fometimes, at the clofe of autumn, he cafts his fummer
2
coat, in cafe he has been ill kept. Horfes alfo fome* Cafifng,
times cafl their hoofs, w'hich happens frequently to Caftle.
coach horfes brought from Holland ; thefe being bred "In_
in a moift marlhy country, have their hoofs too flabby:
fo that coming into a drier foil, and lefs juicy proven¬
der, their hoofs fall off, and others that are firmer fuc-
ceed.
Casting a Colt, denotes a mare’s proving abor¬
tive.
Casting Net, a fort of fifhing net, fo called, becaufe
it is to be cafl or thrown out; which when exaCtly
done, nothing efcapes it, but weeds and every thing
within its extent are brought away.
CASTLE, a fortrefs or place rendered defenfible
either by nature or art. It frequently fignifies with us
the principal manfion of noblemen. In the time of
Henry II. there were no lefs than 1115 caftles in Eng¬
land, each of which contained a manor.
Castles, walled with ftone, and defigned for refi-
dence as well as defence, are, for the moft part, ac¬
cording to Mr Grofe, of no higher antiquity than the
Conqueft; for although the Saxons, Romans, and even,
according to fome writers on antiquity, the ancient
Britons, had caftles built with flone^ yet thefe were
both few in number, and at that period, through ne-
gleft or invafions, either deftroyed or fo much decayed,
that little more than their ruins were remaining. This
is afferted by many of our hiftorians and antiquaries,
and afligned as a reafon for the facility wflth which
William made himfelf mafter of this country.
This circumftance was not overlooked by fo good a
general as the Conqueror ; wTho, effectually to guard
againft invafions from without, as well as to awe his
newly acquired fubjeCts, immediately began to ereft
caftles all over the kingdom, and likewdfe to repair and
augment the old ones. Befides, as he had parcelled
out the lands of the Englilh amongft his followers,
they, to proteCt themfelves from the refentment of
thofe fo defpoiled, built ftrong holds and caftles on
their eftates. This likewdfe caufed a confiderablc in-
creafe of thefe fortreffes; and the turbulent and un¬
fettled ftate of the kingdom in the fucceeding reigns,
ferved to multiply them prodigioufly, every baron or
leader of a party building caftles; infomuch, that to¬
wards the latter end of the reign of King Stephen,
they amounted to the almoft incredible number of
1115.
As the feudal fyftem gathered ftrength, thefe caftles Grofe s An-
became the heads of baronies. Each caftle was a v(\a.~tiquities of
nor : and its caftelain, owner, or governor, the lord of-£'^*^
that manor. Markets and fairs were direCled to be**, j
held there; not only to prevent frauds in the king’sface>
duties or cuftoms, but alfo as they were efteemed places
where the lawrs of the land were obferved, and as fuch
had a very particular privilege. But this good order
did not long laft: for the lords of caftles began to arro¬
gate to themfelves a royal pow'er, not only within their
caftles, but likewflfe its environs; exercifing judicature
both civil and criminal, coining of money, and arbitra-,
rily feizing forage and provifion for the fubfiftence of
their garrifons, which they afterwards demanded as a
right : at length their infolence and oppreflion grew
to fuch a pitch, that, according to William of NewT-
bury, “ there were in England as many kings, or ra¬
ther tyrants, as lords of caftles;” and Matthew Paris
CAS [ 247 ] CAS
Cattle, ftyles them very nefts of devils, and dens of thieves, quently happened in the difiracled reigns of the feudal Cakie.
—Y~—' Cattles were not folely in the pofifeflion of the crown times), were generally committed to the. cuftody of''“’■“V'-
and the lay barons, but even bithops had thefe fortreflesj fome trufty perfon, who feems to have been indifferently
though it feems to have been contrary to the canons, ftyled governor and conitable. Sometimes alfo they
from a plea made ufe of in a general council, in favour were put into the poffeflion of the ffieriff of the county,,
of King Stephen, who had feized upon the ffrong who often converted them into prifons. That officer
caftles of the bifliops of Lincoln and Saliibury. This was then accountable at the exchequer, for the farm
prohibition (if fuch exifted) was, however, very little or produce of the lands belonging to the places intruft-
regarded ; as in the following reigns many ftrong ed to his care, as well as all other profits j he was
places were held, and even defended, by the ecclefia- likewife, in cafe of war or invafion, obliged to visual
flics : neither was more obedience afterwards paid to a and furniffi them with munition out of the iffues. of
decree made by the pope at Viterbo, the fifth of the his county ; to which he was direded by writ of privy-
kalends of June 1220, wherein it was ordained, that no feal.
perfon in England flrould keep in his hands more than The materials of which caftles were built, varied
two of the king’s caftles. according to the places, of their ere&ion : but the
The licentious behaviour of the garrifons of thefe manner of their conftru&ion feems to have been pretty-
places becoming intolerable, in the treaty between King uniform. The outfides of the walls were generally
Stephen and Henry II. when only duke of Normandy, built with the ftones neareft at hand, laid as regularly
it w-as apreed, that all the caftles built within a certain as their ftrapes would admit •, the infides were filled up.
period ffiould be demolifhed } in confequence of which with the like materials, mixed with a great quantity of
many were a&ually rafed, but not the number ftipu- fluid mortar, which was called by the workmen grout-
lated. " work.
The few caftles in being under the Saxon govern- I he general ftiape or plan of thefe caftles depended
ment, were probably, on occafion of war or invafionsr entirely on the caprice of the architefts, or the form
garrifoned by the national militia, and at other times of the ground intended to be occupied 5 neither do.
{lightly guarded by the domeftics of the princes or they feem to have confined themfelves to any particular
great perfonages wjio refided therein*, but after the figure in their towers j fquare, round, and polygonal,
Conqueft, when all the eftates were converted into ba- oftentimes occuring in the original parts of the lame
ronies held by knight’s fervice, caftle guard coming building. . r , a 1
under that denomination, was among the duties to The fituation of the caftles of the Anglo-Norman
which particular tenants were liable. From thefe fer- kings and barons was moft commonly on an eminence,
vices the biffiops and abbots, who till the time of the and near a river ; a fituation on feveral accounts eh-
Normans haft held their lands in frankalmoign, or free gible. The whole fite of the caftle (which was fie-
alms, were, by this new regulation, not exempted j quently of great extent and irregular figure) was fur-
thev were not indeed, like the laity, obliged to perfonal rounded by a deep and broad ditch, fometimes filled
fervice, it being fufficient that they provided fit and with water, and fometimes dry, called xhefo/fe. Be-
able perfons to officiate in their Head. This was how- fore the great gate was an outwork, called a barbacan,
ever at firft ftoutly oppofed by Anfe'm archbifhop of or antemural, which was a ftrong and high wall, with
Canterbury *, who being obliged to find fome knights turrets upon it, defigned for the defence of the gate
to attend King William Rufus in his wars in Wales, and drawbridge. On the infide 01 tne ditcn^ flood the
complained of it as an innovation and infringement of wall of the caftle, about eight or ten feet thick, and
the rights and immunities of the church. between 20 and 30 feet bigh, with a parapet, and a
It was no uncommon thing for the Conqueror and kind of embraiures called a etine/s, on the top. On
the kings of thofe days to grant eftates to men of ap- this wall at proper diftances i’quare towers of two. or
proved fidelity and valour, cn condition that they three ftories high.were built, which ferved.for lodging,
fhould perform caftle guard in the royal caftles, with a fome of the principal officers of the proprietor of the
certain number of men, for fome fpecified time 5 and caftle, and for other purpofes : and on the infide.were
fometimes they were likewife bound by their tenures erefted lodgings for the common fervants or retainers,
to keep in repair and guard fome particular tower or granaries, ftorehoufes, and other neceftary offices. .Ou
bulwark, as was the cafe at Dover caftle. the top of this wall, and on the hat roofs of tnefe
In procefs of time thefe fervices were commuted for buildings, flood the defenders of the caftle, when it
annual rents, fometimes ftyled wardpcnny, and waytfee, was befieged, and from thence diicharged arrows, darts,
but commonly cajileguard rents, payable on fixed days, and ftones on the befiegers. The great gate of the
under prodigious penalties called Jurji%es. At Rochef- caftle flood in the courfe of this wall, and was liiongiy
ter, if a man failed in the payment of his rent of caftle fortified with a tower on each fide,, and rooms over the
guard on the feaft of St Andrew, his debt was doubled paflage, which was clofed with thick folding doors of
every tide during the time for w-hich the payment was- oak, often plated with iron, and with an iron portcullis
delayed. Thefe were afterwards reftrained by an a£l of or grate let down from above. Within this outw-ard
parliament made in the reign of King Henry VIIL wall was a large open fpace or court, called, in the
and finally annihilated, with the tenures by knight’s largeft and moil perfedl caftles, the outer bayle,ov ha -
fervice in the time of Charles II. Such caftles as wer& lium^ in which flood commonly a church or chapel-
private property were guarded either by mercenary fol- On the infide of this outer bayle was another diten,
diets, or the tenants of the lord or owner. wall, gate, and towers, enclofmg the inner bayle or
Caftles which belonged to the crown, or fell to it court, within which the chief tow7er or keep was built,
either by forfeiture or efeheat, (circumftances that £re- This was a very large fquare fabric, four or five ftoriea
.high.
'CAB [ 248 ] CAS
-Caflle. higVi, having fmall windows in prodigious thick walls,
”’"~v which rendered the apartments within it dark and
gloomy. This great tower was the palace of the
prince, prelate, or baron, to whom the caftle belonged,
and the refidence of the conftable or governor. Under
ground were difmal dark vaults, for the confinement
of prifoners, which made it fometimes be called the
dungeon. In this building alfo was the great hall, in
which the owner difplayed his hofpitality, by entertain¬
ing his numerous friends and followers. At one end
of the great halls of caftles, palaces, and monafteries,
there was a place raifed a little above the reft of the
floor, called the dels, where the chief table flood, at
which perfons of the higheft rank dined. Though there
W’ere unqueftionably great variations in the ftrufture of
caftles, yet the moft perfect and magnificent of them
feem to have been conftrufted nearly on the above plan.
Such, to give one example, w^as the famous caftle of
Uedford, as appears from the following account of the
manner in wThich it was taken by Henry III. A. D.
1224. The caftle was taken by four aflaults. “ In
the firft was taken the barbacan ; in the fecond the
outer ballia ; at the third attack, the wTall by the old
towTer w’as thrown ^down by the miners, where, wdth
great danger, they poffeffed themfelves of the inner
ballia, through a chink) at the fourth aflault the
miners fet fire to the tower, fo that the fmoke burft
out, and the tower itfelf was cloven to that degree, as
to fhow vifibly fome broak chinks : whereupon the
enemy furrendered.” See a reprefentation of a caftle in
Plate CXXXV. where 1 is the barbacan, 2, the ditch
or moat, 3 the wall of the outer ballium, 4 the outer
ballium, 5 the artificial mount, 6 the wall of the in¬
ner ballium, y the inner ballium, 8 the keep or dun¬
geon.
Before the acceftion of James VI. to the throne of
England, the fituation of Scotland w^as fuch, that eve¬
ry baron’s houfe w’as more or lefs fortified, according
to the power and confequence of its lord, or according
to the fituation of the caftle. Near Edinburgh or
Stirling, where the inhabitants wTere more polifhed in
their manners, and overawed by the feat of government,
no more was neceflary than towers capable of refilling
the curfory attack of robbers and thieves, who never
durft ftop to make a regular inveftment, but plundered
by furprife, and, if repulfed, inftantly fled aw'ay. Such
was Melville Caftle. It anciently confuted of a ftrong
built tovver of three ftories, embattled at the top, and
was fufficiently ftrong to refill a hidden attack, unaid¬
ed by artillery, or other engines of rvar. But, when
further removed, as in Perthftiire, Invernefslhire, or
Aberdeenlhire, then it was neceffary to be better de¬
fended, and the aids of a peel or dungeon, with outer
walls, moat, and wret ditch, barnakin, &c. added to en¬
able the powerful lord to refill the formidable attack
of his powerful adverfary. The hiftory of Scotland,
fo late as the reign of the Stuart family, affords a num¬
ber of melancholy inllances of inveterate feuds among
the greater and leffer barons of that period 5 by which
every mode of fortification then in ufe was feldom ade¬
quate to the defence of the caftle againft the ftorm
or blockade of the enraged chieftan. The caftle of
Doun feems to anfwer this defcription of fortification,
and has made feveral gallant defences, in the annals of
Scotland. The third kind of fortieffes we meet with
1
in Scotland are thofe fituated on the borders of Eng- CallJe.
land, or on the fea coalls of the kingdom, and in the w—«■
weftern illes, and very remote places. Many of the old
caftles in Scotland were fituated on an illand, in a deep
lake, or on a peninfula, which by a broad deep cut was
made an illand. Of this kind was Lochmaben, in the ,
ftewartry of Annandale, the caftle of Clofeburn in the
(hire of Nithfdale, the caftle of the Rive, fituated on
the river Dee in the Ihire of Galloway, Lochleven
caftle, and many others.
This kind of fortrefs was only acceftible in a hard
froft, or by boats, which were not eafily tranfported
by a people deftitute of good roads and wheel carriages.
In fa<ft, they could only be taken by furprife or block¬
ade ; the firft very difficult, the fecond very tedious $
fo that, before the ufe of artillery, they might be deem¬
ed almoft impregnable. On that account, their fitua¬
tion was very defirable in the inland parts of Scotland,
On the fea coafts of Scotland we generally find the
ftrongeft and moft ancient, as well as the moft impreg¬
nable caftles. Thefe had to defend themfelves from
the invafion of the foreign enemy, as well as the at*
tacks of the domeftic foe. Thus we find the barons,
whole lands extended to the fea coaft, perched, like the
eagle, on the moft inacceffible rocks that lay within
their poffeffions. Of this kind were Slains caftle, Tan-
tallon, and Dunottar on the eaft coaft, and Dunvegan
in the ifle of Sky, with Dunolly on the weft coaft.
Thefe muft have been moft uncomfortable retreats, ex¬
cept to a barbarous people, or when a preffing danger
forced the baron to feek his fafety in the only poffible
retreat left him.
Castle, in ancient writers, denotes a town or vil¬
lage furrounded with a ditch and wall, furniffied with
towers at intervals, and guarded by a body of troops.
The word is originally Latin, caftellum, a diminutive
from cajlrum. Cqftellum originally feems to have figni-
fied a fmaller fort for a little garrifon : though Sueto¬
nius ufes the word where the fortification was large
enough to contain a cohort. The cajlella, according
to Vegetius, were often like towns, built on the bor¬
ders of the empire, and where there were conftant
guards and fences againft the enemy. Horfiey takes
them for much the fame with what were otherwife de¬
nominated Rations.
Castle, or CqJ}7c-J}eed, is alfo an appellation given
by the country people in the north to the Roman caf-
te/Ia, as diftinguiftred from the cajlra Jfativa which
they ufually call chejlers. Horfiey reprefents this as
an ufeful criterion, whereby to difcover or diftinguifh
a Roman camp or ftation. There are feveral of thefe
caftella on Severus’s wall : they are generally 60 feet
fquare ; their north fide is formed by the wall itfelf
which falls in with them ; the intervals between them
are from fix furlongs and a half to feven j they feem
to have flood clofeft where the ftations are wideft.
The neighbouring people call them cq/lles, or cajlle
Jieeds, by wffiich it feems probable that their ancient
Latin name had been cqflellum. Some modern writers
call them mile cajlles, or military cajlclLe ; Horfiey fome¬
times exploratory cajlles. In thefe cajlella the areans had
their ftation, who were an order of men whofe bufintfs
was to make incurfions into the enemies country, and
give intelligence of their motions.
Castle, in the fea language, is a part of the ftiip?
of
CAS [ 249 ] CAS
ttaftle of which there are two •, the forecaftle, being the ele-
i! vation at the prow, or the uppermoft deck towards the
rCaftor. mjzen> t|ie place where the kitchens are. Hindcaftle
   y is the elevation which reigns on the ftern, over the lafl:
deck, whefe the officers cabins and places of affembly
are.
Castle, Edmund. See Castel.
CASTLE-Bar, a borough and market town, capital
of the county of Mayo in Ireland, is a well-inhabited
place, and carries on a brilk trade : it has a barrack
for a troop of horfe 5 and there is here a charter fchool
capable of receiving 50 children, and endowed with
two acres of land, rent free, by the right honourable
Lord Lucan, who has alfo granted a leafe of 20 acres
more at a pepper corn yearly.
CASTLE-Cary, a remarkable Roman ftation about
four miles well from Falkirk on the borders of Stir-
lingfhire in Scotland. It comprehends feveral acres
of ground, is of a fquare form, and is furrounded
with a wall of {tone and mortar : all the fpace within
the walls has been occupied by buildings, the ruins of
which have railed the earth eight or ten feet above its
natural furface j fo that the fort now feems like a
hill top furrounded with a funk fence. In 1770, fome
workmen employed in fearching for ftones for the
great canal, which pafles very near it, difcovered feve¬
ral apartments of Hone ; and in one of them a great
number of ftones about two feet in length, and Hand¬
ing erecl, with marks of fire upon them, as if they
had been employed in fupporting fome veffel under
which fire was put. In a hollow of the rock near this
place, in 1771, a coniiderable quantity of wheat quite
black with age ^vas found, with fome wedges and ham¬
mers fuppofed to be Roman.
CAsriE-Rifing) a borough town of Norfolk in Eng¬
land, which fends two members to parliament. E. Long,
o. 40. N. Lat. 52. 46.
CASTLE-Work, fervice or labour done by inferior te¬
nants, for the building and upholding caftles of de¬
fence, toward which fome gave their perfonal aflift-
ance, and others paid their contributions. This was
one of the three neceflary charges to which the An¬
glo-Saxons were exprefsly fubjedt.
CASTLETOWN, the capital of the ifle of Man,
feated on the fouth-weft part of the ifland. It has a
ftrong caftle j but of no great importance, on account
of its diftance from the rocky and (hallow harbour.
W. Long. 4. 39. N. Lat. 53. 30.
CASTOR, the Beaver, in Zoology, a genus of
quadrupeds belonging to the order of glires. See
Mammalia Index.
Castor, in AJlronomy, a moiety of the conftellation
Gemini \ called alfo Apollo. Its latitude north¬
wards, for the year 1700, according to Hevelius, was
io°4' 23"; and its longitude, of Cancer, 170 4' 14".
is alfo called Rafalgenze, Apollo, Aphellan, Avellar,
Anelar.
Castor and Pollux, in Pagan mythology. Jupiter
having an amour with Leda, the wife of Tyndarus
king of Sparta, in the form of a fwan, (he brought
forth two eggs, each containing twins. From that
impregnated by Jupiter proceeded Pollux and Helena,
who were both immortal : from the other Caftor and
Clytemneftra, who being begot by Tyndarus were
Vol. V. Part I.
both mortal. They were all, however, called by the Caftor,
common name of Tyndaridce. Thefe two brothers en- Caftoreum.
tered into an inviolable friendlhip ; they went with the
other noble youths of Greece in the expedition to
Colchis, and, on feveral occafions, fignalized them-
felves by their courage $ but Caftor being at length
killed, Pollux obtained leave to (hare his own immor¬
tality with him; fo that they are faid to live and die
alternately every day : for, being tranflated into the
(kies, they form the conftellation of Gemini, one of
which ftars rifes as the other fets.
A martial dance, called the Pyrrhic or Cajlorian,
dance, was invented in honour of thole deities, whom
the Cephelenfes placed among the Dii Magni, and of¬
fered to them white lambs. The Romans alfo paid
them particular honours on account of the affiftance
they are faid to have given them in an engagement
againft the Latins j in which, appearing mounted on
white horfes, they turned the fcale of viftory in their
favour, for which a temple was eredfed to them in
the forum.
Castor and Pollux, a fiery meteor, which at fea ap¬
pears fometimes (ticking to a part of the (hip, in form
of one, two, or even three or four fire balls : when
one is feen alone, it is more properly called Helena ;
two are denominated Caftor and Pollux, and fometimes
Tyndaridae. Caftor and Pollux are called by the Spa¬
niards, San Elmo j by the French St Elme, St Ni¬
cholas, St Clare, St Helene j by the Italians, Her-
mo •, by the Dutch, Tree Vuuren.
Caftor and Pollux are commonly judged to portend
a ceffation of the (form, and a future calm j being
rarely feen till the temped is nigh fpent. Helena
alone portends ill, and witneffes the fevered part of the
ftorm yet behind. When the meteor Hicks to the mafts,
yards, &.c. they conclude, from the air’s not having
motion enough to diftipate this flame, that a pro¬
found calm is at hand ; if it flutter about, it indicates
a ftorm.
CASTOREUM, in the Materia Medico, castor j
the inguinal glands of the beaver. The ancients had
a notion that it was lodged in the tefticles j and that
the animal, when haid prefled, would bite them off,
and leave them to its purfuers, as if confcious of what
they wanted to deftroy him for. The beft fort of
caftor is what comes from Ruflia. ■ So much is Ruf¬
fian caftor fuperior to the American, that two gui¬
neas per pound are paid for the former, and only 8s. 6d,
for the latter. The Ruffian caftor is in large hard
round cods, w'hich appear, when cut, full of a brittle,
red, liver coloured fubftance, interlperfed with mem¬
branes and fibres exquifitely interwoven. An inferior
fort is brought from Dantzic, and is generally fat and
moift. The American caftor, which is the word of
all, is in longifh thin cods. Ruflia caftor has a ftrong
difagreeable fmell 5 and an acrid, bitterifh, and naufe-
ous tafte. . Water extracts the naufeous part, with
little of the finer bitter 3 rectified fpirit extracts this
laft without much of the naufeous; proof fpirit both :
water elevates the whole of its flavour in diftillation }
reftified fpirit brings over nothing. Caftor is looked
upon as one of the capital nervine and antihyfteric
medicines ; fome celebrated praffitioners, neverthelefs,
have doubted its virtues j and Newmann and Stahl de-
I i clare
CAS [ 250 ] CAS
£aftration. clare it infignificant. Experience, however, has {hown
that the virtues of caftor are confiderable, though^lefs
-than they have been generally fuppofed.
CASTRATION, in Surgery, the operation of
gelding, i. e. of cutting off the tefticles, and putting
a male animal out <?f the capacity of generation.
Caftration is much in ufe in Alia, efpecially among
the Turks, who praftife it on their flaves, to prevent
any commerce with their women. The Turks often
make a general amputation.
Caftration alfo obtains in Italy, w’here it is ufed with
a view to preferve the voice for finging. See Eunuch.
The Perlians, and other eaftern nations, have di¬
vers methods of making eunuchs, different from thofe
which obtain in Europe : we fay, of making eunuchs,
for it is not always done among them by cutting, or
even collifion. Cicuta and other poifonous herbs do
the fame office, as is fhown by Paulus /Egineta. Thofe
eunuchifed in this manner are called thlibice. Befides
which there is another fort called thlafia, in whom the
genitals are left entire, and only the veins which fhould
feed them are cut j by which means the parts do in¬
deed remain, but fo lax and weak, as to be of no ufe.
Caftration was for fome time the punilhment of
adultery. By the laws of the Vifigoths, Sodomites un¬
derwent the fame punilhment.
By the civil law, it is made penal in phyficians and
furgeons to caftrate, even with confent of the party,
who is himfelf included in the fame penalty, and his
effefts forfeited. The offence of Mayhem by caftra¬
tion is, according to all our old writers, felony •, though
committed upon the higheft provocation. See a re¬
cord to this purpofe of Henry III. tranfcribed by Sir
Edward Coke, 3 Inft. 62. or Blackftone’s Com. vol.
iv. p. 206.
Caftration is fometimes found neceffary on medicinal
confiderations, as in mortifications, and fome other
difeafes of the tefticles, efpecially the farcocele and va¬
ricocele. Some have alfo ufed it in maniac cafes.
Castration is alfo in fome fort pradlifed on
women. Athenseus mentions that King Andramytes
was the firft who caftrated women. Hefychius and
Suidas fay Gyges did the fame thing. Galen obferves,
that women cannot be caftrated without danger of life ;
and Dalechampius, on the fore-mentioned paffage of
Athenaeus, holds, that it is only to be underftood of
fimple padlocking.
Castration, in refpedl of brutes, is called Geld¬
ing and Spaying.
Castration alfo denotes the art of retrenching, or
cutting away any part of a thing from its -whole.—
Caftrating a book, among bookfellers, is the taking out
fome leaf, Iheet, or the like, which renders it imper-
feft and unfit fox fale. The term is alfo applied to
the taking away particular paffages, on account of
their obfcenity, too great freedom with refpedt to
government, &c.
Castration, among botanifts, a term derived from
the fancied analogy betwixt plants and animals. The
caftration of plants confifts in cutting off the antherce,
or tops of the ftamina, before they have attained ma¬
turity, and difperfed the pollen or fine dull contained
within their fubftance. This operation has been fre¬
quently pra&ifed by the moderns, with a view to efta-
blilh or confute the doflrine of the fexes of plants j the
antherae or tops being confidered by the fexualifts as Caftrcl
the male organs of generation. The experiment of^, . 1
caftration fucceeds principally on plants which, like . ' ^
the melon, have their male flowers detached from the
female. In fuch as have both male and female flowers
contained within the fame covers, this operation can¬
not be eafily performed without endangering the neigh¬
bouring organs. The refult of experiments on this
fubjedt by Linnaeus, Alfton, and other eminent bota¬
nifts, may be feen under the article Botany.
C ASTREL, a kind of hawk refembling the lanner
in fliape, but the hobby in fize. The caftrel is alfo
called keftrel, and is of a flow and cowardly kind ; her
game is the groufe, though (he will kill a partridge.
CASTRES, a city of Languedoc in France, about
35 miles eaft of Thouloufe. E. Long. 20. N. Lat.
43. 40. It is a bifhop’s fee.
CASTRO, the capital of the ifland of Chiloe, on
the coaft of Chili in South America. W. Long. 82.
S. Lat. 43.
Castro is alfo the capital of a duchy of the fame
name in the pope’s territories in Italy, fituated on the
confines of Tufcany. E. Long. 12. 35. N. Lat. 42.
3°‘
Castro, Pietro de, a celebrated painter, who flou-
riftied about the middle of the 17th century. The fub-
jedls wdiich this great artift chofe to paint, were what
are diftinguilhed by the name of ftill life ; vafes, fliells,
mufical inftruments, gems, veffels of gold, filver, and
cryftal, books, and rich bracelets : and in thofe fub-
jedts his choice and difpofition were elegant, and his
execution admirable.
CASTRUCCIO, Castracani, a celebrated Italian
general, wras born (no body knowTs of whom) at Lucca
in Tufcany in 1284, and deft in a vineyard covered
with leaves, where he was found by Dianora a widow
lady, the After of Antonio, a canon of St Michael
in Lucca, who was defcended from the illuftrious
family of the Caftracani. The lady having no chil¬
dren, fhe refolved to bring him up, and educated
him as carefully as he had been her own. She in¬
tended him for a prieft j but he was fcarcely 14 years
old when he began to devote himfelf to military fports,
and thofe violent exercifes w-hich fuited his great
ftrength of body. The fadlions named the Guelfs and
Gibehnes then (hared all Italy between them j divided
the popes and the emperors; and engaged in their dif¬
ferent interefts not only the members of the fame townf
but even thofe of the fame family. Francifco, a con¬
fiderable perfon on the fide of the Gibelines, obferv-
ing Caftruccio’s uncommon fpirit and great qualities,
prevailed with Antonio to let him turn foldier j on
w-hich Caftruccio foon became acquainted with every
thing belonging to that profeflion, and was made a
lieutenant of a company of foot by Francifco Guinigi.
In his firft campaign he gave fuch proofs of his cou¬
rage and conduft as fpread his fame all over Lombardy j
and Guinigi, dying foon after, committed to him the
care of his fon and the management of his eftate. Still
diftinguifhing himfelf by his exploits, he filled his com¬
mander in chief with fuch jealoufy ^nd envy, that he
was imprifoned by ftratagem in order to be put to
death. But the people of Lucca foon releafed him,
and afterwards chofe him for their fovereign prince.-—
The Gibelines confidered him as the chief of their
party j
'GAS [
GaftruccSo, party; and tliofe who had been banlfhed from thei
Caftrum country fled to him for proteftion, and unanimoufly
, Dolons- promifed, that if he could reltore them to their eftates,
’ they would ferve him fo effeftually that the fovereign-
ty of their country thould be his reward. Flattered
by thefe promiles, he entered into a league with the
prince of Milan. He kept his army conftantly on
foot, employing it as beft fuited his own defigns. For
fervices he had done the pope, he was made fenator of
Rome with more than ordinary ceremony 5 but while
there, received news which obliged him to haften back
to Lucca. The Florentines entered into a war with
him, but Caftruccio fought his way through them;
and the fupreme authority of Tufcany was ready to
fall into his hands, when a period was put to his life.
In May 1328, he gained a complete vi6tory over his
enemies, who amounted to 30,000 foot and 10,000
horfe } in which 2 2,000 of them were flain, with the
lofs of not quite 1600 of his own men ) but as he
was returning from the field of battle, tired with the
aftion, and covered with fweat, he halted a little, in
order to thank and carefs his foldiers as they paffed 5
when, the north wind blowing upon him, he was im¬
mediately feized with an ague, which he at firft ne¬
glected, but it carried him off in a few days, in the
44th year of his age.
Machiavel, who has written the life of Caftruccio,
fays, that he was not only an extraordinary man in his
own age, but would have been fo in any other. He
was of a noble afpeCt, and of the moft winning addrefs.
He had all the qualities that make a man great j was
grateful to his friends, juft to his fubjedts, terrible to
his enemies. No man was more forward to encounter
dangers ; no man more careful to efcape them. He
had an uncommon prefence of mind, and often made
rapartees wdth great fmartnefs. Some of them are re¬
corded, which difcover a Angular turn of humour;
and, for a fpecimen, we lhall mention three or four of
them.-—Faffing one day through a ftreet where there
Was a houfe of bad fame, he furprifed a young man,
who was juft coming out, and, who, upon feeing him,
Was all over blufhes and confufion : “ Friend, you
fhould not be aftiamed when you come out, but when
you go in.”—-One afking a favour of him wdth a thou-
land impertinent and fuperfluous wmrds : “ Hark you,
friend *, when you would have any thing with me for
the future, fend another man to alk it.”—Another
great talker having tired him with a tedious difcourfe,
excufed himfelf at laft, by faying, he was afraid he had
been troublefome. ‘‘ No indeed, (replied he), for I
did not mind one wrord you faid.”—He was forced to
put a citizen of Lucca to death, who had formerly
been a great inftrument of his advancement; and being
reproached by fomebody for having dealt fo feverely
with an old friend, replied, “ No, you are miftaken,
it was with a new foe.”—One of his courtiers, de-
firous to regale him, made a ball and invited him to it.
Caftruccio came, entertained himfelf among the ladies,
danced, and did other things which did not feem to
comport with the dignity of his rank. One of his
friends intimating that fuch freedoms might diminifti
the reVerence that ought to be paid him ; “ I thank
you for your caution ; but he who is reckoned wife all
the day, will never be reckoned a fool at night.”
CASTRUM doloris, in middle age writers, de«
251 ] . C A 8
notes a catafalco, or a lofty tomb of ftate, ere&ed in Ca5l>
honour of fome perfon of eminence, ufually in the
church where his body is interred ; and decorated with ‘ floni;,
arms, emblems, lights, and the like. u—^
Ecclefiaftical writers fpeak of a ceremony of confe-
crating a cajlrum doloris ; the edifice was to be made
to reprefent the body of the decealed, and the prieft
and deacon were to take their polls, and fay the pray¬
ers after the fame manner as if the corpfe were actually
prefent.
CASTS. See Casting.
CASU consimili, in Law, a writ of entry granted
where a tenant, by courtefy or for life, aliens either
in fee, in tail, or for the term of another’s life. It is
brought by him in reverfion again!! the perfon to whom
fuch tenant does fo alien to the prejudice of the rever-
fioner in the tenant’s lifetime.
Casv Provifo, in Law, a writ of entry founded on the
ftatute of Gloucefter, where a tenant in dower aliens
the lands Ihe fo holds in fee, or for life ; and lies for the
party in reverfion again!! the alliance.
CASUAL, fomething that happens fortuitoufly,
without any defign, or any meafures taken to bring it
to pafs.
Casual Revenues, are thofe which arife from forfei¬
tures, confifcations, deaths, attainders, &c.
Casual Theology, a denomination given to what is
more frequently called Casuistry.
CASUALTY, in a general fenfe, denotes an acci¬
dent, or a thing happening by chance, not defign. It
is particularly ufed for an accident producing unnatu¬
ral death.
Casualty, in Scots Law. Cafualties of a fuperior,
are thofe duties and emoluments which a fuperior has
right to demand out of his vaffal’s eftate, over and be-
fides the conftant yearly duties eltabliftied by the red¬
dendo ofhis charter upon certain cafual events.
Casualty, in Metallurgy. See Causalty.
CASUIST, a perfon who propoies to relolve cafes
of confcience. Efcobar has made a colledfion of the
opinions of all the cafuills before him. M. le Feore,
preceptor of Louis XIII. called the books of the ca*
fuifts the art of quibbling with God ; which does not
feem far from truth, by reafon of the multitude of di-
ftin£tions and fubtleties they abound withal. Mayer
has publilhed a bibliotheca of cafiiifts, containing art
account of all the writers on cafes of confcience, ran¬
ged under three heads, the fir!! comprehending the
Lutheran, the fecond the Calvinift, and the third the
Romifti cafuifts.
CASUIST RY, the docftrine and fcience of con¬
fcience and its cafes, with the rules and principles of
refolving the fame ; drawn partly from natural reafon
or equity ; partly from authority of Scripture, the ca¬
non law, councils, fathers, &c. To cafuiftry belongs
the decifion of all difficulties arifing about what a man
may lawfully do or not do ; what is fin .or not fin ;
what things a man is obliged to do in order to difcharge
his duty, and what he may let alone without breach
of it.
CASUS amissionis, in Scots Law. In aflions pro¬
ving the tenor of obligations inextinguiftiable by the
debtor’s retiring or cancelling them, it is neceffary for
the purfuer, before he is allowed a proof of the tenor,
to condefcend upon fuch a cafus amiflionis, or accident
I i 2 by
CAT [ 2J2 1 CAT
Gat by wlilcli the writing was deftroyed, as fhowsit was loft
while in the writer’s poffeffion.
t-Heaas.^ in Zoology. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
(2ATj ;n fea affairs, a ftiip employed in the coal
trade, formed from the Norwegian model. It is di-
ftinguiftted by a narrow ftern, proje&ing quarters, a
deep waijle, and by having ornamental figures on the
prow. Thefe veffels are generally built remarkably
ftrong, and c»rry from four to fix hundred tons, or,
in the language of their own mariners, from 20 to 30
heels of coals.
Cat, is alfo a fort of ftrong tackle, or combination
of pulleys, to hook and draw the anchor perpendicular¬
ly up to cat-head. See CAT-IIeads.
Cat's Eye, or Sun-Jlone of the Turks, a kind of gem
found chiefly in Siberia. Cat’s eye is by the Latins
called oculus cati, and fometimes onycopalus,. as having
white zones or rings like the onyx , and its colours
variable like opal, from which laft it differs chiefly by
its fuperior hardnefs. It is very hard, and femitranl-
parent, and has different points, from whence the light
is reflefted with a kind of yellowifti radiation Some¬
what fimilar to the eyes of cats, from whence it had
its name. The beft of them are very Scarce, and
jewellers cut them round to the greateft advantage.
One of thefe ftones, an inch in diameter, was in the
poffeflion of the duke of Tufcany.
CAT-fiJh, in Ichthyology. See Squalus, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
Cat-GuI, a denomination given to fmall ftrings for ~
fiddles, and other inftruments, made of the inteftines
of fheep or lambs, dried and twifted together, either
fingly, or feveral together. Thefe are fometimes co¬
loured red, fometimes blue, but are commonly left
whitifh or brownifh, the natural colour of the gut.
They are alfo ufed by watchmakers, cutlers, turners,
and other artificers. Great quantities are imported
into England, and other northern countries, from
Lyons and Italy.
Cat-liarflings, a purchafe of ropes employed to
brace in the ftirouds of the lower mafts behind their
yards, for the double purpofe of making the ftirouds
more tight, and of affording room to draw in the
yards more obliquely, to trim the fails for a fide-wind,
when they are faid to be clofe hauled.
CAT-IIeads, two ftrong fliort beams of timber, whjch
projeft almoft horizontally over the (hip’s bows on
each fide of the bowfprit •, being like two radii which
extend from a centre taken in the direction of the
bowfprit. That part of the cat-head which refts upon
the forecaftle, is fecurely bolted to the beams : the
other part projefts like a crane, as above defcribed, and
carries in its extremity two or three fmall wheels or
[heaves of brafs or ftrong wood, about which a rope
called the cat-fall, paffes and communicates with the
cat-block, which alfo contains three (heaves. The
machine formed by this combination of pulleys is called
the Cat, which ferves to pull the anchor up to the cat¬
head, without tearing the (hip’s fides with its flukes.
The cat-head alfo ferves to fufpend the anchor clear of
the bow, when it is neceffary to let it go : it is fup-
ported by a fort of knee, which is generally ornament¬
ed with fculpture. See Plate CXXXVI.
The cat-block is filled with a large and ftrong hood,
which catches the ring of the anchor when it is to be Cat-Mint
drawn up.
Cat-Mint. See Mentha, Botany Index.
CAT-Salt, a name given by our fait workers to a
very beautifully granulated kind of common fait. It
is formed out of the bittern, or leach brine, which runs
from the fait when taken out of the pan. When they
draw out the common fait from the boiling pans, they
put it into long wooden troughs, with holes bored at
the bottom for the brine to drain out •, under thefe
troughs are placed veffels to receive this brine, and
acrofs them fmall (licks to which the cat-falt affixes it-
felf in very large and beautiful cryftals. This fait
contains fome portion of the bitter purging fait, is
very (harp and pungent, and is white wffien powder¬
ed, though pellucid in the mafs. It is ufed by fome
for the table, but the greateft part of what is made
of it is ufed by the makers of hard foap.
Cat Silver. See Mica.
CATACAUSTIC curves, in the higher geome¬
try, that fpecies of cauftic curves w’hich are formed by
refleflion. See Fluxions.
CATACHRESIS, in Rhetoric, a trope which bor¬
rows the name of one thing to exprefs another. Thus
Milton, defcribing Raphael’s defcent from the empy¬
real heaven to paradife, fays,
Catacombs,
“ Down thither prone in flight,
“ He fpeeds, and through the vaft ethereal (ley
“ Sails between worlds and worlds.”
CATACOMB, a grotto, or fubterraneous place for
the burial of the dead.
Some derive the vmrd catacomb from the place wThere
(hips are laid up, which the modern Latins and Greeks
called cumbee. Others fay, that cata was ufed for ad and
catacumbas, ioxadtumbas: accordingly, Dadin fays, they
anciently wrote catatumbas. Others fetch the word
from the Greek, xctrec, and kv^o?, a hollow, cavity, or
the like.
Anciently the word catacomb was only underftood
of the tombs of St Peter and St Paul 5 and M. Chafte-
lain obferves, that, among the more knowing of the
people of Rome, the word catacomb is never applied to
the fubterraneous burying-places hereafter mentioned,
but only to a chapel in St Sebaftian, one of the feven
ftational churches j where the ancient Roman kalen-
dars fay the body of St Peter was depofited, under
the confulate of Tufcus and Baffus, in 258.
Catacombs of Italy •, a vaft affemblage of fubter¬
raneous fepulchres about Rome, chiefly at about three
miles from that city, in the Via Appia; fuppofed to
be the fepulchre of the martyrs 5 and which are vifited
accordingly out of devotion, and relicks thence taken
and difperfed throughout the catholic countries, after
having been firft baptized by the pope under the name
of fome faint. Thefe catacombs are faid by many to
be caves or cells wherein the primitive Chriflians hid
and affembled themfelves together, and where they in¬
terred fuch among them as were martyred. Each ca¬
tacomb is three feet broad, and eight or ten high;
running in form of an alley or gallery, and communi¬
cating with others: in many places they extend with¬
in a league of Rome. There is no mafonry or vault¬
ing therein, but each fupports itfelf: the two fides,
which
CAT [ 2J3 J CAT
Catacombs.-which we may look on as the panetes or walls, were
i—-Y——' the places where the dead were depofited j which were
laid lengthwife, three or four rows over one another,
in the fame catacomb, parallel to the alley. They
were commonly clofed with large thick tyles, and
fometimes pieces of marble, cemented in a manner in¬
imitable by the moderns. Sometimes, though very
rarely, the name of the deceafed is found on the tyle :
frequently a palm is feen, painted or engraven, or the
cypher Xp, which is commonly read pro Chrijto. The
opinion held by many Protellant authors is, that the
catacombs are heathen fepulchres, and the fame with
the puticuli mentioned by Feftus Pompeius j maintain¬
ing, that w'hereas it was the practice of the ancient
Romans to burn their dead, the cuftom was, to avoid
expence, to throw the bodies of their flaves to rot in
holes of the ground ; and that the Roman Chriftians,
obferving at length, the great veneration paid to re¬
licks, refolved to have a flock of their own : entering
therefore the catacombs, they added what cyphers and
infcriptions they pleafed j and then (hut them up again,
to be opened on a favourable occalion. Thofe in the
fecret, add they, dying or removing, the contrivance
was for not, till chance opened them at lah. But this
opinion has even lefs of probability than the former.
Mr Monro, in the Philofophical TranfaSiions, fuppofes
the catacombs to have been originally the common fe¬
pulchres of the firfl Romans, and dug in confequence
of thefe twx> opinions, viz. That (hades hate the light 5
and that they love to hover about the places where the
bodies are laid.
Though the catacombs of Rome have made the
greateft noife of any in the world, there are fuch be-
loneing to many other cities. Thofe of Xaples, ac¬
cording to Bifhop Burnet, are much more noble and
fpacious than the catacombs of Rome. Catacombs
have alfo been difcovered at Syracufe and Catanea in
Sicily, and in the ifland of Malta. The Roman cata¬
combs take particular names from the churches in their
neighbourhood, and feem to divide the circumference
of the city without the walls between them, extending
their galleries everywhere under, and a vafl wray from
it •, fo that all the ground under Rome, and for many
miles about it, fome fay 20, is hollow. I he largeil,
and thofe commonly fhowm to flrangers, are the cata¬
combs of San Sebafliano, thofe of Saint Agnefe, and
the others in the fields a little off Saint Agneie. . Wo¬
men are only allowed to go into the catacombs in the
churchyard of the Vatican on Whitfun Monday, un¬
der pain of excommunication. There are men kept
conftantly at work in the catacombs. As foon as thefe
labourers difcover a grave with any of the fuppofed
marks of a faint upon it, intimation is given to the
cardinal camerlingo, who immediately fends men of
reputation to the place, where finding the palm, the
monogram, the coloured glafs, &c. the remains of the
body are taken up with great refpeft, and tranflated to
Rome. After the labourers have examined a gallery,
thev flop up the entry that leads to it 5 fo that moft
of them remain thus clofed up •, only a few being left
open to keep up the trade of (bowing them to ftran-
gers. This, they fay, is done to prevent people from
loiing themfelves in thefe fubterraneous labyrinths,
which indeed has often happened $ but more probably
to deprive the public of the means of knowing whither Catacombs,
and how far the catacombs are carried. Caulaunc
The method of preferving the dead in catacombs 1 v
feems to have been common to a number of the ancient
nations. The catacombs of Egypt are flill extant
about nine leagues from the city of Grand Cairo, and
two miles from the city of Zaccara. They extend
from thence to the pyramids of Pharaoh, which are
about eight miles diftant. They lie in a field covered
with a fine running fand, of a yellowifh colour. The
country is dry and hilly •, the entrance of the tombs is
choked up with fand ; there are many open, but more
that are ftill concealed.
The bodies found in catacombs, efpecially thofe of
Egypt, are called mummies; and as their flefh was
formerly reckoned an efficacious medicine, they were
much fought after. In this work the labourers were
often obliged to clear away the fand for weeks toge¬
ther, without finding what they wanted. Upon com¬
ing to a little fquare opening of about 1S feet in depth,
they defcend into it by holes for the feet placed at
proper intervals ; and there they are fure of finding a
mummy. Thefe caves, or ’weils as they call them
there, are hollowed out of a white free Hone, which is
found in all this country a few feet below the covering
of fand. When one gets to the bottom of thefe, which
are fometimes 40 feet below the furface, there are fe-
veral fquare openings on each fide into paffages of 10
or 15 feet wdde ; and thefe lead to chambers of 15 or
20 feet fquare. Thefe are all hewn out in the rock;
and in each of the catacombs are to be found feveral
of thefe apartments communicating with one another.
They extend a great way under ground, fo as to be
under the city of Memphis, and in a manner to under¬
mine its environs. In fome of the chambers the walls
are adorned with figures and hieroglyphics ; in others
the mummies are found in tombs, round the apartment,
hollowed out in the rock.
The Egyptians feem to have excelled in the art of
embalming and preferving their dead bodies ; as the
mummies found in the Egyptian catacombs are in a-
better Hate than the bodies found either in the Italian
catacombs or thofe of any other part of the world. See-
Embalming and Mummy.
Laying up the bodies in caves, is certainly the ori¬
ginal way of difpofing of the dead 5 and appears to
have been propagated by the Phoenicians throughout
the countries to which they fent colonies ; the inter¬
ring as we now do in the open air or in temples was
fir ft introduced by the Chriftians. When an ancient
hero died, or was killed in a foreign expedition, as his
body wTas liable to corruption, and for that reafon un¬
fit to be tranfported entire, they fell on the expedient
of burning, in order to bring home the allies, to oblige
the manes to follow ; that fo his country might not be
deftitute of the benefit of his tutelage. It wTas thus
burning feems to have had its original ; and by degrees
it became common to all who could bear the expences
of it, and took place of the ancient burying : thus-
catacombs became difufed among the Romans, after
they had bomnved the manner of burning from the
Greeks, and then none but flaves were laid in the
ground. See Burial, &c.
CATALAUNI, called alfo Durocatalauni, a town
of
CAT [ 2J4 ] CAT
Catadro- of Gallia Belgica: Catalaunl, tlie people. A name
m.|is rather of the lower age than of claffiical antiquity. Now
Catalogue. Chalons fur Marne, in Champagne. E. Long. 4. 35.
» —v— ./ N. Lat. 48. 55.
CATADROMUS, from and I run, in
antiquity, a ftretched Hoping rope in the theatres,
down which the funambuli walked to fliow their {kill.
Some have taken the word to fignify the hippodrome
or decurforium, wherein the Roman knights ufed to
exercife themfelves in running and fighting on horfe-
back. But the mofl: natural meaning is that of a rope
fattened at one end to the top of the theatre, and at
the other to the bottom, to walk or run down, which
was the higheft glory of the ancient fchcenobates, or
funamhulu Elephants w7ere alfo taught to run down
the catadromus. Suetonius fpeaks of the exploit of a
Roman knight, -who patted down the catadromus
mounted on an elephant’s back.
CATAGOGION, a heathen fettival at Ephefus,
celebrated on the 22d of January, in which the devo¬
tees run about the ttreets, drefled in divers antic and
unfeemly manners, with huge cudgels in their hands,
and carrying with them the images of their gods j in
which guife they raviihed the rvomen they met with,
abufed and often killed the men, and committed many
other diforders, to which the religion of the day gave
a fandlion.
CATAGRAPHA, in antiquity, denote oblique fi¬
gures or views of men’s faces 5 anfwering to what the
moderns call profiles.
Catagrapha are faid to be the invention of Simon
Cleonaeus, who firft taught painters to vary the looks
of their figures, and fometimes direft them upwards,
fometimes downwards, and fometimes fidewards or
backwards.
CATALEPSIS, or Catalepsy, in Medicine, a
kind of apoplexy, or a drowfy difeafe, wherein the pa¬
tient is taken fpeechlefs, fenfelefs, and fixed in the
fame pofture wherein the difeafe firft feized him ; his
eyes open, without feeing or underftanding. See Me¬
dicine Index.
CATALOGUE, a lift or enumeration of the names
of feveral books, men, or other things, difpofed ac¬
cording to a certain order.
Catalogues of books are digefted in different man¬
ners, fome according to the order of the times when
the books were printed, as that of Mattaire 5 others
according to their form and fize, as the common book-
fellers catalogues; others according to the alphabeti¬
cal order of the authors names, as Hyde’s catalogue
of the Bodleian library •, others according to the al¬
phabetical order of matters or fubjedls, which are cal¬
led real or clajfical catalogues, as thofe of Lipenius and
Draudius ; laftly, others are digefted in a mixed me¬
thod, partaking of feveral of the former, as De
Seine’s catalogue of Cardinal Slufius’s library, which
is firft divided according to the fubjedls or fciences,
and afterwards the books in each are recited alphabe¬
tically.
The moft applauded of all catalogues is that of Thu-
anus’s library, in which are united the advantages of
all the reft. It was firft drawn up by the two Puteani
in the alphabetical order, then digefted according to
the fciences and fubjects by Iftim. Bullialdus, andpub-
liftied by F. Quefnel at Paris in 1679 ? and reprinted,
I
though incorre&ly, at Hamburgh, in 1704. The Catalogue
books are here ranged with juftneis under their feveral die Star*,
fciences and fubjefts, regard being ftill had to the na- v
tion, fedl, age, &c. of every writer. Add, that only
the beft and choiceft books on every fubjeft are found
here, and the moft valuable editions. Yet the cata¬
logue of M. le Telliers archbifliop of Rheims’ library,
made by M, Clement, is not inferior to any publiftied
in our age, either on account of the number and
choice of the books, or the method of its difpofition.
One advantage peculiar to this catalogue is, the mul¬
titude of anonymous and pfeudonymous authors deleft-
ed in it, fcarce to be met with elfewhere. Some
even prefer it to Thuanus’s catalogue, as containing
a greater variety of dalles and books on particular fub-
jefts.
The conditions required in a catalogue are, that it
indicate at the fame time the order of the authors and
of the matters, the form of the book, the number of
volumes, the chronological order of the editions, the
language it is written in, and its place in the library 5
fo as that all thefe circumftances may appear at once
in the fhorteft, cleareft, and exafteft manner poflible.
In this view all the catalogues yet made will be found
to be defeftive.
An anonymous French writer has laid down a new
plan of a catalogue, which fhall unite all the advanta¬
ges and avoid all the inconveniences of the reft.
The Jefuits of Antwerp have given us a catalogue
of the popes j which makes what they call their Pro-
pihrum.
Catalogue of the Stars, is a lift of the fixed ftars,
difpoled in their feveral conftellations } with the longi¬
tudes, latitudes, &c. of each j or according to theii'
right afeenfions, that is, the order of their palling over
the meridian.
The firft who undertook to reduce the fixed ftars
into a catalogue was Hipparchus Rhodius, about 120
years before Chrift •, in which he made ufe of the ob-
fervations of Timocharis and Ariftyllus for about i8<3
years before him. Ptolemy retained Hipparchus’s ca¬
talogue containing 1026 fixed ftars j though he him-
felf made abundance of obfervations, with a view to a
new catalogue, A. D. 140. About the year of Chrift;
880, Albategni, a Syrian, brought down the fame to
his time. Anno 1437, Ulugh Beigh, king of Parthia
and India, made a new catalogue of 1022 fixed ftars,
fince tranflated out of Perfian into Latin by Dr Hyde.
The third who made a catalogue from his own obfer¬
vations w'as Tycho Brahe, who determined the places
of 777 ftars for the year 1600, which Kepler from
other obfervations of Tycho afterwards increafed to the
number of 1000 in the Rudolphine tables j adding
thofe of Ptolemy omitted by Tycho, and of other au¬
thors ; fo that his catalogue amounts to above 1160.
At the fame time, William landgrave of Hefle, with
his mathematicians Chriftopher Rothmannus and Ju¬
lius Byrgius, determined the places of 400 fixed ftars
by his own obfervations, with their places reftified for
the year 1 ^93 ; which Hevelius prefers to thofe of
Tycho’s. Ricciolus, in his Afironomia Reformata, de¬
termined the places of 101 ftars for the year 1700?
from his own obfervations ; for the reft he followed
Tycho’s catalogue, altering it where he thought fit.
Anno 1667, Dr Halley, in the illand of St Helena,
obferved
CAT
[ 255 1
CAT
Catalogue obferved 350 fouthern ftars not vifible in our horizon,
of the Stars. Jhe fame labour was repeated by F. Noel in 1710,
'—-Y——' yyho publilhed a new catalogue of the fame ftars con-
ftrufted for the year 1687.
Bayer, in his Uranometria, publilhed a catalogue of
1160 ftars, compiled chiefly from Ptolemy and Tycho,
in which every ftar is marked with fome letter of the
Greek alphabet; the biggeft ftar in any conftellation
being denoted by the firft letter, the next by the fe-
cond, &c. and if the number exceeds the Greek al¬
phabet, the remaining ftars are marked by letters of
the Roman alphabet, which letters are preferved by
Flamfteed, and by Senex on his globes. The cele¬
brated Hevelius compofed a catalogue of 1888 ftars,
1953 which were obferved by himfelf; and their
places were computed for the year 1660.
The laft and greateft is the Britannic catalogue,
compiled from the obfervations of the accurate Mr
Flamfteed ; who for a long feries of years devoted
himfelf wholly thereto. As there was nothing want¬
ing either in the obferver or apparatus, we may look
on this as a perfect work fo far as it goes. It is to
be regretted the impreflion had not pafled through his
own hands : that now extant was publilhed by autho¬
rity, but without the author’s confent: it contains
2734 ftars. There wTas another publilhed in I725»
purfuant to his teftament; containing no lefs than 3000
ftars, with their places reftified for the year 1689 : to
which is added Mr Sharp’s catalogue of the fouthern
ftars not vifible in our hemifphere, adapted to the year
1726.
The firft catalogue, we believe, that was printed in
the new or fecond form, according to the order of the
right afcenlions, is that of De la Caille, given in his
Ephemerides for the ten years between 1755 and 1765,
and printed in 1755. It contains the right afcenfions
and declinations of 307 ftars, adapted to the begin¬
ning of the year 1750. In 1757 la Caille publilh-
ed his AJlronomue Fundamenta, containing a catalogue
of the right afcenfions and declinations of 398 ftars,
likewfife adapted to the beginning of I750, And in
1763, the year after his death, was publilhed the Cce-
lum Aujirale Stelliferum of the fame author *, contain¬
ing a catalogue of the places of 1942 ftars5 fituated
to the fouthward of the tropic of Capricorn, and ob¬
ferved by him while he was at the Cape of Good
Hope in 1751 and 1752-, their places being alfo a-
dapted to the beginning of 1750. In the lame year
was publilhed his Ephemerides for the ten years be¬
tween 1765 and 1775 j in the introdu&ion to which
are given the places 01515 zodiacal ftars, all deduced
from the obfervations of the fame author ; the places
adapted to the beginning of the year 1765.
In the Nautical Almanac for 1773, is given a ca¬
talogue of 387 ftars, in right afcenfion, declination,
longitude and latitude, derived from the obfervations
of the late celebrated Dr Bradley, and adjufted to the
beginning of the year 1760. This fmall catalogue,
and the refults of about 1200 obfervations of the moon,
are all that the public have yet feen of the multiplied
labours of this moll accurate and indefatigable ©bier-
ver, although he has now (1798) been dead upwards
of 36 years.
In 1775 was publilhed a thin volume, entitled, Opera
Inedita, containing feveral papers of the late Tobias
Mayer, and among them a catalogue of the right afeen- Catalogue
fions and declinations of 998 ftars, which may be oc- of the Stars
culted by the moon and planets j the places being
adapted to the beginning of the year 1756.
At the end of the firft volume of “ Aftronomical
Obfervations made at the Royal Obfervatory at Green¬
wich,” publilhed in 1776, Dr Malkelyne, the prefent
aftronomer royal, has given a catalogue of the places
of 34 principal ftars, in right afcenfion and north polar
diftance, adapted to the beginning of the year 1770.
Thefe being the refult of feveral years repeated ob¬
fervations, made with the utmoft care, and the beft in-
ftruments, it may be prefumed are exceedingly accu¬
rate.
In 1782, M. Bode of Berlin publifhed a very ex-
tenfive catalogue of 5058 of the fixed ftars, colle&ed
from the obfervations of Flamfteed, Bradley, Heve¬
lius, Mayer, De la Caille, Meflier, Monnier, D’Ar-
quier, and other aftronomers ; all adapted to the begin¬
ning of the year 1780 ; and accompanied with a ce-
leftial atlas or fet of maps of the conftellations, engra¬
ved in a moft delicate and beautiful manner.
To thefe may be added Dr Herfchel’s catalogue of
double ftars, printed in the Phil. Tranf. for 1782 and
1783 ; Meflier’s nebulae and clufters of ftars, publilhed
in the Connoijfancedes Temps for 1784; and Herfchel’s
catalogue of the fame kind, given in the Phil. Tranf.
for 1786.
In 1789 Mr Francis Wollafton publilhed “ A Spe¬
cimen of a General Aftronomical Catalogue, in Zones
of North-polar Diftance, and adapted to January 1.
1790.” Thefe ftars are collefted from all the cata¬
logues before-mentioned, from that of Hevelius down¬
wards. This work contains five diftinft catalogues \
viz. Dr Malkelyne’s new catalogue of 36 principal
ftars ; a general catalogue of all the ftars, in zones of
north polar diftance ; an index to the general cata¬
logue j a catalogue of all the ftars in the order in
which they pafs the meridian \ and a catalogue of zo¬
diacal ftars, in longitude and latitude.
Finally, in 1792, Dr Zach publifhed at Gotha, Ta-
buh Motuum Solis ; to which is annexed a new cata¬
logue of the principal fixed ftars, from his own obfer¬
vations made in the years I787> I7^^’ I7^9» I79°*
This catalogue contains the right afcenfions and decli¬
nations of 381 principal ftars, adapted to the begin¬
ning of the year 1800. Hutton's Math. DiB.
Befides thefe two methods of forming catalogues of
the ftars, Dr Herfchel has propofed a new one, in
which the comparative brightneis of the ftars is accu¬
rately exprefl'ed. It is long fince aftronomers were firft
led to arrange the ftars in clafles of different magni¬
tudes by their various degrees of brilliancy or luftre.
Brightnefs and fize have at all times been confidered
as fynonymous terms ; fo that the brighteft ftars have
been referred to the clafs comprehending thofe of the
firft magnitude ; and as the fubfequent orders of ftars
have been fuppofed to decreafe in luftre, their magni¬
tude has been determined in the fame decreafing pro-
greflion : but the want of fome fixed and fatisfaftory
ftandard of luftre has been the fource of confiderable
confufion and uncertainty in fettling the relative mag¬
nitudes of the ftars. A flar marked 1. 2m. is fuppo¬
fed to be between the firft and fecond magnitude j but
2. im. intimates, that the ftar is nearly of the fecond
magnitude,
CAT [2
Catalogue magnitude, and that it partakes fomevvhat of the luifre
of.h^cai,; 0f a ^ar 0£ t]ie £r££ or(}er# Such fubdivifions may be
of fome ufe in afcertaining ftars of the firft, fecond, and
third claffes j but the expreffions 5m, 5.6m, 6.5m, 6m,
mu ft be very vague and indefinite. Dr Herfchel ob-
ferves that he has found them fo in fa£t ; and he there¬
fore confiders this method of pointing out the different
luftre of ftars as a reference to an imagfoary flandard.
If any dependence could be placed on this method of
magnitudes, “ it would follow, that no lefs than 11
ftars in the conftellation of the Lion, namely /3, r, jr,
A, £, c, d, 54, 48, 72, had all undergone a change in
their luftre fince Flamfteed’s time : For if the idea of
magnitudes had been a clear one, our author, who
marked /3 1.2m. and y 2m. ought to be underftood to
mean that /3 is larger than y; but we now find that
actually y is larger than /3. Every one of the eleven
ftars (lays Dr Herfchel) which I have pointed out
may be reduced to the fame contradiction.”
The author has pointed out the inftances of the in-
fufficiency of this method, and of the uncertain con-
clufions that are deduced from it, in determining the
comparative brightnefs of ftars found not only in Mr
Flamfteed’s catalogue, but alfo in the catalogues of
other aftronomers. It is fufficiently apparent that the
prefent method of expreffing the brightnefs of the ftars
is very defective. Dr Herfchel therefore propofes a
different mode, that is more precife and fatisfaftory.
“ I place each ftar (he fays), inftead of giving its
magnitude, into a fhort feries, conftruCted upon the
order of brightnefs of the neareft proper ftars. For
inftance, to exprefs the luftre of D, I fay CDE. By
this fhort notation, inftead of referring the ftar D to
an imaginary uncertain ftandard, I refer it to a precife
and determined exifting one. C is a ftar that has a
greater luftre than D, and E is another of lefs bright-
nefs than D. Both C and E are neighbouring ftars,
chofen in fuch a manner that I may fee them at the
fame time with D, and therefore may be able to com¬
pare them properly. The luftre of C is in the fame
manner afcertained by BCD *, that of B by ABC *,
and alfo the brightnefs of E by DEF ; and that of F
by EFG.
“ That this is the moft natural, as well as the moft
effeClual way to exprefs the brightnefs of a ftar, and
by that means to deteCf any change that may happen
in its luftre, will appear, when we confider what is fe-
quifite to afcertain fuch a change. We can certainly
not wifh for a more decifive evidence, than to be af-
fured, by aflual infpeClion, that a certain ftar is now
no longer more or lefs bright than fuch other ftars to
which it has been formerly compared ; provided we are
at the fame time affured that thofe other ftars remain
ftill in their former unaltered luftre. But if the ftar D
will no longer ftand in its former order CDE, it muft
have undergone a change j and if that order is now to
be expreffed by CED, the ftar has loft fome part of its
luftre *, if, on the contrary, it ought now to be de¬
noted by DCE, its brightnefs muft have had fome ad¬
dition-. Then, if we Ihould doubt the liability of C
and E, we have reoourfe to the orders BCD and DEF
which exprefs their luftre ; or even to ABC and EFG*
which continue the feries both ways. Now having
before us the feries BCDEF, or if neceffary even the
more extended one ABCDEFG, it will be impoffible
£
56 ] CAT
to miftake a change of brightnefs in D, when every Catalogue
member of the feries is found in its proper order cx-t^e^tars*
cept D.’’
In the author’s journal or catalogue, in which the
order of the luftre of the ftars is fixed, each ftar bears
its own proper name or number, e.g. “ the brightnefs
of the ftar d Leonis may be expreffed by /3 § i Leonis,
or better by 94—68—17 Leonis; thefe being the
numbers which the three above ftars bear in the Bri-
tilh catalogue of fixed ftars.”
This method of arrangement occurred to Dr Her¬
fchel fo early as the year 1782 ; but he was diverted
from the regular purfuit of it by a variety of other af-
tronomical engagements. After many trials, he pro-
pofed, in the Tranfadlions of the Royal Society of
London for 1796, the plan which appeared to him the
moft eligible. It is as follows :—Inftead of denoting
particular ftars by letters, he makes ufe of numbers; and
in his choice of the ftars which are to exprefs the luftre
of any particular one, he direfts his firft view to perfect
equality. When two ftars feem to be fimilar both in
brightnefs and magnitude, he puts down their numbers
together, feparated merely by a point, as 30.24 Leonis ;
but if two ftars, which at firft feemed alike in their
luftre, appeared on a longer infpeftion to be different,
and the preference ftiould be always decidedly in favour
of the fame ftar, he feparates thefe ftars by a comma,
thus, 41,94 Leonis. This order muft not be varied ;
nor can three fuch ftars, as 20, 40, 39, Librae, admit
of a different arrangement. If the ftate of the heavens
ftiould be fuch as to require a different order in thefe
numbers, we may certainly infer that a change has ta¬
ken place in the luftre of one or more of them. When
two ftars differ very little in brightnefs, but fo that the
preference of the one to the other is indifputable, the
numbers that exprefs them are feparated by a fliort line,
as —17—70 Leonis, or 68—17—70 Leonis. When
two ftars differ fo much in brightnefs, that one or two
other ftars might be interpofed between them, and ftill
leave fufficient room for diftindlion, they are diftinguilh-
ed by a line and comma, thus, —, or by two lines, as
32 41 Leonis. A greater difference than this is
denoted by a broken line, thus 29 Bootis. On
the whole, the author obferves the marks and diftinc-
tions which he has adopted cannot poflibly be miftaken ;
“ a point denoting equality of luftre ; a comma indica¬
ting the leaft perceptible difference ; a fhort line to
mark a decided but fmall fuperiority ; a line and com¬
ma, or double line, to exprefs a confiderable and link¬
ing excefs of brightnefs ; and a broken line to mark
any other fuperiority which is to be looked upon as of
no ufe in eftimations that are intended for the purpofe
of directing changes.”
The difficulties that attend this arrangement are not
difguifed ; but the importance and utility of it more
than compenfate for the labour which it muft neceffarily
require. By a method of this kind, many difcoveries
of changeable and periodical ftars might probably have
been made, which have efcaped the moft diligent and
accurate obfervers. We might then, as the author fug-
gefts, be enabled to refolve a problem in which we are
all immediately concerned.
“ Who, for inftance, would not wilh to know what
degree of permanency we ought to afcribe to the luftre
of our fun ? Not only the liability of our climates, but*
the
CAT [2
Catalouge the very exigence of the whole animal and vegetable
t>lthe Stars. cre:ition itfelf, is involved in the quellion. Where can
y '' ' We hope to receive information upon this fubjefl but
from aftronomical obfervations ? It it be allowed to ad¬
mit the limilarity of (tars with our fun as a point etta-
blifhed, how neceffary will it be to take notice of the
fate of our neighbouringin order to guefs at that
of our own ! That Jiar, which among the multitude tve
have dignified by the name of fun, to-morrow may (low¬
ly begin to undergo a gradual decay of brightnefs, like
j3 Leonis, a. Ceti, Draconis, 3 Urfae majoris, and many
other diminithing (tars that will be mentioned in my ca¬
talogues. It may luddenly increafe, like the wonderful
ftar in the back of Caffiopeia’s chair, and the no lefs re¬
markable one in the foot of Serpentarius j or gradually
come on, like £ Geminorum, /3 Ceti, £ Sagittarii, and
many other increafing ftars, for which I alfo refer to
my catalogues ; and, laltly, it may turn into a perio¬
dical one of 25 days duration, as Algol is one of
three days, S Cephei of five, /3 Lyrae of fix, « Anti-
noi of (even days, and as many others as are of various
periods.”
Having thus explained the general principle on which
this catalogue is formed, as we find it in the author’s
firft memoir on the fubjedt, we mull refer the reader to
the do&or’s own account for its particular arrange¬
ment, obferving only that the catalogue fubjoined com¬
prehends nine conllellations, which are arranged in al¬
phabetical order, with the comparative brightnefs of the
liars accurately Hated. In a fubfequent paper, publilh-
ed in the fame volume, he has completely verified the
utility of his method by experience, and (hewn that there
is no permanent change of lullre in the liars. In the
notes to his firft catalogue he mentioned » Herculis as
a periodical liar. By a feries of obfervations on this
liar, compared with Ophiuchi, which was moll con¬
veniently fituated for his purpofe, he has been able not
only to confirm this opinion, but to afcertain its period.
His obfervations are arranged in a table, by means of
which he determines that this liar had gone through
four fucceflive changes in an interval of 241 days j and
therefore the duration of its period mull be about 60
days and a quarter. This fadi concurs with other cir-
cumllances in evincing the rotatory motion of the liars
on their axes. “ Dark Ipots, or large portions of the
furface lefs luminous than the reft, turned alternately
in certain diredlions, either towards or from us, will ac¬
count for the phenomena of periodical changes in the
luftre of the ftars, fo fatisfadlorily, that we certainly
need not look out for any other caufe.” If it be al¬
leged that the periods in the change of luftre of fome
liars, fuch as Algol, £ Lyrae, 5 Cephei, and » Antinoi,
are Ihort, being only 3, 5, 6, and 7 days refpedlively ;
while thofe of « Ceti, and of the changeable liar in Hy¬
dra,-and that in the neck of the Swan, are long, a-
mounting to 331, 394, and 497 days*, and that we
cannot afcribe phenomena fo different in their duration
to the fame caufe—it may be anfwered to this objedlion,
that the force of it is founded on our limited a quaint-
ance with the Hate of the heavens. To the 7 ftars, the
periodical changes of which were before known, we
may now add u. Herculis, which performs a revolution
of its changes in 60 days.
“ The llep from the rotation of a Herculis to that of
« Ceti is far lefs confiderable than that from the period
Vol. V. Part I.
57 1 . C A T . .
of Algol to the rotation of et Herculis; and thus a link
in the chain is now fupplied, which removes the objec¬
tion that arofe from- the vacancy.” The rotation o*
the fifth fatellite of Saturn is proved by the change oh-
fervable in its light ; and “ this variation of light, ow¬
ing to the alternate expofition of a more or Ids bright
hemifphere of this periodical fatellite, plainly indicates,
that the fimilar phenomenon of a changeable ftar arifes
from the various luftre of the difterent parts of its fur-
face, fucceflively turned to us by 'ts rotatory motion.”
Befides, we perceive a greater fimilarity between the
fun and the liars, by means of the fpots that mull be
admitted to exift on their furfaces, as well as on that of
Catalonia
II
Catana.
the fun.
Dr Herfchel farther obferves, that the ftars, befides
a rotatory motion on their axes, may have other move¬
ments ; “ fuch as nutations or changes in the inclina¬
tion of their axes •, which, added to bodies much flat¬
tened by quick rotatory motions, or furrounded by
rings like Saturn, will ealrly account for many new
phenomena that then offer themfelves to our extended
views.”
CATALONIA, a province of Spain, bounded on
the north by the Pyrenean mountains, wrhich divide it
from France j by the kingdom of Arragon and Va¬
lencia on the weft ; and by the Mediterranean fea on
the fouth and eaft. It is 155 miles in length, and 100
in breadth. It is watered by a great number of rivers 5
the principal of which are the Lobregat, the Ter, and
the Segra. The air is temperate and healthy ; but
the land is mountainous, except in a few places. It
produces, however, corn, wine, oil, pulfe, tlax, and
hemp, fufficient for the inhabitants. The mountains
are covered with large forefts of tall trees, fuch as thb
oak, the ever green oak, the beech, the pine, the fir,
the chefnut, and many others •, with cork trees, ihrubs,
and medicinal plants, d here are feveral quarries of
marble of all colours, cryftal, alabafter, amethyfts, and
lapis lazuli. Gold dull has been found among the
fands of one or two of the rivers j and there are mines
of tin, iron, lead, alum, vitriol, and fait. They like-
wife filh for coral on the eaftern coaft. The inhabi¬
tants are hardy, courageous, a£live, vigorous, and good
foldiers, but apt to be difconfented. The miquelets
are a fort of foldiers which guard the paffes over the
mountains, and ought to proteft travellers $ but if they
are not paid to their minds, they leldom fail to pay
themfelves. The river Lobregat divides Catalonia in¬
to two parts, the call and weft, according to their fi-
tuation. This province comprehends 17 vigueries or
territories ; two of which are in Roufillon, and belong
to the French. The reft are fubjedft to the Spaniards.
The principal towns are Barcelona the capital, Tarra¬
gona, Tortofa, Lerida, Solfonia, Cardona Vich, Gi¬
rona, Seu d’Urgel, Pui Cerda, and Cervera. Cata¬
lonia was the laft province in Spain which fubmitted to
Philip in the Succeffion war.
CATAMENIA, in Medicine. See Menses.
CATAMITE, a boy kept for Sodomitical practi¬
ces.
CATANA,or Cat i n a, in Ancient Geography,* tovm
of Sicily, fituated oppofite to iEtna, to the fouth-eaft ;
one of the five Roman colonies : anciently built by the
people of Naxus feven years after the building of Sy-
racufe, 728 years before Chrift. It w'as the country
' Kk of
C A T _ [ 2
Cata- of ChrtronJas the famovxs lawgiver. The town is Hill
iianche, cal]e{| Catanen. See Catanea.
Cat^nea-, CATANANCHE, Candia lions foot. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CATANEA, or Catania, a city of Sicily, feated
on a gulf of the fame name, near the foot of Mount
./Etna, or Gibel. It was founded by the Chalcidians
foon after the fettlement of Syracufe, and enjoyed
great tranquillity till Hiero I. expelled the whole body
of citizens; and after replenifhing the town with a new
flock of inhabitants, gave it the name of diltna : im¬
mediately after his deceafe, it regained its ancient
name, audits citizens returned to their abodes. Ca¬
tania fell into the hands of the Romans, among their
earlieft acquilitions in Sicily, and became the refidence
of a praetor. To make it worthy of fuch an honour,
it was adorned with fumptuous buildings of all kinds,
and every convenience was procured to fupply the na¬
tural and artificial wants of life. It was dellroyed by
Pompey’s fon, but reftored with fuperior magnificence
by Auguftus. The reign of Decius is famous in the
hiftory of this city, for the martyrdom of its patronefs
St Agatha. On every emergency her interceluon is
implored. She is pioully believed to have preferved
Catanea from being overwhelmed by torrents of lava,
or ilraken to pieces by earthquakes ; yet its ancient
edifices are covered by repeated ftreams of volcanic
matter ; and almoft every houfe, even her own church,
has been thrown to the ground. In the reign of Wil¬
liam the Good, 20,000 Catanians, with their pallor at
their head, w7ere deftroyed before the facred veil could
be properly placed to check the flames. In the laft
century the eruptions and earthquakes raged w'ith re¬
doubled violence, and Catania was twice demolilhed.
See JEtna.
The prefent prince of Bilcari has been at infinite
pains, and fpent a large fum of money, in working
dowm to the ancient town, which, on account of the
numerous torrents of lava that have flowed out of
Mount Ahna for thefe laft thoufand years, is now to
be fought for in dark caverns many feet below the pre¬
fent furface of the earth. Mr Swinburne informs us
that be defcended into baths, fepulchres, an amphithc*
utre, and a theatre, all very much injured by the va¬
rious cataftrophes that have befallen them. They were
ere&ed upon old beds of lava, and even built with
fquare pieces of the fame fubftance, which in no int
fiance appears to have been fufed by the contaft of
new lavas : The fciarra or ftones of cold lava, have
Conftantly proved as ftrong a barrier againft the flow¬
ing torrent of fire as any other ftone could have been,
though lome authors v.-ere of opinion that the hot
matter would melt the old mafs and incorporate with it.
This city has been frequently defended from the
burning ftreams by the folid mafs of its owm ramparts,
and by the air compreffed between them and the lava ;
as appears by the torrent having ftopt within a fmall
diftance of the walls, and taken another direction.
But when the walls were broken or low, the lava col¬
lected itfelf till it role, to a great height, and then
poured over in a curve. A fimilar inftance is feen at
the Torre del Greco near Naples, where the ftream of
liquid fire from Vefuvius divided itfelf into two branch¬
es, and left a church untouched in the middle. There
is a well at the foot of the old walls of Catania, where
8 ] CAT
the lava, after running along the parapet, and then Catarea
falling forwards, has produced a very complete lofty II
arch over the fpring. Cataphrao
The church here is a noble fabric. It is accounted t
the largeft in Sicily, though neither.a porch nor cupola
lias been eredfed, from a doubt of the iolidity of the
foundations, which are no other than the bed of lava
that ran out of Atna in 1669, and is fuppofed to be
full of cavities. The organ is much efteemed by con-
noiffeurs in mufical inftruments.
Catania, according to Mr Swinburne’s account, is
reviving with great fplendour. “ It has already (he
fays) much more the features of a metropolis and
royal refidence than Palermo : the principal ftrects are
wide, ftraight, and well paved with lava. An obeliflk
of red granite, placed on the back of an antique ele¬
phant of touchftone, ftands in the centre of the great
fquare, which is formed by the townhall, feminary,
and cathedral. The cathedral ere6fed by the abbot
Angerius in the year 1094, was endowed by Earl Ro¬
ger with the territories of Catania and iEtna, for the
fmall acknowledgement of a glafs of wine and a loaf
of bread offered once a-year. It has fuftered io much
by earthquakes, that little of the original ftruidure re¬
mains, and the modern parts have hardly any thing ex¬
cept their materials to recommend them. The other re¬
ligious edifices of the city are profufely ornamented, but
in a bad tafte. The fpiiit of building feems to have
feized upon the people, and the prince of Bifcari’s ex¬
ample adds frefh vigour. It w7ere natural to fuppofe
men would be backward in erefling new habitations,
efpecially with any degree of luxury, on ground fo of¬
ten ftiaken to its centre, and fo often buried under the
allies of a volcano 5 but fuch is their attachment to
their native foil, and their contempt of dangers they are
habituated to, that they rebuild their houfes on the
warm cinders of Vefuvius, the quaking plains of Cala¬
bria, and the black mountains of fciarra at Catania ;
it is however furprifmg to fee fuch embelliftiments la-
viftied in fo dangerous a fltuation. There is a great
deal of adlivity in the difpofition of this people : they
know by tradition that their ancellors carried on a
flourilhing commerce ; and that before the fiery river
filled it up, they had a fpacious convenient harbour,
where they now have fcarce a creek for a felucca :
they therefore wifin to reftore thofe advantages to Ca¬
tania, and have often applied to government for af-
fiftance towards forming a mole and port, an undertak¬
ing their ftrength alone is unequal to 5 but whether the
refufal originates in the deficiencies of the public trea-
fury or the jealoufy of the other cities, all the projedls
have ended in fruitlefs applications. The number of
inhabitants dwelling in Catania amounts to 30,000 5
the Catanians make it double : A confiderable portion
of this number appertains to the univerfity, the only
one in the iiland, and the nurfery of all the lawyers.”
E. Long, 15. 19. N. Lat. 37. 30.
CATANZARO, a city in the kingdom of Naples,
the capital of Calabria Ulteiior, with a bilhop’s fee.
It is the ufual refidence of the governor of the pro¬
vince, and is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 18. 20.
N. Lat. 28. 58.
CA1APHONICS, the fcience which confiders the
properties of reflected founds. See Acoustics.
CATAPHORA, in Medicine, the fame as Coma.
CATAPHRACTAj
CAT f 259 1 C A T
Cat«p1irac- CATAPHRACTA, (from xs*7<», and (p^strcu, I for-
Naves tify or arni), in the ancient military art, a piece of
c f heavy defenfive armour, formed of cloth or leather,
ma.' fortified with iron fcales, or links wherewith fome-
times only the breaft, fometimes the whole body, and
foraetimes the horfe too, was covered. It was in ufe
among the Sarmatians, Perfians, and other barbarians.
The Romans alfo adopted it early for their loot ; and,
according to Vegetius, kept to it till the time of Gra-
tian, when the military difcipline growing remifs, and
field exercifes and labour difcontinued, the Roman foot
thought the cataphra&a as w-ell as the helmet too great
a load to bear, and therefore threw both by, choofing
rather to march againlt the enemy bare-breafted ; by
which, in the war with the Goths, multitudes were
deftroyed.
Cjtafhractm N-aves, fliips armed and covered in
fight, fo that they could not be eafily damaged by the
enemy. They were covered over with boards or planks,
on which the foldiers were placed to defend them ; the
rowers fitting underneath, thus fcreened from the ene¬
my’s weapons.
CATAPHRACTUS, denotes a thing defended or
covered on all fides with armour.
Cataphractus, or Catapbraflarius, more particu¬
larly denotes a horfeman, or even horfe, armed with a
cataphrafta. The cataphraSH equites were a fort of
cuirafiiers, not only fortified with armour themfelves,
but having their horfes guarded with folid plates of
brafs or other metals, ufually lined with ikins, and
wrought into plumes or other forms. Their ufe was
to bear dowm all before them, to break in upon the
enemy’s ranks, and fpread terror and havock wherever
they came, as being themfelves invulnerable and fecure
from danger. But their difadvantage was their un-
wieldinefs, by which, if once unhorfed or on the
ground, they were unable to rife, and thus fell a prey
to the enemy.
CATAPHRYGIANS, a fe£t in the fecond cen¬
tury, fo called as being of the country of Phrygia.
They were orthodox in every thing, fetting afide this,
that they took Montanus for a prophet, and Prifcilla
and Maximilla for true propheteffes, to be confulted in
every thing relating to religion ; as fuppofing the Holy
Spirit had abandoned the church. See Montanisr.
CATAPLASM A, a poultice 5 from x.ct]<x.7r\uor<ru,
llano, to fpread like a plafter. Cataplafms take their
name fometimes from the part to which they are ap¬
plied, or efiefts they produce •, fo are called anacol-
lema, frontale, epicarpium, epifpajlicum, vepcatorhun ;
and when mullard is an ingredient, they are called fi-
napifms.
Thefe kinds of applications are fofter and more eafy
than plafters or ointments. They are formed of fome
vegetable fubftances, and applied of fuch a confidence
as neither to adhere nor run : they are alfo more ufe-
ful when • the intention is effected by the perpetuity
of the heat or cold which they contain, for they re¬
tain them longer than any other kind of compofition.
When defigned to relax, or to promote fuppura-
tion, they fhould be applied warm. Their warmth,
moifiure, and the obdruftion they give to perfpira-
tion, is the method of their anfwering that end. The
proper heat, when applied warm, is no more than to
promote a kindly pleafant fenfation 5 for great heat
prevents the defign for which they are ufed. They Catapult?.
Ihould be renewed as often as they cool. Tor relaxing
and fuppurating, none excel the white bread poultice,
made with the crumb of an old loaf, a fufficient quan¬
tity of milk to boil the bread in until it is fod, and
a little oil j which lad ingredient, befides preventing
the poultice from drying and dicking to the Ikin,
alio retains the heat longer than the bread and milk
alone would do. To preferve the heat longer, the
poultice, when applied, may be covered with a drong
ox’s bladder.
When defigned to repel, they fhould be applied cold,
and ought to be renewed as oft as they become warm.
A proper compofition for this end is a mixture of oat¬
meal and vinegar.
CATAPULTA, in antiquity, a military engine
contrived for the throwing of arrows, darts, and dones
upon the enemy.—Some of thefe engines were of fuch
force that they would throw dones of an hundred
weight. Jofephus takes notice of the furprifing effe&s
of thefe engines, and fays, that the dones thrown out
of them beat down the battlements, knocked off the
angles of the towers, and would level a whole file of
men from one end to the other, was the phalanx ever
fo deep. This was called the
Battering Catapvlta, and is reprefented on Plate
CXXXV. This catapulta is fuppofed to carry a
done, &c. of an hundred weight j and therefore a
defcription of it will be fufficient to explain the
dodtrine of all the red ; for fuch as threw dones of
500 and upwards were condrudled, on the fame prin¬
ciples.
The bafe is compofed of two large beams 2, 3. The
length of thefe beams is fifteen diameters of the bore
of the capitals 9. At the two extremities of each
beam, two double mortiles are cut to receive the
eight tenons of two crofs beams, each of them four of
the diameters in length. In the centre of each of
the beams of the bafe, and near two-thirds of their
length, a hole, perfedlly round, and 1 6 inches in dia¬
meter, fhould be bored ; thefe holes mud be exadlly
oppofite to each other, and diould increafe gradually
to the infide of the beams, fo that each of them, be¬
ing 16 inches on the outfide towards the capitals 9,
drould be 174: at the opening on the infide, and the
edges carefully rounded off. The capitals 9 are, in a
manner, the foul of the machine, and ferve to twid
and drain the cordage, which forms its principle or
powrer of motion. *
The capitals are either of cad brafs or iron ; each
confiding of a wheel with teeth, C 10, of 24 inches
thick. The hollow or bore of thefe wheels fliould be
114 inches in diameter, perfectly round, and the edges
fmoothed down. As the friftion would be too great
if the capitals rubbed againd the beams by the extreme \
draining of the cordage, which draws them towards
thefe beams, that inconvenience is remedied by the
means of eight friclion wheels, or cylinders of brafs,
about the t3th of an inch in diameter, and an inch and
one fixth in length, placed circularly, and turning up¬
on axes, as reprefented at D 13, B 12. One of thefe
fricfion wheels at large with its fcrew, by which it is
fadened into the beam, is reprefented at A.
Upon this number of cylindrical wheels the capitals
9 mud be placed in the beams 2, 3, fo that the cylin-
K k 2 ders
CAT , t .263
Catapulta. ders do net extend to the teeth of the wheels, which
mutt receive a ftrong pinion 14. By means of this
pinion the wheel of the capital is made to turn for
Braining the cordage with the key 15* I he capital
wheel has a ftrong catch 16, and another of the fame
kind may be added, to prevent any thing from giving
wav through the extreme and violent force of the
Brained cordage.
The capital piece of the machine is a nut or crofs
pin of iron, 17, feen at C, and hammered cold into
its form. It divides the bore of the capitals exactly in
two equal parts, and fixed in grooves about an inch
deep. This piece, or nut, ought to be about two in¬
ches and one third thick at the top 18, as repfefented
in the fedlion at B } and rounded off and polifned as
much as poffible, that the cords folded over it may not
be hurt or cut by the roughnefs or edges of the iron.
Its height ought to be eight inches, decreafing gradu¬
ally in thicknefs to the bottom, where it ought to be
only one inch. It muft be very exactly inferted in the
capitals.
After placing the two capitals in the holes of the
two beams in a right line with each other, and fixing
the two crofs diametrical nuts or pieces over which
the cordage is to wind, one end of the cord is leeved
through a hole in one of the capitals in the bafe, and
made fall to a nail withinfide of the beam. The
other fide of the cord is then carried through the hole
in the oppofite beam and capital, and fo wound over
the crofs pieces of iron in the centre of the two capi¬
tals, till they are full, the cordage forming a large
fkain. The tenfion or {training of the cordage ought
to be exactly equal, that is, the feveral foldings of the
cord over the capital pieces fhould be equally Brained,
and fo near each other as not to leave the leaB fpace
between them. As foon as the firB folding 01 fkain of
cord has filled up one whole fpace or breadth of the
capital pieces, another mufi be carried over it ; and fo
on, always equally Braining the end till no more will
pafs through the capitals, and the fkain of cordage en¬
tirely fills them, obferving to rub it from time to time
with foap.
At three or four inches behind the cordage, thus
wound over the capital pieces, two very flrong upright
beams 2i are raifed : thefe are poBs of oak 14 inches
thick, croffed over at top by another of the fame fofi-
dity. The height of the upright beams is 7-y th01116"
ters ; each fupported behind with very Brong props
25, fixed at bottom in the extremities of the bafe 2, 3.
The crofs beam 24 is fupported in the fame manner by
a prop in the centre.
The tree, arm, or fiylus 2 2, fhould be of found
afh. Its length is from 15 to 16 diameters of the bore
of the capitals. The end at the bottom, or that fixed
jn the middle of the fkain, is 10 inches thick, and 14
broad. To Brengthen the arm or tree, it fhould be
wrapped round with a cloth dipped in flrong glue like
the tree of a faddle, and bound very hard with w^axed
thread of the fixth of an inch in diameter, from the
large end at bottom, almofi to the top, as reprefented
in the figure.
At the top of the arm, jufl under the iron hand or
receiver 27, a flrong cord is faflened, with two loops
twifled one within another, for the greater flrength.
Into thefe two loops the hook of a brafs pulley 28 is
] CAT
put. The cord 29 is then reeved through the pulley, Catapulta
and faflened to the roll 30. The cock or trigger 31, CatJaaeg-
which ferves as a Bay, is then brought to it, and 1 .m >
made fafl by its hook to the extremity of the hand
27, in which the body to be difeharged is placed.
The pulley at the neck of the arm is then unhooked ;
and when the trigger is to let it off, a Broke mufl be
given upon it wdth an iron bar or crow' of about an
inch in diameter •, on which the arm flies up with a
force almofl equal to that of a modern mortar. T he
cufhion or ftomacher 23, placed exaftly in the middle
of the crofs beam 24, fhould be covered with tanned
ox hide, and fluffed with hair, the arm Bribing againfl
it w'ith inconceivable force. It is to be obferved, that
the tree or arm 22 deferibes an angle of 90 degrees,
beginning at the cock, and ending at the flomacher or
cufhion.
Cjtapultji for Arrows, Spears, or Darts. Some of
the fpears, &c. thrown by thele engines, are faid to
have been 18 feet long, and to have been throwm with
fuch velocity as to take file in their courfe.
ABCD is the frame that holds the darts or ar-pig.
rows, w'hich may be of different numbers, and placed
in different direftions. EF is a large and Brong
iron fpring, which is bent by a rope that goes over
three pulleys, I, K, L j and is drawn by one or feveral
men } this rope may be faflened to a pin at M-. The
rope, therefore, being fet at liberty, the fpring muft
ftrike the darts with great violence, and fend them,
with furpnfing velocity, to a great difiance. This in-
Brument differs in fome particulars from the defcription
we have of that of the ancients j principally in the
throwing of feveral darts at the fame time, one only
being thrown by theirs.
CATARACT, in Hydrography, a precipice in the
channel of a river, caufed by rocks, or other obftacies,
flopping the courfe of the Bream, from whence the
water falls with greater noife and impetuofity. The
wmrd comes from xxTxeyu.rrw, “ I tumble down with
violence compounoed of Kara, “ down,” and ^atro-u,
dejicio, I throw dow'n.”——Such are the cataiaeis of
the Nile, the Danube, Rhine, &c. In that of Niagara,
the perpendicular fall of the w'ater is 13?
in that of Piftil Rhaiadr, in North \\ ales, the fail of
W'ater is near 240 feet from the mountain to tne lower
pool.
Strabo calls that a cataratt which we call a cafcade ;
and what we call a cataraB, the ancients ufually called
a catadupa. Herminius has an exprefs differtation,
“ De admirandis mundi Cataraftis fupra et fubterra-
neis w here he ules the word in a new fenfe 5 fig-
nifying, by cataradl, any violent motion of the ele.i
ments. >r ,
Cataract, in Medicine and Surgery, a duorder
of the humours of the eye, by which the pupilla,
that ought to appear tranfparent and black, looks
opaque, blue, gray, brown, &c. by which vifion is
varioufly impeded, or totally deftroyed. See Surgery.
CATARO, a town of Dalmatia,-and capital of the
territory of the fame name, with a flrohg caftle, and
a bifhop’s fee. It is fubjeft to Venice, and is feated on
a gulf of the fame name. E. Long. 19. 19. N. Lat.
4 CATARACTES, the trivial name of a fpecies of
L«yS. See Orsitholocy Index. CATARkH
CAS TLE
Plate C’XXXX
/r/r/t
///A/Z/yy/
few '/.
CAT [ 261 ] CAT
Catarrh CATARRH, in Medicine, a diftillation or defluxion
Catch ^rom t^le upon the mouth and afpera arteria,
Wood" and through them upon the lungs. See Medicine
•—v——- Index.
CATASTASIS, in Poetry, the third part of the
-ancient drama •, being that wherein the intrigue, or
a6tion, fet forth in the epitafis, is fupported, carried on,
and heightened, till it be ripe for the unravelling in
the cataflrophe. Scaliger defines it, the full growth of
the fable, while things are at a ftand in that confufion
to which the poet has brought them.
CATASTROPHE, in Dramatic Poetry, the fourth
and laft part in the ancient drama ; or that immediate¬
ly fucceeding the cataftafis : or, according to others,
the third only 5 the whole drama being divided into
protafis, epitafis, and cataftrophe •, or in the terms of
Ariftotle, prologue, epilogue, and exode.
The cataftrophe clears up every thing, and is nothing
elfe but the difcovery or winding-up of the plot. It
has its peculiar place : for it ought entirely to be con¬
tained, not only in the laft aft, but in the very conclu-
fion of it } and when the plot is finiflied, the play
fhould be fo alfo. The cataftrophe ought to turn upon
a Angle point, or ftart up on a hidden.
The great art in the cataftrophe is, that the clear¬
ing up of all difficulties may appear wonderful, and yet
eafy, fimple, and natural.
It is a very prepofterous artifice of fome writers to
fhow the cataftrophe in the very title of the play. Mr
Dryden thinks that a cataftrophe refulting from a mere
change in the fentiments and refolutions of a perfon,
without any other machinery, may be fo managed as
to be exceedingly beautiful.
It is a difpute among the critics, whether the cata¬
ftrophe fhould always fall out favourably on the fide of
virtue or not. The reafons on the negative fide feem
the ftrongeft. Ariftotle prefers a (hocking cataftrophe to
a happy one.—The cataftrophe is either fimple or com¬
plex. The firft is that in which there is no change in
the ftate of the principal perfons, nor any difcovery
or unravelling, the plot being only a mere paflage out
of agitation into quiet repofe. In the fecond, the
principal perfons undergo a change of fortune, in the
manner already defined.
CATCH, in the mufical fenfe of the word, a fugue
in the unifon, wherein, to humour fome conceit in the
words, the melody is broken, and the fenfe interrupted
in one part, and caught again or fupported by another;
as in the catch in Shakefpeare’s play of the Twelfth
Night, where there is a catch fung by three perfons, in
which the humour is, that each who fings, calls and
is called knave in turn : Or, as defined by Mr Jack-
fon “ a catch is a piece for three or more voices,
one of which leads, and the others follow in the fame
notes. It muft be fo contrived, that refts (which
are made for that purpofe) in the mufic of one line
be filled up with a word or two from another line ;
thefe form a crofs purpofe, or catch, from whence the
name.”
Catch-Fly. See Lychnis, Botany Index.
Catch-PoIc, (quafi one that catches by the pole'), a
term ufed, by way of reproach, for the bailiff’s follow¬
er or affiftant.
CATCH-Word, among printers, that placed at the bot-
Catechu.
tom of each page, being always the firft word of the Catechefis
following page.
CA FECHESIS, in a general fenfe, denotes an in-
ftruftion given any perfon in the firft rudiments of an
art or fcience ; but more particularly of the Chriftian
religion. In the ancient church, catechefis was an
inftruftion given viva voce, either to children, or adult
heathens, preparatory to their receiving of baptifm. In
this fenfe, catecbefis (lands contradillinguiffied from
myjlagogica, which were a higher part of inftruftion
given to thofe already initiated, and containing the
myfteries of faith. Thofe who give fuch inftruftions
are called catechijls ; and thofe who receive them, cate¬
chumens.
CATECHETIC, or Catechetical, fomething
that relates to oral inftruftion in the rudiments of Chrift-
ianity.—Catechetic fchools were buildings appointed
for the office of the catechift, adjoining to the church,
and called catechumena: fuch rvas that in which Origen
and many other famous men read catechetical leftures
at Alexandria. See Catechumen.
CATECHISM, in its primary fenfe, an inftruc-
tion, or inftitution, in the principles of the Chriftian.
religion, delivered viva voce, and fo as to require fre¬
quent repetitions, from the difciple or hearer, of what
has been faid. The word is formed from a
compound of xxrx and q. d. circurnfono, alluding
to the noife or din made in this fort of exercife, or to
the zeal and earneftnefs wherewith things are to be in¬
culcated over and over on the learners.—Anciently the
candidates for baptifm were only to be inftrudled in
the fecrets of their religion by tradition viva voce,
without writing ; as had alfo been the cafe among the
Egyptian priefts, and the Britifh and Gaulifh druids,
who only communicated the myfteries of their theo¬
logy by w7ord of mouth.
Catechism is more frequently ufed in modern times
for an elementary book, wherein the principal articles
of religion are fummarily delivered in the w'ay of que-
ftion and anfwer.
CATECHIST, (ystTixirn, catecheta), he that cate-
chifes, i. e. he that inftrufts novices in the principles
of religion.
Catechist more particularly denotes a perfon ap¬
pointed by the church to inftruft thofe intended for
baptifm, by w7ord of mouth, in the fundamental ar- '
tides of the Chriftian faith.——The catechifts of churches
were minifters ufually diftinft from the bilhops and
prefhyters, and had their auditories or catechumena
apart. Their bufinefs was to inftruft the catechu¬
mens, and prepare them for the reception of baptifm.
But the catechifts did not conftitute any diftinft or¬
der of the clergy, but w7ere chofen out of any other
order. The biffiop himfelf fometimes performed the
office ; at other times prefbyters, or even readers or
deacons, w7ere the catechifts. Origen feems to have
had no higher degree in the church than reader, when
he was made catechift at Alexandria, being only 18
years of age, and confequently incapable of the dea-
confhip.
CATECHU, in the Materia Medico, a name
given to the extraft otherwfife known by the name
of Terra Japonica, or Japan earth. See Areca and
Mimosa.
CATECHUMEN,
Gateeuu-
men
l!
Category.
GAT [
CATECHUMEN, a candidate for baptifni, or one
who prepares himfelf for the receiving thereof.
The catechumens, in church hiftory, were the low-
eft order of Chriftians in the primitive church. They
had fome title to the common name of Chriftian, being
a degree above pagans and heretics, though not con-
1'ummated by baptil'm. They were admitted to the
ftate of catechumens -by the irapofition of hands, and
the fign ot the crofs. The children of believing pa¬
rents were admitted catechumens, as foon as ever
they wrere capable of inftruftion : but at what age
thole of heathen parents might be admitted, is not fo
clear.. As to the time of their continuance in this
ftate, there were no general rules fixed about it; but
the praiftice varied according to the difference of times
and places, and the readinefs and proficiency of the
catechumens themfelves.
There were four orders or degrees of catechumens j
the firft were thofe inftrudled privately without the
church, and kept at a diftance, for fomc time, from the
privilege of entering the church, to make them the
more eager and defirous of it. The next degree were
the audientes, fo called from their being admitted to
hear fermons, and the Scriptures read in the church,
but were not allowed to partake of the prayers. The
third fort of catechumens were x\\z germ-Jle£lentes, fo
called becaufe they received impofition of hands kneel¬
ing. The fourth order was the covipctentes et eleBi, de¬
noting the immediate candidates for baptifm, or fuch
as were appointed to be baptifed the next approach¬
ing feftival ; before which, ftrid examination wras
made into their proficiency under the feveral ftages of
catechetical exercifes.
After examination, they were exercifed for twenty
days together, and were obliged to falling and con-
feflion : fome days before baptifm they went veiled j
and it was cuftomary to touch their ears, faying, Epha-
tha, i. e. Be opened \ as alfo to anoint their eyes
with clay j both ceremonies being in imitation of our
Saviour’s pradtiefe, and intended to lhadow out to the
catechumens their condition both before and after their
admiffion into the Chriftian church.
CA 1 EGORICAL, in a general fenfe, is applied
to thofe things ranged under a Category.
Categorical alfo imports a thing to be abfolute,
and not relative \ in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to
hypothetical. We fay, a categorical propofition, a cate¬
gorical fyllogifm, &c.
A categorical anfwer denotes an exprefs and per¬
tinent anlwer made to any queftion or objedlion pro-
pofed.
CATEGORY, in Logic, a feries or order of all
the predicates or attributes contained under any
genus.
The fchool philofophers diftribute all the objedls of
our thoughts and ideas into certain genera or clafles,
not fo much, fay they, to learn what they do not
know, as to communicate a diftindl notion of what
they do know ; and thefe clafl'es the Greeks called
categories, and the Latins predicatnents.
Ariftotle made ten categories, viz. quantity, qua-
uty, relation, action, paffion, time, place, fituation,
and habit, which are ufually expreifed by the follow¬
ing technical diftich :
2
262
1
CAT
Arhor, fex, fervos, ardore, refrigerat, ujlos,
Rare eras Jlabo, nec tunicatus ero.
CATEK. See Bengal.
CATENARIA, in the higher geometry, the name
of a curve line formed by a rope hanging freely from
two points of fufpenfion, whether the points be hori¬
zontal or not. See Fluxjons.
C ATERPILLAAR, in Zoology, the name of all
winged infedts when in their reptile or worm ftate.
See Entomology Index.
Method of Defraying Caterpulars on Trees.—
Take a chafing difh with lighted charcoal, and pla¬
cing it under the branches that are loaded with ca¬
terpillars, throw fome pinches of brimftone upon the
coals. The vapour of the fulphur, which is mortal
to thefe infedls, wall not only deftroy all that are on
the tree, but prevent it from being infefted with
them afterwards. A pound of fulphur will clear as
many trees as grow on feveral acres. This method
has been fuccefsfully tried in France. In the Journal
Oeconomique, the following is faid to be infallible a-
gainft the caterpillars feeding on cabbage, and per¬
haps may be equally ferviceable againft thofe that in-
feft other vegetables. Sow with hemp all the borders
of the ground where you mean to plant your cabbage ;
and, although the neighbourhood is infefted with
caterpillars, the fpace enclofed by the hemp will be
perfedtly free, not one of the vermine will approach
it.
CATERPiLLAR-Eaters, a name given by fome authors-
to a fpecies of worms bred in the body of the caterpil¬
lar, and which eat its flefh ; thefe are owing to a cer¬
tain kind of fly that lodges her eggs in the body of this
animal, and they, after their proper changes, become
flies like their parents.
M. Reaumur has given us, in his hiftory of infedts,
fome very curious particulars in regard to thefe little
wmrms. Every one of them, he obferves, fpins itfelf
a very beautiful cafe of a cylindric figure, made of a
very ftrong fort of filk 5 thefe are the cafes in which
this animal fpends its ftate of chryfalis; and they have
a mark by which they may be known from all other
animal produdtions of this kind, which is, that they
have always a broad ftripe or band furrounding their
middle, which is black when the reft of the cafe is
white, and white when that is black. M. Reaumur
has had the pains and patience to find out the reafon
of this Angularity, which is this : the whole ftiell is
fpun of a filk produced out of the creature’s body ;
this at firft runs all wdiite, and towards the end of
the fpinning turns black. The outfide of the cafe
muft neceflarily be formed firft, as the creature works
from wdthin: confequently this is truly white all over,
but it is traniparent, and (hows the laft fpun or black
filk through it. It might be fuppofed that the whole
infide of the fliell fliould be black j but this is not the
cafe : the wdrole is falhioned before this black filk
comes ; and this is employed by the creature, not to
line the w-hole, but to fortify certain parts only ; and
therefore is all applied either to the middle, or to the
tw-o ends omitting the middle *, and fo gives either a
black band in the middle, or a blacknefs at both ends,
leaving the white in the middle to appear. It is not
unfrequent
Catek
II
Caterpillar-
Eaters.
CAT [ 263 ] CAT
Caterva unfrequent to find a fort of fmall cafes, lying about
Cathc'lral 8ar^en which move of themfelves; when thefe
l.  i are opened, they are found to contain a fmall living
worm. This is one of the fpecies of thofe caterpillar-
eaters ; which, as foon as it comes out of the body of
that animal, ipins itfelf a cafe for its transformation
long before that happens, and lives in it without food
till that changes comes on ; and it becomes a fly like
that to which it owed its birth.
CATERVA, in ancient military writers, a term
ufed in fpeaking of the Gaulifh or Celtiberian armies,
denoting a body of 6000 armed men. The word ca¬
terva, or catervarius, is alfo frequently ufed by ancient
writers to denote a party or corps of foldiers in difor-
der or difarray ; by which it ftands diftinguiflied from
cohort or turma, which were in good order.
CATESBiEA, the lily thorn. See Botany /Wkv.
CATHVERETICS, in Pharmacy, medicines of a
cauflic nature, ferving to eat off fungous flefh.
CA FHARINE. Knights of St Catharine of Mount
Sinai, an ancient military order, erected for the affift-
ance and protedfion of pilgrims going to pay their de¬
votions to the body of St Catharine, a virgin of Alex¬
andria, diftinguifhed for her learning, and faid to have
fuffered martyrdom under Maximin. The body of
the myrtyr having been difcovered on Mount Sinai,
caufed a great concourle of pilgrims; and travelling
being very dangerous, by reafon of the Arabs, an or¬
der of knighthood w’as eredted in 1063, on the mo¬
del of that of the holy fepulchre, and under the pa¬
tronage of St Catharine ; the knights of which ob¬
liged themfelves by oath to guard the body of the
faint, keep the roads fecure, obferve the rule of St Ba-
fil, and obey their grand mafter. Their habit was
white, and on it were reprefented the inftruments of
martyrdom whereby the faint bad fulfered ; viz. a half
wheel armed with fpikes, and traverfed with a fword
ftained with blood.
Catharine. Fraternity of St Catharine at Sienna, a
fort of religious fociety, inftituted in that city in ho¬
nour of St Catharine, a faint famous for her revelations,
and for her marriage with Jefus Chrift, whofe wedding
ring is ftill preferved as a valuable relick. This fra¬
ternity yearly endows a certain number of deftitute vir¬
gins, and has the privilege of redeeming annually two
criminals condemned for murder, and the fame num¬
ber of debtors, by paying their debts.
CATHARTICS, in Medicine, remedies which
promote evacuation by llool. See Materia Me-
dica.
CATHEDRA, in a general fenfe, a chair.—The
word is more particularly ufed for a profeffbr’s chair,
and a preacher’s pulpit.
Cathedra is alio ufed for the bifliop’s fee, or throne
in a church.
CATHEDRAL, a church wherein is a bifhop’s
fee or feat: See Church and Bishop. The word
comes ixom the Greek ii chair,” of kuSs^o/xxi,
fedeo, “ I fit.” The denomination cathedral feems to
have taken its rile from the manner of fitting in the
ancient churches, or affemblies of primitive ChrifH-
ans : in thefe, the council, i. e. the elders and priefts,
was called Prefbyterium; at their head was the bifhop,
who held the place of chairman, Cathedralis or Ca-
thedralicus ; and the prefbyters, who fat on either fide, Catherine,
were alio called by the ancient fathers, FlJfeJJbres Epif- '" *
coporum. The epifcopal authority did not 1 elide in the
bilhop alone 3 but in all the prefbyters, whereof the
bifliop was prefident. A cathedral, therefore, original¬
ly, was different from what it is now 3 the Chriftians,
till the time of Conftantine, having no liberty to
build any temple : by their churches they only meant
their afiemblies ; and by cathedrals, nothing more than
confiftories.
CATHERINE Parr. See Parr.
Catherine. I. Emprefs of RuJJia, a moil extraor¬
dinary perfonage, whofe hiftory deferves to be given
in detail. She was the natural daughter of a country
girl 5 and was born at Ringen, a fmall village upon the
lake Virtcherve, near Dorpt, in Livonia. The year
of her birth is uncertain 3 but, according to her own.
account, fhe came into the world on the 5th of April
1687. Her original name -was Martha, which fhe
changed for Catherine when flic embraced the Greek
religion. Count Rofen, a lieutenant colonel in the
Swedifh fervice, who owned the village of Ringen,
fupported, according to the cuftom of the country,
both the mother and the child ; and was, for that rea¬
fon, fuppofed by many perfons to have been her fa¬
ther. She loft her mother when fhe wras but three
years old 3 and, as Count Rofen died about the fame
time, fhe was left in fo deftitute a fituation, that the
parifti clerk of the village received her into his houfe.
Soon afterwards Gluck, Lutheran minifter of Marien-
burgh, happening, in a journey through thofb parts,
to fee the foundling, took her under his proteffion,
brought her up in his family, and employed her in at¬
tending his children. In 1701, and about the 14th
year of her age, fire efpoufed a dragoon of the Swedifti
garrifon of Marienburgh. Many different accounts
are given of this tranfaftion : one author of great cre¬
dit affirms that the bride and bridegroom remained to¬
gether eight days after their marriage 3 another, of
no lefs authority, afierts, on the contrary, that on the
morning of the nuptials her hufband being fent with a
detachment for Riga, the marriage was never confum-
mated. Thus much is certain, that the dragoon was
abfent when Maiienburgh furrendered to the Ruffians 3
and Catherine, who was referved for a higher fortune,
never faw him more.
General Bauer, upon the taking of Marienburgh,
faw Catherine among the prifoners 3 and,, being fmit-
ten with her youth and beauty, took her to his houfe,
where fhe fuperintended his domeftic affairs, and was
fuppofed to be his miftrefs. Soon afterwards fhe was
removed into the family of Prince Mehzikof, who was
no lefs ftruck with the attraftions of the fair captive.
With him fhe lived until 1704.3 when, in the 17th
year of her age, file became the miffrefs of Peter the
Great, and won io much upon his affcftions, that he
efpoufed her on the 29th of May 1711. The ceremo¬
ny wras fecretly performed at Jawerof in Poland, in the
prefence of General Bruce ; and on the 20th of Fe¬
bruary 1712, it was publicly folemnized with great
pomp at Peterfburgh*
Catherine, by the moft unwearied afliduity and un¬
remitted attention, by the foftnefs and complacency
of her difpofition, but above all by an extraordinary
livelinefe
C A T [ 2
Catheiine. Hvelinefs and gaiety of temper, acquired a wonderful
alcendency over the mind of Peter. The latter was
fubjeft to occafional horrots, which at times rendered
him gloomy and fufpicious, and railed his paffions to
fuch a height as to produce a temporary madnefs. In
thefe dreadiul moments Catherine was the only perfon
who durft venture to approach him ; and fuch was the
kind of fafcination fhe had acquired over his fenfes, that
her prefence had an inftantaneous effect, and the firft
found of her voice compofed his mind and calmed his
agonies. From thefe circumftances fire feemed necef-
fary not only to his comfort, but even to his very exift-
ence; Ihe became his inieparable companion on his
journeys to foreign countries, and even in all his mili¬
tary expeditions.
The peace of Pruth, by which the Ruffian army
was refeued from certain deftruftion, has been wholly
attributed to Catherine, though fhe was little more
than an inftrument in procuring the conlent of Peter.
The latter, in his campaign of 1711 againft the Turks,
having imprudently led his troops into a difadvantage-
ous fituation, took the defperate refolution of cutting
his way through the Turkilh army in the night. With
this refolution he retired to his tent in an agony of
defpair, and gave pofuive orders that no one ihould be
admitted under pain of death. In this important
juncture the principal officers and the vice chancellor
Shaffirof affembled in the prefence of Catherine, and
drew up certain preliminaries in order to obtain a truce
from the grand vizier. In confequence of this deter¬
mination, plenipotentiaries were immediately defpatch-
ed, without the knowledge of Peter, to the grand vi¬
zier, and a peace obtained upon more reafonable con¬
ditions than could have been expected. With thefe
conditions Catherine, notwithftanding the orders iffued
by Peter, entered'his tent, and prevailed upon him to
fign them. Catherine, by her conduft on this occa-
fion, acquired great popularity j and the emperor par¬
ticularly fpecifies her behaviour at Pruth as one of the
reafons which induced him to crorvn her publicly at
Mofcow with his own hand. This ceremony was per¬
formed in I724? and although defigned by Peter only
as a proof of iris affeftion, was the principal caufe of
her fubfequent elevation.
Her influence continued undiminilhed until a ffiort
time before the death of the emperor, when fome cir¬
cumftances happened which occafioned fuch a coolnefs
between them as would probably have ended in a total
rupture, if his death had not fortunately intervened.
The original caufe of this mifunderftanding arofe from
the following difeovery of a lecret connexion between
Catherine and her firft chamberlain, whofe name was
Mons. Ihe emperor, who was fufpicious of this con¬
nexion, quitted Peterfburgh under pretence of remov¬
ing to a villa for a few days, but privately returned to
his winter palace in the capital. From thence be occa-
ally fent one of his confidential pages with a com¬
plimentary meffage to the emprefs, as if he had been
in the country, and with fecret orders to obferve her
motions. From the page’s information the emperor,
on the third night, furprifed Catherine in an arbour of
the garden with her favourite Mons •, while his fifter,
Madame Balke, who was firft lady of the bedchamber to
the emprels, was, in company with a page, upon the
watch without the arbour.
64 ] CAT
Peter, whofe violent temper was inflamed by this Catherine,
difeovery, ftruck Catherine with his cane, as uell as y-—*-1
the page, who endeavoured to prevent him from en¬
tering the arbour, and then retiied without uttering
a Angle word either to Mons or his fifter. A few days
after this tranfahlion theie perfons were taken into
cuftody, and Mons was carried to the winter palace,
where no one had admiffion to him but Peter, who
himfelf brought him his provifions. A report was at
the fame time circulated, that they wrere imprifoned
for having received bribes, and making their influence
over the emprefs fubiervient to their own mercenary
views. Mons being examined by Peter, in the pre¬
fence of Major-general Ufchakof, and threatened with
the torture, confeffed the corruption which was laid
to his charge. He was beheaded •, his fifter received
five ftrokes of the knout, and was baniftied into Sibe¬
ria j two of her Ions, who were chamberlains, were
alfo degraded, and lent as common foldiers among the
Ruffian troops in Perfia. On the day fubfequent to
the execution of the fentence, Peter conveyed Cathe¬
rine in an open carriage under the gallows, to which
was nailed the head of Mons. The emprels, without
changing colour at this dreadful fight, exclaimed,
“ What a pity it is that there is fo much corruption
among courtiers !
This event happened in the latter end of the year
1724 ; and as it u7as loon followed by Peter’s death,
and Catherine upon her acceffion recalled Madame
Balke, it has been fufpedfed that ihe fhortened the
days of her huffiand by poifon. But notwithftanding
the critical fituation for Catherine in which he died,
and her fublequent elevation, this charge is totally de-
ftitute of the leaft flradow of proof 5 for the circum¬
ftances of Peter’s diiorder were too wTell known, and
the peculiar fymptoms of his laft illnefs fufficiently
account for his death, without the neceffity of recur¬
ring to poifon.
While Peter w>as yet lying in the agonies of death,
feveral oppofite parties were caballing to difpofe of the
crown. At a confiderable meeting of many among
the principal nobility, it wras fecretly determined, on
the moment of his dilfolution, to arreft Catherine, and
to place Peter Alexievitch upon the throne. Baffevitz,
apprifed of this refolution, repaired in perfon to the
emprefs, although it was already night. “ My grief and
confternation,” replied Catherine, “ render me inca¬
pable of afting myfelf: do you and Prince Menzikof
confult together, and I will embrace the meafures
which you lhall approve in my name.” Baflevitz, find¬
ing Menzikof afleep, awakened and informed him of
the preffing danger which threatened the emprefs and
her party. As no time remained for long deliberation,
the prince inftantly feized the treafure, fiecured the
fortrefs, gained the officers of the guards by bribes and
promifes, alfo a few of the nobility, and the principal
clergy. Thefe partizans being convened in the palace,
Catherine made her appearance j fhe claimed the
throne in right of her coronation at Mofcow ; ffie ex-
pofed the ill effedls of a minority ; and promifed, that,
“ fo far from depriving the great duke of the crown,
flie would receive it only as a facred depofite, to be re-
ftored to him when flie ftiould be united, in another
world, to an adored hufband, whom ftie was now upon
the point of lofing.”
1
The
CAT [ 2
•Catherine. The pathetic manner with which {he uttered this
y—addrefs, and the tears which accompanied it, added to
the previous diftribution of large fums of money and
jewels, produced the defired efle£t : at the clofe of this
meeting the remainder of the night was employed in
making the necefl’ary preparations to enlure her accef-
fion in cafe of the emperor’s death.
Peter at length expired on the morning of the 28th
of January 1725. This event being made known,
the fenate, the generals, the principal nobility and
clergy, haftened to the palace to proclaim the new fo-
vereign. The adherents of the great duke feemed fe-
cure of fuccefs, and the friends of Catherine were
avoided as perfons doomed to deftruftion. At this
junfture Baflevitz whifpered one of the oppofite party,
“ The emprefs is miflrefs of the treafure and the for-
trefs; (he has gained over the guards and the fynod,
and many of the chief nobility j even here Ihe has
more followers than ^you imagine ; advife therefore
your friends to make no oppofition as they value their
heads.” This information being rapidly circulated,
Baffevitz gave the appointed lignal, and the two re¬
giments of guards, who had been gained by a largefs
to declare for Catherine, and had already furrounded
the palace, beat to arms. “ Who has dared (ex¬
claimed Prince Repnin, the commander in chief), to
order out the troops without my knowledge ?” “ I,
(returned General Butterlin), without pretending to
difpute your authority, in obedience to the commands
of my moft gracious miftrefs.” This {hort reply was
followed by a dead filence. In this moment of fuf-
penfe and anxiety Menzikof entered, preceding Ca¬
therine, fupported by the duke of Holftein. She at¬
tempted to fpeak, but was prevented by fighs and tears
from giving utterance to her words : at length, reco¬
vering herfelf, “ I come (die faid), notwithftanding
the grief which now overwhelms me, to allure you, that,
fubmilftve to the will of my departed hufband, whofe
memory will be ever dear to me, I am ready to devote
my days to the painful occupations of government un¬
til Providence {hall fummon me to follow him.” Then,
after a {hort paufe, (lie artfully added, “ If the great
duke will profit by my inilruftions, perhaps I {hall
have the confolation,'during my wretched widowhood,
of forming for you an emperor worthy of the blood
and the name of him whom you have now irretrievably
loft.” “ As this crifis (replied Menzikof) is a mo¬
ment of fueh importance to the good of the empire,
and requires the moft mature deliberation, your ma-
jefty will permit us to confer, without reftraint, that
this whole affair may be tranfafted without reproach,
as well in the opinion of the prefent age as in that of
pofterity.” “ Afting as I do (anfwered Catharine),
more for the public good than for my own advantage,
1 am not afraid to fubmit all my concerns to the judge¬
ment of fuch an enlightened affembly : you have not
only my permiflion to confer with freedom ; but I lay
my commands upon you all to deliberate maturely on
this important fuhjeft, and I promife to adopt what¬
ever may be the refult of your decifions.” At the
conclufton of thefe words the affembly retired into an¬
other apartment, and the doors were locked.
It was previoufly fettled by Menzikof and his party
that Catherine fliould be emprefs; and the guards,
who furrounded the palace with drums, beating and
Vot, V. Part I.
G ] CAT
colours flying, effectually vanquilhed all oppofition. Catherine.
The only circumftance, therefore, which remained, was ' ■ ■'
to give a juft colour to her title, by perfuading the
affembly that Peter intended to have named her his fuc-
ceffor. For this purpofe Menzikof demanded of that
emperor’s fecretary, whether his late mafter had left
any written declaration of his intentions ? The fecre¬
tary replied, “ That a little before his laft journey to
Mofcow he had deftroyed a will; and that he had fre¬
quently expreffed his defign of making another, but
had always been prevented by the refleftion, that if
he thought his people whom he had raifed from a ftate
of barbarifm to a high degree of power and glory,
could be ungrateful, he wrould not expofe his final in¬
clinations to the infult of a refufal; and that if they
recolleCted what they owed to his labours, they would
regulate their conduct by his intentions, which he had
difclofed with more folemnity than could be manifefted
by any writing. An altercation now began in the
affembly j and fome of the nobles having the courage
to oppofe the acceftion of Cartharine, Theophanes
archbiftiop of Plefcoff called to their recolleCtion the
oath which they had all taken in 1722 to acknowledge
the fucceffor appointed by Peter } and added, that the
fentiments of that emperor delivered by the fecretary
were in effeCI an appointment of Catherine. The op¬
pofite party, however, denied thele fentiments to be
fo clear as the fecretary chofe to infinuate; and infilled,
that as their late monarch had failed to nominate his
heir, the eleCtion of the new fovereign ftiould revert to
the ftate. Upon this the archbilhop farther teftified,
that the evening before the coronation of the emprefs
at Mofcow, Peter had declared, in the houfe of an
Englifli merchant, that he fliould place the crown
upon her head with no other view than to leave her
miftrefs of the empire after his deceafe. This attefta-
tion being confirmed by many perfons prefent, Men¬
zikof cried out, “ What need have we of any tefta-
ment ? A refufal to conform to the inclination of our
great fovereign, thus authenticated, would be both un-
juft and criminal. Long live the emprefs Catherine !”
Thefe words being inftantaneoufly repeated by the
greateft part of thofe who wrere prefent, Menzikof,
faluting Catherine by the title of emprefs, paid his firft
obeifance by kifling her hand j and his example wTas
followed by the whole affembly. She next prefented
herfelf at the window to the guards, and to the people,
who ftrouted acclamations of “ Long live Catherine !”
while Menzikof fcattered among them handfuls of
money. Thus (fays a contemporary) the emprefs was
raifed to the throne by the guards, in the fame manner
as the Roman emperors by the prgetoiian cohorts,
■without either the appointment of the people or of the
legions.
The reign of Catharine may be confidered as the
reign of Menzikof, that emprefs having neither incli¬
nation or abilities to direft the helm of government;
aud flie placed the moft implicit confidence in a man
who had been the original author of her good for¬
tune, and the fple inftrument of her elevation to the
throne.
During her {hort reign her life was very irregular ;
{he wras extremely averfe tobufinefs; wmuld frequently,
when the weather was fine, pafs whole nights in the
open air j and was particularly intemperate in the ufe
LI of
Catherine.
CAT [ 268 ] CAT
of tokay \vlne. Thefe irregularities, joined to a cancer
and a dropfy, haftened her end ; and (lie expired on
the 17th of May 1727, a little more than two years
after her acceffion to the throne, and in about the 40th
year of her age.
As the deaths of fovereigns in defpotic countries are
feldom imputed to natural caufes, that of Catherine
has alfo been attributed to poifon ; as if the diforders
which preyed upon her frame were not fufficient to
bring her to her grave. Some aflert that fhe was poi-
foned in a glafs of fpirituous liquor ; others by a pear
given her by General Diever. Sufpicions alfo fell
upon Prince Menzikof, who, a fhort time before her
deceafe, had a trifling mifunderftanding with her, and
■who was accufed of haftening her death, that he might
reign wdth ftill more abfolute power during the minori¬
ty of Peter II. But thefe reports deferve not the leaft
credit, and were merely diclated by the fpirit of party,
or by popular rumour.
Catherine Tvas in her perfon under the middle fize,
and in her youth delicate and well formed, but inclined
to corpulency as (lie advanced in years. She had a
fair complexion, dark eyes, and light hair, which Ihe
was always accuftomed to dye with a black colour.
She could neither read nor write : her daughter Fdi-
zabeth ufually figned her name for her, and particular¬
ly to her lafl. will and teftament; and Count Ofterman
generally put her fignature to the public decrees and
defpatches. Her abilities have been greatly exagge¬
rated by her panegyrifts. Gordon, who had frequently
feen her, feems, of all writers to have reprefented her
chara&er with the greateft juftnefs, when he fays,
“ She was a very pretty ■well-looked woman, of good
fenfe, but not of that fublimity of wit, or rather that
quicknefs of imagination, which fome people have be¬
lieved. The great reafon why the czar wras fo fond of
her, was her exceeding good temper; (he never was
feen peevifli or out of humour ; obliging and civil to
all, and never forgetful of her former condition :
withal, mighty grateful.” Catherine maintained the
pomp of rnajefty with an air of eafe and grandeur
united ; and Peter ufed frequently to exprefs his admi¬
ration at the propriety with which flie fupported her
high ftation, without forgetting that Ihe was not born
to that dignity.
The following anecdotes will prove that flie bore
her elevation meekly ; and, as Gordon aflerts, was
never forgetful of her former condition. When
Wurmb, who had been tutor to Gluck’s children at
the time that Catherine was a domeftic in that clergy¬
man’s family, prefented himfelf before her after her
marriage with Peter had been publicly folemnized,
fhe recollefted and addrefled him with great compla¬
cency, “ What, thou good man, art thou ftill alive !
I will provide for thee.” And flie accordingly fettled
upon him a penfion. She was no lefs attentive to the
family of her benefadlor Gluck, who died a prifoner
at Mofcow : (he penfioned his widow j made his fon
a page ; portioned the two eldeft daughters ; and ad¬
vanced the youngeft to be one of her maids of honour.
If we may believe Weber, flie frequently inquired
after her firft hufband ; and, when flie lived with Prince
Menzikof, ufed fecretly to fend him fmall fums of
money, until, in 1705, he was killed in a fkirmifh
with the enemy.
But the moft noble part of her chara&er was her Catbcrintv
peculiar humanity and compaflion for the unfortunate.
Motraye has paid a handfome tribute to this excel¬
lence. “ She had, in fome fort, the government of
all his (Peter’s) paflions ; and even laved the lives of
a great many more perfons than Le Fort was able to
do : flie infpired him with that humanity which, in
the opinion of his fubje£ls, nature feemed to have
denied him. A word from her mouth in favour of a
wretch, juft going to be facriliced to his anger, would
difarm him $ but if he was fully refolved to fatisfy that
paflion, he would give orders for the execution when
flie was abfent, for fear Ihe Ihould plead for the vic¬
tim.” In a word, to ufe the expreflion of the cele¬
brated Munich, “ Kile etoit proprement la mediatrice
entre le monarque et fes fujets.'1''
Catherine II. emprefs of Ruflia, whofe original
name was Sophia Augufta Frederica, was the daughter
of Chriftian Auguftus of Anhalt Zerbft, a fmall diltrift
in Upper Saxony, and was born in the caftle of Zerbft,
on the 23d of May 1729. She was educated under
the eye of her parents, along with her brother Prince
Frederic Auguftus, and at an early period difplayed a
mafculine fpirit. Elegant, majeftic, and handfome, in
her perfon, her complexion exhibited the union of the
lily and the rofe, while a native dignity was tempered
by a fmile of beneficence. But it was early obferved,
that fhe concealed under this a certain aufterity of dif-
polition, and an ambition, which was even then con-
fidered as exceflive, and proved afterwards to be infa-
tiable.
She foon learned all the falhionable accompliftiments
of that day. In addition to her native language, fhe
wrote and converfed in French ; of mufic fhe acquired
a competent knowledge, and excelled particularly in
needlework, which flie did not difdain to praftife after
her elevation to the throne.
The emprefs Elizabeth, who had pitched upon her
nephew the duke of Holftein Gottorp Oldenbourg for
her fucccflfor, was alfo defirous to choofe a confort for
him, and the princefs of Anhalt Zerbft was feledled
upon this occafion, when only fourteen years of age.
She wTas chiefly indebted for fo unexpedled an honour
to the tender regard which her imperial majefty always
entertained for the memory of her uncle, who had
been her lover ; and in an evil hour fire united the fate
of the prince, better known afterwards by the name of
Peter III. to that of the princefs of Anhalt Zerbft,
In confequence of a fpecial invitation, the future em¬
prefs repaired to St Peterlburgh, accompanied by her
mother, and being admitted into the bofom of the
Greek church, the ceremonial of marriage, after fome
delay, took place ; on which thefe auguft perfonages
w’ere formally acknowledged, by her imperial majefty
and the fenate, as grand duke and duchefs of Ruflia.
Elizabeth, at the fame time, prefented them with the
palace of Oranienbaum, delightfully fituated on the
gulf of Cronftadt, as a fummer relidence j this had
formerly belonged to Menzikof, the favourite of
Peter the Great, who, in this capricious court, had
been by turns a pie-boy, a prince, and an exile.
The grand duke was far from being handfome 5 on
the contrary, his perfon was difagreeable, and almoft
difgufting. Flis education had been greatly negle&ed,
and he was paflionately fond of military parade. Fre¬
derick
\
CAT
[ 2C7 ]
CAT
Catherine, derick of Pruffia was at once his friend and his model j
y-—" he kept up a fecret correfpondence with that monarch,
at the time when Ruffia was at open war with him j
he was accuftomed in his cups to kneel before a pi&ure
of his hero j and, after quaffing a bumper, he would
exclaim, “ My brother ! we ihall conquer the world
together.”
The firft moments of this union feemed to be pecu¬
liarly aufpicious. The illuftrious pair were accultom-
ed to withdraw themfelves daily, as if defirous to en¬
joy the pleafure of each other’s company, in preference
to the giddly diffipation of a court. It was perceived
at lad, that grandeur was not incompatible with hap-
pinefs, and that hymeneal felicity was not confined to
plebeian life.
The emprefs hoped that the name and pretenfions of
Prince Iwan would be obliterated by the iflue of the
grand duke, and the whole empire impatiently wifhed
for and now expe&ed an heir to the throne of Peter
the Great. It has fince been difcovered, that this
young couple occupied their time in a far diffei'ent
manner than was then fufpedled ! His highnefs, it
feems, retired from fociety on purpofe to perfeft him-
felf in the Pruffian exercife, and his confort on thefe
occafions participated in his diverfions, for he was ac-
cuftomed to make her Hand for hours together, as a
centinel, with a mufket at her fhoulder. This fpecies
of entertainment did not altogether fuit the difpofition
of a young princefs of an ardent temperament, and her
highnefs accordingly began, in her own language, to
think “ that (he was made for fomething elfe.” Al¬
though (he did not love, (lie at this period governed
her hufiband, and even concealed his foibles; imagin¬
ing at firft that (he could not reign but by means of
him, (he wifely determined to make him appear worthy
of a throne.
A marriage of eight years was not produdlive of
any iiTue, and ftrange fufpicions began to be entertained.
This alarmed the court, for a formidable rival, who
poflefled a fuperior claim to the throne, (till exifted ; it
is true he was in bondage, but in a country like Ruftia,
the interval might not be long between a dungeon
and a throne. The birth of a fon and daughter, foon
after this, put an end to all apprehenfions of this kind,
and tended not a little to give (lability fo the empire.
The grand duke, who at times difcovered noble,
and even magnanimous fentiments, had about this pe¬
riod formed a moll unfortunate connexion with Eliza¬
beth Voronfoff, a lady of high rank, but neither cele¬
brated for her beauty nor her talents. He feldom faw
his confort in private, and all the hours that were not
occupied either by military exhibitions, or the plea-
fures of the table, were entirely devo’ed to his miftrefs.
The grand duchefs, on the other hand, is faid to have
fpent much of her time in company with a young Pole,
whofe hiftory, like that of Catherine’s, has fince been
interwoven with the annals of Europe. This was
Count Poniatow(ki, afterwards known as Staniflaus
Auguftus king of Poland. He was the third fon of a
grandee of the fame name, the favourite of Charles XII.
of Sweden, by the princefs Ezatoryfka, who boafted
the poffefiion of the nobleft blood in Poland, as (Ire
traced her defeent from the Jagf llon, the ancient fo-
vereigns of Lithuania. His per fon was of exquifite
fymmetry, his air noble, his manners agreeable $ in
(hort, he poffeiTed a charming exterior, and his mind, a
circumftance extremely rate, was no lefs graceful than
his perfon. At this period he was in no higher llation,
than a gentleman in the fuite of the minifter plenipo¬
tentiary from England, who had formed an intimacy
with his family during a former miflion at Warfaw.
Being now taught to look higher, he returned to his
native country, and appeared foon after at Peterfburgh,
as ambafifador from the king of Poland. In this new
capacity he did not forget to pay his refpefts at the
little court of Oranienbaum, and the young plenipo¬
tentiary, with a view ot ingratiating himlelf with the
grand duke, fmoked, drank, and praifed the king of
Pruffia. At length Paul Petrowifch received the Po-
liffi minifter with coolnefs, and he was actually forbid¬
den to vifit at the palace. This, houever, it is faid,
did not deter him from concealing the Order of the
white eagle, and difguifing himfell as a mechanic, un¬
der which affirmed quality he repaired one fummer’s
evening to the gardens, in the neighbourhood of the
gulf of Cronftadt ; but he was ddcovered by his high¬
nefs, who ordered him to be brought before him, and,
after affe&ing to reprimand the captain of his guard
for his difreiped to the reprefentative of a crowned
head, told him he was at liberty to depart.
From this moment the grand duchefs is faid to have
changed both her fyftem and her condu£l. She had
formerly afpired only to direft the counfels of the fu¬
ture emperor ; die now refolved, if poffible, to obtain
the crown for her fon, and the regency for herfelf.
Such a talk would have difeouraged a common mind,
for it was impoffible to achieve' this without prevailing
on the emprefs to confent to dethrone her own nephew.
Beftuchef, the grand chancellor, who hated the heir
apparent, joined cordially in this fcheme 5 and Eliza¬
beth, who herfelf had obtained the crown by means of
a revolution, was taught to tremble for her life, in
confequence of the defigns of her fucceffor, who was re¬
presented as having refolved to (horten her days by
poifon. But a hidden and unexpeded revolution in
the miniftry put an end to thefe intrigues for Bef-
ftuchef was driven into exile, and Poniatowfki recalled.
A long and melancholy interval now enfued, during
which the ambition of the grand duchefs was rather
fufpended than annihilated. She, however, had re-
courfe to, and foothed her anguiffi by means of books j
it was in her ftudy that (he laid the foundation of her
future greatnefs, and rendered herfelf in fome mea-
fure deferving of a throne. During her leifure mo¬
ments (he found means to gain partifans, and (he ac¬
quired the favour of the foldiery, who did duty around
her perfon, by means of her liberality and condefcen-
fion. Peter, on the other hand, to the perfonal exertions
of a common foldier, added the orgies of a debauchee.
Surrounded by his male and female favourites, he con¬
firmed whole days and nights in intoxication, and for¬
got that he was a prince. There were fome few mo¬
ments, however, when he appeared great, and even
magnanimous, but unfortunately they were of (hort
duration ; and it was his misfortune to have a weak
woman for his miftrefs, and an able and ambitious one
for his wife.
Such was the fituation of the court, when Elizabeth
died, on the 5th of January 1762. This event, fq
productive of interefting effects had been long forefeen
L 1 2 by
CAT [
Catherine, by Catherine, who now began to a& a more confpicuous
part on the theatre of public affairs. Her forrow,
which appeared unbounded, was only equalled by her
devotion. She was conftantly employed either at her
prayers in the cathedral, or occupied in public procef-
fions, during which fire fcrupuloufly adhered to all the
ceremonious pra6Hces of the Greek church. The
courtiers were allonifhed at the hidden change, and
affefted to furvey it with contempt; but it impofed on
the populace, and the priefts were highly gratified with
the zeal of the emprefs, more efpecially as her confort
had always treated their myfteries with indignity.
Another defign, meditated wnth no lefs art, proved
unfuccefsful. She is faid to have made ufe of all her
eloquence to perfuade Peter, that he ought to leave
off the barbarous cuftom of being proclaimed emperor
by the army, in the fame manner as his predeceflors :
inftead of this, fhe propofed that his title fhould be re-
cognifed by the fenate alone, and produced a fpeech
which (lie herfelf had compofed for the occafion ; but
Godowitz, one of the favourites, and the only friend of
the new fovereign, perceived the fnare, and, partly owT-
ing to his entreaties, and partly from an attachment to
every thing military, the foldiery were as ufual grati¬
fied wTith the ceremony of fainting the czar.
The grand duke now afeended the throne, by the
name of Peter III. and the commencement of the new
reign appeared to be peculiarly aufpicious. The ca-
taftrophe, wdrich terminated a fhort reign of fix months,
may be attributed to three apparently trifling, but, in
reality, irretrievable errors j for it is allowed on all
hands, that if they did not conflitute the original caufe,
they at leaf! afforded the pretext for his dethronement
and murder. The firft of thefe wras, the fudden peace
with, and marked predile&ion for, the king of Pruffia,
certainly the greatefl monarch of his age } the fecond,
an attempt to reform a barbarous and fanatical clergy,
whofe power Peter I. had curbed, but whofe perfons
he flill affefted to confider as facred 3 the third wras, the
war againft Denmark.
Let it be recolle&ed, however, in honour to his
memory, that the young monarch, immediately after
his elevation, threw open the ffate prifons, recalled
Munich, Biron, Lefiock, and feveral others, w'ho had
offended him during the late reign, from Siberia 3 that
he limited the defpotifm of his officers, abridged .his
own power, by abolifhing a flate inquifition, exercifed
under the name of the Secret Council of Chancery ;
and that he framed the memorable decree which en-
franchifed the nobles from compulfive fervice in the
army, and permitted them to travel without the royal
permiffion.
The following anfwer to a letter from the king of
Pruffia, wffio had requefted him to be on his guard
againft the plot then meditating, conveys no unfavour¬
able opinion of his heart.
“ Touching the intereft you exprefs for my fafety,
I requeft you will reft contented. I am called the
father of my foldiers—they prefer a male to a female
government. I wTalk alone conftantly in St Peterfburgh
.—if any mifehief is meditated, it would have been
effe&ed long fince 3 but I am a general benefaftor. I
repofe myfelf on the proteflion of heaven 3 trufting to
that, I have nothing to fear.”
This falfe fecurity proved his ruin. While his mind
268 ] CAT
was occupied with plans of reform, and he afpired to Catherine*,
rival, and even to excel, his illuftrious predeceffor, u—-y——*
whofe name he had alfumed, a perfon who had fworn
fidelity to him at the altar, and who owred allegiance
by the double ties of a wife and afubjeeft, wras actually
employed in planning a confpiracy, and organizing a
revolt, againft him. It has been faid that he intended
to have fhut up his confort and fon in a convent. But
did a meditated imprifonment juftify treachery, trea-
fon, and murder ? On the other hand, it is knowui
that, fo far from this being the intention of Peter, he
wras preparing for a journey to Holftein, and had ac¬
tually empowered his confort to aft as regent during
his abfence.
The miftakes of the emperor did not efcape the eagle
eyes of his enemies. He purpofed to carry his guards
into Holftein, with a view to recover the poffeffions
wrefted from his anceftors. The regiments that had
hitherto done duty at the palace, and were inured to
the indulgences of the capital, revolted at the idea of
a foreign war : they had been accuftcmed to be go¬
verned by wmmen, and they were taught to fix their
eyes on the confort of the czar.
It is not the leaft wonderful part of her conduft,
that, previoufly to the great cataftrophe now meditat¬
ing, Catherine contrived to appear abandoned by all
the world. She knew how interefting a female, and
more efpecially an emprefs, appeared while in diftrefs 3
and fire took care to heighten the fenfibility of the
public, by burfting at times into a flood of tear's. This
artful woman had found means to attach many perfons
to her deftiny : it mull be owned, how'ever, that her
adherents were neither fo powerful, nor fo numerous,
as to afford her any wrell-founded hopes of fuccefs. She
had gained feveral fubalterns, and fome privates, of
the guards: but her principal partifans confifted of the
princefs d’Afchekof, niece to the new chancellor 3
Prince Rozamoulki, who had rifen from obfeurity, ha¬
ving been originally a peafant 3 Odart, an intriguing
Italian 3 and Panin, governor to the grand duke. The
arreft of Paffick, one of the confpirators, feemed to
lead to a difeovery, which would have proved fatal to
the malecontents 3 but this very circumftance induced
them to declare inltantly, and in the end crowned an
apparently rafli attempt with luccefs.
The emprefs, who was afleep at the caftle of Peter-
fhoff, received intimation of their defign by a common
foldier, who foon after returned with a carriage and
eight horfes. On the faith of this man, and accompa¬
nied only by a few peafants, a German female domef-
tic, and a French valet de chambre, fhe arrived at
eight o’clock in the morning in the capital, and flop¬
ped oppofite the barracks of the regiment of Ifmailoff,
There fhe addreffed the foldiers in an eloquent fpeech,
intermingled with fighs and tears, and aftually found'
means to perfuade them that fhe and her fon had but
that moment efcaped from the hands of affaffins, fent
by the emperor to murder them. This ftory, by agi¬
tating the paffions of the troops, had a wonderful ef-
feft on them, and they all fwore, -with the exception
of only one regiment, to die in defence of her and the
young archduke. On this the emprefs ordered a cru¬
cifix to be brought, and commanded the priefts to ad-
minifter a new oath of allegiance. She afterwards re¬
paired to one of the principal churches, where fhe was
met
CAT
[ 269 ]
CAT
Catherine, met by the biihop of Novogorod and the clergy, and,
having returned thanks to Almighty God, afcended a
balcony, and prefented her fon to the people. In a
few hours fhe was again feen, dreiled in the uniform
of the guards, riding at the head of a numerous and
well-appointed army againft her hulband.
That unfortunate prince firft made a fhew of refift-
ance, and manned his Lilliputian batteries, at Orani-
enbaum, with his Holftein guards, in order to oppofe
what appeared to him to be a contemptible fedition.
When it was too late, he attempted to get poffeffion
of Cronftadt. He might Hill have efcaped to Revel,
but the women in his galley were apprehenfive of dan¬
ger, and the courtiers Ihuddered at the proportion of
old Munich, who wiihed them to aflift the failors in
rowing.
On the firft intelligence of the plot this intrepid
warrior had repaired to his benefactor, and advifed
him to march direftly to the capital, at the head of his
German troops. “ I (hall precede you (faid the ge¬
nerous veteran), and my dead body lhall be a rampart
to your facred perlon.” But, on the other hand, trie
emiffaries of the emprefs, bathing his hands .in their
crocodile tears, deprecated refiitance, magnified the
danger, and invited him to repofe in the inviolable fi¬
delity of his confort. In fhort, on the 14th ot July,
\*]6z, he was taken prifoner by the orders of his own
wife, to whom he had been married 14 years, prevail¬
ed on by the threats and entreaties of Count Panin to
renounce his crown, conveyed to the caftle of Rob-
fcha, and three days afterwards put to death. Of the
titled minions, who perpetrated this daring murder, one
carried the guilty marks of the czar’s fcymitar on his
forehead to the grave, and another, tortured for years
by the remembrance of the laft bloody fcene in the
tragedy of his expiring fovereign, exhibited a (hocking
fpeCtacle of infanity and remorfe.
The emprefs, on her affumption of the now vacant
crown, notified the event to all the courts of Lurope,
under her new name of Catherine Alexiewna II. But
there was ftill a competitor for the empire, and fufpi-
cion never (lumbers near a throne. T his was Prince
Iwan, (bn to the princefs of Mecklenburg, and grand
nephew to Peter the Great and the emprefs Anna
Iwanowna, who had deftined him for her iucceffor j
but, in confequence of a former revolution, he wras fei-
zed while yet an infant, and doomed to lead a life of
captivity. During 18 years of precarious exillence,
he had been (hut up in the caftle of Schluflelbourg, and
never in all that time did he breathe the open air, or
behold the (ky, but once. This prince was vifited by
Peter III. who finding him in an arched room, 20
feet fquare, determined to fet him at liberty y but,
alas ! the youth, in confequence of his long and foli-
tary confinement, had been deprived of his fenfes. In
this fituation, the emperor determined to build a houfe
for him, with a convenient terrace, where he might
take the air daily within the fortrefs. Such, however,
are the changes of fortune, that, in three weeks, he
himfelf was alfo precipitated from a throne, and expo-
fed to a violent death. This event was but the pre¬
lude to that of Iwan ; for, as orders had been given, in
cafe of an attempt to refcue him, that an end (liould be
put to his life, and a real or pretended plot having
been hatched for this purpofe, the motives and details
of which have hitherto been involved in the moft pro- Catherine.
found obfcurity, the unhappy prince experienced the '
fame fate as his generous protestor.
Catherine being now* firmly feated on the throne,
wifely determined to divert the thoughts of the na¬
tion from the late horrid fcenes, and fix them on
more agreeable objects. Having footbed Pruifia, ac¬
quired a preponderance in the cabinet of Denmark,
long become an abfolute monarchy, and entered into
a league with the popular party in Sweden, not yet
bereft of its liberties, (be caft her eyes on Courland,
then governed by Prince Charles of Saxony, the fe-
cond fon of Augultus III. king of Poland ; and, find¬
ing that country admirably fituated for the increafe of
her prefent, and the extenfion of her future powder,
(lie, in 1762, expelled the lawful fovereign, and in-
vefted Biron, a creature of her own, with the ducal
cap. Not content with this, the new duke, foon re¬
duced to the moft abject dependence, was prevented
from refigning his precarious power, and the dates af-
fembled at Mittau were a£iually interdicted from no
minating a fuccefior. This, however, was only a pre¬
lude to far greater fcenes, for (he had hardly dethron¬
ed one fovereign before (Ire undertook to create ano¬
ther. Auguftus II. or as be is called by fome, Au-
guftus III. of Poland, having died at Drefden, in 1763,
her imperial majefty did not let (lip fo fair an opportu¬
nity for interfering in the appointment to the vacant
throne, and even placing one of her dependents on it.
Count Poniatowfki, on the elevation of Catherine, had
fent a friend to Peterftmrgh, to found tn’e difpofition
of the emprefs about his return to that capital, where
be naturally hoped to participate in her power, and
ba(k in the funftdne of the royal frnilds.- But the more
prudent German, who w'as at this very moment medi¬
tating a fplendid provifion for him elfewhere, prohibi¬
ted the journey from political motives. Accordingly,
notwithftanding the dppofition of the grand chancellor
Beftucheff, and indeed of all her minifters, (he deter¬
mined to invert him with the enfigns of royalty. The
head of the houfe of Brandenburgh, fwayed by his ha¬
tred to Saxony and Auftria, or, what is ftill more
likely, the Pruffian eagle having perhaps, even now,
fcented his future prey, Catherine was enabled to fend
10,000 men into Poland, who, encamping on the
banks of the Viftula, overawed the deliberations of
the diet, aflembled on the 9th of May 1764, and pla-
cedxStani(laus-Auguftus on the throne. Thus, by the
appearance of a camp filled with Ruffian mercenaries,
was violated one of the fundamental laws of the com¬
monwealth, eftablifhed ever fince the time of Sigif-
mund-Auguftus two centuries before, in confequence
of which the eleClion of a king is deemed void while
there are any foreign troops within the territories of
the republic ; and fo juftly jealous were the ancient
Poles of their national independence, that the marffial
of the diet, on thofe occaiions, was accuftomed to re-
queft all ambaffadors to abfent themfelves, as he could
not be anfwerable for the fafety of their perfons.
Having conferred the crown of Poland, September
7. 1 764, on an amiable and accomplithed prince, who,
on account of bis youth, his poverty, and even his de¬
pendence on Ruffia, would have been excluded from
that painful pre-eminence had the free fuffrage or the
nation been colle&ed ; and who was.
in confequence
of
C A T [2
Catnenne.. 0f t]ie hatred of his countrymen, ftill more fubje&ed
to the dominion of the emprefs, (he began to prepare
v for a war againft the Turks, 'which was accordingly
declared in 1768. During this conteft the Greek
crofs was triumphant both by fea and land. On the
firft of thefe elements her fleet, under Count Orloff,
entered the ftraits of Gibraltar, and carried terror and
defolation among the ifiands in the Archipelago, and
throughout the defencelefs (hores of Afia Minor ; on
the fecond, her armies, under Galitzen and Roman-
zolf, achieved many important victories, feized on the
lortrefs of Choczim, and prevailed on the Greek inha¬
bitants of Wallachia and Moldavia to acknowledge
her as their fovereign.
In the mean time, however, a dangerous infurrec-
tion broke out in the heart of her dominions, mitigat¬
ed by a Coffack of the name of Pugatfcheff, who pre¬
tended to be Peter III. After difplaying great valour
and confiderable talents, which had enabled him, at
the head of raw and undifciplined levies, to contend
againft veteran troops and experienced generals, this
Unfortunate man was at length feized, enclofed in an
iron cage, and beheaded at Mofcow on the 2 lit of Ja¬
nuary 1775.
A peace had been concluded on the 21ft of July, in
the preceding year, with the Porte, which ‘ proved
highly honourable to Ruflia ; but it was produaive of
little benefit, for the liberty of navigating the Black
fea, and a free trade with all the ports of the Turkilh
empire, which would have afforded ineftimable advan¬
tages to a civilized people, was fcarcely of any confe-
quence to a nation unacquainted alike with commerce
and manufa&ures.
Accordingly, we find her imperial majefty ftill un-
fatisfied. Ambition, which in a female bofom is ever
infatiable, flimulated her to attempt new acquifitions,
and we learn with aftonifhment that her diplomatic ar¬
tifices proved infinitely more hoftile to the Turkifli
crefcent, than even her viftorious arms. Scarcely had
four years elapfed, when, after an armed negotiation,
a new treaty of pacification was agreed to by the re-
luclant fultan, on the 2 ill of March, 1779, in confe-
quence of which the Crimea was declared independent:
an event not calculated to clofe ancient jealoufies, but,
on the contrary, to produce frefli diffenfions, as it af¬
forded an opening into the very heart of the Turkifli
empire, and a ready pretext for future interference.*
New claims and new conceflions immediately followed.
Ruflia infifled on eftablilhing confuls in the three pro¬
vinces of Mold a v a, Wallachia, and Beffarabia, which
Ihe was accordingly permitted to do by the treaty of
1781. Mortifying as this compliance was, it produ¬
ced but a fliort refptte. The emperor Jofeph was now
brought upon the political ftage, and the Roman md
R 1 ban eagles, after hovering over the carcafe of the
Turkifli emoire, and meditating to devour the whole
weie at !aft content with a part of the prey. The em¬
prefs, as it may be readily believed, was not inatten¬
tive to her own interefts, and by the treaty of Con-
ftantinople, figned January 9. 1784, to Ruflia was
ceded the entire foverei .;ntv of the Crimea, which then
receivfd its ancient name of Taurica, the ifle of fa-
man. and part of Cuban.
It was now in the 58th year of her age, and the
TO
1
CAT
25th of her reign, that Catherine may be faid to have Catherine,
attained the very lummit of her wifhes. There was no *" v "
one who pretended to the throne, unlefs her fon Paul
Petiowitz, an amiable prince, who had attained his
33d year, without duplaying the leaf! fymptom of am¬
bition, and who befides was fuperintended with the
molt watchful jealoufy. She had triumphed over a na¬
tion, fuppofed to be the natural enemy of Ruflia, both
by arms and negotiations, and the dazzled her barba¬
rous fubjeas with the blaze of her glory, for they were
eager to forget her errors, in order to contemplate a
grandeur which foothed their national vanity. Know¬
ing the eflea of fplendour upon ignorance, fhe ufhered
in the year 1787 with a brilliant journey to Cherfon.
Accompanied thither at once by a court and an army,
with foreign ambafladors, an emperor and a king in.
her train, ihe intended to have aflumed the high found¬
ing titles of Emprefs of the Eaft, and Liberator of
Greece. At Kiow, where fhe remained during three
months, fhe was received under triumphal arches, and,
having heard the petitions of the deputies from diftant
nations, and extended the ivalls of that city, fhe in-
fcnbed,. with an arrogant anticipation, the following
motto, in Greek chara&ers, on the quarter next to
Conftantinople : “ Through this gate lies the road to
Byzantium.”
Scaicely, however, had the emprefs, after vifiting
Mofcow, returned to her capital, than the Turk
thought proper to declare war. Her majefly, long
fince prepared for an event which was far from being
dilpleafing, called forth the ftipulated fuccours of her
ally the emperor j and the combined army under the
Prince de Cobourg made itfelf mafter of Choczim, at
the end of a fiege of three months. Oczakow, after
a ftill more obflinate refiftance, was taken by ftorm,
by the Ruffians alone. A diverfion, however, was
made by the king of Sweden, who, fubfidized with Tur-
kifti gold, and direfted by Pruflian counfels, fought
his own battles at the expence of his ally. But the ex¬
ertions of this monarch were principally confined to the
indecifive naval aftions of Stoogland, in which both
parties claimed the vi&ory, and this was foon after
followed by a convention for peace.
Difembarrafied from an adlive, if not a powerful
enemy, the emprefs no longer confined her conquefts
to the courfe of the Danube, but crowned the cam¬
paign with the capture of Ifmael, which was taken by
florm on the 22d of December. On this occafion
Suwarrow, one of her favourite generals, difplayed a
horrid mixture of courage and cruelty, and thus prov¬
ed, to a demonftration, that perfonal bravery is far
from being incompatible with the deadliefl revenge.
Tncenled at the gallant refiftance of the Turks, like
Caefar, he fnatched a ftandard from a fubaltern, and
planted it with his own hand on the walls of the city j
like Sylla, he doomed the vanquifhed to experience a
bloody profcription, and upwards of 30,000 men, wo¬
men, and children, if we are to credit the boaftful ac¬
count of the barbarians themfelves, perifhed by the
I’word and bayonet of the unfparing Ruffians.
Infttad of regaining the Crimea, as had been ex¬
pelled by the fid tan, the fortrefs of Oczakow, and all
rhe territories between the rivers Bog and Dneifler,
Were affigned to the emprefs, who now found berfelf
nearer
CAT [ 271 ] CAT
Catherine, nearer to tliat Byzantium, on which {he had fo eager-
v-—V*—ly fixed her eye, by a whole campaign, than at the
commencement of hoftilities.
Having concluded a final treaty of peace with the
Turk, on the 9th of January 1792, by which the ri¬
ver Dneifter became the boundary of the two empires,
and was to be navigated by both, the emprefs had
more tim^ to apply her attention to European politics.
Part of Poland had been difmemb'ered and partitioned
during the year 1772, not only in contravention to the
general rights of nations, but in direft oppofition to
the moft folemn treaties on the part of Ruflla, Pruffia,
and Auftria. The revolution which took place in that
ill-fated country on May 3. 1791, and which afforded
the profpeft of a happy and liable government to the
remains of the republic, was the fignal of its annihila¬
tion. The imperial and royal fpoilers feized this op¬
portunity to fall once more in concert on their prey,
which they forced to expire under their talons •, and
they have fince cut it into {hares, and attempted to
disfigure it by new names, left it (hould one day be
reclaimed by the lawful owners. After this infult to
humanity, Staniflaus, -whom pofterity may acknow¬
ledge as an unfortunate, but furely not as a great
king, was forced foon after to abdicate, and allowed
to retire into obfcurity with his mittrefs, his children,
and a penfion.
Another great objeft had for fome time engaged
the attention of Catherine and her cabinet. This was
the French revolution •, an event pregnant with confe-
quences that involved the claims, or, more properly
fpeaking, the exiftence of all the fovereigns of Europe.
With a treafury nearly exhaufted by the war with the
Ottoman Porte, which was not then terminated, and
at a dilfance from the fcene of action, the emprefs could
not well engage in the conteft ; but die readily enter¬
ed into the coalition, and foon after fubfidized her late
enemy the king of Sweden ; but that enterprifing
prince met his fate, on the night of the x6th of March
J792, by the hand of an affaffin.
Notwithftanding this finifter event, the head of the
Greek church, compaftionating the fate of the pretend¬
ed father of the Chriftian world, promifed to exert
herfelf for the reftoration of Avignon to the holy fee.
She alfo launched forth a menacing manifefto againft
France, and prepared for a new war.
The emprefs has hitherto been contemplated in her
public charafter. It may not be amifs now to fix our
eyes on the individual 5 to pay fome attention to the
fex of the fovereign, and, viewing majefty as it were
in an undrefs, behold the woman lurking behind the
princefs.
It might have been fuppofed, that in the neighbour¬
hood of the Hyperborean regions, the paftions, if not
dormant, would be at leaft moderate, and that the men
would confequently be temperate, and the women
chafte. The contrary, however, is the cafe : and it
is left to the philofopher to determine, whether the
double windows and heated rooms of St Peterfburgh,
added to an affe&ation of oriental manners, be not to
the full as critical, in refpefl: to female virtue, as the
climate of Naples and Turin. Certain it is, however,
that, during the reign of Catherine II. no remarkable
increafe of indecorum took place, and that any occafion-
al indiferetions appear to have made but little impref- Catherine,
fion on the public mind.
Count Gregory Orloff, diflinguifhed in Ruffia by
the appellation of Gregorevitfch, was one of the hand-
fomeft men in the north. Gratitude and affeflion both
confpired to procure him a favourable reception at
court : and from an obicure condition he foon rofe to
the higheft offices of the ftate, which he, in fa£t, go¬
verned. His opinion in the cabinet was liflened to
with deference, and he was invefted with the fupreme
military command. Still higher honours arvaited him.
The emprefs-queen was folicited to grant him a diplo¬
ma of prince of the empire j it was next in contempla¬
tion to decorate him with the titles of duke of Ingria
and Carelia, and the chancellor Beftucheff actually
propofed to the emprefs that he fliould be admitted as
the partner of her bed and throne. But this fcheme
was blafted by the interference of Count Panin ; who,
not content with his own remonftrances, invoked the
interpofition of RazumofFsky and Vorontzoff, and found
means to divert Catherine from her purpofe.
Soon after this the conduft of Orloff began to give
diffatisfattion : for he abfented himfelf from court ;
went but feldom to the palace 5 refided principally in
the country 3 and, being extremely addi£ted to hunt¬
ing, dedicated whole weeks to the chafe of the bear.
Panin, who had frequently experienced his arrogance,-
deemed this a happy opportunity to procure his dif-
grace. He accordingly introduced a young officer
named Viflfenfky, who, being direfted by the artful
minifter, behaved in fuch a manner as to give reafott
to believe that he would foon reign uncontrolled.
Pride, however, on this occafion fupplied the place of
affedfion, and Orloff fuddenly altering his conduft, his
rival was difmifled with fuperb prefents, and invefted
with an employment that required his refidence in a
remote province. *
A new favourite foon after made his appearance in
the perfon of Vaffiltfchikoff, a fubaltern in the guards,
and advantage was taken of the abfence of Orloff to
introduce him at the Hermitage. This officer was
young and handfome 3 but nature, which had been la-
vifh to his perfon, feems to have been at no pains with
his mind. He was immediately appointed chamber-
lain to the emprefs, enriched with fplendid prefents,
and treated with the moft flattering attention. In the
mean time Gregorevitfch, who had been appointed to
treat with the Turkifh plenipotentiaries relative to a
peace, on hearing of this unexpedled event, inftantly
returned to the capital from Fokfhiani, but was arreft-
ed at the gates of Peterfburgh, and ftripped of all his
employments. He, however, experienced the impe¬
rial bounty, and received, as a recompenfe for his fub-
miffion, the fum of 100,000 rubles in hand, a penfion
of 150,000 more, a magnificent fervice of plate 3 and,
to crown the whole, an eftate, with 6000 peafants up¬
on it, was made over to him.
Vaffiltfchikoff, during 22 months, enjoyed all the
diftinftion belonging to the reigning favourite 3 but
at the end of that period he alfo found occafion to la¬
ment the inconftancy of fortune. This young man had
conduced himfelf with great prudence, for he had ne¬
ver abufed his influence. He poffeffed none of that
haughtinefs fo common to upftarts 3 and he did not ap-
♦ pear
CAT [2
Catnenne. pear eager to increafe his own fortune, or to diminifh
that of his rivals. Such was his moderation, that, as
his elevation excited no envy, fo his difgrace was un¬
accompanied by exultation. His faults are ftill un¬
known ; and moft probably he had ceafed to pleafe.
His retreat, however, was accompanied by every mark
of refpeit; and as he repaired to Mofcow, the place
of his deftined exile, he received prefents on his jour¬
ney, which might. be fly led imperial on account of
their magnificence.
No fooner was this change made public than Orloff
appeared once more on the ficene, and was readmitted
to all his former influence. Suppofing Panin to be the
caufe of his late exile, he extorted a promife from his
royal miftrefs to difmifs him from all his employments.
Her affent w7as given with reluctance, j and the prayers
of the grand duke, who wras too generous to fuffer his
preceptor to fall a prey to the fufpicions of a man he
did not love, induced her to revoke her intentions.
In the mean time the manly air and elegant appear¬
ance of Potemkin made a great impreflion on an illu-
ftrious perfonage. This officer had been bred in the
guards; and, perceiving on that memorable day when
the emprefs, mounted on a fine charger and drefled in
regimentals, exhibited herfelf at the head of the troops,
tnat lire had forgotten to place a plume in her hat, he
Hatched this decoration from his owrn, and prefented
It to the new fovereign. Neither this a£Hon, nor the
grace with which it was performed, had efcaped unno¬
ticed ; and the time was now arrived wffien his attach¬
ment wras to receive an ample remuneration.
The poll: of favourite is almofl peculiar to Ruffia,
and was during many years confidered as an official em¬
ployment. Ever fince 1730 the nation had been go¬
verned by women, except during the fhort and unfor¬
tunate reign of Peter III. In fine, it feemed to be
fan&ioned, if not by a fundamental law of the empire,
at leaf! by prefciiption 5 as four emprefles had fuccef-
uvely confecrated it by their practice, and the age of
the laft Elizabeth made it be confidered in fome
meafure as a mere appendage to imperial grandeur.
Potemkin foon grew giddy with fuccefs, and his
pride and jrrefumption keeping pace with his elevation,
he accordingly cxpofed himfelf to a number of dif-
agreeable events. Boafting one day of the extent,of
his power, in prefence of Count Alexis Orloff, the
brother of his predeceffor, he received a blow wffiich
oeprived him of an eye j and Prince Gregory Orloff
having requefted hisdifmiffion, he was forced to repair
t o .molenlk, at once the place of his nativity and exile.
Such w7as his vexation, partly from the lofs of his eye,
and partly from his difgrace, that he a&ually enter¬
tained fome ideas of turning monk ; but a fubmiffive
letter produced his recal; and from that moment he
leemed to have dropped all thoughts of the cowd.
Ambition now appears to have taken complete pof-
feffion of the bofom of Potemkin 5 and this was amply
gratified, for his influence foon extended to every de¬
partment. of the ftate, and he himfelf, after procuring
the difmiffion of Count Zachar Chernicheff, became
vice-prefident at war, with a feat in the council. But
his afpiring hopes w’ere not yet gratified, for he enter¬
tained ftill higher expectations.
Vv ith a view to the accompliffiment of thefe, he af-
ie£ted to be once more feized with a fit of religion j
2
72 J CAT
and kept Lent with great ftriCtnefs, living upon roots Catherine,
and w'ater during that holy feafon. He alfo w'earied '
all the faints in the Greek calendar with his prayers ;
wTent daily to confeffion ; and, having feleCted on this
occafion the fame piieft that afforded abfolution to a
great perlbnage, he befought him to inform her, that
his alarmed confcience could no longer permit him to
indulge in an intercourfe, which, by marriage alone,
would ceafe to become criminal.
This projeCl, however, failed of fuccefs ; and, foon
after the emprefs’s return to Peterfburgh (for it was at
Mofcow that it had been firft conceived), a young
man from the Ukraine, of the name of Zavadoffsky, .
was honoured wdth the imperial countenance, while the
haughty Potemkin received the cuftomary intimation,
“ that lie muft prepare to travel.” Potemkin did not
dare to difobey, but he evaded the order; for, fetting
out in great form, he proceeded a few' miles towards
the place indicated for his exile, but returned in the
courfe of next day, and placed himfelf in the evening
exaftly oppofite to the emprefs as fhe was about to fit
down to whift. Every one expeCted to behold fome
fignal mark of the imperial difpleafure ; but, on the
contrary, Catherine, handing him a pack of cards, de~
fired the ex-favourite to cut in, obferving that he had
alw'ays been a fortunate player. His pofts, his honours,
his influence, were all reftored to him, and he now
occupied a new fituation about the perfon of her impe¬
rial majefty, for he became her friend.
In the mean time the bofom of the humble Zava¬
doffsky began to catch the flame of ambition ; and, as
he w'as jealous of the grandeur of Potemkin, he aimed
a deadly blow at his confequence. But the minifter
at war, become wily in his turn, warded it off, and
made it recoil on the head of his rival. Perceiving a
handfoxne young Servian officer of huffars, of the name
of Zoritch, who had repaired to Peterfburgh in fearch
of promotion, he prefented him with a captain’s com-
miffion, and in a few’ days he was perceived behind the
chair of the emprefs. A large eftate, the rank of ma¬
jor-general, and an immenfe firm of money, foon be¬
came the appanage of this fortunate youth ; but the
emprefs perceiving that he w'as ignorant, and being
difgufted at his want of accompliftiments, recommend¬
ed, as he could, fpeak no language but that of the Ruf¬
fian boors, that he fhould be fent abroad for improve¬
ment.
Fortune feems to have been in a playful mood wffien
flie elevated Rimfky Korzakoff to the poft of chamber-
lain, and fucceffor to the Servian. This man had ac¬
tually been a ferjeant in the guards; he w as now de¬
clared aid-de-camp general to the emprefs, and pre¬
fented with the palace of Vaffiltfchikoff.
He proved to be a vain upftart, wffiofe drefs exhibi¬
ted a profufion of diamonds, and whofe condudt w as
fuch as could not fail to involve him in ruin. This
fpeedily occurred ; for, being detefted in a fecret cor-
refpondence wfith a lady, ffie.was baniffied from court,
and he was obliged to repair to Mofcow.
The fame day that beheld his difgrace, witneffed
the good fortune of Lanlkoi, a Pole by defeent, and
an officer of the body guards by profeffion. The edu¬
cation of this young man had been neglefted ; but this
defe£l w'as in fome meafure remedied by the zeal and
attachment of an illuftrious perfonage, w’ho fuperin-
tended
CAT [ 273 ] CAT
Catherine- tended his improvement 5 and in a fhort time he be-
—v—-~> came as remarkable for the fuperior elegance of his
manners, as the graces of his perfon : but, while in
the dower of his youth, and the very height of his fa¬
vour, he was attacked by a mortal difeafe, which cut
him off after a Ihort illnefs. He died in the arms of
his miftrefs, wTho was ineonfolable on the occafion, and
refufed to take any fuftenance during three whole days.
A maufoleum, the plan of which was fketched out by
an Englilh artift, attefted the refpedt of the emprefs,
who burft into tears on feeing it two years after. His
fortune he had bequeathed to her imperial majefty,
but die prefented it, with her accudomed generofity,
to the filter of this handfome youth.
The next perfon who afpired to the poll of favourite
was a young man educated in Scotland, and who had
become a fellow of the Royal Society of London. This
was Prince Dalhkoff, fon to the celebrated princefs of
the fame name, who had participated in the memora¬
ble revolution that levelled Peter III. with the duff.
A lieutenant of the name of Yermoloff anticipated
him, however, in this poll, to which he was railed by
the intereft of Potemkin •, but, proving ungrateful to
his benefaftor, he was fuddenly difgraced, being re¬
placed by Momonoff, who attended her imperial ma¬
jefty during her journey to the Crimea. He fell in
love, however, with a lady of the court 5 and no foon-
er was the emprefs informed of this circumftance, than
(lie infifted on his marrying her immediately 5 after
which they were fent into exile at Mofcow. ,
Plato Zuboff, an officer of the horfe guards, fupplied
his place. This afpiring young man, not content with
wealth and honours, affected public employments; and
it is aflerted that the idea of the fecond divifion of
Poland originated with him. In a ftiort time he be¬
came omnipotent at Peterfburgh. He was decorated
with the title of prince ; received the poll of grand
mafter of the artillery ; all the admirals, generals, and
minifters of the empire, were to be feen at his levee
bending lowly before him 5 and, if we are to believe
the author of a work of fome reputation, paying their
compliments at the fame time, in great form, to his
favourite monkey.
Catherine hitherto had only afforded empty promi-
fes to the enemies of France •, but, at the inftigation
of Zuboff, ftie now formed the defign of giving effec¬
tual affiftance to the confederated kings 5 and, as a
proof of her intentions, iffued orders for a fquadron of
men of war to join the Engliffi fleet, and commanded
a levy of 60,000 troops. She at the fame time profe-
cuted a war on the frontiers of Perfia, where her army,
under the command of a near relation of the grand
mafter of the artillery, had experienced a moft humi¬
liating defeat •, and ffie was now preparing to fend freflr
fuccours to his affiftance.
Such were the proje&s that occupied the mind of
Catherine, the overthrow of the French republic, and
the fubjugation of the diftant Perfians, when fhe was
fmitten by the hand of death. This fortunate prin¬
cefs had hitherto enjoyed an almoft uninterrupted ftate
of good health during the whole of her long reign.
She was fometimes, indeed, fubjeft to a colic, and
her legs were now and then obferved to fwell 5 but
neither of thefe fymptoms were alarming.
On the morning of the 9th of November ftie rofe at
Vol.V. Parti.
her ufual hour, and breakfafted on coffee according to Catherine,
cuftom. Some time after ftie retired to her clofet, and —*V'“W
her long abfence affording caufe of fuipicion to her atr-
tendants, they entered the apartment and found her
lying fpeechlefs. Dr Rogerfon, her phylician, being
fent for, he treated her difeafe as an apoplexy ; and
conffderable relief feemed to enfue after the application
of the lancet. But the emprefs never entirely recover¬
ed her fenfes ; and did not utter a fingle word during
the remainder of her life, which was prolonged to ten
o’clock in the evening of November 10. 1797.
Thus, with her uiual good fortune, after a very
ftiort illnefs, died Catharine II. emprefs of all the Ruft
fias. During her youth Are had been extremely hand¬
fome, but ftie got fat as flie increafed in years ; ftie,
however, preferved a certain air of gracefulnefs, in¬
termingled with dignity, until the laft moment of her
life.
Her majefty in perfon was not above the middle fize,
but, being well proportioned and carrying her head
high, ffie appeared tail. Her forehead was open, her
nofe aquiline, her mouth agreeable, and her chin,
without being ugly, was rather long. Her hair, in
which ffie took great delight, was auburn, and her
eye-brows dark and thick. Her eyes, according to
fome, were blue, while others infill that they were of
a brown hue. Upon the whole, her phyfiognomy was
not deficient in expreffion j but ffie had fuch a com¬
mand of her countenance, that no one cou^d there dif-
cover the fecrets of her heart.
Her imperial majefty was accuftomed, on great oc-
cafions, to drefs in a fplendid manner, and to wear a
profufion of jewels. Being particularly fond of dia¬
monds, ftie pofleffed a prodigious number •, and one in
particular was the largeft that had ever been feen in
Europe. Catherine, however, was accuftomed in ge¬
neral to affedt the ancient Ruffian faftiions, for the moft
part wearing green, out of compliment to the nation.
Her hair was powdered but llightly. On the other
hand, her face was covered with rouge j and as her
imperial majefty, like the ladies in the French court,
wore it in proportion to her rank, it is not to be won¬
dered if it was of a high colour.
The ftrifleft temperance was regularly preferved by
Catherine, in a country, and at a court, where a little
deviation would not have given occafion to much fcan-
dal. A flight breakfaft, a moderate dinner, and two
or three glaffes of wine (for ffie never indulged in flap¬
per), conftituted her ufual diet.
It is far more eafy to defcribe the emprefs than the
woman. The adls of the former have now become hi-
ftory, but thofe of the latter muft be left to the pen
of genius, that can analyze the fprings of human ac¬
tion.
It muft be confeffed that both ftie and the empire
appear to have been frequently a prey to favouritilm ;
and this part of her conduft, by being connedled with
the happinefs of millions of her fubjedls, is highly cen-
furable.
As a fovereign flie Hands confpicuous. She in¬
creafed the extent of Ruffia, and added not only new
countries, but newr nations, to that mighty empire.
As a conqueror her vidlories were numerous and bril¬
liant ; ftie triumphed equally by fea and by land, and,
had ffie lived but ten years longer, might have realized
M ra the
V
GAT [ 274 ] CAT
Catherine, the proud dream of her ambition, and beheld her
- grandfon Gonftantine fitting on the throne of the Otto¬
mans. Her merit as a legiilator, too, is great •, but
lire would have been far more worthy of our admira¬
tion, had fire effedled the generous idea of enfranchi-
fing all the peafantry of her immenfe dominions.
She was the only fovereign of Ruffia who ever exhi¬
bited a tafte for letters. This was not all; fire was an
author herfelf, and did not difdain to compofe little
treatifes for her grand-children, wlrofe education fire
fuperintended. , If
For mufic fire alfo pofleffed an exquifite relifir, and
brought Gabrielli, and a number of fingers of great
note, from Italy, allowing them liberal falaries, and
treating them with great attention. Throughout the
whole of her long reign Catherine alfo evinced a mark¬
ed predileflion for painting. In the midfi: of a war
with the Turks fire purchafed pi£tures in Holland, to
the amount of 60,000 rubles, all of which were loft in
confequence of a flrip’s being wrecked on the coaft of
Finland. This, however, rather ferved to ftimulate
her to irefii exertions, and her agents accordingly pro¬
cured whatever was to be found in Italy worthy of no¬
tice. The Houghton colledlion from England was
alfo transferred, by an a£l of her munificence, to the
fiiores of the Baltic ; and, while it added to her glory,
difgraced this nation, in the eyes of foreigners.
Her condutf to learned men was truly worthy of a
woman of genius. She was proud of the correfpon-
dence and friendfhip of Voltaire; fhe invited Diderot
to her court, and lived with him, while thei'e, in
habits of the utmoft familiarity ; to D’Alembert fhe
looked up as to a fuperior being, and endeavoured, al¬
though in vain, to feduce him to refide at St Peterf-
burgh ; but he poffeffed a haughty foul, was devoted
to liberty, and would not confent to degrade the
mind of a freeman, by refiding among a nation of
Haves.
To the honour of Catherine, file was extremely at¬
tentive to the education of her people, and inftituted a
prodigious number of fchools for their inftrudfion. To
remove their prejudices againft inoculation, flie herfelf
fubmitted to the operation, and thus hazarded her life
for her nation. Amidft the fchemes of grandeur, the
allurements of power, and the gratification of the paf-
fions, file found leifure to civilize and inftrudt her fub-
jedls ; this added not a little to her glory, as it contri¬
buted to the benefit of fo large a portion of the human
race ; but it will infenfibly operate againft a defpotic
government, by rendering the boors unfit for their
chains, which they will fame day break, perhaps, on
the heads of the boyars, who at once enflave and op-
prefs them.
No woman could fo eafily forgive, and in this point
of view her conduft muft be allowed to have poffeffed
a great ftiare of magnanimity. She generoufly pardon¬
ed old Munich and Godowitz , the one the" counfel-
lor, the other the favourite of Peter III. She even
admitted the former of thefe into her confidence, and
would have conferred honours and preferments on the
latter; but he loved his late fovereign, and with a no¬
ble fcorn fpurned at the proffered friendftiip of his fuc-
ceffor. To the miftrefs of Peter III. although her
own rival, fire granted her life, reftored her fortune,
and at length admitted her daughters to honourable fi- Catherine
tuations at court. ||
No perfonage in our own times has attrafted a greater tCatIinet's‘.
(hare of cenfure and eulogium than Catherine ; and no
woman in any age ever exhibited more of the mafculine
greatnefs of one fex, and the feminine weaknefs of an¬
other. As a female, ftie appears at times the Have of paf-
fion, and the puppet of her courtiers ; but while we be¬
hold her diminifiiing, in this point of view, into infignifi-
cance, we look again, and contemplate the fovereign,
towering like an immenfe coloffus, and with one foot
placed on Cheribn, and another at Kamtfchatka, waving
her iron fceptre over the fubjedl nations, and regulating
the deftiny of a large portion of mankind.
The frailties, however, of the woman will foon be
forgotten, while the glory that encircles the brows of
the legiflator and conqueror will long continue to daz¬
zle the eyes of an admiring world. The prefent age,
however, ftiudders at the untimely fate of Peter and ■
of Iwan, and pofterity will not eafily pardon the de¬
gradation of Staniflaus, the partition of Poland, and
the maffacres of Ifmailow and of Praga.
Catherine, Order of St, in modern hiltory, belongs
to ladies of the firft quality in the Ruffian court. It
was inftituted in 1714 by Catherine wife of Peter the
Great, in memory of his lignal efcape from the Turks
in 17x1. The emblems of this order are a red crofs,
fupported by a figure of St Catherine, and faftened to
a fcarlet ftring edged with filver, on which are infcrib-
ed the name of St Catherine, and the motto, Pro fide
et patria.
CATHERLOUGH, a town of Ireland, in the
county of Catherlough, and province of Leinfter;
feated on the river Barrow, 16 miles N. E. of Kilken¬
ny. W. Long. 7. 1. N. Eat. 52. 45.
Catherlough, a county of Ireland, about 28
miles in length, and eight in breadth ; bounded on the
eaft by Wicklow and Wexford, on the weft by Queen’s
county, on the north by Kildare, and on the fouth
and fouth-weft by Wexford. It contains 56oohoufes,
42 parifties, five baronies or boroughs, and fends fix
members to parliament, viz. two for the county, two
for Catherlough, and two for Old Leighlen.
CATHETER, in Surgery, a fiftulous inftrument,
ufually made of filver, to be introduced into the blad¬
der, in order to fearch for the ftone, or difcharge the
urine when fuppreffed. See Surgery Index.
CATHETUS, in Geometry, a line or radius falling
perpendicularly on another line or furface ; thus the
catheti of a right-angled triangle are the two fides that
include the right angle.
Cathetus of Incidence^ in Catoptrics, a right line
drawm from a point of the objedl, perpendicular to the
refledling line.
Cathetus of RefleElion, or of the Eye, a right line
drawn from the eye perpendicular to the relledting
plane.
Cathetus of Obhquation, a right line drawn per¬
pendicular to the fpeculum, in the point of incidence
or refledlion.
Cathetus, in Architc&ure, a perpendicular line,
fuppofed to pafs through the middle of a cylindrical
body, as a ballufter, column, See.
CATHNESS. See Caithness.
CATHOLIC
Catholic
Cato.
CAT [2
CATHOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing
that is univerfal or general.
j Catholic Church. The rife of herefies induced the
primitive Chriftian church to affume to itfelf the appel¬
lation of catholic, being a charadteriftic to dittinguifh
itfelf from all fedfs, who, though they had party
names, fometimes Iheltered themfelves under the name
of Chriftians.
The Romith church diftinguithes itfelf now by the
name of Catholic, in oppofition to all thofe who have
feparated from her communion, and whom the confi-
ders as heretics and fchifmatics, and herfelf only as the
true and Chriftian church. In the ftridt fenfe of the
word, there is no Catholic church in being, that is,
no univerfal Chriftian communion.
Catholic King, is a title which has been long here¬
ditary to the king of Spain. Mariana pretends, that
Reccarede firft received this title after he had deftroyed
Arianifm in his kingdom, and that it is found in the
council of Toledo for the year 589. Vafce afcribes
the origin of it to Alphonfus in 738. Some allege
that it as been ufed only fince the time of Ferdinand
and Ifabella. Colombiere fays, it was given them on
occafton of the expulfton of the Moors. The Bollan-
difts pretend it had been borne by their predeceflbrs
the Vifigoth kings of Spain 5 and that Alexander VI.
only renewed it to Ferdinand and Ifabella. Others
fay that Philip de Valois firft bore the title ; which
was given him after his death by the ecclefiaftics, on
account of his favouring their interefts.
In fome epiftles of the ancient popes, the title catholic
is given to the kings of France and of Jerufalem, as
tvell as to feveral patriarchs and primates.
C ATHOL ICON, in Pharmacy, a kind of foft pur¬
gative eleftuary, fo called, as being fuppofed an uni-
verfal purger of all humours.
CATILINE, Lucius, a Roman of a noble family,
who, having Ipent his whole fortune in debauchery,
formed the defign of opprefling his country, deftroy-
ing the fenate, feizing the public treafury, fetting
Rome on fire, and ufurping a fovereign power over his
fellow citizens. In order to fucceed in this defign, he
drew fome young noblemen into his plot 5 whom he
prevailed upon, it is faid, to drink human blood as a
pledge of their union. His confpiracy, however, was
difcovered by the vigilance of Cicero, who was then
conful. Upon which, retiring from Rome, he put
himfelf at the head of an army, with feveral of the
conlpirators, and fought with incredible valour againft
Petreius, lieutenant to Antony, who was colleague
with Cicero in the confulfhip ; but was defeated and
killed in battle. See (Hi/lory of) Rome.—Salluft has
given an excellent hiftory of this confpiracy.
CATO, Marcus Portius, the cenfor, one of the
greateft men among the ancients, was born at Tufcu-
lum in the year of Rome 519, about the 23 2d before
Chrift. He began to bear arms at 17; and, on all
occafions, fhowed extraordinary courage. He was a
man of great fobriety, and reckoned no bodily exer-
cife unworthy of him. He had but one horfe for him¬
felf and his baggage, and he looked after and drefled
it himfelf. At his return from his campaigns, he be¬
took himfelf to plough his ground 5 not .that he was
without flaves to do it, but it was his inclination. He
drefled alfo like his flaves, fat down at the fame table
75. 1 CAT
with them, and partook of the fame fare. He did
not in the meanwhile negledf to cultivate his mind,
efpecially in regard to the art of fpeaking and he
employed his talents, which were very great, in gener-
oufly pleading caufes in the neighbouring cities with¬
out fee or reward. Valerius Flaccus, who had a coun¬
try feat near Cato, conceiving an efteem for him, per-
fuaded him to come to Rome ; where Cato, by his
own merit, and the influence of fo powerful a patron,
was foon taken notice of, and promoted. He wTas firft
of all elefted tribune of the foldiers for the province
of Sicily ; he was next made queftor in Africa under
Scipio. Having in this laft office reproved him for his
profufenefs to his foldiers, the general anfwered, that
“ he did not rvant fo exaft a queftor, but would make
war at wffiat expence he pleafed nor was he to give
an account to the Roman people of the money he fpent,
but of his enterprifes, and the execution of them.” Ca¬
to, provoked at this anfwer, left Sicily, and returned
to Rome.
Afterwards Cato was made praetor, when he fulfilled
the duties of his office with the ftri6left juftice. He
conquered Sardinia, governed with admirable modera¬
tion, and wras created conful. Being tribune in the
w7ar of Syria, he gave diftinguiffied proofs of his va¬
lour againft Antiochus the Great; and at his return
flood candidate for the office of cenfor. But the no¬
bles, who not only envied him as a new man, but
dreaded his feverity, fet up againft him feven power¬
ful competitors. Valerius Flaccus, who had introdu¬
ced him into public life, and had been his colleague in
the confulffiip, was a ninth candidate, and thefe two
united their interefts. On this occafion Cato, far from
employing foft wrords to the people, or giving hopes of
gentlenefs or complaifance in the execution of his of¬
fice, loudly declared from the roftra, with a threaten¬
ing look and voice, “That the times required firm and
vigorous magiftrates to put a flop to that growing
luxury wffiich menaced the republic with ruin ; cenfors
who would cut up the evil by the roots j and reftore
the rigour of ancient difcipline.” It is to the honour
of the people of Rome, that, notwithftanding thefe
terrible intimations, they preferred him to all his
competitors, who courted them by promifes of a mild
and eafy adminiftration; the comitia alfo appointed
his friend Valerius to be his colleague, wuthout whom
he had declared that he could not hope to compafs the
reformations he had in view. Cato’s merit, upon the
whole, was fuperior to that of arfy of the great men
who flood againft him. He was temperate, brave, and •
indefatigable ; frugal of the public money, and not to
be corrupted. There is fcarce any talent requifite for
public or private life which he had not received from
nature, or acquired by induftry. He was a great fol-
dier, an able ftatefman, an eloquent orator, a learned
hiftorian, and very knowing in rural affairs. Yet, with
all thefe accompliffiments, he had very great faults.
His ambition being poifoned wdth envy, difturbed both
his own peace and that of the whole city as long as he
1 j Though he would not take bribes, he was un-
Cato.
lived.
merciful and unconfcionable in amafling wealth by all
fuch means as the law did not puniffi.
The firft adl of Cato in his new office, was naming
his colleague to be prince of the fenate : after which
the cenfors ftruck opt of the lift of the fenators the
M m
names
CAT [ *7<5 1 CAT
Cato, names of feven perfons j among whom was Lucius the
brother of T. Flaminius. Lucius, when conful, and
commanding in Gaul, had with his own hand murder¬
ed a Boian of diftin&ion, a deferter to the Romans ;
and he had committed this murder purely to gratify
the curiofity of his pathic, a young Carthaginian, who
longing to fee fomebody die a violent death, had re¬
proached the general for bringing him away from
Rome juft when there w'as going to be a fight of gla¬
diators. Titus Flaminius, full of indignation at the
dilhonour done to his brother, brought the affair be¬
fore the people 5 and infilled upon Cato’s giving the
reafon of his proceeding. The cenfor related the ito-
ry ; and when Lucius denied the fact, put him to his
oath. The accufed, refufing to fwear, was deemed
guilty 5 and Cato’s cenfure rvas approved. But no
part of the cenfor’s conduct feemed fo cruel to the
nobles and their wives as the taxes he laid upon luxu¬
ry in all its branches ; drefs, houfehold furniture, wo¬
men’s toilets, chariots, Haves, and equipage. Thefe
articles were all taxed at three per cent, of the real va¬
lue. The people, however, in general, were pleaied
with his regulations *, inlomuch that 'they ordered a
flatue to be erefted to his honour in the temple of
Health, with an infcription that mentioned nothing of
his victories or triumphs, but imported only, that by his
wife ordinances in his cenforfhip he had reformed the
manners of the republic. Plutarch relates, that before
this, upon fome of Cato’s friends expreffing their fur-
prife, that when many perfons without merit or repu¬
tation had ftatues, he had none ; he anfwered, “ I
had much rather it Ihould be afked why the people
have not erefted a ftatue to Cato, than why they
have.” Cato was the oocafion of the third Punic war.
Being defpatched to Africa to terminate a difference
between the Carthaginians and the king of Numidia,
on his return to Rome he reported that Carthage was
grown exceffively rich and populous, and he warmly
exhorted the fenate to deftroy a city and republic, dur¬
ing the exiilence of which Rome could never be faf’e.
Having brought from Africa fome very large figs, he
ihow'ed them to the confcript fathers in one of the lap¬
pets of his gown. “ The country (fays he) where
this fine fruit grows is but a three days voyage from
Rome.” We are told, that from this time he never
fpoke in the fenate upon any fubjeft, wuthout con¬
cluding with thefe words, “ I am alfo of opinion, that
Carthage ought to be deftroyed.” He judged, that
for a people debauched by profperity, nothing was
more to be feared than a rival date, always powerful,
and now* from its misfortunes grown wife and circum-
fpebf. He held it neceffary to remove all dangers that
could be apprehended from without, wTen the republic
had within fo many diftempers threatening her deftruc-
tion.
From the cenfor dignified and fevere, the reader
will not perhaps be difpleafed to turn his view upon
Cato fociable and relaxed. For we fhould have a falfe
notion of him, if we imagined that nothing but a fad
aufterity prevailed in his fpeech and behaviour. On
the contrary, he was extremely free 5 and often with
his friends at table intermixed the converfation with
Oeuvres dl- lively difeourfes and witty fayings. Of thefe Plutarch
sv?/«,p.4P.has colledled a pretty large number; we fhall relate but
one, and make ufe of Balzac’s paraphrafe, and the
preface with which he introduces it. “ The tery
cenfors, though fadnefs feemed to be one of the func¬
tions of their office, did not altogether lay alide rail¬
lery. They were not always bent upon feverity; and
the firll Cato, that troublelome and intolerable honelt
man, ceafed fometimes to be troublefome and into¬
lerable. He had fome glimpfes of mirth, and lome
intervals of good humour. He dropped now and then
fome words that were not unplealant, and you may
judge of the reft by this. Fie had married a very hand-
fome wife; and hiftory tells us that (he was extremely
afraid of the thunder, and loved her hufband well.
Thefe two paffions prompted her to the fame thing ;
ffie always pitched upon her huffiand as a fanduary
againft thunder, and threw herfelf into his arms at the
firft noife flie fancied ffie heard in the fky. Cato, who
was well pleafed with the ftoim, and very willing to
be careffed, could not conceal his joy. He revealed
that domeftic fecret to his friends ; and told them one
day, fpeaking of his wife, “ that (he had found out
a way to make him love bad -weather; and that he ne¬
ver -was fo happy as when Jupiter w-as angry.” It is
worth obferving, that this was during his cenforflup ;
when he degraded the fenator Manlius, who would
probably have been conful the year after, only for giv¬
ing a kifs to his wife in the day time, and in the pre¬
fence of his daughter.
Cato died in the year of Rome 604, aged 85. He
wuote feveral works. 1. A Roman Hiftory. 2. Con¬
cerning the art of war. 3. Of rhetoric. 4. A trea-
tife of huffiandry. Of thefe, the laft only is extant.
Cato, Marcus Portias, commonly called Cato
Minor, or Cato of Utica, was great-grandfon of CatQ
the Cenfor. It is faid, that from his infancy he difeo-
vered by his fpeech, by his countenance, and even his
childiffi fports and recreations, an inflexibility of mind ;
for he would force himfelf to go through with what¬
ever he had undertaken, though the talk was ill luited
to his ftrength. He was rough towards thofe that
flattered him, and quite untraftable when threatened j
was rarely feen to laugh, or even to fmile; was not
eafily provoked to anger; but if once incenfed, hard
to be pacified. Sylla having had a frier.dftiip for the
father of Cato, fent often for him and his brother,
and talked familiarly with them. Cato, who was then
about 14 years of age, feeing the heads of great men
brqught there, and obferving the fighs of thofe that
wTere prefent, alked his preceptor, “ Yvhy does no
body kill this man?” Becaufe, faid the other, he is
more feared than he is hated. The bey replied, "Why-
then did you not give me a fword when you brought
me hither, that I might have ftabbed him, and freed
my country from this llavery ?
He learned the principles of the Stoic philofophy,
W'hich fo w-ell fuited his charadler, under Antipater of
Tyre, and applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of
it. Eloquence he likewife ftudied, as a neceffary means
to defend the caufe of juftice, and he made a very
confiderable proficiency in that fcience. To increafe
his bodily ftrength, he inured himfelf to fuffer the ex¬
tremes of heat and cold ; and ufed to make journeys
on foot and bare-headed in all feafons. When he was
lick, patience and abftinence were his only remedies:
he ffiut himfelf up, and would fee nobody till he wras
well. Though remarkably fober in the beginning-of
CAT [ 2
Cato, his life, making it a rule to drink but onca after fup-
—v  pel-5 and then retire, die infenfibly contrafted a habit
of drinking more freely, and of fitting at table till
morning. His friends endeavoured to excufe this, by
faying that the affairs ®f the public engroffed his at¬
tention all the day •, and that, being ambitious of
knowledge, he paffed the night in the converfation of
philofophers. Caefar wrote, that Cato was ohce found
dead drunk at the corner of a ftreet, early in the morn¬
ing, by a great number of people who were going to
the levee of fome great man •, and that when, by un¬
covering his face, "they perceived who it was, they
bluthed for thame: “You would have thought (added
.Caefar), that Cato had found them drunk, not they
him.” Pliny-obferves, that by this retle&ion Caefar
praifes his enemy at the fame time that he blames him.
And Seneca, his extravagant panegyrift, ventures to
ailert, that it is eafier to prove drunkennefs to be a
virtue, than Cato to be vicious. He affe&ed fingu-
larity •, and in things indifferent, to a£t dire&ly con¬
trary to the take and fafhions of the age. Magnani¬
mity and conftancy are generally afcribed to himj and
Seneca would fain make that haughtinefs and contempt
for others which, in Cato, accompanied thofe virtues, a
matter of praife. Cato, fays Seneca, having received a
blow in the face, neither took revenge nor was angry,
he did not even pardon the affront, but denied that he had
received it. His virtue raifed him fo high, that injury
could not reach him. He is reputed to have been chafte
in his youth. His firft love was Lepida; but when the
marriage was upon the point of being concluded, Me-
tellus Scipio, to whom (lie had been promifed, inter¬
fered, and the preference was given to him. This
affront extremely exafperated our ftoic. He was foi*
going to law with Scipio } and when his friends had
diverted him from that defign, by (bowing him the ri¬
dicule of it, he revenged himfelf by making verfes up¬
on his rival. When this firft flame fubfided, he mar¬
ried Attilia the daughter of Serranus, had two children
by her, and afterwards divorced her for her very indi-
fcreet condudl.
He ferved as a volunteer under Callus in the war
of Spartacus ; and when military rewards were ofiFered
him by the commander, he refufed them, becaufe he
thought he had no right to them. Some years, after,
he went a legionary tribune into Macedonia under the
praetor Rubrius : in which ftation he appeared, in his
drefs, and during a march, more like a private foldier
than an officer : but the dignity of his manners, the
elevation of his fentiments, and the fuperiority of his
views, fet him far above thofe who bore the titles of
generals and proconfuls. It is faid, that Cato’s defign
in all his behaviour wras to engage the foldiers to the
love of virtue ; whofe affe&ions he engaged thereby to
himfelf, without his having that in his intention.
“ For the fincere love of virtue (adds Plutarch) im¬
plies an affeflion for the virtuous. Thofe who praife
the worthy without loving them, pay homage to their
glory; but are neither admirers nor imitators of their
virtues.” When the time of his fervice expired, and
he uTas leaving the army, the foldiers were all in tears 5
fo effe&ually had he gained their hearts by his conde-
fcending manners, and (haring in their labours. After
his return home, he was chofen to the queftorfhip •,
and had fcarce entered on his charge, when he made a
77 1 GAT
great reformation in the queftor’s office, and particu¬
larly with regard to the regifters. Fhele regifters,
whofe places were for life, and through whofe hands
paffed inceffantly all the public accounts, being to aft
under young magiftrates unexperienced in bufinefs, af-
fumed an air of importance •, and, inftead of afkmg or¬
ders from the queitors, pretended to direft and govern
as if they thetnfelves were the queftors. Cato reduced
them to their proper fphere.
One thing by which Cato extremely pleafed the
people, was his making the affaffins to whom Syllahad
given confiderable rewards out of the trealury for
murdering the profcribed, difgorge their gains. Plu¬
tarch tells us, that Cato was fo exaft in diicharging
the duties of a fenator, as to be always the firft who
came to the houfe, and the laft who left it •, and that
he never quitted Rome during thofe days when the
fenate was to fit. Nor did he fail to be prelent at
every affembly of the people, that he might awe thole
who, by an ill judged facility, beftowed the public mo¬
ney in largeffes, and frequently, through mere favour,
granted remiffion of debts due to the (late. At (uIl
his aufterity and ftiffnefs dilpleafed his colleagues j
but afterwards they w^ere glad to have his name to
oppofe to all the unjuft felicitations, againft which
they would have found it difficult to defend them-
felves. Cato very readily took upon him the talk of
refufing.
Cato, to keep out a very bad man, put in for the
tribunate. He fided with Cicero againft Catiline,
and oppofed Caefar on that occafion. His enemies
fent him to recover Cyprus, which Ptolemy had for¬
feited, thinking to hurt his reputation by fo difficult
an undertaking j yet none could find fault with his
conduft.
Cato laboured to bring about an agreement between
Caefar and Pompey ■, but feeing it in vain, he fided
with the latter. When Pompey was (lain he fled to
Utica •, and being purfued by Caefar, advifed his
friends to be gone, and throw themfelves on Caefar’s
clemency. His fon, however, remained with him j
and Statilius, a young man, remarkable for his hatred
to Coefar.
The evening before the execution of the purpola
he had formed with regard to himlelf, after bathing,
he flipped with his friends and the magiftrates of the
city. They fat late at table, and the converfation
was lively. The difeourfe falling upon this maxim of
the Stoics, that “ the wife man alone is free, and that
the vitious are (laves j” Demetrius, who was a Peripa¬
tetic, undertook to confute it from the maxims of his
fchool. Cato in atifwer, treated the matter very am¬
ply ; and with fo much earneftnefs and vehemence of
voice, that he betrayed himfelf, and confirmed the fuf-
picions of his friends that he defigned to kill himfelf.
When he had done fpeaking, a melancholy filence en-
fued ; and Cafo perceiving it, turned the difcouife to
the prefent fituation of affairs, expreffing his concern
for thofe who had been obliged to put to fea, as w’ell
as for thofe who had determined to make their efcape
by land, and had a dry and fandy defert to pafs. After
fupper, the company being difmiffed, he walked for
fome time with a few friends, and gave his orders to
the officers of the guard : and going into his chamber,
he embraced his fon and his friends with more than
ufual
Cato.
"S
CAT [ 2
ttfual tendernefs, which farther confirmed the fufpi-
cions of the refolution he had taken. Then laying
himfelf down on his bed, he took up Plato’s Dialogue
on the Immortality of the Soul. Having read for fome
time, he looked up, and miffing his fword, which his
fon had removed while he was at fupper, he called a
Have, and afked who had taken it away 3 and receiving
no pertinent anfwer, he refumed his reading. Some
time after, he afked again for his fword 3 and, without
fhowing any impatience, ordered it to be brought to
him : but, having read out the book, and finding no¬
body had brought him his fword, he called for all his
fervants, fell into a rage, and flruck one of them on the
mouth with fo much violence that he very much hurt his
own hand, crying out in a paffionate manner, “What !
do my own fon and family confpire to betray me, and
deliver me up naked and unarmed to the enemy Im¬
mediately his fon and friends rufhed into the room ;
and began to lament, and to befeech him to change
his refolution. Cato raifing himfelf, and looking fiercely
at them, “ How long is it,” faid he, “ fince I have loft
my fenfes, and my fon is become my keeper ? Brave
and generous fon, why do you not bind your father’s
hands, that when Caefar comes, he may find me un¬
able to defend myfelf ? Do you imagine that without
a fword I cannot end my life ?” Cannot I deftroy my¬
felf, by holding my breath for fome moments, or by
ftriking my head againft the wall ?” His fon anfwer-
ed with his tears, and retired. Apollonides and De¬
metrius remained with him 3 and to them he addrefied
himfelf in the following words : “ Is it to watch over
me that ye fit filent here ? Do you pretend to force
a man of my ygars to live ? or can you bring any
reafon to prove, that it is not bafe and unworthy of
Cato to beg his fafety of an enemy ? or why do you
not perfuade me to unlearn what I have been taught,
that, rejedling all the opinions I have hitherto de¬
fended, I may now, by Caefar’s means, grow wifer,
and be yet more obliged to him than for life alone ?
Not that I have determined any thing concerning my¬
felf 3 but I would have it in my power to perform
what I fhall think fit to refolve upon : and I (hall not
fail to afk your counfel, when I have occafion to a£l
up to the principles which your philofophy teaches.
Go tell my fon, that he fiiould not compel his father
to what he cannot perfuade him.” They withdrew,
and the fword was brought by a young Have. Cato,
drew it, and finding the point to be (harp 3 “ Now,
(faid he), I am my own mafter And, laying it
78 1 CAT
down, he took up his book again, which it is re¬
ported, he read twice over. After this he flept fo
ioUndly that he was heard to fnore by thofe who were
near him. About midnight he called two of his fretd-
men, Cleanthes his phyfician, and Butas whom he
chiefly employed in the management of his affairs.
The laft he fent to the port, to fee whethef all the
Romans were gone ; to the phyfician he gave his hand
to be dreffed, which was fwelled by the blow he had
given his Have. This being an intimation that he
intended to live, gave great joy to his family. , Rutas
foon returned, and brought word that they were all
gone except Craffus, who had ftaid upon fome bufi-
nefs, but was juft ready to depart. He added, that
the wind was high apd the fea rough. Thefe words
drew a figh from Cato. He fent Butas again to the
port, to know whether there might not be fome one
who, in the hurry of embarkation, had forgot fome
neceffary provifions, and had been obliged to put back
to Utica. It was now break of day, and Cato fiept
yet a little more, till Butas returned to tell him, that
all was perfectly quiet. He then ordered him to (hut
his door 3 and he flung himfelf upon his bed, as if he
meant to finilh his night’s reft 3 but immediately he
took his fword, and dabbed himfelf a little below his
cheft 3 yet not being able to ufe his hand fo well by
reafon of the fwelling, the blow did not kill him. It
threw him into a convulfion, in which he fell from his
bed, and overturned a table near it. The noife gave
the alarm 3 and his fon and the reft of the family, en¬
tering the room, found him weltering in his blood, and
his bowels half out of his body. The furgeon, upon
examination, found that his bowels were not cut 3 and
was preparing to replace them and bind up the wound,
when Cato, recovering his fenfes, thruft the furgeon
from him, and, tearing out his bowels, immediately
expired, in the 48th year of his age.
By this rafti aft, independent of all moral or religious
confiderations, he carried his patriotifm to the higheft
degree of political phrenfy : for Cato, dead, could be of
no ufe to his country : but had he preferved his life,
his counfel might have moderated Caffar’s ambition,*
and (as Montefquieu obferves) have given a different
turn to public affairs.
CATOCHE, or Catochus, a difeafe, by which
the patient is rendered in an inftant as immoveable as
a ftatue, without either fenfe or motion, and continues
in the fame pofture he was in at the moment of his
being feized. See Medicine Index.
\
CATOPTRICS.
/CATOPTRICS is that part of optics which explains
^ the properties of reflefted light, and particularly
that which is reflefted from mirrors.
As this and the other branches of Optics will be
fully treated under the colleftive word, we (hall, in the
prefent article, ift, Juft give a fummary of the prin¬
ciples of the branch, in a few plain aphorifms, with
fome preliminary definitions 5 and, 2dly, Infert a fet of
entertaining experiments founded upon them.
1
Sect. I. Definitions*
1. Every polilhed body that reflefts the rays ofn r
light is called a mirror, whether its furface be plane,
fpherical, conical, cylindric, or of any other form
whatever.
2. Of mirrors there are three principally ufed in
optical experiments; The plane mirror, GHI, (fig. * *
1.);
279
C A T O P
l.) : the fpherical convex mirror, GHI, (fig. 2.) ;
and the fpherical concave mirror, GHI, (fig. 3.)
3. The point K, (fig. 2, 3.) round which the re-
fle£Hng furface of a fpheric-d mirror is defcribed, is
called its centre. The line KH, drawn from its cen¬
tre perpendicular to its two furfaces, is the axis of the
mirror ; and the point H, to which that line is drawn,
is its vortex.
4. The diftance between the lines AG and EG,
(fig. 1.) is called the angle of incidence, and the di¬
ftance between EG and CG is the angle of refleftion.
Sect. II. Aphorifms.
TRIGS.
diftance of its centre, where their heat will be aug¬
mented in proportion of the furface of the mirror to
that of the focal fpot.
6. If a luminous body be placed in the focus of a
concave mirror, its rays being reflefted in parallel lines,,
will ftrongly enlighten a fpace of the fame dimenfion
with the mirror, at a great diftance. If the luminous
objecft be placed nearer than the focus, its rays will di¬
verge, and confequently enlighten a larger fpace. It
is on this principle that reverberators are conftruft-
ed.
IV. In all plane and fpherical mirrors the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of refledtion.
2
I. In a plane
mirror.
3 '
II. In a
fpherical
convex
mirror.
4
III. In a
fpherical
concave
mirror.
1. The image DF, (fig. t.") wall appear as far be¬
hind the mirror as the objefl AC is before it.
2. The image will appear of the fame fize, and in
the fame pofition as the objeft.
3. Every fuch mirror will refleft the image of an
obje6l of twice its own length and breadth.
4. If the object be an opaque body, and its rays fall
on the mirror nearly in direft lines, there will be only
one image viftble, wftiich will be reflected by the inner
furface of the glafs. But,
5. If the objedft be a luminous body, and its rays
fall very obliquely on the mirror, there will appear to
an eye placed in a proper pofition, feveral images ; the
firft of which refledfted from the outer furface of the
glafs, will not be fo bright as the fecond, reflefted from
the inner furface. The following images, that are pro¬
duced by the repeated refle&ions of the rays between
the two furfaces of the glafs, will be in proportion lefs
vivid, to the eighth or tenth, which will be fcarce vifi-
ble.
1. The image D F, (fig. 2.), will always appear be¬
hind it.
2. The image will be in the fame polition as the
objeft.
3. It will be lefs than the objefl.
4. It will be curved, but not, as the mirror, fpheri¬
cal.
5. Parallel rays falling on this mirror will have the
focus or image at half the diftance of the centre K
from the mirror.
6. In converging rays, the diftance of the obje£l:
muft be equal to half the diftance of the centre, to
make the image appear behind the mirror.
7. Diverging rays will have their image at lefs than
half the diftance of the centre. If the obje£I be placed
in the centre of the mirror, its image will appear at
one eighth of that diftance behind it.
1. That point where the image appears of the fame
dimenfions as the objedft, is the centre of that mirror.
2. Parallel rays will have their focus at one half the
diftance of the centre.
3. Converging rays will form an image before the
mirror.
4. In diverging rays, if the obje£l be at lefs than
one-half the diftance of the centre, the image wall be
behind the mirror, eredt, curved, and magnified, as
DEF, (fig. 3.) but if the diftance of the objedt be
greater, the image will be before the mirror, inverted
and diminilhed, as DEF, (fig. 4.)
5. The fun’s rays falling on a concave mirror, and
being parallel, will be colledled in a focus at half the
Sect. III. Entertaining Experiments.
I. Of all our fenfes the fight is certainly fubjedl toj, Catop-
the greateft illufion. The various writers on opticstrical illu«
have defcribed a great number of inftances in which.fion5<
it deceives us, and have conftantiy endeavoured to in-
veftigate the caufes, to explain their eftedts, and to re¬
concile appearance with reality. We every day dif-
cover new phenomena, and douktlefs many more are
referved for pofterity. It frequently happens, more¬
over, that a difeovery which at firft feemed of little
confequence has led to matters of the higheft import¬
ance.
Take a glafs bottle A (fig. 14.) and fill it with wa¬
ter to the point B \ leave the upper part EC empty,
and cork ^t in the common manner. Place this bottle
oppofite a concave mirror, and beyond its focus, that
it may appear reverfed, and before the mirror (fee
Sedf. II. aph. 3. 4. of a fpher. concave mirror,) place
yourfelf ftill further diftant from the bottle, and it will
appear to you in the fituation, tf, £, (fig. 15.)
Now it is remarkable in this apparent bottle, that
the water, which, according to all the laws of catop¬
trics, and all the experiments made on other objedls,
ftrould appear at a b, appears on the contrary at 4 c,
and confequently the part a b appears empty.
If the bottle be inverted and placed before the mir¬
ror (as in fig. 16.), its image will appear in its natu¬
ral eredt pofition ; and the water, which is in reality
at EC, will appear at a b.
If while the bottle is inverted it be uncorked, and
the water run gently out, it will appear, that while the
part EC, is emptying, that of a £ in the image is fill¬
ing 5 and what is likewife very remarkable, as foon as
the bottle is empty the illufion ceafes, the image alfo
appearing entirely empty. If the bottle likewife be
quite full there is no illufion.
If while the bottle is held inverted, and partly emp¬
ty, fome drops of water fall from the bottom A to¬
wards EC, it feems in the image as if there were form¬
ed at the bottom of that part a b, bubbles of air that
rofe from a to b ; which is the part that feems full of
water. All thefe phenomena conftantiy appear.
The remarkable circumftances in this experiment
are, firft, not only to fee an objedl where it is not, but
alfo where the image is not; and fecondly, that of two
objedls which are really in its fame place, as the lur-
face at one place, and the other at another ; and to
fee the bottle in the place of its image, and the wat^r
where neither it nor its image are.
II. Conftrudt a box AB, of about a foot long, eight
inches
280 C a T O P
6 Indies wide, and fix high *, or what other dimenfion
II. Appear-y0U think fit. provided it does not greatly vary
ance of a u * *
boundlefs
villa,
fig- 5*
v 7
ILL Of a
fortification long, and twelve high ) cover the infide of it with four
of immenfe plane mirrors, which muft be placed perpendicular to
the bottom of the box CHFD.
Place certain objeds in relief on the bottom of this
box ; fuppoie, for example, a piece of fortification,
(as fig. 9.) with tents, foldiers, &c. or any other fub-
jeft that you judge wall produce an agreeable effed by
its difpofition when repeatedly refleded by the mir¬
rors.
On the top of this box place a frame of glafs, in
form of the bottom part of a pyramid, whofe bafe
AGEB is equal to the fize of the box : its top ILN
mull form a fquare of fix inches, and fhould not be
more than four or five inches higher than the box.
Cover the four fides of this frame with a gauze, that
the infide may not be vifible but at the top ILN,
which Ihould be covered with a tranfparent glafs.
When you look into this box through the glafs
LN, the mirrors that are diametrically oppofite each
ther, mutually refleding the figures'enclofed, the eye
beholds a boundlefs extent, completely covered with
thefe objeds j and if they are properly difpofed, the
illufion will occafion no fmall furprife, and afford great
entertainment.
Note, The nearer the opening ILN is to the top of
the box, the greater will be the apparent extent of the
1
from thefe proportions.
On the infide of this box, and againft each of its
oppofite ends A and B, place a mirror of the fame
fize. 'Fake off the quickfilver from the mirror that
you place at B, for about an inch and a half, at the
part C, where you are to make a hole in the box of
the fame fize, by which you may eafily view its infide.
Cover the top of the box with a frame, in wdrich muft
be placed a tranfparent glafs, covered with gauze, on
the fide next the inner part of the box. Let there be
two groves at the parts E and F to receive the two
painted feenes hereafter mentioned. On two pieces of
cut pafteboard let there be fkilfully painted on both
fides (fee fig. 6. and 7.) any fubjed you think pro¬
per ; as woods, gardens, bowers, colonnades, &c. and
on two other pafteboards, the fame fubjeds on one fide
only ; obferving that there ought to be on one of them
fome objed relative to the fubjed placed at A, that
the mirror placed at D may not refled the hole at C
on the oppofite fide.
Place the two boards painted on both fides in the
grooves E and F 5 and thofe that are painted on one
fide only againft the oppofite mirrors C and D j and
then cover the box with its tranfparent top. This
box fttould be placed in a ftrong light to have a
effed.
When the eye is placed at C, and view-s the objeds
on the infide of the box, of which fome, as we have
faid, are painted on both fides, they are fucceffively
refleded from one mirror to the other ; and if, for
example, the painting confifts of trees, they will ap¬
pear like a very long vifta, of which the eye cannot
difeern the end : for each of the mirrors repeating the
objeds, continually more faintly, contribute greatly to
augment the illufion.
III. Take a fquare box ABCD, of about fix inches
TRIGS.
fubjed. The fame will happen if the four mirrors
placed on the fides of the box be more elevated. The
objeds, by either of thefe difpofitions, will appear to
be repeated nine, twenty-five, forty-nine times, &c. by
taking always the fquare of the odd numbers of the
arithmetical progreffion 3, 9, 7, 9, &c. as is very eafy
to conceive, if w?e remember that the fubjed enclofed
in the box is always in the centre of a fquare, compofed
of feveral others, equal to that which forms the bot¬
tom of the box.
Other pieces of the fame kind (that is, viewed from
above) may be contrived in which mirrors may be
placed perpendicular on a triangular, pentagon, or
hexagon, (that is, a three, five, or fix fided) plane. All
thefe different difpofitions, properly direded, as well
with regard to the choice as poution of the objeds,
w-ill conftantly produce very remarkable and pleafing
illufions.
If inftead of placing the mirrors perpendicular, they
wrere to incline equally, fo as to form part of a reverfed
pyramid, the fubjed placed in the box would then
have the appearance of a very extenfive globular or ma-
ny-fided figure.
IV. On the hexagonal or fix-fided plane ABCDEF
draw fix femi-diameters GA, GB, GC, GD, GE, GFj
and on each of thefe place perpendicularly tw'O plane
mirrors, which muft join exadly at the centre G, and g
which placed back to back muft be as thin as poflible.iv.Surprif,
Decorate the exterior boundary of this piece (which isingmulti-
at the extremity of the angles of the hexagon) wdth plipatiem °£
fix columns, that at the fame time ferve to fupport the
mirrors, by grooves formed on their inner fides. (See s
the profile H). Add to thefe columns their entabla¬
tures, and cover the edifice in fuch manner as you flrall
think proper.
In each one of thefe fix triangular fpaces, contained
betw-een two mirrors, place little figures of pafteboard,
in relief, reprefenting fuch objeds as when feen in a
hexagonal form will produce an agreeable effed. To
thefe add fmall figures of enamel ; and take particular-
care to conceal, by fome objed that has relation to
the fubjed, the place where the mirrors join, which,
as we have faid before, all meet in the common centre
G.
When you look into any one of the fix openings of
this palace, the objeds there contained being repeat¬
ed fix times, wull feem entirely to fill up the wdiole of
the building. This illufion will appear very remark¬
able ; efpecially if the objeds made choice of are pro¬
perly adapted to the effed that is to be produced by
the mirrors.
Note, If you place between twx> of thefe mirrors
part of a fortification, as a curtain and two demi-
baftions, you will fee an entire citadel, w’ith its fix ba-
ftions. Or if you place part of a ball room, orna¬
mented wdth chandeliers and figures in enamel, all
thofe objeds being here multiplied, will afford a very
pleafing profped. 9
V. Within the cafe ABCD, place your mirrors, V. Opaque
O, P, CL, R, fo difpofed that they may each of themj?0(JC* ^
make an angle of forty-five degrees, that is, that they reU(ier«l
may be half way inclined from the perpendicular, astraniparen^
in the figure. In each of the two extremities AB,fig. n.
mak a circular overture, in one of which fix the tube
281
TO
VI. VII.
The magi
cian’s mir.
iqxs, fig. i
C A T O P
GL in the other the tube MF, and obferve that in
each of thefe is to be inferted another tube, as H and
I (a).
Furnifh the firft of thefe tubes with an obje£t-glafs
at G, and a concave eye-glafs at F. You are to ob¬
ferve, that in regulating the focus of thefe glafles, with
regard to the length of the tube, you are to fuppofe
it equal to the line G, or vifual pointed ray, which
entering at the overture G, is relieved by the four
mirrors, and goes out at the other aperture F, where
the ocular glafs is placed. Put any glafs you will in¬
to the two ends of the moveable tubes H and I ; and
laftly, place the machine on a Hand E, moveable at the
point S, that it may be elevated or depreffed at plea-
fure.
When the eye is placed at F, and you look through
the tube, the rays of light that proceed from the object
T, palfing through the glafs G, are fuccelfively refleft-
ed by the mirrors O, P, Q_, and R, to the eye at F,
and there paint the objeft T, in its. proper fituation,
and thefe rays appear to proceed diredlly from that
obje£E
The two moveable tubes H and I, at the extremi¬
ties of each of which a glafs is placed, ferve only the
more to difguife the illufion, for they have no commu¬
nication with the interior part of the machine. This
inftrument being moveable on the Hand E, may be
directed to any object ; and if furnilhed with proper
glalfes will anfwer the purpofe of a common perfpec-
tive.
The two moveable tubes H and I being brought
together, the machine is directed toward any objeft,
and deliring a perfon to look in at the end f, you alk
him if he fees diftin&ly that objeft. You then fepa-
rate the two moveable tubes, and leaving a fpace be¬
tween them fufficient to place your hand, or any other
folid body ; you tell him that the machine has the
power of making objects vilible through the moll
opaque body 5 and as a proof you defire him then to
look at the fame objeft, when to his great furprife,
he will fee it as diftinft as when there was no folid
body placed between the tubes.
Note, This experiment is the more extraordinary, as
it is very difficult to conceive how the effect is produced.
The two arms of the cafe appearing to be made to fup-
port the perfpe£tive glafs ; and to whatever object it is
dire&ed, the effeft is Hill the fame.
VI. In the partition AB, make two apertures, CD,
- and EF, of a foot high, and ten inches wide, and
about a foot diftant from each other. Let them be
2'at the common height of a man’s head *, and in each
of them place a tranfparent glafs, furrounded with a
frame, like a common mirror.
Behind this partition place two mirrors FI and I,
inclined to it in an angle of forty-five degrees; that
is, half way between a line drawn perpendicular to the
ground and its furface ; let them be both i 8 inches
Vol. V. Part I.
TRIGS.
fquare : let all the fpace between them be enclofed, by-
boards or pafteboard painted black, and well clofed, that
no light may enter : let there be alfo twro curtains to
cover them, which may be drawn afide at plealure.
When a perfon looks into one of thefe fuppofed
mirrors, inltead of feeing his own face, he wall perceive
the objedt that is in front of the other ; fo that if two
perfons prefent themfelves at the fame time before thefe
mirrors, inftead of each one feeing himtelf, they will
reciprocally fee each other.
Note, There ffiould be a fconce with a candle placed
on each fide of the two glaffes in the wainfcot, to en¬
lighten the faces of the perfons who look in them,
otherwife this experiment wall have no remarkable ef¬
fect.
This experiment may be confiderably improved by
placing the twTo glafles in the partition in adjoining
rooms, and a number of perfons being previoufly pla¬
ced in one room, when a ftranger enters the other,
you may tell him his face is dirty j and defire him to
look in the glafs, which he will naturally do 5 and on
feeing a ftrange face he will draw back ; but return¬
ing to it, and feeing another, another, and another,
like the phantom kings in Macbeth, w?hat his furprife
will be is more eafy to conceive than exprefs. After
this, a real mirror may be privately let down on the
back of the glafs ; and if he can be prevailed to look
in it once more, he will then, to his further aftonifli-
ment', fee his own face } and may be told, perhaps per-
fuaded, that all he thought he faw before was the mere
effedt of imagination.
How many tricks, lefs artful than this, have pafled
in former times for forcery $ and pafs at this time, in
fome countries, for apparitions !
Note, When a man looks in a mirror that is pla¬
ced perpendicular to another, his face will appear
entirely deformed. If the mirror be a little inclined,
fo as to make an angle of 80 degrees (that is, one-
ninth part from the perpendicular), he wall then fee
all the parts of his face, except the nofe and forehead.
If it be inclined to 60 degrees (that is, one-third part),
he will appear with three nofes and fix eyes : in Ihort,
the apparent deformity will vary at each degree of in¬
clination j and when the glafs comes to 45 degrees
(that is, half-way down), the face will vanifh. If, in¬
ftead of placing the two mirrors in this fituation, they
are fo difpofed that their junftion may be vertical,
their different inclinations will produce other effedls ;
as the fituation of the objedt relative to thefe mirrors
is quite different. The effedts of thefe mirrors, though
remarkable enough, occafions but little furprife, as
there is no method of concealing the caufe by which
they are produced. n
VII. Make a box of wood, of a cubical figure, Fig. 13'.
ABCD, of about 15 inches every way. Let it be
fixed to the pedeftal P, at the ufual height of a man’s
head. In each fide of this box, let there be an open-
N n ing
(A) Thefe four tubes muft terminate in the fubftance of the cafe, and not enter the infide, that they may not
hinder the effedt of the mirrors. The fourfold refledtion of the rays of light from the mirrors, darkens in fome
degree the brightnefs of the objedt 5 fome light is alfo loft by the magnifying power offthe perfpedlive : If, there¬
fore, inftead of the objedt-glafs at G, and concave eye-glafs at F, plain gkffes were fubftituted j the magnifying
power of the perfpedlive will be taken away, and the objedt appear brighter.
282
ing of an oval form, of ten inches high, and feven
wide.
In this box place two mirrors A, D, with their
backs againft each other j let them crofs the box in a
diagonal line, and in a vertical polition. Decorate
the openings in the Tides of this box with four oval
iiames and tranfparent glafles, and cover each of them
with a curtain, fo contrived that they may all draw up
together.
Place four perfons in front of the four Tides, and at
e pial diftances from the box, and then draw up the
curtains that they may fee themfelves in the mirrors;
v. hen each of them, inltead of his own figure, will
fee that of the perfon who is next him, and who, at
the Tame time, will feem to him to be placed on the
oppcfite fide. T heir confufion will be the greater, as
it will be very difficult for them to difcover the mirrors
concealed in the box. The reaTon of his phenome¬
non is evident; for though the rays of light may be
turned afide by a mirror, yet, as tve have before faid,
xz they always appear to proceed in right lines.
^r1’ lhe ^ ^rov^e a box ABCD of about two feet long
mirror 6 KL™}1™ W'de’ and 12 inches high. At the erfd
fig. i7! AL PIa.ce a concave mirror, the focus of whofe paral¬
lel rays is at 18 inches from the refledling furface. At
IL place a pafteboard blacked, in which a hole is cut
Efficiently large to fee on the mirror H the obieft
placed at BEFD. J
Coyer the top of the box, from A to I, clofe, that
the mirror H may be entirely darkened. The other
part IB mult be covered with a glafs, under which is
placed a gauze.
Make an aperture at G, near the top of the fide EB ;
beneath which, on the infide, place, in fucceffion, paint¬
ings of different fubjefts, as villas, landfcapes, &c. fo
that they may be in front of the mirror H. Let the
box be lo placed that the objedt may be Ifrongly illu¬
minated by the fun, or by wax lights placed under the
enclofed part of the box AI.
.By this fituple conftrudfion the obje&s placed at GD
will be.thrown into their natural perfpeftive ; and if
tie mb j eels be properly chofen, the appearance will be
altogether as pleafing as in optical machines of a much
more complicated form.
Note, A glafs mirror ffiould be always here ufed
as thole of metal do not reprefent the obiedfs with
equal vivacity, and are befide fubjedt to tarnilh. It is
alio neceffary that the box be Efficiently large, that
you may not be obliged to ufe a mirror whofe focus
is too limit; for in that cafe, the right lines near the
border of the pidure will appear bent in the mirror,
avoid!/11 3 difa§reeable effea> and cannot be
IX. Tofet IX. I he rays of a luminous body placed in the fo-
coUaftiblem! f 3 bein§ rctkaed in Parallel lines,
body by the / a kc01‘d mnror be placed diametrically oppofite the
refledlion ot ^rn> lt; vvld? by colledling thofe rays in its focus fet
twoconcave nre to a combullible body.
fgrr.T’ t. cf?cave rm>rs’ ,A and B’«
12 ot 15 feet dUance from each other, and Jet the
axis of each of them be in the fame line. In the fo
cus C of one of them, place a live coal, and in the
-ocus D of the other Erne gunpowder. With a pair
of double bellows, which make a continual blaff keen
conffantly blowing the coal, and notwithftandmg the
CATOPTRICS.
diftance between them, the powder will prefently take
fire. J
L is^ not neceffary that thefe mirrors be of metal
ot biais, thofe made of wood or paffeboard gild-
ed will produce the explofion, which has fometimes
taken efledt at the diffance of 50 feet, when mir¬
rors of 18 inches, or two feet diameter, have been
uled.
This experiment Ecceeds with more difficulty at
great, diftances; -which may proceed from the moif-
tu,re 1TL * krSe quantity of air. It would doubtlefs
take efteft more readily, if a tin tube, of an equal dia¬
meter with the mirrors, were to be placed between
them.
X. Behind the partition AB, place, in a pofition The real
jomethmg oblique, the concave mirror EF, which muft apparition,
be at lea.ft.ten inches in diameter, and its diftance fromfig* I5>
the partition equal to three-fourths of the diftance of
its centre.
. [n the. partition make an opening of feven or eight
inches, either fquare or circular : it muft face the mir¬
ror, . and be of the fame height with it. Behind this
partition place a flrong light, fo difpofed that it may
not be leen at the opening, and may illumine an ob¬
ject placed at C, without throwing any light on the
mirror. 5
• ®e"eath tbe aPerture In the partition place the ob-
jetl C, that you intend (hall appear on the outfide of
the partition, in an inverted pofition ; and which we
will Eppofe to be a flower. Before the partition
and beneath the aperture, place a little flowerpot d’
the top of which ftiould be even with the bottom of
the aperture, that the eye, placed at G, may fee the
nower m the lame pofition as if its ftalk came out of
the pot.
lake care to paint the fpace between the back part
oldie partition and the mirror black, to prevent any
rehechons of light from being thrown on the mirror -
m a word, fo difpofe the whole that it may be as little
enlightened as pofiible.
When a perfon is placed at the point G, he will
perceive the flower that is behind the partition, at the
top of the pot at D; but on putting out his hand to
pluck it, he will find that he attempts to grafp a ffia-
dowr. 0 1
. If in the opening of the partition a laige double
convex lens of a fhort focus be placed, or, which is not
quite fo well, a bottle of clear water, the image of the
flow'er refleifted thereon will appear much more vivid
and diftinft.
The phenomena that may be produced by means Obrervaticr.
of concave mirrors are highly curious and aftonifliing*
By their aid, fpeftres of various kinds may be exhi¬
bited. Suppole, for example, a perfon yvith a drawn
word places himfelf before a large concave mirror, but
farther, from it than its focus; he will then fee an in¬
verted image of himfelf in the air, between him and
the mirror, of a lefs fize than himfelf. If he fteadily
prefent the fword towards the centre of the mirror,
an image of the fword will come out therefrom towards
the fword in his hand, point to point, as it were to
lence with him ; and by his puffiing the fword nearer,
tne image will appear to come nearer him, and almoft
to touch his bread, having a ftriking effeft upon him.
If the mirror be turned 45 degrees, or one-eighth.
round.
C A T O P
round, the remedied image will go out perpendicular to
the direction of the fword prefented, and apparently come
to another perfon placed in the diredlion of the motion of
the image. If that perfon is unacquainted with the expe¬
riment, and does not fee the original fword, he will be
much furprifed and alarmed. This experiment may be
another way diverfified, by telling any perfon, that at
fuch an hour, and in fuch a place, he fliould fee the ap¬
parition of an abfent or deceafed friend (of whofe por¬
trait you are in poffeffion). In order to produce
this phantom, inftead of the hole in the partition AB
in the laft figure, there mull be a door which opens
into an apartment to W'hich there is a confiderable de-
fcent. Under that door you are to place the portrait,
which mull be inverted and ftrongly illuminated, that
it may be lively rcflefted by the mirror, which muft
be large and wTell polilhed. Then having introduced
the incredulous fpe&ator at another door, and pla¬
ced him in the proper point of view, you fuddenly
throw open the door at AB, w’hen, to his great aflo-
nilhment, he will immediately fee the apparition of his
friend.
It will be objected, perhaps, that this is not a per-
feft apparition, becaufe it is only vifible at one point
of view, and by one perfon. But it fliould be remem¬
bered, that it was an eftabliflied maxim in the lait cen¬
turies, that a fpedlre might be vifible to one perfon
and not to others. So Shakefpeare makes both Ham-
TRIGS.
let and Macbeth fee apparitions that were not vifible
to others prefent at the fame time. It is not unlike¬
ly, moreover, that this maxim took its rife from cer¬
tain apparitions of this kind that were railed by the
monks, to ferve fome purpofes they called religious ;
as they alone were in poffeflion of what little learning
there then was in the world.
Opticians fometimes grind a glafs mirror concave ia
one direction only, as it is faid longitudinally j it is in
fadt a concave portion of a cylinder, the breadth of
which may be confidered that of the mirror. A per¬
fon looking at his face in this mirror, in the diredfion
of its concavity, will fee it curioufly diftorted in a very
lengthened appearance 5 and by turning the cylindri¬
cal mirror a quarter round, his vifage will appear di¬
ftorted another way, by an apparent increafe in width
only. Another curious and Angular property attends
this fort of mirrors : If in a very near fituation before
it, you put your finger on the right hand fide of
your nofe, it will appear the fame in the mirror ; but
if in a diftant fituation, fomewhat beyond the centre
of concavity, you again look at your face in the mirror,
your finger will appear to be removed to the other or
left hand fide of your nofe. This, though fomething
extraordinary, will in its caufe appear very evident from
a fmall confideration of the properties of fpherical con¬
cave mirrors.
GAT
’Cmoptro- CATOPTROMANCY, KxtottI^d^hvtuco, a kind of
mancy divination among the ancients j fo called, becaufe con-
r filling in the application of a mirror. The word is
v^atteit iun. forme(j |-rom Ketr<)^6V) Jpeculum^ “ mirror,” and ^otv-
v te/58, divinatio, “ divination.” Paufanias fays, it was
In ufe among the Achaians j where thofe who were
fick, and in danger of death, let down a mirror, or
looking glafs faftened by a thread, into a fountain be¬
fore the temple of Ceres j then looking in the glafs,
if they faw a ghaftly disfigured face, they took it as a
fure fign of death : on the contrary, if the flelh ap¬
peared frefti and healthy, it was a token of recovery.
Sometimes glafles were ufed without water, and the
images of things future reprefented in them. See
Gastromancy.
CATROU, Francis, a famous Jefuit, born at Paris
in 1659. He was engaged for 12 years in the Jour¬
nal de Trevoux, and applied himfelf at the fame time
to other works, which diftinguifhed him among the
learned. He wrote a general Hiftory of the Mogul
empire, and a Roman hiftory, in which he was aflift-
ed by Father Rouille a brother Jefuit. Catrou died
in 1737 j and this laft hiftory was continued by Rou¬
ille, wdio died in 1740.
CATTERTHUN, a remarkable Caledonian poll
a few miles north of the town of Brechin in the county
of Angus in Scotland. Mr Pennant defcribes it as of
uncommon ftrength. “ It is (fays he) of an oval
form, made of a ftupendous dike of loofe w'hite ftones,
whofe convexity, from the bafe within to that with-
C A T
out, is 122 feet. On the outfide a hollow7, made by
the difpofition of the ftones, furrounds the whole.
Round the bale is a deep ditch, and below that about
100 yards, are veftiges of another, that went round
the hill. The area within the ftony mound is flat j
the axis, or length of the oval, is 436 feet, the tranf-
verfe diameter 200. Near the eaft fide is the foun¬
dation of a redlangular building j and on moft parts
are the foundations of others fmall and circular : all
which had once their fuperftruftures, the fhelter of the
pofteffors of the poll : there is alfo a hollow, now al-
moft filled wuth ftones, the well of the place.” There
is another fortification, but of inferior ftrength, in the
neighbourhood. It is called the Brown Catterthuny
from the colour of the ramparts, which are compofed
only of earth. It is of a circular form, and confifts of
various concentric dikes. On one fide of this rifes a
fmall. rill, which, running dowm the hill, has formed a
deep gully. From the fide of the fortrefs is another
rampart, which extends parallel to the rill, and then re¬
verts, forming an additional poll or retreat. The mean¬
ing of the word Catter-tbun h Camp town; and Mr
Pennant thinks thefe might probably be the polls occu¬
pied by the Caledonians before their engagement at the
foot of the Grampian mountains with the celebrated
Agricola. See {Hijloiy of) Scotland.
CATTI, a people of Germany, very widely fpread,
op the eaft reaching to the river Sala, on, the Borth to
Weftphalia ; occupying, befides Hefi’e, the Wetterau,
and part of the tradl on the Rhine, and on the banks
N n 2 of
CAT
[ 284 ]
C A V
Cattivel-
launi,
Catullus.
of the river Lohne. The Hercynian foreft began and
ended in their country. , r 7, .
CATTIVELLAUNI, anciently a people of Bri¬
tain, feated in the country which is now divided into
the counties of Hertford, Bedford,_ and Bucks. The
name of this ancient Britiflr people is written in feveral
different ways by Greek and Roman authors, being
fometimes called Catti, Caffii, Catticulcam, Cattiduda-
ni, Catticludani, &c. That they were of Belgic origin
cannot be doubted, and it is not improbable that they
derived their name of Catti from the Belgic word
Katten, which fignifies illuftrious or noble, and that
the addition of Vellauni, which means on the banks
of rivers, might be given them after their arrival m
Britain, as defcriptive of the fituation of their coun¬
try. However this may be, the Cattivellaum formed
one of the mod brave and warlike of the ancient L11-
tifh nations when Ccefar invaded Britain and long af¬
ter. Caffibelanus, their prince, was made commander
in chief of the confederated Britons, not only on ac¬
count of his own perfonal qualities, but aho becaufe he
was at the head of one of their braved and mod power¬
ful tribes. In the interval between the departure of
Cadar and the next invafion under Claudius, the Cat-
tiveilauni had reduced feveral of the neighbouring dates
under their obedience j and they again took the lead
in oppoiition to the Romans at their fecond inva-
iion under their brave but unfortunate Prince Carac-
tacus. The country of the Cattivellauni was much
frequented and improved by the Romans, after it came
under their obedience. Verulamium, their capital, which
dood near where St Alban’s now dands, became a place
of oreat confideration, w^as honoured with the name
and* privileges of a municipium or free city, and had
magidrates after the model of the city of Rome. This
place was taken and aimed dedroyed by the mfurgents
under Boadicea j but it was afterwards rebuilt, redored
to its former fplendour •, and furrounded with a drong
wall, fome veifiges of which are dill remaining. Du-
rocobrivse and Magiavintum, in the fecond ^er of An¬
toninus, were probably Dundable and Fenny Stratford,
at which places there appear to have been Roman
ftations. The Salenrn of Ptolemy, a town in the conn-
try of the Cattivellauni, was perhaps fituated at Saintly,
in Bedfordfliire, where feveral Roman antiquities have
been found. There were, befides thefe, feveral other
Roman forts, dations, and towns in this country, which
it would be tedious to enumerate. T. he tenitories of
the Cattivellanuni made a part of the Roman province
called Britannia Prima.
CATTLE, a colleHive word,_ which fignifies the
fourfooted animals, which ferve either for tilling the
ground, or for food to man. They are didinguilhed
into large or black cattle ; and into fmall cattle . of
the former are horfes, bulls, oxen, cows, and e\en
calves, and heifers j amongd the latter are rams, ewes
fheep, lambs, goats, kids, &c. Cattle are the chief
dock of a farm: they who deal in cattle are dyied
graziers. .
CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, a Latin poet, born
at Verona, in the year of Rome 666. 1 he harmony
of his numbers acquired him the edeem and friend-
fhip of Cicero, and other great men of his time. Ma¬
ny of his poems, however, abound with grofs obfeem-
ties. He wrote fatirical verfes againft Csefar, under
the name of Marmoro. He fpent his whole life in a Cat*
date of poverty 5 and died in the flower of his age, and '
the height of his reputation. Jofeph Scaliger, Paf- , ‘  j
ferat, Muret, and Ifaac Vodius, have written learned
notes on this poet. _ ^ # > #
CATZ, James, a great civilian, politician, and
Dutch poet, w7as born at Browerdiaven, in Zealand,
in the year 1577. After having made feveral voy¬
ages, he fixed at Middleburg j and_ acquired by his
pleadings fuch reputation, that the city of Dort chole
him for its penfionary j as did alfo, lome time after,
that of Middleburg. In 1634, he was nominated pen¬
fionary of Holland and Wed Friedand j and in 1648,
he was elefted keeper of the feal of the fame date, and
dadtholder of the fiefs : but fome time after, he re-
fumed thefe employments, to enjoy the repofe which
hfs advanced age demanded. As the pod of grand
penfionary had been fatal to almod all thofe who had
enjoyed it, from the beginning of the republic till that
time, Catz delivered up his charge on his knees, be¬
fore the whole affembly of the dates, weeping for joy,
and thanking God for having preferved him from tfm
inconveniences that feemed attached to the duties of
that office. But though he was refolved to fpend the
red of his days in repofe, the love of his country en¬
gaged him to comply with the defires of the date, who
importuned him to go on an embafiy to England, in
the delicate conjuncture in which the republic found
itfelf during the proteflorate of Cromwell. At his
return, he retired to his fine country feat at Sorgvliet,
where’he lived in tranquillity till the year 1660, in
which he died. He wrote a great number of poems
in Dutch ; mod of which are on moral fubjefts, and fo
edeemed, that they have been often printed m all the
different fizes j and, next to the Bible, there is no work
fo highly valued by the Dutch. '
CATZENELLIBOGEN, a town of Germany, in
the lower part of the upper circle of the Rhine, with a
drong cadle. It is capital of a county of the fame name.
E. Long. 7. 38. N. Lat. 50. 20.
CAVA, in Anatomy, the name of a vein, the larged
in the body, terminating in the right ventricle of the
heart. See Anatomy Index.
Cava, a conliderable and populous town of Italy,
in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Princi-
pato, with a biffiop’s fee. It is fituated at the foot
of Mount Metelian, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 40. 40.
CAVAILLAN, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Vauclufe, and formerly a biffiop’s iee. It is
fituated on the river Durance, in a fertile and pleafant
country, and 20 miles fouth-ead of Avignon. E. Long.
4. 17. N. Lat. 43. 52.
CAVALCADE, a formal pompous march or pro-
ceffion of horfemen, equipages, &c. by way of parade,
or ceremony, to grace a triumph, public entry, or tne
like. .
CAVALCADOUR, or Cavalcadeur, anciently
denoted a riding mailer •, but at prefent is difufed in
that fenfe, and only employed to denote a fort of
equerries or officers who have the direftion of princes
dables. The French fay, ecuyer cavalcadeur of the
king, the duke of Orleans, &c. Menage writes it ctf-
valcadour, and derives it from the Spanidr cava/gador,
a horfeman.
CAVALCANTE. Guido, a nobleman of llorence
iry
C A V [ as
Cavalier ln the 13th century, who having followed the party
II of the Guelphs, experienced the changeablenefs of for-
Cavalry. tune> j^e ftowed great ftrength of mind in his mif-
fortunes, and never negle&ed to improve his talents.
He wrote a treatife in Italian concerning ftyle, and
fome verfes which are efteemed. His poem on the
love of this world has been commented on by feveral
learned men.
CAVALIER, a horfeman, or perfon mounted on
horfeback : efpecially if he be armed withal, and have
a military appearance.
Anciently the word was reftrained to a knight, or
miles. The French ftill ufe Chevalier in the fame
fenfe.
Cavalier, conlidered as a faflion. See Britain,
K° 109.
Cavalier, in fortification, an elevation of earth of
different ihapes, fituated ordinarily in the gorge of a
baftion, bordered with a parapet, and cut into more
or lefs embrafures, according to the capacity of the
cavalier. Cavaliers are a double defence for the faces
of the oppofite baftion : they defend the ditch, break
the befiegers galleries, command the traverfes in dry
moats, fcour the faliant angle of the counterfcarp,
where the befiegers have their counter batteries, and
enfilade the enemy’s trenches, or oblige them to mul¬
tiply their parallels : they are likewife very ferviceable
in defending the breach and the retrenchments of the
befieged, and can very much incommode the intrench-
ments which the enemy make, being lodged in the
baftion.
Cavalier, in the manege, one that underftands hor-
fes, and is praftifed in the art of riding them.
CAVALIERI, Bonaventure, an eminent mathe¬
matician in the 17th century, a native ot Milan, and
a friar of the order of the Jefuati of St Jerome, was
profeflbr of the mathematics at Bologna, where he pub-
lifhed feveral mathematical books, particularly the
“ Method of Indivifibles.” He w7as a fcholar of Gali¬
leo. His Dlrecloriumgenerate Uranometricum contains
great variety of moft uvsful pra&ices in trigonometry
and aftronomy. His trigonometrical tables in that
work are excellent.
CAVALRY, a body of foldiers that charge on
horfeback. The word comes from the French, ca-
valerie, and that from the corrupt Latin, caba/lus, a
horfe.
The Roman cavalry confifted wholly of thofe cal¬
led equites, or knights, who were a diftinft order in
the diftribution of citizens.—The Grecian cavalry were
divided into cataphraB.ce and non cataphraBce, i. e. into
heavy and light armed.—Of ail the Greeks, the Thef-
falians excelled moft in cavalry. The Lacedemonians,
inhabiting a mountainous country, were but meanly
furniftied with cavalry, till, carrying their arms into
other countries, they found great occafion for horfes
to fupport and cover their foot. The Athenian caval¬
ry, for a confiderable time, confifted only of 96 horfe-
men : after expelling the Perfians out of Greece, they
increafed the number to 300-, and afterwards to 1200,
which was the higheft pitch of the Athenian cavalry.
The Turkilh cavalry confirts partly of Spahis, and
partly of horfemen raifed and maintained by the Zaims
and Timariots.
The chief ufe of the cavalry is to make frequent
s ] . c A v
excurfions to difturb the enemy, intercept his con- Cavan
voys, and deftroy the country: in battle to fupport Ciu^ex
and cover th,e foot, and to break through and difor- ‘
der the enemy ; alio to fecure the retreat of the foot.
Formerly, the manner of fighting of the cavalry was,
after firing their piftols or carabines, to wheel off,
to give opportunity for loading again. Guftavus Adol¬
phus is laid to have firft taught the cavalry to charge
through, to march ftraight up to the enemy, with the
fvvord drawn in the bridle hand, and each man having
fired his piece, at the proper diftance, to betake him-
felf to his fword, and charge the enemy as w'as found
moft advantageous.
C AVAN, a town of Ireland, and capital of a coun¬
ty of the fame name, in the province of Ulfter, fituated
in W. Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 54. o.
Cavan, a county of Ireland, 47 miles in length,
and 23 in breadth •, is bounded on the eaft by Mona¬
ghan, and on the fouth by Longford, Weft-Meath, and
Eaft-Meath. It has but two towns of any note, viz.
Cavan and Kilmore. It fends five members to parlia¬
ment } two for the county, two for Cavan, and one for
Kilmore. It contains upwards of 8coo houfes, 37 pa-
rilhes, feven baronies, and two boroughs.
CAUCASUS, the name of a very high mountain of
Alia, being one of that great ridge which runs between
the Black and Cafpian feas. Sir John Chardin de~
feribes this as the higheft mountain, and the moil
difficult to pafs, of any he had feen. It has frightful
precipices, and in many places the roads are cut out of
the folid rock. At the time he paffed it, the moun¬
tain was entirely covered with fnow \ fo that, in many
places, his guides behoved to clear the way with {ho¬
vels. The mountain is 36 leagues over, and the fum-
mit of it eight leagues in breadth. The top is perpe¬
tually covered with fnow; and our traveller relates,
that the twm laft days he feemed to be in the clouds,
and was not able to fee 20 paces before him. Except¬
ing the very top, however, all the parts of Mount
Caucafus are extremely fruitful; abounding in honey,
corn, fruits, hogs, and large cattle. The vines twine
about the trees, and rife fo high, that the inhabitants
cannot gather the fruit from the uppermoft branches.
There are many ftreams of excellent water, and a
vaft number of villages. The inhabitants are for the
moft part Chriftians of the Georgian church. They
have fine complexions, and the women are very
beautiful.—In the winter they vrear fnow (hoes in
the form of rackets, which prevent their finking in
the fnow, and enable them to run upon it with great
fwiftnefs.
CAUDEBEC, a rich, populous, and trading town,
in Normandy, and capital of the territory of Caux.
It is feated at the foot of a mountain near the river
Seine, in E. Long. o. 46. N. Lat. 40. 30.
CAUDEX, by Malpighi and other botanifts, is
ufed to fignify the ftem or trunk of a tree : by Linnae¬
us, the ftock or body of the root, part of which
afeends, part defeends. The afeending part raifes it-
felf gradually above ground, ferving frequently for a
trunk, and correfponds in fome meafure to the cau-
dex of former writers: the defeending part ftrikes
gradually downward into the ground, and puts forth
radicles or fmall fibres, which are the principal and
effential part of every root. The defeending cau-
C A U [ 286 ] C A U
GauJinm, c3es therefore correfponds to the radix of other bo-
Cave‘ tanifts. Agreeably to this idea, Linnaeus confiders
trees and flirubs as roots above ground ; an opinion
which is confirmed by a well known faff, that trees,
when inverted, put forth leaves from the defcending
caudex, and radicles or roots from the afcending. For
■the varieties in the defcending caudex, fee the article
Radix.
4 CAUDIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sam-
nium, on the Via Appia, between Calatia and Bene-
ventum : Caudinus, the epithet. The Caudinae Fur-
cae, Furcatce, were memorable by the difgrace of the
Romans 5 being fpears difpofed in the form of a gal¬
lows under which prifoners of war were made to pafs,
and gave name to a defile or narrow pafs near Cau-
dium, (Livy); where the Samnites obliged the Ro¬
man army and the two confuls to lay down their arms
and pafs under the gallows, or yoke, as a token of fub-
jeftion.
CAVE, any large fubterraneous hollow. Thefe
were undoubtedly the primitive habitations, before
men began to build edifices above ground. The pri¬
mitive method of burial was alfo to repofite the bodies
in caves, which feems to have been the origin of cata¬
combs. They long continued the proper habitations
of fhepherds. Among the Romans, caves {antra')
ufed to be confecrated to nymphs, who were won-
Ihipped in caves, as other gods were in temples. The
Perfians alfo worfhipped their god Mithras in a natu¬
ral cave confecrated for the purpofe by Zoroalter.
The cave of the nymph Egeria is ftill fhown at Rome.
Kircher, after Gaffarellus, enumerates divers fpecies
of caves; as divine, natural, &c.—Of natural caves
fome are poffefled of a medicinal virtue, as the Grot¬
to de Serpente ; others are poifonous or mephitical;
lome are replete with metalline exhalations, and others
with waters. Divine caves were thofe faid to afFedl
the human mind and paffions in various ways, and
even to infpire with a knowledge of future events.
Such were the facred caverns at Delphi which in-
fpired the Pythia ; the Sibyl’s cave at Cumae, ftill
fhown near the lake Avernus; the cave of Tropho-
nius, &c.
Cave, Dr William, a learned Englifh divine, bom
in 1637, educated in St John’s College, Cambridge;
and fucceffively minifter ofHafely in Oxfordftnre, All¬
hallows the Great in London, and of Iflington. He
became chaplain to Charles II. and in 1684 was inftall-
ed a canon of Windfor. He compiled the Lives of
the Primitive Fathers in the three JirJl Centuries of the
Church, which is efteemed a very ufeful work; and
Hi/lona Literaria, &t.c. in which he gives an exaft ac¬
count of all who had written for or againft Chriftianity
from the time of Chrift to the 14th century : which
works produced a very warm difpute between Dr Cave
and M. Le Clerc, who was then writing his Billiotheque
(Jniverfelle in Holland, and who charged the docior
with partiality. -Dr Cave died in 1713.
Cave, Edward, printer, celebrated as the projedtor
■of the Gentleman's IMagazine,—the firft publication of
the fpecies, and fince
The fruitful mother of a thoufand more,
was born in 1691. His father being difappointed of
Lome fmall family expectations, was reduced to fol-
2
low the trade of ftioemaker at Rugby in Warwick- Cav»,
{hire. The free fchool of this place, in which his fon '' •r~'
had, by the rules of its foundation, a right to be in-
ftrudted, was then in high reputation, under the Rev.
Mr Holyock, to whofe care moft of the neighbouring
families, even of the higheft rank, intrufted their foes.
He had judgment to dif'eover, and for fome time ge-
nerofity to encourage, the genius of young Cave ; and
and was fo well pleafed with his quick progrefs in the
fchool, that he declared his refolution to breed him
for the univerfity, and recommend him as a fervitor to
fome of his fcholars of high rank. But profperity
which depends upon the caprice of others, is of fhort
duration. Cave’s fuperiority in literature exalted him
to an invidious familiarity with boys who were far
above him in rank and expectations ; and, as in un¬
equal affociations it always happens, whatever unlucky
prank was played was imputed to Cave. When any
mifehief, great or fmall was done, though perhaps
others boafted of the ftratagem when it was fuccefsful,
yet upon detection or mifearriage, the fault wTas fure to
fall to poor Cave. The harfli treatment he experien¬
ced from this fource, and which he bore for a while,
made him at laft leave the fchool, and the hope of a
literary education, to feek fome other means of gaining
a livelihood.
He was firft placed with a collector of the excife ;
but the infolence of his miftrefs, who employed him
in fervile drudgery, quickly difgufted him, and he went
up to London in queft of more fuitable employment.
He was recommended to a timber merchant at the
Bankfide : and while he was there on liking, is faid to
have given hopes of great mercantile abilities : but
this place he foon left; and was bound apprentice to
Mr Collins, a printer of fome reputation, and deputy
alderman. This was a trade for which men were for¬
merly qualified by a literary education, and which was
pleafing to Cave, becaufe it furniftied fome employ¬
ment for his fcholaftic attainments. Here, therefore,
he refolved to fettle, though his mafter and miftrefs
lived in perpetual difeord, and their houfe was there¬
fore no comfortable habitation. From the inconve¬
niences of thefe domeftic tumults he was foon releafed,
having in only two years attained fo much fkill in his
art, and gained fo much the confidence of his mafter,
that he was fent without ^iny fuperintendant to con-
duCt a printing houfe at Norwich, and publifh a weekly
paper. In this undertaking lie met with fome oppofi-
tion, which produced a public controverfy, and pro¬
cured young Cave the reputation of a writer.
His mafter died before his apprentiedhip was ex¬
pired, and he was not able to bear the perverfenefs of
his miftrefs. He therefore quitted her houfe upon a
ftipulated allowance, and married a young widow’, with
whom he lived at Bow. When his apprentiedhip was
over, he worked as a journeyman at the printing-houfe
of Mr Barbar, a man much diftinguilhed and employ¬
ed by the Tories, whofe principles had at that time fo
much prevalence with Cave, that he wTas for fome
years a writer in Mill’s Journal. He aftemards ob¬
tained by his wife’s intereft a fmall place in the poft-
office ; but ftill continued, at his intervals of attend¬
ance, to exercife his trade, or to employ himfelf with
fome typographical bufinefs. He corre&ed the Gra-
dus ad Parnajfum; and was liberally rewarded by the
Company
C A V [ 287 ] G A V
Company of Stationers. He wrote an Account of the
Criminals, which had for feme time a conhderable fale ;
, and publifhed many little pamphlets that accident
brought into his hands, of which it would be very dif¬
ficult to recover the memory. By the correipondence
which his place in the poft-office facilitated, he pro¬
cured a country newfpaper, and fold their intelligence
to a journalift in London for a guinea a-week. He
was afterwards raifed to the office of clerk of the
franks, in which he afted with great fpirit and firm-
nefs; and often flopped franks which were given by
members of parliament to their friends, becaufe he
thought fuch extenfion of a peculiar right illegal. This
raifed many complaints $ and the influence that was
exerted againft him procured his eje£tment from office.
He had nowr, however, colle&ed afum fufficient for the
purchafe of a fmall printing office, and began the Gen¬
tleman’s Magazine j an undertaking to which he ow^ed
the affluence in which hepaffed the laft zo years of his
life, and the large fortune which he left behind him.
When he formed the prejeft, he was far from expefting
the fuccefs which he found ; and others had fo little
profpefl of its confequence, that though he had for fe-
veral years talked of his plan among printers and
bookfellers, none of them thought it worth the trial,
That they were not (fays Dr Johnfon) reflrained by
their virtue from the execution of another man’s defign,
was fufficiently apparent as foon as that defign began to
be gainful j for, in a few years, a multitude of maga¬
zines arofe, and periffied *, only the London Magazine,
fupported by a powerful afibciation of bookfellers, and
circulated with all the art and all the cunning of trade,
exempted itfelf from the general fate of Cave’s inva¬
ders, and obtained though not an equal, yet a confider-
able fale.
Cave now' began to afpire to popularity j and be¬
ing a greater lover of poetry than any other art, he
fometimes offered fubjefts for poems, and propofed
prizes for the beft performers. The firll prize was 50I.
for which, being but newly acquainted with wealth,
and thinking the influence of 50I. extremely great, he
expe&ed the firft authors of the kingdom to appear
as competitors; and offered the allotment of the prize
to the univerfities. But, when the time came, no name
was feen among the writers that had been ever feen
before *, and the univerfities and ieveral private men re¬
jected the province of afiigning the prize. The deter¬
mination wras then left to Dr Cromwell Mortimer and
Dr Birch •, and by the latter the aw'ard was made
which may be feen in Gent. Mag. vol. vi. p. 59.
Mr Cave continued to improve his Magazine, and
had the fatisfaftion of feeing its fuccefs proportionate
to his diligence, till in 1751, his wife died of an afthma.
He feemed not at firft much affe&ed by her death, but
in a few days loft his deep and his appetite, which he
never recovered. After having lingered about two
years, with many viciflitudes of amendment and relapfe,
he fell by drinking acid liquors into a diarrhoea, and
afterwards into a kind of lethargic infenfibility 5 and
died Jan. 10. 1754, having juft concluded the 23d
annual colieion.
CAVEARE. See Caviare.
CAVEAT, In Law, a kind of procefs in the fpiri-
tual courts, to flop the proving of a will, the granting
tithes of adminiftration, &c. to the prejudice of another.
It is alfo ufed to flop the inftitution of a clerk to a
benefice.
CAVEATING, in Fencing, is the {Lifting the
fword from one fide of that of yofir adverfary to the
other.
CAVEDO, in Commerce, a Portuguefe long mea-
fure, equal to zyAsw Engliffl inches.
CAVENDISH, Thomas, of Suffolk, the fecond
Engliffiman that failed round the globe, was defcendeci
from a noble family in Devonfhire. Having diffipated
his fortune, he refolved to repair it at the expence of
the Spaniards. He failed from Plymouth with two
fina l iLips in July 1586 } paffed through the ftraits of
Magellan ; took many rich prizes along the coafts of
Chili and Peru j and near California, poffefled himlelf
of the St Ann, an Acapulco flrip, wuth a cargo of im-
menfe value. He completed the circumnavigation of
the globe, returning home round the Cape of Good
Hope, and reached Plymouth again in September
1588. On his arrival, it is faid that his foldiers and
failors were clothed in filk, his fails were damafk, and
his topmaff was covered with cloth of gold. His ac¬
quired riches did not laft long : he reduced himfelf, in
1591, to the expedient of another voyage 5 which was
far from being fo fuccefsful as the former ; he w7ent no
farther than the ftraits of Magellan, where the weather
obliging him to return, he died of grief on the coaft
of Brafil.
Cavendish, Sir William, defeended of an ancient
and honourable family, was born about the year 1505,
the fecond fon of Thomas Cavendifh of Cavendiffi in
Suffolk, clerk of the pipe in the reign of Henry VIII.
Having had a liberal education, he was taken into the
family of the great Cardinal Wolfey, whom he ferved
in the capacity of gentleman uftier of the chamber,
when that fuperb prelate maintained the dignity of a
prince. In 1527, he attended his mafter on his fplen-
did embaffy to France, returned with him to England,
and was one of the few who continued faithful to him
in his dilgrace. Mr Cavendifh was with him when
he died, and delayed going, to court till he had per¬
formed the laft duty of a faithful fervant by feeing his
body decently interred. The king was fo far from
dii'approving of his conduft, that he immediately took
him into his houfehold, made him treafurer of his
chamber, a privy counfellor, and afterwards conferred
on him the order of knighthood. Pie was alfo ap¬
pointed one of the commiffioncrs for taking the fur-
render of religious houfes. In 1540, he was nominated
one of the auditors of the court of augmentations, and -
foon after obtained a grant of feveral confiderable
lordftiips in Hertfordfflire. In the reign of Edward VI.
his eftates were much increafed by royal grants in feven
different counties ; and he appears to have continued
in high favour at court during the reign of Queen
Mary. He died in the year 1557. He was the foun¬
der of Chatfworth, and anceftor of the dukes of De-
vonfliire. He wrote “ The life and death of Cardinal-
Vv’olfey printed at London in x 607 ; reprinted in
1706, under the title of “ Memoirs of the great favour¬
ite Cardinal Wolfey.”
Cavendish, William, duke of Newcaftle, grandfon
of Sir William Cavendiffi, w7as born in J592. In
1610, he was made knight of the Bath 5 in 1620,7
xaifed to the dignity of a peer, by the title of Baron.
C A V , [ 2
Cavendifli. Ogle, and Vifcount Mansfield j and in the third year
1 V-*"'of King Charles I. created earl of Newcaftle upon
Tyne, and Baron Cavendifli of Bolefover. He was
after this made governor to the prince of Wales, af¬
terwards Charles II. When the firfl: troubles broke
out in Scotland, and the king’s treafury was but indif¬
ferently provided, he contributed ten thoufand pounds,
and alfo raifed a troop of horfe, confifting of about
two hundred knights and gentlemen, who ferved at
their own charge, were commanded by the earl, and
honoured with the title of the prince's troop. He had
after this the command of the northern counties; and
was conftituted general and commander in chief of all
the forces that might be raifed north of Trent, and of
< feveral counties fouth of that river. He afterwards
raifed an army of eight thoufand horfe, foot, and dra¬
goons 5 with which he took lome towns, and gained
feveral important vidlories. On this he was advanced
to the dignity of marquis of Newcaftle ; but his ma-
jefty’s affairs being totally ruined by the raflinefs of
Prince Rupert, he, with a few of the principal officers
of the army, went abroad, and llaid for fome time at
Paris j where, notwithftanding the vaft eftate he had
when the civil war broke out, his eircumftances were
now fo bad, that himfelf and wife were reduced to the
neceflity of pawning their clothes for a dinner. He
afterwards removed to Antwerp, that he might be
nearer his own country •, and there, though under
great difficulties, refided for feveral years j but, not¬
withftanding his diftrefles, he was treated, during an
exile of eighteen years, with extraordinary marks of
diftindlion. On his return to England at the Reftora-
tion, lie was advanced to the dignity of earl of Ogle,
and duke of Newcaftle. He fpent his time in a coun¬
try retirement, and was the patron of men of merit.
His grace died in 1670. aged 84. He wrote a trea-
tife on horfemanffiip, which is efteemed; and fome co¬
medies, which are not.
Mr Granger obferves, that he was mafter of many
accomplifliments, and was much better qualified for a
court than a camp ; that he underftood horfemanffiip,
mufic, and poetry j but was a better horfeman than
mufician, and a better mufician than poet.
Cavendish Margaret, duchefs of Newcaftle, fa¬
mous for her voluminous produ&ions, was born about
the latter end of the reign of James I. and was the
youngeft filler of Lord Lucas of Colchefter. She
married the duke of Newcaftle abroad in 1645 $ and
on their return after the Reftoration, fpent the remain¬
der of her life in writing plays, poems, with the life
of her huffiand, to the amount of about a dozen of fo¬
lios. “ What gives the bell idea of her unbounded
paffion for fcribbling (fays Mr Walpole), was her fel-
dom reviling the copies of her works, left, as ffie faid,
it ffiould difturb her following conceptions. She
died in 1673.
Cavendish, William, the firft duke of Devonffiire,
and one of the moll diftinguiffied patriots in the Bri-
tiffi annals, was born in 1640. In 1677, being then
member for Derby, he vigoroufly oppofed the venal
meafures of the court j and, the following year, was
one of the committee appointed to draw up articles of
impeachment againft the Lord-treafurer Danby. In
1679, being re-ele£ted to lerve for Derby in a new
parliament, Charles II. thought fit to make him a
1 /
Caviare.
88 ] C A V
privy counfellor; but he foon withdrew from the board, Cavenchih
with his friend Lord Ruffel, when he found that Popiffi
intereft prevailed. He carried up the articles of im¬
peachment to the houfe of lords, againft Lord-chief-
juftice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and il’egal proceed¬
ings in the court of king’s bench ; and when the king
declared his refolution not to lign the bill for exclud¬
ing the duke of York (afterwards James II.), he mov¬
ed the houfe of commons, that a bill might be brought
in for the aflbeiation of all his majefty’s Proteftant fub-
jefts. He alfo openly named the king’s evil counfel-
lors, and voted for an addrefs to remove them from
his prefence and councils for ever. He nobly appear¬
ed at Lord Ruflel’s trial, in defence of that great man,
at a time when it w^as fcarce more criminal to be an
accomplice than a witnefs for him. The fame forti¬
tude, a&ivity, and love of his country, animated this
illuftrious patriot to oppofe the arbitrary proceedings
of James II. 5 and when he faw there w’as no other
method of having the nation from impending flavery,
he was the foremoft in the aflbeiation for inviting over
the prince of Orange, and the firft nobleman who ap¬
peared in arms to receive him at his landing. He
was created duke of Devonffiire in 1694, by William
and Mary. His laft public fervice was in the union
with Scotland, for concluding of which he was appoint¬
ed a commiffioner by Queen Anne. He died in I7°7»
and ordered the following infeription to be put on his
monument.
IVillielmus dux Devon,
Bonorum Principum Fidehs Subditus,
Inimicus et Invifus Tyrannis,
William Duke of Devonffiire,
Of good Princes the faithful Subject,
The Enemy and Averfion of Tyrants.
Befides being thus eftimable for public virtues, his
grace was diftinguiffied by his literary accompliffiments.
He had a poetical genius, which fliow'ed itfelf particu¬
larly in two pieces written with equal fpirit, dignity,
and delicacy : thefe are, an ode on the death of Queen
Mary 5 and an Allufion to the Archbiffiop of Cambray’s
Supplement to Homer. He had great knowledge in
the languages, was a true judge in hiftory, and a critic
in poetry ; he had a fine hand in mufic, an elegant
tafte in painting, and in architefture had a Ikill equal
to any perfon ol the age in which he lived. His pre-
deceflbr, Sir John Cavendiffi, w^as the perfon wffio kill¬
ed the famous Watt Tyler in I3S1"
CAVETTO, in Architecture, a hollow member,
or round concave moulding, containing a quadrant
of a circle, and having a quite contrary effeft to
that of a quarter round : it is ufed as an ornament in
cornices.
CAVEZON, in the manege, a fort of nofe band,
either of iron, leather, or wrood, fometimes flat, and
at other times hollow or twitted, clapt upon the nofe
of a horfe to wiring it, and fo forward the fuppling
and breaking of the horle.
CAVIARE, a kind of food lately introduced into
Britain. It is made of the hard roes of fturgeon*, * See
formed into fmall cakes, about an inch thick and three/’*"/«'•
or four inches broad. The method of making it is,
by taking out of the fpawn all the nerves or firings,
then wafhing it in white wine or vinegar, and fpread-
ing
G A U [ 289 ] C A U
C*vHos ing it on a table. It Is then falted and preffcd in a
11 fine bag ; after which it is cafed up in a veffel with a
, hole at the bottom, that if any moifture is left it may
run out. This kind of food is in great requeft among
the Mufcov.kes, on account of their three lents, which
they keep with a fuperftitious exaftnefs; wherefore
the Italians fettled at Mofcow drive a very great trade
in this commodity throughout that empire, there being
a prodigious quantity of fturgeon taken at the mouth
of the Wolga and other rivers which fall into the Caf-
pian fea. A pretty large quantity of the commodity
is alio conlumed in Italy and France. They get the
caviare from Archangel, but commonly buy it at fe-
cond hand of the Englilh and Dutch.—According to
Savary, the beft caviare brought from Mufcovy is pre¬
pared from the belluga, a fiih eight or ten feet long,
caught in the Cafpian fea, which is much preferable
to that made of the fpawn of fturgeon. A kind of
caviare, or rather faufage, is alfo made from the fpawn
of fome other fifties; particularly a fort of mullet
caught in the Mediterranean. See Mugil and Bo-
tar go.
CAVIDOS. See Cabidos.
CAVIL (cavillatio'), is defined by fome a fallacious
kind of reafon, carrying fome refemblance of truth,
which a perfon, knowing its falfehood, advances in dif-
pute for the fake of viftory. The art of framing fo-
phifms or fallacies is called by Boethius cavillatoria.
CAUK, or Cawk. See Barytes, Chemistry
and Mineralogy Index.
CAUKING, or Caulking, of a Ship, is driving a
quantity of oakum, or old ropes untwifted and drawn
afunder, into the feams of the planks, or into the in¬
tervals where the planks are joined together in the
fti ip’s decks or fides, in order to prevent the entrance
of water. After the oakum is driven very hard into
thefe feams, it is covered with hot melted pitch or
rofin, to keep the wuter from rotting it.
Among the ancients, the firft who made ufe of pitch
in caulking, were the inhabitants of Phaeacia, after¬
wards called Corfica. Wax and rofin appear to have
been commonly ufed previous to that period ; and the
Poles at this time ufe a fort of unftuous clay for the
fame purpofe, on their navigable rivers.
Caulking Irons, are iron chiflels for that purpofe.
Some of thefe irons are broad, fome round, and others
grooved. After the feams are flopped with oakum,
it is done over with a mixture of tallowq pitch, and tar,
as low as the fiiip draws water.
CAUL, in Anatomy, a membrane in the abdomen,
covering the greateft part of the guts 5 called, from its
ftruclure, Reticulum, but moft frequently Omentum. See
Anatomy Index.
Caul is likewife a little membrane, found on fome
children, encompafting the head when born.
Drelincourt takes the caul to be only a fragment of
the membranes of the foetus ; which ordinarily break
at the birth of the child. Lampridius tells us, that
the midwives fold this caul at a good price to the ad¬
vocates and pleaders of his time ; it being an opinion,
that while they had this about them, they ftiould carry
with them a force of perfuafion which no judge could
withftand : the canons forbid the ufe of it j becaufe
fome witches and forcerers, it feems, had abufed it.
V©l. V. Part I.
CAULIFLOWERS, in Gardening, a much efteem- Caus¬
ed fpecies of cabbage. See Brassica. flowers
CAURIS, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by fome
to the genus of fhells called, by the generality of wri-1 .
ters, porcellana, and concha venerea. It is from a falfe
pronunciation of this word cauris that thefe fhells are
called cowries. See PoRCELAiN-Shell, Conchology
Index.
CAURSINES {Caurfni), were Italians that came
into England about the year 1235, terming themfelves
the Pope's merchants, but driving no other trade than
letting out money ; and having great banks in Eng¬
land, they differed little from Jews, fave (as hiftory
fays) they were rather more mercilefs to their debtors.
Some will have them called Courjtnes, quafi Caufa Ur-
fini, bearifh or cruel in their caufes 5 others Caorfni
or Cor/ini, as coming from the ifle of Corfica : but
Cowel fays, they have their name from Caorftum, Caorji,
a town in Lombardy, where they firft pradlifed their
arts of ufury and extortion j from whence fpreading
themfelves, they carried their infamous trade through
moft parts of Europe, and were a common plague to
every nation where they came. The then biftrop of
London excommunicated them ; and King Henry III.
banifhed them from this kingdom in the year 1240.
But, being the pope’s folicitors- and money-changers,
they were permitted to return in the year 1 250; though
in a very fhort time they were again driven out of the
kingdom on account of their intolerable exadlions.
CAUSA matrimonii pr/elocuti, in common
law, a writ that lies where a woman gives land to a man
in fee to the intent he fhall marry her, and he refufes
to do it in a reafonable time, being thereupon required
by the woman ; and in fuch cafe, for not performing
the condition, the entry of the woman into the lands
again has been adjudged lawful.
The hufband and wife may fue this writ againft an¬
other who ought to have married her.
CAUSALITY, among metaphyficians, the adlion
or power of a caufe in producing its effeft.
CAUSALTY, among miners, denotes the lighter,
fulphureous, earthy parts of ores, carried off in the
operation of wafhing. This, in the mines, they throw
in heaps upon banks, which in fix or feven years they
find it worth their while to work over again.
CAUSE, that from whence any thing proceeds, or
by virtue of which any thing is done : it Hands oppo-
fed to effeft. We get the ideas of caufe and effect
from our obfervation of the viciflitude of things, while
we perceive fome qualities or fubftances begin to exift,
and that they receive their exiftence from the due ap¬
plication and operation of -other beings. That which
produces, is the caufe ; and that which is produced,
the effeft : thus, fluidity in wax is the efteCl of a cer¬
tain degree of heat, which we obferve to be conftantly
produced by the application of fuch heat.
Ariftotle, and the fchoolmen after him, diftinguifh- on
ed four kinds of caufes 5 the efficient, the material, the yfi‘'ve
formal, and the final. This, like many of Ariftotle’s
diftindlions, is only a diftinftion of the various mean¬
ings of an ambiguous word : for the efficient, the mat¬
ter, the form, and the end, have nothing common in
their nature, by which they may be accounted fpecies
of the fame genus; but the Greek word, which we
O o tranftate
9
Caufe.
C A U [ 290 ] C A U
tranflate caufe, had thefe four different meanings in
Ariftotle’s days, and we have added other meanings.
We do not indeed call the matter or the form of a
thing its caufe j but we have final caufes, inftrumental
caufes, occafional caufes, and many others. Thus the
word caufe has been fo hackneyed, and made to have
fo many different meanings in the writings of philofo-
phers, and in the difcourfe of the vulgar, that its ori¬
ginal and proper meaning is loft in the crowd.
With regard to the phenomena of nature, the im¬
portant end of knowing their caufes, befides gratifying
our curiofity, is, that we may know when to expe£t
them, or how to bring them about. This is very often
of real importance in life j and this purpofe is ferved,
by knowing what, by the courfe of nature, goes be¬
fore them and is connected with them 5 and this, there¬
fore, we call the caufe of fuch a phenomenon.
If a magnet be brought near to a mariner’s compafs,
the needle, which was before at reft, immediately be¬
gins to move, and bends its courfe towards the magnet,
or perhaps the contrary way. If an unlearned failor
is afked the caufe of this motion of the needle, he is at
no lofs for an anfwer. He tells you it is the magnet 5
and the proof is clear: for, remove the magnet, and
the effefl ceafes; bring it near, and the effect is again
produced. It is, therefore, evident to fenfe, that the
magnet is the caufe of this effect.
A Cartefian philofopher enters deeper into the caufe
of this phenomenon. He obferves, that the magnet
does not touch the needle, and therefore can give it
no impulfe. He pities the ignorance of the failor. The
effe£t is produced, fays he, by magnetic effluvia, or
fubtle matter, which paffes from the magnet to the
needle, and forces it from its place. He can even
fhow you, in a figure, where thefe magnetic effluvia
iffue from the magnet, what round they take, and
what way they return home again. And thus he thinks
he comprehends perfedtly how, and by what caufe,
the motion of the needle is produced.
A Newtonian philofopher inquires what proof can
be offered for the exiftence of magnetic effluvia, and
can find none. He therefore holds it as a fiftion, a
hypothefis; and he has learned that hypothefis ought
to have no place in the philofophy of nature. He
confeffes his ignorance of the real caufe of this motion,
and thinks that his bufinefs as a philofopher is only
to find from experiment the laws by which it is regu¬
lated in all cafes.
Thefe three perfons differ much in their fentiments
with regard to the real caufe of this phenomenon $ and
the man who knows moft is he who is fenfible that he
knows nothing of the matter. Yet all the three fpeak
the fame language, and acknowledge that the caufe
of this motion is the attra<5!ive or repulfive power of
the magnet.
What has been faid of this, may be applied to every
phenomenon that falls within the compafs of natural
philofophy. We deceive ourfelves, if we conceive
that we can point out the real efficient caufe of any
one of them.
The grandeft difcovery ever made in natural philo¬
fophy, was that of the law7 of gravitation, wfflich opens
fuch a view of our planetary fyftem, that it looks like
fomething divine. But the author of this difcovery
was perfectly awrare that he difcovered no real caufe,
but only the law7 or rule according to wfflich the un¬
known caufe operates.
Natural philofophers, who think accurately, have a
precife meaning to the terms they ufe in the fcience $
and w'hen they pretend to {how7 the caufe of any phe¬
nomenon of nature, they mean by the caufe, a law of
nature of which that phenomenon is a neceffary confe-
quence.
The whole object of natural philofophy, as Newton
exprefsly teaches, is reducible to thefe two heads: firft,
by juft induction from experiment and obfervation, to
difcover the laws of nature j and then to apply thefe
laws to the folution of the phenomena of nature. This
w7as all that this great philofopher attempted, and all
that he thought attainable. And this indeed he at¬
tained in a great meafure, with regard to the motions
©f our planetary fyftem, and with regard to the rays of
light.
But fuppofing that all the phenomena which fall
within the reach of our fenfes were accounted for from
general laws of nature juftly deduced from experience j
that is, fuppofing natural philofophy brought to its ut-
moft perfection j it does not difcover the efficient caufe
of any one phenomenon in nature.
The laws of nature are the rules according to which
the effeCts are produced j but there muft be a caufe
which operates according to thefe rules. The rules of
navigation never navigated a fhip. The rules of ar¬
chitecture never built a houfe.
Natural philofophers, by great attention to the courfe
of nature, have difcovered many of her laws, and have
very happily applied them to account for many pheno¬
mena : but they have never difcovered the efficient caufe
of any one phenomenon ; nor do thofe who have diftinCt
notions of the principles of the fcience make any fuch
pretence.
Upon the theatre of nature wre fee innumerable effeCts
which require an agent endowed wfith aCtive power 5
but the agent is behind the feene. Whether it be the
Supreme caufe alone, or a fubordinate caufe or caufes 5
and if fubordinate caufes be employed by the Almighty,
what their nature, their number, and their different of¬
fices may be ; are things hid, for wife reafons, without
doubt, from the human eye.
Cause, among civilians, the fame with aClion. See
Action.
Cause, among phyficians. The caufe of a difeafe
is defined by Galen to be that during the prefence of
which we are ill, and which being removed, the diforder
immediately ceafes. The do&rine of the caufes of dif-
eafes it called Etiology.
Phyficians divide caufes into procatar£Hc, antece¬
dent, and continent.
ProcatarSIicCause, (curia Trt’oxotrugKriKYi'), called alfo
primitive and incipient caufe, is either an occafion which
of its own nature does not beget a difeafe, but happen¬
ing on a body inclined to difeafes breeds a fever, gout,
&c. (fuch as are watching, falling, and the like) ; or
an evident and manifeft caufe, which immediately pro¬
duces the difeafe, as being fufficient thereto, fuch as is
a fword in refpeflof a wound.
Antecedent Cause, (cunct a latent difpofi
tion of the body, from whence lome difeafe may arife j
fuch as a. plethora in relpeft of a fever, a cacochymia
in refpedt of a feurvy.
Continent,
C A U [
Caufe Continent, GonjunB, or Proximate Cause, that piin-
II tiple in the body which immediately adheres to the
Caufticity. d;leafej and which being prefent, the difeafe is alfo pre-
j , or^ w]1[c{1 being removed, the difeafe is taken
away : fuch is the ftone in a nephritic patient.
CAUSEWAY, or Caused, a maflive conftru&ion
of ftones, flakes, and fafcines ; or an elevation of fat
vifcous earth, well beaten 5 ferving either as a road in
wet marfhy places, or as a mole to retain the waters
of a pond, or prevent a river from overflowing the
lower grounds. See Road.—~ The word comes from
the French chauffer, anciently wfote chaulfee ; and that
from the Latin calceata, or calcata j according to
Somner and Spelman, a calcando. Bergier rather takes
the word to have had its rife a peditum calceis> quihus
teruntur. Some derive it from the Latin calx, or French
chaux, as fuppofing it primarily to denote a way paved
• with chalk ftones.
Causeway, (ca/cf/sworra/cefl), moreufually denotes
a common hard raifed way, maintained and repaired
with ftones and rubbifh.
Devil's Causeway, a famous work of this kind,
which ranges through the county of Northumberland,
commonly luppofed to be Roman, though Mr Horfley
fufpefls it to be of later times.
Giant's Causeway, is a denomination given to a huge
pile of ftony columns in the diftrift of Coleraine in Ire¬
land. See Giant's Caufeway.
C AUSSIN, Nicholas, furnamed the Juft, a French
Jefuit, was born at Troyes in Champagne, in the year
1580 } and entered into the Jefuits order when he was
26 years of age. He taught rhetoric in feveral of their
colleges, and afterwards began to preach, by which he
gained very great reputation. He increafed this re¬
putation by publifhing books, and in time was prefer¬
red to be confefibr to the king. But he did not dif-
charge this office to the fatisfaflion of Cardinal Riche¬
lieu, though he difcharged it to the fatisfaflion of every
honeft man •, and therefore it is not to be wondered at
that he came at length to be removed. He died in
the Jefuits convent at Paris in 1651. None of his
works did him more honour than that which he en¬
titled La Cour Sainte. It has been printed a great ma¬
ny times; and tranflated into Latin, Italian, Spanifh,
Portuguefe, German, and Englifh. He publifhed fe¬
veral other books both in Latin and French.
CAUSTICITY, a quality belonging to feveral fub-
ftances, by the acrimony of which the parts of living
animals may be corroded and deftroyed. Bodies which
have this quality, when taken internally, are true poi-
fons. The caufticity of fome of thefe, as of arfenic, is
fo deadly, that even their external ufe is profcribed by
prudent phyficians. Several others, as nitrous acid, la¬
pis infernalis or lunar cauftic, common cauftic, butter
of antimony, are daily and fuccefsfully ufed to confume
fungous HeOi, to open iffues, &c. They fucceed very
well when properly employed and Ikillfully managed.
The caufticity of bodies depends entirely on the
ftate of the faline, and chiefly of the acid, matters they
contain. When thefe acids happen to be at the fame
time much concentrated, and flightly attached to the
matters with which they are combined, they are then
capable of afting, and are corrofive or cauftic. Thus
fixed and volatile alkalies, although they are themfelves
cauftic, become much more fo by being treated with
291 ] c a u
quicklime j becaufe this fubftance deprives them of Caufticity.
all their fixed air, or carbonic acid to which they owe '~"Y'
their mildnefs. By this treatment, then, the faline prin¬
ciple is more difengaged, and rendered more capable of
aftion. Alfo all combinations of metallic matters with
acids form falts more or lefs corrofive, becaufe thefe
acids are deprived of all their fuperabundant water,
and are befides but imperfeftly faturated with the me¬
tallic matters. Neverthelefs, fome other circumftance
is neceffary to conftitute the caufticity of thefe faline
metalline matters. For the fame quantity of marine
acid, which, when pure and diluted with a certain
quantity of water, would be produftive of no harm,
fhall, however, produce all the effefts of a corrofive
poifon, when it is united with mercury in corrojive fub-
limate, although the fublimate fhall be diffolved in fo
much water that its caufticity cannot be attributed to
the concentration of its acid. This effedfl is, by fome
chemifts, attributed to the great weight of the metal¬
lic matters with which the acid is united ; and this
opinion is very probable, feeing its caufticity is nothing
but its difiblving power, or its difpofition to combine
wdth other bodies 5 and this difpofition is nothing elfe
than attraction.
On this fubjeft Dr Black obferves, that the com¬
pounds produced by the union of the metals w ith acids
are in general corrofive. Many of them applied to the
Ikin deltroy it almoft as fall as the mineral acids \ and
fome of the moft powerful potential cauteries are made
in this way. Some are reckoned more acrid than the
pure acids themfelves ; and they have more powerful
effeCts when taken internally, or at leaft feem to have.
Thus we can take to or 12 drops of a foffil acid, dilut¬
ed with water, without being difturbed by it ; but
the fame quantity of acid previoufly combined with fil-
ver, quickfilver, copper, or regulus of antimony, will
throw the body'into violent diforders, or even prove a
poifon, if taken all at once.
This increafed aCtivity was, by the mechanical phi-
lofophers, fuppofed to arife from the weight of the
metallic particles. They imagined that the acid was
compofed of minute particles of the ftiape of needles or
wedges; by w'hich means they were capable of enter¬
ing the pores of other bodies, feparating their atoms
from each other, and thus diffolving them. To thefe
acid fpicuke the metallic particles gave more force ; and
the momentum of each particular needle or wedge was
increafed in proportion to its increafe of gravity by the
additional wreight of the metallic particle. But this
theory is entirely fanciful, and does not correfpond
with fads. The aftivity of the compound is not in pro¬
portion to the weight of the metal \ nor are the com¬
pounds always poffeiTed of any great degree of acri¬
mony : neither is it true that any of them have a
greater powTer of deftroying animal fubftances than the
pure acids have.
There is a material difference between the powrers
called Jlimuli and corrojives. Let a perfon apply to
any part of the Ikin a imall quantity of lunar cauftic,
and likewufe a drop of ftrong nitrous acid, and he wdll
find that the acid afts with more violence than the
cauftic ; and the diforders that are occafioned by the
compounds of metals and acids do not proceed from a
caufflicity in them, but from the metal affefling and
a ftimulus to the nerves : and that this is the
O 0 2 cafe;,
proving
c A U [ 292 1 CAY
cafe, appears from their affe&ing fome particular nerves
of the body. Thus the compounds of antimony and
mercury with the vegetable acids, do not {how the
fmallefl: degree of acrimony } but, taken internally,
they produce violent convuliive motions over the whole
body, which are occafioned by the metallic matter
having a power of producing this efteft 3 and the acid
is only the means of bringing it into a diffolved Hate,
and making it capable of adting on the nervous
fyflem. In general, however, the compounds of me¬
tallic fubftances with acids may be confidered as mild¬
er than the acids in a feparate Hate 3 but the acid is
not fo much neutralized as in other compounds, for it
is lefs powerfully attrailed by the metal 3 fo that al¬
kaline falts, abforbent earths, or even heat alone, will
decompound them 3 and fome of the inflammable fub¬
ftances, as fpirit of wine, aromatic oils, &c. will at¬
tract the acid, and precipitate the metal in its metallic
form : and the metals can be employed to preci¬
pitate one another in their metallic form 3 fo that the
coheflon of thefe compounds is much weaker than
thofe formed of the fame acids with alkaline falts or
earths.
CAUSTICS, is an appellation given to fubftances
of fo hot and fiery a nature, that, being applied,
confume, and as it were burn, the texture of the parts,
like hot iron.
Cauftics are generally divided into four forts 3 the
common ftronger cauftic, the common milder cauftic,
the antimonial cauftic, and the lunar cauftic. See Phar¬
macy and Chemistry Index.
Caustic Curve, in the higher geometry, a curve
formed by the concourfe or coincidence of the rays of
light refledled from lome other curve.
CAUSUS, or Burning Fever, a fpecies of con¬
tinual fever, accompanied with a remarkable inflamma¬
tion of the blood.
CAU 1 ERIZATION, the a£! of burning or fear¬
ing fome morbid part, by the application of fire either
aftual or potential. In fome places they cauterize
with burning tow, in others with cotton or moxa, in
others with live coals 3 fome ufe Spaniih wax, others
pyramidal pieces of linen, others gold or filver 3 Seve¬
rinus recommends flame blown through a pipe 3 but
what is ufually preferred among us is a hot iron.
Cauterizing irons are of various figures 3 fome flat,
others round, fome curved, &c. of all which we find
draughts, in Albucafis, Scultetus, Ferrara, and others.
Sometimes a cautery is applied through a capfula, to
prevent any terror from the fight of it. This method
was invented by Placentinus, and is defcribed by Scul¬
tetus. In the ufe of all cauteries, care is to be taken
to defend the neighbouring parts, either by a lamina,
defenfive plafter, or lint moiftened in oxycrate. Some¬
times the hot iron is tranfmitted through a copper can¬
nula, for the greater fafety of the adjoining parts.
I he degrees and manners of cauterizing are varied
according to the nature of the difeafe and the part af-
fefted.
CAUTERY, in Surgery, a medicine for burning,
eating, or corroding any folid part of the body.
Cauteries are diftinguifhed into two dalles 3 a&ual
and potential: by adlual cauteries are underftood red
hot inftruments, ufually of iron ^ and by potential cau¬
teries are underftood certain kinds of corroding medi¬
cines. See Pharmacy.
CAUTION, in the Civil and Scots Law, denotes
much the fame with what, in the law of England, is
called Bail.
CAU IIONER, in Scots Law, that perfon who be¬
comes bound for another to the performance of any
deed or obligation. As to the different kinds and ef-
fe&s of Cautionry, fee Law, Part III. N° clxxv. 19.
CAWK. SeeCAUK.
CAXA, a little coin made of lead mixed with fome
fcoria of copper, ftruck in China, but current chiefly
at Bantam in the illand of Java, and fome of the neigh¬
bouring illands. See (the Th/'A fubjoined to) Money.
CAXAMALCA, the name ol a town and diftricl
of Peru in South America, where there was a moft
fumptuous palace belonging to the Incas, and a mag¬
nificent temple dedicated to the fun.
CAXTON, William, a mercer of London, emi¬
nent by the works he publilhed, and for being reputed
the firft who introduced and pra&ifed the art of print¬
ing in England 3 as to which, fee {the Hi/lory of)
Printing.
CAYENNE, a rich town and ifland of South Ame¬
rica, and capital of the French fettlements there, is
bounded on the north by the Dutch colonies of Suri¬
nam, and fituated in W. Long. 53. 10. N. Lat. 50.
This fettlement wras begun in 1645. A report had
prevailed for fome time before, that in the interior
parts of Guiana, there was a country known by the
name of El Dorado, which contained irnmenfe riches in
gold and precious ftones 3 more than ever Cortez and
Pizarro had found in Mexico and Peru 3 and this fa¬
ble had fired the imagination of every nation in Eu¬
rope. It is fuppofed that this was the country in queft
of which Sir Walter Raleigh went on his laft voyage 3
and as the French were not behind their neighbours
in their endeavours to find out fo defirable a country,
fome attempts for this purpofe were likewife made
by that nation much about the fame time 3 which at
laft coming to nothing, the adventurers took up their
refidence on the ifland of Cayenne. In 1643, fome
merchants of Rouen united their flock, with a defign
to fupport the new colony 3 but, committing their af¬
fairs to one Poncet de Bretigny, a man of a ferocious
difpofition, he declared war both againft the colonifts
and favages, in confequence of which he was foon maf-
facred. This cataftrophe entirely extinguilhed the ar¬
dour of thefe affociates3 ar|d in 1651 a new company
was eftablifhed. This promifed to be much more con-
fiderable than the former 3 and thev fet out with fuch
a capital as enabled them to collefl 700 or 800 colo¬
nifts in the city of Paris itfelf. Thefe embarked on
the Seine, in order to fail down to Havre de Grace 3
but unfortunately the Abbe de Marivault, a man of
great virtue, and the principal promoter of the under¬
taking, was drowned as he was ftepping into his boat.
Another gentleman, who w^as to have afted as general,
was affafiinated on his paffage, and 12 of the principal
adventurers who had promifed to put the colony into
a flourifliing fituation, not only w^ere the principal
perpetrators of this fa£f, but uniformly behaved in the
fame atrocious manner. At laft they hanged one of
their own number 3 two died 3 three were banifhed to
a»
CAY [ 293 ] CAY
Cayenne, a defert ifiand ; and the reft abandoned themfelves to
Caylus. every kind of excefs. The commandant of the citadel
deferted to the Dutch with part of his garrifon. The
favages, roufed by numberlefs provocations, fell upon
the remainder : fo that the few who were left thought
themfelves happy in efcaping to the Leeward Iflands
in a boat and two canoes, abandoning the fort, ammu¬
nition, arms and merchandife, fifteen months after they
had landed on the ifiand.
In 1663, a new company ■was formed, whofe capital
amounted only to 8750I. By the affiftance of the
miniftry they expelled the Dutch who had taken pof-
feffion of the ifland, and fettled themfelves much more
comfortably than their predeceflbrs. In 1667 the ifiand
was taken by the Englifh, and in 1676 by the Dutch,
but afterwards reftored to the French : and fince that
time it has never been attacked. Soon after fome pi¬
rates, laden with the fpoils they had gathered in the
South feas, came and fixed their refidence at Cayenne;
refolving to employ the treafures they had acquired in
the cultivation of the lands. In 1688, Ducaife, an able
feaman, arrived with fome (hips from France, and pro-
pofed to them the plundering of Surinam. This pro-
pofal exciting their natural turn for plunder, the pirates
betook themfelves to their old trade, and almoft all the
reft followed their example. The expedition, however,
proved unfortunate. Many of the aflailants w’ere kill¬
ed, and all the reft taken prifoners and fent to the
Carribee ifiands. This lofs the colony has never yet
recovered.
The ifland of Cayenne is about 16 leagues in cir¬
cumference, and is only parted from the continent by
twm rivers. By a particular formation, uncommon in
iflands, the land is higheft near the water fide, and low
in the middle. Hence the land is fo full of morafles,
that all communication between the different parts of
it is impoflible, without taking a great circuit. There
are fome fmall tradls of an excellent foil to be found
here and there ; but the generality is dry, fandy, and
foon exhaufted. The only town in the colony is de¬
fended by a covert w^ay, a large ditch, a very good mud
rampart, and five baftions. In the middle of the towm
is a pretty confiderable tmmence, of which a redoubt'
has been made that is called the fort. The entrance
into the harbour is through a narrow channel; and {hips
can only get in at high water, through the rocks and
reefs that are fcattered about this pafs.
The fir ft produce of Cayenne w^as the arnotto ; from
the culture of w-hich the colonift's proceeded to that of
cotton, indigo, and laftly fugar. It was the firft of
all the French colonies that attempted to cultivate
coffee. The coffee tree was brought from Surinam in
1721 by fome deferters from Cayenne, who purchafed
their pardon by fo doing. Ten or twelve years after
they planted cocoa. In the year 1752 there were
exported from Cayenne 260,541 pounds of arnotto,
80,363 pounds of fugar, 17,919 pounds of cotton,
26.881 pounds of coffee, 91,916 pounds of cocoa, 618
trees for timber, and 104 planks.
CAYLUS, Count de, Marquis de Sternay, Baron
de Bronfac, was born at Paris in 1692. Fie was the
eldeft of the two fons of John Count de Caylus, lieu¬
tenant general of the armies of the king of France,
and of the marchionefs de Villette. The count and
countefs his father and mother were very careful
of the education of their fon. The former inftrudbed Caylus.
him in the profeflion of arms, and in bodily exercifes; J *”
the latter watched over and fettered the virtues of
his mind, and this delicate talk ihe difeharged with
Angular fuccefs. The countefs was the niece of
Madame de Maintenon, and was remarkable both
for the folidity of her underftanding and the charms
of her wit. She was the author of that agreeable
book entitled “ The Recollections of Madame de
Caylus,” of which Voltaire lately publiflied an elegant
edition. The amiable qualities of the mother appeared
in the fon ; but they appeared with a bold and mi¬
litary air. In his natural temper he was gay and
fprightly, had a tafte for pleafure, a ftrong paflion for
independence, and an invincible averfion to the fer-
vitude of a court. Such were the inftruCtors of the
Count de Caylus. He was only twelve years of age
when his father died at Bruflels in 1704. After fi-
nifhing his exercifes, he entered into the corps of the
Mufquetoires; and in his firft campaign in the year
1709, he diftinguifhed himfelf by his valour in fuch a
manner, that Louis XIV. commended him before all
the court, and rewarded him with an enfigney in the
Gendarmerie. In 17x1 he commanded a regiment of
dragoons, wdiich was called by his own name ; and
he fignalized himfelf at the head of it in Catalonia. In
1713, he wras at the fiege of Fribourg, wdrere he was
expofed to imminent danger in the bloody attack of the
covered way. The peace of Raftadt having left him
in a ftate of inaflivity ill luited to his natural temper,
his vivacity foon carried him to travel into Italy ; and
his curiofity was greatly excited by the wonders of that
country, where antiquity is ftill fruitful, and produces
fo many objedls to improve tafte and to excite admira¬
tion. 7'he eyes of the count were not yet learned; but
he was ftruck with the fight of fo many beauties, and
foon became acquainted with them. After a year’s
abfence, he returned to Paris wfith fo ftrong a paflion
for travelling and for antiquities, as induced him to
quit the army.
He had no fooner quitted the fervice of Louis, than
he fought for an opportunity to fet out for the Levant,
When he arrived at Smyrna, he vifited the ruins of
Ephefus. From the Levant he was recalled in Fe¬
bruary 1717 by the tendernefs of his mother. From
that time he left not France, but to make two excur-
fions to London. The Academy of Parking and Sculp¬
ture adopted him an honorary member in the year
1731; and the count, who loved to realize titles, fpar-
ed neither his labour, nor his credit, nor his fortune,
to inftrufl, aflift, and animate the artifts. Fie wrote,
the lives of the moft celebrated painters and engra¬
vers that have done honour to this illuftrious academy ;
and, in order to extend the limits of the art,- which
feemed to him to move in too narrow a circle, he col-
ledfted, in three different works, new fubjedls for the
painter, which he had met with in the works of the an¬
cients.
Such was his paffion for antiquity, that he wiflred
to have had it in his power, to bring the whole of it
to life again. He faw with regret, that the works
of the ancient painters, which have been difeovered
in our times, are effaced and deftroyed almoft as foon
as they are drawn from the fubterraneous manfions1
where they were buried. A fortunate accident fur-
nifiied-
«
CAY [2
Cay las. nlflicd Inm witli the means of fliowing us the compo-
' V”"' fition and the colouring of the piftures of ancient
Rome. The*, coloured drawings which the famous
Pietro Sante Bartoli had taken there from antique
pi&ures, fell into his hands. He had them engraved j
and, before he enriched the king of France’s cabinet
with them, he gave an edition of them at his own ex-
pence.. It is perhaps the moft extraordinary book of
antiquities that ever will appear. The whole is paint¬
ed with a purity and a precifion that are inimitable 5
■we fee the livelinels and the frelhnefs of the colouring
that charmed the Coefars. There were only 30 copies
publifhed ; and there is no reafon to expedl that there
will hereafter be any more.
Count de Caylus was engaged at the fame time in
an enterprife ftill more favourable to Roman gran¬
deur, and more interefting to the French nation.
Colbert had framed the defign of engravipg the Ro¬
man antiquities that are ftill to be feen in the fouthern
provinces of France. By his orders Mignard the ar-
chiteft had made drawings of them, which Count de
Caylus had the good fortune to recover. He refolved
to finiftr the work begun by Colbert, and to dedicate
it to that great miniftet j and fo much had he this en¬
terprife at heart, that he was employed in it durina- his
laft illnefs, and warmly recommended it to M. Mariette.
In iyq.2, Count Caylus was admitted honorary
member of the Academy of Belles Lettres ; and then
it was that he feemed to have found the place for
which nature defigned him. The ftudy of literature
now became his ruling paflion ; he c'onfecrated to it
his time and his fortune 5 he even renounced his plea-
fures to give himfelf wholly up to that of making fome
difcovery in the field of antiquity. But amidft the
fruits of his refearch and invention, nothing feemed
more flattering to him than his difcovery of encauftic
painting. A defcription of Pliny’s, but too concife a
one to give him a clear view of the matter, fuggefted
the idea of it. He availed himfelf of the friendIhip
and fldll of M. Magault, a phyfician in Paris, and an
, excellent chemift ; and by repeated experiments found
out the fecret of incorporating wax with divers tints
and colours, and of making it obedient to the pencil.
Plmy has made mention, of two kinds of encauftic
painting pradifed by the ancients 5 one of which was
peifoimed with wax, and the other upon ivory, with
hot punches of iron. It was the former that Count
Caylus had the merit of reviving ; and M. Muntz af¬
terwards made many experiments to carry it to perfedion.
In the hands of Count Caylus, literature and the
arts lent each other a mutual aid. But it would be
endlefs to give an account of all his works. He pub-
liftied above 40 dilfertations in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Belles Lettres. The artifts he wTas par¬
ticularly attentive to ; and to prevent their falling into
miftakes from an ignorance of coftume, which the
ableft of them have fcmetimes done, he founded a
prize of 500 livres, the objed of which is to exolain
by means of authors and monuments, the ufages of an¬
cient nations. In order that he might enjoy with the
whole world the treafures he had colleded,’he caufed
them to be engraved, and gave a learned defcription of
them in a work which he embelliftied with 800 copper
plates. ^
The ftrength of his conftitution feemed to give him
1
>4 ] CAY
hopes ot a long life : but a humour fettling in one of Cayfter
his legs, which entirely deftroyed his health, he ex- ||
pired on the 5th of September *1765, and by his death peanothu^
his tamily is extind. The tomb ereded to the ho-
nour of Count L-aylus is to be feen in the chapel of
St Germain 1’Auxerrois, and deferves to be remark¬
ed. It is perfedly the tomb of an antiquary. This
monument was an ancient lepulchral antique, of the
moft. beautiful porphyry, with ornaments in the E-
gyptian tafte.. From the moment he procured it, he
had deftmed it to grace the place of his interment.
While he awaited the fatal hour, he placed it in his
gaiden, tjhere he uied to look upon it with a tranquil
but thoughtful eye, and pointed it out to the infpec-
ticn of his friends.
The charader of Count Caylus is to be traced in
the different occupations which divided his cares and
his life. In fociety, he had all the franknefs of a fo-
dier, and .a politenefs which had nothing in it of de¬
ceit or circumvention. Born independent, he applied
to ftudies which fuited his tafte. His heart was yet
better than his abilities. In his walks he ufed fre¬
quently. to try the honefty of the poor, by fending
them with a piece of money to get change for him.
In thefe cafes he enjoyed their confufion at not find¬
ing him 5 and then prefenting himfelf, ufed to com¬
mend their honefty, and give them double the fum.
He laid frequently to his friends, “ I have this day
loft a crown ; but I was forry that I had not an op¬
portunity of giving a fecond. The beggar ought not
to want integrity.”
® ^or Caystrus, in Ancient Geography^
p river of Ionia, whole mouth Ptolemy places between
Colophon and Ephefus 5 commended by the poets for
its mans, which it had in great numbers. Its fource
was in the Montes Cilbiani, (Pliny). Cay/lrius Cam¬
pus was a part of the territory of Ephefus. Campi
Cayflnam of Lydia were plains lying in the middle be¬
tween the inland parts and Mount Tmolus.
CAZEROM, or Cazeron, a city of Afia, in Per-
fia, fituated in E. Long. 70. N. Lat. 29. ry.
C A.Z.IC, or Cazique, a title given by the Spaniards
to the petty kings, princes, and chiefs, of the feveral
countries of America, excepting thofe of Peru, which
are called curatas. The t rench call them cafiques, a
denomination which they always give to the Tarta¬
rian hordes.—The cazics, in fome places, do the office
of phyficians, and in others of priefts, as well as of
captains. Fhe dignity of cazic among the Chiites, a
people of South America, does not defcend to chil-
dren, but muft be acquired by valour and merit. One
of the prerogatives, attached'to it is, that the cazic
may have three wives, while the other people are al¬
lowed only one. Mexico comprehended a great num¬
ber of provinces and iflands, which were governed
by lords called caziques, dependent on and tributary to
the emperor. I hirty of thefe vaffals are faid to have
been.fo powerful, that they were able, each of them,
to bring an army of 100.000 men into the field.
CAZIMIR, a handfome town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Lublin, fituated on a hill covered with
trees, in E. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. ci. c.
CEA. See Ceos.
CEANOTHUS, New-Jersey Tea. See Botany
Index.
CEBES,
C E G [ 295 ] G E C
Cebes, CEBES, of Thebes, a Socratic pliilofopher, author
Cecil. 0f the admired Table of Cebes ; or “ Dialogues on the
Birth, Life, and Death of Mankind.” He flouriihed
about 405 years before Chrift.—The above piece is
mentioned by fome of the ancient writers, by Lucian,
D. Laertius, Tertullian, and Suidas: but of Cebes
himfelf we have no account, fave that he is once men¬
tioned by Plato, and once by Xenophon. The for¬
mer fays of him, in his “ Phaedo,” that he was a fa-
gacious inveftigator of truth, and never aflfented with¬
out the moft convincing reafons: the latter, in this
“ Memorabilia,” ranks him among the few intimates
of Socrates, who excelled the reft in the innocency of
their lives. Cebes’s Tabula is ufually printed with
Epiftetus’s Manuale.
CECIL, William, Lord Burleigh, treafurer of
England in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was the fon
of Richard Cecil, Efq-, mafter of the robes to King
Henry VIII. He was born in the houfe of his grand¬
father, David Cecil, Efq-, at Bourn in Lincolnlhire,
in the year 15205 anc^ received the rudiments of his
education in the grammar fchool at Grantham. From
thence he was removed to Stamford ; and about the
year 1555, was entered of St John’s College, Cam¬
brige. Here he began his ftudies with a degree of en-
thufiaftic application very uncommon in young gentle¬
men of family. At the age of 16 he read a fophif-
try leflure, and at 19 a voluntary Greek ledlure,
which was the more extraordinary as being at a time
when the Greek language was by no means univer-
fally underftood. In 1541 he went to London, and
became a member of the fociety of Gray’s Inn, with
an intention to ftudy the law 5 but he had not been
long in that fituation before an accident introduced
him to King Henry, and gave a new bias to his pur-
fuits. O’Neil, a famous Irifh chief, coming to court,
had brought with him two Irilh chaplains, violent bi¬
gots to the Romilh faith ; with thefe Mr Cecil, vifit-
ing his father, happened to have a warm difpute in
Latin, in which he difplayed uncommon abilities.
The king, being informed of it, ordered the young
man into his prefence, and wras fo pleafed with his
converfation, that he commanded his father to find a
place for him. He accordingly requefted the rever-
lion of the cujlos brevium, which Mr Cecil afterrvards
poffeffed. About this time he married the filler of
Sir John Cheke, by whom he was recommended to
the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somerfet and
proteflor.
Soon after King Edward’s acceffion, Mr Cecil came
into the poffeffion of the office of cujlos brevium, worth
about 240I. a-year. His firft lady dying in 1543,
he married the daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, direc¬
tor of the king’s ftudies. In 1547, he w'as appointed
by the proteftor, mafter of requefts ; and foon after
attended his noble patron on his expedition againft
the Scots, and was prefent at the battle of Muflel-
burgh. In this battle,-which wTas fought on the 10th
of September 1 ^47, Mr Cecil’s life was miraculoufly
preferved by a friend, wffio on puffiing him out of the
level of a cannon, had his arm (hattered to pieces.
The fight and judgment of his friend muft have been
as extraordinary as his friendffiip, to perceive the pre-
cife diredftion of a cannon ffiot 5 unlefs we fuppofe,
that the ball was almoft quite fpent j in which cafe
the thing is not impoffible. The ftory is told in his Cecil,
life by a domeftic. In the year 1548, Mr Cecil was "
made fecretary of Hate 5 but in the following year,
the duke of Northumberland’s faftion prevailing, he
fuffered in the difgrace of the proteftor Somerfet, and
was fent prifoner to the tower. After three months
confinement he was releafed ; in 1551 reftored to
his office; and loon after knighted, and fworn of
the privy council. In 1553 he was made chancellor
of the order of the Garter, with an annual fee df
100 merks.
On the death of Edward VI. Mr Cecil prudently
refufed to have any concern in Northumberland’s at¬
tempt in favour of the unfortunate Lady Jane Gray j
and when Queen Mary acceded to the throne, he was
gracioufly received at court ; but not choofing to
change his religion, was difmifled from his employ¬
ments. During this reign, he was twice defied knight
of the {hire for the county of Lincoln 5 and often fpoke
in the houfe of commons, with great freedom and
firmnefs, in oppofition to the miniftry. Neverthelefs,
though a Proteftant and a patriot (that is, a courtier
out of place), he had the addrefs to fteer through a
very dangerous fea without Ihipw'reck.
Queen Elizabeth’s acceffion in the year 1558 im¬
mediately difpelled the cloud wffiich had obfcured his
fortunes aqd minifterial capacity. During the horrid
reign of her fitter, he had conftantly correfponded
wdth the princefs Elizabeth. On the very day of her
acceffion, he prefented her with a paper containing
twelve articles neceffary for her immediate defpatch 5
and, in a few days after, was fworn of the privy
council, and made fecretary of ftate. His firft advice
to the queen was, to call a parliament ; and the firft
bufinefs he propofed after it wms affembled, wras the
eftablilhment of a national church. A plan of refor¬
mation wTas accordingly drawm up under his imme¬
diate infpeflion, and the legal eftabliffiment of the
church of England was the confequence. Sir Wil¬
liam Cecil’s next important concern, was to reftore
the value of the coin, which had in the preceding
reigns been confiderably debafed. In 1561, he wras
appointed mafter of the wards 5 and, in 1571, created
baron of Burleigh, as a reward for his fervices, par¬
ticularly in having lately ftifled a formidable rebellion
in the north. The following year he was honoured
with the garter, and railed to the office of lord high
treafurer of England. From this period we find him
the primttm mobile of every material tranfaftion during
the glorious reign of Queen Elizabeth. Notwith-
ftanding the temporary influence of other favourites.
Lord Burleigh was, in fa£l, her prime minifter, and the
perfon on whom ffie chiefly confided in matters of real
importance. Having filled the higheft and moft im¬
portant offices of the ftate for 40 years, and guided
the helm of government during the moft glorious pe¬
riod of Englifh hiftory, he departed this life on the
4th of Auguft 1598, in the 78th year of his age.
His body was removed to Stamford, and there depo-
fitedjin the family vault, where a magnificent tomb
was ^m-e6led to his memory.—Notwithftanding his
long enjoyment of fuch lucrative imployments, he left
only an eftate of 4000I. per annum, ix,cool. in
money, and effefts worth about 14,000!. He lived,
indeed, in a manner fuitable to his high rank and im¬
portance.
Cecil,
Cecilia.
C E C [296] CEI
portance. He had four places of refidence, viz. his
lodgings at court, his houfe in the Strand, his feat at
Burleigh Park near Stamford, and his feat at Theo¬
bald’s. The laft of thefe was his favourite place
of retirement, where he frequently entertained the
queen at a vaft expence.
Lord Burleigh was doubtlefs a man of fingular abi¬
lities and prudence, amiable in his private chara&er,
and-one of the moft able, upright, and indefatigable
minifters ever recorded in the annals of this king¬
dom. His principal works are, 1. La Complainte de
Vame pechertjfe, or the Complaint of a finful Soul, in
French verfe, in the king’s library. 2. Materials for
Patten’s Diarium exped. Scoticce, London 1541, 1 2mo.
3. Slanders and lies malicioufly, grofsly, and impu¬
dently vomited out, in certain traitorous books and
pamphlets, againft two counfellors, Sir Francis Ba¬
con and Sir William Cecil. 4. A fpeech in parlia¬
ment, 1562, Strype’s Mem. vol. iv. p. 107. 5. Pre¬
cepts or directions for the well ordering of a man’s
life, 1637, Hark Cat. vol. in p. 755. 6. Meditations
on the death of his lady, Ballard’s Mem. p. 184.
7. Meditations on the ftate of England during the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, raanufcript. 8. The execution
ofjuftice in England for the maintenance of public
and Chriftian peace, &c. Lond. 1581, 1583, Somer’s
trails, 4th Collett, vol. i. p. 5. 9. Advice to Queen
Elizabeth in matters of religion and ftate, ib. p. 101,
106. 10. A great number of letters. See Peck’s
Dejiderata Curiofa, Howard’s colleftions, &c. 11. Se¬
veral pedigrees, fome of which are preferved in the
archbifttop of Canterbury’s library at Lambeth, N°
refufed ; upon which fhe was thrown into a caldron Cterop*
of boiling water, and fcaled to death ; others fay, ||
that ftie was ftifted in a dry bath, i. e. an enclofure from Ceimelia.
whence the air was excluded, having a flow fire un- “"v~—J
derneath it} W’hich kind of death was fometimes in-
flitted by the Romans upon women of quality who
were criminals. Upon the fpot where her houfe flood,
is a church, faid to have been built by Pope Urban I.
who adminiftered baptifm to her hulhand and his bro¬
ther: it is the church of St Cecilia at Traftevere ;
within is a moft curious painting of the faint, as alfo
a ftately monument with a cumbent ftatue of her with
her face dowmwards. There is a tradition of St Ce¬
cilia, that (he excelled in mufic 5 and that the angel
w'ho was thus enamoured of her, was drawn from the
celeftial regions by the charms of her melody : this has
been deemed authority fufficient to making her the
patronefs of mufic and muficians. The legend of St
Cecilia has given frequent occafion to painters and
fculptors to exercife their genius in reprefentations of
her, playing on the organ, and fometimes on the harp.
Raphael has painted her finging with a regal in her
hands j and Domenichino and Mignard, finging and
playing on the harp.
CECROPS, the founder and firft king of Athens,
about the time of Mofes the lawgiver of the He¬
brews. He was the firft who eftablifhed civil govern¬
ment, religious rites, and marriage among the Greeks ;
and died after a reign of 50 years. See Attica.
N04. '
CEDAR. See Juniperus and Pinus, Botany
Index.
299’ 747-
^CECILIA, St, the patronefs of mufic, has been
honoured as a martyr ever fince the fifth century.
Her ftory, as delivered by the notaries of the Roman
church, and from them tranfcribed into the Golden
Legend and other books of the like kind, fays, that
ihe was a Roman lady, born of noble parents about
the year 225. That, notwithftanding fhe had been
converted to Chriftianity, her parents married her to
a young Pagan nobleman named Valerianus 3 who go¬
ing to bed to her on the wedding night, as the cujlom
is, fays the book, was given to underftand by his
fpoufe, that fire w>as nightly vifited by an angel, and
that he muft forbear to approach her, otherwife the
angel would deftroy him. Valerianus, fomewdiat trou¬
bled at thefe words, defired that he might fee his ri¬
val the angel 3 but his fpoufe told him that wras impof-
libie, unlefs he wmuld confent to be baptized and be¬
come a Chriftian. This he confented to 3 after which,
returning to his wife, he found her in her clofet at
prayer, and by her fide, in the fhape of a beautiful
young min, an angel clothed with brightnefs. After
fome converfation with the angel, Valerianus told him
that he had a brother named Tiburtius, whom he
greatly wilhed to fee a partaker of the grace which he
himfelfhad received. The angel told him that his
defire was granted, and that they fliould be both crown¬
ed wnth martyrdom in a (hort time. Upon this the
angel vanifhed, and was not long in fhowing himfelf
as good as his word 3 Tiburtius was converted, and
both .he and his brother Valerianus were beheaded.
Cecilia was offered her life upon condition that ftie
.would facrifige to the deities of the Romans 3 but ftie
2
The fpecies of cedar famous for its duration, is that
popularly called the cedar of Lebanon (Pintis cedrus),
by the ancients cedrus tnagna, or the great cedar 3 alfo
cedrelate, Kta^Xarr). See P»*us, Botany Index.
CEDRENUS, George, a Grecian monk, lived in
the nth age, and wrote “ Annals, or an abridged
Hiftory, from the beginning of the World to the
Reign of Ifaac Comnenus emperor of Conftantinoplej
who fucceeded Michael IV. in 1057.” This work is
no more than an extratt from feveral hiftorians. There
is an edition of it, printed at Paris in 1647, whh the
Latin verfion of Xylander, and the notes of Father
Goar a Dominican.
CEDRUS, the cedar tree, mahogany, &c. See
Juniperus, Pinus, and Swietenia, Botany Index.
CEILING, in Architediure, the top or roof of a
lower room ; or a covering of plafter, over laths nailed
on the bottom of the joifts that bear the floor of the
upper room ; or where there is no upper room, on joifts
for the purpofe 3 hence called ceiling joifts. The word
ceiling anfwers pretty accurately to the Latin lacunar,
“ every thing over head.”
Plaftered ceilings are much ufed in Britain, more
than any other country : nor are they without their
advantages, as they make the room lightfome 3 are
good in cafe of fire 3 flop the paffage of the duft 3 lef-
fen the noife over head 3 and, in fummer, make the air
cooler.
Ceiling, in fea language, denotes the infide planks
of a fliip.
CEIMELIA, from Miftmi, “ to be laid up,” in an¬
tiquity, denotes choice or precious pieces of furni¬
ture or ornaments, referved or laid up for extraordi-
nary
CEL
t 297 1
CEL
Celebes.
Ceitneliar- nafy occafions and ufes j in which Tenfe, facred gar-
chium ments, velfels, and the like, are reputed of the cei-
melia of a church. Medals, antique ftones, figures,
i manufcripts, records, &c. ure the ceimelia of men of
letters.
CEIMELIARCHIUM, the repofitory or place
where ceimelia are preferved.
CEIMELIOPHYLAX, ( from and QvXxrla
I keep), the keeper or curator of a colleftion of cei¬
melia ; fometimes alfo denominated cewieharcha. The
ceimeliarcha, or ceimeliophylax, was an officer in the
ancient churches or monafteries, anfwering to what
was otherwife denominated chartophylax, and cujlos ar-
chivorum.
CEL/EN/E, in Ancient Geography, the capital of
Phrygia Magna, fituated on a cognominal mountain,
at the common fources of the Maeander and Marfyas.
The king of Perfia had a ftrong palace beneath the ci¬
tadel, by the fprings of the Marfyas, which rofe in the
market-place, not lefs in fize than the Maeander, and
flowed through the city. Cyrus the younger had alfo
a palace there, but by the fprings of the Meander,
which river palled likewife through the city. He
had moreover, an extenflve paradife or park, full of
wild beafts, which he hunted on horfeback for exercife
or amufement j and watered by the Maeander, which
ran through the middle. Xerxes was faid to have built
thefe palaces and the citadel after his return from his
expedition into Greece.
Antiochus Soter removed the inhabitants of Celaenae
into a city, which he named from his mother, Apameaj
and which became afterwards a mart inferior only to
Ephefus. See Apamea.
CELANDINE. See Chelidonium, Botany In¬
dex.
CELANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, in Farther Abruzzo. It is feated a mile from
the lake Celano, anciently called Fucinus. E. Long.
13. 39. N. Lat. 41. 56.
CELARENT, among logicians, a mode of fyllo-
gifm, wherein the major and conclufion are univerfal
negative propolitions, and the minor an univerfal af¬
firmative.
E. gr. cE None whofe underftanding is limited can be
omnifcient.
IA Every man’s underftanding is limited.
rEnt Therefore no man is omnifcient.
CELASTRUS. See Botany Index.
In Senegal the negroes ufe the powder of the root
of this plant as a fpecific againft gonorrhoeas, which it
is faid to cure in eight or fometimes in three days. An
infufion of the bark of a fpecies of ftaff tree, which
grows in the ille of France, is faid to poflefs the fame
virtues.
CELEBES, an illand in the Indian fea, fituated un¬
der the equator, and called by fome MacaJJar. The
length and breadth have not been accurately comput¬
ed ; but the circumference, at a medium, is about 800
miles. It had formerly fix kingdoms, which are re¬
duced to one. The air is hot and moift ; and fubjedft
to great rains during the north-weft winds, which blow
from November to March, at which time the country
is overflowed, and for this reafon they build their
houfes on piles of wood ten feet high. The moft health-
. Yon. V. Part I.
ful time is during the northern monfoons, wThich fel-
dom fail blowing regularly in one part of the year.
The chief vegetables are rice and cocoas ; but they
have ebony, fanders, &c. Their fruits and flowers
are much the fame as in the neighbouring parts of the
Indies. They have pepper, fugar, betel, areca, the
fineft cotton, and opium. The natives have bright
olive complexions, and the women have (hining black
hair. They are thought to be very handfome by the
Dutch and Chinefe, who often purchafe them for
bedfellows. The men are induftrious, robuft, and
make excellent foldiers. Their arms are fabres, and
trunks, from whence they blow poifoned darts, which
are pointed with the tooth of a fea fifh. Some like¬
wife ufe poifoned daggers. They were the laft of the
Indian nations that were enflaved by the Dutch, which
could not be effected till after a long war. They teach
their children to read and write, and their chara£lers
have fome refemblance of the Arabic. Their religion
being Mahometan, the men indulge themfelves in many
wives and concubines. The employment of the wo¬
men is fpinning, cookery, and making their own and
their hulbands clothes. The men wear jewels in their
ears, and the wromen gold chains about their necks.
The inhabitants in general go half naked, without any
thing on their head, legs, or feet, and fome have no¬
thing but a cloth about their middle. The ftreets of
the towm Macaflar are fpacious, and planted with trees
on every fide. It ftands by the fide of the only large
river they have in the ifland. The Dutch have a fort
here, mounted with 40 guns, and garrifoned with 700
men. There is only one other town of note, called
Jampandam, where they alfo have a fort. The ifland
is not near fo populous, as when the Dutch conquered
it ; the men being hired for foldiers in moft of the
neighbouring countries.
The religion of thefe iflands was formerly idolatry.
They worfhipped the fun and moon. They facrificed
to them in the public fquares, having no materials
which they thought valuable enough to be employed
in railing temples. About two centuries ago, fome
Chriftians and Mahometans having brought their opi¬
nions to Celebes, the principal king of the country
took a diflike to the national worfhip. Having con¬
vened a general affembly, he afcended an eminence,
when, fpreading out his hands towards heaven, he told
the Deity, that he wmuld acknowledge for truth that
do&rine whofe minifters fhould firft arrive in his domi¬
nions, and, as the winds and waves were at his com¬
mand, the Almighty would have himfelf to blame if
he embraced a falfehood. The affembly broke up, de¬
termined to wait the orders of heaven, and to obey the
firft miflionaries that fhould arrive. The Mahometans
were the moft aftive, and their religion accordingly
prevailed.
CELEBES, in Roman antiquity, a regiment of
body-guards belonging to the Roman kings, eftablifhed
by Romulus, and compofed of 300 young men, cho-
fen out of the moft illuftrious Roman families, and ap¬
proved by the fuffrages of the curiae of the people,
each of wfliich furnifhed ten. The name comes from
celer, “ quick, ready and was given them becaufe
of their promptnefs to obey the king.
The celeres always attended near the king’s perfon,
to guard him, to be ready to carry his orders, and to
P p execute
Celebes,
Celeres.
CEL [ 298 ] CEL
Celeri. execute them. In war they made the van-guard in
the engagement, which they always began firft j in re¬
treats, they made the rear-guard.
Though the celeres were a body of horfe, yet they
ufually difmounted, and fought on foot ; their com¬
mander was called tribune, or prefeft of the celeres.
They were divided into three troops of 100 each,
commanded by a captain called centurio : their tribune
was the fecond perfon in the kingdom.
Plutarch fays, Numa broke the celeres ; if this be
true, they were foon re-eftablifhed j for we find them
under moil of the fucceeding kings : witnefs the great
Brutus, who expelled the Tarquins, and who was the
tribune of the celeres.
CELERI, in Botany, the Englifh name of a variety
of the Apium Graveolens.
The feed of celeri (hould be fown at two or three
different times, the better to continue it for ufe through
the whole feafon without running up to leed. The
firft fowing (hould be in the beginning of March, upon
a gentle hot-bed ; the feco'nd may be at the end of
the fame month, which ought to be in an open fpot
of light earth, where it may enjoy the benefit of the
fun \ the third time of fowing fhould be in the latter
end of April, or beginning of May, on a moilt foil ;
and if expofed to the morning fun only, it will be fo
much the better, but it fhould not be under the drip
of trees. The middle of May, feme of the plants of
the firft fowing will be fit to tranfplant for blanch-
>ng-
The manner of tranfplanting it is as follows : after
having cleared the ground of weeds, you muff dig a
trench by a line about 10 inches wide, and 8 or 9
inches deep, loofening the earth in the bottom, and
laying it level ; and the earth that comes out of the
trench (hould be equally laid on each fide the trench,
to be ready to draw in again to earth the celeri as it
advances in height. Thefe trenches (hould be made
at three feet dirtance from each other ; then plant your
plants in the middle of the trench, at about four or
five inches diftance, in one ftraight row, having be¬
fore trimmed the plants, and cut off the tops of the
long leaves : and as they are planted, you muff obferve
to clofe the earth well to their roots with your feet,
and to water them plentifully until they have taken
new root.—As thefe plants advance in height, you
muff oblerve to draw the earth on each fide clofe to
them, being careful not to bury their hearts, nor ever
^ to do it but in dry weather 5 otherwife the plants will
rot. When your plants have advanced a confiderable
height above the trenches, and all the earth, wTich
was laid on the (ides thereof hath been employed in
earthing them up, you muff then make ufe of a fpade
to dig up the earth between the trenches, which muff
alfo be made ufe of for the fame purpofe, continuing
from time to time to earth it up until it is fit for ufe.
The laft crop (hould be planted in a drier foil, to pre¬
vent its being rotted with too much wTet in the winter.
You will do well to cover your ridges of celeri with
feme peafe-haulm, or (ome (uch light covering, when
the froff is very hard, which will admit the air to the
plants ; for if they are covered too clofe, they will be
very fubjeiff to rot : by this means you will preferve
your celeii till fpring ; but you muff remember to
take off the covering whenever the weather will per¬
mit, otherwife it will be apt to caufe the celeri to pipe Ce’ert
and run to feed. The celeri, when full blanched, will II.
not continue good above three weeks or a month be-,Ce £llir,Sl
fore it will rot or pipe ; therefore, in order to con¬
tinue it good, you (hould have, at leaft, fix or feven
different feafons of planting, proportioned to the con-
fumption.
The other fort of celeri, which is commonly called
celeriac, is to be managed in the fame manner ; ex¬
cepting that this (hould be planted on the level ground,
or in very fnallow drills ; for this plant feldom grotvs
above eight or ten inches high, fo requires but little
earthing up; the great excellency of this being in the
fize of the root, which is often as large as ordinary-
turnips.
The beft method to fave the feed of celeri, is t«
make choice of fome long good roots of the upright
celeri, which have not been too much blanched, and
plant them out, at about a foot afunder, in a moift
(oil, early in the fpring ; and when they run up to
feed, keep them (upported with (lakes, to prevent
their being broken down with the wind : and in July,
when the leed begins to be formed, if the feafon (hould
prove very dry, it will be proper to give fome water
to the plant, which will greatly help its producing
good feeds. In Auguft thefe feeds will be ripe, at
which time it (hculd be cut up, in a dry time, and
fpread upon cloths in the fun to dry ; then beat out
the feeds, and preferve it in bags for ufe.
Celrri, Wild, {Apium antarclicum{), was found in
confiderable quantities by Sir Jofeph Banks and Dr
Solander, on the coaft of Terra del Fuego. It is like
the garden celeri in the colour and difpofition of the
flowers, but the leaves are of a deeper green. The
tafte is between that of celeri and parfley. It is a very
ufeful ingredient in the foup for feamen, becaufe of its
antifcorbutic quality.
CELERITY, in Mechanics, the fwiftnefs of any
body in motion. It is alfo defined to be an affection
of motion, by which any moveable body runs through
a given fpace in a given time.
CELESTINS, a religious order fo called from their
founder Peter de Meuron, afterwards raifed to the
pontificate under the name of Celeffin V. This Peter,
who was born at Ifernia, a little town in the kingdom
of Naples, in the year 1215, of but mean parents, re¬
tired, while very young, to a folitary mountain, in
order to dedicate himfelf wholly to prayer and morti¬
fication. The fame of his piety brought feveral, cut
of curiofity, to fee him ; fome of whom, charmed with
his virtues, renounced the world to accompany him in
his folitude. With thefe he formed a kind of commu¬
nity in the year 1254: which was approved by Pope
Urban IV. in 1264, 3rid erefted into a diftineff order,
called the hermits of St Damien. Peter de Meuron
governed this order till 1286, when his love of foli¬
tude and retirement induced him to quit the charge.
In July 1294, the great reputation o( his famffity rai¬
fed him, though much againft his will, to the pontifi*
cate. Pie then took the name of Celeftin V. and his
order that of Celejlins from him. By his bull he ap¬
proved their conffitutions, and confirmed all their mo-
nafteries to the number of 20. But he (at too (hort
time in the chair of St Peter to do many great things
for his order j for having governed the church five
months
CEL
[ 299 1
C E L
Celibate.
Ceietes months and a few days, and confidering the great bur¬
den he had taken upon him, to which he thought him-
felf unequal, he folemnly renounced the pontificate in
' a confiftory held at Naples.
After his death, which happened in 1296, his order
made great progrefs not only in Italy, but in I ranee
likewife: whither the then general Peter of Tivoli
lent 12 religious, at the requeft of King Philip the
Fair, who gave them two monafteries j one in the fo-
reft of Orleans, and the other in the foreft of Com-
peigne at Mount Chartres. This order likewife paffed
into feveral provinces of Germany. They have about
96 convents in Italy, and 21 in France, unde- the title
of priories.
The Celeftins rife two hours after midnight to fay
matins. They eat no flelh at any time, except vrhen
they are Tick. They fall every Wednefday and Friday,
from Eafter to the feaft of the exaltation of the holy
crofs 5 and, from that feaft to Eafter, every day. As
to their habit, it confifts of a white gown, a capuche,
and a black fcapulary. In the choir, and when they
go out of the monaftery, they wear a black cowl with
the capuche : their Hurts are of ferge.
CELETES, orCELETJE, (from xsAji?, a race-horfe),
in antiquity, denote fingle or faddle horfes, by way
of contradiftin£Iion from thofe yoked or harneffed to¬
gether, called bigarii, quadrigarii, Sec. 1 he fame de¬
nomination is alfo given to the cavaliers or riders on
horfeback $ and hence fome deduce celeres, the name
of Romulus’s guard.
CELEUSMA, or Celeuma, in antiquity, the
fhout or cry of the feamen, whereby they animated
each other in their work of rowing. I he wTord is
formed from xeAeueo, to call, to give the Jignal.
Ceeeusma, rvas alfo a kind of fong or formula, re-
hearfed or played by the matter, or others, to direft
the ftrokes and movements of the mariners, as W'ell as
to encourage them to labour. See Celeustes.
CELEUSTES, in Ancient Navigation, the boat-
iwain or officer appointed to give the rowers the fignal,
when they were to pull, and when to flop. He is al¬
fo denominated epopeus, and by the Romans, portifeu-
lus ; fometimes limply hortator.
CELIBACY, the Hate of unmarried perfons. Sca-
liger derives the word from the Greek Kiint, “ bed,”
and Amtt&i, linqno, “ I leave others fay it is formed
from cceli heatitudo, q. d. the blejjednefs of heaven.
The ancient Romans ufed all means imaginable to
difeourage celibacy. Nothing was more ufual than
for the cenfors to impofe a fine on bachelors. Diony-
fius Halicarnaflenfis mentions an ancient conftitution
whereby all perfons of full age were obliged to marry.
But the firft law of that kind, of wffiich we have any
certainty, is that under Auguftus, called lex Julia de
tnaritatidis ordinibus. It w'as afterwards denominated
Petpia Poppet a, and more ufually Julia Papia, in re¬
gard of fome new fanftion and amendments made to
it under the confuls Papius and Poppaeus. By this
lawT, divers prerogatives w7ere given to perfons who
had many children 5 penalties impofed on thofe who
lived a fingle life, as that they ffiould be incapable of
receiving legacies, and not exceeding a certain propor¬
tion.
CELIBATE, the fame with celibacy ; but it is
chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the fingle life of the Popilh
clergy, or the obligation they are under to abftam
from marriage. In this fenfe we fay the law of celi¬
bate. Monks and religious take a vow of celibate j
and what is more, of chaftity.
The church of Rome impofes an univerfal celibacy
on all its clergy, from the pope to the loweft deacon
and fubdeacon. The advocates for this ufage pretend
that a vow of perpetual celibacy wras required in the
ancient church as a condition of ordination, even from
the earlieft apoftolic ages. But the contrary is evi¬
dent from numerous examples of bilhops and archbi-
ffiops, who lived in a ftate of matrimony, wuthout any
prejudice to their ordination or their fundtion. It is
generally agreed that moft of the apoftles wrere mar¬
ried. Some fay all of them, except St Paul and St
John. Others fay St Paul himfelf was married, be*
caufe he writes to his yokefellow, whom they inter¬
pret his wife. Be this as it will, in the next ages
after the apoftles, wre have accounts of divers mar¬
ried bifhops, prefbyters, and deacons, without any re¬
proof or mark of diffionour fet on them ; e. g. Valens,
prefbyter of Philippi, mentioned by Polycarp ; and
Chaeremon, biffiop of Nilus. Novatus was a married
prelhyter of Carthage„as wTe learn from Cyprian 5 who
himfelf was alfo a married man, as Pagi confefles $
and fo wras Csecilius the preffiyter wffio converted him 5
and Numidius, another prefbyter of Carthage* The
reply which the Romanifts give to this is, that all mar¬
ried perfons, when they came to be ordained, promi-
fed to live feparate from their wives by confent, which
anfwered the vow of celibacy in other perfons. But
this is hot only faid without proof, but againft it. For
Novatus prefbyter of Carthage wras certainly allowed
to cohabit with his wife after ordination ; as appears
from the charge that Cyprian brings againft him, that
he had ftruck and abufed his wife, and thereby caufed
her to mifearry. There feems indeed to have been,
in fome cafes, a tendency towards the introdudlion of
fuch a law by one or two zealots $ but the motion
was no fooner made than it was qualhed by the au¬
thority of wafer men. Thus Eufebius obferves, that
Pinytus, bifhop of Gnoflus in Crete, w’as for laying
the law of celibacy upon his brethren •, but Dionyfius
biffiop of Corinth wrote to him, that he fhould confi-
der the w^eaknefs of men, and not impofe that heavy
burden on them. In the council of Nice, anno 325,
the motion wjas renewed for a law to oblige the cler¬
gy to abftain from all conjugal fociety with their wives,
wffiom they had married before their ordination ; but
Paphnutius, a famous Egyptian biffiop, and one wffio
himfelf never was married, vigoroufly declaimed a-
gainft it, upon which it was unanimoufly rejefted. So
Socrates and Sozomen tell the ftory •> to which all
that Valefius, after Bellarmin, has to fay, is, that he
fufpefts the truth of it. The council in Trullo, held
in 692, made a difference in this refpeft between bi-
ffiops and prefbyters; alloiving prefbyters, deacons,
and all the inferior orders, to cohabit wdth their wives
after ordination : and giving the Roman church a
fmart rebuke for the contrary prohibition, but at the
fame time laying an injunffioU upon biffiops to live fe¬
parate from their wives, and appointing the waves to
betake themfelves to a monaftic life, or become dea-
conefles in the church. And thus was a total celibate
eftabliffied in the Greek church as to bifhops, but not
P p 2 any
Celibate#
CEL
Celklogra.
phia
II
Cell.
any others. In the Latin church, the like eflabliih-
ment was alfo made, but by flow fteps in many places.
For in Africa, even bifliops themfelves cohabited with
j their waves at the time of the council of Trullo. The
celibacy of the clergy, however, appears of an ancient
Handing, if not of command and neceflity, yet as of
counfel and choice. But as it is clearly neither of di¬
vine nor apoftolical inftitution, it is at firft hard to con¬
ceive from what motive the court of Rome perfifted fo
very obftinately to impofe this inftitution on the clergy.
But we are to obferve that this was a leading ftep to
the execution of the project formed of making the
clergy independent of princes, and rendering them a
feparate body to be governed by their own laws. In
efifett, while priefts had children, it was very difficult
to prevent their dependence on princes, whofe favours
have luch an influence on private men j but having no
family, they were more at liberty to adhere to the
pope.
CELIDOGRAPHIA, the defcription of the fpots
which appear on the furfaces of the fun and planets.
See Astronomy.
CELL, (Celia') in ancient wndters, denotes a place
or apartment ufually under ground, and vaulted, in
which were ftored up fome fort of neceflaries, as wine,
honey, and the like 5 and according to wffiich it w7as
called Celia Vinana, Olearla, Mcllaria, &c. The
word is formed from the Latin celaret to conceal.
Cella wras alfo ufed for the lodge or habitation of.
a common proftitute, as being anciently under ground,
hence alfo denominated fornix.
Intravit calidum veteri centone lupanary
Et cellam vacuam. Juv. Sat. vi. ver. 121.
On which place an ancient fcholiaft remarks, that the
names of the whores w^ere written on the doors of their
feveral cells; by which we learn the meaning of in~
fcripta cella in Martial, lib. xi. Ep. 46.
Cella was alfo applied to the bedchambers of do-
meftics and fervants j probably as being low and nar¬
row.—Cicero, inveighing againft the luxury of Anto¬
ny, fays the beds in the very cellae of his fervants were
fpread wdth pompous purple coverlets.
Cella is alfo applied to the members or apartments
of baths. Of thefe there were three principal, called
fngidaria, tepidaria, and caldaria; to which may be
added a fourth, called cella ajfa, and fometimes fuda-
toria.
Cella likewife fignified the adyta, or inmoft: and
moft retired parts of temples, wherein the images of
the gods to whom the edifices were confecrated were
preferved. In this fenfe we meet with cella Jovis, cella
Concordue.
Cella is alfo ufed for a lefler or fubordinate fort of
monaftery dependent on a great one, by which it was
erefted, and continues ftill to be governed. The great
abbeys in England had moft of them cells in places
diftant from the mother abbey, to which they were ac¬
countable, and from which they received their fupe-
riors. The alien priories in England were cells to
abbeys in Normandy, France, Italy, &c. The name
cell was alfo given to rich and confiderable monafteries
not dependent on any other.
Cell fignifies alfo a little apartment or chamber,
fuch as thofe wherein the ancient monks, folitaries, and
[ 300 1
CEL
hermits, lived in retirement. Some derive the word
from the Hebrew nVj, i. e. “ a prifon, or place where
any thing is fliut up.” ,
The lame name is ftill retained in divers monafteries.
The dormitory is frequently divided into lb many
cells or lodges. The Carthulians have each a feparate
houfe, which ferves them as a cell. The hall where¬
in the Roman conclave is held, is divided, by parti¬
tions, into divers cells, lor the feveral cardinals to
lodge in.
Cell is alfo a name given to the little divifions in
honeycombs, which are always regular hexagons. See
Bee.
Cell, in Botany, is applied to the hollow places be¬
tween the partitions in the pods, hulks, and other
feed-veffels of plants : according as there is one, two,
three, &c. of thefe cells, the velfel is faid to be uni¬
locular, bilocular, trilocular, &c.
Cells, in Anatomy, little bags, or bladders, where
fluids or other matters are lodged ; called loculi, cellu-
la, &c. Thus the cellula adipofce are the little cells
where the fat is contained cr/AA in the colon, are
fpaces wherein the excrements are detained till void¬
ed, &c.
CELLAR (Cellarium), in ancient writers, denotes
the fame with cella, viz. a confervatory of eatables, or
drinkables.
Cellar differs from vault, as the latter is fuppofed to
be deeper, the former being frequently little below the
furface of the ground. In which fenfe, cellarium alfo
differed from penus, as the former was only a ftorehoufe
for feveral days, the latter for a long time. Thus it
is the baftroperatae, a fort of ancient Cynics, are faid
by St Jerome to carry their cellar about with them.
Cellarium alfo denoted an allowance of bread, w ine,
oil, or other provifion, fumifhed out of the cella, to
the ufe of the governor of the province and his officers,
&c. In which fenfe, the word amounts to much the
fame with annona.
Cellars, in modern building, are the knveft rooms
in a houfe, the ceilings of which ufually lie level wfith
the furface of the ground on which the houfe is built 5
or they are fituated under the pavement before the
houfe, efpecially in ftreets and fquares.
Cellars, and other places vaulted under ground, were
called by the Greeks hypogcea: the Italians ftill call
them fundi delli cafe.
CELLARER, orCELLERER, {Cellerarius or Cella-
rius), an officer in monaftcries, to whom belong the
care and procurement of provifions for the convent.
The denomination is faid to be borrowed from the Ro¬
man law, wffiere cellarius denotes an examiner of ac¬
counts and expences. Ulpian defines it thus : “ Celle¬
rarius, id eft, ideo prsepofitus ut rationes falvae lint.”
The celleranus was one of the four obedientwrii, or
great officers of monafteries: under his ordering was
the pi/lrinum or bakehoufe, und the bracinum, or brew-
houfe. In the richer houfes there were particular
lands fet apart for the maintenance of his office, called
in ancient writings ad cibum monachorum. The celle¬
rarius was a great man in the convent. His whole
office in ancient times had a refpebt to that origin :
he was to fee his lord’s corn got in, and laid up in
granaries 5 and his appointment confifted in a certain
proportion thereof, ufually fixed at a thirteenth part
o£
Cell
II
Cellarer.
Celms.
CEL [30
Cellarer 0f the whole, together with a furred gown. The
office of cellarer then only differed in name from thofe
of bailiff and minftrel; excepting that the cellarer had
the receipt of his lord’s rents throughout the whole
extent of his jurifdi&ion.
Cellarer was alfo an officer in chapters, to whom
belonged the care of the temporals, and particularly
the diftributing of bread, wine, and money, to canons,
on account of their attendance in the choir. In fome
places he was called cellarer, in others burfer, and in
others currier.
CELLARIUS, Christopher, was born in 1638,
at Smalcade in Franconia, of which town his father was
minifter. He was fucceffively reftor of the colleges
at Weymar, Zeits, and Merffiourg : and the king of
Pruffia having founded an univerfity at Halle in 1693,
he was prevailed on to be profeffor of eloquence and
hiftory there, where he compofed the greateft part of
his works. His great application to ftudy haftened the
infirmities of old age •, for it is faid, he would Jpend
whole days and nights together at his books, without
any attention to his health, or even the calls of nature.
His works relate to grammar, geography, hiftory, and
the oriental languages j and the number of them is a-
xnazing. He died in 1707.
CELLINI, Benvenuto, an eminent ftatuary, who
was bred a jeweller and goldimith, but feems to have
had an extraordinary genius for the fine arts in gene¬
ral. He was cotemporary with Michael Angelo and
Julio Romano, and was employed by popes, kings,
and other princely patrons of fciences and arts, fo
highly cultivated in the days of Leo X. and Charles V.
fome of his produ&ions being efteemed moft exqui-
fite. He lived to a very confiderable old age ; and
his life, almoft to the lart, was a continued fcene of
adventure, perfecution, and misfortune, truly wonder¬
ful. He wrote his own hiftory, which was not, how¬
ever, publiftied till the year 1730, probably on ac¬
count of the exceffive freedom with which he therein
treated many diftinguilhed perfonages of Italy and
other countries. It was tranflated into Engliftr by Dr
Nugent in 1771, to which the reader is referred, as it
will not admit of an abridgement fuitable to the defign
of this wmrk.
CELLULAR, in a general fenfe, is applied to any
thing confifting of fingle cells.
Cellular Membrane. See Anatomy Index.
CELOSIA, cocks comb. See Botany Index.
CELSIA. See Botany Index.
CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated phy-
fician of the firft century, who wrote eight books on
medicine, in elegant Latin. He was the Hippocra¬
tes of the Latins •, and Quintilian gives him a high
eulogium. The great Boerhaave tells us, that Celfus is
one of the belt authors of antiquity for letting us into
the true meaning and opinions of Hippocratesj and
that without him, the writings of this father in phy-
fic wrould be often unintelligible, often mifunderftood
by us. He (hows us alfo how the ancients cured di-
ftempers by fridlion, bathing, &c. His eight books
de Medicina have been feveral times printed. The
Elzevir edition, in the year 1650, by Vander .Linden,
is the beft, as being entirely corre&ed from his manu-
fcripts.
Celsus, an Epicurean philofopher, in the fecond
i j GEL
century. He wrote a work againft the Chriftians,
entitled, The True Difcourfe: to which Origen, at'"
the defire of Ambrofe his friend, wrote a learned anfwer.
To this philofopher Lucian dedicated his Pfeudomanies.
CELTAL, or Celtes, an ancient nation, by which
mofl of the countries of Europe are thought to have
been peopled. The compilers of the Univerfal Hi¬
ftory are of opinion that they were defcended from
Gomer the eldeft fon of Japhet, the fon of Noah.
They think that Gomer fettled in the province of
Phrygia in Afia-, Aflikenaz his eldeft fon, or Togar-
mah his youngeft, or both, in Armenia j and Riphath
the fecond fon in Cappadocia. When they fpread
themfelves wider, they feem to have moved regularly
in columns without interfering with or difturbing
their neighbours. The defendants of Gomer, or the
Celtce, took the left hand, infenfibly fpreading them¬
felves weftward towards Poland, Hungary, Germany,
France, and Spain j while the defendants of Magog,
Goraer’s brother, moving eaftward, peopled Tartary.
In this large European tradft, the Celtes began to
appear a powerful nation under a regular monarchy,
or rather under feveral confiderable kingdoms. Men¬
tion is made of them indeed in fo many parts of Eu¬
rope, by ancient geographers and hiftorians, that Or-
tellius took Celtica to be a general name for the con¬
tinent of Europe, and made a map of it bearing this
title. In thofe parts of Afia which they poffeffed, as
well as in the different parts of Europe, the Celtes
went by various names. In Leffer Afia they were
known by the names of Titans and Sacks; in the north¬
ern parts of Europe, by thofe of Cymmerians, Cym-
brians, &c.; and in the fouthern parts they were called
Celtes, Gauls, or Galatians.
With refpedl to the government of the Celtes wre
are entirely in the dark. All we know is, that the
curates, and afterwards druids and bards, were the
interpreters of their law’s j judged all caufes whether
criminal or civil j and their fentence was reckoned fo
facred, that whoever refufed to abide by it.was by
them excluded from aflifting at their facred rites j af¬
ter which no man dared converfe with him : fo that
this punifhment was reckoned the moft fevere of all,
even feverer than death itfelf.
They neither reared temples nor ftatues to the Dei¬
ty, but deftroyed them wherever they could find them,
planting in their ftead large fpacious groves; which,
being open on the top and fides, were, in their opi¬
nion, more acceptable to the divine Being, w7ho is ab-
folutely unconfined. In this their religion feems to
have refembled that of the Perfees and difciples of
Zoroafter. The Celtes only differed from them in
making the oak inftead of fire the emblem of the
Deity j in choofing that tree above all others to plant
their groves with, and attributing feveral fupernatural
virtues both to its wood, leaves, fruit, and mifletoe )
all of which were made ufe of in their facrifices and
other parts of their w’orfhip. But after they had adopt¬
ed the idolatrous fuperftition of the Romans and other
nations, and the apotheofis of their heroes and prin¬
ces, they came to worffiip them much in the fame
manner; as Jupiter under the name of Taran, which
in the Celtic fignifies thunder ; Mercury, whom fome
authors calls Heus or Hefus, probably from the Celtic
httudhf which fignifies a dog, and might be the Anubit
latrans
Celt*.
GEL f 302 ] GEM
Celtes, latrans of the Egyptians. But Mars was held in the
Geitibeiia. greatefi; veneration by the warlike, and Mercury by
the trading, part of the nation. The care of religion
was immediately under the curates, lince known by
the name of druids and bards. Thefe were, as Cce-
far tells us, the performers of facrifices and all reli¬
gious rites, and expounders of religion to the people.
They alfo inftrucled youth in all kinds of learning,
fuch as philofophy, aftronomy, aftrology, &c. Their
do&rines were taught only by word of mouth, efteem-
ing them too iacred to be committed to writing 
Other more common fubjeds, fuch as their hymns to
their gods, the exploits of princes and generals in time
of war, and efpecially before a battle, were couched
in elegant verfe, and recited, or rather fung, on all
proper occafions 5 though even thefe were alfo kept
from vulgar eyes, and either committed to memory,
or, if to writing, the whole was a fecret to all the
laity. The latter indeed feems the moll: probable, if
what CaTar hints be true 5 namely, that thofe poetic
records were increafed in his time to fuch a bulk, that
it took up a young bard near 20 years to learn them
by heart. Diodorus tells us farther, that thefe poets
ufed to accompany their fongs with inftrumental mufic,
fuch as thofe of organs, harps, and the like ; and that
they were held in fuch veneration, that if in the time
of an engagement between two armies, one of thefe
bards appeared, both fides immediately ceafed fighting.
The realon of this was, that they were univerfally be¬
lieved to be prophets as well as poets ; fo that it was
thought dangerous as well as injurious to difobey what
they fuppofed came from their gods. Thefe prophe¬
tic philofophers kept academies, which were reforted
to not only by a great number of their own youth,
but alfo of thofe from other countries, infomuch that
Ariftotle fays, their philofophy paffed from thence in¬
to Greece, and not from Greece thither. Diodorus
likewife quotes a paflage from Hecateus, which is
greatly in their praife ; viz. that the druids had forr.e
kind of inftruments by which they could draw diftant
objects nearer, and make them appear larger and
plainer ; and by which they could difcover even feas,
mountains, and valleys, in the moon. But whatever
might be their learning, it is certain, that in procefs
of time they adopted feveral very barbarous cuftoms,
fuch as facrificing human viftims to their gods, as more
acceptable to them than thofe of any other animals.
% And Diodorus tells us of another inhuman cuftom they
ufed in their divinations efpecially in great matters,
which was done by killing fome of their Haves, or
fome prifoners of war, if any they had, with a fcimitar,
to draw the augury from the running of his blood from
his mangled limbs.
For the hiftory, &c. of the different Celtic nations
lee the article Gaul, &c.
Celtls, certain ancient inftruments of a wedge¬
like form, of which feveral have been difcovered in
different parts of Great Britain. Antiquarians have
generally attributed them to the Celtrn ; but not agree¬
ing as to their ufe, diftinguilhed’them by the above
unmeaning appellation. But Mr Whittaker makes
it probable that they were Britifli battle-axes. See
Battle-Axe.
CELTIBERIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of
the Hither Spain, along the right or fouth-weft fide
of the river Iberus 5 though fometimes the greateft part Celti?,
of Spain was called by the name Celtiberia. The peo- Cement,
pie were denominated Celtiberi, or the Celtae feated on
the Iberus. '1'hey were very brave and warlike j their
cavalry in particular was excellent. They wore a
black and rough cloak, the ftiag of which was like
goats hair. Some of them had light bucklers like the
Gauls: others hollow and round ones like thofe of
other nations. They all wore boots made of hair, and
iron helmets adorned with crefts of a purple colour.
They ufed fwords which cut on both fides, and po¬
niards of a foot long. Their arms were of an admi¬
rable temper, and are faid to have been prepared in
the following manner : they buried plates of iron un¬
der ground, where they let them remain till the ruft
had eaten the weakeft part of the metal, and the reft
was confequently hard and firm. Of this excellent iron
they made their fwords, which were fo ftrong and
well tempered, that there was neither buckler nor
helmet that could refift their edge. The Celtiberians
were very cruel towards their enemies and malefac¬
tors, but (bowed the greateft humanity to their guefts.
They not only cheerfully granted their hofpitality to
(Dangers, who travelled in their country, but were
defirous that they fliould feek proteftion under their
roof.
CELTIS. See Botany Index.
CEMENT, in a general (enfe, any glutinous fub-
ftance capable of uniting and keeping things together
in clofe cohefion. In this fenfe the word cement com¬
prehends mortar, foder, glue, &c. but has been gene¬
rally reftrained to the compofitions ufed for holding-
together broken glaffes, china, and earthen ware. For
this purpofe the juice of garlic is recommended as ex¬
ceedingly proper, being both very ftrong, and, if the
operation is performed with care, leaving little or no
mark. Quicklime and the white of an egg mixed
together and expeditioufly ufed, are alfo very proper
for this purpofe. Dr Lewis recommends a mixture
of quicklime and cheefe in the following manner:
“ Sweet cheefe (haved thin, and ftirred with boiling-
hot water, changes into a tenacious (lime which does
not mingle with the water. Worked with frefli parti¬
cles of hot water, and then mixed upon a hot done
with a proper quantity of unftacked lime, to the con-
firftence of a pafte, it proves a ftrong and durable ce¬
ment for wood, (lone, earthen ware, and glafs. When
thoroughly dry, which will be in two or three days, it
is not in the lead ailed upon by water. Cheefe barely
beat with quicklime, as direiled by fome of the che-
mifts for luting cracked glaffes, is not near fo effica¬
cious.” A compofition of the drying oil of linfeed
and white lead is alfo ufed for the fame purpofes, but
is greatly inferior.
Cement, in building, is ufed to denote any kind of
mortar of a ftronger kind than ordinary. The cement
commonly ufed is of two kinds ; hot and cold. The
hot cement is made of rofin, bees wax, brick duft, and
chalk boiled together. The bricks to be cemented
are heated, and rubbed one upon another, with cement
between them. The cold cement is that above de-
feribed for cementing china, &c. which is fometimes,
though rarely, employed‘in building.
The ruins of the ancient Roman buildings are found
to cohere fo ftrongly, that mod people have imagined
the
C E M [30
Ceraemt. tlie ancients were acquainted with fome kind of mor-
tar, which, in comparifon of ours, might juftly be call¬
ed cement; and that to our want of knowledge of the
materials they ufed, is owing the great inferiority of
modern buildings in their durability. In 1770, one
M. Lcriot, a Frenchman, pretended to have dilcover-
ed the fecret of the ancient cement, which, according
to him, was no more than a mixture of powdered quick¬
lime with lime which had been long (lacked and kept
under water. The (lacked lime was firft to be made
up with fitnd, earth, brickduQ:, &c. into mortar after
the common method, and then about a third part of
quicklime in powder was added to the mixture. This
produced an almofl inftantaneous petrification, fome-
thing like what is called the felting of alabader, but in
a much (Ironger degree ; and was pofleiTed of many
wonderful qualities needlefs here to relate, feeing it
has never been known to fucceed with any other per-
fon wdro tried it. Mr Anderfon, in his effays on agri-
cuture, has difcuffed this fubjedl at confiderable length,
and feemingly with great judgment. He is the only
perfon we know who has given any rational theory of
the ufes of lime in building, and why it comes to be
the proper balls of all cements. His account is in fub-
ftance as follows :
Lime which has been (lacked and mixed with fand,
becomes hard and conlirtent when dry, by a procefs
dmilar to that which produces the natural falaBites
in caverns. Thefe are always formed by water drop¬
ping from the roof. * By fome unknown and inexpli¬
cable procefs of nature, this w'ater has diffolved in it a
fmall portion of calcareous matter in a caujlic (late.
As long as the water continues covered from the air,
it keeps the earth diffolved in it ; it being the natural
property of calcareous earths, when deprived of their
fixed air, to diffolve in water. But when the fmall
drop of wTater comes to be expofed to the air, the cal¬
careous matter contained in it begins to attract the
fixable part of the atmofphere. In proportion as it
does fo, it alfo begins to feparate from the water, and
to reaffume its native form of limeilone or marble.
This procefs Mr Anderfon calls a crjflalli-zation ; and
when the calcareous matter is perfectly cryjla/iixed in
this manner, he affirms, that it is to all intents and
purpofes limelfone or marble of the fame confidence as
before: and “in this manner (fays he), within the
memory of man, have huge rocks of marble been form¬
ed near Matlock in Derbyffiire.” If lime in a cauftic
date is mixed with water, part of the lime will be dif¬
folved, and will alfo begin to crydallize. The water
which parted with the crydallized lime will then be¬
gin to a£t upon the remainder, which it could not dif¬
folve before j and thus the procefs will continue, either
till the lime be all reduced to an effete, or (as he calls
it) cryjlalline date, or fomething hinders the adion of
the water upon it. It is this cryftallization which is
obierved by the workmen when a heap of lime is mix¬
ed with water, and left for fome time to macerate. A
hard crud is formed upon the furface, which is igno¬
rantly called frqfling, though it takes place in fummer
as well as in winter. If therefore the hardnefs of the
lime, or its becoming a cement, depends entirely on
the formation of its cryftals, it is evident that the per-
fedtion of the cement mud depend on the perfedfion
of the cryftals, and the hardnefs of the matters which
3 ] C; E M
are entangled among them. The additional fubftances Cement,
ufed in making of moitar, fuch as fand, brickdud, or
the like, according to Mr Anderfon, ferve only for a
purpofe fimilar to what is anfwered by (ticks put into
a veffel full or any faline folution, namely, to afford the
cryftals an opportunity of fattening themfelves upon it.
If therefore the matter interpofed between the cryftals
of the lime is of a friable, brittle nature, fuch as brick-
duft or chalk, the mortar will be of a tveak and imper-
fedt kind ; but, when the particles are hard, angular,
and very difficult to be broken, fuch as thofe of river
or pit fand, the mortar turns out exceedingly good
and ftrong. Sea fand is found to be an improper ma¬
terial for mortar, which Mr Anderfon afcribes to its
being lefs angular than the other kinds. That the
cryftallization may be the more perfedl, he alfo recom¬
mends a large quantity of water, that the ingredients
be perfedlly mixed together, and that the drying be as
(low as poffible. An attention to thefe circumltances,
he thinks, would make the buildings of the moderns
equally durable w ith thofe of the ancients ; and from
what remains of the ancient Roman wmrks, he thinks
a very ftrong proof of his hypothefis might be adduced.
The great thicknefs of their walls neceffarily required
a vail length of time to dry. The middle of them
was compofed of pebbles thrown in at random, and
which have evidently had mortar fo thin as to be pour¬
ed in among them. By this means a great quantity
of the lime would be diffolved, and the cryftallization
performed in the moft peifedl manner j and the inde¬
fatigable pains and perfeverance for which the Romans
were fo remarkable in all their undertakings, leave no
room to doubt that they would take care to have the
ingredients mixed together as w’ell as poffible. The
confequence of all this is, that the buildings formed in
this manner are all as firm as if cut out of a folid rock ;
the mortar being equally hard, if not more fo, than the
(tones themfelves.
Notwithftanding the bad fuccefs of thofe who have
attempted to repeat M. Loriot’s experiments, however,
Dr Black informs us, that a cement of this kind is cer¬
tainly pratlicable. It is done, he fays, by powdering
the lime w'hile hot from the kiln, and throwing it into'
a thin pafte of fand and water ; which, not flacking
immediately, abforbs the water from the mortar by de¬
grees, and forms a very hard msfs. “ It is plain, he
adds, that the ftrength of this mortar depends on ufing
the lime hot or freffi from the kiln.”
By mixing together gypfum and quicklime, and
then adding water, we may form a cement of tolerable
hardnefs, and w-hich apparently might be ufed to ad¬
vantage in making troughs for holding w’ater, or lining
fmall canals for it to run in. Mr Vv iegley fays, that
a good mortar or cement, which will not crack, may
be obtained by mixing three parts of a thin magma of
flacked lime with one of pow dered gypfum j but adds,
that it is ufed only in a dry fituation. A mixture of
tarras with flacking lime acquires in time a ftony hard¬
nefs, and may be ufed for preventing water from en¬
tering. See Mortar and Stucco.
Cement, among engravers, jewHlers, &c. is the
fame w ith the hot cement ufed in building * j and is # gee tj1(,
ufed for keeping the metals to be engraven firm to the foregoing
block, and alfo for filling up what is to be chiffeled. article.
Cement, in Chemijfry, is ufed to fignify all thofe
powders
C E N
Cement
II
Cenotaph
[ 3°4 ]
C E N
powders and paftes with which any body is fur-
rounded in pots or crucibles, and which are capable
, by the help of fire of producing changes upon that
body. They are made of various materials j and are
:ufed for different purpofes, as for parting gold from
filver, converting it into fteel, copper into brafs: and
by cementation more confiderable changes can be ef-
fedled upon bodies, than by applying to them liquids
of any kind ; becaufe the aftive matters are then in a
ftate of vapour, and affiffed by a very confiderable de¬
gree of heat.
Cement which quichly hardens in water. This is de-
fcribed in the porthumous works of Mr Hooke, and
is recommended for gilding live craw fi(h, carps, &c.
without injuring the fifh. The cement for this pur-
pofe is prepared, by putting fome Burgundy pitch in¬
to a new earthen pot, and warming the veffel till it re¬
ceives fo much of the pitch as will flick round it, then
firewing fome finely-powdered amber over the pitch
when growing cold, adding a mixture of three pounds
of linfeed oil, and one of oil of turpentine, covering
the veffel and boiling them for an hour over a gentle
fire, and grinding the mixture as it is wanted with as
much pumice flone in fine powTder as will reduce it to
the confiflence of paint. The fifh being wiped dry,
the mixture is fpread upon it \ and the gold leaf be¬
ing then laid on, the fifh may be immediately put
into water again, without any danger of the gold
coming off, for the matter quickly grows hard in the
water.
Cement Pots, are thofe earthen pots ufed in the ce¬
mentation of metals.
CEMENTA I ION, the a£l of corroding of other-
wife changing a metal by means of a Cement.
CEME FERYfrom Koiftxu, to “Jleep;”]
a place fet apart or confecrated for the burial of the
dead.
Anciently none were buried in churches or church¬
yards : it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the
cemeteries were without the walls. Among the pri¬
mitive Chriflians thefe were held in great veneration.
It even appears from Eufebius and Tertullian, that, in
the early ages, they affembled for divine worfhip in the
cemeteries. Valerian feems to have confifcated the ce¬
meteries and other places of divine wmrfhip, but they
were reftored again by Gallienus. As the martyrs
were buried in thefe places, the Chriflians chofe them
for building churches on, when Conflantine eftablifhed
their religion j and hence fome derive the rule wdiich
ftill obtains in the church of Rome, never to confecrate
an altar without putting under it the relicks of fome
faint. The praftice of confecrating cemeteries is of
fome antiquity. The bifliop walked round it in pro-
ceffion, with the crofier or paftoral ftaff in his hand,
the holy water pot being carried before, out of wdiich
the afperfions were made.
CENCHRUS. See Botany Index.
CENEGILD, in the Saxon antiquities, an expia¬
tory mulft, paid by one who had killed a man to the
kindred of the deceafed. The word is compounded
of the Saxon chine, i. e. cognatio, “ relation,” and gild
folutio, “ payment.”
CENOB1TE. See Coenobite.
CENOTAPH, in antiquity, an empty tomb, ere&-
ed bjr wTay of honour to the deceafed. It is diffinguifh-
ed from a fepulchre, in which a coffin was depofited.
Of theie there were two forts j one for thole who
had, and another for thofe who had not, been honour¬
ed with funeral rites in another place.
The fign whereby honorary fepulchres were diflin-
guilhed from others, was commonly the wreck of a
fhip, to denote the deceafe of the perfon in fome fo¬
reign country.
CENSER, in antiquity, a vafe containing incenfe
to be ufed in facrifices. Confer is chiefly ufed in fpeak-
ing of the Jewilh worffiip. Among the Greeks and
Romans it is more frequently called thuribulum,
n?, and acerra.
The Jewifh cenfer was a fmall fort of chafing difli,
covered with a dome, and fufpended by a chain, jo-
fephus tells us, that Solomon made 20,000 gold cenfers
for the temple of Jerufalem, to offer perfumes in, and
50,000 others to carry fire in.
CENSIO, in antiquity, the aft or office of the cen-
for. See Census.
Cenfio included both the rating or valuing a man’s
eftate, and the impofing mulfts and penalties.
Censio hajlaria, a punilhment inflifted on a Roman
foldier for fome offence, as lazinefs or luxury, whereby
his hajla or fpear was taken from him, and confequent-
ly his wages and hopes of preferment flopped.
CENSITUS, a perfon cenfed, or entered in the
cenfual tables. See Census.
In an ancient monument found at Ancyra contain¬
ing the aftions of the emperor Oftavius, we read,
^uo lujlro civium Romanorum
Genjita funt capita quadragies
Centum millia et fexaginta tria.
Censitus is alfo ufed in the civil law for a fervile
fort of tenant, who pays capitation to his lord for the
lands he holds of him, and is entered as fuch in the
lord’s rent roll. In which fenfe, the word amounts to
the fame with capite cenfus, or capite cenjitus. See Capite
Cenjl.
CENSOR, (from cenfere to “ think” or “ judge),”
one of the prime magiftrates in ancient Rome.—Their
bufinefs was to regifter the effefts of the Roman citi¬
zens, to impofe taxes in proportion to what each man
poffeffed, and to take cognizance or infpeftion of the
manners of the citizens. In confequence of this laft
part of their office, they had a power to cenfure vice
or immorality, by inflifting fome public mark of igno¬
miny on the offender. They had even a power to
create the princepsfenatus, and to expel from the fenate
fuch as they deemed unwmrthy of that office. This
power they fometimes exercifed without fufficient
grounds ; and therefore a law was at length paffed, that
no fenator ftiould be degraded or difgra^ced in any man¬
ner, until he had been formally accufed and found
guilty by both the cenfors. It was alfo a part of the
cenforian jurifdiftion, to fill up the vacancies in the
fenate, upon any remarkable deficiency in their num¬
ber j to let out to farm all the lands, revenues, and
cuftoms, of the republic ; and to contraft wuth artifi¬
cers for the charge of building and repairing all the
public wmrks and edifices both in Rome and the colo¬
nies of Italy. In all parts of their office, however,
they
Cenftt
H
Cenfor.
C E N
[ 3°5 1
C E N
Centors
!1
Cenfure.
tViey were fubjeft to the jurlfdiftion of toe people y and.
an appeal always lay from the fentence of the cenfors
, to that of an affembly of the people.
The firft two cenfors were created in the year of
Rome 311, upon the fenate’s obferving that the con-
fuls were fo much taken up with war as not to have
time to look into other matters. The office continued
to the time of the emperors, who aflumed the cenfo-
rial power, calling themfelves /non/m prafeBi; though
Vefpafian and his fons took the title of cenfors. . De-
cius attempted to reitore the dignity to a particular
magiftrate. After this we hear no more of it, till
Cdnftantine’s time, who made his brother cenfor, and
he feems to have been the lait that enjoyed the office.
The office of cenfor was fo confiderable, that for a
long time none afpired to it till they had paffed all the
reft ; fo that it was thought furprifing that Craflus
ftiould be admitted cenfor, without having been either
conful or prrntor. At firft the cenfors enjoyed their
dignity for five years, but in 420 the dictator Mamer-
cus made a law' reftraining it to a year and a half,
which wras afterwards obferved very ftridtly. At firft
one of the cenfors was elefted out of a patrician, and
the other out of a plebeian family ; and upon the death
of either, the other w'as difeharged from his office, and
two new ones eletted, but not till the next luftrum. In
the year of Rome 622, both cenfors were chofen from
among the plebeians j and after that time the office was
flrared between the fenate and people.—After their
elettion in the Comitia Centuriata, the cenfors pro¬
ceeded to the capitol, where they took an oath not to
manage either by favour or difaffedlion, but to aft
equitably and impartially throughout the whole courfe
of their adminiftration.
The republic of Venice ftill has a cenfor of the man¬
ners of their people, wffiofe office lafts fix months.
Censors of Boohs, are a body of doftors or others
eftablilhed in divers countries to examine all books be¬
fore they go to the prefs, and to fee they contain no¬
thing contrary to faith and good manners.
At Paris, before the late revolution, the faculty of
theology claimed this privilege as granted to them by
the pope-, but, in 1624, new commiflions of four
doftors were created, by letters patent, the lole cenlors
of all books, and anfwerable for every thing contained
therein.
In England, we had formerly an officer of this kind,
under the title of licenfer of the prefs : but, fince the
Revolution, our prefs has been laid under no luch re-
ftraint,
CENSOR IN US, a celebrated writer in the third
century, well known by his treatife De Die Natali.
This treatife, which was written about the year 238,
Gerard Voffius calls a little book of gold ; and declares
it to be a moft learned w'ork, of the higheft ufe and im¬
portance to chronologers, fince it connefts and deter¬
mines, with great exaftnefs, fome of the principal eras
in pagan hiftory. It w7as printed at Cambridge, with
the notes of Lindenbrokius, in 1695.
CENSURE, a judgment which condemns fome
book, perfon, or aftion, or more particularly, a repri¬
mand from a fuperior. Ecclefiaftical cenfures are pe¬
nalties, by which, for fome remarkable mifbehaviour,
Chriftians are deprived of the communion of the
church,'or prohibited to exercife the facerdotal office.
Vol.V. Parti.
CENSUS, in Roman antiquity, an authentic decla- ^
ration made before the cenfors, by the feveral fubjefts
of the empire, of their refpeftive names and places of
abode. This declaration was regiftered by the cen¬
fors j and contained an enumeration, in writing, of all
the eftates, lands, and inheritances they poffeffed -, their
quantity, quality, place, wives, children, domeftics,
tenants, Haves. In the provinces the cenfus ferved not
only to difeover the fubftance of each perfon, but
where, and in what manner and proportion, taxes
might be beft impofed. The cenfus at Rome is com¬
monly thought to have been held every five years} but
Dr Middleton hath ftrown, that both cenfus and luf¬
trum were held irregularly and uncertainly at various
intervals. The cenfus was an excellent expedient for
difeovering the ftrength of the ftate j for by it they
difeovered the number of the citizens, how many w'ere
fit for war, and how many for offices of other kinds j
how much each was able to pay of taxes, &c. ^ It
went through all ranks of people, though under differ¬
ent names: that of the common people was called
cenfus ; that of the knights, cenfus, recenfio, recognitio ;
that of the fenators, /echo, releBio.—Hence alio cenfus
came to fignify a perfon who had made fuch a declara¬
tion j in which fenfe it was oppofed to incenfus, a per¬
fon who had not given in his eftate or name to be re-
giftered.
The cenfus, according to Salmafius, was peculiar
to the city of Rome. That in the provinces was
properly called pcofefjio and etTrsy^ipJi. Rut this di-
ftinftion is not everywhere obferved by the ancients
themfelves.
Census was alfo ufed for the book or regifter where¬
in the profeffions of the people were entered: In which
fenfe, the cenfus was frequently cited and appealed to
as evidence in the courts of juftice.
Census is alfo ufed to denote a man’s whole fub¬
ftance or eftate.
Census Senatorius, the patrimony of a fenator, which
was limited to a certain value , being at firft rated at
800,000 fefterces, but afterwards, under Auguftus,
enlarged to 1,200,000.
Census Equefer, the eftate or patrimony of a knight,
rated at 400,000 fefterces, which was required to qua¬
lify a perfon for that order, and without which no virtue
or merit w’as available.
Census was alfo ufed for a perfon wrorth 100,000
feflerces, or who was entered as fuch in the cenlual
tables, on his own declaration. In wffiich fenfe, cen¬
fus amounts to the fame with clajjicus, or a man of the
firft clafs; though Gellius limits the eftate of thofe of
this clafs to 1 25,000 affes. By the Voconian law, no
cenfus was allowed to give by his will above a fourth
part of "what he w'as worth to a woman.
Census was alfo ufed to denote a tax or tribute im¬
pofed on perfons, and called alfo capitation. See Ca-
pite Cenf.
Census Dominicatus, in writers of the lower age, de¬
notes a rent due to the lord.
Census DupTicatus, a double rent or tax, paid by
vaffals to their lord on extraordinary or urgent occa-
fions -, as expeditions to the Holy Land, &c.
Census Ecclefx Romanes, was an annual contribution
voluntarily paid to the fee of Rome by the leveral
princes of Europe.
Q q CENT,
Cenfus.
r
C E N [ 306 ]
C E N
Cent CENT, fignifies properly a hundred, being an a-
Centena ^r^gement word centum; but is often ufed in
rius * commerce to exprefs the profit or lofs arifing from the
U—fale of any commodity : fo that when we lay there is
10 per cent, profit, or xo per cent, lofs, upon any mer-
chandife that has been fold, it is to be underftood that
the feller has either gained or loft 10I. on every 100I.
of the price at which he bought that merchandife j
which is Tro of profit, or of lofs, upon the total of
the fale.
CENTAUR, in AJlronomy, a part or moiety of a
fouthern conftellation, in form half man half horfe j
ufually joined with the wolf. The word comes from
xwTctv/’os, formed of xem#, pungo; and ruevgaf, bu/l; q. d.
lull-pricker. The ftars of this conftellation, in Ptolmey’s
Catalogue, are 37 j in Tycho’s 4 \ and in the Britan¬
nic Catalogue, with Sharp’s Appendix, 35.
CENTAURS, in Mythology, a kind of fabulous
tnonfters, half men and Jialf horfes.—The poets pre¬
tend that the centaurs were the fons of Ixion and a
cloud ; the reafon of which fancy is, that they retired
to a caftle called which fignifi.es “ a cloud.”—
This fable is differently interpreted : fome will have
the centaurs to have been a body of ftiepherds and
herdfmen, rich in cattle, who inhabited the mountains
of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the invention
of bucolic poetry. Palaephaetus, in his book of incre-
dibles, relates, that under the reign of Ixion, king of
Theffaly, a herd of bulls on Mount Theffaly run mad,
and ravaged the whole country, rendering the moun¬
tains inacceffible j that fome young men who had
found the art of taming and mounting horfes, under¬
took to clear the mountains of thefe animals, which
they purfued on horfeback, and thence obtained the
appellation of Centaurs. This fuccefs rendering them
infolent, they infulted the Lapithae a people of Thef¬
faly : and becaufe when attacked they fled with great
rapidity, it was fuppofed they were half horfes and
half men.—The Centaurs in reality were a tribe of
Lapithae, who inhabited the city Pelethronium adjoin¬
ing to Mount Pelion, and firft invented the art of break¬
ing horfes, as is intimated by Virgil.
CENTAUREA, greater centaury. See Bo¬
tany Index. There are 61 fpecies belonging to this
genus. The root of one of them called glaJHfolia, is
an article in the materia medica. It has a rough,
fomewhat acrid tafte, and abounds with a red vilcid
juice. Its rough tafte has gained it fome efteem as
an aftringent, its acrimony as an aperient, and its glu¬
tinous quality as a vulnerary : but the prefent pradfice
takes very little notice of it in any intention. Another
of the fpecies is the cyanus or blue bottle, which grows
commonly among corn. The expreffed juice of this
flower ftains linen of a beautiful blue colour, but is not
permanent. Mr Boyle fays, that the juice of the in¬
ner petals, with a little alum, makes a beautiful per¬
manent colour, equal to ultramarine.
Le/Jer Centaury. See Gentiana, Botany Index.
CENTELLA. See Botany
CENTENARIES, or Centenario, in the middle
age, an officer who had the government or command,
with the adminiftration of juftice, in a village. The
centenarii as well as vicarii were under the jurifdic-
tion and command of the court. We find them among
the Franks, Germans, Lombards, Goths, &c.
Center.
CentenARIUS was alfo ufed for an officer who had Centena-
the command of ico men, moft frequently called a njis
Centurion.
Centenarius, in monafteries, was an officer wffio
had the command of 100 monks.
CENTENINUM ovum, among naturalifts, de¬
notes a fort of hen’s egg much fmaller than ordinary,
vulgarly called a cock's egg ; from which it has been
fabuloufly held that the cockatrice or bafililk is pro¬
duced. The name is taken from an opinion, that thefe
are the laft eggs which hens lay, having laid 100 be¬
fore ; whence centeninum, q. d. the hundredth egg.—.
Thefe eggs have no yolks, but in other refpefls dif¬
fer not from common ones, having the albumen, cha-
lazes, membranes, &c. in common with others. In
the place of the yolk is found a little body like a fer-
pent coiled up, which doubtlefs gave rife to the fable
of the bafiliflc’s origin from thence. Their origin is
wdth probability afcribed by Harvey to this, that the
yolks in the vitellary of the hen are exhaufted before
the albumina.
CENTER, or Centre, in a general fenfe, fignifies
a point equally diftant from the extremities of a line,
figure, or body. The word is formed from the Greek
jayrgev, a point.
Center of an Arch. Under the article Bridge, the
different forms of arches have been particularly con-
fidered.
Under this article, it comes very properly to be af-
certained in what manner the arch-ftones are fupported
till the arch is completed ; and the moft commodious,
and lead expenfive manner, in wdiich this can be ac-
compliftied. When the fpan is fmall, and upon a li¬
mited fcale, as cellars, and vaults below ground, the
foundation of the fide-walls is dug out, the earth round¬
ed off betwixt, the arch thrown over upon it, and the
earth is afterwards dug out and carried away. This
muft have been done on any account. By this method
the wood and workmanffiip are faved j but it is only in
particular inftances that this can be done. When the
arch to be call is on land, and at no great height above
the furface of the earth, a frame for fupporting the
arch-ftones can be raifed from the earth, and bound
together, frequently, with a great profufion of wood,
which on account of the fmallnefs of the arch is not
taken into account ; but, when the fpan is great, or at
a great height above the furface of the earth, the ex¬
pence of a frame formed in the fame manner, would be
enormous, and in many cafes impracticable ; but
wffiether the arch be great or fmall, high or low, a pro¬
per economy ought to be obferved ; and the lefs the
ex pence in wood and wmrkmanfhip incurred, fo much
the more advantage to thofe concerned, and the pur-
pofe being obtained, fo much more credit is due to the
engineer.
It is again to be confidered, on the other hand, that
in order to fave fome expence, either in w ood or wmrk-
manlhip, the frame or center, as we fliall call it, is
made too flight and fo unconnected in its parts, that
the preffure of the arch-ftones is greater than it can
fupport. The whole wTcrk is brought down, and the
faving on the one part produces a more ferious lofs on
the other, fo that both the workmen and proprietors
agree, that it is better that the centre be too ftrong
than too weak $ better have too much wTood in it than
tog
Or,ter.
C E N [ 3°7 1
too little. To affifl: the mechanic in this important prevent any
' afrair, is the defign of treating this article with parti¬
cular attention ; for which purpofe we lhall be at pains
to acquire every affiftance that can be collefted, from
the mod experienced engineers, and from the re-
fearches and experiments of the mod didinguifhed
philofophers who have treated of fuch arts as may en¬
able us to elucidate the fubjeft, and make it worth the
attention of engineers and mechanics who may have
occafion to exert their genius in that line.
In the fird place, it will be neceffary to. confider
the weight to be fupported : zdly, 1 he quantity of the
materials to be ufed, that {hall be of drength fufficient
to fupport fuch a weight: 3dly, The mod effedive
method to apply thefe materials, as fupported by the
mod approved authorities, or praftifed by the abled
engineers. The weight to be fupported is the arch-
dones. Suppofe an arch of 20 feet fpan, (fee figures for
the arches, anew figure being unnecelfary). It has
been fhown under the article Bridge, that the arch
can be raifed to 30 degrees and upwards, without the
fupport of the center ; after which it begins to red
upon the frame of •which the center is compofed, if
the arch is a femicircle, or femiellipfe; if a fegment
of a circle, it will prefs fooner upon the centre, and the
more fo the flatter the arch is. id, Suppofe a femi¬
circle $ then there is j 20 degrees of the arch, to be fup¬
ported by the center, the diameter fuppofed is 20 feet.
One hundred and twenty degrees will meafure
20.94393 feet j but as it is advifable to give the ad¬
vantage to the centre, we call it 21 feet in an arch of
20 feet fpan. If the done is of a durable and hard
quality, perhaps an arch-done of I 2 or 14 inches might
be of fufficient drength j yet it is not probable that
any one would think of leis than 18 inches for the thick-
nefs of the arch •, for it will not have too heavy an
appearance if it fliould be two feet thick. We ffiall
calculate the weight at 18 inches fquare •, thethicknefs
of the done is not here to be confidered, as the weight
of the whole is to be fupported till the key-done is
driven : the fpecific gravity of good freedone is 2.532,
the folid feet in an arch of 120 degrees 5 the fpan 20
feet is 21 feet, nearly as above. The done 18 inches
fquare by 21 feet gives 47*25 feet; the weight
by the above fpecific gravity is 7477.30761b. averdu-
poife, about 66.753 cwt. being the weight that one
rib of the center frame mud fudain, without warping,
or by the preffure on its haunches make it rife in the
crown ; neither mud it fink under the preffure: in
either cafe the confequences would be fatal, either in
caufing the arch to give way, upon driking out the cen¬
ter, or in weakening it in fuch a manner as to fliorten
its durability ; being twided in its fliape, the equili¬
brium would be dedroyed, and the confequence would
be either to fpring the key-done, or, if that was pre¬
vented by the weight above it, the fame weight would
caufe it yield at about, or a little above, 30 degrees
from the fpring of the arch. From all which the ne-
ceffity of the drength and firmnefs of the center frame
is evident.
If the arch exceeds 20 feet, fuppofe 50, the weight
svill evidently become greater, and an additional
drength neceffary on that account ; and likewife on
account of its greater extent, the frame that would be
fufficiently firm at 20 feet, would be fupple at 50. To
E N
account, another calcula- Center,
error on this
tion for 50 feet will become neceffary. In the fpan
of 50 the arch of 120 degrees meafures 52.36 feet;
fuppofe the arch-done 2 *- feet deep by 2, is five fuper-
ficial feet, multiplied by 52.36 is 261.8 folid feet, and
at the above fpecific gravity gives 4i429.7i5474^k‘
averdupoife, equal to 369.908 cwt. Here the weight is
increafed upon the center frame, in the proportion or
66.5 to 369.9, that is, more than five times, befides
what allowTunce will be neceffary to make, for the dif¬
ference of the diffnefs of the center frame ; both
which will be confidered in their proper places.
Let us now confider what will be the increale
of weight upon a ipan of 100 feet. The rife of the
arch, before it preffes on the center-frame in a femi¬
circle, being in the fame proportion ; the arch of 120
degrees in a 100 feet fpan, meafures 104.719 feet;
the arch-done may be fuppofed abundantly ffrong ol
4 feet length, for the depth of the arch, and 3 feet broad,
which makes a fuperficies of 12 feet, and multiplied by
104.719 gives 1256,628 folid feet, the fpecific gravity,
that is, the done is fuppofed of the fame durability
gives 198,861.381 lb. averdupoife, equal to 1775.548
cwt. about five times more weight than upon the arch
of 50 feet fpan. If the arch is 130 feet fpan ; 120 de¬
grees meafure 136.13^56 feet. Suppofe the arch-
done 5 feet, as in the arch-dones of the bridge over
the Dee at Aberdeen, at lead they are between 4I-
and 5 feet. The Aberdeen granite is a very hard
done, and perhaps exceeds the fpecific gravity above.
The arch-done is here fuppofed to be 5 feet by 5, equal
to 15 fquare feet, multiplied by gives
2042.0334 folid feet. According to the above fpecific
gravity, the weight to be fupported till the key-
done is drove, is 2885.2838 cwt. The weight of
the key-done in the whole of the above may be de¬
duced.
As center frames mud likewife be ufed for iron brid¬
ges, we ffiall confidei tfwm, and take the fpan 236 feet,
dill fupporting a femicircle.
It may be proper to take the wTeight that it would
be if the arch were the fegment of a circle, the fpan of
the arch 236, the height above the fpring of the arch,
or the verfed-fine of the arch, 34 feet, in which cafe
the diameter of the circle would be 444 nearly j
the arch-flones in this fegment would prefs upon the
center-frame, at about 18 feet from the fpring of the
arch. Suppofe the arch-done 5 feet by 4, equal to
20 fuperficial feet, the whole meafure of the arch is
444.154 lineal feet, the folid content is 4131.84 feet,
and weight 318.689 tons; but the weight of the iron
was only 260 tons. It may not be improper here to
obferve, that in a done bridge of that ipan, 5 feet of
arch-done would be too fmall to fudain the arch. It
may perhaps be admitted, that it would be fufficient
to fupport its own weight ; and if fo, the arch be¬
ing fmoothed above, a fecond arch of a five-feet done
may be thrown over above it. Thefe two together
may form a dronger arch than a done of ten feet depth
would do. And thus a done arch may be extended
to any fpan, and made of abundant drength ; and ex¬
perience has fhown its durability to withfland the
weather. Thus the old London bridge has perform¬
ed its faithful fervices to the public for 600 years :
that it was an incumbrance in paffing up and down
Q^q 2 the
C E N [ 30S j GEN
Center, the river, and clumfy in its conftruftion, were owing
to the tafte of the times; perhaps few will be found
that would be willing to infure an iron bridge againlt
the ruin occalioned by the weather, for the fame time,
or perhaps much above one-half that time. But this
is not a fit place to enter into the full difcuffion of
this fubjeft. To return to the weight preffing upon a
center-frame. Having now taken a view of the weight
to be fupported, it comes next to be confidered what
ilrength of wood is neceflary to refift this force j and
the moll proper and commodious manner of combining
the parts. To determine this, we muft have recourfe
to fuch experiments as have been made for trying the
ftrength of different fpecies of (lone and wood.
Experiments have been made to afcertain the ftrength
of timber, and many of them appear to have been con¬
duced with great care and attention. Some of thefe
the reader will find collefted and detailed under the
article Strength of Materials. We (hall here ftate
the refult of fome of the curious experiments which
were inftituted by the Count de Buffon to afcertain
this point. According to thefe experiments, the batten
of five inches fquare, whofe length was 14 feet, and
which fupported a wTeight of 5300, which may be call¬
ed its breaking force, (hould have double the ftrength
of a batten of 28 feet long. But it has a great deal
more. The latter by the experiment is equal to 1775
only ; whereas the half of 53CO is 2650. But it is to be
confidered, that the power of the lever is in proportion
to its diftance from the fulcrum; this power arifing from
the weight of the log, is the weight of one foot of wood,
aCing as a weight at a diftance from the fulcrum. The
log incieafes in its power to break by its length : 12
inches of this log, five inches fquare, weighs about
10.41b. fomewhat more or lefs ; and xo.qlb. at 13 feet
diftance, acts with a force of 135.21b. : this we confi-
der the laft term ; and o, the point of fraCure, is the firft
term : the firft and laft term, multiplied by half the
number of terms, are equal to the fum of all the terms;
that is, 135.2 X 64-, amount 878.81b. added 101775,
equal 2653.8 ; fo near to the half, that the difference
may eafily be accounted for, from the real weight of
the wood, on wdrich the experiment was made ; and
our taking the weight from tables of fpecific gravity,
or the fuppofed 6olb. To take another example, a
batten of nine feet is double the ftrength of one of the
fame fize, of :8 feet long. The weight that breaks a
batten of nine feet, five inches fquare, is 83081b. *, the
half is 4154, but by the experiment, 37001b. break
the batten at 18 feet. N. B. The w7eight being laid
upon the middle, 9- is the number of terms, one-half
is 4.625. Seventeen feet one-half is 84- j 10.41b. mul¬
tiplied by 8h, is 102x4.625, half the number of
terms, is 471,25-4.3700, is 4171.25, fomewhat great¬
er, but which is fo near, that the fmalleft accident for
failure, not difcernible in the wmod, will occafion the
difference. Now to reduce the experiment of this gi¬
ven fize, to any other of greater dimenfions j fuppofe
one foot: fimilar folids of the fame altitude, are to one
another as their bafe's, that is 25, the bafe of the five
inch fquare, is to 144, the bafe of the 12 inch fquare 5
as the rveight that would break the batten of nine feet,
to the weight that will break another of the fame nine
feet length, and of one foot fquare (5. 6. El. 12), that
is, as the bafe 25 is to the weight 8308, fo is 144 to
478541b. ; equal 213.8125 ton, and the proportion as Center,
above, for greater or lefs length of logs or ipars. As w’e y——
have no experiments made of logs ol 12 inches fquare j
unlefs there is fomething in the texture of the fibres,
in pieces of different diameters, we have every realon
to conclude, the above proportion will give the pro¬
per ftrength of the material uled. It muft, however,
not be forgot, that the pieces upon W’hich the ex¬
periments were made, w-ere nicely chofen for the pur-
pofe. It will fcarcely be pradticable to find a piece of
j 2 inches fquare, and even of nine feet length, equally
well adapted to bear a proportionable ftrain j and much
more difficult to find a piece of ftill greater length.
Thefe experiments and proportions afford a fafe crite¬
rion for proper limits to be attended to in praftice. In
this, w7e do not mean to apply fuch a load upon the
beam as will break it j we intend the beam to fupport
the load, without giving way or yielding to it.
In the fame experiments, w7e are told by the author,
that two-thirds of the weight broke the beam in
the fpace of two months 5 that one-half the weight
gave a fet or bend which it did not recover, but ihewed
no farther tendency to break : that one-thiid of the
weight, after long continuance, did not give it a fet j
but the wxight being removed, the beam returned to
the fame pofition as before it w7as loaded. Betwixt one-
third, and the half of load or weight that would break
the beam, is the ftrength we allot to it for permanent
ufe. Before w e proceed to put the above obfervatious
into full praftice, let us examine whether the log is
neceffary to be fquare to give it the greateft ftrength :
praftice, in a great meafure, determines that it is not.
It is, however, neceffary to inquire w7hat breadth to a
given depth is fufficient as a maximum that w7e ought
not to exceed 5 or what is the minimum that we may
ufe, fo as not to lofe the principal intended effedf.
Belidor, has made a feries of experiments on the tranf-
verfe ftrength of bodies which are detailed in his
Science des Ingenieurs, but the fpars are only of one
inch, not exceeding two inches in breadth or thicknefs.
Among thefe, w7e feledl one fpar tw7o inches breadth, one
inch depth, and 18 inches length j which at the medium
of three trials, was broken, lying loofe at both ends,
by 8051b. Another one inch broad, twm inches deep,
and 18 inches long, broke with the force of 15801b. j
nearly in the proportion of the fquare of the depth,
being only a diminution of 2olb. weight. In the pre-
fent cafe, the quantity of matter is the fame in both.
It may therefore be concluded from this experi¬
ment, that a batten of any depth, and one-half breadth,
is equally ftrong in that pofition, as if it had been
fquare timber ; and that the ftreugth is according to
the depth, if the breadth is only fuch as that it does
not yield in that direftion. And hence, the advan¬
tage in point of economy ; for if the piece is fet upon
its edge, fuppofe nine inches deep and one broad,
provided that by ftraining the piece in depth, it {hall
not yield in the lateral direftion, it will bear as much
ftrain as if nine inches Iquare. The experiment may
be performed upon a fmall fcale. Suppofe five inches,
and one inch broad, the thin fe£Hon may be enclofed
at different diftances with pieces five inches fquare. Sup¬
pofe at the diftances of 1, 2, 3, &c. fig. 1. Plate
CXXXVIII. and the weight applied that broke the
five inch fquare of the length of 14 feet, viz. 53001b.
C E N
[ 3°9 ]
C E N
All the experiments which have been alluded to above
were made upon fcantlings of found oak. But it has
already been obferved, that in praaice, fuch pieces can-
not always, if at all, be feleaed. But the praaical
mechanic, confining himfelf to between one-third and
one-half of the abfolute ftrength, according as his
judgment direas him, refpeaing the foundnefs of the
piece he ufes j there can be no doubt, that, upon oc¬
casions, he will be convinced, that he cannot, with
fafety, allow even one-third of the abfolute ftrength,
but muft take it confiderably below that proportion.
As to other fpecies of wood, trials have alfo been
made ; and the refult from different experiments has
occafioned fame deviation. We are told that Buffon
makes fir about T6oth$ of the ftrength of oak ; Parent
.*.|ths ; and Emerfon -f-ds, all of them different. The
difference between Buffon and Parent is -roth •, between
Parent and Emerfon is |th 5 and between Buffon and
Emerfon is -fth. It is eafy to conceive, that the differ¬
ent ftates of the wmod, and different circumftances in the
fame fpecies of fir and oak, will make a confiderable
difference j although the fame perfons were employed
on the fame materials, the experiments would probably
vary ; much more, may it be allowed that at different
times different ftates of the wood muft make the refults
different.
The experiments made by different perfons vary in
their amount. Belidor’s experiments agree one part
with another, and fo do Buffon’s, but differ in their
refults from Belidor’s. Belidor’s Hips of oak are only
of one inch fquare, and Buffon’s are from four to eight
inches fquare, and from 7 to 28 feet in length. When
the one is reduced to the ftandard of the other, they
do not agree : the difference may arile from various
caufes. We know that there is a difference in the
ftrength of oak of different growths, and from differ¬
ent foils, as ivell as in other ipecies of wmod ; there is
likewife a difference in the degree of feafoning of the
wood. Buffon gives the weight of his wood, Belidor
does not. If Buffon’s log or batten, four inches fquare,
weighs about 6olb. that is, about 771b. the folid foot ;
whereas a folid foot of dry oak will not weigh above
6olb. : but Buffon acknowledges that his wood was in
the fap, as vapours iffued at both ends in the bend¬
ing. Thefe differences may make all the odds in the
breaking, unlefs the proportion was eftablilhed to be,
as the fquares of the diameter of the battens } but this
is not the cafe, for in Buffon’s Experiments, the
fquare of four, to the fquare of five of the feven feet
batten, the breaking force is 83001b. ; but the ex¬
periment gives it 11525 ’ that of fix inches iquare
16:36:: 12.1 •, exp. 18950. In the feven inch
fquare 16:49*5312.16268 5 exp. 32200. In the eight
inch fquare 16.64.531 2:2124^ i e^P' 47^49’
ference betw’een four and five inch Iquaie is one-
third part of the experiment wmight 5 the difference
between the four and fix, is fomewhat more than one-
third the experiment weight } and in the feventh, the
difference is a little lefs than half the experiment
weight •, between the feventh and the eighth the dif¬
ference is greater than half the experiment weight.
There is likewife a difference at the different lengths}
for it does not appear that the different lengths bear a
proportion to their parts j a batten of four inches fquare
of feven. feet length, is expefted to be double the ftrength
of one of the fame dimenfions of 14 feet length, that u
is, the one of 14 feet length, is expedfted to break
with one half of the weight, that breaks the feven
feet batten ; but we find it much lefs ; but when it
is confidered that the wreight of the materials afting
at a greater diftance from the centre of motion, this
muft be taken into the account, and added to the
wmight of the breaking force. For example, the bat¬
ten of five inches fquare and 12 inches length,
weighs 13.3681b. at the rate of 771b. per folid foot.
This weight, a£ling upon the batten of 14 feet, taking
the amount of the whole in an arithmetical ratio, is
13.368 X52r,—701.51b. afting upon the whole, add¬
ed to 5^00, the breaking force 6001. The breaking
force, at feven feet, is 11525, one half h 5762.2.5
one twenty-fourth part greater than the half. The
batten of fix inches fquare, the breaking force at 14
feet is 7475, the weight of 12 inches of this batten is
19.251b. at 771b. per folid foot ; the adling force of this
weight at 14 feet length is ig.25 X 52h is 1010.625,
added to 7475, equal to 8485625. Now the break¬
ing force of feven feet length, is 18950 j one half is
947 5, the difference is 989, that is, nine and a half
times lefs than the half. In the feven inch batten of
feven feet length, the breaking force is 32,2001b. and
of 14 feet length, the breaking force is 13,225. The
weight of 12 inches of the feven inch fquare is 26.2lb.
a61ing upon the 14 feet length, is 1370.54-1322.5 =
146001b. which is one-ninth lefs than the half. A-
gain, 12 inches of the eight inch batten, weighs 34.21b.
at 771b. per folid foot, ading upon the 14 feet length,
is 17961b. added to 19775, the force that broke it at
14 feet length, is 21 575lb. about one-tenth part lefs
than the half of 47,6491b. which broke it at feven feet
length. From the above comparifon, it may be al¬
lowed, that the difference of the force that broke the
fpar at feven feet, and that which broke it at 14, fo
far as it differs from the half, is accounted for upon
philofophical principles and when we confider that
the fpars or batons cannot be fuppofed to be mathema¬
tically exad in their meafure, and that a difference in
point of breaking, may be accounted for from that
caufe j but further, it may be obferved that the
weight of the materials is not equal in the folk!
foot. For example, the fpar four inches fquare, and fe-
ven feet in length, weighs 6olb.; that is, at the rate
of 77,141b. per folid or cubic foot, the eight feet fpar
at the rate of 76.51b do. the nine feet fpar at the rate
of 77 feet-, the 10 feet fpar at the rate of 75.6 5 the
12 feet fpar at the rate of 751b. per cubic foot j which
difference of weight, with the difterence of exa£i ma¬
thematical meafure, may fully account for all the dif¬
ference that takes place in the manner of accounting,
for the above-mentioned difference of the weights of
breaking, at 7 and 14 feet j as alfo the difference that
takes place between 8 and 165 9 and 18, &c. the ex¬
periments being made upon green wood, cannot be
approved of: they ought to have been made of iuch
feafoned wood as is fitted for mechanical purpofes, of
which none of this kind can be ufed } or if experi¬
ments are made with unieafoned wood, as-being of the
greateft ftrength, they ought likewife to have been made
with dry wood feafoned for ufe. A cubic foot of dry,
oak,
Center.
C E N [ 3
Center, oal;^ v\Ill not weigh much above 6olb. Thofe fpars
upon which the experiments were made, muft have been
very green, and very unfit for mechanical purpofes,
which gives an unfair account of the ftrength, when
in a proper Hate for ufe. But experiments wTere made
with wood of different weights, which may be fuppofed
better feafoned. For example, the feven feet fpar that
weighs 561b. that is, 721b. per cubic foot ; the nine
feet fpar is at 71 lb. per folid foot, and the 10 feet fpar
at 73.81b. per folid foot, none of wrhich are feafoned
wood. And yet it is not mentioned which of thefe
10 ] C E N
were ufed. This may be adduced as a very good rea- Center,
fon why the variations were fo great. . -y-—
e fhall now confider the force in bruifing mate¬
rials, according as we may be direfted by experiments
made in this way. And iff upon that of fxone, which
will hjme meafure lead to the prelfure in the fame
dire&ion upon other materials.
The experiments fele&ed from M. Gauthey, en¬
gineer, in eredting the bridge of Chalons fur baone,
(tom iv. Rosier Journalde Phyfique, November 1774,)
are now to be confidered.
Experiments Selecied.
In general, the force is greater as the furfaces in-
creafe, but a regular proportion to fix upon a theory
is not found ; but the laft line in the table, the weight
that crufhes the 4.32.3 furface, muft be greater than
131, the ftone being of the fame quality: if in the pro¬
portion of 84 to 12y, the cruftiing weight will be
272.7 inftead of 131.
The meafures here taken are cubic, and the prefiing
force is upon cubic lines, the thicknefs one line-, where
the preffure is upon a fquare foot, it is likewife to be
underftood one foot deep, or upon a cubic foot; the
ftone ufed, he terms Givry Jone, of which he gives its
abfolute force to be 870911, that it will bear 663 <f52lb.
In the cubic foot of foft ftone the ftrength is 2488321b.
The proportional force of the hard andVoft is to 1.
A cubic foot of a ftone fixed m a wall, and projec¬
ting one foot, was broken by a force of 557281b. And
a cubic foot of foft, by xooSolb. the proportion ci-
to 1. (
A cubic foot of hard ftone, fupported upon two
fulcrums at 1 foot diftance, was broken by 20^632^.
fufpended from its middle j and the foft by'sSsOi*
the proportion about 5^ to 1.
In fine, a cubic foot of the hard ftone, was torn afunder
by 45»5oolb.; and the foft by 15,8 i;olb. the proportion
2^ to 1. Thus far Gauthey’s account.
It is to be obferved, that the above table does not
ftrrdlly correfpond with itfelf j for the proportion unon
the fquare line, or of an inch, in place of io4
is upwards of 11. Now the increafe of force which
crufhes 96 fquare lines, and 128 one line thick is
7.802. nearly upon the fquare line, that is a little more
than -f of 35 oz. upon the fquare line ; then as 128
fquare lines is 4496 02. fo is 144 fquare lines to ^058,
to which add one fifth, viz. 10114, this makes 60694
upon the fquare inch, and this multiplied by 144, the
1
fquare inches in a foot, is 874,022.4 oz. but Mr
Gauthey fays, that the fquare foot of furface of one
foot deep, is of the ftrength of 870,91 ilb.
Again, there is 20,736 fquare lines in a fquare inch,
the force upon a furface of 64 fquare inches, being about
11.5 upon each fquare line, is 238,46402. upon the
fquare foot. Upon the furface of 96 lines, 27 oz. to
the fquare line, gives 599,872 to the fquare foot.
Upon the furface of 128 lines, 354 to the fquare
line, is 878,806 to the fquare foot, the proportion of
238,46402. to 870,911 is about 534 nearly, and of
559,872 to 870,911 is 4 nearly 5 but by the experi¬
ment the number 870,911 is lbs. upon the fquare foot,
the other numbers are only ozs. The variation between
the firft difference, and between the preffmg force of
6069402. upon the fquare inch, makes in that propor¬
tion 874,022 oz. rI he increafe of force from one fquare
inch, to one fquare foot, muft be ^ part of what the
above experiment upon the fquare foot produces. Fur¬
ther experiments upon this therefore become neceffary.
In the mean time, we have no reafon to doubt the ex¬
periment upon the fquare foot, or upon the fmaller parts,
intermediate experiments only can make them accord.
One example adduced is of confequence. A pillar in
the church of All Saints, in Angers, of 24 feet height,
and 11 inches fquare, fupports a weight of 6o,ooolb.
that is y being added 85685.9 upon the fquare foot,
which is faid not to be 4 part of the load that would
crufh it. From this it is evident, that the load it fup¬
ports, exceeds the weight of an arch of 50 feet fpan,
of a femicircular form 5 the arch-ftones being 24 feet
long, or depth of the arch, and 2 feet in breadth. It
is afferted under the article Bridge, that inftead of an
arch -j- of the opening or 10 feet thick, that a pier of 2
feet thick would be fufficient, but that it is given twice
the length of the arch-ftone, that is 5 feet thick in place
„ of
C E N
of io ; but from this example, it is five times thicker than
neceffary, and has therefore fuperabundant ftrength,
allowing even for the force of a current. How fuper-
fluous then will thefe clumfy piers be reckoned, whofe
foie effeft is a ufelefs obltjudlion to the water ! But as
our principal defign at prefent is upon the ftrength of
wood, in profecution of this inquiry, we have paid parti¬
cular attention to the ftrength of this material, in the
tranfverfe direftion, in fo far as it can be fupported by
experiment. Before we proceed to make particular ap¬
plication to its ufe, it will be neceflary to confider its
ftrength or power of refiftance in its breadth and
thicknefs. In this it may be with fafety averred that
fuch force as will bruife or crulh its fibres, although
only of TV or ^ of an inch ; the fame weight con¬
tinued, will produce the fame effeift upon the next
ftratum, till the whole piece is bruifed, and its cohe-
five power overcome. This is fupported by the expe¬
riments of celebrated mechanicians, as thofe of Buffon,
Mufchenbroek, Bouguer. Mufchenbroek, in his EJfai
de Ehyjique, fays, that a piece of found oak of an
inch is torn afunder by ujolb ; and that a plank 12
inches broad, and i thick, will juft bear i89,i681bs.
Thefe give for the cohefion of an inch, 15755, and
*5763lbs. Bouguer in his Traite de Navire fays, that
it is very well known that a rod of found oak, ofinch
fquare, can be torn afunder by looolb. this gives
16,000 for the fquare inch. Bouguer fpeaks with cer¬
tainty, that ^ inch fquare of found oak can be torn
afunder by looolb. If we reduce the above propor¬
tions of the experiment, it will appear, that the force
will be much greater than 16000, to tear afunder a piece
of found oak of one inch fquare. It muft in the mean
time be allowed, that Buffon’s experiments being up¬
on a larger fcale, can be followed with more fecurity
than thofe upon a fmaller fcale.
But after all, we have not yet got fufficient data to
form a criterion for an arch 5 nor can this be expedted
till we have more precifely afcertained the ftrength of
an arch above a right line, parallel to the horizon.
In the firft place, as an arch is in form, one part
of it towards the perpendicular, and the other to¬
wards a horizontal line ; the force that it will fuftain,
is between that force that a body will carry in the
perpendicular, and that which produces a fradlure upon
any material in the horizontal diredlion. If the per¬
pendicular is greater than the horizontal line, it will
have more of the ftrength of the bruifing force, than of
the tranfverfe fradlure 5 and the force may be expreffed
by the ratio compounded of the bruifing or crufhing
force, and that of the tranfverfe fradture ; or not im¬
properly expreffed, as it has been denominated by
ethers, the abfolute and relative force.
Unfortunately we have not yet a fufficient variety
of experiments to afcertain the abfolute force, as thofe
made are only upon a fmall fcale j and the number is
not adequate to form a proportion of the increafe for
the force that will crufh a piece of wood of TV, or las
the French philofophers have done moft this way, we
take their meafure of an inch, or one line, and
from that to an inch ; but the force required is found
to be greater than that of the fquare of the diameter,
as alfo the force to produce a tranfverfe fradlure, or to
give the relative ftrength. This increafes in a greater
GEN
ratio than that of the fquare of the diameters \ for in Center,
the above experiments, the weight that broke a bat- _ v—"
ten 4 inches fquare, was to that weight which broke
an 8-inch fquare batten, each of the length of 7 feet,
more than double of the fquare of 4 to the fquare of 8
as above ; we are, thersfore, much limited as to an ex-
aft procedure.
At the fame time, by keeping the experiments in
view, and the obfervations made upon them, we fhall
be able to give fuch a ratio, as to the neceffary
ftrength, as will furnifh the ingenious artift with a
pretty fure principle to aft upon, and prevent hisufing
fuperfiuous materials, either in their application to ho¬
rizontal right lines, or inclined in the right-lined di-
reftion, or in curves.
If we attend to the weight that crulhes one inch of
found oak, by Mufchenbroek’s experiments, we find that
it is 17,3001b. but, if computed from the increafe, being
as the iquares of the diameters, it is only i6ooolb. but
it has been found as above, that the power to break, or
make a tranfverfe frafture in the fame wood, of the fame
length, of different diameters, if a confiderable differ¬
ence in diameters is taken, the difference of weight
is twice that produced by the fquare of the diame- ,
ter. This comparifon makes the proportion between
the ftrength of ftone, and that of wood, to be as
17,300 is to 6048, or 1 to 2\ nearly. Thus we
may with a fufficient degree of accuracy fubftitute
the one for the other in point of ftrength, and form a
proportion between the arch and the ftrength of a
horizontal line. As feveral experimentalifts agree,
that a fquare inch of wmod can be cruffied or pulled a-
funder with a weight ©f between 16,000 and 17,3001b.
and that a piece of wrood one inch fquare, 18 inches in
length, can be broken by 4o6ib. or at 12 inches by
609, or at 6 inches by 1 218 j attending to the addition
as mentioned above, which has been proved by com¬
parifon of experiments, to be upon the principle of the
lever. If then, the geometrical mean is taken between
the elevation of the arch, as preffure or abfolute
ftrength, and the length of the horizontal line, this
mean will be the ftrength of the arch above the hori¬
zontal line ; for it is evident, that fo much as the piece
of wood is elevated towards the perpendicular, fo much
the nearer it approaches to its abfolute ftrength, and
by fo much as the arch is^ flatter or the piece of wood
lels inclined, the nearer it is to a ftraight line, and fo
much the more reduced to its relative ftrength ; the
pofition of the arch, therefore, muft be in the ratio
compounded of thefe tw’o.
Having now eflablifhed the principles, let us en¬
deavour to apply them to praftice, in forming a cen¬
tre or fupporting an arch, to produce the intended cur¬
vature or mould for an arch, of any intended fpan, and
at the fame time, have ftrength to fupport the fame.
Several ingenious artifts, have not only formed, but
have written and laid down principles for forming thele
moulds, both with regard to ftrength and economy ; at
the fame time wTe have not found any that have treated
the fubjeft upon principles that are fully eftablifhed.
We have, therefore been the more particular, accord¬
ing to the principles laid down, ift, We have affigned
the weight to be fupported, as eftabliftied by uncon-
troverted principles. And, 2dly, eftabliffied the ftrength
[ 311 1
C E N [
•Center. 0f wood as to its thicknefs or diameter, that is fuffici-
ll_* ent to fuftain fuch weight 5 which we have fupported
by the tnoft approved experiments, comparing one with
the other ; and in the third place, we have confidered
the efl’efts when the materials are applied in the hori¬
zontal direftion, or elevated in any degree toward the
perpendicular.
In a work of this kind, it is not only neceflary to
lay before our readers well grounded principles, and a
well fupported theory, but along wuth thefe, the dif¬
ferent opinions, and various modes ufed bv the moft
dirtinguilhed artifts, who have exhibited their plans to
-the public, together with the principles on which they
were founded, and the fuccefs they have met with, in
anfwering the purpofes propofed.
Among the moft diftinguiihed rvho have treated this
lubje£I, we may confider Pitot a member of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences, wdio wrote about the beginning of
the laft century. His method undoubtedly Ihows con¬
siderable ingenuity ; but, at the fame time, we muft
obferve that he has been rather too profufe in the quan-
•tity of materials which he has erppleyed.
To lay his plan of operation before our readers,
we fhall give a figure ftiowing the couftruflions. The
arch of the circle or ellipfe being formed j as little
or no weight lies upon the center, till between 30
and 35 degrees of the arch, a ftretcher is extended
at this height, to the fame height on the oppofite fide j
twro ftruts fupport this ftretcher from the fpring of
the arch j upon the upper part of the ftretcher, imme¬
diately above, or a little within the upper end of the
trufs on each fide, twm fpars joining upon the king-poll,
fpring from about the middle of the arch, the ftretch¬
er being divided into four parts. Another ftrut fprings
from the rife of the arch, meeting the ftretcher at this
fourth part, from each fide of the arch ; thefe laft ftruts
are joined by a tie-beam, which gives additional
ftrength to the firft ftretcher 5 upon thefe, on the up¬
per fide of the ftretcher, two fpars join the king-poft, a
little below the other; thefe fpars are joined by bridles,
or crofs fpars, from the circular arch, to the lower ftrut;
ribs of the fame formation being placed at proper diftan-
ces, according to the width of the bridge, and joined by
bridgingjoints, which may be of greater or leffer ftrength,
according to the fpan of the arch ; and of confequence
the weight it has to fupport. Pitot is the firft writer
who has given us any account of the method of form¬
ing frames, according to the above general defcription.
If no refts are left at the fpring of the arch, as a bafe
for the center to reft upon; let AB fig. 1. Plate
CXXXVIII. be the ends of two planks raifed from
the foundation, upon which the center may reft ; let
v .D, be the ftretcher, extended about 35 or 40 degrees
from the fpring of the arch ; or, as little weight refts
upon the center till that height, the ftretcher may be
as high as 45 degrees; let AE, AG, BD, EG be the
two ftruts on each fide ; from each extremity of the cen¬
ter, let B E, A E, be fixed to the ftretcher near C, and D,
and AG, BG, at ^ of CD; their ftretcher or tie-beam
GG, equal to one half of CD, the bridles, f, 2, 3 &c.
from A to C, and from B to D, are intended to pre¬
vent the arch from yielding ; from A to C, and from
B to D. The ftruts EF, EF, meeting the king-poft
E, in F, and the interior ftruts GH, GH, meeting the
2
[12 ] C E N
king-poft in H, fupport the bridles 4, 3, 6, on each Center,
fide of the king-poft ; their ufe, is to ftiffen the frame v ~
of the center, which fupports the upper and more
weighty part of the arch.
The arch for which Pitot allots this center, is of
60 feet fpan ; and the arch ftones feven feet in length,
the wreight of a folid cubic foot he makes i6olb. The
Portland ftone is admitted to w-eigh i6olb ; but we do
not find any other freeftone of fuch weight. It is
however to be confidered, that the Paris foot is 12.788
of our inches, that is, a little more than I2;|ths of our
meafure, which wall make a difference of the weight up ¬
on the foot; as alfo their lb. is lighter than ours about
1.2 oz. by which the ftone here mentioned is not bet¬
ter than ours. In a matter of this kind, fuch exacinefs
is not neceflary. As wras propofed, we firft confider
the weight to be fupported by the frame, and here it is
evident from the figure that no ftrain lies upon the
frame below C ; the arch is raifed, or can be raifed to
this height, before the frame is fet; therefore the per¬
pendicular C c determines the limits of the abfolute
preflure upon the frame. The triangle C e c prefles
on the frame, and the triangle Cfg adds to the la¬
teral preffure ; the weight of the arch, that aftualiy
prefles upon the frame, is contained between the per¬
pendicular lines C <r, D ; no more can prefs upon the
center frame. The part of the arch below C, will reft
upon the abutment, raifed upon the pier; but if it is
infifted that there is a preflure upon the lower part of
the center frame, what can only poffibly reft, or prefs
upon it, muft be contained between the parallels C e
andfg-, although it will be admitted, that the arch
can be raifed to the height C, without the center
frame; but to indulge fuch as fay it is not advifable to
do it, we will admit what lies between thefe parallels
to prefs upon the frame. Now to determine the weight
of thefe parts of the arch, the diftance between the per¬
pendiculars C c, Dz/ is 53 feet; the arch-ftone is 7 feet,
and admit it to be three feet broad, 53X7X3X
i6olb. = 178,0801b.
To determine the area between the two parallels
C c,fg, the line f g perpendicular to the diameter
AB, is 134, the bafe is 9^, and C f perpendicular to
it is 7 feet, the area is 33^ feet ; Cc the bafe of the
triangle CyY is 7.2, and f c is 7 ; the area is 25, the
difference is 83-. If this difference had been the excefs
of the triangle Q f c above the triangle Q f g, it would
have been a preffure upon the frame; but as it is the
reverfe, the preffure is upon the abutment. This dif-
tindlion is requifite to be taken notice of, that an un-
neceflary expence of wood and workmanfhip be not ex¬
pended, wdiere it is unneceffary ; as wTell as its being
unworkman-like, or having an appearance of ignorance
in the engineer.
Let us now inquire, what ftrength of materials is
fufficient to fupport this weight. It has been laid
down as a principle, that the parts of wood in an
arch a£t upon one another by their abfolute ftrength;
but are liable to the tranfverfe fradlure ; in proportion to
the length of the piece, in a fpan of 60 feet, the length
of the piece may be 7 ieet without fenfibly impairing
its ftrength, in reducing it to the round; and experiment
gives the relative ftrength of 7 feet to be 476491b.
by 8 inches fquare. It has been formerly illuftrated
from
C E N [3
Center, from experiments, that the flrength is according to
»—-y—j tyie depth, with this precaution, that the breadth or
thicknefs be fuch, that it is prevented from warping,
the abfolute ftrength being nearly, by laft experiment
mentioned, as the fquares of the depth. The abfolute
ftrength to the relative force, has been found nearly 60
to 1, although by fome it is faid to be only 42 to 1 j
the abfolute ftrength of the plank 12 inches broad by
one thick, is 1891631b.} if two inches, it would be no
more than 1891631b. If it had been 8 inches fquare,
then every 7 feet of the arch might be broken with
the weight 1891631b.; but the whole weight of the
arch is only 1780801b. that is I 1080 lefs weight than
what that part of the frame would bear ; but 7 feet is
only about one-feventh part of 53 ; the frame is there¬
fore of fufficient ftrength to fupport the whole weight
of the arch w’hen equally divided along its whole
length. This is not the cafe with the centre frame of
an arch, as it is loaded at one place, and not at an¬
other ; it is therefore apt to yield between the parts
where the load is laid; that is, it may rife in the mid¬
dle, and thus change the form of the arch ; for the
center frame is not only intended to fupport the arch,
but likewife to preferve its true form ; for this caufe
fome ftruts may be neceffary to prevent its putting the
arch out of lhape. To remedy this, wTere the arch
begins to prefs upon the frame at C, draw the chord
line C cy fig. 2. which a6ts as a tie-beam to the arch,
from C at 35 degrees to c at 51 degrees, as beyond
this, if the arch frame had been permitted to alter its
lhape, it would begin to be reftored to it, at leaft
the force wrould tend that wTay. At that part of the
arch, where its wTeight begins to flatten the frame, as
at 2, draw the ftretcher 2, 2, which likewife afls as a
tie-beam, and gives fupport to the bridle 1, on one
fide, and to 3 the bridle upon the other fide, from ;
and thus the arch c r/ is prevented from finking by
the tie-beamed. This will effedlually prevent any
warping or yielding of the frame, notwithftanding the
enormous load from the fize of the arch ftones.
But it is neceffary to attend to the relative ftrength
of different kinds of timber of which frames may be
conftruifted. The relative proportion of the ftrength
of oak and fir has been afcertained by different expe¬
riments ; and although the refults do not exadtly agree,
yet the mean or leaft proportion may be taken. Let
us take that of Buffon, Now to reduce a frame of
oak to one of fir of equal ftrength, divide 8 inches,
the diameter of the oak, by -5%, the relative ftrength
of fir, this gives ly inches. Allow inches. The
depth of the frame will then be 9^ inches by y or 4
inches in breadth ; that is, g4- by 2^ inches. In this
way the ftrength of the fir arch is rendered equal, and
by the additional allowrance fuperior to the oak in
ftrength, and of lefs expence in wood and workman-
Ihip.
We have here taken the moft fimple method of in-
veftigation and computation, that every mechanic,
whether fcientific or not, can eafily follow it in every
ftep, and judge of the propriety or impropriety of what
is advanced.
It will now be neceffary to follow Mr Pitot in efti-
mating the quantity of materials which he allows.
The ring of his arches confiftsof pieces of oak 12 inches
Vox.. V. Part I.
3 ] . c E N
broad and fix thick. The ftretcher CD is 1 2 inches Center,
fquare, the ftraining piece GG is likewife 1 2 inches /—•«
fquare, the lower ftruts 10 inches by 8 ; the king-poll
12 inches fquare, the upper ftruts 10 by 6, the ridges
20 by 8, French meafurc. Pitot allows the fquare
inch to carry 86501b. that is, one half of the abfolute
ftrength, which is alcertained by experiment to be
173001b. nearly, and not by the fquare of the diame¬
ter, which would be only i6ooolb. But on account
of knots he reduces it to 72001b. per inch. He then
computes the whole load upon the frame to be
7075201b. which is the weight of the whole arch-
Itones, fuppofing each to be 3 feet broad, and the whole
to prefs upon the frame. This comes fo very near,
that it would be needlefs to difpute about the difference.
We have fhown that no more than 1780801b. preffes
upon the frame ; but wTe are not fo fully fatisfied as
to the weight that rells upon the center. Pitct fup-
pofes it to be T^ths of the whole weight; but he has
afligned no reafon for this conje£lure. Mr Couplet
affumes that it preffes by yths. Another writer who
makes fome comment upon the whole, fays that -J-yths
is nearer the truth than ^ths, but gives no reafon for
his opinion, which feems to be equally vague as the
other. The preffure here allowed, and the reafon of
aftigning fuch a preffure} have been already explained.
Our readers, therefore, have it in their power to ex¬
amine the principles, and decide for themfelves.
It has been afferted by fome, that the arch does not
prefs upon the center frame below C. At the fame
time, were we inclined to difpute this opinion, we
might ft ate our objection in the following manner :
Suppofe the area of the triangle C c f wras equal to
the area of the triangle C f g> fo that the friftion above
would make the triangle Q c f reft upon the fide c f\
and as the triangle is greater than Q,cf\n the
proportion of 33|ths to 25yd, the cohefion of the parts
will determine the intermediate fpace betw een C c and
g f, to reft upon the abutment as has been faid, and
not on the perpendicular, unlefs a fciffiire is made in
the direftion g fy in which cafe it w ould be detached
from the lateral preffure, and fo reft upon the center.
As this is not the cafe, any plea for a preffure below
C is entirely removed ; and a method to determine with
precifion the adlual preffure upon the center frame is
(hewn. If the arch is the center of a circle, or an ellipfe,
a frame fo much ftronger is neceffary, as more of the
arch preffes upon the frame; but the method of deter¬
mining the ftrength is the fame as here laid down. A
fecond figure of the ellipfe, and another calculation
are required. It is here to be underftood, that the
frame calculated for is only one rib ; and the weight
it fupports is that of the arch ftones, between the pa¬
rallels C c, D to three feet in breadth. If, therefore,
the bridge is 42 feet broad, it requires 14 ribs of the
above ftrength. Thefe are joifted over with planks,
fuppofe of twro inches thick, and upon thefe the arch-
ftones are laid, equally carried on from C and I), and
rifing equally on each fide, till the key-ftone is fet, in
which ftate they remain, till the engineer judges it
proper to flacken the frame, by ftriking out the wedges
at the refts, A and B, (or as the French ufe logs be¬
tween the frame and arch), fo far as to allow the arch-
ftones to prefs upon one another, by the equilibrated
R r curvature
C E N [3
Center, curvature of the arch ; after which, it being found that
the arch is perfeftly juft and fecure, the frame is en¬
tirely removed. In the frame, fig. 2. the tie-beams
are not taken into the account for ftrength, the arch
being abundantly ftrong without them. Their ufe is
merely to ftiffen the frame, on account of the manner
in which the weight is laid on. In an elliptic arch,
it has been mentioned that it is fomewhat different,
requiring more ftrength and the binding likewife dif¬
ferent. In what are termed elliptic arches, few or
none are ftriftly fo, the true elliptic curve being dif¬
ficult to form on fo large a feale. It may therefore be
acceptable to our readers, and alfo to the ingenious me¬
chanic, if we give the form of an ellipfe that will
anfwer nearly to the elliptic equation, and upon an
univerfal plan, eafy of conftrudtion. The greater
and leffer axes of the ellipfe being given, divide the
excels of the greater axis above the leffer into three
equal parts j fet off two of thefe from the center of
the greater axis each way; upon this diftance de-
feribe an equilateral triangle on each fide of the
greater axis, and produce the fides of the triangle both
ways from the vertex of thefe triangles, to the extremi¬
ty of the leffer axis ; deferibe two arches, till terminat¬
ed by the fides of the triangle produced gives the flat
part of the ellipfe. At the interfeftion of the produced
fides of the triangle, as a center with the diftance of
the extremity of the greater axis, deferibe an arch
which will meet the other arch and complete the ellipfe.
Let AB, fig. 3. be the greater axis 60, and DE the
the leffer axis 40, be drawn at right angles, bifedting
one another in C. Set off AF 40, upon AB, then
the excefs FB is 20, which divide into three parts; fet
off two of thefe from C to G and H ; upon GH de¬
feribe the equilateral triangles GHK, GHL; produce
KG, KII, to any indefinite length, which may be cut
by the arch drawn through D and E, from the centers
KL at the interfedlions GH, and diftance AB, let the
other part of the ellipfe be deferibed, thus an univerfal
method of deferibing a beautiful ellipfe, and fo juft that
it anfwers the elliptic equation exceedingly near, at
leaft till it becomes very flat.
A fecond form of a center frame deferibed by Pitot,
is adapted to an elliptical arch. The conftrudtion differs
nothing fiom the former, only the two upper ftruts are
parallel 5 the ftrength as in the former is fuperabun-
dant, which is eafily accounted for, from not know¬
ing the real weight that lies upon the frame, or by
confidering the whole weight of the arch to reft up¬
on the frame. Both this and the former, Pitot has con-
fidered as divifible into three pieces, which renders it
more manageable in ere£iing, particularly in large
fpans. See fig. 4.
Fontana has given a defeription of a very neat frame
confiding of two pieces, the upper and the lower.
The ftruts 1 2, 1 2 taken from Fig. 4. leave a re-
prefentation of Fortana’s frame. Different conftruc-
tions being laid before our readers, the ingenious artift
may improve the hints that have been thrown out;
and thus form a more fimple, or better conftruttion.
We flwll now feleft draughts of the moft appro¬
ved center frames that we are able to colleft ; and
make fuch remarks upon thejji .as may occur. Fig. 5.
exhibits a form, which the ^experienced engineer will
4 ] c E N
readily allowr to be neat and ingenious ; but there is Center,
much more wood and work expended than is neceffary.
It is divided into two parts, the bafe or ftretcher LL,
of the upper part, refting upon the lower part of the
frame, the greateft part of which at leaft, muft appear
quite fuperfluous. The lower refts, EF, appear only
neceffary to prevent the ftretcher LL from yielding,
and thereby allowing the arch to lofe its true curva¬
ture.
The general maxim of conftru&ion adopted by Per-
ronet, a celebrated French architedl, is to make the
trufs coniift of feveral courfes of feparate truffes, in¬
dependent, as he fuppofes, of each other, and thus to
employ the united fupport of them all. Each trufs
fpans over the whole diftance of the piers. It con-
fifts of a number of ftruts, fet end to end, fo as to
form a polygon. By this conftruction, the angles of
the ultimate trufs, lie in lines pointing towards the
center of the curve. It is the invention of Perrault, a
phyfician and architeft, and was pra&ifed by Manfard
de Sagonne at the great bridge of Moulins.
In the centering of the bridge of Cravant, fig. 6.
the arches are elliptic. The longer axis or fpan is
60 feet, the femitranfverfe axis or rife 20 feet. The
arch-ftones w'eigh 1761b. per foot, and are four feet
in length, which is the thicknefs of the arch. The
trufs beams were from 15 to 18 feet long, and 9 inches
deep by 8 broad. The whole frame was conftru&ed of
oak. The diftance between the trufles, which w’ere
five in number, 5^ feet. The whole weight of the
arch amounted to 1350,0001b. which is nearly equal to
600 tons, making 112 tons for the weight on each
trufs. Ninety tons of this muft be allowed really to
prefs the trufs ; but a great part of the preffure is fuf-
tained by the four beams which make the feet of the
trufs, joined in pairs on each fide. The diagonal of
the parallelogram of forces drawn for thefe beams is to
one of the fides as 360 to 285. Then ^60:28
tons the weight on each foot. The feftion of each is
144 inches. Three tons may be laid with perfect
fafety on every inch ; and the amount of this is 432
tons, w'hich is fix times more than the real preflure on
the foot-beams in their longitudinal dire&ion. The
abfolute ftrength of each foot-beam is equal to 216
tons. But being more advantageoufly placed, the di¬
agonal of the parallelogram of forces which correfponds
to its pofition is to the fide as 438 to 285. This is
equal to 5 8-1% tons for the ftrain on each foot $ which
is not much above one-fourth of the preffure it is able
to bear. This kind of centering, therefore, undoubtedly
poffeffes the advantage of fuperabundant ftrength. The
upper rowT of ftruts is quite fufficient 5 nothing is want¬
ed but to procure ftiffnefs for it.
In his executing the bridge at Neuilly, fig. 7. of 120
feet fpan, and only 30 feet rife; the arch 5 feet thick;
his ftrut-beams are 17 by 14 inches of fize, and king-poft
15 by nine, the ftrut-beams placed in three parallel poly¬
gons, each abutting upon the king-poft, he ufes the
binders or bridges of 9 inches fquare. This arch is re¬
markable for its flatnefs. The account Perronet gives
of his fuccefs wuth this frame, and the effe&s it produ¬
ced in his work, are as follows. Notwithftanding the
different improvements he had made upon his center
frame, he here found that it funk 13 inches, before
v
C E N [ 315 ] C E ,N
Center, the key-ftones were fet, and that the crown rofe
u—-y-—and funk as the different courfes were laid. At 20
courfes on each fide, with a load of x 6 tons upon the
crown, it funk an inch ; when 20 more courfes were
laid, it funk half an inch more, and continued finking
as the work advanced. When the keyftone was fet,
it had funk 13 inches •, and, as it funk at the crown,
and in the advance to the crown, it rofe at the haunches,
fo as to open the upper parts of the joints almcft an
inch which gradually leffened tow-ards the crown,
and of confequence the joints in the lower part open¬
ed as the upper part was compreffed. This no doubt
iliowed a fupplenefs in the frame, and at the fame time
inattention in the architeft, to load the crown when
he perceived it finking, with having already too much
weight upon it. If he had obferved the crown to rife,
it would then have been proper to give it additional
weight.
Let us now attend to the defcription of the center
frame of the bridge of Orleans, fig. 8. The architect
to this bridge was Hupeau ; and it is univerfally al¬
lowed to be an elegant ftrufture. The arch ftones are
fix feet in length, the form is elliptical, the fpan 100
feet, and rife 30. Hupeau died before any of the
arches w'ere complete. The center-frame had been
placed, and fome rows of the ar * laid. Upon his de-
mife, Perronet fucceeded as architect, and finilhed the
bridge. As the work advanced, he found that the
crowm of the center rofe ; he then found it fink as re¬
markably, which {howred that there was fome defe6t :
lie inferted the long beam AB, on each fide ; he then
found the frame fufficiently ftiff j for this made a
change in the nature of the ftrut.
Having taken a view' of the practice of the French
architects, as to their form and effeCls, let us direCt
our attention to thofe of our own country, which are
well worthy of notice. We fliall only name fome
that have ufed tradings, and among thefe we find the
center-frame of Blackfriars bridge, fig. 9. The fpan
here is 100 feet •, the form is elliptical, the arch-ftones
from the haunches feven feet, near the key-ftone not
quite fo much, as they decreafe in length from the
haunch to the key-ftone.
A particular defcription of this arch is not necef-
fary ; a view of the figure will ftiow the ufe of the
different parts ; it may be fufficient to obferve, that
when the arch ftone was placed, it had changed its
fliape only one inch, and when the frame w'as taken
out, the arch remained firm without any finking of
of confequence. The great arch did not fink above
one inch, and none of them above an inch and a half;
whereas thofe already mentioned, funk by the fupple¬
nefs of the frame 13 inches, and fome of them 9 inches
more when the frtfme was removed.
Different methods are employed for eafing the frame,
or difengaging it from its w'eiglit. We lhall give
a fhort defcription of Mr Mylne’s method of placing
and difengaging his centre Lame from the mafon work.
Each end of the trufs was mortifed into a plank of oak
cut in the lower part as in the figure $ a fimilar piece
of oak was placed to receive the upper part of the pofts.
The blocks refted upon thefe pofts, but were not mor¬
tifed into them, pieces of wood being interpofed. The
upper part of this block was cut fimilar to the lower
part of the other; the wedge E, being intended to Center,
be driven betwixt them, w’as notched as in the figure,
and filled up wdth fmall pieces of wood, to prevent the
wedge from Hiding back by the weight of the arch j
which, it will appear from the figure, would have
been the cafe : the event proved the fact. When
the centre was to be ftruck, the inferted pieces of
wood wxre taken out, and the wedge which was
prepared for driving back, by being girt wfith a
ferril round the top, was removed by a piece of iron
driven in with the head fo broad as to cover the
whole of the wood. A plank of w'ood w’as prepared
armed wuth iron in the fame manner at the one end,
and fufpended fo that it could freely a£t in driving
back the wedge to any diftance, however fmall, with
certainty. Thus, by an equal gradation, the centre
w^as eafed from the arch, which appeared to have been
fo equally fupported throughout the whole of the ope¬
ration, and the arch ftones fo properly laid, that it did
not fink above one inch 5 and thus it was evident that
the center might be entirely removed, having com¬
pletely anfwered the purpofe.
The above examples may be confidered as fufficient
to ftiow the effefls of the truffed arches, which have
been employed by the French architects. We (hall
now take the liberty of fuggefting fome hints which
may tend to improve the conftruCtion, and remedy the
faults and failures that have occurred in praftice.
Truffed arches for center frames being found expe¬
dient in navigable rivers, and almoft in every river
udiich is apt to be railed by rains, or other rife in the
river, the frame is apt to be endangered or carried off,
to the great rifk of bringing down the arch, and ruin¬
ing the work before it is finifhed. In arches where
there is no fuch danger, the frame may be properly fe«
cured by pofts from below, which are made to abutt
upon thefe parts of the arch, where the greateft ftraiu
muft fall.
In the center ufed by Pitot we have only to com¬
plain of an unneceffary expenditure of wood and work-
manlhip. We have already ftiown what ftrength of
oak is neceffary, and have reduced that ftrength of
oak to an equal ftrength of fir wmod for the ring of
his Lame, which alone ought to have the ftrength re¬
quired to be fully adequate to the load j but as this
weight muft be gradually applied, the frame muft like-
wife have fuch a degree of firmnefs as to form the ex-
a& mould of the arch that is intended, And, for this
purpofe, it muft be prevented from yielding in any
part of its arch. Now', as it has been made to appear,
that the frame fupports no part of the arch till it rife
from the fpring to about 35 degrees, if a femicircle,
and fo in proportion for a fegment of a circle j in an
ellipfe, to a part fimilar according to the nature of that
curve } the fupporting ftruts and ties can be more par¬
ticularly direfted to fupport that part of the arch
which produces the greater ftrain upon the center. In
fig. 2. where the neceffary ftrength for Pitot’s arch is
pointed out, the frame of fir requifite to ftiffen the
frame, is 9I- by 2L The tie-beam Cc is joined to
thofe parts of the arch, where the ftrain being greateft,
would tend moft to raife it in the crowm. The ftrength
of this tie-beam being gi by 2i, and its length 25 feet,
would require a w’eight of 304951b. to make the tranf-
R r 2 verfe
C E N [31
Center, vcrfe fra&ure, one-third of this at the bridle 1,3, is
 v—fufficient to refill the ftrain at that part of the arch :
and the abutment, being according to the principles
laid down under the article Bridge, prevents the pof-
fibility of its rifing at the haunches 5 but if not formed
according to their principles, the two tie-beams C c
Dd are joined by a third tie-beam 2, 2 with its bridle
3, 4. Fig. 4. is Pitot’s centering for his elliptic arch:
the ftrength of fig. 2. may fulfice to this by giving the
ring and tie-beams ^ an inch more depth.
Fig. 6. reprefents two centerings ufed by Perronet;
A is that ufed by him in erecting the bridge at No-
gent, and B that at Maxence; they differ little from
one another. That at Nogent is 90 feet by 28 of
height. The fpan of the latter being greater, we (hall
here confider the weight to be fupported. This is the
arch from A to C, which is an arch of 470 45'. The
meafurement is 42 feet ; the arch-hones 4-I, and fup-
pofing them 3 feet broad, they would amount to 567.9
folid feet, which, at i6o!b. per foot, is equal to
90866.881b. This is little more than one half of the
femicircular arch; and, although it is flatter, the
weight is fo much lefs, that no additional ftrength is
neceflary to be given to the frame, fig. 2. for the 60
feet fpan. There is likewife abundance of ftrength of
materials for the 90 feet arch •, but on the greater ex¬
tent, that it may be rendered more ftiff, a tie-beam
1,4, 3, 4 may be added on each fide of the arch, as
reprefented by the dotted line.
It is fcarcely neceffary to make any farther calcula¬
tions on the centering ufed by Perronet. It appears,
that notwithftanding the fuperabundance of wood em¬
ployed, they were fo fupple as when ufed upon an ex¬
tended arch, they rofe and funk fo much, that the arch
was changed from its intended form by a radius of fe-
veral feet. Thefe changes took place in erefting the
bridges at Nogent and Maxence, which are reprefented
in fig. 6. Perronet, it would appear, was not fatif-
fied with thefe ; and, convinced of their infufficiency,
changed the form of the frame of the bridge at Ne-
uilly. But this form is far from anfwering the purpofe ;
for, when the arch-ftones began to prefs upon the
centering, it yielded to the weight. He then loaded the
crown to prevent its rifing there, but it ftill funk ; he ad¬
ded more weight to the crown, it continued finking as
the work advanced. When the key ftone was fet, it
had funk mure than 13 inches, and it was found to have
raifed the haunches; for when the centering was
flackened, the arch ftill funk for about 9 inches more.
The arch-ftones being raifed at the haunches, the joints
vrere of neceflity opened; for the preffure from the
crown, when the centering wTas removed, forced them
again into contaft, by which the arch flattened to fuch a
degree, that from an arch intended to have a radius of
150 feet, it flattened till part of it was, as if formed
from a radius of 244 feet. It here appeared to be fet¬
tled, from which a confiderable deformity muft ap¬
pear in the ftrmfture *, which deformity took its rife
from two evident caufes : The want of firmnefs in the
centering, and the bridge not properly loaded at the
haunches It is evident, that if the load at the haunches
is only equal to the weight of the arch-ftones from
the place where they begin to reft on the centering to the
crown of the arch, the preflure of the arch could never
6 1
C E N
overcome itfelf or its equal wreight upon the haunches} Center,
much more, if the wreight upon the haunches, be- "v”-
fore it comes to prefs upon the centering, was made
to exceed that part of the arch that did prefs upon it,
the load upon the crown of the arch would have re-
ftored the figure of the centering. It feems to be a
ftrange overfight, that Perronet, when he faw that his
centering wras rifing at the haunches, did not apply his
loading to this part of the arch, by which he might
have reftored it to its equilibrium before his center was
ftruck, and before his lime had loft the band *, if this
is once done, it is allowed, that it does not again re¬
cover it.
From the whole of this it appears evident, that fill¬
ing up the haunches to a proper height, fo as to make
a firm abutment to the prefling part of the arch, ferves
twro good purpofes. It afts as an abutment to the
center frame, in preventing its finking by the load as
the work advances j and likewife prevents the arch-
ftones at the haunches being raifed from their beds j
for it is only afled upon by a force confiderably lefs
than what they have a power to refift. Having now
feen the defeats of this centering, and animadverted
on the manner of executing the work, let us now' ex¬
amine the weight of this arch, and what refiftance
would have prevented its change in fliape, and pre-
ferved its intended form.
The part of the arch that prefles upon the center, is
from C to C, fig. 10. an arch of 36 degrees, and mea-
fures 94^ feet nearly, the ftones 5 feet in length, and
breadth 3, make 1979-035 folid feet, X 160lb. the
weight of a folid foot, make the whole weight
316645.881b. Allow each beam of the trufs to be
7 feet, and its abfolute ftrength, to tear it at 1 2 inches
deep, by one inch thick, 189163 ; the abfolute pow er
of tranfverfe fradfture, 954161b. The ftrength of the
arch is the mean of thefe, or ratio compounded, taking
one-third of each, the geometrical mean is 44285 lb.
that each 7 foot can fuftain when formed into an arch •,
there are 13 times 7 in 94 feet, equal to a power of
582764, to fuftain the weight of 316645.68 if equally
diftributed. But this not being the cafe, a tie-beam
of about 30 feet marked cc, d d, will prevent the arch
yielding to the preflure. It is fupported at e by the
Units E e, h b ; and thefe by the joint fupport of efbf
tied at k. The whole center frame is fupported by the
upright pofts CC, DD. Two wedges A and B are
placed acrofs between tw7o blocks, which are fitted for
a reft to the frame. When it is required to be flacken¬
ed, and the frame withdrawn from the arch, they
allow it to reft by its own preflure. This it muft ap¬
pear obvious, ought to be done w'hen the key-ftone is
fet before the lime has begun to be dry and folid.
The center frame of the bridge of Orleans is repre¬
fented fig. 8. It has been already noticed in this un¬
dertaking, that Perronet fucceeded Hupeau. As the
work advanced, he found the arch and frame to fink,
and trying his ordinary mode of loading the crown of
the arch, he was now taught by experience to ftrengthen
his center frame, and happily fucceeded by continuing
his ftrut. By forming the bafe of the triangle 1, 2, 3,
on each fide, his frame was rendered fufficiently ftiff,
and the inner part below AB, AB became fuperfluous.
The weight that prefles upon this frame is great, both
C E N [31:
Center, on sccount of the flatnefs of the arch, and the length
—v ' of the arch-tfone. The pieffing arch is an arch of 57
degrees; it meafures 88.87 feet, X 6 the length of the
arch-ftone, and by 3 in width, makes 1599.66 fohd
feet X 16olb. the weight of a folid foot, gives 25 5945.61b.
The length of each plank of the trufs being 7 feet,
depth 12 inches by 2 inches thick, the ftrength is
1891631b. The weight for every 7 feet in length of
the arch, one-third of this 63054’-lb. in 88 feet, there
is 12 times 7, that is 63054.3 X_i 2=756,652 lb. to
fupport 255945.61b. more than 3 times ftronger,^ with¬
out taking into account the ftrength of the arch, be¬
ing the mean of the fplitting force and tranfverfe fec-
tion : the tie-beams, as in fig. 7* will be of abundant
ftrength to ftiffen the frame.
The next we take notice of is, the trufs frame, fig. 9*
ufed by Mr Mylne, at Blackfriars bridge, London,
this is fupported by ties and ftruts in fuch a manner,
that no finking took place during the mafon work go¬
ing on, although the arch-ftones at the haunches were
7 feet, gradually leffening to the crown of the arch
and, when the frame was ftruck, which was done by a
very ingenious method, by the wedges of the con-
ftructions as in the figure, in place of finking 9 inches,
it did not fink above 1, which may well be accounted
for by the compreffion of the mortar; whether a
fmaller quantity of materials might not have anfwered
the fame purpofe, fuch as fig. 7. we {hall refer to the
judicious reader, or to the ingenious artift who may
have occafion to depend upon fuch frames for fup¬
port of this work, or a tie beam between 1 and
3 on each fide, reprefented by the dotted line. As there
is a ftrain upon the frame at s, s, let thefe tie-beams be
fupported by the ftruts a 3, b 3 cm each fide, and tied
at 4, 4 as reprefented by the dotted line 4, 4. It does
not appear that what lies between the dotted line
4, 4 bears any part in the fupport or ftifthefs of
the frame, and therefore becomes unneceffary •, nor
does it appear, that the different beams ufed as king-
polls are of fo much advantage for {Lengthening the
frame, as tie-beams would be. At the fame time, thofe
ufed by Mr Mylne are employed with fo much judge¬
ment, that none of their effedlsare mifapplied. This can¬
not be faid of any of the frames ufed by the French
architefls, even of that ufed at the bridge of Orleans.
They are not often employed by the Britilh archi-
te£ls *, they rather prefer a tie-beam at the fpring of
the arch from one fide to the other. This, however,
might be as judicioufly applied at the height where
the arch begins to reft upon the frame, efpecially if
the fhoulders are properly loaded or filled up, fo as
to be a counterpoife to the arch-ftones, that reft upon
the frame. In this cafe they effcdtually prevent the
neceffity of a tie-beam, as a diameter at the fpring of
the arch ; and from the fpring proper fupports may be
given £t the upper tie-beam, and from it to any part of
the arch, where the greateft ftrain lies.
Having from the examples adduced, and the obferva-
tions made upon them, found center-frames of fuffici-
ent ftrength to fupport arches of very extenfive fpans,
and even greater extent than they have yet been ap¬
plied 5 it may be faid, why not continue thefe frames
for the bridge, without the very great additional ex¬
pence of throwing a ftone arch over them ? The ma-
7 ] C E N
fon would anfvver, that the ftone w7as mote durable, Center,
and had other advantages, particularly as to neatnefs, y——
when once thrown, and freed from the uncouth truffes
and tie-beams neceffary in the wooden frame. I he
carpenter would reply, that if wood tvas not fo du¬
rable as ftone, it could be raifed at much Id's expence ;
and, when it failed in any part, it could be replaced at
a (mail expence, and made to laft longer than a ftone
arch 3 which latter, when it fails, requires as much ex¬
pence as at firft, and even more, in clearing off the
rubbifh of its decayed and now ufelefs materials.
As to neatnefs, the irame of wood vies with the arch of
ftone in elegance, and is eredled at half the expence,
and even Ids. But now fince iron materials are in¬
troduced in place of ftone, there is room for experi¬
ments with regard to neatnefs and extent of fpan.
We ftiall here i'uppofe the carpenter exhibits this
plan. Let AB be a fpan of 60 feet, (fig. 11.) the
arch a femicircle, the abfolute ftrength of oak a plank
12 inches by 1 is 1891631b. Let the arch be com-
poled of pieces 5 feet long, 12 inches deep, and 2
inches broad j a fecond arch joining to this, of the fame
depth and breadth in clofe contadt, but the joints of
the one to the middle of the other, like brick-build¬
ing, or as the carpenter’s exprefs it breaking-joint.
The abfolute ftrength of this arch is, before the two
truffes are joined, more than 84 ton, as may be col-
lefted from the calculations above, which is more than
3 times what can ever come upon it. The beauty of
this arch would be hurt by placing ftruts below to
ftiffen it, for which there is not the fmalleft occafion 5
for it can be ftiffened to better advantage above the
arch. But this is not prafticable in center-frames.
Let the road-way be CDEF, refting upon the per¬
pendicular fupport 1, 2, 3, &c. As the carriage
adls upon thele in the oblique diredfion, tranfepts
from the arch in a radial diredlion, give them the ad¬
vantage of equal preffure upon the arch. Each c£
thefe perpendiculars is mortifed into fliort pieces, that
will form into an arch, the pieces all abutting one
upon anothei:, and forming a fillet over the arch, and
projedfing ib far, that the faces of an architrave, of
any order may be formed along the face of the arch,,
which adds both to its ftrength and beauty. Thus
there is formed a rib, 1 2 inches deep and 4 thick, with
its fillet over it 4 inches deep and fix inches broad,
to cover the faces of the architrave. Suppofe the arch
44 feet wide, 7 of thefe ribs may give a ftrength not
inferior to the ftrength of ftone or any metal; but it
will be faid, it will not be fo durable. It is well
knowm how long wTood lafts in the roofs, and joifts of
flooring, and even when it forms a part of the wall
of a houfe built of brick. The interftices between
thefe perpendicular bearings of the wood may be
built up with brick •, even brick on edge, or brick thick,
will render its prefervation equal to what it is in a
houfe, and will preferve it from the bad effedts of wet
and dry ; and the lower part of the ribs covered with
a thin lining. A door being left in the fide to ob-
ferve at different times any failure in the wood, it may
be repaired without interrupting the paflage by the
bridge. It ought to be fo covered above, that w'ater
may be prevented from going through to the inju-ry of
the bridge. It has been formerly mentioned, in fpeak.-
ing
Center.
C E N [3
nig of the proportional ftrength of oak and fir, and by
the calculation it appeared, that fir plank 134 inches,
is equal in ftrength to oak of 12 inches. And thus a
framing of wood does not much exceed the expence
pi centering either a ftone or iron bridge j and is not
inferior even in elegance.
Tne fpan here propofed, is only 60 feet. But an arch
of 600 feet may be required, which muft have a center¬
ing to fupport the weight and preferve the figure j the
fize of that center frame can be made of ftrength equal
and e/en to exceed the weight it has to fupport. It
Can be rendered ftiff by the method propofed for the
60 feet arch. I his, therefore, will be a bridge that
will fupport any weight that can be laid upon it, and
may be of any figure, elliptical, or at the pleafure of
the architect, any other curve which may be required.
It may be framed in a fimilar manner to thofe formed
of iron, but it is natural to fuppoie that one arch over
the other will be equally ftrong and more eafily pre¬
ferred from the weather, conftrufted in the way de-
fcribed above.
In the fimple wooden bridges not curved, it is only
neceflary to refer to fig. 7. where the flrnts Er,/, hg,
wftl be a fupport for planks, that will form a ftraight
bridge, joining fo many ribs as are neceffary for the
bridge according to its breadth.
The joints may be fecured from opening by dove¬
tailed pieces being mfeited acrofs the joints on the in-
iide of the rib ; the abutments prevent the ends of
the arch from flying out. The preffure above coming
upon it obliquely, may be faid to tend to make it rife
at the mown, efpecially when of a great fpan. In the
center-frame, the only manner of preventing this is
oy ftruts and tie-beams judicioufly applied. Here the
rife may be prevented more effedlually without hurt-
ing the ornamental part of the arch. In the abutment,
which muft be of mafon-work, let a beam be built in¬
to the wall, the ends at G and K projecting 1 foot,
correfponding to each rib, the road-way formed by the
beam 1)E, let a tie-beam GD, KE, join thefe in the
manner the carpenter knows to be the moft fecure j
from this tie-oeam, let the radial ftruts be mortifed in¬
to the fillets at G, Iv, formerly deferibed, inftead of the
perpendiculars there named, and perpendiculars join¬
ing the roadway CDEF, and refting on the tie-beam
GD, KE, fupported by the radial ftruts 4, 5, 6, as
in the figure. _ Thus the crown of the arch cannot
life without lifting up the whole body of the abut¬
ment at each end, and it cannot fink till the weight
laid upon it is fufficient to crufh the materials of which
the arch is compofed. In this manner a neat and ele¬
gant arch is procured, that may at a fmall comparative
expence be kept up for centuries. Here is then a
choice of three ipecies of arches, that may vie with
each other m point of ftrength. With the laft none
may compare in point of elegance, and in duration
perhaps not inferior to the iron bridge.
Center of Gravity, in Mechanics, that point about
which all the parts of a body do in any fituation exad-
ly balance each other.
Center of Motion, that point which remains at reft
while all the other parts of a body move about it. ’
Center of a Sphere, a point in the middle, from
which all lines drawn to the furface are equal.
18 ] C E N
Hermes THfmegiftus defines God an intelleaual Ccr.to'ma
fphere, wdiofe center is everywhere, and circumference
nowhere.
CENTESIMA usura, that wherein the intereftin
a bundled months became equal to the principal, i. e.
where the money is laid out at one percent, per month *
anfwering to what in our ftyle would be called 12 per¬
cent. for the Romans reckoned their intereft not by
the year, but by the month.
CENTESIMATION, a milder kind of military
punifliment in cafes of defertion, mutiny, and the like
when only every hundredth man is executed.
CENTILOQUIUM, denotes a colleclion of xco
fentences, opinions, or layings.
The centiloquium of Hermes contains 100 apho-
rifms, or aftrological fentences, fuppofed to have been
written by feme Arab, falfely fathered on Hermes
Trifmegiftus. It is only extant in Latin, in which it
has feveral times been printed.—The centiloquium of
Ptolemy is a famous aftrological piece, frequently con¬
founded with the former, conlifting likewife of ico
fentences or dodrines, divided into Ihort aphorifms
entitled alfo in Greek as being the fruit or re-
fult of the former waitings of that celebrated aftrono-
mer, viz. his quadripartitum and almagcjium ; or rather,
by reafon that herein is Ihown the ufe of aftrological
calculations.
CENT IPES, in Zoology. See Scolopendra.
CENTIPED worm, a term uied for fuch worms
as have a great many feet, though the number does
not amount to 100, as the term feems to import.—
M. Malouet relates the hiftory of a man, wTo, for
three years, had a violent pain in the lower part of
the forehead near the root of the nofe $ at length he
felt an itching, and afterwards fomething moving with¬
in his noftril, which he brought aw?ay with his finger ;
it was a worm of the centiped kind, an inch and a
half long, which run fwiftly. It lived five or fix days
among tobacco. The patient was free of his pain
ever after. Mr Littre mentioned a like cafe in 1708,
of a larger centiped voided at the noife, after it had’
thrown the woman, in whofe frontal finus it was, into
convulfions, and had almoft deprived her of her rea¬
fon.
CENT LIVRE, Susanna, a celebrated comic wri¬
ter, was the daughter of Mr Freeman of Holbeach,
in Lincolnlhire j and had fuch an early turn for poe¬
try, that it is faid Ihe wrote a fong , before Ihe was
feven years old. Before (he was twelve years of age,
ftie could not only read Moliere in French, but enter
into the fpirit of all the charafters. Her father dying,
left her to the care of a ftep-motber, whofe treatment
not being agreeable to her, ftie determined, though al¬
moft deftitute of money and every other neceflary, to
go up to London to feek a better fortune than what
flie had hitherto experienced. As the was proceeding
on her journey on foot, Ihe was met by a young gen¬
tleman from the univerfity of Cambridge, the after¬
wards well-known Anthony Hammond, Efq. who was
fo extremely ftruck with her youth and beauty, that
he fell inftantly in love with her; and inquiring into
the particulars of her ftory, foon prevailed upon her
unexperienced innocence to feize on the prote&ion he
offered her, and go with him to Cambridge. After
fome
Centlivre.
rifitr C XX XIX,
GEM [ 3
Centner, foma months cohabitation, he perfuaded her to come
 to London, where in a fhort time, ihe was married
to a nephew of Sir Stephen Fox. But that gentleman
not living with her above a twelvemonth, her wit and
beauty foon procured her a fecond hulband, whofe
name was Carrol, and who was an officer in the army j
but he having the misfortune to be killed in a duel
about a year and a half after their marriage, flie be¬
came a fecond time a widow. For the fake of fupport
(he now applied to her pen, and became a votary of
the mufes *, and it is under this name of Carrol that
fome of her earlier pieces were publiflied. Her firft
attempt was in tragedy, in a play called the Perjured
Hujband; yet natural vivacity leading her afterwards
to comedy, w^e find but one more attempt in the buf-
kin, among 18 dramatic pieces which Ihe afterwards
wrote.
In 1706, flie wounded the heart of one Mr Jofeph
Centlivre, yeoman of the mouth, or in other words
principal cook to her majefty, who married her; and,
after paffing feveral years happily together, flie died
at his houfe in Spring Garden, Charing-Crofs, in De¬
cember 1723.
This lady for many years enjoyed the intimacy and
efteem of the moft eminent wits of the times, viz. Sir
Richard Steele, Mr Rowe, Budgell, Farquhar, Dr
Sewell, &c.; and very few authors received more to¬
kens of efteem and patronage from the great. With
regard to her merit as a writer, it muft be allowed
that her plays do not abound with wit, and that the
language of them is fometimes even poor, enervate, in-
correft, puerile 5 but then her plots are bufy and well
conducled, and her characiees in general natural and
well marked.
CENTNER, or Docimastic Hundred, in Me¬
tallurgy and Ajfaying, is a weight divifible, firft into a
hundred, and thence into a greater number of other
fmaller parts ; but though the word is the fame both
with the aflayers and metallurgifts, yet it is to be un-
derftood as expreffing a very different quantity in their
different acceptation of it. The weights of the metal¬
lurgifts are eafily underftood, as being of the common
proportion ; but thofe of the aflayers are a thoufand
times fmaller than thefe, as the portions of metals or
ores examined by the aflayers are ufually very fmall.
The metallurgifts, who extra# metals out of their
ores, ufe a weight divided into a hundred equal parts,
each part a pound \ the whole they call a centner or
hundred weight; the pound is divided into thirty-two
parts, or half ounces •, and the half ounce into two
quarters of ounces, and thefe each into twm drachms.
Thefe divifions and denominations of the metallur¬
gifts are eafily underftood j but the fame words, though
they are equally ufed by aflayers, with them e.xprefs
very different quantities ; for as the centner of the
metallurgifts contains a hundred pounds, the centner
of the aflayers is really no more than one dram, to
which the other parts are proportioned.
As the aflayers weights are divided into fuch an ex¬
treme degree of minutenefs, and are fo very different
from all the common weights, the affayers ufually
make them themfelves in the following manner, out of
fmall filver, or fine folder plates, of fuch a fize, that the
mark of their weight, according to the divifion of the
19 ] GEN
dram, which is the docimajlic or affaying centner, may
be put upon them. They firft take for a bafis one
weight, being about two-thirds of a common dram :
this they mark (641b.) Then having at hand lorne
granulated lead, walhed clean, well dried, and lifted
very fine, they put as much of it into one of the fmall
diflies of a fine balance as will equipoife the (641b.)
as it is called,, juft mentioned : then dividing this gra¬
nulated lead into very nice halves, in the two feales,
a iter taking out the firft filver weight, they obtain a
perfe# equilibrium between the two" feales 5 they then-
pour the granulated lead out of one difti of the feales,
and inftead of it put in another filver weight, which
they make exactly equiponderant with the lead in the
other fcale, and mark it (321b.) If this fecond weight
when firft put into the fcale, exceed by much the
weight of the lead, they take a little from it by a very
fine file ; but when it comes very near, they uie only a
whetftone to wear off an extremely fmall portion at a
time. When it is brought to be perfectly even and
equal to the lead, they change the feales to fee that no
error has.been committed, and then go on in the fame
manner till they have made all the divifions, and all
the fmall w-eights. Then to have an entire centner or
hundred weight, they add to the (641b.) as they call
it, a 321b. and a 4II0. and weighing againft them one
fmall weight, they make it equal to them, and mark it
(100.) ! his is the docimaftical, or allaying centner,
and is really one dram.
CENTO, in poetry, a work wholly compofed of
verfes or paflages promifeuoufly taken from other au¬
thors, only dir- ''-'d in a new form and order.—Pro-
ba Falconia *. .tten the life of Jefus Chfift in cen¬
tos taken from Virgil. Alexander Rofs has done the
like in his Chriftiados, and Stephen de Pleure the
fame.
CENTONARII, in antiquity, certain of the Ro¬
man army, who provided different forts of fluff called
centones, made ufe of to quench the fire which the
enemy’s engines threw into the camp.
Thefe centonarii kept with the carpenters and other
officers of artillery.
CENTRAL forces, the powers which caufe a
moving body to tend towards, or recede from, the
centre of motion. See Mechanics.
Central Rule, a rule difeovered by Mr Thomas
Baker, whereby to find the centre of a circle defigned
to cut the parabola in as many points as an equation
to.be conftrufted hath real roots. Its principal ufe
is in the conftruftion of equations, and he hath applied
it wdth good fuccefs as far as biquadratics.
The central rule is chiefly founded on this property
of the parabola, that, if a line be inferibed in that
curve [perpendicular to any diameter, a redangle
formed of the fegments of the infeript is equal to the
rectangle of the intercepted diameter and parameter of
the axis.
The central rule has the advantage over Carter and
De Latere’s methods of conftrudfing equations, in
that both thefe are fubje# to the trouble of preparing
the equation by taking away the fecond term.
CENTRIF UGAL force, that force by which all
bodies that move round any other body in a curve en¬
deavour to fly off from the axis of their motion in a
tangent
Cent's
(!
Cemrifli-
gal-
GEN
Centrifu- tangent to tlie periphery of the curve
gal-Ma- every part of it. See Mechanics.
cii!ne' , CKNTRiFUGAL-Machine, a very curious machine, in¬
vented by Mr Erfkine, for raifing water by means of
•a centrifugal force combined with the prefiure of the
atmofphere.
It confifts of a large tube of copper, &c. in the form
of a crofs, which is placed perpendicular in the water,
and reds at the bottom on a pivot. At the upper
part of the tube is a horizontal cog-wheel, which
touches the cogs of another in a vertical pofition ; fo
that by the help of a double winch, the whole ma¬
chine is moved round with very great velocity.
Near the bottom of the perpendicular part of the
tube is a valve opening upwards •, and near the two
extremities, but on the contrary fides of the arms, or
crofs part of the tube, are two other valves opening
outwards. Thefe two valves are, by the afliftance
of fprings, kept flrut till the machine is put in motion,
when the centrifugal velocity of the water forces them
open, and difcharges itfelf into a ciftern or refervoir
placed there for that purpofe.
On the upper part of the arms are two holes, which
are clofed by pieces fcrewing into the metal of the
tube. Before the machine can work, thofe holes muft
be opened, and water poured in through them, till
the wdrole tube be full: by this means all the air will
be forced out of the machine, and the water fupport-
ed in the tube by means of the valve at the bottom.
The tube being thus filled with w’ater, and the
holes clofed by the ferew caps, it is turned round by
means of the winch, when the wrater in the arms of
the tube acquires a centrifugal force, opens the valves
near the extremities of the arms, and flies out wfith a
velocity nearly equal to that of the extremities of the
faid arms.
The above defeription will be very eafily underftood
by the figure we have added on Plate CXXXVII.
which is a perfpeftive view' of the centrifugal machine,
crefted on board a {hip. ABC is the copper tube.
D, a horizontal cog-wheel, furnifhed with twelve cogs.
E, a vertical cog wheel, furniflied with thirty-fix cogs.
F, F, the double winch, a, the valve near the bot¬
tom of the tube, b, b, the two pivots on which the
machine turns, r, one of the valves in the crofs-piece;
the other at d, cannot be feen in this figure, being on
the other fide of the tube, e, <?, the two holes through
which the water is poured into the machine. GH, the
ciftern or refervoir. I, I, part of the {hip’s deck.
The diftance between the two valves, c, d, is fix feet.
The diameter of thefe valves is about three inches $
and that of the perpendicular tube about feven inches.
If w'e fuppofe the men w’ho work the machines can
turn the winch round in three feconds, the machine
will move round its axis in one fecond 5 and confe-
quently each extremity of the arms will move wdth a
velocity of 18.8 feet in a fecond. Therefore a column
of water of three inches diameter will iffue through
each of the valves with a velocity of 18.8 feet in a fe-
rond : but the area of the aperture of each of the valves
is 7.14 inches ; which being multiplied by the velocity
in inchesrrzzj.fi, gives 1610.784 cubic inches, the
quantity of W’ater difeharged through one of the aper¬
tures in one fecond $ fo that the whole quantity dif¬
eharged in that fpace of time through both the aper-
Z
[ 320 ] 0 E N'
and that in tures is —3221.568 inches; or 193294.08 cubic inches Centripetal
in one minute. But 60812 cubic inches makes a tun, II
beer-meafure ; confequently, if wre fuppofe the centri- i^ent^ir*on>
fugal machine revolves round its axis in one fecond, it
will raife nearly 3 tuns 44 gallons in one minute : but
this velocity is certainly too great, at leaft to be held
for any confiderable time ; fo that, when this and other
deficiencies in the machine are allowed for, two tuns
is nearly the quantity that can be raifed by it in one
minute.
It will perhaps be unneceffary to obferve, that as
the water is forced up the perpendicular tube by the
prefiure of the atmofphere, this machine cannot raife
water above 32 feet high.
An attempt was made to fubftitute this machine in
place of the pumps commonly ufed on fiiip-board ; but
the labour of working was found to be fo great as to
render the machine inferior to the chain-pump. A
confiderable improvement, we apprehend, would be, to
load with a wxight of lead the ends of the tubes
through which the water iffues, which would make the
machine turn with a great deal more eafe, as thcj cen¬
trifugal force of the lead would in fome meafure aft the
part of a fly.
CENTRIPETAL force, that force by which a
body is everywhere impelled, or any how tends, to¬
wards fome point as a centre. See Mechanics.
CENTRISCUS, in Ichthyology, a genus of fifties be¬
longing to the order of amphibia nantes. See Ichthy¬
ology Index.
CENTRONIA, in Natural Hijlory, a name by
which the echini marini have been diftinguiftied. Dr
Hill makes them a diftinft clafs of animals living under
the defence of fiielly coverings formed of one piece,
and furniftied with a vaft number of fpines moveable at
the creature’s pleafure.
CENTUMCELLriE, in Ancient Geography, Tra¬
jan’s villa in Tufcany, on the coaft, three miles from
Algae ;■ with an excellent port, called Trajanus Portus,
(Ptolemy) ; and a faftitious ifland at the mouth of the
port, made with a huge block of ftone, on which two
turrets rofe, with two entrances into the bafon or har¬
bour, (Rutilius). Now Civita Vecchia. E. Long. 12.
30. N. Lat. 420.
CENTUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, judges ap¬
pointed to decide common caufes among the people :
They were chofen three out of each tribe ; and though
five more than a hundred, were nevetthelefs called cen-
tumviri, from the round number centum a hundred.
CENTUNCULUS. See Botany Index.
CENTURION, among the Romans, an officer in
the infantry, who commanded a century, or a hun¬
dred men.
In order to have a proper notion of the centurions,
it muft. be remembered, that every one of the thirty
manipuli * in a legion was divided into two ordines, or # See it/*..
ranks ; and confequently the three bodies of the ha- nifulut.
ftati, principes, and triarii, into 20 orders a piece, as
into 10 manipuli. Now, every manipulus was allowed
two centurions, or captains, one to each order or cen¬
tury : and, to determine the point of priority between
them, they were created at two different eleftions.
The 30 who were made firft always took the precedency
of their fellows; and therefore commanded the right-
hand orders, as the others did the left. The triarii.
or
.
X
i
\
C E N [ 321 ] CEO
Centuripre, or pilani. To called from their weapon the pilum, being
Century. efteemed the moil; honourable, had their centurions
' v ' glebed firft, next to them the principes, and afterwards
the haftati ; whence they were called primus et fecundus
piius, primus el fecundus princeps, primus etfecundus hcfla-
tus ; and fo on. Here it may be obferved, that primi
ordines is fometimes ufed in hiftorians for the centu¬
rions of thefe orders*, and the centurions are fome¬
times ftyled principes ordinum, and principes centurionum.
We may take notice too what a large field there lay
for promotion : firft through all the orders of the ha-
liati ; then quite through the principes ; and afterwards
from the laft order of the triarii to the primipilus, the
taoft honourable of the centurions, and who deferves
to be particularly defcribed. This officer, befides his
title of primipilus, went under the feveral titles of dux
legionis, prafecius legionis, primus centurionum, and pri¬
mus ccnturio ; and was the firft centurion of the triarii
in every legion. He prefided over all the other centu¬
rions, and generally gave the word of command by or¬
der of the tribunes. Befides this he had the care of
the eagle or chief ftandard of the legion : hence,
aquiU prceejfe, is to bear the dignity of primipilus;
and hence aquila is taken by Pliny for the faid office.
Nor was this ftation only honourable, but very profit¬
able too : for he had a fpecial ftipend allowed him, pro¬
bably as much as a knight’s eftate ; and, when he left
that charge, was reputed equal to the members of the
equeftrian order, bearing the title of primipilarius, in
the fame manner as thofe who had difcharged the
greateft civil offices were ftyled ever after, confulares,
cenforn, is’c.
CENTURIPiE, Centoripa, or Centuripe, in
Ancient Geography, a town in the fouth-weft of the ter¬
ritory of Etna, on the river Cyamaforus: Now Centorbi,
or Centurippi. It was a democratical city, which, like
Syracufe, received its liberty from Timoleon. Its in¬
habitants cultivated the fine arts, particularly fculpture
and engraving. In digging for the remains of antiqui¬
ties, cameos are nowhere found in fuch abundance as
at Centurippi and its environs. The fituation of the
place is romantic : it is built on the fummit of a vaft
group of rocks, which was probably chofen as the moft
difficult of accefs, and confequently the propereft in
times of civil commotion. The remains Hill exifting
of its ancient bridge are a proof of its having been a
confiderable city. Cicero fpeaks of it as fuch. It was
taken by the Romans, plundered and opprefled by
Verres, deftroyed by Pompey, and reftored by Ocla-
vius, who made it the refidence of a Roman colony.
CENTURY, in a general fenfe, any thing divided
into, or confifting of, a hundred parts.
The marquis of Worcefter publilhed a Century of
Inventions, (for a fpecimen of which, fee Acoustics,
and Dr Hooke has given a decimate of inventions, as
part of a Century, of which he affirmed himfelf mafter.
It is remarkable, that both in the century of the form¬
er, and the decimate of the latter, we find the princi¬
ple on which Savary’s fire or fleam engine is founded.
See SrSAM-Enghie.
Century, in antiquity. The Roman people, when
they were affembled for the ele&ing of magiftrates,
enabling of laws, or deliberating upon any public af¬
fair, were always divided into centuries, and voted by
centuries, in order that their votes might be the more
Vol. V. Part I.
eafily collefted, whence thefe affemblies were called Century
cqmitia centuriata. The Roman cohorts were alio di-
vided into centuries. See Centurion and Cohort. .
Century, in Chronology, the fpace of 100 years.
This method of computing by centuries is generally
obferved in church hiftory, commencing from the time
of our Saviour’s incarnation : in which lenfe we fay
the firft century, the fecond century, &c.
Centuries of Magdeburg, a famous ecclefiaftical
hiftory, ranged into 13 centuries, carried down to the
year 1298, compiled by feveral hundred proteftants of
Magdeburg, the chief of whom was Flacius Illyricus.
CENTUSSIS in Roman antiquity, a coin contain¬
ing 100 affes.
CENTZONTLI, in Ornithology, the Mexican
name of the Yurdus polyglottus. See I Urdus, Orni¬
thology Index.
CEODES, in Botany : A genus of the dioecia or¬
der, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants. There
is no calyx 5 the corolla is monopetalous, with a ftiort
turbinated tube the ftamina are ten fubulated fila¬
ments *, the antherae roundifh.
CEORLES, the name of one of the claffes or or¬
ders into which the people were diftinguiihed among
the Anglo-Saxons. The ceorles, who were perfons
completely free, and defcended from a long race of
freemen, conftituted a middle clafs between the la¬
bourers and mechanics (who were generally Haves, or
defcended from Haves), on the one hand, and the no¬
bility on the other. They might go where they plea-
fed, and purfue anyway of life that was moft agreeable
to their humour ; but fo many of them applied to agri¬
culture, and farming the lands of the nobility, that
a ceorl was the moft common name for a huftmidman
or farmer in the Anglo-Saxon times. Thefe ceorls,
however, feem in general to have been a kind of gentle¬
men farmers 5 and if any one of them profpered fo
well as to acquire the property of five hydes of land,
upon which he had a church, a kitchen, a bell-houfe,
and great gate, and obtained a feat and office in the
king’s court, he was efteemed a nobleman or thane.
If a ceorl applied to learning, and attained to prieft’s
orders, he was alfo confidered as a thane 5 his were-
gild, or price of his life, was the fame, and his tefti-
mony had the fame weight in a court of juftice. When
he applied to trade, and made three voyages beyond
fea, in a ftiip of his own, and with a cargo belonging
to himfelf, he was alfo advanced to the dignity of a
thane. But if a ceorl had a greater propenfity to arms
than to learning, trade, or agriculture, he then became
the fithcunman, or military retainer, to Tome potent
and warlike earl, and tvas called the hufcarle of fuch an
earl. If one of thefe hufcarles acquitted himfelf fo
well as to obtain from his patron either five hydes of
land, or a gilt fword, helmet, and breaftplate, as a re¬
ward of his valour, he was likewife confidered as a
thane. Thus the temple of honour flood open to thefe
ceorls, whether they applied themfelves to agriculture,
commerce, letters, or arms, which were then the only
profeffions efteemed worthy of a freeman.
CEOS, Cea, Cia, or Cos, in Ancient Geography,
one of the Cyclades, lies oppofite to the promontory
of Achaia called Sunium, and is 50 miles in compals.
This ifland is commended by the ancients for its fertility
and the richnefs of its paftures. The firft filk fluffs, if
S f Pliny
Ceos
Cephalic
CEP [3
Pliny and Solinus are to be credited, were wrought
Ceos was particularly famous for the excellent
22
1
C E R
he
ViCJJJIrtITC r • JIT -
Medicines, "g5 n produced. It was firft peopled by Aridaeus, the
s——v—fon of Apollo and Cyrene, who being grieved for the
death of his fon A6Iaeon, retired from Thebes, at the*
perfualion of his mother, and went over with fome
Thebans to Ceos, at that time uninhabited. Diodorus
Siculus tells us, that he retired to the ifland of Cos 5
but the ancients, as Servius obferves, called both thele
illands by the name of Cos. Be that as it will, the
illand of Ceos became fo populous, that a law prevail¬
ed there, commanding all perfons upwards of fixty to
be poifoned, that others might be able to fubfift ; fo
that none above fixty were to be feen in the ifland,
being obliged, alter they arrived at that age, either to
fubmit to the law, or abandon the country, together
with their eflefts. Ceos had, in former times, four fa¬
mous cities, viz. Julis, Carthaea, Coreflus, and Prse-
efla. I he two latter were, according to Pliny, fwal-
lowed up by an earthquake. The other two flourilhed
in Strabo’s time. Carthaea flood on a riling ground,
at the end of a valley, about three miles from the fea.
The fituation of it agrees with that of the prefent town
of Zea, which gives name to the whole ifland. The
ruins both of Carthaea and Julis are flill remaining ;
thole of the latter take up the whole mountain, and are
called by the modern inhabitants Polis, that is, the city.
Near this place are the ruins of a ftately temple, with
many pieces of broken pillars, and flatues of moft ex-
quifite workmanlhip. The walls of the city were of
marble, and fome pieces are flill remaining above 12
feet in length. Julis was, according to Strabo, the
birth-place of Simonides, Bacchylides, Erafiftratus,
and Arifto. The Oxford marbles tell us, that Simo¬
nides, the fon of Leoprepis, invented a fort of artificial
memory, the principles of which he explained at A-
thens ; and add, that he was defcended of another Si¬
monides, who was a poet no lefs renowned than him-
felf. One of thefe two poets invented thofe melan¬
choly verfes which were fung at funerals, and are cal¬
led by the Latins ncenice. Strabo fays, that the Athe¬
nians, having befieged the city of Julis, raifed the
fiege, upon advice that the inhabitants had refolved to
murder all the children under a certain age, that ufe-
ful perfons might not be employed in looking after
them. Ceos was, with the other Greek iflands, fub-
dued by the Romans, and beftowed upon the Athe¬
nians by Mark Antony the triumvir, together with
iEgina, Tinos, and fome other adjoining iflands, which
were all reduced to one Roman province by Veipafian.
The ifland is now called Xea.
CEPA, the onion. See Allium, Botany Index.
CEPHALANTHUS, button wood. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CEPHALIC, in a general meaning, fignifies any
thing belonging to the head.
Cephalic Medicines, are remedies for diforders of
the head. Cordials are comprehended herein, as are
alfo whatever promotes a free circulation of the blood
through the brain.
Except when the diforder arifes from excefs of heat,
or an inflammatory difpofition in the head, moifl to-
picals fhould never be ufed, but always dry ones.
To rub the head after it is fhaved proves an inftan-
taneous cure for a cephalalgia, a fluffing of the head,
and a tveaknefs of the eyes, arifing from a weak and Cephalic
relaxed ftate of the fibres. And as by every freflr Vein
evacuation of the humours their quantity is not only p.r^m
leflened, but alfo their recrementitious parts derived . '
thither, the more frequently the head is fhaved, the
larger quantity of humour is difeharged ; fo that the
frequent (having^ of the head and beard is likewife a
perpetual blifter 5 and in as much as it is ufeful, it is a
cephalic.
Cephalic Vein, in Anatomy, creeps along the arm
between the Ikin and the mufcles, and divides it into
two branches; the external goes down to the wrifl,
where it joins the bafilica, and turns up to the back of
the hand ; the internal branch, together with a fmall
one of the bafilica, makes the mediana.
The ancients ufed to open this vein for diforders of
the head, for which reafon it bears this name ; but a
better acquaintance with the circulation of the blood
informs us that there is no foundation for fuch a no¬
tion.
CEPHALENIA, or Cephallenia, an ifland of
the Ionian fea, between Ithaca and Zacynthus, known
in Homer’s time by the names of Samos and Epirus
Melsena, is about eighty miles in length, forty in
breadth, and a hundred and thirty in compafs. It had
anciently four cities, one of which bore the name of
the ifland. Strabo tells us, that in his time there were
only two cities remaining ; but Pliny fpeaks of three 5
adding, that the ruins of Same, which had been de-
flroyed by the Romans, were ftill in being. Same
was the metropolis of the ifland, and is fuppofed to
have flood in the place which the Italians- call Porto
Guifcardo. The names of the four cities w ere, accord¬
ing^ to Thucydides, Same, Prone, Cranii, and Palm.
This ifland w-as fubdued by the Thebans, under the
conduft of Amphitryo, who is faid to have killed Pte-
relas, wffio then reigned here. While Amphitryo
was carrying on the w^ar in Cephalenia, then called
Samos, one Cephalus, a man of great diftin&ion at
Athens, having accidentally killed his wife Procris in
flrooting at a deer, fled to Amphitryo, who, pitying
his cafe, not only received him kindly, but made
him governor of the ifland, wffiich henceforth was
called Cephalenia. After it had been long in fubjec-
tion to the Thebans, it fell under the power of the
Macedonians, and was taken from them by the i£to-
lians, who held it till it was reduced by M. Fulvius
Nobilior, who having gained the metropolis after a
four months fiege, fold all the citizens for flaves, ad¬
ding the whole ifland to the dominions of the republic.
Now called Cephalonia.
CEPHALON1A, the capital of an ifland of the
fame name, fituated in the Mediterranean, near the
coafl of Epirus, and fubjeft to the Venetians. E. Long.
21. N. Lat. 30. 30.
CEPHEUS, in fabulous hiftory, a king of Arcadia,
on w’hofe head Minerva faftening one of Medufa’s
hairs, he was rendered invincible.
Cepheus, in AJironomy, a conftellation of the north¬
ern hermfphere. See Astronomy, N° 406.
CERAM, an ifland in the Indian ocean, between
the Molucca iflands on the north, and thofe of Am-
boyna and Banda on the fouth, lying between E.
Long. 126. and 129. in S. Lat. 3. It is about
150 miles long, and 60 broad 3 and here the Dutch
have
C E R [ 323 ] ‘ G E R
Cefambyx have a fortrefs, which keeps the natives in fubjec-
II tion.
, "er ierus', CERAMBYX, in Zoology, a genus of infefts of
the beetle kind, belonging to the order of infe&s co-
leoptera. See Entomology Index.
CERASTES, in Zoology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of Anguis and Coluber. See Ophiology
Index.
CERASTIUM, mouse-ear. See Botany Index.
CERASUS. See Prunus, Botany Index.
CERATE, in Pharmacy, a thickilh kind of oint¬
ment, applied to ulcerations, excoriations, &c. See
Pharmacy Index.
CERATION, the name given by the ancients to
the fmall feeds of ceratonia, ufed by the Arabian phy-
ficians as a weight to adjuft the dofes of medicines j
as the grain weight with us took its rife from a grain
of barley.
Ceration, or ceratium, was alfo a lilver coin, equal
to one-third of an obolus.
CERATOCARPUS. See Botany Index.
CERATONIA, the Carob Tree, or St 'John's
bread. See Botany Index. The pods of this plant
are called St John's bread, from an ill-founded affer-
tion of fome writers on Scripture, that thefe were the
locurts which St John ate with his honey in the wilder-
nefs.
CERATOPHYLLUM. See Botany Index.
CERAUNIA, Ceraunias, or Ceraunius La¬
pis, in Natural Hijlory, a fort of flinty ifone, of no
certain colour, but of a pyramidal or wedge-like fi¬
gure ; popularly fuppofed to fall from the clouds in the
time of thunder-fiorms, and to be pofleffed of divers
notable virtues, as promoting lleep, preferving from
lightning, &c. The word is from the Greek
thunderbolt. The ceraunia is the fame with what is
otherwife called the thunder-ftone, or thunder-bolt 5
and alfo fometimes fagitta, or arrow’s-head, on ac¬
count of its Chape. The cerauniae are frequently con¬
founded with the ombriae and brontiae, as being all
fuppofed to have the fame origin. The generality
of naturalifts take the ceraunia for a native ftone,
formed among the pyrites, of a faline, concrete, mi¬
neral juice. Mercatus and Dr Woodward affert it to
be artificial, and to have been falhioned thus by tools.
The ceraunia, according to thefe authors, are the heads
of the ancient weapons of war, in ufe before the in¬
vention of iron ; which, upon the introduftion of that
metal, growing into difufe, were difperfed in the fields
through this and the neighbouring country. Some
of them had poffibly ferved in the early ages for axes,
others for wedges, others for chiffels ; but the greater
part for arrovr-heads, darts, and lances. The cerau¬
nia is alfo held by Pliny for a white or cryflal-coloured
gem, that attrafted lightning to itfelf. What this
w^as, is hard to fay. Prudentius alfo fpeaks of a yel¬
low" ceraunia j by which he is fuppofed to mean the
carbuncle or pyropus.
CERBERA See Botany Index.
CERBERUS, in fabulous hiftory, a dreadful three¬
headed maftiff, born of Typhon and Echidna, and pla¬
ced to guard the gates of hell, He fawned upon thofe
who entered, but devoured all wdro attempted to get
back. He vras, however, maftered by Hercules, who
dragged him up to the earth, when, in ftruggling, a
foam dropped from his mouth, which produced the Cerec'e
poifonous herb called aconite or wolf's-bane. f
Some have fuppofed that Cerberus is the fymbol of. erc^a ia,'
the earth, or of all-devouring time; and that its three
mouths reprefent the prefent, pall, and future. The
viftory obtained by Hercules over this monlter de¬
notes the conqueft which this hero acquired over his
paffions. Dr Bryant fuppofes that Cerberus w^as the
name of a place, and that it fignified the temple of
the Sun ; deriving it from Kir Abor. the place of light.
This temple wras alfo called Tor-Caph El, which was
changed to rgnorpaA*? ; and hence Cerberus w'as fup¬
pofed to have had three heads. It was likewife called
Eor-Keren, ’Turns Regia ; whence from
three, and kx^vov, head.
CERCELE, in Heraldry: a crofs cercele is a crofs
which, opening at the ends, turns round both ways like
a ram’s horn. See Cross.
CERC1S, the Judas-tree. See Botany Index.
CERCOPITHECI, in Natural Hiftory, the name
given by Mr Ray to monkeys, or the clafs of apes with
long tails. See Simia, Mammalia Index.
CERDA, John Lewis de la, a learned Jefuit of
Toledo, wrote large commentaries on Virgil, which
have been much efteemed ; alfo feveral other works.
He died in 1643, aged 80.
CERDONIANS, ancient heretics, who maintained
moft of the errors of Simon Magus, Saturninus, and
the Manichees. They took ,their name from their
leader Cerdon, a Syrian, wLo came to Rome in the
time of Pope Hyginus, and there abjured his errors ;
but in appearance only; for he wTas afterwards con¬
victed of perfifting in them, and accordingly calf out
of the church again. Cerdon afferted turn principles,
the one good and the other evil : this laft, according
to him, was the creator of the world, and the god that
appeared under the old law^. The firft, whom he call¬
ed unknown, w^as the father of Jefus Chritt ; who, he
taught, was incarnate only in appearance, and was
not born of a virgin; nor did he fuffer death but in
appearance. He denied the refurreCtion, and rejected
all the books of the Old Teftament, as coming from
an evil principle. Marcion, his difciple, fucceeded
him in his errors.
CEREALIA, in Antiquity, feafis of Ceres, inflitut-
ed by Triptolemus, fon of Celeus king of Eleufine in
Attica, in gratitude for his having been inftrufted by
Ceres, who was fuppofed to have been his nurfe, in
the art of.cultivating corn and making bread.
There w-ere two feafis of this kind at Athens ; the
one called Eleufnia, the other Thefmophoria. See the
article Eleusinia. What both agreed in, and was
common to all the cereaha, was, that they were cele¬
brated wdth a world of religion and purity ; fo that
it was efteemed a great pollution to meddle, on thofe
days, in conjugal matters. It was not Ceres alone
that was honoured here, but alfo Bacchus. The vic¬
tims offered were hogs, by reafon of the wafte they
make in the produfts of the earth : whether there
wras any wane offered or not, is matter of much de¬
bate among the critics. Plautus and Macrobius feem
to countenance the negative fide ; Cato and Virgil the
pofitive. Macrobius fays, indeed, they did not offer
wine to Ceres, but niulfum, which w as a compofition
of wine and honey boiled up together ; that the fa-
S f a crifice
C E R [ 324 ] C E R
Cerealia critlce made on the 21ft of December to that goddefs
and Hercules, was a pregnant fow, together with
‘ njaj " cakes and mulfum *, and that this is what Virgil means
——y—.n.i by Mill Baccho. The cerealia paffed from the Greeks
to the Romans, who held them for eight days fuccef-
fively ; commencing, as generally held, on the fifth
of the ides of April. It was the women alone who
were concerned in the celebration, all dreffed in white:
the men, likewife in white, were only fpedlators.
They ate nothing till after fun-fet j in memory of
Ceres, who in her fearch after her daughter took no
repaft but in the evening.
After the battle of Cannee, the defolation was fo
great at Rome, that there were no women to cele¬
brate the feaft, by reafon they were all in mourning ;
fo that it was omitted that year.
Cerealia, in Botany, from Ceres, the goddefs of
corn ; Linnaeus’s name for the larger efculent feeds of
the grafies : thefe are rice, wheat, rye, bailey, oats,
millet, panic grafs, Indian millet, holcus, zizania, and
maize. To this head may be likewife referred dar¬
nel, (lolinin') ; which, by preparation, is rendered eicu-
lent.
CEREBELLUM, the hinder part of the head.
See Anatomy Index.
CEREBRUM, the brain. Its ftru&ure and ufe
are not fo fully known as fome other parts of the
body ; and different authors confider it in various man¬
ners. However, according to the obfervations of thofe
moil famed for their accuracy and dexterity in anato¬
mical inquiries, its general ttrudture is as given in
Anatomy Index.
Dr Hunter obferves, that the principal parts of the
medullary fubftance of the brain in idiots and mad¬
men, fuch as the thalami nervorum opticorum, and me¬
dulla oblongata, are found entirely changed from a me¬
dullary to a hard, tough, dark-coloured fubftance,
fometimes refembling white leather.
CEREMONIAL (ceremonialc), a book in which
is prefcribed the order of the ceremonies to be obferv-
ed in certain aflions and occaiions of folemnity and
pomp. The ceremonial of the Roman church is call¬
ed ordo Romanus. It was publilhed in 1516 by the
bifhop of Corcyra •, at which the college of cardinals
ivere fo Icandalized, that fome of them voted to have
the author as well as book burnt, for his temerity in
expofing the facred ceremonies to the eyes of profane
people.
Ceremonial, is alfo ufed for the fet or fyftem of
rules and ceremonies which cuftom has introduced for
regulating our behaviour, and which perfons pradlife
towards each other, either out of duty, decency, or ci¬
vility.
Ceremonial, in a more particular fenfe, denotes
the manner in which princes and ambaffadors ufe to
receive and to treat one another. There are endlefs
difputes among fovereigns about the ceremonial: fome
endeavouring to be on a level, and others to be fupe-
rior ; infomuch that numerous fchemes have been pro-
pofed for fettling them. The chief are, 1. To accom¬
modate the difference by compromife or alternation ;
fo that one (hall precede now, the other the next
time-, or one in one place, and the other in another:
2. By feniority ; fo that an elder prince in years {hall
precede a younger, without any other diftindliom
Thefe expedients, however, have not yet been accept- Ceremonial
ed by any, except fome alternate princes, as they are h II
called, in Germany. . ^e*es-
Ceremonial is more particularly ufed in fpeaking
of the laws and regulations given by Mofes relating
to the worfliip of God among the ancient Jews. In
this fenfe it amounts to much the fame with what is
called the Levitical law, and Hands contradiftinguifhed
from the moral as well as judicial law.
CEREMONY, an afl'emblage of feveral aftions,
forms, and circumftances, ferving to render a thing
more magnificent and folemn.
In 1646, M. Ponce publilhed a hiftory of ancient
ceremonies, tracing the rife, growth, and introduftion
of each rite into the church, and its gradual advance¬
ment to fuperftition therein. Many of them were
borrowed from Judaifm : but more feemingly from Pa-
ganifm. Dr Middleton has given a fine difcourfe on
the conformity between the Pagan and Popifti cere¬
monies, which he exemplifies in the ufe of incenfe,
holy water, lamps, and candles, before the Ihrines of
faints, votive gifts or offerings round the Ihrines of
the deceafed, &c. In effecft, the altars, images, croffes,
proceflions, miracles, and legends j nay, even the very
hierarchy, pontificate, religious orders, &c. of the prc-
fent Romans, he ftrow'S, are all copied from their hea¬
then anceftors.—We have an ample and magnificent
account of the religious ceremonies and cuftoms of all
nations in the world, reprefented in figures defigned by
Picart, with hiftorical explanations, and many curious
differtations.
Majler of the Ceremonies, an officer inftituted by
King James I. for the more honourable reception of
ambaffadors and ftrangers of quality. He wears about
his neck a chain of gold, with a medal under the
crown of Great Britain, having on one fide an em¬
blem of peace, ■with this motto, Beati pacifci; and on
the other, an emblem of war, with Dieu et mon droit;
his falary is 300I. per annum.
Affiant Majler of the Ceremonies, is to execute the
employment in all points, whenloever the mafter of
the ceremonies is abfent. His falary is 141]. 13s. 4d.
per annum.
Marfhal of the Ceremonies is their officer, being
fubordinate to them both. His falary is icol. per
annum.
CERENZA, town of Italy in the kingdom pf
Naples, and in the Hither Calabria, with a bilhop’s
lee. It is feated on a rock, in E. Long. 17. 5. N. Lat.
39- 23*
CERES, a pagan deity, the inventor or goddefs
of corn ; in like manner as Bacchus was of wine.
According to the poets, fire was the daughter of Sa¬
turn and Ops, and the mother of Proferpine, whom
Ihe had by Jupiter. Pluto having ftolen away Pro- *
ferpine, Ceres travelled all over the world in queft of
her daughter, by the help of a torch, which flie had
lighted in Mount Hitna.
As Ceres was thus travelling in fearch of her daugh¬
ter, fhe came to Celeus king of Eleufis, and under¬
took to bring up his infant fon Triptolemus. Being
defirous to render her charge immortal, the fed him
in the day time with divine milk, and in the night co¬
vered him with fire. Celeus obferving an unufual
improvement in his fon, refolved to watch his nurfe,
to
C E R [ 325 ] C E R
to which end he hid himfelf in that part of the houfe
where die ufed to cover the child with fire : but when
he faw her put the infant under the embers, he cried
out and difcovered himfelf. Ceres punifhed the cu-
riofity and indifcretion of the father with death. Af¬
terwards fire taught the youth the art of fowing corn
and other fruits, and mounted him in a chariot drawn
by winged dragons, that he might traverfe the world,
and teach mankind the ufe of corn and fruits. After
this, having difcovered, by means of the nymph Are-
thufa, that Proferpine was in the infernal regions, die
applied to Jupiter, and obtained of him that Profer-
pine ihould be reflored, on condition that fhe had tafted
nothing during her flay in that place : but it being
diicovcred, by the information of Afcalaphus, that, as
fhe was walking in Pluto’s orchard, fhe had gathered
an apple, and had tafted of fome of the feeds, fhe was
for ever forbidden to return. Ceres, out of revenge,
turned Afcalaphus into an owl. At length, Jupiter,
to mitigate her grief, permitted that Proferpine fhould
pafs one half of the year in the infernal regions with
Pluto, and the other half with her mother on earth.
Cicero fpeaks of a temple of Ceres at Catanea in
Sicily, where was a very ancient ftatue of that goddefs,
but entirely concealed from the fight of men, every
thing being performed by matrons and virgins.
CERET, a town of France in Rouftillon, with a
magnificent bridge of a fingle arch. It is feated near
the river Tec, in E. Long. 2. 46. N. Eat. 42. 23.
CEREUS, in Botany. See Cactus.
CERIGO, an ifland in the Archipelago, anciently
called Cytherea ; noted for being the birth-place of
Helen, and, as the poets fay, of Venus. At prefent
there is nothing very delightful in the place ; for the
country is mountainous, and the foil dry. It abounds
in hares, quails, turtle, and excellent falcons. It is
about 90 miles in circumference, and had formerly
good towns ; but there is now none remaining but
that which gives name to the ifland. This is itrong
both by art and nature, it being feated on a craggy
rock. The inhabitants are Greek Chriftians, and lub-
jedl to the Venetians, who keep a governor there,
whom they change every two years.
CERINES, a town in the itland of Cyprus, with a
good caftle, a harbour, and a bifirop’s fee. E. Long.
33- 35- N. Lat. 35. 22.
CERINTHE, moneywort. See Botany/«afw.
C ERIN PHI ANS, ancient heretics, who denied
the deity of Jefus Chrift.—They took their name
from Cerinthus, one of the firft herefiarchs in the
church, being contemporary with St John. See Ce-
&INTHUS.
They believed that Jefus Chrift was a mere man,
born of Jofeph and Mary •, but that, in his baptifm,
a ccleftial virtue defcended on him in form of a dove ;
by means whereof he was confecrated by the Holy
Spirit, and made Chrift. It was by means of this ce-
leftial virtue, therefore, that he wrought fo many mi¬
racles ; which, as he received it from heaven, quitted
him after his paflion, and returned to the place whence
it came ; fo that Jefus, whom they called a pure man,
really died and rofe again •, but that Chrift, who was
diftinguifhed from Jefus, did not fuffer at all. It was
partly to refute this feft that St John wrote his go-
fpel. They received the gofpel of St Matthew, to Cerinthai1
countenance their doftrine of circumcifion, loan
Chrift’s being circumcifed ; but they omitted the ge- . ‘r  ^
nealogy. They difcarded the epiftles of St Paul, be-
caufe that apoftle held circumcifion abolifhed.
CE.RINTHUS, a herefiarch, cotemporary with the
apoftles, afcribed the creation not to God, but to an¬
gels. He taught that Jefus Chrift was the fon of Jo¬
feph, and that circumcifion ought to be retained under
the gofpel. He is looked upon as the head of the
converted Jews, who railed in the church of Antioch
the tumult of which St Luke has given the hiftory in
the 15th chapter of the Acts. Some authors afcribe-
the book of the Apocalypfe to Cerinthus \ adding, that
he put it off under the name of St John, the better to
authorife his reveries touching Chrift’s reign upon
earth : and it is even certain that he publilhed fome
works of this kind under the title of Apocalypfe. See *
Apocalypse.
CEROPEGIA. See Botany Index.
CERTHIA, in Ornithology, the creeper or ox-
eye, a genus belonging to the order of picse. See Or¬
nithology Index.
CERTIFICATE, 7rial by, in the law of Eng¬
land, a fpecies of trial allowed in fuch cafes where the
evidence of the perfon certifying is the only proper
criterion of the point in difpute *. For when the fa<!ft * See Tr/a/*
in queftion lies out of the cognizance of the court, the
judges muft rely on the folemn averment or informa¬
tion of perfons in fuch a ftation as affords them the
moft clear and competent knowledge of the truth. As Blactjt.
therefore fuch evidence, if given to a jury, muft have Comments
been conclufive, the law, to fave trouble and circuity,
permits the fa£t to be determined upon fuch certificate
merely. Thus, 1. If the ifi’ue be whether A was ab-
fent with the king in his army out of the realm in time
of war, this Ihall be tried by the certificate of the ma-
refchal of the king’s hoft in writing under his feal,
which ftiall be fent to the juftices. 2. If, in order to
avoid an outlawry, or the like, it was alleged that
the defendant was in prifon, idtra mare, at Bourdeaux,
or in the fervice of the mayor of Bourdeaux, this Ihould
have been tried by the certificate of the mayor, and
the like of the captain of Calais. But when this was
law, thofe towns were under the dominion of the
crown of England. And therefore, by a parity of
reafon, it ftrould now hold, that in fimilar cafes arifing
at Jamaica or Minorca, the trial fhould be by certifr-
cate from the governor of thofe iftands. We alfo find
that the certificate of the queen’s meffengers, fent to
fummon home a peerefs of the realm, was formerly
held a fufficient trial of the contempt in refufing to
obey fuch fummons. 3. For matters within the realm 5
the cuftoms of the city of London fhall be tried by
the certificate of the mayor and aldermen, certified by
the mouth of their recorder, upon a furmife from the
party alleging it, that the cuftom ought to be thus
tried ; elfe it muft be tried by the country : As, the
cuftom of diftributing the effedfts of freemen deceafed j
of enrolling apprentices, or that he who is free of
one trade may ufe another ; if any of thefe, or other
fimilar points come in iffue. 4. The trial of all cuf*
toms and practice of the courts ftiall be by certificate
from the nroner officers of thofe courts refpeftively •,
and.
C E 11 . t 3
Certiorari and when return was made on a writ by the (heriff or
Cervical un^er fhall be only tried by his own certifi-
Veffel. cate* __
u—\r—^ CERTIORARI, in Law, a writ which ilTues out
of the chancery, diredted to an inferior court, to call
up the records of a caufe there depending, in order
that juftice may be done. And this writ is obtained
upon complaint, that the party who feeks it has re¬
ceived hard ufage, or is not like to have an impartial
trial in the inferior court. A certiorari is made re¬
turnable either in the king’s bench, common pleas, or
in chancery.
It is not only ufed out of the court of chancery,
but likewife out of the king’s bench 5 in which laft
mentioned court it lies where the king would be cer¬
tified of a record. Indidtments from inferior courts,
and proceedings of the quarter feffions of the peace,
may alfo be removed into the king’s bench by a cer¬
tiorari : and here the very record muft be returned,
and not a tranfcript of it ; though ufually in chancery,
if a certiorari be returnable there, it removes only the
tenor of the record.
CERTITUDE, confidered in the things or ideas
which are the objefls of our underftanding, is a ne-
ceffary agreement or difagreement of one part of our
knowledge with another : as applied to the mind, it
is the perception of fuch agreement or difagreement 5
or fuch a firm well-grounded affent, as excludes not
only all manner of doubt, but all conceivable poffibili-
,ty of a miftake.
There are three forts of certitude, or alfurance, ac¬
cording to the different natures and circumftances of
things, x. A phyfical or natural certitude, which de¬
pends upon the evidence of fenfe ; as that I fee fuch or
fuch a colour, or hear fuch or fuch a found ; nobody
queftions the truth of this, where the organs, the me¬
dium, and the objeft, are rightly difpofed. 2. Ma-
# thematical certitude, is that arifing from mathematical
evidence ; fuch as, that the three angles of a triangle
are equal to two right ones. 3. Moral certitude is that
founded on moral evidence, and is frequently equiva¬
lent to a mathematical one 5 as that there was former¬
ly fuch an emperor as Julius Caefar, and that he wrote
the commentaries which pafs under his name 3 becaufe
the hiftorians of thefe times have recorded it, and no
man has ever difproved it fince : this affords a moral
certitude, in common fenfe fo great, that one would'
be thought a fool or a madman for denying it.
CERTOSA, a celebrated Carthufian monaflery 3
in the territory of the Pavefe, in the duchy of Milan,
four miles from Pavia : its park is furrounded with a
wall 20 miles in circumference 3 but there are feveral
Imall towns and villages therein.
CERVANTES. See Saavkdra.
CERVERA, a town of Spain in Catalonia, feated
on a fmall river of the fame name, in E. Long. 1 o
N. Eat. 41.28.
CERVIA, a fea port town of Italy, in Romagna,
with a bilhop’s fee, feated on the gulf of Venice in
E. Long. 13. N. Lat. 44. 16.
CERVICAL nerves, are feven pair of nerves, fo
called, as having their origin in the cervix, or neck.
Cervical Vejfels, among anatomifts, denote the ar¬
teries, veins, &c. which pafs through the vertebrae and
mufcles of the neck up to the fkull.
] C E S
CERVIX, in Anatomy, properly denotes the hind
part of the neck 3 as contradiftinguiihed from the fore
part, which is called jugu/um, or the throat.
Cervix of the Scapula, denotes the head of the
fhoulctr blade, or that upper procefs whofeJinus re¬
ceives the head of the humerus,
Cervix of the Uterus,^ the neck of the uterus, or
that oblong canal or paflage between the internal and
external orifices, w hich receives and enclofes the penis
like a (heath, whence it is alfo called Vagina.
CERUMEN, a thick, vifcous, bitter, excrementiti-
ous humour, feparated from the blood by proper
glands placed in the meatus auditorius, or outer paf-
fage of the ear.
CERUSS, white LEAD, a fort of calx of lead,
mad.e by expofing plates of that metal to the vapour
of vinegar. See Chemistry Index.
Cerufs, as a medicine, is uled externally either mix¬
ed in ointments, or by fprmkling it on old gleeting
and watery ulcers, and in many difeafes of the fkin.
If, when it is reduced into a fine pow7der, it is receiv¬
ed in with the breath in infpiration, and carried down
into the lungs, it caufes incurable afthmas. Inifances-
of the very pernicious effebls of this metal are too often
leen among thofe perfons who work lead in any form,
but particularly among the workers in white lead.
I he painters ufe it in great quantities 3 and that it
may be afforded cheap to them, it is generally adulte¬
rated wuth common whiting.
CER\ US, or Deer, in Z.oology, a genus of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of Pecora. See Mam¬
malia Index.
Cercus Vo/ans, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given
by authors to the ftag-fiy, or horned beetle, a very
large fpecies of beetle wuth horns (loped, and fome-
thing like thofe of the dag.
CERYX, in antiquity. The ceryces wxre a fort of
public criers appointed to proclaim or publilh things
aloud in affemblies. The ceryx among the Greeks
anfw7ered to the prccco among the Romans. Our criers
have only a fmall part of their office and authority.
There rvere two kinds of ceryces, civil and facred.
The former were thofe appointed to call affemblies,
and make filence therein 3 alfo to go on meffages, and
do the office 6f our heralds, &c. The facred ceryces
were a fort of priefts, whofe office was to proclaim fi¬
lence in the public games and facrifices, publilh the
names of the conquerors, proclaim feafts, and the like.
I he priefthood of the ceryces was annexed to a parti¬
cular family, the defcendants of Ceryx, fon of Eumol-
pus. 7 o them it alfo belonged to lead folemn vic¬
tims to (laughter. Before the ceremonies began, they
called filence in the affembly, by the formula, ZvQnpit-
ts a-iyi ttx; icx haw? 3 anfwering to the favete Unguis of
the Romans. When the fervice was over, they dif-
miffed the people with this formula, ham x'pia-ic, he
mi [fa cf.
CESARE, among logicians, one of the modes of
the fecond figure of fyllogifms 3 the minor propofition
of which is an univerfal affirmative, and the other tw7o
univerfal negatives : thus,
Ce No immoral books ought to be read 3
Sa But every obfcene book is immoral 3
Re Therefore no obfcene books ought to be read.
CECENA,
- C E S
Cefena CESSNA, a town of Romagna in Italy, with a
H, bUhop’s fee, fubjedt to the pope, and feated on the
Ceflion^ rJver Savio, in E. Long. 12. 46. N. Lat. 44. 8.
CESPITOSiE plantje (from cefpes, turf or fod),
are thofe plants which produce many hems from one
root, and thence form a clofe thick carpet on the fur-
face of the earth.
Cf.spitosje Paludes, turf-bogs.
CESSA'l ION, the adt of intermitting, difeontinu-
ing, or interrupting, the courfe of any thing, work,
action, or the like.
Cessation of Arms, an armiftice or occafional truce.
See Truce.
When the commander of a place finds things redu¬
ced to an extremity, fo that he muft either furrender,
cr facrifice the garrifon and inhabitants to the mercy
of the enemy, he plants a white flag on the breach,
or beats the chamade } on which a cefiation of arms
and hoftilities commences, to give room for a capitu¬
lation.
CESSIO bonorum, in Scots Low, the name of
that adtion by which an infolvent debtor may apply for
liberation from prifon, upon making over his whole
real and perfonal eftate to his creditors.
CESSION, in Law, an adl by which a perfon fur-
renders and tranfmits to another perfon a right which
belonged to himfelf. Ceflion is more particularly ufed
in the civil law for a voluntary furrender of a perfon’s
effedts to his creditors to avoid imprifonment. See the
article Bankrupt.
In feveral places the ceffion carried with it a mark
of infamy, and obliged the perfon to wear a green
cap or bonnet: at Lucca, an orange one ; to negledl
this was to forfeit the privileges of the ceffion. This
W'as originally intended to fignify that the ceffionary
wras become poor through his own folly. The Italian
lawTyers deferibe the ceremony of ceflion to confift in
{Iriking the bare breech three times againfl: a ftone,
called Lapis Vituperii, in prefence of the judge. For¬
merly it confided in giving up the girdles and keys in
court : the ancients ufing to carry at their girdles the
chief utenfils wherewith they got their living 5 as the
ferivener his eferitoire, the merchant his bag, &c.
The form of ceflion among the ancient Gauls and Ro¬
mans was as follows: The ceflionary gathered up dull
in his left hand from the four corners of the houfe, and
Handing on the threlhold, holding the door-port in his
right hand, threw the dull back over his Ihoulders; then
rtripping to his Ihirt, and quitting his girdle and bags,
GET
he jumped with a pole over a hedge j hereby letting Ceffion
the world know that he had nothing left, and that II
when he jumped, all he wTas worth was in the air with Ceteiach
him. This was the ceflion in criminal matters. In
civil cafes, it was fufficient to lay a broom, a fwitch,
or a broken ftraw, on the threlhold : this was called
chrenecruda per durpillum et fejlucam.
Cession, in the ecclefiaftical law, is when an ec-
clefialtical peiion is created a bilhop, or when a par-
fon of a parilh takes another benefice, without difpen-
fation, or being otherwife qualified. In both thefc
cafes their firlt benefices became void by ceflion, with¬
out any refignation ; and to thofe livings that the per¬
fon had, who was created bilhop, the king may pre-
fent for that time, whofoever is patron of them ; and
in the other cafe the patron may prefent: but by dif-
penfation of retainder, a bilhop may retain fome or
all the preferments he was entitled to before he was
made bilhop.
CESTRUM, bastard jasmine. See Botany
Index.
CESTUI, a French word, fignifying he or him,
frequently ufed in the Englilh law writings. Thus,
Cejlui qui trajl, a perfon who has lands, &c. commit¬
ted to him for the benefit of another ; and if fuch per¬
fon does not perform his truft, he is compellable to it
in chancery. Cejlui qui vie, one for whofe life any
lands, See. are granted. Cejlui qui uje, a perfon to
whofe ufe any one is infeofted of lands or tenements.
Formerly the feoffees to ufes were deemed owners of
the land, but now the poffefiion is adjudged in cejlui
qui ije.
CESTUS, among ancient poets, a fine embroidered
girdle faid to be worn by Venus, to which Homer
aferibes the power of charming and conciliating love.
The word is alfo written cejlum and cejlon : it comes
from a girdle, or other thing embroidered or
wrought with a needle 5 derived, according to Servi-
us, from jcsvtsiv, pungere ; whence alfo incejlus, a term
ufed at firlt for any indecency by undoing the girdle,
&c. but now reftrained to that between perfons near
a-kin. See Incest.
CETACEOUS, an appellation given to the fiflres
of the whale kind. See Cetology.
CETE, the name of Linnaeus’s feventh order of
mammalia, comprehending the Monodon, Bal.ena,
Physeter, and Delphinus. See Cetology.
CETERACH, the trivial name of a fpecies of A-
splenium. See Asplenium, Botany Index.
[ 327 1
CETOLOGY.
X
Definition TTNDER this general title is comprehended the hi-
cf the title. ftory of that divifion of marine animals, which
in the Linnaean arrangement conftitutes the feventh or-
3 der of the clafs mammalia. This is the order cete or
Arrange- whales. Ray and Willoughby have included this or-
fifl esb’ ^er an'raa^s under the clafs of filhes. Ray, in his
j^ay. ‘ arrangement of filhes, divides them into two principal
fedlions. The one comprehends thofe filhes which are
furnilhed with lungs for refpiration ; and the other,
thofe which breathe by means of gills, and may be
I
confidered as truly filhes. In the former fedlion are
included the cetaceous filhes ; and the reafons which
he affigns for arranging them in this manner are, that
they agree in external form with filhes ; that they are
entirely naked, or covered only with a fmooth Ikin j
and that they live entirely in the wrater, and have all
the actions of filhes. Although this tribe of animals of whaks
refembles filhes, not only in manners and habits, butbyLin-
alfo in being inhabitants of the fame element, Lin-nseus,
naeus thought proper to clafs them with the mammalia,
on
C E T O L O G Y.
Treated of
feparately.
6
Their hi-
Itory im¬
portant,
7
but defi¬
cient.
Reafons.
Sources of
informa¬
tion.
xo
fN"ame li¬
mited.
on account of the fimilarity of their internal ftru&ure,
having a double heart and warm blood, and refpiring
like them by means of lungs.
Mr Pennant, in his Britilh Zoology, has objetted
to the ckffification of cetaceous animals with the mam¬
malia, as Linnaeus has done, becaufe, “ to have pre-
ferved the chain of beings entire, he fays that Linnaeus
fhould have made the genus phoc<t or feals, and that of
the trichecus or manati, immediately precede the whale,
thofe being the links that connedt the mammalia or
quadrupeds with the fifli •, for the feal is in refpedt to
its legs the moft imperfed! of the former clafs ; and in
the manati the hind feet coalefce, affuming the form
of a broad horizontal tail.” On this account, Mr Pen¬
nant has arranged the cetaceous order of animals un¬
der his clafs of fifties, including them under the firft
divifion of that clafs. For the fame reafons we have
ftparated them from the clafs of fifhes ; but although
they referable the quadrupeds, which compofe chiefly
the ciafs mammalia, in being warm blooded, and in
the fundlions of circulation and refpiration ; yet, as
they poffefs charadlers fo totally diftindt from any of
the mammalia, w^e judged it more natural to feparate
them alfo from this clafs, and to treat of them in the
prefent article. This tribe of animals is alfo entitled
to a feparate treatife, both on account of the intereft
to be derived from their natural hiftory, and on ac¬
count of their importance in a commercial view.
The hiftory of cetaceous animals, as well as that of
the other inhabitants of the ocean, cannot be expedled
to be complete. They are beyontl the reach of the
naturalift, from the nature of the element in which
they live ; and even when he is favoured with a tran-
fient glimpfe, the rapidity of their motions precludes
the poflibility of obtaining much accurate knowledge
of their manners and habits. But the abode of the
whale is the moft inacceflible parts of the ocean.
The frozen regions of the north and fouth are* his
chief retreat—regions fo inhofpitable, as to forbid
the approach of the moft hardy naturalift with all
his zeal and ardour, and to be vifited only by the ad¬
venturous filherman, prompted by the hope of gain.
To the latter, chiefly, we are indebted for what know¬
ledge we poflefs of this tribe of animals. And from
men who had a very different objeft in view, who, in
this hazardous trade, had to ftruggle with the fevereft
feafons, in a climate where the rigour of winter rarely
relaxes, information on this fubjedl: could neither be
accurate nor extenfive. This, however, was the prin¬
cipal fource, from which the earlier writers on this de¬
partment of natural hiftory derived their information.
Such were Sibbald, Martens, Dudley, Klein, and An-
derfon, who compofed their defcriptions from the rela¬
tions and memoirs which were communicated to them
by fifhermen and voyagers. Hence have originated
thofe erroneous and inaccurate details which have been
introduced into the works of naturalifts.
The name of Cete, as the word which is derived
from the Greek language originally fignifies, was given
indifcriminately to all marine animals of extraordinary
fize. It has been limited by later naturalifts to that
tribe of fifties which are diftinguiftied from other fifties
by the funftions of refpiration and circulation, and by
being viviparous. Thefe are now included under the
general term cetaceous fifties. Befide the difcrimina-
Chap. I.
tive marks of refpiration, circulation, and being vivi- Claffifica-
pareus, others may be mentioned. In the cetaceous, tlon>
fifties the fkin is not covered with fcales as in other
fifhes *, there are one or two orifices in the upper part Different
of the head for difcharging water ; the lateral fins from other
are furniftied with articulations as in the human hand,h^les
and the tail is horizontal. There is another remark-^
able difference between the cetaceous and other fifties,
in the greater quantity of blood, and the thick cover¬
ing of fat or blubber, for which the former are dif¬
tinguiftied. And confidering the temperature of the
climate, and the element in which thefe animals live •,
this feems to be a wife and neccffary provifion of na- 13
ture. The great quantity of blood produces a greater anfl quan-
degree of heat, and the fpongy porous mafs of blubber,
being from its nature a flow conduftor of heat, is an ex-'
cellent defence againft the rigour of the feafons in the
polar regions.
In the followdng treatife, we propofe to lay before
our readers, iff, The Claflification and Natural Hifto¬
ry of Cetaceous Fifties 2d, Their Anatomy and Phy-
fiology. And laftly, the Hiftory of the Whale Fifti-
ery as an objeft of trade. Theie lhall be the fubje&s
of three Chapters.
Chap. I. Of the Clafftf cation and Natural Hijlory
of Cetaceous Fifoes.
14
Cetaceous fifties have been divided into four claffes,ciafi'esfour,
the charadlers of which are taken from the wTant of
teeth, from the ftrudture of the teeth, and from their
pofition in one or both jaws. The following table ex¬
hibits the charadlers of thefe claffes, with a tranflation
oppofite for the fake of the Englifh reader.
ift, Bal^na, or Whale.
Dentium loco lamina cornea
in maxilla fuperiore.
In place of teeth there are
horny plates in the up¬
per jaw.
2d, Monodon, or Unicorn Fifj.
Dens unicus aut duo in
parteantica maxillafupe-
rioris hon%ontahter ex-
ferti.
One or two teeth horizon¬
tally inferted in the an¬
terior part of the upper
jaw.
3d, Physeter, or Spermaceti Whale.
Dentes vem in maxilla in- Teeth in the lower jaw,
feriore; aliquot vero but fcarcely confpicuou^
plani, vix confpicui in in the upper jaw.
maxilla fuperiore.
4th, Deep h in us, or Dolphin.
Dentes in utraque maxilla. | Teeth in both jaws.
Each of the four claffes which we have now enume- GeneVa.
rated and charadterized, comprehends only a fingle
genus, the charadlers of which are as follows :
Generic Characters.
1 ft Genus, Balden a or Whale.
Maxilla fuperior dentium
loco, laminis corneis in-
Jlrucia; fifula duplex
in vert ice.
The upper jawT is furnifti¬
ed with horny plates in
place of teeth 5 and there
are two blow-holes on
the top of the head.
2d,
Cliap. I*
C E T O
Claffifica.
tion, &c.
id Genus, Monodon, or Unicorn Tijh.
Dens unicus aut duo, longi
out breves, refit vel re-
curviy m parte antica
maxilhe fuperiorir exfer-
ti i jijhila in occipite.
In the anterior part of the
upper jaw there is one
or two teeth which are
either ftraight or cur¬
ved, long or fhort j the
fpout in the back part
of the head.
3d Genus, Physeter,
Dentes veri et vijibiles in
maxilla inferiore, in qui-
bufdam vero maxilla fu-
perior dentibus planis
vix confpicuis injlrufia ;
JiJlula in angulo fuperiore
rojlri.
4th Genus, Delph
Maxilla utraque dentata ;
JiJlula in fronte.
Spermaceti Whale.
be teeth diftin&ly feen
in the lowTer jaw, but
fcarcely vilible in the
upper jaw j the fpout in
the upper part of the
forehead.
in us, or Dolphin.
Both jaws are furnilhed
with teeth ; the fpout in
the forehead.
Class I. BALiENA.
Genus id, Bal^na, or IVha/e.
The body is naked, elliptical, or of an oblong coni¬
cal fliape, and of a black or brownilh colour.
The head is very long, laterally comprefled, and di-
minilhing towards the beak. The opening of the mouth
is very large. The jaws are nearly equal, and without
teeth ; but in place of teeth, the upper jaw is furnilh¬
ed on both fides with horny plates, tranfverfely dif-
pofed. The lower jaw is anteriorly of an oval or
roundilh form, broader than the upper jawr, and having
a furrow on the margin for receiving the horny plates.
The eyes are fmall; they are placed near the infertion
of the lateral fins. The ears are alfo fmall, and are
fituated behind the eyes.
In fome of the fpecies the anterior part of the body
is plicated or folded underneath.
The penis is enclofed in a (heath. The female is fur-
nilhed with two mammae j and the organs of gener ation
are placed between them. Behind them is the anus.
There are three or four fins j two lateral fins, one at
the extremity of the tail, which is placed horizontally.
The dorfal fin is often wanting.
* Species which have no Dorfal Fin.
Plate CXL. I* Bal^na Mysticetus, the Greenland, or large
£g. 1. Whalebone Whale.
French, Baleine-Franche, Baleine de grande bale;
Spaniards, Valletta ; Whalljfefch, by the Germans j
IVhallvifeky Dutch ; Hvaffch, Sletback, by the Nor¬
wegians ; llvalfijky by the Swedes j S/itchteback,
Sandhual, by the Danes ; Vatufkalr, by the Iceland-
^ ers; and Arbeh, Arbavirkfoak, by the Greenlanders.
Characters. In this fpecies the jaws are nearly of equal length ;
the lower is of an oval form, and broad in the middle j
18 the back is fpotted, black and white.
Defcription This is the largeft of animals known. The body,
from a fide-view, appears of an elliptical form. The head
Vol. V. Part I.
x5
Genericj
characters.
? 29
LOGY. ^
is very neaidy equal to one third of the whole length C'afLtica-
of the body. It is as it were compofed of two inclined t!on’^c~,
planes joined together under a larger or fmaller angle,
has fomething the appearance of the roof of a fmall
houfe. jp
In the middle of the line formed by the junftion of Blow-holes,
the two inclined planes, there rifes a large tubercle, in
which are fituated the fpouts or blowr-holes oppofite to
each other, and curved in the Ihape of the letter S. The
jaws are nearly equal in length ; the lower is broader
towards the middle of its length than the upper ; and
befides, it fpreads out and has membranous coverings,
which terminate in a broad deep furrow, which is de-
ftined to receive the horny teeth of the upper jaw.
When the jaws are clofe, the opening of the mouth
folds upwards towards the orbit of the eyes, and ex¬
hibits by its infledtion, the curved form of a fickle. 20
The want of teeth is fupplied by about 500 horny Whalebone
laminre. This is the fubftance called whalebone. They
are attached to the upper jaw on both fides, and fup-
ported at the bafe by a kind of bone which extends the
tvhole length of the roof of the mouth. They are ar¬
ranged tranfverfely, and in an oblique diredtion. Each
of them is from three to five feet long, is thickeft at
the bafe, tapers towards the point, is a little curved,
and terminates in a fringe of long hair which hangs
about the tongue. Towards the two extremities of
each row, there are befides many other fmall laminae,
which are of a fquare form, of the thicknefs of a writing
quill, and about four inches long. Thefe latter are
arranged in the fame diredtion as the former ; but are
of a fofter fubftance, and do not come fo clofe to each
other. n
The tongue is foft and fpongy, ftrongly attached to Tongue,
the lowTer jaw, and rounded at the extremity. On the
upper fide it is white, but on the fides it is marked
with black fpots. It is often 10 feet broad and 18 feet
long- 2 2
The eyes are placed very low, at the broadeft part of Eyes,
the head, juft above the angles of the mouth, and very
near the origin of the lateral fins. They are furniftied,
as the means of defence, with eyelids and eyelalhes; and
referable in form and magnitude thofe of an ox. The
cryftalline lens, which is white and tranfparent, is not
larger than a pea. The external organ of hearing, Ear.
confifts of a fmall hole of the diameter of a quill, which
is placed immediately behind the eyes.
The back forms a gentle curvature from the tuber¬
cle on the top of the head j towards the middle of the
trunk it is again elevated, and then tapers gradually
to the tail. The lower part of the body diminifties in 24
the fame proportion. The lateral fins have their origin Fins,
near the angle of the mouth. They are two large
thick mafles, of an oval irregular form, and are often
10 feet long. The tail fin is divided into two oval
ftelhy lobes, which terminate in a point.
. The male is furnilhed with a penis which is eight
feet long, and furrounded with a double fkin, which
gives it fomething of the appearance of a knife in its
(heath. The female has two mammae, which are placed
on each fide of the organs of generation. 2.
The (kin of the whale is divided into the epidermis Skin,
or fcarf-lkin, the true Ikin, the fat or blubber, and the
mufcle or flelh. The epidermis is as thin as parch-
T t ment,
23
33° C E T O
Claffifica- ment, and very eafily feparated, when the procefs of
,tlor1’ &cc', putrefaction firft commences. The true {kin is an inch
25 thick, and covers a layer of fat of 15 inches.
Colour. The back of the whale is ufually of a fine black,
marked with whitilh rays, which have fome refem-
blance to the veins of wood ; and in the thickeft, as well
as the finefl of thefe traces, there pafs other veins of a
dirty white. This mixture of colours prefents an agree¬
able appearance, efpecially when the back of the filh is
illuminated with the rays of the fun. The different
changes of colour from white to yellow then exhibit
the fplendour and brilliancy of filver.
The under part of the trunk, and of the lower jaw,
is of a bright white. But thefe colours are fubjeCl to
coniiderable variation, according to the age of the fifh.
Some have been oblerved to be entirely black 5 others
{potted with whit£, yellow, and brown. Martens affures
us, that he obferved on the tail of a whale, the num¬
ber 1222, as neatly traced, as if it had been executed
by the hand of a painter. But probably the refem-
blance to thefe figures was helped out by the aid of
fancy.
Ellis and fome other naturalifis affert, that the whale
is found perfeCHy white in the weftern parts of the
northern ocean. It is not uncommon to fee the young
whale fpotted with brown ; and old whales marked
on the back with a tranfverfe band, which extends
to the belly. Sometimes, however, the fpots ob¬
ferved on the whale, have been undoubtedly occa-
fioned by wounds j for it is certain, that a white fear
always remains on the place which has been wound-
27
Size.
28
Haunts.
29
Food.
ed.
The fize of the whale has not been very accurately
afeertained. Some have been taken of 80, and even
of 100 feet long, and almoft as much in circumference.
The female is in general larger than the male. The
period of pregnancy is nine or ten months j and one,
very rarely two, is brought forth at a time. The young
whale is 20 feet long at birth.
This {pecies of whale is very common towards the
north pole, in the feas of Greenland and Spitzbergen,
and elpecially in that part of the arCHc fea, which lies
under the 76th degree of latitude.
The principal food of the whale is a fpecies of
helix and different fpecies of aftinia. It is not a lit¬
tle furprifmg that the whale of fuch immenfe fi^e,
fhould feed on fuch finall animals, and fiiould acquire
fuch a quantity of fat as to yield above 150 tons of
oil. But according to the teflimony of thofe employed
in the whale filhery, thefe worms are found in fuch
abundance in the feas about Spitzbergen, that the
whale has only to open his mouth to receive thoufands
at once, and then rejefting the water through the
fringe or beard attached to the jaws, thefe little ani¬
mals remain behind, taken as it were in a net. And
indeed, there feems to be a wife provifion of nature
for the fubfiftence of this monftrous animal, in impref-
fing on thefe worms and infers, which are to be his
food, a kind of inftind, which guides them to fport
about the fringes of the jaws, in the very gulf which
is to fwallow them up. Linnaeus fays that the whale
alfo feeds pn medufee. But to this it has been ob¬
jected, that the medufae are not in fufficient abundance
in the northern feas, to furnilh the neceffary quantity
LOGY. Chap. I.
of food for fo large an animal. It feems not improbable, Ciaflifica-
however, that the medufae as well as the aCtinice may t'on»
form part of its food. f
The excrement of the whale has fome degree of
folidity, and it is of a yellow colour approaching fome-
what to the colour of fatfron. 30
I he whale fifhery, or rather it might be termed by
the chafe of the whale, conftitutes one of the princi- Green-
pal occupations of the inhabitants of Greenland. The landers-
capture of a fingle whale is fufficient for the fubfif¬
tence of a whole family for a long time. The fleffi is
eaten raw, baked, or after being half rotten, or dried
in the heat of the fun 5 and according to Horrebow,
it has a very good talk. The {kin, the tail, and the Ufesf
fins, undergo no kind of preparation ; for it feems
thefe parts furnifih in the raw ftate, a very delicate
morfel to the Greenlanders. The fat is either eaten,
or burnt for the purpofe of giving light. The intef-
tines are employed to {hut up the doors and windows
of their habitations j and the tendons furniffi thread
for fewing, or for the conftru&ion of nets. Of the
bones the Greenlanders make ftools or chairs, and in-
ftruments that are ufed in hunting and fiffiing. The
bell lines are made of the hair that terminates the
horny plates of the upper jaw.
The following are the dimenfions of a whale taken
towards the north pole, and recorded by M. de Pages
in the account of his voyage round the world.
Feet. Inches.
Total length, 4.8 o
Circumference of the head, which is the
thickeft part of the body, 26 o
Length of the head about 18 o
Length of the jaw-bones, 18 o
Diameter of the orbit of the eyes, o 3
Opening of the eye-lids, o 5
Diftance of the eyes from the opening of
the breathing holes, 6 O
Length of the cavity which includes the
penis, 4. o
Depth of this cavity, / 08
Diftance of this cavity from the anus, 1 o
Diameter of each mamma, o 6
Length of the papilla, o 2
Diameter of it, O
Diftance of the twTo lobes of the tail fin,
about 17 o
Depth of the hollow vffiich feparates the
twro lobes, 2 6
Length of the lateral fins, 8 o
Breadth of the fame, about 7 o
2. Bal^na Gcacialis, Iceland Whale.
French, Le Nord Caper, Baleine de Sarde. German
Nordhaper. Norwegian, Sildqual, Nordkaper.
In this fperies, the jaw’s are nearly of equal length. Specific
The under jaw is rounded, and broader towards the characters,
middle of its length. There is no dorfal fin. The
back is whitiftr.
The Iceland whale differs from the former only in
the colour and dimenfions of the body. The head
and horny laminae of the upper jaw are much fmaller.
The trunk of the body is more {lender, and is of a
light
Chap. I.
C E T O
Claffifica-
tion, See.
34
Mode of
taking by
the Ice¬
landers,
light brown colour. It lias been obferved, that the
lower jaw of this fpecies is more elongated, and rounder
than that of the common whale.
As It is very dangerous to harpoon this fpccies of
whale, on account of its extreme agility, it is men¬
tioned by Anderfon, that the Icelanders have a very
ingenious method of taking it. When they perceive the
whale in chafe of the herrings, they inftantly launch
their canoes furnilhed with harpoons, fpears, and knives,
and endeavour to get between the wrhale and ocean.
They continue the purfuit by rowing, and approach as
near as poffible. If the wind blow towards the fhore,
they pour on the fea, a quantity of blood, withwhichthey
are always provided, and as it is carried by the waves
to the coaft, they endeavour to direct it as near to the
fhore as they can. The whale perceiving himfelf pur-
fued attempts to regain the ocean, but when he ap¬
proaches the blood he is alarmed, and rather than
fw'im acrofs it, he makes his efcape to the fliores, where
he often throws himfelf on the rocks. But if the
wind blow from the land, the fhhermen endeavour to
get between the whale and the ocean, as in the other
cafe 5 and when he attempts to make for the deep,
they throw ftones from their canoes, and fliout and
make a noife, fo that the whale is terrified and is dri¬
ven on Ihore. This, however, is contradi&ed by Hor-
rebow’, who remained two years in Iceland, and had
good opportunities of being well informed of every
thing relating to the w’hale filhery. He fays, that the
Icelanders are neither hardy enough to make this ha¬
zardous attempt, nor fo fortunate or dexterous as to
take the whale fo eafily. The only method which is
praclifed there, he fays, is the following. When the
boat approaches the w’hale, the harpooner dilcharges
his harpoon, and the boat inftantly retreats. T he
harpoon is known by having the mark of the pro¬
prietor, and when the whale has been fuccefsfully
wounded, he dies and is thrown aftiore. A certain
portion belongs to the perfon who was fo fortunate
as to infli£t the wound, and the remainder is claimed,
according to a law of the country, as the right of the
perfon on whofe property he lands. According to
this author, this is the whole art pradlifed by the in¬
habitants of Iceland in the whale fifhery.
The Iceland whale yields only from 10 to 30 tons
of blubber.—-The food of this whale conlifts of fome
fpecies of helix^ medufee, and herrings.
This whale inhabits the northern ocean, about the
coafts of Norway and Iceland.
Klein has made two varieties of this whale, diftin-
guifliing them by names derived from that part of the
ocean where they are found. 1. Var. Anjlralis, wdiich
is found in the fouthern ocean, has the back very flat.
2. Var. Occidentalis, found in the weftern ocean, w7hich
has the back more elevated. The fame naturalift has
diftinguiftied the Balcena glaciahs by the name borealis.
* * Species which have a Fin or Bunches on the Bach.
3. Bal^ena Physalus, or Finjijh.
French, Le Gibbar; German, Finnffch; Dutch, Vin-
vifch; Norwegian, Ror-hual, Fmne-JiJk; Greenland,
Tummilih; Iceland, Hunfubahs.
Character?, The jaws are equal and pointed j the horny laminae
LOG Y. 331'
of the upper iaw are ihort, and of a bluifti colour. Claffitk..
rr.1 . rr ,r 111 tion, &rc.
There is one fin on the back. _ ;
According to the fifhermen the fin-fifh is as mng, ^
but not not lo thick as the common whale. W hen the jjefcrjpt:0Jl
jaws are fhut, the head refembles a cone, which con-
ftitutes nearly one third part of the whole length of
the whale, and terminates in a (harp fnout. On the
top of the head are two refpiratory orifices divided
longitudinally. This whale, it is find, ejedts the w^a-
ter with much greater force than the common whale.
The horny laminae of the upper jaw are fringed and
difpofed in the fame manner as thofe of the preceding.
They differ in being fhortei', and of a blue colour.
The length is from 10 to 12 inches. The long hair
which terminates the laminae, is fo twifted that the
edges of the_upper jawT feem covered with a thick cord
interwoven together. The eyes are placed very low,
nearly in the diredlion of the angles of the mouth.
Towards the pofterior extremity of the back, there
arifes a triangular fin, about 3 or 4 feet high, having^
the fummit bent backwards. The lateral fins are of
an oval figure, from 6 to 7 feet long. The tail-fin is
divided into two lobes which form nearly a right angle. ^
This fpecies lives on the herring, the mackerel, ap00cp
kind of falmon frequent in the northern fea, and other
ftnall filh.
The upper part of the body is of a fhining brown
colour. The belly and the under part of the low7er
jaw are of a fplendid white.
This fpecies of whale is found in the Greenland
feas, in the European feas, in the Indian ocean, and
in the new world. In March 1673, Martens mentions
that he faw a whale of this fpecies in the Straits of
Gibraltar. As the mafs of the body conftitutes the
third or the fourth of that of the common whale, the
fat is lefs thick. It yields, it is faid, only ten tons of
oil. This whale is therefore lels an objed of the
fiftierman’s purfuit, for the produce of oil is not equi¬
valent to the expence, the rifk and the danger that at¬
tend it. y r r-<
It has been remarked, that as foon as the fin-fiur
makes its appearance in the feas round Spitzbergen,
the common W'hale is no longer to be feen. 3S
In Greenland the fleflr, the fins, the fkin and theufes.
tendons, are employed as food by the poorer inhabi¬
tants; and the bones are applied to a great many do-
meftic ufes. It is faid that the fleflr has the fame tafte
as that of the fturgeon.
4. Bal.ena Nodosa, the Bunch or Flumpbach Whale.
French, Baleine-tampon; German, P/ock-Jifh) Dutch,
Pen-Jifh. _ ^
The lateral fins are w hite. There is a bunch near characters,
the tail larger than the head of a man. 40
Of this fpecies lefs is known than of the others.Defeription
In place of the dorfal fin, there is a bunch near the
tail which declines pofteriorly. It is about a foot high,
and a little thicker than the human head. The late¬
ral fins are white, placed near the middle of the body,
and are 18 feet long. The blubber of the bunch*
whale refembles that of the fin-fifh. According to
Klein, the beard of this fpecies is not held in much
eftimation, though it is more valued than that of^ the
latter fpecies. It is a native of the feas of New Eng¬
land.
T t 2 5. Bal^ena
33 2
CJaffifica-
tion, See.
C E T O
5* Baltena Gibbosa, tlie Scrag-whale.
4i
Charadlers
French, La Balcine a Jlx bojjes; German, Knotenjifch;
Dutch, Knohbelfifch.
The horny laminae of the upper jaw in this fpecies
42 are white ; and there are fix bunches on the back.
Defcription In external form this fpecies refembles the common
whale. It is nearly of the fame colour, and yields an
equal quantity of blubber. It feems difficult to re¬
concile tnis with the fpecific name given by Klein, viz.
Balcena macro, or lean whale. But it has been fup-
pofed that this refers to the mufcular parts, which are
of {’mailer fize.
The dorfal fin is wanting. Its place feems to be
fupplied by fix bunches or knots towards the tail.
The lamina; are white, and are found to fplit with
much difficulty.
Like the former, it inhabits the feas of New Eng¬
land.
* * * Species which have a Protuberance in form of a
Fin on the Fail, and Folds on the Belly.
6. Balzena Boops, the Pike-headed Whale.
French, La 'Jubarte; Greenland, Keporkak; Iceland,
4- Flrafin, Reydus.
Characters. The lower jaw is a little {barter and narrower than
the upper. The protuberance on the back is curved
44 and flretching to the tail.
Befcnption M. O. Fabricius, who was prefent and affifted at
the capture of a whale of this fpecies, has given the
following defer!ption of it. The body is round and very
thick near the lateral fins. It gradually diminifhes to
the end of the tail, the thicknefs of which is not
greater than what a man can embrace. The head is
oblong, inclining, and terminates in a broad obtufe
hi out. Towards the middle of the head is the protu¬
berance, in the middle of which are the two refpira-
tory orifices, which are fo clofe to each other, as to
appear to be only one. Before the orifices there are
three rows of circular protuberances, of which the ufe
is not known. The lower jaw is fliorter and nar¬
rower than the upper. The eyes are placed on the
fides of the head behind the orifices. The external
opening of the organ of hearing forms two holes im¬
mediately behind the orbits of the eyes, but are al-
moft imperceptible. The horny laminae of the upper
jaw are black, and fcarcely a foot in length. They
are difpofed in the fame manner as in the common
whale, but the interlfices in the fore part of the
jaw are not filled up with fmall laminae. The tongue
is large, fat, and fpongy j its colour refembles that of
the liver. It is covered with a loofe {kin, which
firetches towards the gullet, where it forms a kind of
operculum or covering.
a he lateral fins are large, oval, interiorly entire,
rounded and notched pofteriorly, and a little hollowed
externally. The tail fin is hollowed or notched in
form of a crefcent, and terminates in a point. From
the lower part of the mouth, to the region of the
anus, the inferior furface of the body is marked with
folds or furrows which unite in pairs, and form angles
at the two extremities. The two external furrows are
always of the greateft length) and it would appear
LOGY. Chap. 1.
that the whale has the power of dilating and contrac- Claffifica.
ting them at pleafure. tion, &c.
The colour of the upper part of the body is black;' ' ~
the. lower part of the mouth and the lateral fins are
white 5 the cavity of the furrows is of a blood red j
the interior folds, the belly, and the tail fin, are mark¬
ed with black and white ipots. Under the epidermis
is the {kin which covers the fat, which in this fpecies
is but a thin layer, and coniequently yields lefs oil
than the preceding.
When the pike-headed whale takes in food, it
opens its capacious mouth, and fwallows a great quan-
ty of water along with its prey. It is then that the
folds of the {kin on the belly are obferved to dilate
confiderably ; and then too the contrail between the
fine red in the cavity of the furrows, the black co¬
lour of the laminae of the jaw, and the bright white
on the under part of the mouth, produces a very ftrik-
ing effe£l.
. At every attempt at progreffive motion, this fpecies
ejeds the water by the refpiratory orifices, but with
lefs. violence than other whales. The moment after,
it difappears under the water. And when it plunges
and ffiewrs the tail-fin, it is confidered as a fign that it
is going to defeend to a great depth, and that it will
remain a longer time under the furface. When the fea is
calm, it is feen afleep on the furface of the w’ater;
and the moment it awakes, it performs a number of
different motions with inconceivable rapidity. Some¬
times it lies on its fide 5 in an inftant it ftrikes the wa¬
ter with the lateral fins wdth prodigious force, and
then turns on its back. It fprings up into the air, and
returns to the water in a whirling motion, at a confi-
derable diftance from the place from which it arofe.
The food of the pike-headed whale confilts of aF00<^:
fpecies of helix, a fmall Ipecies of falmon which frequents
the northern ocean, and the fand-eel. It has only a
fmgle young one at a time. The young whale follows
its mother, till another is brought forth ) but this does
not happen every year.
The {lighted .wound is obferved to occafion the
death of this fpecies of w-halej for the wmund very foon
runs into gangrene. 1 he animal often goes to a great
diftance from the fpot where it received the fatal blow.
The fureil method feems to be to ftrike with the fpear
immediately behind the lateral fins j and if it happen
that the inteftines are wounded, the whale inftantly
plunges into the ocean.
This fpecies frequents chiefly the Greenland feas,
between the fit ft and 65th degree of latitude. In
winter it appears only in the open feas, but in fummer
it approaches the ihores, and enters the great bays.
. The length varies from 50 to 54 feet. Sibbald has
given a deicription of a young one which was thrown
afhore on the coaii of Scotland. The following are
the dimenfions of the principal parts of the body,
i
Feet. Inches.
From the end of the fnout to the extre¬
mity of the tail, 46 o
The greateft thicknefs at the lateral fins, 20 o
The greateft; thicknefs at the dorial fin, 12 o
Greateft breadth of the lower jaw, 4 6
Length of the opening of the mouth, ig o
Breadth
1
Chap. I.
C
Ctaffifica-
tion, &c.
Breadth of ditto,
Length of the tongue,
Breadth of this organ at the root,
Length of the peftoral fins,
Breadth of ditto,.
Breadth of the tail fin,
Length of the penis,
E T O
Feet. Inches.
4 o
5 °
3 0
5 o
1 6
9 6
2 O
7. Baljena Musculus, the Round-Upped Whale.
French and Greenland, Rorqual; Iceland, Steipet
Reydus.
Characters. In this fpecies the lower jaw is longeft and broadeft.
The protuberance on the back is ilraight, triangular,
and ftretches to the tail.
Defcnption This fpecies refembles the preceding in the form of
the body. In both there is a prodigious enlargement
of the fide of the head, which gradually diminifhes to¬
wards the tail. The ftru£ture of the lower jaw furnifhes
the principal charadteriftic diftindtion. In the pike¬
headed whale it is pointed $ but in this fpecies it is
rounded, which gives the head an obtufe (liape. The
opening of the mouth is fo wide, that it will admit
fourteen men Handing upright at the fame time. The
upper jaw is narrower than the lower} it is alfo more
pointed at the extremity, and is received into the lower
jaw. The tongue is compofed of a foft fpongy fub-
Hance} and is covered wuth a fine membrane 01 Ikin.
At the bafe of the tongue, on each fide, there is a
flefliy mafs of a red colour, which fhuts up the en¬
trance of the gullet fo clofely that only fmall fifh can
be admitted. The whole palate is covered with black
laminae, which terminate at their extremity in a filky
hair which hangs over the tongue. The laminae^ and
the hair are of unequal length and breadth. 1 nofe
which are attached to the anterior part of the jaw
are 3 feet long, and 1 2 inches broad} while thofe near
the entrance to the gullet are fcarcely fix inches long
by one inch broad.
The eyes are placed above the angle of the mouth •,
they refemble thofe of the ox. Above the eyes, in the
middle of the head, are fituated the two refpiratory ori¬
fices, which are of a pyramidal form.
The peftoral fins are large, a little oval, and taper¬
ing ; and fituated oppofite to the angle of the mouth.
The dorfal fin is placed dire&ly oppofite to the open¬
ing of the anus. It tapers a little, and is curved
backward. The tail fin is divided into two lobes,
which are curved like a feythe, and end in a point.
From the end of the lower jaw to the navel, the
under part of the body is covered with rugae or folds,
which are two inches broad, having the cavities by
which they are feparated of the fame breadth. The
fides are covered with a layer of fat or blubber, 4
inches thick ; and on the head and neck, where the
fat is more abundant, it is a foot in thicknefs. . T. he
48 upper part of the body is black, the belly is white.
Food- The herring is the food of this fpecies of whale.
In the month of September 1692, a whale of this
fpecies was thrown alhore on the coaft of Scotland, as
we find it recorded by Sibbald. For twenty years be¬
fore the fiihermen had obferved it occafionally in pur-
fuit of the herrings-, and they recogmfed it in confe-
quence of a wound which it had received from a muf-
LOGY. 333
ket. The ball had pierced through the dorfahfin. Claflifica-
The following are the principal dimenfions, by the, t'on^OLC- >
fame author.
Feet. Inches.
Whole length of the body, from the fnout
to the extremity of the tail. 7^ 0
Circumference of the body at its greateft
thicknefs, 35 0
Length of the lower jaw-, 13 2
Length of the tongue, 15 7
Breadth of ditto, 15 0
Length of the pefloral fins, 10 O
Greateft breadth of ditto, 2 6
Length of the dorfal fin, 3 o
Height of ditto, 2 0
Diftance between the extremity of the
lobes of the tail, ^8 6
Length of the penis, 5 0
8. BaljEna Rostrata, the Piled Whale.
French, La Baleine d Bee.
49
The jaws are long, narrow, and pointed, the lower Characters,
jaw is longeft. The protuberance which is placed on
the extremity of the back, is roundiih at the apex. 50 _
A fide view of this fpecies of whale prefents aDefcnPtlon
lengthened oval form, which has the greateft tranf-
verfe diameter towards the middle of the body. 1 he
head conftitutes a fourth part of the length of the
body, and is of a conical form. The jaws are larger,
narrower, and more pointed than in the other fpecies.
The upper jaw is the ftiorteft. The eyes are placed a
little above the angles of the mouth, and the blow¬
holes are on the top of the head. The laminte of the
upper jaw, according to Fabricius, are white and very
fhort. #
The lateral fins occupy the middle of the height ot
the fides -, they are broad, nearly oval, and rounded.
The dorfal fin is oppofite to the anus. It is rounded
at the top, inclining towards the tail. The tail fin is
divided into two lobes wThich form by their junClion
a crefcent, the horns of which are direfted behind.
The under part of the body, from the point of the
lower jaw to the middle of the trunk, is covered with
rugse or folds in parallel rows, which ftretch on both
fides to the infertion of the pefforal. fins. The back
is black ; but this gradually diminithes towards the
belly which is pure white, varied with a mixture of red-
diih (hades.
This fpecies of whale fwims with extraordinary ve¬
locity. The fat or blubber is very compaft, and yields
but a fmall quantity of oil. The fifhermen are there¬
fore not very eager in the purfuit of it. But as the
inhabitants of Greenland confider the flefti very delicate
food, they are often employed in taking this whale.
They never approach fo near as to ftrike it with the
harpoon -, but difeharge arrows from a diftance, the
wounds of which almoft always prove mortal. 51
The food of this whale is the fame as of fome of the Food,
other fpecies 5 chiefly, the fmall fpecies of falmon of
the northern feas, and the other fmall filh, which it
purfues with fuch avidity, that they are often feen leap¬
ing from the fea to avoid the purfuit. This is the
fmalleft fpecies of whale.
334
Clarifica¬
tion, See,
S3
Where
found.
S3
Generic
C E T O
It is found mod: frequently in the Greenland feas ;
and enten alfo in the European. One which was ta-
rn °Jn1t^e hank, meafured 17 feet in length.
It had loft the dorfal fin, and by fome other accident
the jaws were fo fwelled, that the head formed a mafs
pecifically lighter than water, and therefore did not
link m that element.
Class II. MONODON.
Genus ift. Monodon, Unicorn-fjh, or Sea-Unicorn.
Characters ZJ16 .ls nahed, oval, oblong, round and fpotted.
, l he head is fmall, and not eafily diftinguifhed from
the left of the^ body. There is only one refpiratory
onfice, which is placed on the top of the head, and flint
up by a covering cut in form of a comb. The open¬
ing of the mouth is fmall. There are no teeth in the
’ kut from the upper jaw there proceeds, in¬
clining fometimes to the right fide, and fometimes to
the leit, one long tooth which is twifted in a fpiral
form. There are rarely two ; but when that is the
caie, they are nearly of the fame length ; and there is
only one fpecies which has the teeth curved at the ex¬
tremity. The eyes and ears are very fmall. The
penis of the male is enclofed in a kind of fheath j and
the female has tsvo mammae on the belly, between which
are the organs of generation.
There are three or four fleftiy fins 5 two peftoral
fins ; one at the extremity of the tail; and that of the
back is often replaced by a proje&ion which runs
its whole length.
Species.
Plate CXL. I .Monodon Monoceros, theNarhwal, or Unicorn-Fijh.
French, Narhiva/, Licorne de mer; Norwegian, Lighvah
^ Iceland, Narhwctl; Greenland, Tauvar.
Characters. . One tooth in fhape of a horn, inferted in the upper
javy, and fpirally twifted ; there are rarely two.
55 There is no tail fin.
Defcription 'Che body of the narhwal is oblong and oval j the
back broad, convex, and tapering towards the tail :
the head is round, fmall, enlarged at the top, and ter¬
minates in an obtufe rounded fnout. There are no
teeth 3 but a long twifted tooth, which is attached to the
upper jaw. It was long fuppofed that this bony inftru-
ment of defence, was the horn of a very rare quadruped,
and confequently it was fold at a very high price. Each
tooth is from nine to ten feet in length, and poffeffes
01-n ProPertles °f ^017. It is hmvever eafy to
diftmguifh them. The fibres of the tooth of the uni-
corn fift, are finer than ivory; it is more compaft,
heavier, and lefs apt to become yellow. The narh-
wal is rarely furmftied with more than one tooth, but
under the common fkin of the head on the other fide,
the rudiments of another may be obferved. There
have been, however, different examples of two teeth
and both nearly of the fame length. In the year 1604’
a female haying two teeth was taken, and the bones of
the head, with the teeth inferted, were brought to Ham¬
burgh. The two teeth proceeded in a right line from
the anterior part of the Ikull. At the place of infertion
they were only two inches afunder, but gradually di-
verging, they were feparated at the extremity 18 inches.
1 he leit tooth was p inches in circumference, and feveri
LOGY. Chap. 1,
feet 5 inches long. The right was feven feet long, and Clafiifica-
eight inches in circumfeience at the bale. Both teeth tion, &c.
entered 13 inches into the bones of the head, which' ^
was two feet long, and 18 inches broad.
I he opening of the mouth is in general very fmall;
not larger according to fome, than to admit the hand
of a man. The tongue is nearly of the fame fize. The
he. d ends in a rounded fnout. The lower lip is
thin, and fhorter than the upper.
rI he eyes are placed oppofite to the opening of the
mouth ; and they are furrounded by a kind of eye-lid.
On the top of the head there is one refpiratory orifice,
which may be fhut and opened at pleafure by means of
a fringed covering.
The peftoral fins are about a foot long, and eight inches
broad. The fin of the tail is divided into two obtufe
oval lobes. In place of the dorfal fin, there is a ridge
or projedlion about nine inches high, which extends
from the breathing hole on the head to the bafe of the
fin, which terminates the trunk of the body, and di-
minifhes gradually in height as it approaches to the tail.
The fkin is about one inch in thicknefs. The co¬
lour is of a greyifh white, marked with a great num¬
ber of black fpots which feem to penetrate the fubftance
of the fkin. I he fkin of the belly is of a fhining white,
and foft as velvet to the touch.
The oil which the unicorn-fifh yields is in fmall quan¬
tity, but it is confidered to be of a fuperior quality to
that of the Greenland or common whale. The food of Food
this fifh is one of the fpecies of the PleuroneSIes, and fome
fpecies of helix.
The length of the unicorn-fifh is from zo to 22 feet
the circumference about 12 feet. According to fome
authors indeed, fome fifh have been found 60 feet long.
It inhabits chiefly the northern feas of Europe and A-
merica, about Davis ftraits, and the coafts of Ice¬
land.
It wrould be difficult to take this fifh fingly and
in the open fe,a ; for they are excellent fwimmers,
move with aftonifhing velocity by means of the tail-
fin. But as. they live in very cold climates, and
cannot remain long under water without refpiring,
they frequent the bays that are free of ice. In thefe
places they crowd together in fuch numbers, that they
force their teeth into the body of each other ; and
in this fituation they can neither plunge into the deep
water, nor avoid the purfuit and blows of the fifher-
men.
There is no part of this fifh which is not applied to Ufes.57
fome ufeful purpofe by the inhabitants of Greenland.
They are extremely fond of the fiefh, which they eat
roafted or dried in the fmoke. The inteftines alfo are
regarded as a very delicate food. They are alfo roaft¬
ed. I he fat affords an oil for burning. From the
gullet they obtain bags or bladders which they employ
in fifhing. The tendons are made into excellent thread
or fmall cords. Of the teeth they make feveral inftru-
ments w hich are ufed in the chafe, or flakes for the con-
ftruftion of their huts.
The kings , of Denmark have a moft magnificent Magnifi-
throne wdiich is entirely compofed of the teeth of the cent throne
unicorn-fifh. It is preferved in the caftle of Rofen-otthe teeth,
berg ; and it is efteemed of greater value than if it were
made of gold.
It has been affirmed by fome naturalifts, that there
have
Chap. I. C E T O
Claffifica- have been found individuals of the unicorn-fifti having
.tion, &cc. protuberances on the back, and that in others the teeth
* were not fpirally twifted, but fmooth from the bafe to
the extremity. Should thefe differences turn out to be
uniform and conftant, other fpecies befide thofe already
known muft be admitted.
2. Monodon Spurius, the Spurious Narhwal or XJni-
corn-jijh.
French, L'Anarnah.
59
Characters. In this fpecies there are two fmall curved teeth in
60 the upper jaw, and one fin on the back.
Defcription This fpecies, which has been defcribed by Fabricius
in his Fauna Green/andica, properly belongs to the ge¬
nus Monodon, at leaf! the charafters correfpond more
nearly to this genus than to any other. The body is
oblong, rounded, and of a black colour. There are
no teeth in the mouth ; but to the upper jaw are at¬
tached two fmall teeth which are of a conical form, a
little curved at the extremity, and about one inch long.
Befide the two pectoral fins, there is a fmall one on the
back.
This fpecies is one of the fmalleft filhes belonging
to this clafs. It refpires like the other cetaceous
filhes by a breathing hole on the top of the head.
It rarely happens that the tail-fin is feen when it
plunges into the water, but when it refpires the air it
rifes above the furface of the fea as high as the in-
fretion of the pe&oral fins.
The flelh and fat are found to have a violently pur¬
gative effedl. From this property the Greenlanders
have given it the name Anarnak, which is adopted by
the French naturalifts.
It inhabits chiefly the open fea, and very rarely ap¬
proaches the Ihores. It is moll commonly found in the
Greenland feas.
Class III. PHYSETER.
Genus ill. Physeter, Spermaceti Whale.
Generic The body is naked, fometimes oval, and fometimes
characters, in the form of a lengthened cone. The head is very
thick, anteriorly truncated and occupying nearly one
half or one third of the whole length of the body.
There is only one breathing hole which is placed on
the fnout. The jaws are unequal. The lower is
{hotter and narrower, and it is furniflied with teeth
which are fometimes of a conical form, and fometimes
blunt 5 fometimes ftraight, but often curved in form
of a fickle. In the upper jaw there are corref-
ponding cavities. It is alfo furnilhed with teeth, but
they are flat, lie horizontally, and are fcarcely vifible.
The eyes are {mall, and are fituated near the in-
fertion of the peftoral fins. The external opening of
the organ of hearing is very fmall, and not eafily de-
te£led.
The penis, as in the other claffes, is included in a
{heath. The female has two mammae fituated in the
abdomen, and between them are placed the parts of ge¬
neration, near which is the external opening of the anus.
There are three flefhy fins. Two of thefe are the
' pe&oral; and the third is at the extremity of the tail.
The place of the dorfal fin is occupied by a falfe fin,
and often by a kind of callofity.
LOGY. 335
Claffifica-
SpECIES. tion, &C.
i. Physeter Macrocephalus, the Large Spermaceti
Whale.
Yvtnch, Cachalot Germ. Pottjifch ; Dutch, Potvifch ;-putP rT.y.
Norweg. Kafkelot, Potjijk, Prold, Huai. fig. 3.
There is a fpurious fin on the back. The teeth are characters,
curved, and a little pointed at the extremity.
Of all the fpecies belonging to this genus, this, on x)efcription
account of its great bulk, is entitled to the firfl: place.
The head, which occupies the third part of the body,
is a large mafs of a fquare form, angular at the fides,
and truncated before. The upper is of much greater
length than the lower. It is alfo broader, its edges
forming a very confiderable projeflion, and folded
back towards the centre, where there is an oval longi¬
tudinal cavity deftined to receive the lower jaw. The
lower jaw is furnilhed on each fide with a row of
ftrong conical teeth, a little curved towards the mouth,
and projecting from the alveolar procefs about one and
a half inches. The two teeth at the anterior extremi¬
ty of the jaw, and the four which terminate on each
fide the two rows, are fmaller and more pointed. The
colour of them externally approaches to that of ivory $
but internally they are lefs hard and compact, and are
of an alh-colour. It has been fuppofed that the teeth
become longer, thicker, and more curved, in propor¬
tion to the age of the animal. The ordinary length
is about fix inches, and three inches in circumfe¬
rence at the bafe. The upper jaw is furnifhed rvith
as many cavities as there are teeth in the lower jaw j
but, in the interftices which feparate thefe cavities,
there are about 20 fmall teeth placed horizontally, and
raifed a little above the flefli. Thefe teeth are {harp
on the fide oppofite to the place of infertion, but pre-
fent a fmooth, plain, and oblique furface, which fills
up the interval that feparates the cavities. This ob¬
lique furface is only vifible ; the reft of the tooth is
covered with flefti. And from not attending to the
form and difpofition of thefe teeth, it has been gene¬
rally faid that the fpermaceti whale had none in the
upper jaw.
The tongue is a mafs of flefh of a fquare form, and
of a livid red colour, which fills almoft the w’hole of
the bottom of the mouth.
The breathing holes, pafling diagonally through the
head, unite into one at the fuperior extremity of the
fnout, where the opening is about fix inches diameter.
The eyes are black, very fmall wftien compared to
the bulk of the body, and furrounded with a ftrong
fhort hair, which is not very perceptible. The open¬
ing of the ears is not eafily detected. It is placed be¬
hind the orbit of the eyes, on a cutaneous excrefcence
between the eyes and the pe£loral fins.
The head is feparated from the trunk, by a tranf-
verfe groove, which extends to the place of infertion
of the pedloral fins. Thefe fins are of an oval form,
three or four feet long, and three inches thick.
On the back there is a callofity which extends twm-
thirds of the whole length. It rifes feveral inches above
the furface, and is flightly inclined. Where it termi¬
nates behind it is truncated.
The organs of generations referable thofe of qua¬
drupeds. The penis of the male is enclofed in a {heath.
On
33^ C E T O
claffifica- On each fide of the fame organs in the female are
tion, &c. placed the mammae, which are four or five inches
long*
The tail, which is fmall for the fize of the fifh, ter¬
minates in a fin, which is divided into two lobes, hol¬
lowed out in form of a fickle.
The back is black, or of a flate blue fpotted with
white. The belly is alfo white. The fat or blubber,
which lies immediately under the fkin, is about five or
fix inches thick on the back, and rather lefs on the
belly. The flelh is of a pale red, like that of pork.
The head, though very large, is the lead; flefiiy part
of the body. But it yields the fubftance called
viacetiy in great abundance. This feems to vary in
colour, according to the climate in which the whale
has lived.
The food of the fpermaceti whale is the dog-fifli
and the lump-filh.
This whale fwims with great velocity ; and he often
appears on the furface of the water. It is at this time
that the filhermen take the opportunity of ftriking him
with their fpears *, and it often happens, that the parts
of the body which have been wounded become gangre¬
nous, and fall off before the death of the animal.
The flelh, the fkin, the fat, and the inteftines, are
applied to the fame purpofes as thofe of the unicorn-
filh. The tongue, roalted, is reckoned excellent food j
and of the different bones of the body befide the teeth
inftruments for the chafe are made.
This whale inhabits chiefly the Greenland feas and
Davis ftraits ; but occafionally is found on the Euro¬
pean fliores to the fouthward. In the year 1784, in
the month of March, 31 of thefe fillies came on
Ihore on the weftern coaft of Audierne in Lower Brit¬
tany in France. The following are the dimenfions
of one of thefe taken at the time.
Peet. Inches.
/
Total length, 44 6
From the anterior extremity of the Inout to
the eyes, 8 o
From the eyes to the pe&oral fins, 3 o
From the pedloral fins to the organs of ge¬
neration, 19 7
Length of the tail, 6 9
Diftance of the lobes of the tail, 10 o ,
Circumference at the greateft thicknefs, 34 8
Length of the upper jaw, 5 0
• lower jaw, 4 6
Dpening of the mouth, 3 10
Breadth of the fnout, 5 o
2. Physeter Catodon, the Small Spermaceti Whale.
54
Characters.
65 .
Defcription
French, Le Petit Cachalot; Norwegian, Swine, Huai;
Greenland, Kegutilik.
In this fpecies, there is a rough fpurious fin on the
back. The teeth are curved and blunt.
Without attending to the form and difpofition of the
teeth in the cetaceous filhes, the charafteriflic marks
are often ambiguous. All naturalifts agree, that the
characters taken from the teeth are the molt certain,
becaufe they are molt conftant and uniform in Itruc-
ture and appearance, and lefs fubjeft to thofe varia¬
tions which age and climate feem to produce. This
fpecies is, in this manner, eafily diltinguifhed from the
1
LOGY. Chap. I.
others. The head is of a round form ; the opening of Clafhfica-
the mouth is of moderate fize ; the lower jaw is long- c‘
er, but not fo broad as the upper. It is furnifhed ^
with a row of teeth on each fide ; and theie correfpond
to the cavities in the upper jaw, whi^h receive them.
There is a peculiar itruCture of the teeth in this fpe¬
cies. That part of the tooth which rifes above the
gum has a greater thicknefs than where it is inferted
into the jaw •, and befides, each tooth is flat at the top,
and marked with concentric lines. The longelt teeth
are two inches in length, and about an inch in circum¬
ference at the greateft thicknefs.
Sibbald has miftaken the breathing hole for no-
ftrils; and this feems to have arifen from the pofition
of the breathing holes near the fnout of the filli.
This fpecies is chiefly an inhabitant of the northern
feas.
Towards the end of the 17th century, 102 of this
fpecies came on Ihore at Cairfton in the Orkney illands.
The longeft was 24 feet.
3. Physeter Trumpo, the Spermaceti Whale.
French, Le Cachalot dc la Nouvelle Angletcrre; Le
’Trumpo.
66
This fpecies is diftinguilhed by u bunch on the back, characters,
and having the teeth ftraight and pointed. 67
The head of this fpecies is of an immenfe fize. It Defcription
divides the body nearly into two equal parts. The
upper jaw is much longer and thicker than the lower,
which is furnilhed with 18 teeth, ftraight and pointed,
about three inches diftant from each other 5 and when
the mouth is Ihut, they are received into cavities of
the upper jaw.
The" eyes are fmall. The breathing hole is at leaft
a foot in diameter, and it is placed at the fuperior ex¬
tremity of the fnout.
The thickeft part of the body is near the infertion
of the pe&oral fins. Thefe are very fmall; and that
of the tail is divided into two lobes. In place of the
dorfal fin, there is a bunch on the back which is more
than a foot thick. It is placed nearly oppofite to the
parts of generation.
The Ikin is of a grayilh colour, and very foft to the
touch. The length of this whale varies from 48 to 60
feet.
It is chiefly an inhabitant of the feas which wafh
the (bores of New England.
An individual of this fpecies landed in the year
1741, near Bayonne in France. It yielded ten tons
of fpermaceti, which was reckoned of a fuperior qua¬
lity to that of the large fpermaceti whale. In the fto-
mach of the fame whale wras found a round mafs of fe-
ven pounds weight, which was taken for ambergreafe.
The fubftance called fpermaceti, is lodged in parti- Spermaceti
cular cells in the head near the feat of the brain. It
is extra&ed by making a hole in the (kull.
It has been obferved by feme naturalifts, that this
whale is more agile and more dangerous than any
other of the fpecies. When it is wounded, it is faid
that it throws itfelf on its back, and defends itfelf w'ith
its mouth.
Mr Pennant has deferibed this under the name of
the blunt-headed whale, (Phyfeter Microps, Lin.) But
if we attend to the iorm of the body, the ftructure of
the
Chap. I. C E F O
Clafiifica- the head, the number and ftru&ure of the teeth, it
tioru &c. ^ feems to conftitute a diftinft fpecies.
JjimenJlons of the Spermaceti Whale thrown afljore near
Bayonne.
Feet. Inches.
Total length,
Greateft circumference at the eyes,
From the extremity of the tail fin to the
opening of the anus,
Length of the penis,
  — fheath which enclofes it.
Diameter of the penis,
Diftance of the extremities of the two lobes
of the tail,
49 o
27 o
14 o
4 °
1 6
Q 7
13 O
4. Physeter Cylindricus, the Round Spermaceti
Whale.
Characters There is a bunch on the back ; the teeth are curved
’ and pointed at the top j the breathing hole is. in the
middle of the fnout.
Defcription The form and relative fituation of the trunk and
head, the pofition of the breathing-hole, the relative
length of the jaws, the number and ftrufture of the
. teeth, and efpecially the fize of the dorfal fin, prefent
differences which fufficiently diftinguifh this from the
following fpecies. The body is cylindrical, from the
extremity of the fnout to a line drawn perpendicular
to the place wdiere the penis is inferted, and from thence
to the tail-fin it gradually diminifhes. The head is at
leaf! the third of the whole length of the body. The
profile of the head prefents a kind of parallelogram.
The jaws are nearly of equal length. On each fide of
the lower jaw there is a row of 25 curved, fharp-point-
ed teeth. The breathing-hole is placed at the fupe-
rior extremity of the fnout. The dorfal fin is re¬
placed by a bunch, 18 inches high, and four and a
half inches long at the bafe. The tail-fin is divided
into two lobes, forming a kind of crefcent.
One of this fpecies is defcribed by Anderfon, which
was 48 feet long, 12 of perpendicular height, and 36
in circumference, at its greateft thicknefs.
5. Physeter Microps, the Black-headed Spermaceti
Whale or Cachalot.
French, Cachalot Microps, Cachalot a dents en Tau-
cille; Norwegian, Staur Hytning ; Greenland, 77-
fagufk.
. In this fpecies there is a long, ftraight fin on the
iara e15'back. The teeth are curved, the point is at firft di-
refted to the mouth, and then turns outwards.
_ 72 The defcriptions of naturalifts who have treated of
Defcription fpec;es 0f
whale are greatly confufed ; and this
probably arifes from not having attended fufiiciently to
the form of the teeth. According to Fabricius, there
are only 22 teeth in the lower jaw, 11 on each fide.
All thefe teeth are curved, having the concave fide
towards the mouth, and are funk in the jaw-bone, two-
thirds of their whole length. The external part of the
teeth is white as ivory, of a conical form ; and the
point, which is lharp, inclines a little outwardly. That
part of the tooth which is funk in the jawr is compref-
fed on two fides, and furrowed on that fide next to
the gullet. The Greenlanders fay that this whale has
teeth in the upper jaw : but this is not clearly afeer-
Vol. V. Part I.
LOGY. 337
tained. Perhaps they are only flatted teeth, fimilar to Claffifica-
what we have defcribed in the great fpermaceti whale..tl0n’
Each tooth extends to a finger length, and is about' ~st~
one and a half inch broad. The longeft occupy the
middle part of the jaw. The fmaller are at the extre¬
mities. The fnout ends in a blunt furface ; and, ac¬
cording to moft naturalifts, the upper jaw is the
longeft.
The pectoral fins are about four feet long. What
occupies the place of a fin on the back is of confider-
able height, and has been by fbme naturalifts comnared
to a long needle.
This whale is the declared enemy of fome of the
other whales, as the pike-headed whale and the por-
poife, which it purfues as its prey. In Greenland the
flefti of this whale is greatly efteemed, even more than
that of any of the other fpecies. It is rarely taken
with the harpoon.
It inhabits chiefly the northern ocean.
6. Physeter Mular.
* French, Le Cachalot Mular.
...... 73
This fpecies is diftinguiftied by a very elevated fin Charadters.
on the middle of the back. The teeth are (lightly
curved and obtufe. / 74
This fpecies refembles the former in the general ®elcnljtiCK
ftruhlure of the body. It differs in the form of the
teeth, which are lefs curved, and are obtufe. The
longeft, which are eight inches in length, and nine
inches in circumference, occupy the front of the jawr.
The others are only fix inches long. Sometimes the
teeth are found to be hollow, and fometimes they are
folid. Is this owbng to the difference of age in the in¬
dividuals in which it has been obferved ? Befide the
pe&oral fins, that which is placed on the back is very
remarkable on account of its length. Sibbald com¬
pares it to the mizen-maft of a veffel.
According to Anderfon, this fpecies is farther di¬
ftinguiftied by having three bunches or protuberances
towards the extremity of the back ; the firft is 18
inches high ; the fecond, fix inches j and the laft Only
three inches. The fame hiftorian has obferved, that
he was informed by the captain of a ftiip, that he faw
on the coaft of Greenland, a great number of this fpe¬
cies of whale, at the head of which was one of 100
feet long, which feemed to be the leader ; and which,
at the appearance of the fliip, gave fuch a terrible
fhout, fpouting water at the fame time, as to ftiakethe
veffel. At this fignal, the whole made a precipitate
retreat.
This fpecies is gregarious, and frequents the feas
about the North Cape. They are but rarely taken $
for they are very wdld and difficult to wound. It ap¬
pears, that the harpoon can only pierce them in one
or two places near the peftoral-fins.
The fat or blubber is very tendinous, and yields but
a fmall proportion of oil.
Class IV. DELPHINUS. .
Genus ift, Delphinus, the Dolphin.
The body is naked, oval, or of an oblong conical Generic
fhape, of a blue colour, inclining to black. 1 he head characters,
is conical, ditniniftiing gradually towards the fnout.
U u The
338
Claffifka- The breathing-hole, which is on the top of the head,
tion, &c. ^ js |n fonn 0f a crefcent, the horns of which are di-
' " " v reffed towards the fnout. The jaws are of equal length,
fometimes beaked, and fornetimes rounded. They are
furnilhed with teeth, which are conical or compieffed,
pointed or obtufe, and in fome fpecies notched.
The eyes are placed near the angles of the mouth.
The pupil of the eye is black, and the iris white. The
external opening of the ears is fituated behind the eyes.
The noftrils terminate in the fnout.
The peitis of the male is included in a (heath ; and
the mammae of the female are attached to the belly j
and between them are the organs of generation.
There are four fins ; two are peftoral; there is one
on the back, and one at the extremity of the tail. In
one fpecies only the dorfal-fin is wanting. ■
Chap. I,
through the navel of the mother. This is fuppofed to Claffifica-
be occafioned by the fpafmodic contraction, produced Uon’ ^"c*
by the efforts of the mother in the druggies of death.
The flelh of the porpoife has a difagreeable oily •y-es
tade. It is, however, ufed as food by the inhabitants
of Lapland and of Greenland. In Greenland they
fuffer it to undergo fome degree of putrefaftion to
make it tender, and then they prepare it by reading
or boiling. They ufe the fkin, the fat, and the en¬
trails for this purpofe. The Dutch and the Danes
take the porpoife only for the extradlion of the oil.
The porpoife inhabits thofe places which are (hel-
tered by rocks and bays, and is oftener feen in fum-
mer than in winter.
2. Delvhinus Delphis, the Dolphin, or Bottle-nofe
Whale.
CETOLOGY.
Species.
l. Delfhihus Phoc/ena, the Porfioife ov Porpejfe.
French, Le Marfouin; Spanifh, Marfopa; Dutch,
Bruinvifch; German, Meerfchweim, Braunfcfch;
Danes, Marfwin, Tinnier; Norweg. Nife; Green-
^ land, Nifa.
Characters. The form of the body is conical. The dorfal fin is
triangular. The fnout is pointed. The teeth are en-
yy larged at the fummit, rounded and cutting.
Defcription The body of this fi(h is round, thick, and diminidi-
es towards the tail. The head refembles an obtufe
cone. It is fweUed out towards the top above the or¬
bits of the eyes. It then gradually diminidies, and
ends in a (harp fnout.
The eyes are placed oppofite to the opening of the
mouth ; and the pupil of the eye, which is black, is
furrounded with a white iris. Behind the eyes there
is a fmall round hole, about one inch in diameter :
This is the organ of hearing. The noftrils are placed
betwreen the breathing-hole and the extremity of the
fnout. The breathing-hole is fituated on the top of
the head, in a line perpendicular to the interval be¬
tween the eyes and the angles of the mouth.
The peftoral fins are attached to the edges of the
lower furface of the body. The dorfal fin is triangu¬
lar, and is fituated very nearly on the middle of the
trunk. Direftly under the dorfal fin on the belly are
the parts of generation. The anus is fituated at an
equal diftance between the parts of generation and the
tail fin.
The length of the porpoife is from four feet to fix,
and eight. This fifn is an excellent fwimmer. When
It rifes to the furface to refpire, the back only appears •,
the head and tail are kept under water. But when it
is dead, it becomes ftraight.
It feeds on fmall fifties, and purfues them with in¬
conceivable rapidity.
Manners *^e PorP0*^e generally gregarious : this is parti-
cularly the cafe in the time of copulation in the month
cf Auguft. It is not unufual to fee at that time i 5
males in purfuit of one female 5 and fo eager are they
in the chafe, that they are often thrown aftiore. The
female goes with young 10 months, and brings forth
one at a time. At birth the young one is of confider-
able fize, and it conftantly follows the mother till it is
weaned. When a pregnant female is killed, it has
been obferved that the tail of the foetus is feen thru ft
7*
Food.
79
French, Dauphin ; German, Meerfchwein, Tummler;
Dutch, Dolphin-Tuymelaar •, Norwegian, Springer;
Iceland, Leipter.
g J
The body is nearly oval. The dorfal fin is curved charadlersv
at the top. The fnout is flattened and (harp. The teeth
are cylindrical and pointed. g3
The greateft thicknefs of the dolphin is at the infer-Defcription
tion of the pefloral fins \ from which the body gra¬
dually diminifhes towards the head and tail, and thus
has the oval form. The head enlarges at the top like
that of the porpoife •, but, in the dolphin, it dimihifti-
es in thicknefs, and ends in a flatted beak, like that
of a goofe. The jaw's are of equal length, and fur-
niftied on each fide with a row of cylindrical teeth, a
little pointed at the end, and projecting near one and.
a half inches above the gum. It would appear, that the
number of teeth varies according to the age and fex.
Klein has reckoned 96 in the upper jaw7, and 90 in
the under. Mr Pennant, on the contrary, mentions,
that he faw 19 teeth in the latter, and 21 in the for¬
mer. Forty-feven teeth have been obferved by others
in each jaw.
The eyes are placed almoft in the fame line with the
opening of the mouth. The breathing-hole is on the
top of the head, oppofite to the orbit of the eyes. It
appeal's in form of a crefcent, the horns of which are
direfted towards the fnout.
The peftoral fins are oval, and inferted at the un¬
der part of the bread. The dorfal fin occupies the
middle of the body. It is curved backwards at the
extremity. The tail-fin is divided into two lobes, the
one of which folds over the other.
The upper farface of the body is black ; the bread:
is white. From under the eyes on each fide paffes a
white ray, w7hich ftretches towards the peCloral fins.
The dolphin is almoft always an inhabitant of the
open feas, and very rarely approaches the ftrore. His
motions are inconceivably fwift ; and hence he has
been named by the mariners, the arrow of the fea.
The length of the dolphin varies from five to nine or
ten feet.
The defcription which has now7 been given, has lit-pabulous.
tle relation to the fanciful accounts which have been hiftory.
detailed of this fi(h ; or to the imaginary reprefenta-
tions by the ancient painters and engravers. On the
pieces of money w7hich wrere in circulation in the time-
of Alexander the Great, and are preferved by Belon,
as well as on other medals, the dolphin is reprefented
with
Chap. I*
. C E T O
Claffifisa- with a very large head, a fpacious open mouth, and
tion, See. t|ie ,.a:i raifed above the head.
jsjo animal has been more celebrated by the ancient
poets and hiftorians than the dolphin. From the ear-
lieft ages he was confidered as confecrated to the gods,
and honoured as the benefadlor of man. Pliny, M~
lian, and other ancient authors, fpeak highly of his at¬
tachment to mankind. The younger Pliny has writ¬
ten a charming ftory of the loves of a dolphin for Flip-
pus j and Ovid relates with all the beauties of poetry,
the ftory of the muftcian Arion, who being purlued
by pirates and thrown into the fea, was relcued and
faved by this kind animal.
hide {fide majus) tergo Delphina recurvo,
Se memorant onerefiuppofiuifife novo.
Me fiedens citharamque tenet, pretiumque vehendi
Cantat, et cequoreas cannine mulcet aquas.
1)1 piafaBa vident. Afiris Delphina recepit
Jupiter; et Jlellas jufiit habere novem.
Ovid. Fafti, lib. ii. 117.
But (part belief) a dolphin’s arched back
Preferv’d Arion from his deftined wreck ;
Secure he fits, and with harmonious ftrains
Requites his bearer for his friendly pains.
The gods approve : the dolphin heaven adorns,
And with nine ftars a conftellation forms.
But after all thefe fabulous accounts of the dolphin
By the ancients, and the prefages drawn by the modem
failors from their movements, it does not appear that
this fpecies of filh is endow’ed with more fagacity than
any other of the cetaceous fifties, or difeovers greater
attachment to man. What may have been the foun¬
dation of thefe fables, it is not our prefent objett to
inquire. It is true, that the dolphin and others of the
cetaceous fifties accompany (hips for feveral days to¬
gether. But this feems to be in fearch of food, on ac¬
count of the offals of animal matters that are thrown
overboard.
3. Delphinus Tursio.
* Greenland, Nefiarnak ; Yvench, Le Nefiarnah.
Charters. The form of the body is conical- The d°rral fin Is
curved. The fnout is compreffed above. The teeth
are ftraight and blunt.
s5 , The greateft thicknefs of this fpecies is between the
Defcnption dorfal and pea0ral fins. From this to the extremity of
the tail the body becomes gradually more fiender.
The breathing hole, wdiich is placed above the orbits
of the eyes, is about 1^ inches in diameter. The an¬
terior part of the head is inclined and rounded, and
terminates in a flat beak. The lower jaw is the long-
eft. Both jaws are furniihed with 42 cylindrical teeth
which are dilpofed in a Angle row.
The peftoral fins are very low, and are of a falci¬
form ftiape. The dorfal fin rifes like an inclined plane,^
and is incurvated behind. At the pofterior bafe of
the latter fin there ariles a projebfion which ftretches to
the tail. The tail fin is divided into twTo lobes in
form of a crefcent.
The upper part of the body is black; the belly is
white.
It has been obferved by fome naturalifts, that when
LOGY. >► 339
this fpecies rifes to the furface to relpire, a great part ot
the body appears above water. It inhabits the open ieas, .
and is confequently taken with difficulty. 1 he flefn,
the fat, and the entrails, are eaten in the lame way as
the porpoife. plate
4. Delphinus Orca, the Grampus. CXL. tig. 4.
French, Epaulard; Norwegian, Spek-Hugger, Iloval-
Hund; Dutch, Botjkop; 'Iceland, Huydirrg; Swedes,
VO pare. . u
The body is nearly oval. The dorfal fin is very Characters,
high. The teeth are conical and liightly curved. g7
The profile of the grampus is oval and oblong. The Defcription
greateft thicknefs is about the middle of the trunk,
from which it gradually diminilhes towards both ex¬
tremities. The fnout is Ihort and round. The lower
jaw is broader than the upper. Both jaws are furniih¬
ed with conical teeth, which are unequal and curved at
the top, and are from 20 to 30 in number in each jaw.
The eyes are fituated in the fame line with the open¬
ing of the mouth.
But the moft diftinguilhing mark of the grampus is
the dorfal fin, which rifes from the middle of the back
in the form of a cone, and is nearly four feet in height.
The peftoral fins are very broad and nearly oval. The
tail fin is divided into two lobes in the form of a cref¬
cent. The penis is three feet in length.
The upper part of the body is black ; the belly
is white. Sometimes white fpots are oblerved on the
head and back.
The grampus is the largeft filh belonging to the ge¬
nus. Some have been feen of 25 feet in length by 12 or
1 3 in circumference. One of 24 feet long wras taken
in the mouth of the river Thames in the year 1759.
All naturaliiis agree in deferibing the grampus as
the moft cruel and voracious of the lamily of the dol¬
phin. Its ordinary food is the feal and fome fpecies
of flat filh. But it is faid, that it will attack the por¬
poife, and even the large whale. The latter, fo far
from defending himfelf, is rtruck with terror, utters
dreadful Ihouts, and to efcape from the enemy, quits
the open feas, and retires towards the coafts, which is
perhaps the reafon that the whale is Ibmetimes thrown
athore. The grampus, however, is often the viftim
of its voracity. It is at this time that the filhermeu
watch the opportunity of ftriking him with the harpoon.
When the emperor Claudius was engaged in the
conftruftion of the harbour of Oftia, a grampus, at- '
traded by fome Ikins which had been funk in a fliip-
wreck, came upon the coaft. I here he remained for
feveral days; and, forming a kind of canal to receive
his huge body in the fand, w’as proteded from the agi¬
tation of the fea. While in purfuit of his prey one
day, he was driven afliore by the violence of the waves.
The back appeared above the furface of the fea, and
refembled a ihip with its bottom upwards. The em¬
peror caufed ftrong nets to be ftretched acrofs the
mouth of the harbour to prevent the efcape of the filh,
in cafe he fliould again get into the water. He then
advanced in perfon, accompanied with his pretorian
.bands, and exhibited a very amunng fpedacle to the
Romans. The foldiers embarked in boats \vere order¬
ed to attack him with fpears and other miflile wea¬
pons. One of the boats was filled with water, and
U u 2 funk
v ,1
34° C E T O
ClafTitka- funk in confequence of the fifli fpouting with great
a. A variety of the grampus is defcribed by the late
Mr John Hunter, in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions
for l^Sj. It is diftinguifhed particularly by having a
very large belly, which diminilhes fuddenly towards
the region of tne anus. I he dorfal fin reaches nearer
the tail. It has the form of a re£tangular triangle,
and is longer, but lefs elevated than the firlt defcribed.
'1 he lower part of the body is not perfectly white, but
is marked with brown and black fpots.
S8 5. Delphinus Gladiator, the Sea-Sword.
Characters. The form of the body of this fpecies is conical.
The dorfal fin refembles a fabre. The teeth are fmall
and fharp.
Defcription This ipecics comes very near the grampus in the
form of the head ; but it is chiefly diftinguifhed by
the dorfal fin, which is three or four feet high, and
about 18 inches broad at the bafe. It becomes {len¬
der towards the fummit, and is incurvated towards the
tail. I his fin feems to be an offenfive inftrument j
for with it they ftrike and wound the whale. The
length is from 23 to 25 feet.
This fpecies is gregarious. They are found to¬
gether^ in fmall bodies, which attack the whale with
great fury, and tear off large mafles from his body.
When he becomes warm and fatigued, he lolls out
his tongue, which is inftantly feized by the watchful
enemy. 1 hey even enter the mouth and tear out the
tongue entirely, which feems with them to be a deli¬
cate morfel. The delphinus gladiator pofleffes im-
menfe ftrength. d hey have been known to feize upon
a dead wdiale that was dragged by a number of boats,
and carry it to the bottom.
1 hey are found near Spitzbergen, in Davis ftraits,
and on the coafts of New England, and even fo far
north as the yg° of latitude. They are very fat, and
the oil which they yield is efteemed very good.
6. Delphinus Leucas.
Beluga, Pennant’s Quadrup. Wittfifch, Anderfon’s Ice¬
land.
Characters r^'le ^orm ^ie body is conical. There is no dor¬
fal fin. The teeth are fliort and blunt.
DefcrEtion ^ fpecies has been arranged by fome naturalifts
among the whales, but, having teeth in both jaw's
makes it properly come under this genus. The body
refembles a lengthened cone, having the bafe at the
pectoral fins, and the vertex at the tail. The head is
fhort, and ends in an obtufe ihout, on the top of which
is a protuberance in which is the blow-hole, which
terminates in an oblique direction towards the pofte-
nor part of the body. The jaws are nearly equal. The
lower jaw is furnifhed with nine fmall obtufe teeth on
each fide, which referable in ftrufture the grinding
teeth of quadrupeds. The teeth in the fore part of
the jaw are the fmalleft. In the upper jaw the num¬
ber of teeth is the fame, but they ‘are more pointed
and (lightly curved.
The eyes are not larger than thofe of the hog. The
opening of the mouth is fmall, and the tongue is
ftrongly attached to the lower jaw. Behind the eyes is
•the external opening of the ear, but it is fcarcely vifible.
LOGY, Chap. I.
The pefforal-fins are broad and of an oval figure. Chdlifica-
The dorfal-fin is wanting, but in its place there is an tl0i‘» ^
angular protuberance. The tail fin is divided into 'v "LC
two rounded lobes.
I he penis of the male is bony, of a white colour,
and enclofed in a fheath. The mammae of the female
are placed on each fide of the organs of generation.
fne whole body is white, and marked in young
fifties with brown and blue fpots. The fkin is an inch
thick, and covers a layer of fat of three inches. It is
faid that the flefh of this fpecies has a reddifh colour
like that of pork.
It lives on different fifties, particularly the cod and
the foal filh. And as the throat is of fmall capacity, it
is fometimes fuffocated in attempting to fwallow fifh of
too large fize. The female has one young at a time,
which at birth is of a grecnifh colour, but becomes
afterwards bluifli, and as it advances in age is white.
The females are gregarious, and the young follow at
their fides, imitating all their motions. This fpecies
is often obferved following ihips, and exhibiting by a
a thoufand different motions, an amufing fpeftacle.
It quits the open fea during the rigour of winter,
and enters the bays that are free from ice. It
is feldom an object of trade, on account of the little
advantage from the fat. Their arrival, however, is
confidered by the whale fifhers as the fortunate pre-
fage of an abundant fifhery. The length is from 12
to 18 feet.
7. Delphinus Bidentatus.
The body is conical. The dorfal fin is fpear-fhaped. Characters.
The fnout is {lender and flat. There are two-fharp
teeth in the lower jaw.
This fpecies in fome of its characters refembles the Defcription
delphinus turfio, but in others is fo different that it
may properly be regarded as a diftinct fpecies. The
foiehead ps convex and rounded. The upper jaw is
flat, and ends in a beak like that of a duck ; but there
are only two fharp teeth at the anterior extremity of
the lower jaw. The pectoral fins, which are of an
oval form and fmall for the fize of the body, are pla¬
ced oppofite to the angles of the mouth. The place
of the dorfal fin correfponds to the origin of the tail,
is fpear-fhaped, pointed, and inclines backward. The
tail-fin is divided into lobes forming by their union
a crefcent. The lower part of the body is of a
light brown colour, the upper part is browmifh-
black. This fpecies is fuppofed to be from 30 to 40
feet longr.
8. Delphinus Butskopf, Bottle-headed, or Beaked
Whale.
The form of the body is conical. The dorfal fin is Characters,
incurvated towards the tail. The fnout is flat and
{lender. The upper jaw and the palate are furnifhed
with fmall teeth.
The body reprefents a cone whofe fummit is towards r, ,f 9-$-
the tail. The head is of greater height than breadth. C cni)lK"
The front, which is full and round, becomes fuddenly
narrow, and ends in a flat beak rounded at the extre¬
mity. The breathing-hole is on the top of the head,
oppofite to the orbit of the eyes; it forms a crefcent
whofe horns are turned towards the tail. This is the
charaefferiftic
Chap. I. C E 7 O
ClafliSca- charafteriftic mark between this and the other fpecies
tion. See. 0f delphinus. In place of teeth the furface of the pa-
jate ancj upper jaw are covered with fmall points,
which are unequal and hard. The tongue adheres to
the lower jaw, and is notched at the edges. The edge
of the upper jaw is alfo notched.
The eyes are convex as in quadrupeds. They are
furrounded with eyelids, and are placed nearly in the
middle of the lide of the head.
The peftoral-fins are attached to the lotver part of
the bread: •, they are fmall in proportion to the fize of
the fifh. The dorfal fin is nearer the tail than the
fnout : the fummit is incurvated backward. The tail-
fin is divided into two lobes in form of a fickle.
The whole body excepting the belly is of a leaden
colour.
In the Journal de Phyfique for the year 1789, M.
Bauflard has pubiilhed an account of twm cetaceous
filhes which w'ere taken near Honfleur in September
of the preceding year. The larged was' 234 feet
long, and the fmalleft 124. The filhers of Honfleur
perceived them at a diftance ftruggling on the ftrand.
When they approached they found the fmalleft ftuck
on the fand in {hallow water. The mother made
many attempts to move her young one into deep wa¬
ter, and not only failed but ftuck faft by the head,
the heavieft part of the body. The fifliermen firft
took pofleflion of the young one, fecured it with ropes 5
and by their own exertions, aided by a hojfe and the
flowing of the fea, fucceeded in bringing it on fliore.
They then went into the water up to the middle to
fecure the mother ; and having made above 50 wounds
with knives on the head and back, and a large wound
in the belly, at which the fifli feemed to be in great
pain, by uttering groans like thofe of a hog, they were
driven off by the violent motion of the tail. A fmall
anchor w?as then brought, which was introduced into
the breathing-hole, and a rope was fattened round the
tail. The fifli finding herfelf thus entangled, made
fuch violent efforts, that Ihe broke a thick rope, dif-
engaged herfelf from the anchor, and taking the ad¬
vantage of the riling tide, efcaped and launched into
the deep, at the fame inftant throwing up an immenfe
quantity of water mixed with blood to the height of
12 feet. She was found next day floating on the wa¬
ter quite dead, at the diftance of three leagues from
Honfleur.
The following are the principal dimenfions of the
young fifh and the mother.
Young one. Mother.
if/. Bonna-
terre, En~
cyclopcd
Method
95
Characters.
Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches.
Potal length
4reateft circumference
Diftance from the breathing-hole
to the extremity of the fnout
Length of the dorfal fin
Height of ditto
Length of the pe&oral fins
Breadth of ditto
Breadth of the tail fin
12
8
1
1
o
1
o
6
o
11
o
7
o
7
2
23
15
4
2
1
2
6
7
4
o
3
o
3
10
9. Delphinus Feres.
In this fpecies
head is rounded.
there is one.fin on the back. The
The teeth are oval and obtufe.
LOGY. 341
The head is nearly of the fame height as the length. Anatomy
It is very thick at the top, and fuddenly diminifting
towards the anterior part ends in a ftiort round fnout.
The jaws are equalthey are covered with mem- 97
branous lips, and furniftied internally with a row of Defcriptioti
teeth ; 20 have been reckoned in each jaw. The
form of the teeth conftitutes the diftinftive chara&er
of the fpecies. The large and the fmall teeth are
equal in number. The largeft are above an inch long
by half an inch broad. The fmall teeth are only five
or fix lines in length.
The fkeleton of one of this fpecies is preferved in
the cabinet of natural hiftory at Frejus in France. The
length is 14 feet. The bones of the Ikull are x foot
10 inches long, and 1 foot 5 inches broad. v
This fpecies is found in the Mediterranean fea.
Chap. II. Of the Anatomy and Phyfology of Ceta¬
ceous Ffloes.
It has fallen to the lot of few anatomifts to have
an opportunity of examining with accuracy the ftruc- apnow_
ture of cetaceous filhes. The lame difficulties which ledge of
have retarded the progrefs of their natural hiftory, their ftruc-
operate perhaps ftill more powerfully in preventingture-
the acquifition of information with regard to their ana¬
tomical ftrufture. They are not inhabitants of thofe
parts of the world where this knowledge is in that
improved ftate to render fuch inveftigations fuccefsful j
and when they are accidentally found on the ftiores of
civilized countries, the anatomift, whole Ikill and dex¬
terity only could be advantageoufly employed in the
examination, is not always at hand, and they are too
large to be tranfported to the differing-room, where
the nature and ftrufhire of the different parts could be
patiently traced and faithfully demonftrated. Several
of the fpecies of this tribe of filhes have been diflefted
by the late Mr John Hunter, the detail of which he
has given in a paper on the Structure and Economy of
Whales, in the Philofophical Traniadfiions for the
year 1787 ; and to this paper wre muft acknowledge
ourfelves indebted for the principal part of the anato¬
mical knowledge which we propofe to lay before our
readers in the prefent chapter. . 99.
We have already mentioned the characters w'hich D fHnchve
diftinguiftr the whale tribe from fiflres in general. They c tai*
have indeed nothing peculiar to fiftr except that they
live in the fame element, and have the fame powers
of progreflive motion as thofe fiftr, which from their na¬
ture muft move with great velocity, dhis ieems to
be the cafe with all fifth which come to the furface of
the water, as the whales muft do for the purpofe of
refpiration. It has alfo been obferved that they are 100
more clofely allied to quadrupeds than to fiftr. I hey allied to
have in many refpefts the peculiar ftrudlure and eco-cluat'‘ruPc 3
nomy of parts which belong to this clafs of animals.
They are furniftied with lungs, breathe air, and have
warm blood. _ . 101
This tribe of animals is peculiarly fitted by their ff
external form for dividing the water in progreffive
motion, and for moving with confiderable velocity.
And on account of the uniformity of the element in
which they live, the form of their bodies is more uni-
form than in animals of the fame clafs that live on
land.
The
342 C E T O
Arill°^y The form of the head is commonly a cone or in-
Phyfi6lo^y. C^ne^ Plane* _ ^ fpermaceti whale is an exception
» to this, in which it terminates in a blunt furface. The
102 head is larger in proportion to the body than in qua-
Form of the drupeds, and fwells out laterally at the articulation
head ; of the lower jaw. This feems to be of advantage to
tile animal in catching its prey, as there is no motion
of the head on the body. ^
of the Behind the peftoral fins, at the infertion of which
body. circumference is greateft, the body gradually di-
xninilhes to the fpreading of the tail. The body is flat¬
tened laterally 5 and it would appear that the back
ro^ is Sharper than the belly, which is nearly flat.
Power of J lle progreflive motion of the animal is performed
Jie tail. by the tail, which moves the broad termination or
lobes, operating in the fame manner as an oar in fcul-
hng^i boat. And for the purpofe of preventing any
obitrudfion in moving through the water, it may be
obferved that all the external parts of the clafs mam¬
malia, that live on land, are either entirely wanting, or
are concealed under the Ikin in cetaceous fillies.
Sect. I. Of the Bones.
r , 105
The ikele- 1 ne bones alone, I\Ir Hunter obferves, wdien pro-
rs Perly united into the fkeleton, in many animals give
the general the.Seneral ^P6 and ctiarafter. But this is not fo
form. decidedly the cafe in this order of animals. In them
the head is immenfely large, the neck fmall, there are
few ribs, in many a very Ihort fternum, and no pelvis,
with a long fpine terminating in a point, fo that thefe
bones being merely joined together do not afford any
idea of the regular drape of the animal. The different
parts of the ikeleton are fo enclofed, and the projecting
fpaces between the parts fo filled up, that they are al¬
together concealed, and give to the animal externally
lo6 an unifor-m and elegant form.
Bones of The great fize of the bones of the head leaves but a
the head ; fmall cavity for the brain. In the fpermaceti whale it
is not eafy to difcover where the cavity of the Ikull
lies. This is alfo the cafe wuth the large whalebone
and bottle-nofe whale. In the porpoife, the fkull confti-
tutes the principal part of the head. For the brain is
found to be confiderably larger in proportion to the
fize oi the animal. The bones of one genus differ
v eiT much from thofe of another. In the fpermaceti
and bottle-nofe whales, the grampus and the porpoife,
the lower jaws, efpecially at the pofterior ends, refem-
ble each other ; but in others it is very different. The
number of particular bones is alfo obferved to vary
very much. }
ofthe7neck , ^ertej}r£e—Hie piked whale has feven vertebrae in
and back ; * ie net^? 12 in the back, and 27 to the tail. This
makes the whole number 46. In the porpoife the cer¬
vical vertebrae are feven in number. There is one
common to the neck and.back, 14 proper to the back
and 30 to the tail, making in whole 51. The cervi¬
cal vertebra; of a bottle-nofe whale, were the fame in
number as thofe of the porpoife. There were 17 in
the back and 37 in the tail, which makes the whole
number 60. Four of the vertebra; of the neck in the
porpoife are anchyiofed, or have grown together.
The atlas in every one of this order of animals that
•'•as been examined is the thickeft of the vertebra. It
FOGY. Chap.!!.
feems to be compofed of two. There is no articula- Anatomy
tion between the firrt and fecond vertebrae of the neck and
to admit of rotatory motion. The vertebra; of the fhyfl°l0^'-
neck are very thin, fo that the diftance between the
head and fhoulders is as fhort as poflible, 108
_ Sternum, or Breafbone.—This is very flat in theof tlie
piked whale, and confifts of a Angle very ftiort bone.breafl*
The breaftbone of the porpoife is confiderably longer :
it is compofed of three bones, which are of fome length
in the fmall bottle-nofe whale. The firft rib of the piked
whale, and the three firft of the porpoife are articulated
to the fternum.
Ribs.—The fmall bottle-nofe whale differed, by Mr Ribs
Hunter, had 18 ribs on each fide 5 and the porpoife
had 16. Fifteen ribs have been reckoned in the fkele¬
ton of the dolphin. A large whalebone whale had
ribs on each fide, which were 21 feet long and 18
inches in circumference. The fpermaceti whales
which were thrown aftiore on the coaft of Brittany in
I ranee, had only 8 ribs on each fide. They were ^
feet long and 6 inches in circumference. ~ Iri
The ends of the ribs that have two articulations, in articulated
the whole of this tribe, Mr Hunter obferves, are arti-withtwo
culated with the body of the vertebras above, and with vertebrse*
the tranfverfe procefl’es below, by the angles, fo that
there is one vertebra common to the neck and back.
In the large whalebone whale the firft rib is bifurcated,
and confequently is articulated with two vertebra.
ReBoral or lateral fins.— 1 hefe are analogous, and Peftoral
fomewhat fimilar in conftruftion to the anterior ex-fimilar
tremities of quadrupeds. They are compofed of at0 the.ex"
fcapula or fhoulder-blade, os humeri, ulna, radius, car- Srapecfe
pus, and metacarpus, which laft may include the fin- ^
gers, the number of bones being fuch as may be
reckoned fingers, although they are included in one
general covering. The number of bones in each is
different, the fore-finger has five, the middle and ring-
finger has feven, and the little finger has four. Thefe
bones are not articulated by capfular ligaments as in
quadrupeds, but by intermediate cartilages attached to
each bone. Thefe cartilages are nearly equal in length
to one half of the bone. This conftrudfion gives
firmnefs and a confiderable degree of pliability to the
whole. iiz
’Teeth.—Of this tribe of animals fome have teeth in Teeth
both jaws, fome have them only in one, while there
are others which have none at all. The teeth can¬
not be divided into claffes as in quadrupeds. They
are all pointed teeth, and are pretty much fimilar in
form and fize. Each tooth is a double cone, one part
of which is faftened in the jaw, and the other projetts
above the gum. In fome, indeed, the fang is flattened
and thin at the extremity j and in others it is curved. Iz,
The formation of the teeth, and their progrefs after- formed dif-
wards, feems to he different from that of quadrupeds. fereBtly
hor they feem to form in the gum, fo that they muft^rom clua"
either extend and fink into the jaw, or the alveoli muft drulJCC*s-
rife to enclofe them. Mr Hunter thinks this laft the
moft probable, fince the depth of the jaw is increafed,
fo that the teeth feem to fink deeper and deeper in
it. This mode of formation is obferved in jaws that
are not fully grown ; for, as happens in other animals,
the teeth increafe in number as the jaw lengthens. lx^
It does not appear that they fhed their teeth, or Are not
have died"
2
n6
Two kinds
117
Airange
ment.
11S
Outer row.
Chap. II. C E T O
Anatomy have new ones formed fimilar to the old. This indeed
and feems fcarcely poHible from the fituation in which
Phyhomgy.^ are originally formed.
Whalebone.—This is a fubftance peculiar to the
whale. It is of the fame nature as horn. It is there¬
fore entirely compofed of animal matter, and is ex¬
tremely elaftic. The name of bone is undoubtedly
improper, as it has no earthy matter in its compofition $
but as it has been commonly employed we fhall ftili
retain it.
There are two kinds of whalebone. One kind is
got from the large whale ; the other from a fmaller
fpecies. It is placed in the infide of the mouth, and
is attached to the upper jaw. It confifts of thin plates
of different fizes in different parts of the mouth. The
length and the breadth of the whalebone, although
not always, in general correfpond pretty nearly j thofe
plates that are longed being alfo the broadeft.
Thefe plates are arranged in feveral rows on the
outer edge of the upper jaw, fimilar to the teeth in
other animals, and ftand parallel to each other, one
edge being towards the circumference of the mouth,
and the other towards the infide. They are placed at
unequal diftances in different parts of the mouth. In
the piked whale, they are only one-fourth of an inch
afunder at the greateft diftance. In the great whale
the diftances are greater.
The longeft plates are in the outer row ; and the
length is proportioned to the different diftances be¬
tween the different parts of the jaws. §ome of them
are 14 or 15 feet long, and 12 or 15 inches broad.
Towards the anterior and pofterior part of the mouth
they are very fhort. They rife for half a foot or more,
of the fame breadth, and afterwards (helve off from the
infide till they come nearly to a point at the outer.
The exterior of the inner rows are the longeft, cor-
refponding to the termination of the declivity of the.
outer, and become fhorter and fhorter, till they hardly
rife above the gum.
The inner rows- are clofer than the outer, rife al-
moft perpendicularly from the, gum, are longitudinally
ftraight, and have lefs declivity than the other. The
plates of the outer row make a ferpentine line late¬
rally, and in the piked whale the outer edge, is the
thickeft. Round the line made by their outer edges runs
a fmall white bead, which is formed along with thei
whalebone, and wears down with it 5 both edges of the
fmaller plates are nearly of the fame thicknefs. In all
of the plates, the termination is in a kind of hair,
as if the plate were divided into innumerable fmall
parts. The exterior plates have the ftrongeft and alfo
longed.
The whole furface of the mouth refembles the fkin
of an animal covered with ftrong hair ; and under this
furface the tongue lies when the mouth is fhut. In
the piked whale the projefting whalebone remains
entirely on the infide of the lower jaw, when the
mouth is fhut, becaufe the jaws meet everywhere along
their furface. Mr Hunter is at a lofs to explain how
this is effected in large whales, in which the lower jaw
is ftraight, forming a horizontal plane •, but the up-
per-jaw being an arch, cannot be hid by the former.
He therefore fuppofes that a broad upper-lip reaches
to the lower jaw and covers the whole.
The formation, of the whalebone is in one refpeft
119
Inner row.
120
Hair.
LOGY. 341
fimilar to that of horn, hair, <Scc. but it has another Anatomy
mode of growth and decay which is peculiar. The af.nc|
plates form upon a thin vafcular fubftance, which does. ^ 1
not immediately adhere to the jaw-bone } but which 12I
has a more denfe vafcular fubftance betxveen. From Formation
this fubftance thin broad proceffes, correfponding to peculiar,
each plate, are lent out ; and on thefe proceffes the
plate is formed, in the fame way as the horn on the
bony cone, or the tooth on the pulp. Each plate is
neceffarily hollo\v at the growing end, and the firft
part of the growth takes place on the infide of the hol¬
low. But befides this mode of growth, it receives ad¬
ditional layers on the outfide, which are formed on the
vafcular fubftance extended along the furface of the
jaw. This part alfo forms upon it a kind of horny
fubftance between each plate, which is very white,,
rifts with the wrhalebone, and becomes even with the
outer edge of the jaw, and the termination of its out¬
er part forms the bead above mentioned. This inter¬
mediate fubftance fills up the fpaee between the plates,
as high as the jaw, and is fimilar to the alveolar pro-
ceffes, keeping them firm in their places.
As both the whalebone and the intermediate fub-
fiance are conllantly growing, a determined length,
muft be fuppofed neceffary, fo that there muft be a re¬
gular mode of decay eftablifhed, wdiich does not de¬
pend intirely on chance or accidental circumftances.
In its growth there feems to be a formation of three
parts } one from the rifing cone, which is the center,
a fecond on the outfide, and a third being the inter¬
mediate fubftance. Thefe appear to have three ftages
of duration * for that which forms on the core, it is
fuppoied, makes the hair •, and that on the outfide.
makes principally the plate of the whalebone } and.
this, when got a certain length, breaks off, leaving,
the hair projecting, becoming at the termination very
brittle \ and the third or intermediate fubrtance, by the.
time it rifes as high as the edge of the Ikin of the jawr,
decays and foftens away.
The ufe which has been afcribed to the whalebone,
is principally for the retention of the food till it is
fwallowed for it is fuppofed that the fifh which are
taken by the fpecies of whale having this peculiar con-
flruClion of the mouth, are fmall when compared with
its fize.
0}
Sect. II. Of the Skin anti Mufcles.
123
The cuticle, or fcarf-fkin, in this order of animals, is Cuticle,
fimilar to that on the foie of the foot in the human
fpecies. It feems to be compofed of a number of lay¬
ers, which may be feparated by-flight putrefaftion. Mr
Hunter fufpefts that this arifes from a fucceflion of cu¬
ticles being formed. The fibres of the cuticle appear
to have no particular direftion. It has no elafticity,.
but is eafily torn afunder. The internal layer is tough
and thick, and in the fpermaceti whale, the external
furface refembles coarfe velvet. The cuticle gives
the colour to the animal. In parts that are dark, a
dirty-coloured fubftance has been waftied away in fe-
parating the cuticle from the true ikiri. rI his feems to
be the rete mutofum. 123
The cutis or true fkin in cetaceous fifties is extreme^ True ikm>
ly villous in the external furface, correfponding to the
rough furface of the cuticle, and forming ridges in
fome.
Plate
Ci-LI.
fig- 3,4> 5*
344
Anatomy fome ^arts. The villi, which
float in water, and are obferved to be longer or (horter
and
G E T O
are foft and pliable,
Phyiiology. prop0rt|on to ^ze Gf the animal. In fome they
are.one-fourth of an inch in length, and in all they are
very vafcular.
The cutis feems to be the termination of the cellular
membrane of the body more clofely united, having
fmaller interftices, and becoming more compafl. In fat
animals the diftinftion between Ikin and cellular mem¬
brane is fmall, the gradation from the one to the other
being almoft imperceptible ; for the cells of both mem¬
brane and {kin being loaded with fat, the whole feems
to be one uniform fubftance. A loofe elaftic {kin
would appear to be improper in this tribe of animals j
it is therefore always on the ftretch by the adipofe
membrane being loaded with fat. In fome places, in¬
deed, where it feems to be neceffary, it poiTeffes con-
flderable elafticity, as at the fetting on of the fins, and
under the jaw, round the opening of the prepuce, the
nipples, &c. to allow' free motion in thefe parts, where
it is obferved that there is more reticular and lefs adi¬
pofe membrane.
In the piked whale there is a very Angular inftance
of an elaftic cuticular contraction. The whole {kin
of the fore part of the neck and breaft, and as far
dowm as the middle of the belly, is extremely elaftic j
but it receives an increafed lateral elafticity by being
ribbed longitudinally. It is not eafy to fay why this
part w'hich covers the thorax ftiould pofiefs fo much
elaftjcity, for this part of the body cannot be increafed
in fize.
Mufcks or niufcular parts of cetaceous filhes
refemble that of moft quadrupeds. Perhaps it comes near¬
er to that of the bull or horfe than to that of any other
animal. Some of the flefhy parts are very firm 5 and
about the breaft and belly they are mixed with ten-
125 dons.
Tendons The body and tail of this tribe of animals are com-
pofed of a feries of bones conefted together, and moved
as in fifti} but the movements are produced by long
mufcles, with long tendons. This renders the body
thicker, and the tail at its Item fmaller, than any other
fwimming animal.
The depreffor mufcles of the tail, which are fimilar
in fituation to the pfoae, make twTo very large ridges
on the lower part of the cavity of the belly, rifing
much higher than the fpine, and the lower part of the
aorta paffes between them. Thefe twm large mufcles
go to the tail, which may be confidered as the two po-
fterior extremities united in one.
The mufcles of cetaceous animals lofe their fibrous
ftrufture a very Ihort time after death, and become as
uniform in texture as a mafs of clay, and even fofter.
This change, no doubt arifes from incipient putre-
faflion, although no evidence of this procefs being
begun is to be had from any offenfive fmell. This
change is moft remarkable in the large mufcles, as thofe
of the back and the pfoae mufcles.
The Tail.—The conftruftion of the tail affords an
inftance of a Angular piece of mechanifm. It is com-
pofed of three layers of tendinous fibres, which are co¬
vered with the cutis and cuticle. Two of thefe layers
are external •, the other is internal. The diredlion of
the fibres of the external layers is the fame as in the
tail, forming a ftratum about one third of an inch
1
LOGY. Chap II.
thick; but varying, as the tail is thicker or thinner. Anatomy
The middle layer is compofed entirely of tendinous fi-
bres, paffing direclly acrols between the two external i ^ ^ °^*,
layers, their length being in proportion to the thick- I2(j
nefs of the tail. This ftrufture gives amazing ftrength very ftrong
to this part of the animal.
The fubftance of the tail is fo firm and compa£I,
that the veffels remain in their dilated Hate, even
when they are cut acrofs. This fe<ftion confifts of a
large veffel, furrounded by as many fmall ones, as can
come in conta6l with its external furface. The fins
are merely covered with a ftrong condenfed adipofe
membrane.
Sect. III. Of the Organs of Digefion and Excretion.
127
In the whale, the cefophagus begins at the fauces, Gullet,
as in other animals. At the beginning it is circular,
but is foon divided into two paffages by the epiglottis
crofling it. Faffing down in the pofterior mediaftinum,
to which it is attached by a broad part of the fame
membrane, its anterior furface makes the pofterior
part of a cavity behind the pericardium. Having
paffed through the diaphragm, it enters the ftomach,
and is lined with a very thick, white, and foft cuticle,
which is continued into the firft cavity of the ftomach.
The inner, or true coat of the cefophagus is white, and
of confiderable denfity, but it is not mufcular j for it
is thrown into large longitudinal folds, by the contrac¬
tion of the mufcular fibres. This coat is very glandu¬
lar 5 many orifices of glands, efpecially near the fauces,
are vifible. The cefophagus is larger than it is in qua¬
drupeds, in proportion to the bulk of the animal, but
of lefs fize than it ufually is in fiih. One in the
piked whale that was meafured, was three inches and
a half wide. I2g
The ftomach, as in other animals, lies on the left fidestomaci,
of the body, and terminates in the pylorus towards the and intef-
right. The duodenum paffes down on the right fide^nes.
as in the human body, lies on the right kidney, and
then paffes to the left fide, behind the afcending part
of the colon and root of the mefentery, comes out on
the left fide, and getting onvhe edge of the mefentery,
becomes a loofe inteftine, forming the jejunum. In
this courfe behind the mefentery, it is expofed as in
moft quadrupeds. T he jejunum and ileum pafs along
the edge of the mefentery downwards, to the lower
part of the abdomen. The ileum, near the lower end,
makes a turn towrards the right fide, mounts upwards
round the edge of the mefentery, paffes a little way on
the right, as high as the kidney, and there enters the
colon or caecum. The caecum, which is about feven
inches long, and refembles that of the lion or feal, lies
on the low'er end of the kidney, confiderably higher
than in the human body ; and this renders the afcend¬
ing part of the colon flioit. The colon pafles oblique¬
ly up the right fide, a little towards the middle of the
abdomen j and w'hen as high as the ftomach, crofles to
the left, and acquires a broad mefocolon. It lies here
on the left kidney, and in its paffage dow n inclines
more and more to the middle line of the body. W'hen
it has reached the low;er part of the abdomen, it paffes
behind the uterus, and along the vagina in the female ;
between the two tefticles, and behind the bladder and
root of the penis in the male ; bending down, to open
on what is called the belly of the animal. In its whole
courfe
Chap. U. C E TO
Anatomy courfe it is gently convoluted. In thofe which .have
and no c^Cum, and, therefore, can hardly be faid to have
Phyfiology. coion> t}ie jnteftine, before its termination in the rec-
v " ni turn, makes the fame kind of fvveep round the other
inteftines, as the colon does where there is a caecum.
For the fize of the animal, the inteilines are not
large. In thofe of 18 or 24 feet long, they are not
larger than in the horfe j the colon is very (liort, and
has little more capacity than the jejunum and ileum.
This is a circumftance common to carnivorous animals.
In the piked whale, the length from the ftomach to
the ccecum is 284 yards, the length of the caecum fe-
ven inches, and of the colon to the anus, two yards and
three quarters.
The teeth, in the ruminating tribe of animals, point
out the kind of ftomach, caecum, and colon ; but in
others, as the horfe, lion, &c. the appearances of the
teeth only indicate the kind of colon and caecum. In
the cetaceous tribe of fillies, whether they have teeth
or not, the ftomachs vary little, and the circumftance
of caecum feems not to depend on either teeth or
129
Number
offtomachs.
130
Firlt.
131
Second.
132
Third.
J33
Fourth.
134
Fifth.
ftomach.
The ftomach, in all the fubje&s examined by Mr
Hunter, confifted of feveral bags continued from the
firft on the left, towards the right, where the laft ter¬
minates in duodenum. The number and fize of the
ftomachs differ confiderably. In the porpoife, gram¬
pus, and piked whale, there are five j in the bottle-
nofe whale, feven. The two firft ftomachs in the por¬
poife, bottle-nofe, and piked whale, are the largeft $ the
others are fmaller, but not uniformly fo.
The firft ftomach has very much the fhape of an egg
with the fmall end downwards, and is lined with a con¬
tinuation of the cuticle from the oefophagus. In fome,
the oefophagus enters the upper end of the ftomach; in
others, it enters pofteriorly and obliquely. The fecond
ftomach in the piked whale is very large, and rather
longer than the firft, is of the lhape of the Italic letter
S, and paffes out from the upper end of the firft on its
right fide, by nearly as large a beginning as the body
of the bag. In the porpoife, where this fecond ftomach
begins, the cuticle of the firft ends. The infide of the
fecond ftomach has unequal rugae like an irregular
honey-comb. In the piked whale the rugae are
longitudinal, and in many places deep, fome of them
being united by crofs bands : in the porpoife the folds
are thick, maffy, and indented into each other. This
ftomach opens into the third by a round contra&ed ori¬
fice.
The third ftomach is the fmalleft, appears only to be
a paffage between the fecond and fourth, has no peculiar
internal ftru&ure, and terminates in as large an open¬
ing as at its beginning. It is from one to five inches
long. The fourth ftomach is lefs than either the firft
or fecond. It feems to be flattened between the fe¬
cond and fifth; and in fome, as the porpoife, it is long,
and paffes in a ferpentine courfe like an inteftine. The
internal furface is regular and villous, and opens on its
right fide into the fifth. The fifth ftomach is round in
the piked whale ; in the porpoife it is oval : it is fmall,
and terminates in the pylorus without any appearance
of a valvular ftrufture. Its coats are thinner than
thofe of the fourth ; the internal furface is even, and
it is commonly tinged with bile. In fome, as the
piked whale and the large whalebone whale, there is a
Vol. Y. Part I.
LOGY. , 345
ccecum; in others, as the porpoife, grampus, and hot- Anatomy
tle-nofe whale, it is wanting. . PhXiogy
The ftruflure of the inner furface of the inteftine is» ,,—
very fingular. The inner furface of the duodenum of
the piked whale has longitudinal rugae or valves, at
fome diftance from each other, and receiving lateral
folds. The inner coat of the ileum and jejunum ap¬
pears in irregular folds, which may vary according to
the a61ion of the mufcular coat of the inteftine, yet do
not feem to depend entirely on this contraction. In
fome the whole track of the inteftine is thrown into
large cells which are fubdivided into fmaller. Thefe
cells have the appearance of pouches with the mouths
downwards, and aft like valves when any thing is at¬
tempted to be paffed in a contrary direftion. 135
Liver.—In this tribe of animals there is a confider-Refembles
able degree of uniformity in the liver, which in lhapethe human*
bears a near refemblance to the human liver, but is
probably lefs firm in its texture. The right lobe is
the largeft and thickeft, and there is a large fillure be¬
tween the two lobes in which the round ligament
paffes. Towards the left the liver is much attached to
the ftomach. The gall-bladder is wanting; but the
hepatic duft, which enters the duodenum about feven
inches beyond the pylorus, is large. 136
Pancreas.—The pancreas is a long flat body, ha-Sltuatl0f!’
ving its left end attached to the right fide of the firft
cavity of the ftomach. It croffes the fpine at the root
of the rnefentery, joins the hollow curve of the duo¬
denum near to the pylorus, adheres to that inteftine,
and its duft enters that of the liver near the termina¬
tion in the gut. 137
Spleen.—The fpleen, w’hich is involved in the epi-Snialh
ploon, is fmall for the fize of the animal. In fome of
the tribe, as in the porpoife, there are one or two fmall
ones, not larger in fize than a nutmeg, and fometimes
fmaller. They are placed in the epiploon behind the
others. 13s
Kidneys.—The kidneys in this whole tribe of animals ConSloaie"
are conglomerated. They are made up of fmallerrate
parts, which are connefted only by cellular membrane,
blood-veffels, and dufts. The fmaller portions are of
a conical Figure ; the apex is placed towards the centre
of the kidney, and the bafe forms the external fur¬
face. Each portion is compofed of a cortical and tu¬
bular fubftance, the tubular terminating in the apex,
which apex makes the mamilla. Each mamilla has
an infundibulum, which is long, and at its beginning
wide, embracing the bafe of the mamilla, and be¬
coming fmaller. Thefe infundibula at laft unite and
form the ureter.
Ureters and Bladder.—The ureter comes out of the
kidney at the lower end, and paffes along to the blad¬
der, which it enters very near to the urethra. The
bladder, which is of an oblong lhape, is fmall for the Small,
fize of the animal. In the female the urethra paffes
along to the external fulcus or vulva, and opens juft
under the clitoris, as in the human fubjeft. The cap-
fulce renales. when compared to the human, are fmall
for the fize of the animal. They are flat and of an
oval figure. They are compofed of two fubftances.;
of an external fubftance, which has the direftion of its
fibres towards the center ; and of an internal fubftance,
which is more uniform and has lefs of the fibrous ap¬
pearance.
X x Sect,
34*5
Anatomy
and
Pliyfiology,
140
Heart
large.
Sect. IV.
C E T O
Of the Organs of Circulation and Ref [nra-
tion.
I4I
Structure
not pecu¬
liar.
142
Blood in
great pro¬
portion.
143 .
Circulation
aitonifliing.
144
Veins.
145
Red glo¬
bules in
great pro¬
portion.
1. Circulation.—The heart and blood-veflels, efpe-
cially the veins, are probably larger in proportion to
their fize than in the quadruped. The heart is en-
clofed in its pericardium, and is attached to the dia¬
phragm as in the human body. It is compofed of two
auricles and two ventricles, is flatter than in the
quadruped, and adapted to the fhape of the chefl. The
auricles have a greater number of fafciculse, pafling more
acrofs the cavity from fide to fide, than in many other
animals ; and befides have confiderable mufcularity and
elafticity. There is nothing peculiar in the ftruflure of
the ventricles of the heart, in their valves, in the arte¬
ries, or in their diftribution, all which have a fimilarity
to other animals u;here parts are nearly fimilar.
Animals of this tribe have a greater proportion of
blood than any other yet known; and fome arteries are
apparently intended as refervoirs, where a great quan¬
tity of blood is required in any part. There is a net¬
work of arteries, formed of the intercoftal arteries, and
running between the pleura, ribs, and their mufcles.
The fpinal marrow is furrounded with a net-work of
arteries in the fame manner, efpecially where it pafies
out from the brain, where a thick fubftance is formed
by their ramifications and convolutions.
In examining particular parts which bear any rela¬
tion to the fize of the animal, if we have been accuftom-
ed to fee them in the middle-fized animals, we muft
behold them with aftonifliment in animals like the
Whale, which fo far exceed the common bulk. The
heart and aorta of the fpermaceti whale, for inftance,
appear of immenfe fize, when we make this kind of
comparifon. The latter meafures a foot in diameter j
and the former was too large to be contained in a wide
tub. Confidering the quantity of circulating fluid in
fo large a veffel, that probably 10 or 15 gallons of
blood are thrown out at a Angle ftroke, and the great
velocity wuth which it moves, the mind muft be filled
with wonder.
The veins feem to have nothing peculiar in their
firuflure, if we except the veins in the folds on the
Ikin of the breaft, as in the piked whale, where, and
in fimilar places, it was neceilary to have the elafticity
increafed.
The blood of this order of animals is fimilar to that
of quadrupeds. Mr Hunter feems to think that the
quantity of red globules is in larger proportion 5 and
he fuppofes that this increafed quantity of red parti¬
cles may have fome effeft in aiding to keep up the
animal heat j for as they live in a very cold climate or
atmofphere compared with the heat of their bodies, it
is readily carried off, and therefore fome help of this
kind becomes neceflary.
The quantity of blood in this tribe of animals is
comparatively greater than in the quadruped, and
therefore it is probable that it amounts to more than in
any known animal. In them too the red blood is
carried to the extreme parts of the body, fimilar to
what happens in the quadruped, but different from
fifti.
2. Respiration.—Some parts of the organs of refpi-
ration in animals that live on land feem to be fitted for
LOGY. Chap. 11.
a compound a&ion, as for inftance the larynx, which is Anatomy
adapted both for refpiration, deglutition, and found j an4
but in the whale tribe it feems to be adapted only for , y
refpiration. I4(J
Larynx.—The larynx varies much in ftruflure and Varieties,
fize in the different fpecies. It is compofed of the os *
hyoides, thyroid, cricoid, and two arytenoid cartilages.
The os hyoides wTas larger, while the cartilages were
much fmaller, in the bottle-nole whale of 24 feet long
than in the piked w-hale of 17 feet. In the bottle-nole
the os hyoides is compofed of three bones, with twm
whofe ends are attached to it, making five in all. In
the porpoife it confifts of only one bone flightly bent:
it has no attachment to the head as in many quadru¬
peds.
The thyroid cartilage, in the piked vdiale, is broad
from fide to fide, and has two lateral proceffes which
are long, and pafs down the outfide of the cricoid, near
to its low’er end, and are joined to it, as in the human
fubjeft. The cricoid cartilage is broad and flat, mak¬
ing the pofterior and lateral part of the larynx, and is
much deeper behind and laterally than before. The
two arytenoid cartilages projedft much, and are u-
nited to each other till near their ends ; they are
articulated on the upper edge of the cricoid; crofs
the cavity of the larynx obliquely, and make the paf-
fage at the upper part a groove between them. In
feveral of the tribe, the epiglottis makes a third part
of the paffage, and completes the glottis by forming
it into a canal. No thyroid gland has been dif-
covered.
Lungs.—The lungs are two oblong bodies, one onNotdivided
each fide of the cheft, but are not divided into fmaller into lobes,
lobes as in the human fubjeft. They are of confiderable
length, but not fo deep as in the quadruped, from the
heart being broad and flat, and filling up the cheft.
They are increafed in fize by rifing higher up in the
cheft, and pafling farther dowm on the back. The 14S
lungs are extremely elaftic in their fubftance, and have Very ela-
the appearance and confiftence of the fpleen of an ox.^0.
The branches of the bronchiae which ramify into the
lungs, have the cartilages rounded, which feems to ad¬
mit of greater motion between them.
The pulmonary cells are fmaller than in the quadru-
ded, and communicate with each other, which thofe
of the quadruped do not; for by blowing into one
branch of the trachea, the whole lungs may be fil-
lecb _ . 149
The diaphragm has not the fame attachments as in Diaphragm
the quadruped ; becaufe the ribs in this tribe do not
complete the cavity of the thorax. The diaphragm is
therefore unconnefted forwards to the abdominal muf¬
cles, which are very ftrong, being a mixture of mufcu-
lar and tendinous fibres. The cheft is longeft in the direc¬
tion of the animal at the back, by the diaphragm paf-
fing obliquely backwards, and reaching lowr on the
fpine. The parts immediately concerned in refpiration
are very ftrong. This is particularly the cafe with the
diaphragm. This feems neceffary, as the animal muft
enlarge the cheft in fo denfe a medium as wrater, the
preffure of which muft be greater than the counter-
preffure from the air infpired. And for the fame rea-
fon, expiration muft be eafily performed, for the pref¬
fure of the water and the natural elafticity of the parts
are greater than the refiftance of the internal air, fo
that
O G Y.
Oiap.IL G E T O
Anatomy that it may be produced without any immediate a&ion
and of mufcles. In thefe animals the diaphragm feems to
Pliyfiology. tjie prjnc;pal agent in infpiration.
" v "",1 Blow hole, or pajjage for the air.—In animals breath¬
ing air, the nofe is the paffage for the air, and the feat
of the organ of fmelling j but in fome of the cetaceous
T.Q tribe, this fenfe feems to be wanting; in them, there-
Noftnls fore, the noftrils are intended merely for refpiration.
chiefly in- The membranous portion of the pofterior noftrils is one
tended tor canai. jn bony part, in moft of them, it is di-
etpiration. vjje(j jnt0 tw0> jn thofe which have it divided, it is
in fome continued double through the anterior foft
parts, and opens by two orifices; but, in others, it
unites again in the membranous part, making exter¬
nally only one orifice, as in the porpoife, grampus,
and bottle-nofe whale. At its beginning in the fauces,
it is a roundilh hole, furrounded by a ftrong fphintter
mufcle, which grafps the epiglottis ; the canal beyond
this enlarges, and opens into the two paflages in the
bones of the head. In the fpermaceti whale, in which
the canal is Angle, it is thrown a little to the left fide.
After thefe canals emerge from the bones near the ex¬
ternal opening, they become irregular, and have fulci
palling out laterally, of irregular forms, with correfpon-
ding eminences ; and the ftrucfture of thefe eminences
is mufcular and fatty.
PI. CXLI. Where there is only one external opening, it is
*£• l> *• tranfverfe, as in the porpoife, grampus, bottle-nofe,
and fpermaceti whale; but when it is double, it is
longitudinal, as in the large whalebone whale, and in
the piked whale. Thefe openings form a paffage for
the air to and from the lungs; for it would be im-
poflible for thefe animals to breathe through the
mouth.
Opening In the whole tribe the fituation of the opening on
well fitted the upper furface of the head is well adapted for the
ior relpira- purp0fe Qf refpiration ; for it is the firft part that comes
to the furface of the water in the natural progreflive
motion of the animal. The animals of this order do
not live in the medium which they breathe. This re¬
quires a particular conftru&ion of the organs which
conduft the air to the lungs, that the water in which
they live may not interfere with the air they breathe.
The projefting glottis paffes into the pofterior noftrils,
by which means it croffes the fauces, and divides them
into two paffages.
The beginning of the pofterior noftrils, which an-
fwers to the palatum molle in the quadruped, has a
fphin&er which grafps the glottis, by which its fitua¬
tion is rendered ftill more fecure, and the paffages
through the head, acrofs the fauces and along the
trachea, are rendered one continued canal. This union
of glottis and epiglottis with the pofterior noftril mak¬
ing only a kind of joints, admits of motion, and of a
dilatation and contraftion of the fauces in deglutition,
from the epiglottis moving more in or out of the pof¬
terior noftril. This tribe of animals having no projedt-
ing tongue, and therefore wanting its extenfive motion,
and the power of fucking things into the mouth, may
perhaps require this peculiarity of conftrudtion to ren¬
der the communication between the air and lungs more
perfedt. But how far this is the cafe, in the prefent
ftate of our knowlege of the ftrudture and economy of
•thefe refpiratory organs, it is not eafy to fay.
LOGY. 347
Anatomy
Sect. V. Of the Brain and Organs of Senfe. and
' Phyfiology.
The brain.—In the different genera of the cetaceous »
tribe of animals, the brain differs much, and alfo in
the proportion it bears to the bulk of the animal, he Not in pro-
porpoife has the largeft brain, and thus comes neareft portion to
to the human lubjedt. The whole brain is compadl. t“'
The anterior part projedts lefs forward than in the
quadruped ; the medulla oblongata is lefs prominent,
and lies on the hollow made by the lobes of the cere¬
bellum.
The brain is compofed of diftindlly marked cortical
and medullary fubftances. The medullary fubftance
is very white ; the cortical like the tubular fubftance
of the kidney ; and thefe two fubftances idem to be in
the fame proportion as in the human brain. The la¬
teral ventricles are large. They pafs clofe round the
ends of the thalami nervorum opticorum. The thalami
are large ; the corpora friata fmall. Moft of the
other parts have a great refemblance to fimilar parts in
the human brain. 153
The fubftance of the brain is more vifibly fibrous Subltance
than in any other animal. The fibres pafs from the kbrous-
ventricles as from a center to the circumference, and
continue through the cortical fubftance. The brain
of the piked whale weighed four pounds 10 ounces. 154
The fpinal marrow in this tribe of animals is proper- Spmai mar-
tionally fmaller than in the human fpecies. It isi0W'
largeft in the porpoife where the brain is largeft, bear¬
ing fome proportion to the quantity of brain. But this is
not always the cafe ; for in the fpermaceti whale, where
the brain is fmall, the fpinal marrow is proportionally
largeft. It terminates about the twenty-fifth vertebra,
beyond which is the cauda equina : the dura mater is
no farther continued. The nerves that go off from the
fpinal marrow in its courfe are more uniform in fize
than in the quadruped ; the parts being more equal,
and no extremities, except the fins, to be fupplied.
The ftrudture of the fpinal marrow is more fibrous
than in other animals; when feparated longitudinally,
it tears with a fibrous appearance, but when feparated
tranfverfely, it breaks irregularly.
The Ikull is lined with the dura mater, and in fome
forms the three proceffes correfponding to the divifions
of the brain, as in the human lubjedt; but in others this
divifion is bony. Where the dura mater covers the fpi¬
nal marrow, it differs from what takes place in other ani¬
mals, for it enclofes the marrow clofely, and the nerves
immediately pafling out through it at the lower part, as
they do at the upper, lb that the cauda equina as it
forms is on the outfide of the dura mater. 133
The nerves going out from the brain are fimilar to Nerves,
thofe of the quadruped, excepting in thofe that want
olfadlory nerves, as the porpoife. As the organs of
fenfe are varioufly formed in different animals, fitted
for the different modes of impreflion, in this tribe the
conftrudtion is varied according to the economy of the
animal. The fenfes of touch and tafte feem to be adap¬
ted to every mode ; but thofe of fmell, fight, and hear¬
ing, probably require to be varied or modified accord¬
ing to circumftances ; and according to thefe circum-
ftances the fenfes are formed.
Senfe of touch.—The Ikin in this tribe of animals ap- Skin the
pears in general to be well calculated for fenfationAeat °Ifen*'
Xxs ThefatI0n-
34S C E T O
Anatomy The whole furface is covered with villi, which are fo
t ^.n'j ^ many vefiels, and it mud; be fuppofed alfo nerves.
■ *' ^ ('^y' Whether this ftrufture be only neceflaiy for acute fen-
fation, or whether it be neceffary for common fenfation,
is not known. But it may be obferved, that where
the fenfe of touch is required to be acute, the villi are
ufually thick and long ; and this is probably neceffary,
becaufe in thefe parts of the body where the fenfations
of touch are acute, fuch parts are covered wdth a thick
cuticle. This is remarkably the cafe in the ends of our
fingers and toes, and in file foot of the hoofed animals.
Mr Hunter feems to think that the fenfe of touch pof-
157 feffes greater acutenefs in water.
Tongue not Senfe of tajie.—The tongue in mofl: animals is
oi-£;in'of'ie not onl? t^ie organ hut is alfo intended for
tafle? ° mechanical purpofes. For this latter purpofe it is per¬
haps lefs fo than in any other animal. In fome it has
more freedom of motion than in others 5 and the reafon
of this is probably the difference in the mode of catch¬
ing the food and of fwallowing. In thofe with teeth it
projefts moft, which feems lefs neceffary in others which
merely open the mouth to receive the food along with
the water, or fwim upon it. In the porpoife and gram¬
pus, the tongue is firm in texture } but in the fper-
maceti whale it refembles a feather bed. It is com-
pofed of mufcle and fat j and in fome is pointed and
158 ferrated on the edges.
H anting in Senfe of fmelling.—In many of this tribe there is no
organ of Imell at all; and in thofe wrhich have fuch an
organ, it is not that of a filh, and therefore, like theirs
it is probably not calculated to frriell water. It be¬
comes a matter of difficulty to account for the manner
in wdiich fuch animals fmell water, and why others
have no fuch organ, wdiich is fuppofed to be peculiar
to the large and fmall whalebone whales. Mr Hunter
is of opinion that the air retained in the noftril out of
the current of refpiration, w’hich by being impregnated
with the odoriferous particles contained in the wa¬
ter during the a£l of blowing, is applied to the organ
of fmell. It might be fuppofed, he obferves, that they
would fmell the air on the furface of the water by
every infpiration as animals do on land ; but admitting
this to be the cafe, it will not give them th,e power to
fmell the odoriferous particles of their prey in the wra-
ter at any depth \ and as their organ is not fitted to be
affedled by the application of water, and as they
cannot fuck wTater into the noftrils without the
danger of its palling into the lungs, it cannot be by
its application to this organ that they are enabled to
fmell. Some have the power of throwing the water
from the mouth through the noftril, and wdth fuch
force as to raife it 30 feet high. This no doubt an-
fwers fome very important purpofe, although not very
obvious. Mr Hunter fuppofmg that fmelling the ex¬
ternal air could be of no ufe as a fenfe, thinks that
they do not fmell in infpiration ; for the organ of
fmell is out of the diretff road of the current of air
in infpiration, and it is alfo out of the current of water
when they fpout; may it not then be fuppofed, he
alks, that this finus contains air, and as the water paf-
fes in the aft of throwing it out, that it impregnates
this refervoir of air, which immediately affefts the fenfe
of fmell ? This operation is conje&ured to be perform¬
ed in the act of expiration ; becaufe then the w’ater
is faid to be very cffenfive. Mr Hunter adds, that
L O G Y. Chap. II.
if this folution be wTell founded, thofe only can fpout Anatomy
which have the organ of fmell. But as fome animals ancl
of this order are entirely deprived of this organ, and Oology-
as the organ in thofe which have it is extremely fmall,
as well as the nerve which receives the impreffion, it
would appear to be lefs neceffary in them than in thofe
which live in air. r ^
Senfe of hearing.—The internal ear in general has Similar to
nearly the fame conffruflion as that of quadrupeds. quadm-
The bones, the cavities, the cartilages, and the nerves Peds'
are the fame, their difpofition and arrangement vary¬
ing in fome of the fpecies; and from this there arifes
a difference of ftrufture in thefe organs, and perhaps al¬
fo a difference in the fenfation. According to fome
anatomifts, the femicircular canals are wanting in fome
of this tribe of animals j while they have been deferib-
ed by others. Some have deferibed the form of the
veftibulum as in the fpermaceti whale, others have de¬
nied its exiftence altogether. It is perhaps owing to
their being lefs eafily detefted, that they have been
fuppofed not to exift at all. According to the rela¬
tions of filhermen, the cetaceous tribe have the fenfe
of hearing as acute as that of quadrupeds.
Senfe of feeing.—The organ of fight in this tribe Is fmaff.
feems to have a very clofe analogy with the fame or¬
gan in quadrupeds. There is the fame relative connec¬
tion between the choroid coat, the retina, and thecryftal-
line humour. In fome circumftances, however, they
differ, by which probably, the eye in this tribe is bet¬
ter adapted to fee in the medium through which the
light is to pafs. The eye for the fize of the animal is
fmall 5 from which it is conjeftured that their power
of motion is not great. As no obfervations have yet
been made on the form, fize, and denfity of the dif¬
ferent humours of the eye, any thing w7e could add
would be mere conjefture founded on vague analogy.
Sect. VI. Of the Organs of Generation, fac.
If the cetaceous tribe of animals come near to fifties Smaffure
in fome points of refemblance, they are very different hmilar to
in thole of others. This is remarkably the cafe in the tll.°^em”
ftrufture of the organs of generation, in which they
come nearer in form to thofe of ruminating animals,
than of any other; and this fimilarity is more ftriking
in the female, than in the male; for the fituation muff:
vary in the latter on account of external circumftances.
In the male the tefticles remain in the fituation in which Male,
they were formed, as in thofe quadrupeds in which they
never come down into the ferotum. They are fituated
near the lower part of the abdomen, one on each fide,
upon the two great depreffors of the tail; and at this part
they come in contaff with the abdominal mufcles an¬
teriorly. The vafa deferentia pafs dire&ly from the
epididymis behind the bladder, or between it and the
reftum, into the urethra. The veficulm feminales are
wanting. The ftrufture of the penis is nearly the
fame as that of .the quadruped. The ereftores penis,
which have a fimilar infertion to thofe of the human
fubjeift, as well as the acceleratores, are very ftrong
mufcles. 163
Thefe organs in the female confift of the external Female,
opening of the vagina, the two horns of the uterus,
Fallopian tubes, fimbriae, and ovaria. The external
opening is a longitudinal flit, whofe edges meet in tw7o
oppofite
Chap.
II. C E T O
Anatomy oppofite points forming a kind of fulcus. The vagina
anc* paffes upwards and backwards in a diagonal diredlion,
Phyfiology. refpeftjng the cavity of the abdomen, and then divides
11 into the two horns, one on each fide of the loins.
Thefe afterwards terminate in the Fallopian tubes, to
which the ovaria are attached. The infide of the va¬
gina is fmooth for about one half of its length, and
then begins to form fomething fimilar to valves project¬
ing towards the mouth of the vagina, each like an os tin¬
ea. Thefe are from fix to nine in number. They
hardly go quite round where they firft begin to form,
but the laft make complete circles j and at this place
the vagina becomes fmaller, and continues gradually
to decreafe in w-idth to its termination. From the laft
projecting part the paffage is continued up to the open¬
ing of the two horns; and at this place the inner fur-
face forms longitudinal rugm, which ftretch into the
horns. # > k
The Fallopian tubes, at their termination in the
uterus, are for fome inches remarkably fmall, they then
begin to dilate fuddenly ; and this dilatation increafes,
till at the mouth they are five or fix inches in diame¬
ter. Through their whole length they are full of
longitudinal rugae. The ovaria are oblong bodies a-
bout five inches in length ; one end is attached to the
end of the Fallopian tube, and the other to the horn
of the uterus. They are irregular in the external fur-
face, and have no capfule but what is formed by the
Fallopian tube.
In what pofition the aft of copulation is performed,
does not feem to be precifely afeertained. The Green¬
land filhermen fay, that they are then ereft in the
water, the heads being above the furface, and em¬
bracing each other with the fins. M. de St Pierre,
during the courfe of a voyage to the Ille of I’ ranee,
aflerts, that he faw them feveral times in this pofition.
Others as confidently affirm, that the female throws
herfelf on her back ; but it would appear, that this
pofition muft interfere with the aft of refpiration, which
cannot be for any length of time lufpended j and, there¬
fore, that it is lefs probable.
It is conjeftured, that the female admits the male
only once in two years, and that the time of geftation
is nine or ten months. It is probable too, that having
only two nipples, they bring forth only a fingle young
one at a time.
The glands for the fecretion of milk, or the breafts,
are two, one on each fide of the middle line of the bel¬
ly at its lower part. The pofterior ends from which
the nipples proceed, are on each fide of the opening of
the vagina in fmall furrows. They are flat bodies ly¬
ing between the external layer of fat and the abdomi¬
nal mufcles, and are of confiderable length, but only
one fourth of that in breadth. There is a large trunk
which runs through the whole length of the gland, and
appears to ferve the purpofe of a refervoir for the milk.
Into this trunk the lateral and fmaller dufts enter, fome
with the courfe of the milk, fome in a contrary direc¬
tion. The trunk terminates in a projeftion externally
which enclofes the nipple.
It feems difficult at fiift fight to conceive in what
way the procefs of fucking is performed *, fo that both
the mother and the young one may at the fame time
refpire freely. According to the relations of the
Greenland filliermen, the mother throws herfelf on her
164.
Bring forth
one at a
time, once
in two
years.
165
Mamnrse.
j66
Procefs of
fucking.
LOGY. 349
fide, and the young one then feizes the nipple. In Anatomy
this pofition, the fmalleft motion of the body permits p]1yp10i0gy>
the mother or the young one to enjoy the advantage u—y—
of refpiration. The art of fucking, muft be different
from that of land animals, for in them it is performed
by drawing the air from the mouth backward into the
lungs, which the fluid follows by the preflure of die
external air on its furface $ but, in the cetaceous tribe,
the lungs have no connexion with the mouth. The
operation of fucking muft therefore be performed by
the aftion of the mouth itfelf, and by its having the
power of expanfion. _ ,
The milk of the whale is fuppofed to be very rich. Milk rich.
In the one which was taken near Berkeley with its
young one, the milk w^as tailed by Mr Jenner and Mr
Ludlow. By their account, it had the richnefs of
cows milk to which cream had been added.
The young whale, according to Dudley, continues
to fuck for a year. They are then called Jhort-heads
by the filhermen, and are extremely fat, lome yielding
50 tons of fat. The mothers, at the fame period, are
very lean. At the age of two years, they are called
Jlunts, becaufe they are fuppofed to be dull after being
weaned. The quantity of fat which they then yield
is from 24 to 28 tons. After this period, they come
under the denomination of JkuIl-JiJh, when their age
can only be guefled at by the length of hair at the ter¬
minations of the whalebone. _ a a-1!8
The affeftion and attachment which the whale dif-Attedtum
covers for its young, have been much celebrated^ by youngi
naturalifts. Perhaps it is magnified by the comparifon
between the whale and fillies living in the fame ele¬
ment, the care of whofe offspring is totally difregarded
by the parent, and left, which indeed is all that is ne-
ceflary, to the influence of heat and air to bring forth
from the ova or fpawn depofited by the mother. This
attachment is probably, after all, not more remarka¬
ble-than in other animals which fuckle their young,
and biing forth a fmall number, or only one at a
time.
Sect. VII. Of the Food of the Whale; the Size, Abode,
Fat, &c.
169
Food. The food of the whole cetaceous tribe is Different
fuppofed by naturalifts, to be fifli, each probably hav-kinds of
ing fome particular kind. Some hundreds of the beaks fuh.
of cuttle-fifli were found by Mr Hunter, in the fto-
mach of the bottle-nofe whale j in the ftomach of the
piked-whale, bones of different fifli, but particularly
thofe of the dog-fifti ; and, in the grampus, the tail of
a porpoife.
Confidering the capacity of the offophagus, we muft
conclude, that they do not fwallow fifli fo large in
proportion to their fize as many fifli do ; for it is ob-
ferved, that fifh often attempt to fwallow more at a
time than what the ftomach will hold ; fo that part
muft remain in the oefophagus till the reft is digefted. 170
The food of the large whalebone whale is fuppofed Of the large
to be fmall fiffi, fometimes crab-fifti and fliell-fiffi. It whale,
may appear ftrange, that fo large an animal fnonld be
able to find a quantity of food fufficiently great for its
fubfiftence, and to preferve it with fuch a covering of
fat as they are generally found to have. But this won¬
der ceafcs, when it is confidered that the very food
they
♦
350
Anatomy
and
Phyliology
C E T O L O G Y.
i?'
Northern
whale.
172
Narhwal.
r73
-Spermaceti
whale.
J74
Blackhead¬
ed fperma-
ceti whale.
ns
Dolphin.
176
5o feet.
they feek after, is found in the greateft abundance in
thofe regions which they ufually inhabit. In the eco¬
nomy of the whalebone whale, this fubflance, from
which it derives its name, feems to be of particular
ufe j for as it appears that they live on fmall fifli,
which they probably receive into the mouth in great
numbers, it was neceffary that there fliould be fome
contrivance to retain them in the rnouth till they are
fwallowed 5 and this purpofe is fully anfwered by the
whalebone.
I he northern w’hale, or the north-caper, lives on
mackerel, herrings, cod filh, and tunny-filh. Horre-
bow mentions, that the Icelanders found in the ito-
mach of an individual of this fpecies, which came on
Ihore in purfuit of its prey, no lefs than 6co living cod-
filh, belides a great number of pilchards, and fome aqua¬
tic birds. This account is probably exaggerated, at leaft
with regard to the number of filh in the ftomach being
alive. The other fpecies belonging to this genus
ufually feed on the herring, the arftic falmon, and the
fand-eel.
The narhwal, or unicorn whale, is faid to live chief¬
ly on the different fpecies of a£Hnia. It is unprovided
wuth teeth to feize its prey 5 but, according to fome
naturalifts, it can employ the long tooth, which pro¬
ceeds from the upper jaw to entangle thefe filhes 5 and
having collefted them in this manner to the edge of
the lips, it fucks them into the mouth and deftroys
them, by conftantly ftretching the tongue along the
lips.
The fpermaceti whales purfue the feal, the dolphin,
and the pike-headed whale. The large fpermaceti
whale purfues, with great avidity, the lhark, which is
faid to be his ordinary food j and this animal, other-
wufe fo formidable, is feized with fuch a panic at the
fight of this terrible enemy, that he conceals himfelf in
the mud, or under the fand ; fometimes feeing himfelf
fo affailed on all fides, he darts acrofs the rocks, and
ffrikes them with fuch force and violence as to occafion
his own death. This terror, according to Fabricius,
is fo ftrongly impreffed, that the fhark, which is fo
greedy of the carcafes of the other cetaceous filhes,
dares not even approach the dead body of the large
fpermaceti whale.
The phyfeter microps is faid to prey chiefly on the
feal. When the feals are in numbers together, and
find themfelves attacked by their enemy, they make a
precipitate retreat. Some gain the fliore ; while others
climb on a piece of ice ; and then, if the whale be
alone, he conceals himfelf under the ice, and waits till
the feal return to the w’ater, when he feizes his prey.
Eut if feveral whales have joined in the purfuit, as
frequently happens, it is faid that they furround ’the
mafs of ice, and overturn it in the water.
The dolphin genus feed on cod-filh, flat-fifli, fuch
as the turbot, and many other kinds of filh of mode¬
rate fize. The grampus is the boldeft, the ftrongeft,
and the moft voracious of any belonging to this tribe’
of animals. It is agreed by almoft all naturalifts, that
the grampus will even attack the great whale and put
him to flight, which is faid to be the reafon that they
are fometimes thrown afhore on our coafts.
Size of the whale.—The whale is now rarely feen to
exceed 60 feet in length, by 36 feet in circumference.
A whale, which landed in the ifland of Corficain 1620*
Chap. II.
was one of the largeft which has been known for fome Anatomy
centuries. It meafured 100 feet in length. But al- ancl
though this be an enormous bulk,_ it falls fai fliort of Phyfiolo®T-
the magnitude of the whale, as it has been defcribed
by ancient naturalifts, exifting in their time. But pro¬
bably thefe relations will gain little faith, even from
the moft credulous of the prefent day, in which Pliny
fpeaks of the w-hale being 960 feet long ; and in ano¬
ther place, the fame naturalift fays, that Juba WTites to
C. Caefar, the fon of Auguftus, that fome whales of
600 feet in length, and 360 in circumference, had en¬
tered the rivers of Arabia.
But whatever credit is to be given to thefe ftories,Forme7rly
there is little doubt that the whales in the northern larger,
ocean were formerly of much greater bulk than they
now are ; and the reafon feems to be, that being lefs
difturbed when this fiftiery was lefs frequented, they Reafon.
arrived at a greater age, and confequently acquired a
greater fize.
Abode of the whale According to the teftimony MoJe7fre
of the ancient naturalifts, the whale was more frequent-quent inthe
ly feen in the ocean than at prefent j for, on accountocean for-
of being difturbed by the numerous fleets traverfingraerly*
the ocean, they have retired to the regions of the
north, where they are lefs expofed to the noife of the
maiiners, lefs haraffed by the fiflrermen, and enjoy that
tranquillity which is no longer to be found in their for¬
mer haunts.
The large whalebone whale is moft frequently chiefly in
found in the Greenland feas, Davis ftraits, and th ethe north-
coafls of Spitzbergen, Iceland, and Norway j on theern ^eas*
coafts of Labrador, in the gulf of St Law’rence, and
round Newfoundland. This whale is alfo found a-
mong the Philippine iflands, near Socotora an ifland
on the coaft of Arabia Felix, and on the coafts of
Ceylon. The whale alfo frequents the Chinefe feas j
and, if the reports of voyagers are to be implicitly ad¬
mitted, is found there of an immenfe fize. The ufual
retreat of the fpermaceti whale is the northern ocean
towards Davis ftraits, the North Cape, and the coafts’
of Finmark. Of all the cetaceous fifti, this indeed
feems to lead the moft wandering life. In the year
i787> this whale was difeovered in great numbers in
an extenfive bay on the fouthern peninfula of Africa,
at the diftance of 40 leagues from the Cape of Good
Hope.
The dolphin family is found in all feas •, in the
ocean, the. Mediterranean, the gulf of Meffina, and
the Adriatic fea, from wdience they go into the la¬
goons of Venice, and to the coafts of Galicia. On
the coafts of Cochin-China very confiderable fiftieries
are eftabliflied, wLich produce a great quantity of
oil.
V e may conclude, that, in general, the great whale Largeft
and the unicorn-fifh ufually frequent the leas towards in
the poles, between the 68th and 79th degrees of lati-'101’!*161'11
tude ; and that the other families are found diffufedre^°ns'
more or lefs in the feas of more temperate regions. It
wmuld appear, from this account of the places which
are the ordinary haunt of the whale, that the produc¬
tions of nature are difpofed fomewhat in a contrary or- 182 l
der; fince we find all the large terreftrial animals, Largeft
fuch as the elephant and rhinoceros, in countries with-iand ani*
in the torrid zone ; while the huge inhabitants of the the
ocean have fixed their abode in the polar regions.
Migration
zone.
Chap. II. C E T O
Anatomy Migration of the Although the abode of the
and whale be generally determined and fixed, yet particu-
Phyfiology. jar. caufes forCe them to leave their ufual and natural
haunts. The feafon of their amours, a furious ftorm,
Caufes of. the purfuit of a haraffing enemy, the want of food, or
exceflive cold, often oblige them to migrate. Some¬
times they appear folitary, fometimes in confiderable
numbers, according to the nature of the caufes which
have difturbed and driven them from their ordinary re¬
treats. According to the information of voyagers w^ho
have vifited thefe regions, the great whale every year,
in the month of November, leaves Davis ftraits, en¬
ters the river St Lawrence, and there brings forth her
young, between Camourafca and Quebec 5 and from
thence, in the month of March following, they regu¬
larly return to the polar feas.
It appears, that the whale conftantly remains in the
northern ocean, and never leaves it but when the fe¬
male is to bring forth, or when they are driven away
bv an enemy. In this laft cafe they are molt com¬
monly found folitary, at leaft not more than the male
and female, or the mother and the young one.
The fpermaceti whales, however, feem frequently to
change their habitation, and to roam about in ftrange
feas. This appears, from confiderable numbers having
been thrown alhore or left dry by the retreating tide
at different times. In the year 1690, 200 of this fpe-
cies were landed near Cairfton in the Orkneys j and,
in the year 1784, 31 large fpermaceti whales came on
fhore on the weft coaft of Audierne in Lower Britta-
184
Black¬
headed
whale.
185
Unicorn
filh.
1S6
White bear.
1S7
Saw-fiflr.
ny in France.
' Enemies of the whale.—The greateft and moft ter¬
rible enemy of the fmall whale, is the phyfeter mi-
crops, or black-headed Ipermaceti whale. As foon as
he perceives the pike-headed whale, the porpoife, and
fome others, he darts upon them, and tears them to
pieces with his crooked fangs.
It is faid, that there exifts a continual and fettled
enmity between the unicorn-filh and the great whale ;
and that they never meet without engaging in combat,
in which the whale receives fo many fevere, and often
deadly wounds, as often to occafion its death. When
the unicorn-fifh ftrikes its tooth or horn into the fide
of {hips, it is fuppofed that it is through miftake, tak¬
ing the veffel for its enemy, the whale.
The white bear, fo common in Greenland and Spitz-
bergen, is extremely fond of the flefh of the cetaceous
and other fihes. Fie remains conftantly on the watch
for his prey on a mafs of ice, or on the fea-fhore j and
as foon as he perceives it, he throws himielf into the
water, and plunges to attack it. The large and the
fmall whales are equally the objefts of his eager pur¬
fuit ; but he is not fuccefsful till after they have loft a
great deal of blood from the wounds which he has in-
fiidled, or they have been exhaufted with fatigue.
Between the faw-fifh and the whale there exifts a
conftant warfare. It is related by all the filhermen,
that the whale and faw-filh, whenever they meet, join
in combat, and that the latter is always the aggreffor.
Sometimes twro or more individuals combine to attack
a fingle whale •, and it is inconceivable with what fury
they make the attack. The whale, wdiofe only de¬
fence is his tail, endeavours to firike his enemy with
it *, and a fingle blow would prove mortal. But the
faw-filh, with aftoniihing agility, ftiuns the dreadful
logy. 551
ftroke, bounds into the air, and returns upon his huge Anatomy
adverfary, plunging the rugged weapon, with which
he is furnilhed, into his back. The whale is ftill more , ^ <
irritated by this wound, which only becomes fatal when
it penetrates the fat. The engagement ceafes not but
with the death of one of the combatants. Martens
relates an account of one of thefe combats between the
Iceland whale (Balaena Glacialis) and the faw-filh.
It feemed to be extremely dangerous to approach the
field of battle. It was therefore at fome diftance, that
he faw them purfuing and finking each other, dealing
fuch violent blows, that the water rofe in foam as if
agitated by a ftorm. He was prevented from feeing
the iffue of the ftruggle by the weather becoming thick
and hazy ; but he was informed by the failors, that
fuch combats w’ere frequent j that they generally kept
at a diftance till the whale was vanquilhed j and that
the faw-filh, only eating the tongue, relinquilhed the
reft of the body, which they take poffelfion of.
Forlkal informs us, that the Arabians believe that
fome fpecies of the fcarus, a filh found in the Red fea,
enter the blow-holes of the whale, and deftroy it with
their lharp fpines j and, in confirmation of this faft, it
is mentioned, that one of thefe fifties was found in the
blow-hole of a dead w'hale. jgs
The whale is even haraffed with aquatic birds, which Birds,
alight in great numbers on his back, in fearch of the
teftaceous animals and fmall infefts, which have made
it their habitation. And, like moft other animals,
the whale is tormented wuth a fpecies of loufe, pecu¬
liar to itfelf, which adheres fo ftrongly to the fldn,
that it may be fooner torn afunder than be made to
let go its hold. The fins, the lips, the parts of gene¬
ration, and other parts of the body, which are moft
protedled from friftion, are chiefly infefted with this
infedt. The bite is extremely painful, and they are
moft troublefome in that feafon when the whale is in
heat. 189
A$e of the whale.-—If the time neceffary for the Not fo old
growth or increafe of the body were in proportion to as f°rmeilF*
the period of life, there could be little doubt of the
whale being, of all animals known, the moft remark¬
able for longevity. It is well known, that the whales
which were taken w-hen this filhery firft became an ob-
jedl of trade, that is, between 200 and 300 years ago,
were of much greater bulk than they are found to be
in the prefent day. The largeft now taken rarely ex¬
ceed 60 feet long \ while, at that time, fome reached
the aftonifhing fize of 100 in length. The reafon of
this difference of fize feems to be, that, when the filh¬
ery firft commenced, whales, which had probably
reached their utmoft growth, were frequently met
with. Thefe, on account of being the largeft, were
conftantly haraffed, purfued, and deftroyed ; fo that
none which have obtained their full growth, are now
to be found in thofe feas reforted to by the filhermen.
From this circumftance, that no large whales are now
to be feen in the places which they commonly fre¬
quent, it is concluded, that the period of the life of
the whale is very long ; and that they cannot arrive at
the huge fize for which the firft whales w?ere fo re¬
markable, lince they are not permitted to live undi-
fturbed the requifite length of time to attain that bulk.
According to Buffon, a whale may live 1000 years,
fince a carp has been known to reach the age of 200.
352
Anatomy
and
Phyfiology.
CETOLOGY.
on
190
191
Of two
kinds.
tp2
In every
part of the
body.
193
Moft abun¬
dant in the
head.
But, teafoning from analogy, with regard to the ftruc-
ture and economy of the whale, we have feen in many
inftances, by no means holds j and it is perhaps equal¬
ly inapplicable to the growth and age of this order of
animals.
The fat or oil of cetaceous f /hes.—The fat of this
order of animals is ufually called oil. It is the moft
fluid of animal fats, for it does not coagulate in our
atmofphere. It is found in confiderable quantity, prin¬
cipally on the outfide of the mufcles, and immediately
under the flcin •, and is rarely to be met with in any of
the cavities, or in the interftices of the mufcles. This
fubftance is enclofed in a reticular membrane, appa¬
rently compofed of fibres palling in all directions,
which feem to confine its extent, and allow it little or
no motion on itfelf; for the whole, when diftended,
forms almoft a folid body. In fome of the animals of
this order there is a different diftribution of the fat.
Under the head or neck of the bottle-nofe whale, it is
confined in large cells which admit of motion. In
fome this reticular membrane is very fine, in others it
is coarfe and ftrong, and it varies in different parts of
the fame filh. In the porpoife, fpermaceti, and large
whalebone whale, it is very fine ; in the grampus and
fmall whalebone whale, it is coarfe. In all of them it
is fineft on tire body, becoming coarfer as it reaches
and covers the fins and tail, which latter is compofed
of fibres without any fat.
The internal fat is the leaft fluid in this order of ani¬
mals. It is nearly of the confiftence of hogs-lard.
The external fat is the common train oil. It is the
adipofe covering from all of the whale kind, w'hich is
brought home in fquare pieces called flitches ; and this,
which is commonly known under the name of blubber,
after being boiled, yields the oil by expreflion, leaving
the cellular membrane. When thefe flitches or maffes
of fat become putrid, there iffue two kinds of oil. The
one is pure j but the other feems to have a confidera¬
ble mixture of other animal matters, which, from the
ftate of putridity, are readily diffolved in the purer
oil, and form a kind of butter. It feels unCtuous to
the touch, and ropy, coagulates with cold, fwims on
water, and the pure oil feparates and rifes to the top.
The fubftance which remains after all the oil is extraft-
ed, is almoft entirely convertible into glue, and is fold
to be applied to the fame purpofes. (
Spermaceti.—The fubftance called fpermaceti, is
found in every part of the body, mixed wnth the com¬
mon fat of the animal; but to this it bears a fmall
proportion. In the head this fubftance is alfo mixed
wuth the common fat} but here the proportions of the
two fubftances are reverfed : the fpermaceti is by far
in greateft quantity. And, from this circumftance of
its being found in fuch abundance, in what, from a
flight view, would appear to be the cavity of the
fkull, it has been by fome fuppofed to be the brain.
-The two kinds of fat in the head, are contained in
cells or in cellular membrane, fimilar to what takes
place in other animals ; but, befides thefe, there are
larger cells, or ligamentous parts going acrofs, the bet¬
ter to fupport the vaft load of oil of which the bulk of
the head is principally compofed. There are two pla¬
ces in the head in which this oil lies. Thefe are fitu-
ated along the upper and lower part of it, and are di¬
vided by the noftrils and a great number of tendons
Chap. II,
w-hich pafs from the nofe and the different parts of the Anatomy
head. The cells, which are of the fmalleft fize, and ai,ci
are the leaft ligamentous, are obferved to contain the
pureft fpermaceti. Thefe cells referable thofe which
contain the fat in other parts of the body neareft the
ikin, and they lie above the noftril, along the upper
part of the head, immediately under the fkm and com¬
mon cellular membrane. The fpermaceti, which lies
above the roof of the mouth, or between it and the no¬
ftril, is more intermixed with a ligamentous cellular
membrane 5 and it is contained in chambers whofe
partitions are perpendicular. Near the nofe thefe
chambers are fmalleft ; but they become larger to¬
wards the back part of the head, and in thefe laft the
fpermaceti is pureft. About the nofe Mr Hunter difcove-
red a great number of veftels which had the appearance
of a plexus of veins, fome of which were as large as d
finger. They were loaded with fpermaceti and oil,
and fome of them had correfponding arteries. He
thinks it probable that they were lymphatics, and that
their contents were abforbed from the cells of the
head ; for many of thefe cells or chambers were found
empty.
The numerous ufeful purpofes to which the common
oil of the whale and the fpermaceti are applied, the
latter fometimes in medicine, and both in many of the
arts and in domeftic economy, are too well known to
be particularly pointed out.
Ambergris.—This fubftance, the origin of which Doubts and
was long a matter of doubt and uncertainty among na- opinions of,
turalifts, is now pretty well afcertained to be the pro-lts on§ln*
duftion of fome of the cetaceous tribe of animals. By
fome it was fuppofed to be the excrement of the whale,
and, by others, that it was the dung of birds. Ac¬
cording to fome, it is compofed of honey and wmx,
confolidated by the heat of the fun and the aftion of
fea water \ while, in the opinion of others, it is a bi¬
tuminous fubftance, which flows from the bowels of
the earth into the waters of the ocean, where it be¬
comes hard and firm.
Inc
But, in the opinion of later naturalifts, it is a fub- The pro.
fiance which has an origin and formation fimilar to that duAion of
of mufk, and is a production of the fpermaceti W'hale. the fperma-
This opinion has been rendered more probable by the cet^ w^e’
fame fubftance having been found in fome whales of
this fpecies, and particularly in one which came on
fhore on the coaft of Bayonne in France, in 1741. In
the latter it was found in rounded maffes from three
to 12 inches in diameter, which weighed from i^lb.
to 2olb. It was contained -in an oval bag from three
to four feet long, and from two to three feet broad,
which was fufpended immediately above the tefticles.
This bag terminated in two tubes, one of which be¬
coming narrower, reached to the penis 3 the other pro¬
ceeded from the kidneys, and terminated in the other
extremity. The bag'was almoft entirely filled with a
yellow coloured fluid, not quite fo thick as oil, exhal¬
ing a fimilar but ftronger odour than the maffes of am¬
bergris which floated in it. Each mafs was compo¬
fed of concentric layers. The number of maffes found
in one bag never exceeded four. One was found
which weighed 2olb. 3 but there was no other in the
fame bag. It has been fuppofed that the ambergris
is only found in old whales, and in the males. Some
naturalifts think that this fubftance is an oily concre¬
tion
i<)6
Suppofed
to be in¬
durated
faeces.
Chap. III. C E T O
Anatomy tJon which exhales the odour of the fluid in which it is
p, formed ; and that the bag which contains thefe fra-
< grant mafles is the urinary bladder.
But if this be the ufual mode in which amber¬
gris is produced, it appears difficult to account for
the large mafles which are found floating in the waters
of the ocean in different parts of the world, as among
the illands. in the torrid zone, and in the Indian and
African feas.
According to the information collected by Dr Swe-
diaur, and which the reader will find more fully de¬
tailed under the word Ambergris, it appears that
it is generally confidered by the New England fiflier-
men as a produdtion of the fpermaceti whale. Some¬
times they find it floating in the fea •, and when this
happens, they fearch for the whale, fuppofing that it
has been voided by this animal. Sometimes they
cut it out from a fwelling or protuberance on the
belly of the dead whale. And from all the informa¬
tion which Dr Swediaur could obtain, he concludes,
that ambergris is generated in the bowels of the
fpermaceti whale (Phyfeter Mncrocephalus, Lin.), and
that it is there mixed wuth the beaks of the fepia
o&opodia, which is the principal food of this whale.
He therefore confiders this fubffance to be the faeces
of the animal preternaturally indurated, mixed with
the indigeftible relicks of the food. See Amber¬
gris.
Later information has verified fome part of the doc¬
tor’s opinion, as well as fome of the conjeftures of ear¬
lier naturalifts. Mr Coffin, mafter of a (hip employed
in the fouthern whale-fifhery, brought home in the year
1791, 362 ounces of ambergris taken from the body
of a female fpermaceti wrhale on the coaft of Guinea.
Part was found floating in the fea, and part was feen
coming from the anus while the people were employ¬
ed in cutting up the blubber. More was found in the
inteftines, and the reft in a bag communicating wuth
them. This whale was lean, fickly and old, and yield¬
ed but a fmall proportion of oil. When the fpermaceti
whale is ftruck, fhe generally voids her excrement 5
and, if (he does not, it is conjeftured that fhe has no
ambergris. Mr Coffin fuppofes, that the production
of this fubftance is either the caufe or the effeCf of
fome difeafe, as he thinks it is moft likely to be
found in fickly fifh, as was the cafe with the fifh which
Probably a yielded him fo large a quantity. Perhaps it may be
preterna- found by future and more accurate inveftigation to be
a natural production of the animal, fecreted to anfwer
fome important purpofe in its economy ; and that it is
preternaturally increafed in quantity, either by the
exceflive or the diminifhed aClion of the vital powers
in age or difeafe, and then it is excreted, or difcover-
ed in the body of the fifti after death.
Ambergris is one of the moft fragrant perfumes j
and for this purpofe it is chiefly employed in this as
well as in moft other countries. In Afia, and in fome
parts of Africa, it is alfo ufed in medicine and cookery.
It is bought up in confiderable quantities by the pil¬
grims w’ho travel to Mecca, by whom it is fuppofed to
be ufed in fumigations in religious ceremonies, in the
fame manner as the burning frankincenfe or other fra¬
grant perfumes makes part of the religious rites of other
countries.
Vql. V. Part i.
197
tural fub
ItaHce,
19S
Ufed as a
_perfume.
LOGY. 353
Whale-
Cl-IAP. III. Of the Whale-Fifhery, Fiihery. .
Nothing, perhaps, difplays in a more linking man-Pow^/of
ner the power and dexterity of man than the facility man in fub-
and fuccefs with which he conquers and deftroys thedumgthe
moft enormous and the moft formidable of the animated an*’
produClions of nature. The elephant and the whale,
the largeft animals known, the one feemingly fec.ure
in the midft of the huge icy mountains of the polar
regions, and the other roaming at pleafure in the al-
moft inacceflible wilds and deep wroods of the torrid
zone, yield to his power or fall beneath his all-fubduing
arm. The fwiftefl and the moft ferocious, as w'ell as
the moft fagacious, and the moft cunning and artful,
efcape not the toils and fnares which he contrives,
or the deadly aim of the inftruments of his inven¬
tion.
Whether man was originally urged by neceflity, as
is moft probable, to attack fo huge a monfter as the
whale, or whether it was indireClly to gratify the artifi¬
cial demands of luxury that he firft attempted and
ftill continues to perfevere in an occupation fo full of
danger and fatigue, it muft be allowed to be one of
the boldeft and moft daring enterprifes that can be con¬
ceived. And indeed W;ere it not quite familiar to us,
we fhould ftill behold with dread and aftoniftiment fo
feeble a creature as man preparing to attack this mon¬
fter of the deep, whofe ftrength, w'ere it properly di¬
rected, no power could refill; nor would our wonder
be diminilhed, when we find that he feldom fails to
fucceed in the attempt. But knowledge is power ; and
the triumphs of intellectual powrer are equally confpi-
cuous, in accommodating the moft unwieldy and molt
unmanageable parts either of the inanimate or ani¬
mated creation to the fupply and gratification of hu¬
man wants and defires, in guiding through the track-
lefs ocean, the Ihip from which the fpear is launched
for the deftruCtion of the whale, or in digging from the
bowels of the earth the metal with which the compafs
and the harpoon are conftruCled. 3C3
So early as the oth century, in the time of Alfred Norwegi-
the great, it appears that the Norwegians were ac-an&firft
quainted with the whale-filhing. This prince received
an account of the difcoveries of a Norwegian about
the North Cape, in which he fpeaks of his having been
as far north as the places to which the whale-hunters
refort ; which is confidered as a proof of its antiquity ;
although it is fuppofed that it was purfued merely on
account of the oil, the ufe of the whalebone not be¬
ing then known *. * Andtr-
But the people wTho are recorded in hiftory as \rdV-fons Hift.
ing profecuted this fifliery with fuccefs, w'ere the YA\.-°f Comm‘
cayans. The fpermaceti whale, as well as the whale-1- b4‘
bone whale w’ere, at that time frequently feen in thefe Bifcayans
latitudes. The firft attempts were made in the bay ofmoftex-
Bifcay, and in the gulf of Gafcony. Ships w’ere fit-pert,
ted out, inftruments were conftruCled, and an eftabliffi-
ment was formed for carrying on the fiihery. It evas
obferved that the whale only appeared at certain fea-
fons of the year, which led the new fifhers to fuppofe
that his refidence in other feas was more perma¬
nent. And difcovering that they retreated towards
the polar regions, (hips were fitted out and manned
Y y with 4
354
Whale.
Fifhery.
202
The Eng-
lifh firft
engage
in it.
Hailuyt's
Voyaget
i. 414.
203
Whalebone
firlt intro¬
duced.
204
Ships fitted
out from
Hull.
205
Premium
granted.
206
Company
eltablilhed.
207
JEnglifh
very fuc-
cefsful.
208
New En,^-
lifh Com¬
pany.
209
Fifhery en¬
couraged.
G E T O
with the moll experienced Teamen, to purfue them
northward. At this time the Bifcayans carried on
this trade, both for the fake of the oil and the whale¬
bone.
Towards the end of the 16th century, the Englilli
lirft engaged in the whale-filhery. But at this time
they were fo little acquainted with it, that “ the re-
queft of an honeft merchant, by letter to a friend of
his, to be adviied and direfted in the courfe of killing
the wrhale,” is recorded by the hiftorians of that age.
The anfwer was, that a Ihip of tw;o hundred tons mull:
be fitted out, and provided with all kinds of proper
utenfils and inilruments. But it appears to have been
neceffary to fend to Bijkaic for men Jkilful in catching
the whale and ordering of the oil, and one cooper Jkilful
to fet up the faved cafk.
In the year 1594, fome Englifli (hips made a voy¬
age to Cape Breton, at the entrance of the bay of
St Lawrence, fome for the morle-filhing, and others
for the whale-filhing. This feems to have been among
their firft attempts in this trade. The filhing proved
unfuccefsful 5 but they found in an ifland 800 whale
fins or w’halebone, part of the cargo of a Bilcayan ftiip
wrecked there three years before, which they put on
board and brought home. This was the firft time
that this fubftance w7as imported into England.
The town of Hull, in 1598, firft fitted out fhips from
England for the Greenland whale-filhery, a branch of
trade which has fince become very confiderable, and
has frequently received the protedlion and encourage¬
ment of the legiflature. A premium of fix fhillings
for each ton of oil, and five {hillings for each ton of
whalebone, was at firft granted by government in
1672. But this encouragement appearing infufficient
for the fuccefs of the fiftiery, or the enterprife being
confidered too great for the flock of individuals, a
company wms incorporated in 1692, and eftabliftied by
royal authority, with peculiar privileges. Their capi¬
tal amounted to 40,000!. fterling. The fubferiptions
in a few years increafed to 82,000!. fterling; but in
1701 the company was difiblved, and the trade made
free to all adventurers.
The Englifh were now become the moft fuccefsful
adventurers in this fiftiery. By their fkill, their induf-
try, and perfeverance, and the aid and encouragement
granted by the legillature, they carried on the whale-
fiftrery on more advantageous terms than the Bifcayans
the firft adventurers, whofe efforts became lefs enter-
pnfing, as their fuccefs was more precarious. In the
year 1730, they fitted out for this fifhery only 33 (hips;
about the year 1735, the number was diminiftied to
ten or twelve, and continuing to decreafe till the war
in 1744-5 t^ie trade was finally abandoned.
rI he Englifti ftill perfevered in the trade, a new
company was eftablifhed and a fund of 50,000!. fterling
was provided, with powder to the company to make all
neceffary and proper regulations. And for the farther
encouragement of the filhery, a duty of 17I. or 18I.
fterling was impofed on the ton of all oil imported,
and a premium or bounty, to the fame amount, was paid
for every ton of oil exported which was the produce
of the national fiftiery. Other encouragements were
alfo given ; rewards were beftowed on the moft fuc¬
cefsful ; the Tailors employed in the trade were ex¬
empted from the imprefs fervice; adventurers were in-
LOG Y. Chap. III.
demnified for all Ioffes which they fuftained in their Wha!e-
firft enterprife; and they wrere granted the privilege of Fifhery.
providing, duty free, all thole articles which were W"’"v '
needed in this filhery, and were the fubjedts of taxation.
Still farther to encourage and extend the fiftiery,
which now had become an important national concern,
parliament granted in 1779 a premium to five fliips
which Ihould bring home the greateft quantity of oil;
for the firft greateft quantity, 500I. iterling ; for the
next, 400I.; and for the third, fourth, and fifth, 300I.
200I. and tool, fterling. 2io
In North 4\merica, while that continent was fub-Fifhery in
jedf to Britain, the whale-filhery wjas carried on to a North A-
very confiderable extent. A fociety was eftablilhed atmer^ca*
New York, and numbers of Ihips were equipped for
this trade in different parts of the colonies, by enterpri-
fing adventurers, and it has been long extremely fuc¬
cefsful and lucrative.
The advantages derived to the nation from theAdvanta-
whale-fifliery, are no doubt very confiderable. Be- ges of the
fide being an excellent nurfery for hardy Teamen, it is fifiiery-
the foundation of great commercial concerns, by in¬
troducing articles which become the fources of an im¬
portant trade. In this view7 it has often been an ob¬
ject of legiflative difeuffion, and has often experienced
the liberal encouragement and protedlion of govern¬
ment. According to a law paffed in favour of ftftps
employed in this trade, every Britifli veffel of 200
tons or upwards, bound to the Greenland feas, on the
whale-filhery, if found to be duly qualified agreeable
to the aft, obtained a licenfe from the commiflioners
of the cuftoms to proceed on fuch voyage; and on the
Ihips return, the mailer and mate declaring on oath that
they w7ere on fuch voyage, that they ufed all their endea¬
vours to take whales, and that all the whale-fins, blub-R 21.2
ber, oil, &c. imported in their {hip, were taken by their tl01fs.
crew in thofe feas, there was allowed 40s. for every
ton according to the admeafurement of the ftiip.
It was afterwards found, however, that fo great a
bounty was neither neceffary to the fuccefs of the
trade, nor expedient with regard to the public. In
1786, therefore, the afts conferring the faid emolu¬
ments being upon the point of expiring, the fubjeft
was brought under the confideration of parliament;
and it was propofed to continue the former meafures,
but with a reduftion of the bounty from 40s. to 30s.
In propofing this alteration, it was ftated, “ that the
fums which this country had paid in bounties for the trade in
Greenland filhery amounted to 1,265,461!.; that, inEngland.
the laft year, we had paid 94,858k; and that, from
the confequent deduftion of the price of the filh, the
public at prefent paid 60 per cent, upon every cargo.
In the Greenland fifhery there were employed 6000 Tea¬
men, and thefe feamen coft government 13I. 10s. per
man per annum, though we were never able to obtain
more than 500 of that number to ferve on board our
{hips of war. Befides, the vaft encouragement given
to the trade had occalioned fuch a glut in the market,
that it was found neceffary to export confiderable
quantities ; and thus we paid a large {hare of the pur-
chafe money for foreign nations, as w7ell as for our own
people, befides fupplying them with the materials of
feveral important manufaftures.” This propofition
was oppofed by feveral members, but was finally car¬
ried ; and the propriety of the meafure became very
Toon
Chap. III. C E 1 O
Whale, foon apparent. At tKat time (1786) the number of
Fifliery. {}iipS employed from England in the whale-filliery to
Km—Y—J Davis ftraits and the Greenland feas amounted to-
139, befides 15 from Scotland. The propofed altera¬
tion took place the following year (1787)5 and not-
withftanding the diminution of the bounty, the trade
increafed; the number of Ihips employed the fame year
from England amounting to 217, and the next year
(1788) to 222. Their cargoes confifted of 59^9
tons of clean oil; 7654 tons of whalebone, beiide
214 13,386 feal ikins.
Southern For fome years Britilh capital has been employed in
whale- a fouthern whale-fifhery 5 and this has alfo been a very
fifliery lucrative branch of trade. This fifliery was firft pmfe-
cuted with vigour about the commencement oi the
American war. In the year 1785, 18 (hips which pro¬
duced 29,000!. fterling were employed in it. Two
years afterwards the number of (hips was doubled, and
the returns increafed in a much greater proportion,
which is a proof of the tlourilhing ftate of the trade.
The number of (hips in 1787 w’as 38, and the produce
amounted to 107,000!. fterliug.
carried on Some American families, when the wTar broke out
by Ameri- in that country, emigrated to Nova Scotia, where they
. cans let- propofed to carry on the whale-filhery 5 but being dif-
flCH w couraged from particular circurnftances, on the invita-
ven. a ti°n °f th6 honourable Mr Greville, they fettled at
Milford in Milford Haven, and fitted out a fhip, which
had a very fuccefsful voyage. The number of ftiips
foon increafed to four, and at prefent ( 1803), that num¬
ber is doubled, fo that 18 (hips are now employed in
the fouthern whale-filhery from this port, rvith a capital
afloat of not lefs than 80,cool, fterling. This fa£l is
ftated by Mr Barrow in his travels in fouthern Afri¬
ca ; and “ I mention it, (fays he), as a ftriking in-
ftance to (how the importance of the fouth-fea fiftrery,
and as a proof that, contrary to the generally received
opinion, it may be carried on by fkill and manage¬
ment, and without the adventitious aid of trading, fo
as fully to anfwer the purpofe of thofe who are pro¬
perly qualified to embark in the undertaking, l or
where men, by induftry in their profeflion, rife from
fmall beginnings into affluence, fuch profeffion may be
followed wTith a greater certainty of fucceis than many
others which appear to hold out more feducing. pro-
fpefts. The American fiftiermen never fet out with a
capital, but invariably work themfelves into one 5 and
the fouth-fea fifhery from England may fucceed on the
fame principle, as the above example clearly fnews,
under every difadvantage, when properly conduced.
Partially “ It is difficult to point out the groundsofjufticeorpolicy
cncoura- in giving tonage bounties to the Greenland fifliery, and
£ed- only premiums to fuccefsful adventurers in the fouthern
fifliery. A voyage to Greenland is four months, the outfit
of which is covered by the tonage bounty, and, if wholly
unfuccefsful, the fame fliip can make a fecond voyage the
fame year to fome of the ports of the Baltic. A voyage to
the South fea is from 12 to 18 months, and muft depend
folely on the fuccefs in fiftiing. A Greenland ftiip fets out
on a fmall capital, and builds on a quick return 5 but a
fouth-fea wdialer muft expend a very confiderable ca¬
pital in making his outfit, for which he can reckon on
no returns for at leaft 18 months. Hence the ufual
practice of fending them out in the double capacity of
fifhers and contraband traders., in order that the Ioffes
LOGY. 355
they may fuftain by ill fuccefs in fiftiing may be made ^ale-
good by fmuggling. ^ 1 ‘€l y ;
“ If by extending the fiftiery we fhould be enabled to
fupply the continent of Europe, twTo obje6ts ftiould
never be out of the view of the legiflature>—the ex¬
emption from duty of all the produce of the fiflieries,
and particularly fpermaceti, which, if manufactured
into candles, and fubjeft only to the fame duty as
tallow candles, would produce much more to the re¬
venue than when taxed as it now is, as wax. I have
beard it afferted that the extenfion of the premium
fyftem, by doubling its prefent amount, which never
could exceed 30,000!. a-year, would be adequate en¬
couragement to fupply the home market with fperma¬
ceti and black whale oil, and that the bonding of
foreign oil in Great Britain wmuld throw the w'hole
agency of American fiftiery on England with greater
advantage to both countries than by any other fyftem. 117^
“ But when we confider that the home market is ne- Cape of
ceffarily fecured to Britifti fubjefts by high duties on
foreign oil, we ftiould alfo confider that every means ftation.
to leffen the charges of outfit ftiould ftrengthen our ad¬
venture in this lucrative branch of trade. Among
others that would feem to have this tendency, are the
facilities that might be afforded by the happy peti¬
tion of the Cape of Good Hope. If at this ftation
was eftabliftied a kind of central depot for the fouthern
whale -fifliery, it might, in time, be the means of throw¬
ing into our hands exclufively the fupply of Europe
with fpermaceti oil. - To the protection of the Mieries
on the caft and weft coafts of fouthern Africa, the
Cape is fully competent, and the fiftieries mi thefe
coafts would be equally undifturbed in war as in peace.
From hence they wmuld, at all times, have an oppor¬
tunity of acquiring a fupply of refreftiments for their
crews, and of laying in a flock of fait provifions at
one-fourth part of the expence of carrying them out
from England”. 218
The Dutch were very early engaged in the Green- Dutch ear-
land whale-fiftiery, which foon became one of the moft engaged
important objefts of their trade. In 1611 a company
w’as eftabliftied in Amfterdam for carrying on the ’ ’
whale-fiftiery on the coafts of Spitzbergen and Nova
Zembla. This branch of trade has in general fuc-
ceeded better with the Dutch than with any other
nation. The principal reafon which has been affigned
for this fuccefs is the greate’* economy and frugality of
this people, in this as in all their concerns, by which
they are able to underfell others in oil and whalebone.
The mode of fitting out all their ftiips is alfo men¬
tioned as a caufe of their profperity in this fiftiery.
The ftiip-builder, the rope-maker, the baker, the brew¬
er, and other tradefmen employed in fitting out thefe
fliips, commonly take a ftiare in the voyage. When
it proves fortunate, they are double gainers 5 but when
it is unfuccefsful, the lofs which they fuftain is proba¬
bly not greater than if they had merely furniftied the
articles without having a chance of the profit 5 and in
this refpeft have the advantage of mere merchants, it.
is obferved by De Witt that this fiftiery fince it fell
into the hands of individuals has feldom failed to be
profitable ; but while it was monopolized by^ the
Dutch Greenland company, the profit wras inconfider- 2I^
able. Some idea may be formed of the extent to Extent 0f
which the Dutch have carried this trade by ftating their fifli.
Y y 2 that€1T*
220
Ships em¬
ployed, and
produce of
it, from
Jjddi to
G E T O
that for a period of 46 years preceding the year 1722,
5886 ftnps were employed in it, and in this period
they took 32,907 whales. Each whale at an average,
valued at 500I. makes the total amount above 16
millions flerling.
The following table affords at one view a brief re¬
cord of the Dutch whale-filhery from 1661 to 1788.
I ne number of (hips employed for each year and the
number oi whales taken are Hated in feparate columns.
A LIST of the number of Ships from Holland, which
were employed in the Greenland and Davis Sraits
WtJALE-FisHERrfnce 1661. N. B. The Dutch fent
Snips to Davis Straits for the firji time in 1719.
LOGY.
2 ears. Ships. I Fijh. fears.1 Ships.
Tears. | Ships. I F‘Jh.
1661
1662
1663
1664
J665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
*694
1*695
4696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707,
*33
149
202
*93
4524
862
932i
7S2
Tears, j Ships. | Fijh.
1 War with
> England, no
J Ships out.
*55
*3^
148
158
573
,OI34
792
10884
War with
> England, no
3 Ships out.
pooi
8.24
735t
147
*45
*45
x 20
X 26
*51
*75
195
242
233
209
189
194
2x4
160
11?
{
32
90
63
97
122
•31
*39
I5I
173
208
224
207
I3°
*57
I5I
I3I
1118^
792^
*373
876
*444
*3384
ll53i
* 2 8 3 r f
6644
62X4
3404
24*i
785
war with
France.
56t
*75
i6x/t
*87^
428 i
12 79 !
i483^ !
77 >'4
9*34
20714- i
687^
644
6 s 2 4.
1678
966,,
126
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
*7*4
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
i73'
1732
*733
*734
*735
1736
*737
1738
*739
1740
1741
1742
*743
*744,
*745,
1746
*747
1748
*749
1750
1751
1752
*753
*754
*755
122
126
*37
* *7
108
93
108
*34
*53
*79
*39
211
228
260
254
233
232
226
218
202
182
184
168
164
176
184
r86
x85
*91
196
*95
192
187
178
*73
185
187
184
180
164
94
*57
*58
162
*59
166
*7*
181
533i
*92i
62
631
373u
2374
1291
6984
535
392i
2804
346
4554-
733t
11014-
3*4
358
5304
244
4024
3634
2 29t
2484
2984
3*44
36°4
327
4964
8574
5044
472
728-4
6654
3*24
3584
937
*494
5684
*036
7764
2784
6*94
59o4
33Q A
5464
639l
672it4-
720*-
*756
1737
*758
*759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
17651
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
*77*
1772
186
180
*59
*55
*54
161
165
161
165
167
165
160
152
150
150
*3*
5684
4234
37*4
464
454
3574
*894
224
477
*894
*794
6004
1127
523
*43t
7684
*773| *34
*774 *3°
*775: 129
1776 123
1777’ 116
111
1778
*779
1780
1781
1782
*783
1784
'5
1786
*787
1788
*°5
82
7 War
S land,
55
62
65
67
67
69
F‘Jh.
4444
450
105
5°9
4274
306-'-
*68|
476
with Eng-
nofhips out
330
198
300
476
2394
190
Chap. Ilf.
Whale.
Fifhery.
2 2X
178b'.
I his table is interefting, as it (hews us the precari¬
ous nature of this filhery. But it would have been
Hill more valuable, it fome other circumflances had
been Hated, luch as the nature of the fealons when the
filhery was lels fuccefsfulj whether the preceding win¬
ter was unufually long or fevere j whether the thort
fummer of thefe regions was not remarkable for ex¬
tremes or fudden changes of heat and cold, fudden
changes and variations of the wind, the prevalence
of particular winds; or other fa&s which might enable
us to trace the caufes of the extraordinary failure and
fuccefs of the fifirery.
1 he French made an attempt to revive this branch Attempt of
of ttade in 1784. Six Hiips fitted out at Dunkirk at Hie French
the expence of the late king, made fome fuccefsfult0 reviveir“
voyages both in the northern and fouthern whale-fiflr-
ery. The advantages of the trade were obvious, and
the French government were eager to improve them.
In the year 1786, fome of the inhabitants of the ifland
of hviantucket, near Halitax in North America, were
invited to fettle at Dunkirk to carry on the fifliery.
Several families accepted the invitation, and to en¬
courage them to profecute the trade, they were per¬
mitted to enjoy peculiar privileges and immunities.
Ships were fent out to different feas, and had profper-
ous voyages. But this trade, as well as every other
branch of French commerce, has probably been com¬
pletely interrupted by the late revolution, and the par¬
ticular circumflances in which that nation has been
with regard to foreign powers.
Befides the nations which we have mentioned, who OtheAia-
have been moft deeply concerned in this fifliery, thetionsen-
inhabitants of other countries have alfo embarked in it. Sage in it.
Some fliip&w'ere equipped at Embden in 1768 by order
of the king of Pruffia ; the Swedifli government in
*774 granted to a company eflablilhed at Gottenburgh
the exclufive privilege of the Davis flraits and Green¬
land fifliery for 20 years j and Denmark in 1775 at‘
tempted to take a fliare in the benefits of that fifliery,
which many of the nations of Europe, more enterprif-
ing or more induflrious, had long fuccefsfully enjoyed
on the fhores of the Danifli dominions.
_ Fhe whale-fifhery commences in May. It is about Timetif
this time that the whales are feen in great numbers the fiflierj.
between.
Chap. III. C E T O
Whale- between the 76th and 79th degree of north latitude j
Fifhery. ancj at a diitance they exhibit the appearance of the
U"—'v fmoke rifing from the chimnies of a great town by the
water which is thrown into the air by their fpouting or
blowing. The filhery continues for the months of june
and July, when it mart be abandoned whether it has
been fuccefsful or unprofperous ; becaufe it is necef-
fary to be clear of the ice by the end of Auguft. The
lliips return home at fart he it in the month of Septem¬
ber. But if the fifhery happen to begin early in May,
and prove abundant, they fometimes return in June or
225 July- . ; .
Mode of We (hall now conclude this article with a fhort ac-
taking the court of the different modes that are praftifed in taking
whale by ^ w]la|e> "j’hg following is employed in the Green-
uropeans. ^ncj £{hery by Europeans. Every fhip is provided
with {lx boats, to each of which belong fix men for
rowing the boat, and a harponeer, whofe bufinefs it is
to ftrike the whale with his harpoon. Two of thefe
boats are kept conftantly on the watch at fome di-
ftance from the fhip, faftened to pieces of ice, and
are relieved by others every four hours. As foon as a
whale is perceived, both the boats fet out in purtuit of it,
and if either of them can come up before the whale
finally defcends, which is known by his throwing up
his tail, the harponeer difcharges his harpoon at him.
There is no difficulty in choofing the place where the
whale is to be ftruck, as fome have afferted •, for thefe
animals only come up to the furface in order to breathe,
or b/ow, as the fiffiermen term it, and therefore al¬
ways keep the foft and vulnerable part of their bodies
above water. A late improvement was made in the
method of difcharging the harpoon ; namely, by (hoot¬
ing it out of a kind of fwivel or mufquetoon : but it
does not appear, that fince this improvement was
made, the whale-fifhing {hips have had better fuccefs
than before.—As foon as the whale is ftruck, the men
fet up one of their oars in the middle of the boat as
a fignal to thofe in the fhip. On perceiving this, the
watchman alarms all the reft with the cry fall! falll
upon which all the .other boats are immediately fent
out to the affiftance of the firft.
The whale finding himfelf wounded, fwims off with
prodigious velocity. Sometimes he defcends perpen¬
dicularly ; and fometimes goes off horizontally, at a fmall
depth below the furface. The rope which is faftened
to the harpoon is about 200 fathoms long, and pro¬
perly coiled up, that it may freely be given out as
there is a demand for it. At firft, the velocity with
which this line runs over the fide of the boat is fo
great, that it is wetted to prevent its taking fire : but
in a (hort time the ftrength of the whale begins to fail,
and the fiihermen, inftead of letting out more rope,
ftrive as much as poffible to pull back what is given
out already, .hough they always find themfelves ne-
ceffitated to yield at laft to the efforts of the animal,
to prevent his finking their boat. If he runs out the
200 fathoms of line contained in one boat, that be¬
longing to another is immediately faftened to the end
of the firft, and fo on ; and there have been inftances,
■where all the rope belonging to the fix boats has been
neceffary, though half that quantity is feldom requir¬
ed. The whale cannot ftay long below water, but
again comes up to blow ; and being now much fati¬
gued and wounded, flays longer above wrater than
logy. m
ufual. This gives another boat time to come up with Whale-
him, and he is again ftruck wfith a harpoon. He, *nOiery.
again defcends, but with lefs force than before j and ,r~
when he comes up again, is generally incapable of
defcending, but fuffers himfelf to be wounded and
killed with long lances which the men are provided
with for that purpofe. He is known to be near death
when he fpouts up the water deeply tinged with blood.
The.whale being dead, is laffied alongfide the fhip.
They then lay it on one fide, and put turn ropes, one
at the head, and the other in the place of the tail,
which, together with the fins, is ftruck off as foon
as he is taken, to keep thefe extremities above water.
On the off-fide of the whale are two boats, to receive
the pieces of fat, utenfils, and men, that might other-
wife fall into the water on that fide. Thefe precau¬
tions baing taken, three or four men with irons at
their feet to prevent flipping, get on the whale, and
begin to cut out pieces of about three feet thick and
eight long, which are hauled up at the capftan or
wundlafs. When the fat is all got off, they cut off the
wffialebone of the upper jaw with an axe. Before they
cut, they are all lafhed to keep them firm which alfa
facilitates the cutting, and prevents them from falling
into the fea j when on board, five or fix of them are
bundled together, and properly flowed 5 and after all
is got off, the carcafs is turned a-drift, and devoured
by the white bears, wffio are very fond of it. In pro¬
portion as the large pieces of fat are cut off, the reft:
of the crew are employed in flicing them fmaller, and
picking out all the lean. When this is prepared, they
flow it under the deck, where it lies till the fat of all
the whales taken during the fiffiery is on board ; then
cutting it ftill fmaller, they put it up in tubs in the
hold, cramming them full and clofe. At the end of
the feafon they return home, where the fat is boiled
and prefled to give out the oil. 22(?
But a different method is pra-difed by the rude By the peo-
inhabitants of the different nations on the coafts of the pie of
frozen ocean. On fome parts of the fea coafts 0f
Kamtfchatka, the return of the fifhing feafon is celeA1'
brated with a grand feftival and great rejoicings in
their fubterraneous winter habitations, in which many
fuperftitious ceremonies are performed. In one part of
the ceremonies dogs are facrificed, with beating of
drums and other rude mufical inftruments. The priefts
who attend and condud the feftival, tranfport wfith
great folemnity and pomp a figure of a whale, made of
wood, from the fummer habitation to the winter cot-
tage. As the ceremonies proceed, the whole company Their pre-
aflembled fhout with a great noife, that the. whale hasv'ou* cere*'
made its efcapefrom the cottage to the fea} andthey pre. tnonies“
tend even to fhow the traces of the whale in its courfe,
as if it had really made its way through the opening
in the cottage. Thefe ceremonies being ended, the
men prepare their nets, and embark in their canoes.
The nets are fet at the openings of bays, where fifli,
which are the food of the whale, are abundant, and in
the purfuit of which entering the bays he is taken.
When this is obferved by the people in the canoes,
they approach and fecure their prize with ropes and
ftraps of leather. This event is again celebrated by
their wives and children on fhore with dancing, ring¬
ing, and other demonftrations of joy. But after the
whale is fufficiently fecured, he is not brought ca
fhore-
358 C E T O
Waale- ftore till another ceremony is performed. They put
■ ~Flt , on their befi: clothes, and, with fimilar folemnity, tranf-
port the image of the whale in wrood from the winter
to a new i'ummer habitation. A lamp is there lighted
up, and an attendant is appointed to w'atch and keep
it burning from the fpring to the autumn. The
whale is then cut up, and furnifhes for a long time
what is conlidered by the natives of thofe regions a
22S very delicate food.
Among the Kurile iflands, which are fituated near
the Kurile t1ie f'outhern extremity of the peninfula of Kamtfchatka,
illands. ^ie whales are mod: abundant about the beginning of
autumn. At that time the inhabitants embark in their
canoes, and fearch for them in places where they ge¬
nerally find them afleep on the furface of the water.
When they are fo fortunate as to find one in this fitua-
tion, they approach with the leaft poffible noifej and,
when they have come within the proper diftance, they
pierce him wnth poifoned arrows. And although
thefe wounds feem extremely flight, they are faid in a
fliort time to occafion great pain. The whale thus
wounded, moves about furioufly, blows wdth great
229 violence, and foon dies.
Oflceland. We have already mentioned the mode of taking
the w'hale which is praftifed by the Icelanders, in
giving the natKral hiftory of the balcvna glacialis, or
Iceland whale. It is according to Anderfon, by
throwing blood into the fea, when they get between
the whale and the fiiore. They then endeavour to
drive him towards the fiiore ; but the whale finding
himfelf purfued, attempts to regain the ocean, and ap¬
proaching the blood, is alarmed j and rather than
fwim acrofs it, returns towards the land, where he is
often throwm on fliore. But this is contradicted by
Horrebow, who fays, that the ufual method of kil-
230 Hog the wdiale in Iceland, is with the harpoon.
Of Green- When the whale returns to the coafts of Greenland,
land. the fifhermen put on their large fkin coats, and fur-
nifh themfelves with a large knife, and a ftone to
fiiarpen it. They provide alfo harpoons, fpears, and
arrows, with a number of large fkins of the fea dog
inflated. Thus equipped, they launch their canoes, and
embark with their wives and children. The harpoon
which they generally employ, is pointed with bone,
or a (harp ftone. Some indeed have harpoons of iron,
which they procure from the Danes by barter for the
oil or fat of the whale. The fcarcity of wood and
iron makes thefe articles extremely valuable to Green¬
landers, and has excited their ingenuity to avoid the
rilk of lofing them. For this purpofe an inflated blad¬
der of the fkin of the fea-dog is attached to the har¬
poon, fo that in cafe it fliould not reach the whale
when they attempt to ftrike, it may float on the w7ater,
and be recovered. Thus equipped, they launch out in¬
to the ocean in their fmall canoes, and, with great in¬
trepidity attack the largeft whales. They approach
them, fays Anderfon, with aftonifliing boldnefs, and
endeavour to fix, by means of their harpoon, which
they throw at his body, fame of the fkins inflated with
air. For, notwithftanding the enormous bulk of this
animal, two or three of thefe fkins, by the refiftance
which they make to the water, on account of their di-
xninifhed fpecific gravity, greatly impede his attempts
at plunging into the deep. Having by this means
fucceeded in arrefting his progrefs, they approach
L O G Y. Chap, III,
nearer ; and, with their lances, pierce his body, till WKle-
he become languid and feelole with the lofs of blood, , * lfl-ery.
and at laft dies. The fifhermen then plunge into the v
fea with their {kin-jackets filled with air, and fwim to
their prize ; and, floating on the furface of the water,
they cut off with their knives from eVery part of the
wdiale the fat or blubber, which is thrown into the
canoes. And, notwithftanding the rudenefs and im- ,
perfection of their inftruments, their dexterity is luch,
that they can extraCt from the mouth the greateft, or
at leaft the beft part of the whalebone. 231
But the mode of fifhing the whale, the boldeft and ifliing
moft aftonifhing, is that which is praflifed by the In-mo£le
dians on the coaft of Florida. When a whale appears,
they fallen to their bodies two pieces of wmod and a dians. "
mallet ; and thefe inftruments, with their canoe, con-
ftitute the whole of their fifhing equipage. W hen they
approach the w-hale, they throw themfelves into the
water, fwim direClly towards him, and have the ad-
drefs to get upon his neck, taking care to avoid the
ftroke of his fins or tail. When the whale firft fpouts,
the Indian introduces one of the pieces of w ood into
the opening of one of the blow-hcles, and drives it
home with the mallet. The whale thus attacked, in>
ftantly plunges, and carries the Indian along with him,
who keeps fall hold of the animal. The whale, which
has now' only one blow-hole, foon returns to the fur¬
face of the water, to refpire ; and, if the Indian fuc-
ceeds in fixing the other piece of wood into the fecond
blow'-hole, the w'hale again defcends to the bottom,
but a moment after re-appears on the furface, w’bere
he remains motionlefs, and immediately expires bv
the interruption of the fundlion of refpiration.
EXPLANATION of PLATES.
Plate CXL—Fig. 1. The large whalebone orPIates^x-
Greenland whale, is from 40 to 60 feet long, and plained,
more than one half the length in circumference at the
thickeft part. This whale is taken on account of the
oil and the whalebone.
Fig. 2. The narhwal or unicorn-fifh, yields a fmall
quantity of oil, but it is faid to be of a fuperior quali¬
ty. The horns or teeth are much valued, and is in
fome refpeCIs preferable to ivory. They are from 9 to
10 feet long. The fleflr is greatly efteemed by the in¬
habitants of Greenland.
Fig. 3. The large fpermaceti whale, which is taken
on account of the oil, and alfo on account of the more
valuable fubftance fpermaceti, which is found chiefly
in cells within the ficull. The figure here given is ta¬
ken from one of the 31 w'hich came on fliore in 1784,
near Audierne in France. The length w'as 44 feet.
Fig. 4. The grampus. This figure w'as taken from
one caught at the mouth of the Thames in 1759. It
was 24 feet long.
Plate CXLI.—Fig. 1. and 2. exhibits a view of
the courfe of the bloW-hole in the cetaceous fifties.
Fig. 1. thews the blow'-hole of the w halebone and
fpermaceti whale. In the whalebone whale it is dou¬
ble, and the courfe of it is marked by the dotted line
ABCD. It is Angle in the fpermaceti whale, and
marked by the dotted lines AEFD.
hig. 2. thews that of the monodon and delphinus.
That of the monodon, which is tingle, is thewn by the
dotted line ABCD, terminating at the back part of
the
CE T OXj O GY.
Plate O X J. .
///,„/- // /rr/r
'azuct.
ft 'r/<
/'rr// /// //-J,
y'y.'::Y;
Wh^Ie-
Fifliery
Chap. III. C E T O
the head. And that of the clafs delphinus by the dot¬
ted line AEFD, terminating at the top of the head.
Fig. 3. A perpendicular feftion of feveral plates of
whalebone in their natural fituation in the gum. The
inner edges or Ihorteft terminations are removed, and
the cut edges feen from the infide of the fnout. A,
the upper part, (hews the diftance of the plates from
each other. C, the lower part, fhews the white lub-
ftance on which they grow, and the bafis on which
they ftand.
Fig. 4. A lide view of one of the plates of whale¬
bone. A, the part which projefts beyond the gum.
B, The portion which is funk in the gum. CC, A
white fubftance which furrounds the whalebone, form¬
ing there a proje&ing bead, and alfo pafling between
the plates to form their external lamellae. DD, The
LOGY. 359
part analogous to the gum. E, A flelhy fubftance co- Whale-
vering the jaw-bone, on which the inner lamella of *
the plate is formed. F, The termination of the whale¬
bone in the hair.
Fig. 5. An outline to (hew the mode of growth of
the plates, and of the white intermediate fubftance.
A, The middle layer of the plate, which is formed
upon a pulp or cone that paffes up in the centre of the
plate. The termination of this layer forms the hair.
B, One of the outer layers, which is formed from the
intermediate white fubftance. CCCC, The interme¬
diate white fubftance, the laminae of which are conti¬
nued along the middle layer, and form the fubftance
of the plate of whalebone. D, The outline of another
plate of whalebone. E, The bafis on which the plates
are formed, which adheres to the jaw-bone.
INDEX.
A.
Age of the whale,
Ambergris,
Anatomy of w'hales,
N° 189
194
98
Circulation,
ClaJJes, four,
D.
Arrangement by Ray and Willoughby, 2
by Linnaeus, 3
by Pennant, 4
made a different clafs, 5
B.
Balana, Clafs I. 14
general chara£lers, 16
Myfticetus,
characters, 17
defcription, 18
whalebone, 20
fize, 27
food, 29
dimenfions, 31
Glacialis,
characters, 32
defcription, 33
curious mode of taking, 34
Phyfalus,
characters, 35
defcription, 36
Nodofa,
defcription, 40
Gibbofa,
defcription, 42
Boops, 44
Mufculus, 46
„ Roftrata, 5°
Bladder, 139
Blood, 142
Blow-holes, 15°
Blubber, 190
Bones, head, 106
neck and back, 107
ribs, 109
Brain, 152
C.
CVte, word limited in fignification, 10
Delphinus, Clafs IV.
general charaCter,
Phocaena,
Del phis,
Turfio,
Orca,
Gladiator,
Leucas,
Bidentatus,
Butlkopf,
Feres,
Diaphragm,
Digeflion, organs of,
Dolphin,
fabulous hiftory,
E.
Excretion, organs of,
F.
Fat,
Fins,
Food of the whale,
G.
Generation, organs of,
Grampus,
Fleart,
Intejlines,
Kidneys,
Larynx,
Liver,
Lungs,
H.
I.
K.
L.
M.
Mamma,
Milk rich,
Monodon, Clafs II.
generic characters,
N° 146
75
77
82
85
87
89
9i
93
95
97
149
127
81
83
138, i39
190
in
169
161, 163
86
140
128
138
146
J35
147
165
167
53
Monodon Monoceros, N° 55
ufes, 57
magnificent throne of the
bones, 58
Spurius, 60
Mufcles, * 124
N.
Narhwal, 53"^°
Nerves, lSS
p.
Pancreas, 136
Phyfeter, Clafs III.
generic characters, 61
Macrocephalus, 63
Catodon, 65
Trumpo, 67
Cylindricus, 7°
Microps, 72
Mular, 74
. Phyftology, 9 8
Porpoife, 76
s.
Skin, 122
Spermaceti whale, Large, 62
Small, 64
of New England, 66
Round, 69
Black headed, 71
Mular, 73
Spermaceti, 19 2
fuppofed to be indurated
faeces, 196
probably a preeternatural
fubftance,
ufed as a perfume,
Spinal marrow,
Spleen,
Stomach, &c.
Senfe of touch,
tafte,
fmelling,
hearing)
197
198
154
T37
128, 134
156
157
158
159
Senfe
«
56o
Senfe of feeing,
Sucking, mode of,
"Teeth.
Na
T.
U.
160
166
112-114
TJnicorn-fJh,
Ureters,
W.
.Whales, Clarification,
natural hiftory important,
but deficient,
organs of digeftion,
of circulation and refpira-
tion,
of generation,
food, fize, abode,
Greenland or large whale¬
bone,
Iceland,
Fin-fifh,
Humpback,
Scrag,
Pike-headed,
Round-lipped,
Piked,
Bottlernofe,
53-6o
139
14
6
7
I27
140
161
169
11
32
35
39
41
43
46
49
•8 r
C E T O L O
Whales, Bottle-headed,
enemies of,
affedlion for young,
one young at a birth,
Whalebone, peculiar fubftance, &c.
G Y.
N°94
IS4-I88
l68
I64
1J5
-120
203
firfi: introduced,
Whale-fijhery,
Norwegians firfl: acquainted
with the, 200
Bifcayans moft expert in, 201
Englilh firft engage in, 202
Ihips fitted out from Hull, 204
premium granted for, 205
company eftablifhed, 206
Englifh very fuccefsful in, 207
^ 208
209
210
211
212
213
214
New Englilh company,
encouraged,
in North America,
advantages of the,
regulations of,
Hate of the trade in Eng¬
land.
Southern,
Carried on by Americans
fettled in Milford Haven, 215
Index.
Whale-fjhery partially encouraged, N° 116
Cape of Good Hope a con¬
venient flation for, 217
Dutch early engaged in, 218
extent of their, 219
fhips employed and pro¬
duce of it from i66r
to 1788, 220, 221
attempt of the French to
revive,
other nations engage in,
time of the,
mode praftifed by the Eu¬
ropeans,
by the people of Kamtf-
chatka,
their previous ceremo-
nies, 227
by the people of the Ku¬
rile iilands, 228
of Iceland, 229
of Greenland, 230
aftonilhing mode by the
222
223
224
225
226
Floridan, Indians,
2 32
Cette
Ceuta.
C E U
CE1TE, a maritime town of France, in Langue¬
doc, feated at the place where the canal of Languedoc
begins, between Montpellier and Agde, on the bay of
Maguelona, in the Mediterranean fea. E. Long. 5/1 c.
N. Lat. 43. 25.
CEI US, in yljlronomy, the whale 5 a large con-
flehation of the fouthern hemifphere, under Pifces, and
next the water of Aquarius. The liars in the conltel-
lation Cetus, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are twenty-two j
in Tycho’s, twenty-one ; in Hevelius’s forty-five j in
the Britannic catalogue nmety-leven.
Cetus is reprefented by the poets, as the fea-mon-
ijer which Neptune, at the fuit of the nymphs, fent to
devour Andromeda for the pride of her mother, and
which was killed by Perfeus. In the mandible of Ce¬
tus. is.a variable liar which appears and difappears
periodically, palling through the feveral degrees of
magnitude both increafing and diminilhing, in about
333 days. See Astronomy.
CEVA, a ftrong town of Piedmont in Italy, feated
on the river Tanero, with a Itrong fort, in E. Long.
8. 8. N. Lat. 44. 20. o’ 5
CEVENNES, mountains of Languedoc in France,
remarkable for the frequent meetings of the Prote-
nants there as a place of fecurity again!! the tyranny
ot their governors. In Queen Anne’s reign there was
an attempt made to affift them by an Englilh fleet in
the Mediterranean ; but to no purpofe, for the French
had occupied the paflages.
CEUTA, a maritime town of Barbary in Africa
and m the kingdom of Fez, feated on the ftraits of
Cibraltar, oppofite that place, in W. Long. 6. 25. N.
36. 35. John king of Portugal took it from the
C E Y
Moors in 1415, but it now belongs to Spain. In 1697
it fullained a vigorous fiege by the Moors.
. CEYLON, a large illand in the Ealt Indies, which
lies between 50 40' and io° 30' north latitude j and
between 790 and 82° call longitude. It is fituated at
the entrance of the bay of Bengal, by which it is
bounded on the north. On the north-well it is fepa-
rated from the Coromandel coal! by the gulf of Ma-
naar, a narrow ftrait full of Ihoals, and impalfable by
large flaps ; and is dillant about 60 leagues from Cape
Comorin, the fouthern point of the peninfula of India.
Its circumference is computed to be about 900 miles ;
and its length from Point Pedro at the northern extre¬
mity to Donderhead at the fouthern is about 300 miles.
Its breadth is very unequal, being in fome parts only
from 40 to 50 miles, w'hile in others it extends to 60,
70, and even 100.
The appearance of the eaftern coal! is bald and
rocky, and a few reefs of rocks run out into the fea on
the fouth-eafl: between Point de Galle and Batacolo.
T he deep water on the eaftern ftiores admits the ap-
proach of the large!! veffels in fafety ; and if that fide
of the ifland be the leal! fertile, its other defedls are
amply compenfated by the harbours of Trincomalee
and Batacolo. The north and north-weft coal! from
Point Pedro to Columbo is flat, and everywhere in-
- dented with inlets of the fea. The large!! of them ex¬
tends almoft quite acrofs the ifland from Mullipatti to
Jafnapatam on the north-weft point of the ifland 5 and
forms the peninfula of Jafnapatam. Several of thefe
inlets form fmall harbours.
I he interior of the ifland abounds with fteep and
lofty mountains, covered with thick forefts, and full
of
Ceylon.
C E Y [ 3Gi ] C E Y
tfeylon. of almoft impenetrable jungles. The woods and moun-
■ y ' tains completely furround the dominions of the king
of Candy, and feem deftined by nature to defend him
againft thofe foreign enemies, whofe fuperior Ikill and
power have deprived him of the open trails on the fea-
coaft. The mod lofty range of mountains divides the
idand nearly into two parts, and fo completely fepa-
rates them from each other, that both the climate and
feafons on either lide are effentially different. Thefe
mountains alfo obftruil completely'the efteil of the
monfoons, which fet. in periodically from oppofite fides
of them ; fo that not only the^pppoflte fea-coafl, but
the whole country in the interior fuffers very little from
thefe florms.
The monfoons in Ceylon are conneiled with thofe
on the Coromandel and Malabar coafls •, but they fet
in much fooner on the weftern than the eaftern fide of
the ifiand. On the weft fide, where Columbo lies, the
rains prevail in the months of May, June, and July,
the feafon when they are felt on the Malabar coall.
This monfoon is ufually extremely violent, being ac¬
companied with dreadful dorms of thunder and light¬
ning, together with vad torrents of rain, and violent
fouth-wed winds. During its continuance, the north¬
ern parts of the idand are very little affefted, and are
even generally dry. In the months of October and
November, when the oppofite monfoon fets in on the
Coromandel coad, it is the north of Ceylon which is
affedled, and fcarcely any impredion of it is felt in the
fouthern parts.
Thefe monfoons pafs dightly over the interior, and
feldorn occafion any confiderable inconvenience. But
this part of the idand is not altogether freed from the
dreadful dorms which fo terribly ravage the tropical
climates. During its own periodical feafon, which
happens in March and April, the rain pours down in
torrents, and the thunder and lightning are terrible.
From the fituation of this idand, fo near the equa¬
tor, the days and nights are nearly of equal length ;
the variation during the two feafons not exceeding 15
minutes. The feafons are more regulated by the mon¬
foons than the courfe of the fun ; for although the
idand lies to the north of the line, the cooled feafon is
during the fummer foldice, while the wedern monfoon
prevails. Their fpring commences in October, and
the hotted feafon is from January to the beginning of
April. The heat, during the day, is nearly the fame
throughout the whole year •, the rainy feafon, however,
renders the nights much cooler, from the dampnefs of
the earth, and the prevalence of winds during the
monfoons. The climate, upon the whole, is much
more temperate than on the continent of India. This
temperate climate, however, is chiedy confined to the
coad where the fea breezes have room to circulate. In
the interior of the country, owing to the thick and
clofe woods, and the hills which crowd upon each
other, the heat is many degrees greater than on the
fea coad, and the climate often extremely fultry and
unhealthy.
The principal harbours in the ifland for large fhips,
are Trincomalee and Point de Galle ; they alfo come
to anchor, and at certain feafons of the year moor fe-
eurely, in the roads of Columbo. There are feveral
other inferior ports round the idand, which afford
ihelter to the fmaller coading veffels.
Vox.V. Parti.
The twro principal rivers are the Malivagonga and
the Mulivaddy. The former takes its rife among the
hills to the fouth-ead of Candy, and nearly furrounds
that city. After a variety of circuitous windings
among the mountains, it at lad difcharges itfelf into
the fea at Trincomalee. This river is fo deep as to be
fordable only towards the fource j but the rocks, which
everywhere break its courfe, prevent it from being na¬
vigated. The Mulivaddy rifes from the foot of a
very high mountain, known to Europeans by the name
of Adam’s Peak, and fituated about fixty miles to the
north-ead of Columbo. This river falls into the fea
by feveral branches : the larged of thefe empties itfelf
about three miles from the fort of Columbo, after ha¬
ving nearly furrounded a large tradl of the level coun¬
try, of which it forms a peninfula.
Befides the rivers with which Ceylon abounds, there
are many lakes and canals communicating with them,
particularly in the neighbourhood of Columbo and Ni-
gumbo. They are often of confiderable extent, and
of great utility to the inhabitants in their neighbour¬
hood, who have thus an opportunity of readily tranf-
porting their feveral articles of trade 5 and it is by
this means alfo that the towns on the coad are fup-
plied with the greated abundance of frelh-water fid).
The internal communications by land through the
ifland have fcarcely palled the fird dage of improve¬
ment. Along the fea-coads indeed there are roads and
dations for travellers 3 but thefe roads are in many
places rugged and deep.
The foil in general, is fandy, with a fmall mixture
of clay. In the fouth-wed parts, particularly about
Columbo, there is a great deal of marlhy ground, very
rich and productive. This traCl, however, is chiefly
occupied with cinnamon plantations, and the red of
the ifland, in its prefent date of cultivation, does not
produce a fufficient quantity of rice for the confump-
tion of its inhabitants.
Ceylon was originally divided into a number of
didindt petty kingdoms, feparated by the feveral
rivers and mountains which are difperfed over the
face of the ifland, and fubjeCl each to its own in¬
dependent fovereign. In procefs of time, however,
the whole country was reduced under the dominion of
the king of Candy, and divided by him into a few
great provinces, from which feveral of the numerous
titles he dill retains were derived. Thefe provinces
were Candy, Coitu, Matura, Dambadar, and Sitti-
vacca, which included the rich didrifts on the wed
coafl. The chief of thefe provinces was Candy, fitu¬
ated in the centre of the ifland, and honoured with
the royal refidence. The king holds his court there
to this day 3 and though all the other provinces have
been more or lefs encroached upon, no part of Candy
has ever been reduced to permanent fubjeftion under
a foreign power. The great divifions of the ifland
now are reduced to two 3 the one comprehending thofe
parts under the dominion of Europeans, and the pther
thofe which dill remain to the natives.
Little was known of the ifland of Ceylon previous
to the arrival of the Portuguefe in 1505, who were
admitted by the king of the country in a friendly man¬
ner, and received from him an annual tribute for their
proteftion againd external invafion, particularly againft
the attacks of the Arabs, who had long haraffed and
Z z oppreffed
Ceylon.
opprelTed the Ceylonefe. The inhabitants at that
time, as at prefent, confirted of two diftinft races, the
Bedahs, who lived in the forefts, particularly in the
northern parts, and the Cinglefe, who inhabited the
fea coaft. Columbo, now the European capital of Cey¬
lon, was at that time the royal refidence. Cinnamon
was even then the chief produft and ftaple commodity
of the country. Two hundred and fifty thoufand pounds
weight were annually delivered by the king to the Por-
tuguefe in name of tribute. The inhabitants fuflfered
great cruelties and opprefiions under the Portuguefe,
and were glad of an opportunity of throwing off the
yoke and putting themfelves under the prote&ion of
the Dutch. In 1632, a ftrong armament was fent out
by the latter to adt in concert with the native prince j
and, after a bloody flruggle, the Portuguefe were at
lad expelled from the illand. Columbo furrendered to
the Dutch arms in 1656, and this terminated the do¬
minion of the Portuguefe in the ifiand. In the year
1795, a body of Britifh troops was fent for the con-
quelt of Ceylon, and after various military operations,
this valuable poffeflion was added to the Britifh colo¬
nies.
l he cnief towns in Ceylon are Trincomalee and
Columbo. Trincomalee lies in latitude 8° 30'. It
runs in a north-eaft diredlion along one branch of the
bay. The country around it is mountainous and
"woody; the foil uncultivated and rather barren, and
the whole appearance wild.
1 rincomalee, from its fituation and conftrudlion, is
naturally ftrong. It occupies more ground than Co¬
lumbo, but contains a much fmaller number of houfes,
and thofe inferior in fize and appearance to thofe which
are to be met with in feveral towns on the fouth-weft
coaft. . The circumference of Trincomalee, within the
walls, is about three miles: within this fpace is alfo
included a hill or rifing point, immediately over the
fea, and covered with brulhwood.
fhe fort is ftrong, and commands the principal
bays; and, in particular, the entrance into the grand
harbour, or inner bay, which affords at all feafons, and
in every variety of weather, a fecure {belter to fliips
of all defcriptions, being land-locked on all fides, and
Efficiently deep and capacious to receive any number
of the largeft veffels.
I his harbour, from its nature and fituation, is that
which ftamps Ceylon one of our moft valuable acquift-
tions in the Eaft Indies. As foon as the violent mon¬
loons commence, every veffel which is caught by them
in any other part of the bay of Bengal, is obliged im¬
mediately to put to fea to prevent inevitable deftruc-
tion. At thefe feafons Trincomalee and Bombay a-
lone, of all the ports on the different coafts of the pe-
ninfula of India, are capable of affording a fafe re¬
treat. I he incalculable advantages to be derived from
fuch a harbour, are increafed by its proximity and ea-
fy accefs to our fettlements in the bay of Bengal.
Columbo is the capital of Ceylon and the feat of go¬
vernment. Although Trincomalee, on account of its
fituation and harbour, be of more confequence to this
nation to retain, yet Columbo in every other refpedt is
greatly fuperior. The number of its inhabitants is
much greater ; its fort and black towm are much lar¬
ger ; the country where it is fituated is far more fertile,
and the rich diftridl depending upon it much wider,
being not lefs than 20 leagues in length, and 10 in Ceylon,
breadth. It is fituated in the weft, or rather towards * ■
the fouth-weft part of the ifiand, in about 70 north la¬
titude, and 78° eaft longitude from London.
_ The plan of Columbo is regular. It is nearly di¬
vided into four equal quarters by two principal ftreets,
which crofs each other, and extend the whole length
of the town. I o thefe, fmaller ones run parallel,
with connedling lanes between them. At the foot of
the ramparts on the infide is a broad ftreet or way,
which goes round the whole fort, and communicates
with the baftions and foldiers barracks ; and alfo af¬
fords, at the different angles, open fpaces for their pri¬
vate parading.
Befide the European inhabitants of Ceylon, the na¬
tives are quite dillindl from each other in manners and
civilization. The Cinglefe, who inhabit the low lands
and parts contiguous to the coafts, live entirely under
the dominion of whatever European nation has been
able to acquire poffdTxon of that part of the ifiand.
The nature of the country they inhabit indeed leaves
them hardly any alternative but unconditional fubmif-
fion, unlefs they could either meet the Europeans in
open battle, or confent to quit their plentiful fields for s
the barren mountains of the interior.
They are a quiet, inoffenfive people; exceedingly
grave, temperate, and frugal. Their bodies partake
of the indolence of their minds, and it is wTith reluc¬
tance they are roufed to any adlive exertion. When,
however, they are obliged to apply themfelves to any
work, fuch as agriculture, they are capable of under¬
going a great deal of labour.
The milder virtues form the moft prominent features
of the Cinglefe charadler. They are gentle, charita¬
ble, and friendly, and have fcarcely any of the falfe,
treacherous, and defigning arts which are often found
among the Candians. With much lefs fmoothnefs and
courteoufnefs of face and manner than the latter, they
have much fincerer hearts. On examining the coun¬
tenances and carriage of thefe two claffes of Ceylonefe,
it is eafy to perceive the difference arifing from the re-
fpedfive circumftances in which they are placed. The
countenance of the Candian is eredi, his look haughty,
his mien lofty, and his whole carriage marked by the
pride of independence.
The looks of the Cinglefe even denote a degree of
effeminacy and cowardice, which excites the contempt
of the Candians ; although the latter, with all their
boafted fpirit, can never venture to attack an Euro¬
pean but by the fame method as the Cinglefe, and are
equally cautious in waiting the convenient moment of
a {faulting him from the bullies, in which they have
concealed themfelves.
The moft Angular part of the inhabitants of Ceylon
are the Bedahs, or Vaddahs. The origin of the
Bedahs or Vaddahs, who inhabit the deepeft re-
ceffes of the Ceylonefe forefts, has never been traced,
as no other race can be found in the eaftern world
,which correfpends with them. Conjcdiure has, in¬
deed, been bufy on the occafion, as it ufually is where
real information is wanting. The Bedahs are gene¬
rally fuppofed to have been the aboriginal inhabitants
of the ifiand, who, upon being overwhelmed by their
Cinglefe invaders, preferred the independence of fava-
ges to a tame fubmiflion. A current tradition, how-
c E Y [ 363 1 C E Y
Ceylon, ever, afligns them a different origin. It is related
that they were caff away on the illand, and chofe to
fettle there; but refuting, upon a certain occafion, to
affilt the king in his wars againfl fome foreign enemies,
they were driven out from the fociety of the natives,
and forced to take up their abode in the moll unfre¬
quented forefts. Some imagine that the Bedahs are
merely a part of the native Candians, who chofe to re¬
tain their ancient favage freedom, when their brethren
of the plains and vallies fubmitted to the cultivation of
the earth, and the reftraints of fociety. This opinion
refts entirely on thofe Bedahs, who are moft known,
fpeaking a broken dialed!; of the Cinglefe. It is, how¬
ever, by no means afcertained that this is the univerfal
language of the Bedahs j nor is any account of their
origin lupported by the flighted ftiadow of proof.
Among the animals of Ceylon, and at the head of
the clafs of quadrupeds, is the elephant, which is confi-
dered as fuperior to thofe found in any other part of
the world. The oxen are of very fmall fize, fcarcely
exceeding that of calves of a year old. They are of
that fpecies which have the hump on the flioulder ;
but are inferior in quality, as well as in fize, to any
found on the Indian continent. The beef is fometimes
of a good quality, and forms the chief food of the Eu¬
ropean foldiers. Buffaloes are found in great numbers
in the ifland, both in a wild and tame ftate. They
are wild and untradlable ; and even when tamed and
trained to the draught, for which, being ftronger and
larger than the oxen, they are ■well adapted, they re¬
tain a good deal of their original manners. A variety
of deer and elks are found in Ceylon ; efpecially the
gazelle, a very fmall fpecies, about the fize of our
hare, which is caught by the natives and brought to
market in cages, where they are fold for about is. apiece.
Hares, fimilar to the European, abound in every part
of the ifland ; a fmall fpecies of tyger, the tyger cat,
£he leopard, the jackal, porcupines, racoons, fquirrels,
and fometimes, but rarely, the hyena and the bear, are
found in Ceylon. Birds, infefls, ferpents, and other
reptiles, fuch as are ufually to be met with in the lar¬
ger iflands of the Indian ocean, or on the neighbour¬
ing continent, are common in this ifland.
Ceylon abounds in all the vegetables and fruits which
are found within the tropical regions. But among the
vegetable productions of Ceylon, the moft valuable,
and what may be reckoned the ftaple comm®dity of
the ifland, is the cinnamon.
The principal woods, or gardens, as they are called,
where the cinnamon is procured, lie in the neighbour¬
hood of Columbo. The grand garden near the town
is fo extenfive as to occupy a trad! of country from 10
to 15 miles in length, and ftretching along from the
north-eaft to the fouth of the diftriCt. Nature has here
concentrated both the beauty and the riches of the
ifland. Nothing can be more delightful to the eye
than the profpect which ftretches around Columbo.
’I he low cinnamon trees which cover the plain allow
the view to reach the groves of evergreens, interfper-
fied with tall clumps, and bounded everywhere wTith
ek ten five ranges of cocoa-nut and other large trees.
The whole is diverfified with fmall lakes and green
jnarfhes, fkirtcd all around with rice and pafture fields.
In one part the intertwining cinnamon trees appear
-completely to clothe the face of the plain ; in another,
the openings made by the interfering footpaths juft
ferve to fliew that the thick underwood has been pene- Ceylon,
trated. '—y—
The foil belt adapted for the growth of the cinna¬
mon is a loofe white fand. Such is the foil of the cin¬
namon gardens around Columbo, as well as in many
parts around Nigumbo and Caltura, where this fpice is
found of the fame fuperior quality. Of late years little
is procured from the interior; and what is brought
thence is coarfer and thicker in the appearance, and of
a hot pungent tafte.
As this fpice conftitutes the wealth of Ceylon, great
pains are taken to afcertain its quality, and to propa¬
gate the choiceft kinds. The prime fort, and that
which grows in the gardens around Columbo, is pro¬
cured from the laurus cinnamomum. This is a tree of
a fmall fize, from four to ten feet in height : the trunk
is {lender, and like feveral of our ftirubs, a number of
branches and twigs (hoot out from it on every fide.
The wmod is foft, light, and porous, in appearance
much refembling that of our ofier j and when barked
it is chiefly fit for fuel, to which ufe it is commonly
converted. It is, however, fometimes fawed inter
planks, and manufa&ured into caddies and other pieces
of furniture j but its feent does not fecure it from the
attacks of the worms.
The cinnamon tree produces a fpecies of fruit refem¬
bling an acorn, but not fo large, which ripens a- '
bout the latter end of autumn, and is gathered by the
natives for the purpofe of extrafting the oil. The
procefs they employ is to bruife the fruit, boil it, and
fldm off the oil: this they ufe for their hair and body
on great occafions, and alfo for burning in their lamps.
When mixed with cocoa-nut oil, it gives extremely
good light. The kings of Candy ufe it for this pur¬
pofe, and formerly commanded their fubjefts to bring
them a certain quantity as a yearly tribute. When
any ambaffadors are fent to thefe princes, they always
burn this oil during the time of audience.
The pearl-filhery in the bay of Condatchy, during
the feafon, exhibits one of the moft interefting feenes
in Ceylon. The banks, where it is carried on, ex¬
tend feveral miles along the coaft from Manaar fouth-
ward, off Arippo, Condatchy, and Pomparipo. The
principal bank is oppofite to Condatchy, and lies out
at fea about 20 miles. The firft ftep, previous to the
commencement of the fiihery, is to have the different
oyfter banks furveyed, the ftate of the oyfters afcer¬
tained, and a report made on the fubjeft to govern¬
ment. If it has been found that the quantity is fuffi-
cient, and that they are arrived at a proper degree of
maturity, the particular banks to be fiftied that year
are put up for fale to the higheft bidder, and are ufual¬
ly purchafed by a black merchant. Government fome¬
times judges it more advantageous to fifli the banks on
its own account, and to difpofe of the pearls after¬
wards to the merchants. When this plan is adopted,
boats are hired for the feafon on account of govern¬
ment, from different quarters j the price varies confi-
derably, according to circumftances j but is ufually
from 500 to 800 pagodas for each boat.
..As neither the feafon, nor the convenience of the
perfons attending, would permit the whole of the banks
to be fiftied in one year, they are divided into three or
four different portions, which are fiflied one portion
annually in fucceffion. The different portions are
completely diftinft, and are fet up feparately to fale,
& Z 2 each
C E Y
Ceylon, each in the year in which it is to be filhed.
means a fufficient interval is given to the oyllers, to
attain their proper growth j and as the portion firft
ufed has generally recovered its maturity by the time
the laft portion has been filhed, the filhery becomes al-
mofl regularly annual, and may thus be confidered as
yielding a yearly revenue. The oyfters are fuppofed
to attain their complete!! fiate of maturity in feven
years ; for, if left too long, it is faid that the pearl
becomes fo large and inconvenient to the filh, that it
throws it out of the Ihell.
The filhing feafon commences in February, and ends
about the beginning of April. The period allowed to
the merchant to filh the banks is fix weeks, or two
months at the utmoft •, but there are feyeral interrup¬
tions, which prevent the filhing days from exceeding
more than about thirty. If it happens to be a very
bad feafon, and many llormy days intervene during
the period allotted, the purchafer of the filhery is of¬
ten allowed a few days more as a favour.
During the feafon, all the boats regularly fail and
return together. A fignal gun is fired at Arippo,
about ten o’clock at night, when the whole fleet lets
fail with the land breeze* They reach the banks be¬
fore daybreak ; and at funrife commence fifhing. In
this they continue bufily occupied till the fea breeze,
which arifes about noon, warns them to return to the
bay. As foon as they appear within fight, another
gun is fired, and the colours hoilled, to inform the
anxious owners of their return. When the boats come
to land, their cargoes are immediately taken out, as it
is neceffary to'have them completely unloaded before
night. Whatever may have been the fuccefs of their
boats, the owners feldom wear the looks of difappoint-
ment ; for, although they may have been unfuccefsful
one day, they look with the mod complete affurance
of better fortune to the next •, as the Brahmins and
conjurers, whom they implicitly trud in defiance of
all experience, underdand too well the liberality of a
man in hopes of good fortune, not to promife them all
they can delire.
Each of the boats carries 20 men, with a tindal or
chief boatman, wTo a£!s as pilot. Ten of the men
row and alhd the divers in re-afcending. The other
ten are divers $ they go down into the fea by five at a
time ; when the fird five come up the other five go
down, and by this method of alternately diving, they
give each other time to recruit themfelves for a frefli
plunge.
In order to accelerate the defcent of the divers, large
Hones are employed : five of thefe are brought in each
boat for the purpofe; they are of a reddiih granite,
common in this country, and of a pyramidal lhape,
round at top and bottom, wuth a hole perforated
through the fmaller end fufficient to admit a rope.
Some of the divers ufe a done draped like a half-moon,
which they faden round the belly when they mean to
defcend, and thus keep their feet free.
Thefe people are accudomed to dive from their ve¬
ry infancy, and fearlefsly defcend to the bottom in
from four to ten ff. thorn water, in fearch of the cy¬
ders. The diver, when he is about to plunge, feizes
the rope, to wffiich one of the dones we have defcribed
is attached, with the toes of his right foot, while he
takes hold of a bag of net-work with thofe of his left 3
it being cudomary among all the Indians to ufe their
[ 364 ] C E Y
By this toes in working or holding as well as their fingers, and Ceylon,
fuch is the power of habit that they can pick up even “111
the (mailed thing from the ground wuth their toes as
nimbly as an European could do with his fingers. The
diver thus prepared, feizes another rope with his right
hand, and holding his nodrils Ihut with the left, plun¬
ges into the water, and by the affidance of the done
fpeedily reaches the bottom. He then hangs the net
round his neck, and with much dextexity, and all pof-
fible defpatch, collects as many oyders as he can while
he is able to remain under water, which is ufually
about two minutes. He then refumes his former pofi-
tion, makes a fignal to thofe above by pulling the rope
in his right hand, and is immediately by this means
drawn up and brought into the boat, leaving the done
to be pulled up aftenvards by the rope attached to it.
The exertion undergone during this procefs is fo vio¬
lent, that upon being brought into the boat, the divers
difcharge w'ater from their mouth, ears, and nodrils,
and frequently even blood. But this does not hinder
them from going down again in their turn. They will
often make from 40 to 50 plunges in one day 3 and at
each plunge bring up about 100 oyders. Some rub
their bodies over with oil, and duff their ears and
nofes to prevent the water from entering 3 while others
ufe no precautions wffiatever. Although the ufual
time of remaining under water does not much exceed
two minutes, yet there ai'e inftances known of divers
who could remain four and even five minutes. The
longed indance ever knoxvn w7as that of a diver w ho
came from Anjango in 1797, and who abfolutely re¬
mained under water full fix minutes.
The boat-owmers and merchants are very apt to lofe
many of the bed pearls while the boats are on their re¬
turn to the bay from the banks, as the oyders when
alive and left for fome time undidurbed frequently
open their Oiells of their own accord : a pearl may
then be eafily difcovered, and the oyder prevented by
means of a bit of grafs or foft w7ood fi-om again doling
its Ihell, till an opportunity offers of picking out the
pearl, 7'hofe fellows who are employed to fearch
among the fidi alfo commit many depredations, and
even fwalloxv the pearls to conceal them 5 when this is
fufpedfed, the plan followed by the merchants is to
lock the fellows up, and give them drong emetics and
purgatives, which have frequently the effedt of difco-
vering the dolen goods.
As foon as the oyders are taken out of the boats,
they are carried by the different people to whom they
belong and placed in holes or pits dug in the ground
to the depth of about two feet, or in ifnall fquare pla¬
ces cleared and fenced round for the purpofe 3 each
perfon having his own feparate divifion. Mats are
fpread below them to prevent the oyders from touch¬
ing the earth 3 and here they are left to die and rot.
As foon as they have paffed through a date of putre-
fadlion, and have become dry, they are eafily opened
without any danger of injuring the pearls, which might
be the cafe if they were opened frefn, as at that time
to do fo requires great force. On the Ihell being
opened, the oyder is minutely examined for the pearls :
it is ufual even to boil the oyder, as the pearl, though
commonly found in the Ihell, is not unfrequently con¬
tained in the body of the fidr itfelf.
The pearls found at this fidxery are of a whiter co¬
lour than thofe got in the gulf of Ormus on the Ara-
biasv
Ctvfon.
C E Y [ 365 1 C
bian coaft, but in other refpe&s are not accounted fo be feized upon by mrprife.
I pure or of fuch an excellent quality j for though the
white pearls are more efleemed in Europe, the natives
prefer thofe of a yellowifh or golden call. Off Tutu-
coreen, which lies, on the Coromandel coaft, nearly
oppofite to Condatchy, there is another fifhery } but
the pearls found there are much inferior to the two
ipecies now mentioned, being tainted with a blue or
grayifti tinge.
In preparing the pearls, particularly in drilling- and
ftringing them, the black people are wonderfully ex¬
pert. The inftrument they employ in drilling, is a
machine made of wood, and of a fhape relembling an
obtufe inverted cone, about fix inches in length, and four
in breadth, which is fupported upon three feet, ,each 12
inches long. In the upper flat furface of this machine,
holes or pits are formed to receive the larger pearls,
the fmaller ones being beaten in with a little wooden
hammer. The drilling mftruments are fpindles of va¬
rious fizes according to that of the pearls } they are
turned round in a wooden head by means of a bow
handle to which-they are attached. The pearls being
placed in the pits which we have already mentioned,
and the point of the fpindle adjufted to them, the work¬
man preffes on the wooden head of the machine with
his left hand, while his right is employed in turning
round the bow handle. During the procefs of dril¬
ling, he occafionally moiftens the pearl by dipping the
little finger of his right hand in a cocoa-nut filled with
water which is placed by him for that purpofe } this
he does with a dexterity and quicknefs which fcarcely
impedes the operation, and can only be acquired by
much pradlice.
They have alfo a variety of other inftruments, both
for cutting and drilling the pearls. To clean, round,
and polifli them to that ftate in which we fee them, a
powder made of the pearls themfelves is employed.
Thefe different operations in preparing the pearls oc¬
cupy a great number of the black men in various parts
of the iiland. In the black town of Columbo, in par¬
ticular, many of them may every day be feen at this
work.
Putallom is remarkable for its falt-pans. This place
before the arrival of Europeans on the ifland, fupplied
the natives with fait', and on account of its convenient
fituation, was pitched upon by the Dutch for manu-
fadluring the fait with which they fupplied the king of
Candy’s dominions, according to the articles of their trea¬
ty with him. The falt-pans are formed by an arm of
the fea which overflows part of the country between
Putallom and Calpenteen. A very large quantity of
fait was manufa&ured here by the Dutch •, they look¬
ed upon it as of the higheft importance to their in-
terefts in the ifland, and the moft formidable weapon
which it was in their power to employ againft the na¬
tive king, as it was impofiible for him to procure any
but through their means. The Dutch enabled fevere
laws to prevent individuals from manufafturing or trad¬
ing in this article, the government taking upon itfelf
the management of the works and the care of fupply-
ing both its own fubjefls and the Candians. In order
to keep a conftant check on the latter, the Dutch were
careful not to allow them too great a quantity at oncej
and whatever remained at Putallom after fupplying the
demands of each year they deftroyed, that it might not
H JE
ut .-.-r  this manufa£fure has Chace
been greatly negle&ed, it is find, fince the ifland came C|1JEronea.
into the poffeflion of the Britifh.
CHACE. See Chase.
CHACO, a large country of South America, fitua-
ted between 19° and 370 S. Lat. It belongs to the
Spaniards, by whom it was conquered in 1536. It. is
not naturally fruitful 5 but abounds in gold mines, which
are fo much the more valuable that they are eafily
wmrked. The works are carried on by about 8c^O
blacks, who deliver every day to their mafters a cer¬
tain quantity of gold; and what they c^n colleft
above this belongs to themfelves j as well as what
they find on thofe days that are confecrated to religion
and reftj upon condition that during the feftival they
maintain themfelves. This enables many of them to
purchafe their liberty ; after which they intermarry
with the Spaniards.
CHADCHOD, in Jewifli antiquity. Ezekiel men¬
tions chadchod among the feveral merchandifes which
were brought to Tyre. The old interpreters, not
very well knowing the meaning of this term, conti¬
nued it in their tranflation. St Jerome acknowledges
that he could not difcover the interpretation of it.
The Chaldee interprets it pearls j others think that the
onyx, ruby, carbuncle, cryftal, or diamond, is meant
by it.
CHALRONE A, in Ancient Geography, the laft town,,
or rather the laft village, of Bceotia, towards Phocis; the
birth place of Plutarch j famous for the fatal defeat^ of
the confederate Greeks by Philip of Macedon. T. his
place was confidered by Philip as well adapted to the
operations of the Macedonian phalanx j and the gtound
for his encampment, and afterwards the field of battle,
were chofen with equal fagacity •, having in view7 on
one fide a temple of Hercules, whom the Macedonians
regarded as the author of their royal houfe, and the
high protestor of their fortune j and on the otner the
banks of the Thermodon, a fmall river flowdng into
the Cephiffus, announced by the oracles of Greece as
the deftined fcene of delolation and woe to their unhap¬
py country. The generals of the confederate Greeks
had been much lefs careful to avail themfelves of the
powerful fanaions of fuperftition. Unreftrained by
inaufpicious facrifices, the Athenians had left the city
at the exhortation of Demofthenes, to wrait no other
omen but the caufe of their country. .Regardlefs of
oracles, they afterwards advanced to the ill fated 1 her-
modon, accompanied by the I hebans, and the fcanty
reinforcements railed by the iflands and ftates of Pelo-
ponnefus wdiich had joined their alliance. Their army
amounted to 30,000 men, animated by the nobleft
caufe for which men can fight, but commanded by the
Athenians Lyficles and Chares *, the firft but little, and
the fecond unfavourably, known ; and by T heagenes
the Theban, a perfon ftrongly fufpeaed of treachery :
all three creatures of cabal and tools of fadlion, flaves
of intereft or voluptuoufnefs, w’hofe chara£lers (efpe-
cially as they had been appointed to command the only
ftates whofe ftiame, rather than virtue, yet oppofed the
public enemy) are alone fufficient to prove that Greece
w7as ripe for ruin.
When the day approached for abolifhing the totter¬
ing independence of thofe turbulent republics, .which
their own internal vices, and the arms and intrigues of
Phllln
C H iE [ 366 ]
Cii.eronea.^ Philip, had been gradually undermining for 2 2 years, folemn curfe
both armies formed in battle array before the rifing of
the fun. The right wing of the Macedonians was
headed by Philip, who judged proper to oppofe in
Perlon the dangerous fury of the Athenians. His fon
Alexander, only ig years of age, but lurrounded by
expeiienced officers, commanded the left wing, which
faced the Sacred Band of the Thebans. The auxi¬
liaries of either army were polled in the centre. In
the beginning of the aflion, the Athenians charged
C H A
Vv iln impetuofity, and repelled the oppoling divilions
of the enemy 5 but the youthful ardour of Alexander
obliged the Thebans to retire, the Sacred Band being
cut down to a man. The young prince completed their
diforder, by purfuing the fcattered multitude with his
Theflalian cavalry.
Meantime the Athenian generals, too much elated
with their firlt advantage, loft the opportunity to im¬
prove it j for having repelled the centre and right wing
of the Macedonians, except the phalanx, which was
compofed of chofen men, and immediately commanded
by the king, they, inftead of attempting to break this
formidable body by attacking it in flank, preffed for¬
ward . again!! .the .fugitives, the infolent Lyficles ex¬
claiming in vain triumph, “ Purfue, my brave country¬
men ! let us drive the cowards to Macedon.” Philip ob-
i'erved this raffi folly with contempt 5 and faying to
thofe around him, “ Our enemies know not how to con¬
quer,. commanded his phalanx, by a rapid evolution,
to gain an adjacent eminence, from which they poured
down, firm and collefted, on the advancing Athenians,
whofe confidence of fuccefs had rendered them totally
infenfible to danger. But the irrefiftible Ihock of the
Macedonian fpear converted their fury into defpair.
Above a thoufand fell, two thoufand wrere taken pri-
foners j the reft efcaped by a precipitate and lhameful
flight. Of the Thebans more were killed than taken.
Few of the confederates perilhed, as they had little
Ihaie in the aflion, and as Philip, perceiving his vic¬
tory to.be complete, gave orders to fpare the vanquilh-
ed, with a clemency unufual in that age, and not lefs
honourable to his underftanding than his heart; fince
his humanity thus fubdued the minds, and gained the
affections of his conquered enemies.
According to the Grecian cuftom, the battle was
followed by an entertainment ; at which the king pre-
fiding in perfon, received the congratulations of his
.nends, and the humble fupplications of the Athenian
deputies, who craved the bodies of their flain. Their
requeft, which ferved as an acknowledgment of their
dereat was readily granted 5 but before they availed
themfelves of the permiffion to carry off their dead,
J huip, who with his natural intemperance had pro¬
tracted, the. entertainment till morning, iffued forth
with his licentious companions to vifit the field of
battie j. their heads crowned with feftive garlands their
minds intoxicated with the infolence of wine and vie-
tory: yet the fight of the flaughtered Thebans, which
firlf prefented itfelf to their eyes, and particularly the
iacred band of friends and lovers, who lay covered with
honourable wounds on the fpot where they had been
drawn up to fight, brought back thefe infolent fpeda-
tors to the fentiments of reafon and humanity. Philip
beheld the awful feene with a mixture of admiration
and pity ; and, after an affeCting filence, denounced a
again!! thofe who bafely fufpeC!ed the Chteronea
friendfhip of fuch brave men to be tainted with crimi- IJ
nal and infamous paflions. Chaff-cut-
But this ferious temper of mind did not laft long ;» .
for having proceeded to that quarter of the field where
tne Athenians had fought and fallen, the king aban¬
doned himfelf to all the levity and littlenefs of the moft
petulant joy. Inftead of being impreffed with a deep
ienle of his recent danger, and with dutiful gratitude
to Heaven for the happinefs of his efcape, and the
importance of his viClory, Philip only compared the
boaftful pretenfions witli the mean performances of
his Athenian enemies ; and, ftruck by this contra!!, re-
hearfed, with the infolent mockery of a buffoon,’the
pompous declaration of war lately drawn up by the ar-
dent patriotifm and too fanguine hopes of Demo-
fthenes. It was on this occafion that the orator De-
mades at once rebuked the folly, and flattered the am¬
bition, of Philip, by alking him, Why he affumed the
charaCIer of Therfites when fortune afligned him the
part of Agamemnon ?
Whatever might be the effeC! of this ftiarp reprimand,
it is certain that the king of Macedon indulged not, on
any future .occafion, a vain triumph over the vanquiihed.
When advifed by his generals to advance into Attica,
and to render himfelf matter of Athens, he only re¬
plied, “ Have I done fo much for glory, and fliall I
deftroy the theatre of that glory ?” Plis fubfequent
conduC! correfponded with the moderation of this
fentiment. He reftored without ranfom the Athe¬
nian prifoners j who, at departing, having demanded
their baggage, were alfo gratified in this particular;
the king pleafantly obferving, that the Athenians
Jeemed to think he had not conquered them in earneft.
Soon afterwards he difpatched his fon Alexander, and
Antipater the moft trufted of his minifters, to offer
them peace on fuch favourable terms as they had little
reafon to expe£l. They were required to fend depu¬
ties to the ifthmus of Corinth, where, to adjuft their
refpedlive contingents of troops for the Perfian expe¬
dition, Philip purpofed affembling early in the fpring
a general convention of all the Grecian ftates : they
■were ordered to furrender the i!le of Samos, which
aftually formed the principal llation of their fleet, and
the main bulwark and defence of all their maritime or
infular poffeffions j but they were allowed to enjoy, un-
molefted, the Attic territory, with their hereditary
form of government.
CHiEROPHYLLUM, chervil. See Botany
Index.
CHAZTODON. See Ichthyology Index. This
fifh is a native of the Eall Indies, where it frequents
the fides of the fea and rivers in fearch of food 5 from
its Angular manner of obtaining which it receives its
name.. When it fpies a fly fitting on the plants that
grow in fhallow water, it fwims to the dillance of four,
five., or fix feet 5 and then, with a furprifing dexterity,
it ejefts out of its tubular mouth a Angle drop of wa¬
ter, which never fails linking the fly into the water,
where it foon becomes its prey.
CHAFF, in Hujbandry, the hufks of the corn, fe-
parated by fereening or winnowing it. It fignifies al¬
fo the rind of corn, and ftraw cut fmall for the ufe of
cattle.
C a At t-Cutter} a machine for making chaff to feed
horfes.
C H A [ 367 1 C H A
Chaff-cut- hories.—The advantages of an eafy and expeditious
ter method of cutting draw into chaff, by an engine
I! which could be ufed by common labourers have been
. Ch-Tory. ^ jong acknowledged j and various attempts have been
made to bring fuch an engine to perfection. But the
objections to molt of them have been their compli¬
cated ItruCture, their great price, and the noile they
make in working ; all which inconveniences feem to
have been lately removed by an invention of Mr James
Pike watchmaker at Newton Abbot in Devonlhire.
Of his engine, which is of a limple and cheap con-
ftruCtion, the following defcription, and figure refer¬
red to, are extracted from the TranfaCtions of the So¬
ciety of Arts, for 1787.
The engine is fixed on a wooden frame, which is fup-
ported with four legs, and on this frame is a box for
containing the ftrawr, four feet fix inches long •, and
about ten inches broad •, at one end is fixed acrofs the
box tw'o rollers inlaid with iron, in a diagonal line
about an eighth of an inch above the furface ; on the
ends of thefe rollers are fixed tw-o Itrong brafs wheels,
which takes one into the other. On one of thefe
wheels is a contraCl wheel, whofe teeth take in a worm
on a large arbor ; on the end of this arbor is fixed
a wooden wheel, two feet five inches diameter and three
inches thick ; on the inlide part of this wheel is fixed
a knife, and every revolution of the wheel the knife
paffes before the end of the box and cuts the chaff,
which is brought forward between the rollers, which
are about tw’o inches and a half afunder •, the ftraw is
brought on by the w7orm taking one tooth of the
wheel every round of the knife *, the ftraw being fo
hard preifed between the rollers, the knife cuts off the
chaff with fo great eafe, that 22 buihels can be cut
within the hour, and makes no more noife than is caufed
by the knife pafting through the chaff.
Plate A is the box into which the ftraw is put. B, the
CXXXVII upper roller, with its diagonal projeCling ribs of iron,
the whole moving by the revolution of the brafs wheel
C on the axis of which it is fixed. D, a brafs wheel,
having upon it a face wheel, whofe teeth take into the
endlefs fcrew on the arbor E, wdrile the teeth on the
edge of this wheel enter between thofe on the edge of
the wheel C. On the axis of the wheel D is a roller,
with iron ribs fimilar to B, but hid within the box.
E, the arbor, one of the ends of which being made
fquare and pafllng through a mortife in the centre of
the wooden wheel F, is faftened by a ftrong fcrew and
nut; the other end of this arbor moves round in a hole
within the wooden block G. H, the knife, made faft
by fcrews to the wrooden wheel F, and kept at the di-
ftance of nearly three quarters of an inch from it by
means of a ftrip of wood of that thicknefs, of the form
of the blade, and reaching to wdtbin an inch of the
edge. /, the handle mortifed into the outfide of the
wooden wheel F.
CHAFFER, in Zoo/ogy, a fpecies of beetle. See
Scarab^us, Entomology Index.
CHAFFERCONNERS, in commerce, printed li¬
nens manufaftured in the Great Mogul’s dominions.
They are imported by the way of Surat, and are of
the number of thofe linens prohibited in France.
CHAFFERY, in the iron works, the name of one
of the two principal forges. The other is called the
finery. When the iron has been brought at the fi¬
nery into wrhat is called an ancony, or fquare mafs, Chaffinch
hammered into a bar in its middle, but with its two
ends rough, the bufinefs to be done at the chaffery is , 'J‘u
the reducing the whole to the fame fhape, by ham¬
mering down thefe rough ends to the ftiape of the
middle part.
CHAFFINCH, the Engliih name of a fpecies of
Fringilla. See Ornithology Index.
CHAGRE, a fort of America, in the province of
Darien, at the mouth of a river of the fame name. It
has been taken faveral times by the Bucamers, and
laft of all by Admiral Vernon in 1740. W. Long.
82. 7. N. Lat, 9. 50.
CHAIN [Catena), a feries of feveral rings, or links,
fitted into one another.
There are chains of divers matters, fizes, forms, and
for divers ufes.—Ports, rivers, ftreets, &c. are clofed
with iron chains : rebellious cities are punilhed by ta¬
king awray their chains and barriers.
The arms of the kingdom of Navarre are, Chains
Or, in a field of Gules. The occalkm hereof is referred
to the kings of Spain leagued againft the Moors j
who having gained a celebrated vidtory againft them
in 1212, in the diftribution of the fpoils the magni¬
ficent tent of Miralmumin fell to the king of Navarre,
as being the firft that broke and forced the chains
thereof.
A gold Chain is one of the ornaments or badges
of the dignity of the chief magiftrates of a city, as the
mayor of London, the provoft and bailies of Edin¬
burgh, &.c.—Something like this obtained among the
ancient Gauls : the principal ornament of their per-
fons in pow7er and authority was a gold chain, which
they wore on all occafions 5 and even in battle, to di-
ftinguifh them from the common foldiers.
Chain alfo denotes a kind of firing, of twifted
wire ; ferving to hang watches, tweezer cafes, and
other valuable toys upon. The invention of this piece
of curious work is owdng to the Englifh ; whence, in
foreign countries, it is denominated the Englifh chain.
Thefe chains are ufually either of filver or gold, fome
of gilt copper ; the thread or wire of each kind to
be very fine.—For the fabric, or making of thefe
chains ; a part of the wire is folded into little links of
an oval form ; the longeft diameter about three lines j
the ftiorteft one. Thefe, after they have been exadlly
fodered, are again folded into two ; and then bound
together or interwoven, by means of feveral other little
threads of the fame thicknefs j fome w7hereof, which
pafs from one end to the other, imitate the warp of a
fluff; and the others, which pafs tranfverfe, the woof.
There are at leaft four thoufand little links in a chain
of four pendants ; which are by this means bound fo
equally, and wuthal fo firmly together, that the eye is
deceived, and takes the whole to confift of one entire
piece.
Chain is alfo a kind of meafure in France, in the
trade of wood for fuel. There are chains for wood
by tale, for wood by the rope, for faggots, for cleft
wood, and for round flicks. There are alfo chains
for meafuring the fheaves of all forts of corn, particu¬
larly with regard to the payment of tithes; for mea¬
furing pottles of hay, and for meafuring horfes. All
thefe are divided into feet, inches, hands, &cc. accord¬
ing to the ufe they are defigned for.
Chain
C H A [ 368 ] C H A
•■drains. Chain, in furveying, is a meafure, confining of a
certain number of links of iron wire, ufually a hun¬
dred ; ferving to take the dimenfions of fields, &c.
This is what Merfenne takes to be the arvipendium of
the ancients.
The chain is of various dimenfions, as the length or
number of links varies ; that commonly ufed in mea-
furing land, called Gunter’s chain, is in length four
poles or perches j or fixty-fix feet, or a hundred links;
each link being feven inches -/oV Whence it is eafy
to reduce any number of thofe links to feet, or any
number of feet to links.
This chain is entirely adapted to Engliih meafures ;
and its chief convenience is in finding readily the num¬
bers contained in a given field. Where the propor¬
tions of fquare feet and acres differ, the chain, to have
the fame advantages as Gunter’s chain, muft alfo be
varied. Thus, in Scotland, the chain ought to be of
74 feet, or 24 Scotch ells, if no regard be had to the
difference between the Scotch and Englifh foot; but
if regard be had to this difference, the Scotch chain
ought to confift of 74f- Englifh feet, or 74 feet four
inches and 4 °f an ir*ch. This chain being divided
into an hundred links, each of thefe will be
inches.
That ordinarily ufed for large diflances, is in length
100 feet ; each link one foot. For fmall parcels, as
gardens, &c. is fometimes ufed a fmall chain of one
pole, or 16 feet and a half length; each link one
inch t9oV
Some in lieu of chains ufe ropes ; but thefe are
liable to feveral irregularities, both from the different
degrees of moifture, and of the force which ftretches
them. Schwenterus, in his Pra&ical Geometry, tells
us, he has obferved a rope fixteen feet long reduced
to fifteen in an hour’s time, by the mere falling of a
hoar froft. To obviate thefe inconveniences, Wolfius
directs, that the little Itrands whereof the rope confifts
be twilled contrariwdfe, and the rope dipped in boil¬
ing hot oil, and when dry, drawn through melted
wax. A rope thus prepared will not get or lofe
any thing in length, even though kept under water
all day.
Chain Pump. See Pump.
Chain Shot, two bullets with a chain between them.
They are ufed at fea to fhoot down yards or mails,
and to cut the fhrouds or digging of a fhip.
Top Chain, on board a fhip, a chain to fling the
fail yards in time of battle, in order to prevent them
from falling down when the ropes by which they are
hung happen to be fhot awray or rendered incapable
p, t of fervice.
CXXXVII Chain Wales,, or Channels, of a fhip, (porteboijjbirs),
are broad and thick planks projecting horizontally from
the fliip’s outfide, abreatl of and fomewhat behind
the mails. They are formed to extend the fhrouds
from each other, and from the axis or middle line of
the fhip, fo as to give a greater fecurity and fupport
to the mails, as well as to prevent the fhrouds from
damaging the gunwale, or being hurt by rubbing
againft it. Every mail has its chain whales, wdiich are
either built above or below the fecond deck ports in
a fhip of the line ; they are ftrongly conneCled to the
f de by knees, bolts, and flandards, befides being con-
,2
fined thereto by the chains, wkofe upper ends pafs Chain*
through notches on the outer edge of the chain wales, !l
fo as to unite with the fhrouds above. . c^a'r*
Chains, in Ship-Building, are flrong links or plates
of iron, the lower ends of which are bolted through
the fliip’s fide to the timbers.
Hanging in Chains, a kind of punifhment inflicted
on murderers. By flat. 25. Geo. II. c. 37. the judge
fliall direCl fuch to be executed on the next day but
one, unlefs Sunday intervene ; and their bodies to be
delivered to the furgeons to be difi'eCled and anato¬
mized : and he may direft them afterwards to be hung
in chains. During the interval between fentence and
execution, the prifoner fhall be kept alone, and fu-
flained only with bread and water. Tbp judge, howr-
ever, hath power to refpite the execution, and relax
the other reflraints of the aft.
Chain IJland, an ifland lately difcovered by Captain
Wallis in the South fea. It feemed to be about five
miles long and as much broad, lying in the direftion
of north-weft and fouth-eaft. It appeared to be a
double range of woody iflands joined together by
reefs, fo as to compofe one ifland of an oval figure,
with a lake in the middle. The trees are large, and
from the fmoke that iffued from the woods, it ap¬
peared to be inhabited. W. Long. 145. 54. S. Lat.
17- 23-
CHAJOTLI, or Chayoti, a Mexican fruit of a
round fhape, and fimilar in the hulk with which it is
covered to the chefnut, but four or five times larger,
and of a much deeper green colour. Its kernel is of
a greenifh white, and has a large ftone in the middle,
which is white, and like it in fubflance. It is boiled^
and the ftone eaten with it. This fruit is produced by
a twining perennial plant, the root of which is alfo
good to eat.
CHAIR, (Cathedra'), wTas anciently ufed for the
pulpit, or fuggeflum, whence the prieft fpoke to the
people.
It is flill applied to the place where profeffors and
regents in univerfities deliver their leftures, and teach
the fciences to their pupils ; thus, we fay, the profef-
for’s chair, the doftor’s chair, &c.
Curule Chair, was an ivory feat placed on a car,
wherein were feated the prime magiftrates of Rome,
and thofe to whom the honour of a triumph had been
granted.
Sedan Chair, a vehicle fupported by poles, wherein
perfons are carried ; borne by two men. There are
200 chairs allowed by aft of parliament: and no per-
fon is obliged to pay for a hackney chair more than
the rate allowed by the aft for a hackney coach driven
two-third parts of the faid diflance. 9. Ann. c. 23. §
8. Their number is fince increafed by 10 Ann. c. 19.
and 12 Geo. I. c. 12. to 400. See Hackney Coaches.
Chair is alfo applied by the Romanifts to certain
feafts, held anciently in commemoration of the tranf-
latien of the fee, or feat of the vicarage of Chrift, by
St Peter.
The perforated chair, wherein the new elefted pope
is placed, F. Mabillon obferves, is to be feen at
Rome : but the origin thereof he does not attribute,
as is commonly done, to the adventure of Pope
Joan ; but fays there is a my fiery in it; and it is in¬
tended,
C H A
[ 369 ]
C H A
Chairman tended, forfooth, to explain to the pope thofe words
of Scripture, that God draws the poor from out of the
dujl and mire.
CHAIRMAN, the prefident, or fpeaker of an
aflfembly, company, &c. We fay, the chairman of a
committee, &c.
CHAISE, a fort of light open chariot, or calafh.
Aurelius Viftor relates, that Trajan firft introduced
the ufe of poll chaifes j but the invention is generally
afcribed to Auguftus j and was probably only impro¬
ved by Trajan and fucceeding emperors.
CHALAZA, among naturalifts, a white knotty
fort of a firing at each end of an egg, formed of a
plexus of the fibres of the membranes, whereby the
yolk and white are conneHed together. See Egg.
CHALCAS. See Botany Index.
CHALCEDON, or Calcedon, anciently known
by the names of Procerajiis and Colbufa ; a city of Bi-
thynia, fituated at the mouth of the Euxine, on the
north extremity of the Thracian Bofphorus, over againfi
Byzantium. Pliny, Strabo, and Tacitus, call it, The
City of the Blind; alluding to the anfwer which the Py¬
thian Apollo gave to the founders of Byzantium, who,
confulting the oracle relative to a place where to build
a city, were directed to choofe that fpot, which lay
oppofite “ to the habitation of the blind j” that is, as
was then underftood, to Chalcedon : the Chalcedo-
nians well deferving that epithet for having built their
city in a barren and fandy foil, without feeing that ad¬
vantageous and pleafant fpot on the oppofite fliore,
which the Byzantines afterwards chofe.—-Chalcedon,
in the Chriftian times became famous on account of
the council which was held there againft Eutyches.
The emperor Valens caufed the walls of this city to be
levelled with the ground for fiding with Procopius, and
the materials to be conveyed to Conftantinople, where
they were employed in building the famous Valentinian
aqueduff. Chalcedon is at prefent a poor place, known
to the Greeks by its ancient name, and to the Turks
by that of Cadiaci, or, “ the judges town.”
CHALCEDONY, in Natural Hifory, a genus of
the femipellucid gems. They are of an even and re¬
gular not tabulated ftru&ure ; of a femi-opaque cryftal-
line bafis, and variegated wfith different colours j but
thofe ever difpofed in form of mifts or clouds, and, if
nicely examined, found to be ow'ing to an admixture
of various coloured earths, but imperfeflly blended in
the mafs, and often vifible in diftinfl moleculse.—It has
been doubted by fome whether the ancients were at all
acquainted with the ftone we call Chalcedony; they hav¬
ing defcribed a Chalcedonian carbuncle and emerald,
neither of which can at all agree with the characters
of our ftone ; but we are to confider that they have
alfo defcribed a Chalcedonian jafper which feems to
have been the very fame ftone as they defcribe by the
word turbida, which extremely well agrees with our
chalcedony.
There are four known fpecies of the chalcedony.
1. A bluifti white one. This is the raoft common of
all, and is found in the fhape of our flints and pebbles,
in maffes of two or three inches or more in diame¬
ter. It is of a whitifh colour, with a faint cloud of
blue diffufed all over it, but always in the greateft de¬
gree near the furface. This is a little lefs hard than
the oriental onyx. The oriental chalcedonies are the
Vou V. Part I.
only ones of any value j they are found in vaft abund- Chalcedo-
ance on the fhores of rivers in all parts of the Eaft In- ^ j11-j
dies, and frequently come over among the ballaft of ^ 11 c
the Eaft India fhips. They are common in Silefia and
Bohemia, and other parts of Europe alfo j but with
us are lefs hard, more opaque, and of very little va¬
lue. 2. The dull milky-veined chalcedony. This is
a ftone of little value j and is fometimes met with
among our lapidaries, who miftake it for a kind of ne¬
phritic ftone. It is of a fomewhat yellowifti white or
cream colour, with a few milk-white veins. This is
principally found in New Spain. 3. The third is a
brownifh, black, dull, and cloudy one, known to the
ancients by the name of fmoky jafper, or jafpis capni-
tis. This is the leaf! beautiful ftone of all the clafs :
it is of a pale brownifti white, clouded all over with a
blackifh mift, as the common chalcedony is with a
blue. It is common both in the Eaft and Weft Indies,
and in Germany j but is very little valued, and is fel-
dom worked into any thing better than the handles of
knives. 4, The yellow and red chalcedony is great¬
ly fuperior to all the reft in beauty ; and is in great
repute in Italy, though very little known among us.
It is naturally compofed of an admixture of red and
yellow only, on a clouded cryftalline bafis ; but is fome¬
times found blended with the matter of common chal¬
cedony, and then is mixed w?ith blue. It is all over
of the mifty hue of the common chalcedony. This is
found only in the Eaft Indies, and there not plentiful¬
ly. The Italians make it into beads, and call thele
cajjidonies; but they are not determinate in the ufe
of the word, but call beads of feveral of the agates
by the fame name.—All the chalcedonies readily give
fire with fteel, and make no effervefcence with aqua¬
fortis.
CHALCIDENE, or Chalcidice, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, an inland country of Syria, having Antiochia
or Seleucia to the weft, Cyrrheftica to the north, to the
fouth Apamene and Ccelofyria, and to the eaft Chaly-
bonites j being fo called from its principal city Chal-
cis. This province, one of the moft fruitful in Sy¬
ria, was feized by Ptolemy the fon of Mennaeus dur¬
ing the troubles of Syria, and by him made a fe-
parate kingdom. Ptolemy himfelf is ftyled by Jofe-
phus and Hegefippus ouly prince of Chalcis, but
his fon Lyfanias is honoured both by Jofephus and
Dio with the title of king. Upon the death of An-
tiochus Dionyfius king of Syria, Ptolemy attempted
to make himfelf marter of Damafcus and all Ccelofyria ;
but the inhabitants having an utter averfion to him
on account of his cruelty and wickedncfs, chofe rather
to fubmit to Aretas king of Arabia, by whom Antio-
chus and hiVwhole army had been cut off. He op-
pofed Pompey on his entering Syria ; but was by him
defeated, taken prifoner, and fentenced to death ^
w’hich, however, he efcaped by paying a thoufand ta¬
lents, and was left alfo in poffeflion of his kingdom:.
After Ariftobulus king of Judea had been poifoned by
the friends of Pompey, and Alexander his fon beheady
ed at Antioch, he fent Philippion his fon to Afcalon,
whither the widow of Ariftobulus had retired with her
other children, to bring them all to Chalcis j propell¬
ing, as he was in love with one of the daughters named
Alexandra, to maintain them in his qwm kingdom iu
a manner fuitabie to their rank : but Philippion like-
3 A wile
C H A [ 3/0 ] c H A
CKalcidic wife being in love with Alexandra, married her on the
II way, for which prefumption Ptolemy put him to death
t‘!ia j ^nc^' on his return, and then took her to wife. On account
t of this affinity, he fupported to the utmofl of his power
Antigonus the younger fon of Ariftobulus, who took
the field at the head of a confiderable army, but on his
entering Judaea was entirely defeated by Herod. Pto¬
lemy foon after died, and was fucceeded by his fon
Lyfanias, who efpoufing the caufe of the Afmonaean
family with great warmth, promifed to Barzapharnes
who commanded the Parthian troops in Syria, and to
Pacorus the king’s fon, a thoufand talents and five hun¬
dred women, provided they ffiould put Antigonus in
poffeffion of the kingdom of Judaea, and depofe Hyr-
canus. He was not long after put to death by Mark
Antony, at the inftigation of Cleopatra •, who, in order
to have his dominions, accufed him fafely of having
entered into an alliance with the Parthians.
CHALCIDIC, Chalcjdicum, or Chalcedoni-
um, in the ancient architeclure, a large magnificent
hail belonging to a tribunal or court of juftice. Feftus
fays, it took its name from the city Chalcis 5 but he does
not give the reafon. Philander will have it to be the
court or tribunal where affairs of money and coinage
were regulated j fo called from brafs, and «hx>j,
jujlixe. Others fav, the money was ftruck in it ; and
derive the word from and txxoj, houfe. In Vi¬
truvius, it is ufed for the auditory of a bafilica $ in
others of the ancient writers for a hall or apartment
where the heathens imagined their gods to eat.
CHALCIDICE, in Ancient Geography, an eaflern
diftridl: of Macedonia, ftretching northwards between
the Sinus Toronseus and Singiticus. Formerly a part
of Thrace, but invaded by Philip of Macedon. Named
from the city Chalcis near Olynthus.
CHALCIDIUS, a famous Platonic philofopher in
the third century, who wrote a commentary, which is
efteemed, on the Tim sens of Plato. This work has
been tranflated from the Greek into Latin.
CHALCIS,in AncierJGeographyofChalcidice.
See Chalcidice. Another of TEtolia, near the mouth
of the river Evenus, on the Ionian fea, at the foot of
a cognominal mountain •, and therefore called by fome
Hypochaltis.—Another of Euboea (Strabo), on the Eu-
ripus, the country of Lycophron the poet, one of the
feven which formed the conftellation Pleiades. Now
Negroponte. E. Long. 24. 30. Lat.38. 30.—A fourth,'
the capital of Chalcidene in Syria 5 diftinguifhed by
the fur-name ad Belum, a mountain or a river j and ad
JJbamim, from its fituation (Pliny.)
CHALCITIS, one of the divifions or diftricls of
Mefopotamia, to the fouth of Anthemufia, the moll
northern diftrift, next to Armenia, and fituated between
Edefia and Carrae. Chalcitis (Pliny), an ifland oppofite
to Chalcedon.
CHALCONDYLAS,DEMETRius,alearnedGreek,
born at Conftantinople, left that city after its being
taken by the Turks, and afterwards taught Greek in
feveral cities in Italy. He compofed a Greek gram¬
mar ; and died at Milan in 1513*
Chalcondylas, Laontcus, a famous Greek hi-
ftorian of the 15th century, was born at Athens ; and
wrote an excellent hiftory of the Turks, from Ottoman,
who reigned about the year 1300, to Mahomet II. in
H53-
CHALDEA, in Ancient Geography, taken in a Chaldea
larger fenfe, included Babylonia $ as in the prophecies II
of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. In a reftridled fenfe, it de- ^^aik.
noted a province of Babylonia, towards Arabia De- 
ferta ; called in Scripture, Tihe land of the Chaldeans.
Named from Chaled the fourth fon of Nahor. See
Babylonia.
CHALDEE language, that fpoken by the Chal¬
deans or people of Chaldea. It is a dialeft of the
Hebrew.
Chaldee Paraphrafe, in the rabbinical ftile, is called
Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrafes in
Walton’s Polyglot ; viz. that of Onkelos, that of Jo¬
nathan fon of Uzziel, and that of Jerufalem.
CHALDRON, a dry Engliffi meafure, confiding
of thirty-fix buffiels, heaped up according to the feal-
ed buffiel kept at Guildhall, London : but on fhip-
board, twenty-one chaldrons of coals are alloxved to
the fcore. The chaldron fliould weigh two thoufand
pounds.
CHALICE, the cup or veffel ufed to adminifter
the-wine in the facrament, and by the Roman Catholics
in the mafs.
The ufe of the chalice, or communicating in both
kinds, is by the church of Rome denied to the laity,
who communicate only in one kind, the clergy alone
being allowed the privilege of communicating in both
kinds.
CHALK, {Creta'), is a white earth found plentifully
in Britain, France, Norway, and other parts of Eu¬
rope, faid to have been anciently dug chiefly in the
ifland of Crete, and thence to have received its name
of Creta. They have a very eafy way of digging
chalk in the county of Kent in England. It is there
found on the fides.of hills *, and the workmen under¬
mine it fo far as appears proper j then digging a trench
at the top, as far diftant from the edge as the under¬
mining goes at bottom, they fill this with water,
which foaks through in the fpace of a night, upon
which the whole flake falls down at once. In other
parts of the kingdom, chalk generally lies deeper, and
they are forced to dig for it at confiderable depths,
and draw it up in buckets.
Chalk is of two kinds j hard-, dry, and firm, or foft
and unftuous; both of which are adapted to various
purpofes. The hard and dry kind is much the pro-
perefl for burning into lime ; but the foft and unctu¬
ous chalk is the beft for ufing as a manure for lands.
Chalk, whether burnt into lime or not, is in fome cafes
an excellent manure.
Pure chalk melts eafily with alkali and flint into a
tranfparent colourlefs glafs. With alkaline falts it
melts fome what more difficultly, and with borax feme-
what mere eafily, than with flint or fund. It requires
about half its weight of borax and its whole weight
of alkali to fufe it. Sal mirabile, and fandiver, which
do not vitrify at all with the cryftalline earths, form,
with half their weight of chalk, the firft a yel-
lowifh black, the latter a greenift), glafs. Nitre, on
the other hand, one of the moft aftive fluxes for flint,
does not perfedtly vitrify with chalk. This earth
notably promotes the vitrification of flint; a mix¬
ture of the two requiring lefs alkali than either of them
feparately. If glafs made from flint and alkali is fur¬
ther faturated with the flint, fo as to be incapable of
bearing
C H A [ 371 1 C H A
Chalk, bearing any further addition of that earth without be-
coming opaque and milky, it will ftill in a ftrong fire
take up a confiderable proportion, one-third or one-
fourth of its weight, of chalk, without injury to its
tranfparency : hence chalk is fometimes made ufe of in
compofitions for glafs, as a part of the fait may theo
be fpared. Chalk likewife has a great effeft in melt¬
ing the ftony matters intermixed with metallic ores,
and hence might be of ufe in fmelting ores; as in¬
deed limeftone is ufed for that purpofe. But it is
remarkable, that chalk, when deprived of its fixed air,
and converted into limeftone, lofes much of its difpo-
fition to vitrify. It is then found to melt very diffi¬
cultly and imperfe&ly, and to render the glafs opaque
and milky.
Chalk readily imbibes water; and hence mafles of
it are employed for drying precipitates, lakes, earthy
powders that have been levigated with water, and
other moift preparations. Its economical ufes in clean¬
ing and polifhing metalline or glafs utenfils are well
known. In this cafe it is powdered and wafhed from
any gritty matter it may contain, and is then called
whiting.—In medicine it is one of the moft ufeful ab-
forbents, and is to be looked upon limply as fuch. The
aftringent virtues which fome have attributed to it have
no foundation, unlefs in as far as the earth is faturated
xvith an acid, with which it compofes a faline concrete
manifeftly fubaftringent. For the further properties of
chalk, fee Chemistry Index.
Black Chalk, a name given by painters to a fpecies
of earth with which they draw on blue paper, &c.
It is found in pieces from two to ten feet long, and
from four inches to twenty in breadth, generally flat,
* but fomew'hat rifing in the middle, and thinner to¬
wards the edges, commonly lying in large quantities
together. While in the earth, it is moift and flaky:
but being dried, it becomes conliderably hard and
very light: but always breaks in fome particular di-
reftion ; and if attentively examined when firft broken,
appears of a ftriated texture. To the touch it is foft
and fmooth, ftains very freely, and by virtue of its
fmoothnefs makes very neat marks. It is eafily re¬
duced into an impalpable foft powder without any
diminution of its blacknefs. In this ftate it mixes
eafily with oil into a fmooth pafte *, and being dif-
fufed through water it flowly fettles in a black flimy
or muddy form ; properties which make its ufe very
convenient to the painters, both in oil and water co¬
lours. It appears to be an earth quite different from
common chalk, and rather of the flaty bituminous kind.
In the fire it becomes white with a reddifh call, and
very friable, retaining its fiakv ftru&ure, and looking
much like the white flaky mafles wdiich fome forts of
pit-coal leave in burning. Neither the chalk nor thefe
allies are at all affefled by acids.
The colour {hops are fupplied with this earth from
Italy or Germany ; though fome parts of England af¬
ford fnbftances nearly, if not entirely, of the fame qua¬
lity, and which are found to be equally ferviceable
both for marking and as black paints. Such particu¬
larly is the black earth called killow, faid by Dr Mer-
ret in his Pinax Rerum Britannicarum to be found in
Lancalhire, and by Mr DaCofta, in hisHiftoryof Foflils,
to be plentiful near the top of Cay-Avon, a high hill
in Merionethftnre.
Red Chalk, an earth much ufed by painters and ar- Ch
tificers, and common in the colour (hops. It is pro- Chal
perly an indurated clayey ochre, and is dug in Ger¬
many, Italy, Spain, and France, but in greateft quan¬
tity in Flanders. It is of a fine, even, and firm tex¬
ture ; very heavy, and very hard ; of a pale red on the
outfide, but of a deep dulky chocolate colour within.
It adheres firmly to the tongue, is perfectly infipid to
the tafte, and makes no effervelcence with acids.
Chalk Land. Barley and wheat will fucceed very
well on the better fort of chalky land, and oats gene¬
rally do well on any kind of it. The natural produce
of this fort of land in weeds, is that ibrt of fmall vetch
called the tine-tare, with poppies, may-weed, &c. Sain¬
foin and hope clover will generally fucceed tolerably
well on thefe lands; and where they are of a better
fort, the great clover will do. The bell manure is
dung, old rags, and the flieep dung left after fold¬
ing them.
CnALK-Stones, in Medicine, fignify the concretions
of calcareous matter in the hands and feet of people
violently afflifled with the gout. Leeuwenhoek has
been at the pains of examining thefe by the micro-
fcope. He divides them into three parts. The firfl:
is compofed of various fmall parcels of matter looking
like white grains of fand ; this is harder and drier, and
alfo whiter, than the reft. When examined with
large magnifiers, thofe are found to be compofed of
oblong particles laid clofely and evenly together ;;
though the wdiole fmall ftones are opaque* thefe com
ponents parts of them are pellucid, and referable pieces
of horfe hair cut ftiort, only that they are fome-
what pointed at both ends. Thefe are fo extremely
thin, that Mr Leeuwenhoek computes, that loco of
them placed together would not amount to the fize oi
one hair of our heads. The whole ftones in this harder
part of the chalk are not compofed of thefe particles,
but there are confufedly thrown in among them fome
broken parts of other fubftances, and in a fewT places
fome globules of blood and fmall remains of other
juices. The fecond kind of chalky matter is lefs hard
and lefs white than the former, and is corapofed of
fragments or irregular parts of thofe oblong bodies
which compofe the firft or hardeft kind, and thefe are
mixed among tough and clear matter, and interfperfed
with the fmall broken globules of blood difcoverable
in the former, but in much greater quantity. The
the third kind appears red to the naked eye ; and, when
examined with glafles, is found to be a more tough and
clammy white matter, in which a great number of
globules of blood are interfperfed j thefe give it the red
appearance it has.
CHALLENGE, a cartel or invitation to a duel or
other combat *. A challenge either by word or let- * See
ter, or to be the bearer of fuch a challenge, is punifh-
able by fine and imprifomnent on indictment or infor¬
mation.
Challenge, among hunters. When hounds or
beagles, at firft finding the fcei-.t of their game, pre-
fently open and cry, they are faid to challenge.
Challenge, in the Lava of England, is an excep¬
tion made to jurors f ; and is either in civil or crimi- | sce
nal cafes. article
I. In civil cafes challenges are of two forts j chal- T>W.
lenges to the array, and challenges of the poll.
3 A 2 1. Challenges
C H A
Challenge. i. Challenges to the array are at once an exception
*—^ ' to the whole panel, in which the jury are arrayed, or
fet in order by the fheriff in his return j and they may
' be made upon account of partiality or fome default in
the fheriff or his under officer who arrayed the panel.
Alfo, though there be no perfonal objedlion againft
the fherifF, if yet he arrays the panel at the nomina¬
tion, or under the direftion of either party, this is
good caafe of challenge to the array. Formerly, if a
lord of parliament had a caufe to be tried, and no
knight was returned upon the jury, it wTas a caufe of
challenge to the array : alfo by the policy of the an¬
cient law, the jury was to come de vicineto, from the
neighbourhood of the vill or place where the caufe
of a£Hon was laid in the declaration : and therefore
fome of the jury were obliged to be returned from
the hundred in which fuch vill lay; and, if none
were returned, the array might be challenged from
defe£l of hundreders. For, living in the neighbour¬
hood, thefe wrere fuppofed to know beforehand the
charafters of the parties and witnefles ; and therefore
they better knew what credit to give to the fafts al-
ledged in evidence. But this convenience was over¬
balanced by another very natural and almoft unavoid¬
able inconvenience ; that jurors, coming out of the im¬
mediate neighbourhood; would be apt to intermix
their prejudices and partialities in the trial of right.
And this the law was fo fenfible of, that it for a long
time has been gradually relinquifhing this pradlice ;
the number of neceffary hundreders in the whole pa¬
nel, which in the reign of Edward III. was conftantly
fix, being in the time of Fortefcue reduced to four;
afterwards by ftatute 26 Eliz. c. 6. to two ; and at
length, by ftatute 4 and 5 Anne, c. 16. it was en¬
tirely abolilhed upon all civil aflions, except upon pe¬
nal ftatutes; and upon thofe alfo by the 24 Geo. II.
c. 18. the jury being now only to come de corpdre co-
mitatus, from the body of the country at large, and not
de viemeto, or from the particular neighbourhood.
The array by the ancient law may alfo be challenged,
if an alien be party to the luit, and upon a rule ob-
, tained by his motion to the court for a jury de wedie-
tate linguce, fuch a one be not returned by the fherifif
purfuant to the ftatute 28 Edward III. c. 13. enforced
by 8 Hen. VI. c. 29. which enafts, that rvhere either
party is an alien born, the jury (hall be one half deni¬
zens and the other aliens (if fo many be forthcoming,
in the place), for the more impartial trial ; a privi¬
lege indulged to ftrangers in no other country in the
world ; but which is as ancient in England as the time
of King Ethelred, in whofe ftatute de monticolis Wal/ia
(then alliens to the crown of England), c. 3. it is or¬
dained, that “ duodeni legales homines, quorum fex
•‘Walli et fex Angli erunt, Anglis et Wallis ius di-
s cunto.”
2. C hallenges to the polls, in capita, are exceptions
to particular jurors ; and feem to anfwer the recufalio
judicis in the ci\il and canon laws ; by the conftitutions
of which a judge might be refufed upon any fufpi-
cion of partiality. By the laws of England alfo, in
the times of Brafton and Fleta, a judge might be re¬
fufed for good caufe ; but now the law’ is otherwife,
and it is held that judges or juftices cannot be challen¬
ged. For the law will not fuppofe a poftibility of bias
or favour in a judge who is already [worn to adminh
[ 372 ]
C H A
fter impartial juftice, and whofe authority greatly de- Challenge-
pends on that prefumption and idea. And, (hould the ^
fa<9; at any time prove flagrantly fuch, as the delicacy
of the law wall not prefume beforehand, there is no
doubt but that fuch mifbehaviour would draw' down a
heavy cenfure from thofe to whom the judge is ac¬
countable for his conduft. But challenges to the
polls of the jury (who are judges of faft) are reduced
to four heads by Sir Edward Coke : propter honoris rc-
fpcButn ; propter defeBum ; propter ajfeBum ; and prop¬
ter de/iButn. 1. Propter honoris refpeBum ; as, if a lord
of parliament be impannelled on a jury, he may be
challenged by either party, or he may challenge him-
felf. 2. Propter defeBum ; as, if a juryman be an alien
born, this is defedt of birth ; if he be a flave or bond-
man, it is defeft of liberty, and he cannot be a liber et
legalis homo. Under the word homo alfo, though a
name common to both fexes, the female is howrever ex¬
cluded, propter defeBum fexus : except when a widow
feigns herfelf with child in order to exclude the next
heir, and a fuppofititious birth is fufpedted to be in¬
tended ; then upon the writ de ventre infpiciendo, a jury
of women is to be impannelled to try the queftion
whether with child or not. But the principal deficiency
is defecl of eftate fufficient to qualify him to be a juror,
which depends upon a variety of ftatutes *. 3. Jurors* See
may be c\\2Xle.x\’gp.& propter ajfeBum, for fufpicion of bias BlactJione'-j
or partiality. This may be either a principal chal- C°mm-
lenge, or to the favour. A principal chzWenge. is fuch,*11'
where the caufe affigned carries wuth it, prima facie,
evident marks of fufpicion either of malice or favour;
as, that a juror is of kin to either party within the
ninth degree ; that he has an intereft in the caufe ; that
there is an adfion depending betw’een him and the par¬
ty ; that he has taken money for his verdidf, &c. which
if true, cannot be overruled ; for jurors muft be omni
exceptione majores. Challenges to the favour are where
the party hath no principal challenge ; but objedls only
fome probable circumftances of fulpicion, as acquaint¬
ance, and the like ; the validity of which muft be left
to the determination of triors, whofe office is to decide
whether the juror be favourable or unfavourable.
4. Challenges propter deliBum, are for fome crime or
mifdemeanour that affedts the juror’s credit, and ren¬
ders him infamous : As for a convidfion of treafon,
felony, perjury, or confpiracy ; or if for fome infamous
offence, he hath received judgment of the pillory or
the like.
II. In criminal cafes, challenges may be made either
on the part of the king, or on that of the prifoner ;
and either to the whole array, or to the feparate polls,
for the very fame reafons that they may be in civil
caufes. For it is here at lead as neceflary as there,
that the fheriff or returning officer be totally indiffer¬
ent ; that, where an alien is indidled, the jury fhould
be de medietate, or half foreigners, if fo many are found
in the place (wFich does not indeed hold in treafons;
aliens being very improper judges of the breach of al¬
legiance ; nor yet in the cafe of Egyptians under the
ftatute 22 Hen. VIII. c. jo.) ; that on every pannel
there fhould be a competent number of hundreders ;
and that the particular jurors ftiould be omni exceptione
majores, not liable to objedfions either propter honoris
refpeBum, propter defeBum, propter ajfeBum, or propter
deliBum.
Challenges
Challenge
II
Chaloner.
C H A [373
Challenges on any of the foregoing accounts are ityl
]
ed challenges for caufe ; which may be without Hint in
both civil and criminal trials. But in criminal cales,
or at leaft in capital ones, there is, in favorem vitce^ ^X-
lowed to the prifoner an arbitrary and capricious fpe-
cies of challenge to a certain number of jurors, without
fhowing any caufe at all ; which is called a peremptory
challenge : a provifion full of tendernefs and humanity
to prifoners for which our laws are juftly famous. This
is grounded on two reafons: I. As every one mull be
fenfible what fudden impreflions and unaccountable
prejudices we are apt to conceive upon the bare looks
and geftures of another ; and how neceffary it is that
a prifoner, when put to defend his life, fhould have a
good opinion of his jury, the want of which might to¬
tally difconcert him ; the law wills not that he thould
be tried by any one man againft whom he has conceiv¬
ed a prejudice even without being able to affign a rea-
fon for fuch his diflike. 2. Becaufe upon challenges
for caufe fhown, if the reafon affigned prove infuffi-
cient to fet afide the juror, perhaps the bare queftion-
ing his indifference may fometimes provoke a refent-
ment; to prevent all ill confequences from which, the
prifoner is ftill at liberty, if he pleafes, peremptorily
to fet him afide.
This privilege of peremptory challenges, though
granted to the piifoner, is denied to the king by the
ftatute 33 Edward I. flat. 4. which enadls, that the
king fliall challenge no jurors without afligning a caufe
certain to be tried and approved by the court. . How¬
ever, it is held that the king need not affign his caufe
of challenge till all the panel is gone through, and un-
lefs there cannot be a full jury without the perfons fo
challenged. And then, and not fooner, the king’s
counfel muft ffiow the caufe, otherwife the juror {hall
be fworn.
The peremptory challenges of the prifoner muff,
however, have fome reafonable boundary, otherwife
he might never be tried. This reaibnable boundary is
fettled by the common law to the number of 355 that
is, one under the number of three full juries. For the
law judges, that 35 are fully fufficient to allow the
moft timorous man to challenge through mere caprice ;
and that he who peremptorily challenges a greater
number, or three full juries, has no intention to be
tried at all. And therefore it deals with one who pe¬
remptorily challenges above 3 5, and will not retradl his
challenge, as with one who Hands mute or refufes his
trial; by fentencing him to the pein forte et dure in fe¬
lony, and by attainting him in treafon. And fo the
law Hands at this day with regard to treafon of any
kind. But by flatute 22 Hen. VIII. c. 14. (which,
with regard to felonies, Hands unrepealed), no perfon
j^pj’^j.'TY^ed for felony can be admitted to make more than
20 peremptory challenges.
CHALONS-sur-Saone, an ancient town of France,
in Burgundy, and capital of the Chalonnois, with a
citadel and bilhop’s fee. It is feated on the river
Saone, in E. Long. 5. 7. N. Lat. 46. 47.
CHALONS-Sur Marne, a large epifcopal town of
France, in Champagne. It carries on a confiderable
trade in ffialloons and other woollen flufis. It is feated
between two fine meadows on the rivers Marne, Mau,
and Nau, in E. Long. 4, 37’ Lat. 48. 5^*
CHALONER, Sir Thomas, a flatefman, foldier,
j
H A
and poet, defended from a good family in Denbigh^Cnaloror.
in Wales, was born at London about the year 1515.
Having been educated in both univerfities, but chiefiy
at Cambridge, he was introduced at the couit of Hen¬
ry VIII. who fent him abroad in the retinue of Sir
Henry Knevet, ambaffador to Charles V. and he had
the honour to attend that monarch on his fatal expedi¬
tion againH Algiers in 1541. Soon after the fleet left
that place, #he was fliipwrecked on the coafl of Bar¬
bary in a very dark night : and having exhaulted his
flrength by fwimming, he chanced to flrike his head
againH a cable, which he had the prefence of mind to
catch hold of with his teeth •, and, with the lofs of fe-
veral of them, was drawn up by it into the fhip to
which ly; belonged. Mr Chaloner returned foon after
to England, and was appointed firil clerk of the coun¬
cil, which office he held during the refl of that reign.
On the acceffion of Edward VI. he became a favourite
of the duke of Somerfet, whom he attended to Scot¬
land, and was knighted by that nobleman arter the
battle of Muffelburgh, in 1547. The proteftor’s fall
put a flop to Sir Thomas Chaloner’s expeftations, and
involved him in difficulties. During the reign of Queen
Mary, being a determined Proteflant, he was in fome
danger ; but having many powerful friends, he had the
good fortune to efcape. On the acceffion of Queen
Elizabeth, he appeared again at court ; and was fo
immediately diflinguiffied by her majefly, that Hie ap¬
pointed him ambaflador to the emperor Ferdinand I.
being the firfl ambaffador fhe nominated. His com
miffion was of great importance •, and the queen was
fo well fatisfied v'ith his conduft ; that foon after his
return, fhe fent him in the fame capacity to Spain .
but Sir Thomas was by no means fatisfied with this in-
ftance of her majefly’s confidence : the courts of Eng¬
land and Spain being at this time extremely ffiffatisfied
with each other, he forefaw that his fituation would
be very difagreeable, and fo it proved •, but Elizabeth
mufl be obeyed. He embarked for Spam in
and returned to London in 156^., in coniequence. of
a requefl to his fovereign, in an elegy written in imita¬
tion of Ovid. After his return, he refided in a houfe
built by himfelf in Clerkenwell-clofe, where he died
in the year 1565, and was buried in St Paul’s. Sur
William Cecil atfifled as chief mourner at his fu¬
neral.
So various were the talents of Sir Thomas Chaloner,
that hq excelled in every thing to which he applied
himfelf. He made a confiderable figure as a poet. His
poetical works were publiffied by William Malim, ma-
fter of St Paul’s fchooi, in 1579. His capital work
was that “ Of refloring the Englifh republic, in ten
books,” which he wrote when he was ambaffador in
Spain. It is remarkable, that this great man, who
knew how to traniadfl as w^ell as write upon the molt
important affairs of Hates and kingdoms, could defeend
to compofe a diBionary for children, and to tranflate
from the Latin a book Of the office of Servants, merely
for the utility of the fubje&s.
Chaloner, Sir ThotnTis, the younger, though in-
confiderable as an author, deferves to be recorded as a
fkilful naturalifl, in an age wherein natural hiltory was
very little underflood in this or any other country ; and
particularly as the founder of the alum works in V ork-
fhire, which have fince proved fo exceedingly advan¬
tageous
C n A [ 3
C'1',!':jeat t^geous to the commerce of this kingdom. He was
Cham. ^le onl/ fon Sir Thomas Chaloner mentioned in the
v"~'— article, and was born in the year 1559. Being
very young at the time of his father’s death, the lord
treafurer Burleigh, taking charge of his education, fent
him to St Paul’s fchool, and afterwards to Magdalen
college in Oxford, where, like his father, he^difco-
vered extraordinary talents for Latin and Englifh
poetry. About the year 1580, he made the tour of
.Europe, and returned to England before 1584 ; for
in that year, we find him a frequent attendant in the
court of Queen Elizabeth. About this time he mar¬
ried the daughter of Sir William Fleetwood, re¬
corder of London. In 1691 he was knighted j and,
fome time after, difcovered the alum mines on his
eftate at Gifborough, near the river Tees in York,
fhire (a).
Towards the latter end of the queen’s reign, Sir
Thomas vilited Scotland; and returning to England in
the retinue of King James I. found fuch favour in the
fight of his majefty, that he was immediately appointed
governor to Prince Henry, whom he conftantly at¬
tended, and, when his royal pupil ’vilited Oxford, was
honoured with the degree of mafter of arts. How he
was employed after the death of the prince is not
known. Some years before that event, he married
a fecond wife, the daughter of Mr William Blount of
London, by whom he had fome children. He died in
the year J615, and was buried at Chifwick in Middle-
»ex. His eldeft fon William was created a baronet in
the 18th of James, anno 1620. The title was extimft
in 1681. He wrote, 1. Dedication to Lord Burleigh
of his father’s poetical works, dated 1 ^79. 2. The
virtue of nitre, wherein is declared the fundry cures by
the fame effefted. Lond. 1 ^84, 410.
CHALYBEAF, in Medicine, an appellation given
to any liquid, as wine or water, impregnated with par-
tides of iron or Heel. See Mineral Waters.
CHALYBES, in Ancient Geography, an ancient
people of the Hither Afia. Their fituation is different-
ly affigned ; Strabo placing them in Paphlagonia, to
the call of Synope ; Apollonius Rhodius and Stephanus,
on the eaft of the Thermodon, in Pontus ; called Hali-
taones, by Homer. They either gave their name to, or
took it from, their iron manufaflures (Xenophon, Val.
ilaccus), their only fupport, their foil being barren and
ungrateful, (Dionyfius Periegetes).
CHAM, or Khan, the title given to the fovereign
princes of Tartary.
The word, in the Perfian, fignifies mighty lord $ in
the Sclavonic, emperor. Sperlingius, in his diflerta-
tion on the Danilh term of majejly, honing, king, thinks
the Tartarian cham may be well derived from it; add-
ing, that in the north they fay han, konnen, honge, kon-
74 1 C H A
ring, Sec. The term cham is alfo applied, among the Cham
Perfians, to the great lords of the court, and the go- H
vernors of provinces. Chamanim,
Cham, in Geography, a town of the Bavarian pala- *
tinate, fituated on a river of the fame name, about
25 miles north-eaft of Ratifbon. E. Long. 13. N. Lat.
49.15.
CHAMA, in Zoology, a genus of fiiell filh belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teftacese. Thelhell is thick,
and has two valves ; it is an animal of the oyfter kind.
Linnaeus enumerates 14 fpecies, principally diftinguifh-
ed by the figure of their ftrells.
C HAMADE, in War, a certain beat of a drum,
or found of a trumpet, which is given the enemy as a
fignal to inform them of fome propofitions to be made
to the commander, either to capitulate, to have leave
to bury their dead, make a truce, or the like Me¬
nage derives the word from the Italian chiamata, of da-
mare, “ to cry.”
CHAMJEDRYS. See Veronica, Botany Index.
CHAMiEPITYS. See Teucrium, Botany/«-
dex.
CHAM2EROPS. See Botany Index.
'This plant the Americans call thatch, from the ufe
to which the leaves are applied.—Under the name of
palmetto, however, Mr Adanfon deferibes a fpecies of
palm which grows naturally at Senegal, whole trunk
rifes from 50 to 60 feet in height: from the upper end
of the trunk iffues a bundle of leaves, which, in turn-
ing off, form a round head ; each leaf reprefents a fan
of five or fix feet in expanfion, fupported by a tail of
the fame length. Of thefe trees fome produce male
flowers, which are confequently barren ; others are fe¬
male, and loaded with fruit, which fucceed each other
uninterruptedly almoll the whole year round. The
fruit of the large palmettos, Mr Adanfon affirms to be
of the bignels of an ordinary melon, but rounder : it-is
enveloped in two Ikins, as tough as leather, and as thick
as ftrong parchment ; within the fruit is yellowiffi, and
full of filaments fattened to three large "kernels in the
middle. The negroes are very fond of this fruit,
which, when baked under the alhes, is faid to tafte
like a quince.
CHAMANIM, in the Jewifh antiquities, is the
Hebrew name for that which the Greeks call Pyreia or
Pyrateria ; and St Jerome in Leviticus has tranllated
fimulachra, in Ifaiab, delulra. Thefe chamanim were,
according to Rabbi Solomon, idols expofed to the fun
upon the tops of houfes. Abenezoa fays they were
portable chapels or temples made in the form of cha¬
riots in honour of the fun. What the Greeks call
Pyreia were temples confecrated to the fun and fire,
wherein a perpetual fire was kept up. They were
built upon eminences; and were large enclofures with¬
out
P dur‘n8 ^’s refidence in Italy, being particularly fond of natural hiftory, fpent fome time at
Puzzoh, where he was very attentive to the art of producing alum'. This attention proved infinitely ferviceab e
to I s country, though of no great benefit to himfelf or his family, his attempt being attended with much dif!
Acuity and expence. It was begun about the year 1600, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; but was noTbrought
to any degree of perfearon trll fome time in the reign of Charles I. by the affirtance of one Ruffel a wSn
and two other workmen brought from the alum works at Rochelle. By one of the arbitrary afts of Charles,
and juftly refffired h\TZ o^iiaTpropHeffir'.0 ^ ^ Plndar' ^ ^ Parliament adiudHed a
Chamber.
C H A [ 375
Giamarin out covering, where the fun was wonhipped. Tiie
Guebres, or wodhippers of fire, in Perfia and the Eafl
Indies, have ftill thefe Pyreia. The word chatnanim
is derived from Charnan, which fignified to warm or
burn.
CHAMARIN, a word which occurs m leveral
places of the Hebrew Bible, and is generally tranfiated
the prlefts of the idols, or thepriefs clothed in black, be-
caufe chamar fignifies “ black,” or “ blacknefs.” St
Jerome, in the fecond book of Kings, renders it aru-^
fpices. In Hofea and Zephaniah, he tranflates it ccduui
or church wardens. But the belt commentators are
of opinion, that by this -word we are to underftand the
priells of the falfe gods, and in particular the worfhip-
pers of fire •, becaufe they were, as they fay, drefied
in black ; or perhaps the Hebrews gave them this name
in derifion, becaufe, as they were continually employed
in taking care about the fuel, and keeping up the fire,
they were always as black as fmiths or colliers. We
find priefts, among thofe of Ifis, called we/r?/;e/)/6or/, that
is to fay, that wear black j but wdiether this may be
by reafon of their dreffing in black, or whether it were
becaufe they wore a certain ftiining black veil in the
proceffrons of this goddefs, is not certain. Catndr,
in Arabic, fignifies the “ moon.” Ifis is the fame
deity. Grotius thinks the Roman priefts, called camilli,
came from the Hebrew chamarim. Thofe among the
heathens who facrificed to the infernal gods wrere dreffed
in black.
CHAMBER, in building, a member of a lodging,
or piece of an apartment, ordinarily intended for fleep-
ing in ; and called by the Latins cubiculum. The
word comes from the Latin camera ; and that, accord¬
ing to Nicod, from the Greek vault or cur ve ;
the term chamber being originally confined to places
arched over.
A complete apartment is to confift of a hall, anti¬
chamber, chamber, and cabinet.
Privy Chamber. Gentlemen of the privy chamber,
are fervants of the king, who are to wait and attend
on him and the queen at court, in their diverfions, &c.
Their number is forty eight, under the lord chamber-
lain, twelve of whom are in quarterly waiting, and two
of thefe lie in the privy chamber.
In the abfence of the lord chamberlain, or vice cham^
berlain, they execute the king’s orders ; at corona¬
tions, two of them perfonate the dukes of Aquitain
and Normandy j and fix of them, appointed by the
lord chamberlain, attend ambaffadors from crowned
heads to their audiences, and in public entries. The
the privy chamber were inftituted by
C H A
gentlemen of
Henry VII.
Chamber, in PJicy, the place where certain af-
femblies are held, alfo the affemblies themfelves. ^ Of
thefe fome are eftablifned for the adminiftration of juf-
tice, others for commercial affairs.
Of the fir ft kind are, I. Star chamber, fo called
becaufe the roof was painted w'ith ftars ; the authori¬
ty, power, and jurifdidfion of which, are abiolutely
abolifired by the ftatute 17 Car. I. 2. Imperial cham¬
ber of Spire, the fupreme court of judicatory in the
empire, erefted by IVIaximihan I. JThis chamber has
a right of judging by appeal: and is the laft refort of
all civil affairs of the dates and fubjefls of the empire,
m the fame manner as the aulic council of Vienna. Chamber. ^
Neverthelefs it is reftrained in feveral cafes : it takes "v
no notice of matrimonial caufes, thefe being left to
the pope j nor of criminal caufes, which either belong
to particular princes or towns in their refpe&ive terri¬
tories, or are cognizable by all the ftates 01 the empire
in a diet. By the treaty of Ofnaburg, in 1648, fifty
affeffors were appointed for this chamber, whereof 24
were to be Proteftants, and 26 Catholics ; befides five
prefidents, two of them Proteftants, and the reft Ca¬
tholics. 3. Chamber of accounts, a fovereign court in
France, where accounts are rendered of all the king’s
revenues, inventories, and avowals thereof regiftered j
oaths of fidelity taken, and other things relating to
the finances tranfa&ed. There are nine in France:
that of Paris is the chief; it regifters proclamations,
treaties of peace, naturalizations, titles of nobility,
All the members wear long black gbwns of velvet, of
fatin, or damafk, according to their places. 4. Ec-
clefiaftical chambers in France, which judge by appeal
of differences about colledling the tythes. 5- Chamber
of audience, or grand chamber, a juriididlion in each
parliament of France, the ccunfellors of ■which are
called jugeurs, or judges, as thofe of the chamber o£
inquefts are called raporteurs, reporters of proceffes by
writing. 6. Chamber of the edift, or miparty, a court
eftablifhcd by virtue of the edidl: of pacification in fa¬
vour of thofe of the reformed religion.- This chamber
is now fuppreffed. 7. Apoftolical chamber of Rome,
that wherein affairs Relating to the revenues of the
church and the pope are tranfafled. This council con-
fifts of the cardinal camerlinga, the governor of the
rota, a treafurer, an auditor, a prefident, one advocate-
general, a folicitor-general, a commiflary and twelve
clerks. 8. Chamber of London, an apartment in Guild¬
hall, where the city money is depofited.
Of the laft fort are, the chambers of commerce : the
chambers of aflurance •, and the royal or fyndical cham¬
ber of bookfellers in France.
1. The chamber of commerce is an afiembly of mer¬
chants and traders, where the affairs relating to trade
are treated of. There are feveral eftablifired in moft
of the chief cities of France ■, and in our own country
we have lately feen chambers of this kind ere&ed,
particularly in London, Edinburgh, and Glafgow.
2. Chamber of aflurance in France, denotes a fociety
of merchants and others for carrying one the bufinefs
of infuring : but in Holland it fignifies a court of juf-
tice, where caufes relating to infurances are tried.
3. Chamber of bookfellers in Paris, an affembly con¬
fiding of a fyndic and afliftants, elefted by four dele¬
gates from the printers, and twelve from the book¬
fellers, to vifit the books imported from abroad, and
to fearch the houfes of fellers of marbled paper, print-
fellers, and dealers in printed paper for hangings, who
are prohibited from keeping any letters proper for
printing books. In the vifitation of books, which
ought to be performed by three perfons at leaft from
among the fyndic and afliftants, all libels againft the
honour of God, and the welfare of the ftate, and all
books printed either within or without the kingdom
in breach of their regulations and privileges, are ftopt,
even with the merchandifes that may happen to be in
the bales with fuch libels or other prohibited books.
1 The
C II A [
Clumber, The days appointed for this chamber to meet are
Tuefdays and Fridays, at two o’clock in the after-
Chamber, in military affairs. r. Powder cham¬
ber, or bomb chamber; a place funk under ground
for holding the powder, or bombs, where they may
be out of danger, and fecured from the rain. 2. Cham¬
ber of a mine j the place, moll commonly of a cubical
form, where the powder is confined. Chamber
of a mortar ; that part of the chafe, much narrower
than the reft of the cylinder, where the powder lies.
It is of different forms j fometimes like a reverfed
cone j fometimes globular, with a neck for its commu¬
nication with the cylinder, whence it is called a bot¬
tled chamber ; but moft commonly cylindrical, that
being the form which is found by experience to carry
the ball to the greateft diftance.
CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged with the
management and direction of a chamber. See Cham¬
ber, \n policy.
There are almoft as many kinds of chamberlains as
chambers ; the principal whereof are as follows :
Lord Chamberlain of Great Britain, the fixth great
officer of the crown j to whom belong livery and
lodging in the king’s court ; and there are certain
fees due to him from each archbifhop or biffiop when
they perform their homage to the king, and from all
peers at their creation or doing their homage. At
the coronation of every king, he is to have forty ells
of crimfon velvet for his own robes. This officer, on
the coronation day, is to bring the king his ffiirt, coif,
and wearing clothes j and after the king is drefled, he
claims his bed, and all the furniture of his chamber,
for his fees : he alfo carries, at the coronation, the coif,
gloves, and linen, to be ufed by the king on that occa-
fion ; alfo the fword and fcabbard ; the gold to be of¬
fered by the king, and the robes royal and crown : he
drefies and undreffes the king on that day, waits on
him before and after dinner, &c. To this officer be¬
longs the care of providing all things in the houfe of
lords, in the time of parliament j to him alfo belongs
the government of the palace of Weltminfter : he dif-
pofes likewife of the fword of flate, to be carried be¬
fore the king, to what lord he pleafes.
The great chamberlain of Scotland was ranked by
King Malcolm, as the third great officer of the crown,
and was called Camerarius Domini Regis. Before
a treafurerwas appointed, it was his duty to colledl the
revenue of the crown ; and he diffiurfed the money
neceffary for the king’s expences, and the maintenance
of the king’s houfehold. From the time that a trea-
furer was appointed, his province was limited to the
boroughs throughout the kingdom, where he w^as a
iort of juftice general, as he had a power forjudging
of all crimes committed within the borough, and of
the crime of foreftalling. He was to hold chamber-
lain ayres every year. He was fupreme judge ; nor
could any of his decrees be queflioned *by any inferior
judicatory. His fentences were put in execution by
the magiftrates of the boroughs. He alfo regulated
the prices of provifions within the borough, and the
fees of the wurkmen in the mint houfe. His falary
was only aool. a-year. The fmallnefs of his falary,
and his great powers, had no doubt been the caufes
ef much oppreffion in this officer, and the chamber-
lain,
Chamber-
layne.
376. 1 C H A
lain ayre was called rather a legal robbery than a'court Chamber,
of juftice 5 and when the combined lords feized King
James VI. Auguft 24. 1582, and carried him to Ruth-
ven Caftle, they iffued a proclamation in the king’s
name, difcharging the chamberlain ayres to be kept.
The chamberlain had great fees arifing from the pro¬
fits of efcheats, fines, tolls, and cuftoros. This office
was granted heritably to the family of Stuart duke
of Lenox : and when their male line failed, King
Charles II. conferred it in like manner upon his natu¬
ral fon, whom he created duke of Monmouth, and on
his forfeiture it rvent to the duke of Lenox ; but that
family furrendered the pffice to the crown in 1703.
Lord Chamberlain of the Houfcho/d, an officer w-ho
has the overfight and direftion of all officers belonging
to the king’s chambers, except the precindt of the
king’s bedchamber.
He has the overfight of the officers of the wardrobe
at all his majefty’s houfes, and of the removing ward¬
robes, or of beds, tents, revels, mufic, comedians, hunt¬
ing, mefl'engers, &c. retained in the king’s fervice.
He moreover has the overfight and diredtion of the fer-
jeants at arms, of all phyficians, apothecaries, furgeons,
barbers, the king’s chaplains, &c. and adminifters the
oath to all officers above ftairs.
Other chamberlains are thofe of the king’s court
of exchequer, of North Wales, of Chefter, of the city
of London, &c. in w-hich cafes this officer is generally
the receiver of all rents and revenues belonging to the
place wffiereof he is chamberlain.
In the exchequer there are two chamberlains, who
keep a controlment of the pells of receipts and exitus,
and have certain keys of the treafury, records, &c.
Chamberlain of London keeps the city money,
which is laid up in the chamber of London : he alfo
prefides over the affairs of mafters and apprentices, and
makes free of the city, &c.
His office lafts only a year j but the cuftom ufually
obtains to re-choofe the fame perfon, unlefs charged
with any mifdemeanour in his office.
CHAMBERLAYNE, Edward, defcended from
an ancient family, was born in Gloucefterfhire 1616,
and made the tour of Europe during the diftradlions
of the civil tvar. After the Reftoration, he went as
fecretary with the earl of Carlifle, who carried the or¬
der of the Garter to the king of Sweden j was ap¬
pointed tutor to the duke of Grafton, natural fon of
Charles II. and was afterwards pitched on to inftrudt
Prince George of Denmark in the Englifti tongue. He
died in 1703, and was buried in a vault in Chelfea
churchyard : his monumental infcription mentions fix
books of his writings and that he was fo defirous of do¬
ing fervice to pofterity, that he ordered fome copies of
his books to be covered with wax, and buried with
him. That W'ork by which he is beft known, is his
Anglice Notitice, or the Prefent State of England, which
has been often fince printed.
Chamberlayne, "John, fon to the author of “ The
Prefent State of England,” and continuator of that ufe-
ful work, was admitted into Trinity College, Oxford,
1685 ; but it doth not appear that he took any degree.
Befide the Continuation juft; mentioned, he was author
of “ Differtations hiftoncal, critical, theological, and
moral, on the moft memorable events of the Old and
New Teftaments, with Chronological Tables j” one
vol.
C H A
t 377 ]
C H A
Chamberry, vol. folio j and tranflated a variety of works from the
Chambers. JYench, Dutch, aud other languages. He likewife
was F, R. S. and communicated fome pieces, inferted
in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions. It was faid of him
that he underftood fixteen languages 5 but it is certain
that he was mafter of the Greek, Latin, French,^ High
and Low Dutch, Portuguefe, and Italian. Though
he was qualified for employment, he had none but that
of gentleman ulher to George prince of Denmark.
After a ufeful and well-fpent life, he died in the year
1724. Fie was a very pious and good man, and ear¬
ned in promoting the advancement of religion, and the
intereft of true Chriftianity ; for which purpofe he kept
a large correfpondence abroad.
CHAMBERRY, a confiderable and populous town
of Italy, in Savoy, with a caftle. It is capital of the
duchy, and well built, but has no fortifications. It is
watered by feveral dreams, which'have their fources
in St Martin’s hill, and run through feveral of the
dreets. There are piazzas under mod part of the
houfes, where people may walk dry in the word wea¬
ther. It hath large and handfome fuburbs ; and in the
centre of the town is the royal palace. The parlia¬
ment meet here, which is compofed of four prefidents,
and a pretty large number of fenators, being the fu-
preme tribunal of the whole duchy. The principal
church is St Leger, and the Jefuits college is the mod
magnificent of all the monaderies. E. Long. 5. £0.
N. Lat. 45. 25.
CHAMBERS, David, a Scots hidorian, pried,
and lawyer, was born in the diire of Rofs, about the
year 1530, and educated in the univerfity of Aber¬
deen. From thence he went to France and Italy,
where he continued fome time, particularly at Bou¬
logne, where, in 1556, he was a pupil of Marianus
Sozenus.
AFter his return to Scotland, he was appointed, by
Queen Mary, parfon of Suddy and chancellor of Rofs.
Fie was foon after employed in digeding the laws of
Scotland, and wfas principally concerned in publilhing
the a&s of parliament of that kingdom by authority
in 1566. He was alfo appointed one of the lords of
feflion, and continued her majedy’s faithful fervant
till her declining fortune obliged her adherents to feek
for refuge in other kingdoms. Chambers went fird
to Spain, where he wjas gracioufiy received by King
Philip j and thence he travelled to Paris, rvhere he
was no lefs kindly received by Charles IX. of that
kingdom, to whom, in 1572, he prefented his hidory
of Scotland, &c. He died at Paris in the year 1592,
much regretted (fays Mackenzie) by all who knew
him. His writings were chiefly calculated to afiid
his royal midrefs, and to extol the wifdom of the Scots
nation.
Chambers, Ephraim, author of the Scientific
Didlionary which goes under his name, was born at
Milton, in the county of Wedmorland. His parents
were diffenters of the Prefhyterian perfuafion *, and his
education no other than that common one which is in¬
tended to qualify a youth for trade and commerce.
When he became of a proper age, he was put appren¬
tice to Mr Senex the globe-maker, a bufinefs which
is connefted with literature, and efpecially with adro-
nomy and geography. It was during Mr Chambers’s
refidence with "this fkilful mechanic, that he contra&ed
Vot,. V. Part I.
that tade for fcience and learning which accompanied Chamber:,
him through life, and direfted all his purfuits. It was •v”“"
even at this time that he formed the defign of his
grand work, the “ Cyclopaedia and fome of the firft
articles of it were written behind the counter. Fla-
ving conceived the idea of fo great an undertaking, he
judly concluded that the execution of it wrould not
confid with the avocations of trade ; and therefore he
quitted Mr Senex, and took chambers at Gray’s Inn,
where he chiefly refided during the red of his days.
The fird edition of the Cyclopadia, which was the re-
fult of many years intenfe application, appeared in
1 728, in two vols. folio. It was publhhed by fubferip-
tion, the price being 4I. 4s.; and the lid of fubferibers
was very refpe&able. The dedication, which w^as to
the king, is dated Oftober 15. 1727. The reputation
that Mr Chambers acquired by his execution of this
undertaking, procured him the honour of being defi¬
ed F. R. S. November 6. 1729. In lefs than ten years
time a fecond edition became neceflary } which accord¬
ingly was printed, with correflions and additions, in
1738 j and was follow’ed by a third the very next
year.
Although the Cyclopaedia was the grand bufinefs of
Mr Chambers’s life, and may be regarded as almod
the foie foundation of his fame, his attention was not
wholly confined to this undertaking. He was con¬
cerned in a periodical publication, entitled, “ The
Literary Magazine,” wdiich was begun in 1735. la
this work he wrote a variety of articles, and particu¬
larly a review of Morgan’s “ Moral Philofophy.”
He was engaged likewife, in conjunflion with Mt
John Martyn. F. R. S. and profeffor of botany at
Cambridge, in preparing for the prefs a tranflation and
abridgment of the “ Philofophical Hiftory and Me¬
moirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, or
an Abridgment of all the Papers relating to Natural
Philofophy, which have been publithed by the Mem¬
bers of that illuftrious Society.” This undertaking,
when completed, was comprifed in five volumes, 8vo,
which did not appear till 1742, fome time after our
author’s deceafe, when they were publifhed under the
joint names of Mr Martyn and Mr Chambers. Mr
Martyn, in a fubfequent publication, hath palled a fe-
vere cenfure upon the fhare w7hich his fellow'-labourer
• had in the abridgment of the Parifian papers. The
only work befides, that we find aferibed to Mr Cham¬
bers, is a tranflation of the Jefuit's PerfpeBive, from
the French j which w'as printed in qto, and hath gone
through feveral editions. Mr Chambers’s clofe and un¬
remitting attention to his fludies at length impaired his
health, and obliged him occafionally to take a lodging
at Canonbury-houfe, Iflington. This not having great¬
ly contributed to his recovery, he made an excurfion
to the fouth of France, but did not reap that benefit
from it which he had himfelf hoped, and his friends
wilhed. Returning to England, he died at Canonbu¬
ry-houfe, and was buried at Weftminfter j where the
following infeription, written by himlelf, is placed on
the north fide of the cloifters of the Abbey :
Multis pervulgatus,
Paucis notus 5
Qui vitam, inter lucem et umbram,
Nec eruditus, nec idiota,
3 B JLiteris
c H A [ 378 ] C H A
Chambre Liter!s deditus, tranfegit; fed ut homo
. jl ^ Qui human! nihil a fe alienum putat.
u-Vita fimul, et laboribus funftus,
Hie requiefeere voluit,
Ephraim Chambers; R. S. S.
Obiit xv Maii, mdccxl.
After the author’s death, two more editions of his
Cyclopaedia were publillied. A fupplement, which
extended to two volumes more, was afterwards com¬
piled : and in the year 1778 was publilhed an edition
of both, incorporated into one alphabet, by Dr Rees,
which was completed in four volumes folio. Another
edition wh!ch is now (1803) going on, and is to ex¬
tend to 20 vols 4to, has been undertaken by the fame
gentleman.
CHAMBRE, Martin Cureau de la, phyfician
in ordinary to the French king, was diftinguilhed by
his knowledge in medicine, philofophy, and polite learn¬
ing. Fie was born at Mons, and was received into the
FVench academy in 1635, and aftewards into the aca¬
demy of fciences. He wrote a great number of works ;
the principal of which are, I. The characters of the
paffions. 2. The art of knowing men. 3. On the know¬
ledge of beafts, &c. He died at Paris in 1669.
CPIAMELEON. See Lacerta, Erpetology
Index.
CHAMFERING, in ArchiteElure, a phrafe ufed for
cutting any thing aflope on the under fide.
CKAMIER, Daniel, an eminent Proteftant di¬
vine, born in Dauphiny. Fie was many years preach¬
er at Montellimart ; from whence he went in 1612 to
Montaubon, to be profelfor of divinity in that city, and
was killed by a cannon ball during the fiege in 1621.
The moft confiderable of his works is his Panjlratia Ca-
tholica, or, “ Wars of the Lord,” in four volumes folio;
in which he treats very learnedly of the controverfies
between the Proteftants and Roman Catholics.
CHAMOIS, or Chamois-goat, in Zoology. See
Capra, Mammalia Index.
CHAMOMILE. See Anthemis, Botany Index.
CHAM OS, or Chemosh, the idol or god of the
Moabites.
The name of chamos comes from a root which, in
Arabic, fignifies to make hajle ; for which reafon many
believe Chamos to be the fun, whofe precipitate courfe
might well procure it the name of fwift or fpeedy.
Others have confounded Chamos with the god Hammon,
adored not only in Libya and Egypt, but alfo in A-
rabia, Flthiopia, and the Indies. Macrobius fhows
that Hammon was the fun ; and the horns, with which
he. was reprefented, denoted his rays. Calmet is of
opinion that the god Hamonus, and Apollo Chomeus,
mentioned by Strabo and Ammianus Marcellinus, was
the very fame as Chamos or the fun. Thefe deities
were worfhipped in many of the eailern provinces.
Some who go upon the refemblance of the Hebrew
term chamos to that of the Greek comos, have believed
Chamos to fignify the god Bacchus, the god of drunk-
ennefs, according to the fignification of the Greek
eomos. St Jerome, and with him moll other interpre¬
ters, take Chamos and Peor for the fame deity. But
it feems that Baal Peor wras the fame as Tammuz or
Adonis ; fo that Chamos-muft be the god whom the
heathens call the fun.
3
CHAMOUNI, one of the elevated valleys of theChamounk
Alps, fituated at the foot of Mount Blanc. See A l p s '—v—
and Blanc.
The firfl; ftrangers whom a curiofity to vifit the gla¬
ciers drew to Chamouni (M. Saufl'ure obferves), certain¬
ly confidered this valley as a den of robbers; for they
came armed cap-a-pee, attended with a troop of do-
medics armed in the fame manner : they would not
venture into any houfe; they lived in tents which they
had brought along with them; fires were kept burning,
and centinels on guard the whole night over. It was
in the year 1741 that the celebrated traveller Pocock,
and another Englilh gentleman called Wyndham, un¬
dertook this interefting journey. It is remembered by
the old men of Chamouni, and they dill laugh at the
fears of the travellers, and at their unneceflary precau¬
tions. For 20 or 25 years after this period, the journey
was made but feldom, and then chiefly by Englifh-
men, who lodged with the curate : for, when I was "
there in 1760, and even for four or five years after-
wards, there w'as no habitable houfe except one or two
miferaWe inns, like thofe in villages that are little fre¬
quented. But now that this expedition has gradually
become fo faihionable, three large and good inns, which
have been fucceffively built, are hardly fufiicient to con¬
tain the travellers that come during the fummer from
all quarters.
This concourfe of drangers, and the money they
leave behind them at Chamouni, have fomewhat affefl-
ed the ancient fimplicity of the inhabitants, and everv
the purity of their manners. Nobody, however, has
any thing to fear from them : the mod inviolable fide¬
lity is obferved with refpe£t to travellers; they are only
expofed to a few importunate felicitations, and fome
fmall artifices dictated by the extreme eagernefs with
which the inhabitants offer their fervices as guides.
The hope of obtaining this employment brings to¬
gether, round a traveller, almod all the men in every
village through which he paffes, and makes him believe
that there are a great many in the valley ; but there
are very few at Chamouni in fummer. Curiofity, or
the hope of making money, draws many to Paris and
into Germany: befides, as the diepherds of Chamouni
have the reputation of excelling in the making of
cheefe, they are in great requed in the Tarentaife, in
the valley of Aode, and even at greater didances ; and
they receive there, for four or five months in fummer,
very confiderable wages. Thus the labours of the field
devolve almod entirely on the women, even fuch as in
other countries fall folely on the men ; as mowing,
cutting of wmod, and thradnng : even the animals of
the fame fex are not fpared, for the cows there are yok¬
ed in the plough.
The only labours that belong exclufively to the men
are the feeking for rock crydal and the chafe. Hap¬
pily. they are now lefs employed than formerly in the
fird of thefe occupations ; I fay happily, for many of
them perilhed in this purfuit. The hope of enriching
themfelves quickly by the difeovery of a cavern filled
with fine crydals, was fo powerful a motive, that they
expofed themfelves in the fearch to the mod alarming
dangers; and hardly a year paffed wdthout fome of them ;
perilhing in the fnows, or among the precipices.
The principal indication of the grottoes, or crydal
ovens as they are here called, are veins of quartz, which
appeal.
❖
C H A
[ 379 1
C H A
Chamonni. appear on the outfide of the rocks of granite, or of the
—v   laminated rock. Thefe white veins are feen at a di-
ftance, and often at great heights, on vertical and inac-
cetlible places. The adventurers endeavour to arrive
at thefe, either by fabricating a road acrofs the rocks,
or by letting themfelves down from above fufpended by
ropes. When they reach the place, they gently ftrike
the rock; and if the ftone returns a hollow found, they
endeavour to open it with a hammer, or to blow it up
with powder. This is the principal method of fearch-
ing: but young people, and even children, often go in
queft of thefe cryftals over the glaciers, ■where the rocks
have lately fallen down. But whether they conlider
thefe mountains as nearly exhaufted, or that the quan¬
tity of cryftal found at Madagafcar has too much lower¬
ed the price of this foffil, there are now but few people
that go in fearch of it, and perhaps there is not a
fingle perfon at Chamouni that makes it his only occu¬
pation. They go however occafionally, as to a party of
pleafure. *
But the chafe of the chamois goat, as dangerous,
and perhaps more fo than the feeking for cryftal, {till
occupies many inhabitants of the mountains, and car¬
ries off, in the flower of their age, many men whofe
lives are moft valuable to their families. And when we
are informed how this chafe is carried on, we will be
aftoniflied that a courfe of life, at once fo laborious and
perilous, fliould have irreflftible attractions for thofe
who have been accuftomed to it.
The chamois hunter generally fets out in the night,
that he may reach by break of day the moft elevated
paftures wThere the goats come to feed, before they ar¬
rive. As foon as he difcovers the place where he hopes
to find them, he furveys it with his glafs. If he finds
none of them there, he proceeds, always afcending •,
whenever he defcries any, he endeavours to get above
them, either by ftealing along fome gully, or getting
behind fome rock or eminence. When he is near
enough to diftinguilh their horns, which is the mark
by which he judges of the diftance, he refts his piece
on a rock, takes his aim with great compofure, and
rarely miffes. This piece is a rifle-barrelled carabine,
into wdiich the ball is thruft, and thefe carabines often
contain two charges, though they have but one barrel;
the charges are put one above another, and are fired
in fucceffion. If he has wounded the chamois, he runs
to his prey, and for fecurity he hamftrings it; then he
confiders his wmy home : if the road is difficult, he
{kins the chamois, and leaves the carcafs; but, if it is
practicable, he throw's the animal on his ihoulders, and
bears him to his village, though at a great diftance,
and often over frightful precipices; he feeds his fa¬
mily with the fleih, which is excellent, efpecially when
the creature is young; and he dries the {kins for fale.
But if, as is the moft common cafe, the vigilant
chamois perceives the approach of the hunter, he im¬
mediately takes flight among the glaciers, through the
fnows, and over the moft precipitous rocks. It is par¬
ticularly difticult ta get near thefe animals wdien there
are feveral together; for then one of them, w!hile the
reft are feeding, {lands as a centinel on the point of
fome rock that commands a view of the avenues lead-,
mg to the pafture; and as foon as he perceives any ob-
jeCl of alarm, he utters a fort of hifs ; at which the
"©thei/S inftantly gather round him to judge for them¬
felves of the nature of the danger: if it is a wild beaft, Chanioum^
or a hunter, the moft experienced puts himielf at the
head of the flock, and away they fly, ranged in a line,
to the moft inacceflible retreats.
It is here that the fatigues of the hunter begin ; in-
ftigated by his paflion for the chafe, he is infenfible to
danger : he paffes over fnows, without thinking of the
horrid precipices they conceal; he entangles himfelf
among the moft dangerous paths, and bounds from
rock to rock, without knowung how he is to return.
Night often furprifes him in the midft of his purluit;
but he does not for that reafon abandon it; he hopes
that the fame caufe will arreft the flight of the chamois,
and that he will next morning overtake them. Thus
he paffes the night, not at the foot of a tree, like the
hunter of the plain; not in a grotto, foftly reclin¬
ed on a bed of mofs; but at the foot of a rock,
and often on the bare points of {battered fragments,
without the fmalleft {belter. There, all alone, with¬
out fire, without light, he draws from his bag a
bit of cheefe, with a morfel of oaten bread, which make
his common food ; bread fo dry, that he is fometimes
obliged to break it between tw-o ftones, or with the
hatchet he carries with him to cut out fteps in the
ice. Having thus made his folitary and frugal repaft,
he puts a ftone below his head for a pillowq and goes
to fleep, dreaming on the route wforch the chamois may
have taken. But foon he is awakened by the frelhnefs
of the morning; he gets up, benumbed wuth cold ;
furveys the precipices, which he muft traverfe, in order
to overtake his game; drinks a little brandy, of which
he is always provided with a fmall portion, and fets out
to encounter new dangers. Hunters fometimes remain
in thefe folitudes for feveral days together, during
which time their families, their unhappy wives in par¬
ticular, experience a ftate of the moft dreadful anxiety :
they dare not go to reft for fear of feeing their hulbands
appear to them in a dream; for it is a received opinion
in the country, that when a man has periftied. either
in the fnow, or on fome unknown rock, he appears by
night to the perfon he held moft dear, defcribes the
place that proved fatal to him, and requefts the per¬
formance of the laft duties to his corpfe.
“ After this picture of the life which the cha- lr°yagcs
mois hunters lead, could one imagine that this chafel<:s
would be the objedt of a paftion abfolutely unfur-
mountable? I knew a well-made, handfome man, whoyarfj t0lTX.
had juft married a beautiful woman:—‘ My grand-iii.
father faid he to me, loft his life in the chafe ; fo did
my father ; and I am perfuaded that I too fliall die in
the fame manner; this bag which I carry with me
when I hunt I call my grave clothes, for I am fure I
will have no other; yet if you fliould offer to make
my fortune on condition of abandoning the chafe of
the chamois, I could not confent.’ I made fome
excurfions on the Alps with this man : His ftrength
and addrefs were aftoniftiing; but his temerity was
greater than his ftrength; and I have heard, that
two years afterwards, he miffed a ftep on the brink
of a precipice, and met with the fate he had expedl-
ed.
“ The few who have grown old in this employment
bear upon their faces the marks of the lives they have
led. A favage look, fomething in it haggard and wild,
makes them be known in the midft of a crowd, even
3 B 2 whea
c H A [ 3S0 ] C H A
Chamouni. when they are not in their hunting drefs. And un-
doubtedly it is this ill look which makes fome fuper-
flitious peafants believe that they are forcerers, that
they have dealings with the devil in their folitudes,
and that it is he who throws them down the rocks.
What then can be the paflionate inducement to this
courfe of life ? It is not avarice, at leaf! it is not
an avarice confident with reafon : the moft beautiful
chamois is never worth more to the perfon that kills
it than a dozen of francs, even including the value of
its flelh: and now' that the number is fo much dimi-
nilhed, the time loft before one can be taken is much
more than its value. But it is the very dangers that
attend the purfuit, thofe alternations of hope and fear,
the continual agitation and exercife which thefe emo¬
tions produce in the mind, that inftigate the hunter :
they animate him as they do the gamefter, the warrior,
the failor, and even to a certain degree, the naturalift
of the Alps 5 whofe life, in fome meafure, pretty much
refembles that of the hunter, wdiofe manners we have
defcribed.”
But there is another kind of hunting, which is nei¬
ther dangerous nor laborious, nor fatal to any one but
to the poor animals that are the objedts of it.—Thefe
are the marmots, animals that inhabit the high moun¬
tains ; where in fummer they fcoop out holes, which
they line w’ith hay, and retire to at the beginning of
autumn. Here they grow torpid with the cold, and
remain in a fort of lethargy, till the warmth of the
ipring returns to quicken their languid blood, and to
recal them to life. When it is fuppofed that they
have retired to their winter abode, and before the fnow
has covered the high paftures where their holes are
made, people go to unharbour them. They are found
from 10 to 13 in the fame hole, heaped upon one an¬
other, and buried in the hay. Their fleep is fo pro¬
found, that the hunter often puts them into his bag,
and carries them home without their awaking. The
fiefti of the young is good, though it taftes of oil, and
imells fomewhat of mufk; the fat is ufed in the cure
of rheumatifms and pains, being rubbed on the parts
affe&ed ; but the fkin is of little value, and is fold for
no more than five or fix fols. Notwithftanding
the little benefit they reap from it, the people of
Chamouni go in quefl of this animal with great
eagernefs, and its numbers accordingly diminilli very
fenfibly.
It has been faid, that marmots, in order to tranfport
the hay into their holes, ufe one of their number laid
on his back as a cart ; but this is fabulous, for they are
feen carrying the hay in their mouths. Nor is it for
food that they gather it, but for a bed, and in order to
fhut out the cold, and to guard the avenues of their
retreat from enemies. When they are taken in autumn,
their bov'els are quite empty, and even as clean as if
they had been walked with water ; which proves that
their torpidity is preceded by a faft, and even by an
evacuation j a wife contrivance of nature for prevent¬
ing their accumulated faeces from growing putrid or
too dry, in the long lethargy they are expofed to.
They alfo continue a fewr days after their revival with¬
out eating, probably to allow the circulation and di-
geftive power to recover their aflivity. At firft, leav¬
ing their holes, they appear ftupid and dazzled wdth
the light > they are at this time killed with flicks, as
they do not endeavour to fly, and their bowre!s are then Chamouni,
alfo quite empty. They are not very lean when thev Cham-
awake, but grow more fo for a few days after they firft pa^nc' ,
come abroad. Their blood is never congealed, how¬
ever profound their lleep may be j for at the time that
it is deepeft, if they are bled, the blood flows as if they
were awTake.
In thefe countries the period is fo Ihort between the
diffolution of the fnow, and its return, that grain has
hardly time to come to maturity. Mr Sauffure men¬
tions a very ufeful and ingenious pradlice, invented by
the mountaineers of the Argentiere, for enlarging this
period, “ I oblerved (fays he, in the middle of the val¬
ley, feveral large fpaces where the furface of the fnow
exhibited a Angular appearance, fomewhat refembling
a piece of white cloth fpotted with black. While I
was endeavouring to divine the caufe of this phenome¬
non, I difcovered feveral women walking with mea-
fured pace, and fowing fomething in handfuls that was
black j and which being fcattered, regularly diverging,
on the furface of the fnowq formed that fpotted ap¬
pearance that I had been admiring. I could not con¬
ceive what feed Ihould be fowm on fnow fix feet deep 5
but my guide aftoniflied at my ignorance, informed
me that it was black earth fpread upon the fnow to
accelerate its melting j and thus to anticipate, by a
fortnight or three weeks, the time of labouring the
fields and fowing. I was ftruck with the elegant fim-
plicity of a practice fo ufeful, the effe&s of which I al¬
ready faw very evidently in places which had not been
thus treated above three days.
“ As to the inhabitants of Chamouni, the men, like
thofe of moft high valleys, are neither well made nor
tall: but they are nervous and ftrong, as are alfo the
women. They do not attain to a great age : men of
80 are very rare. Inflammatory difeafes are the moft
fatal to them ; proceeding no doubt, from obftrudled
perfpiration, to which the inconftant temperature of
the climate expofes them.
“ They are in general honeft, faithful, and diligent in
the praftice of religious duties. It would, for infiance,
be in vain to perfuade them to go anywhere on a ho¬
liday before hearing mafs. They are economical, but
charitable. There are amongft them neither hofpitals
nor foundations for the poor j but orphans and old
people, who have no means of fubfiftence, are enter¬
tained by every inhabitant of a parifli in his turn. If
a man is prevented by age or infirmities from taking
charge of his affairs, kis neighbours join among them-
felves and do it for him.
“ Their mind is aftive and lively, their temper gay,
wfith an inclination to raillery : they obferve, with An¬
gular acutenefs, the ridiculous in ftrangers, and turn,
it into a fund of very facetious merriment among
themfelves, yet they are capable of ferious thinking :
many of them have attacked me on religious and me-
taphyfical fubjefts : not as profefling a different faith
from theirs, but on general queftions, which {bow¬
ed they had ideas independent of thofe they were
taught.”
CHAMPAGNE, a confiderable province of France,
about 162 miles in length, and 11 2 in breadth, bound¬
ed on the north by Hainault and Luxembourg, on
the eaft by Lorrain and the Tranche Compte, on the
fouth by Burgundy, and on the weft by the Me of
France
Cha npion.
CHA [ 3S
Chan,p.gnc France and SoUTonnois. It has a great number of ri-
Proper vers, the principal of which are the Meuie, tne oeine,
the Marne, the Aube, and the Aine. Its principal
1 trade confifts in excellent wine, all forts of corn, linen
cloth, woollen ftuffs, cattle, and (beep. It is alfo di¬
vided into the higher and lower j and Troyes is the
capital town. Its lubdivinons are Champagne Pioper,
and Rhemois, the Retelois, the Pertois, the Village,
Bafigni, the Senonois, and the Brie Champenois. It
now forms the departments ol Ardennes, Aube, Marne,
and Upper Marne.
Champagne Proper, is one of the eight parts of
Champagne, which comprehends the town of Troyes,
Chalons, St Menehould, Eperney, and Vertus.
CHAMPAIN, or Point Champain, in Heraldry, a
mark of dilhonour in the coat of arms of him who
kills a prifoner of war after he has cried quarter.
CHAMPERTRY, in Law, a fpecies of mainte¬
nance, and punilhed in the fame manner j being a
bargain with the plaintiff or defendant campum par-
tire", “ to divide the land,” or other matter fued for,
between them, if they prevail at law } whereupon the
champertror is to carry on the party’s fuit at his own
expence. Thus champart in the French law, fignifies
a fimilar divifion of profits, being a part of the crop
annually due to the landlord by bargain or cuflom.
In our fenfe of the word, it fignifies the purchafing of
a fuit or right of fuing ; a praftice fo much abhorred
by our law, that it is one main reafon why a chofe in
aftion, or thing of which one hath the right but not
the poffefTion, is not aflignable in common law j be-
caufe no rpan fhould purchafe any pretence to fue in
another’s right. Thefe pefls of civil fociety, that are
perpetually endeavouring to diifurb the repofe of their
neighbours, and officioufly interfering in other men’s
quarrels even at the hazard of their own fortunes,
were feverely animadverted on by the Roman lawr •,
and were punifhed by the forfeiture of a third part of
their goods and perpetual infamy. Hitherto alfo nouft
be referred the provifion of the flatute 32 Henry VIII.
c. 9. that no one fhall fell or purchafe any pretenaed
right or title to land, unlefs the vender hath received
the profits thereof for one whole year before fuch
grant, or hath been in aftual pofTeflion of the land, or
of the reverfion or remainder; on pain that both pur-
chafer and vender fhall each forfeit the value of fuch
land to the king and the profecutor.
CHAMPION, a perfon who undertakes a combat
in the place or quarrel of another \ and fometimes the
word is ufed for him who fights in his own caufe.
It appears, that champions, in the jull fenfe of the
word, were perfons who fought inftead of thofe that,
by cuftoni, were obliged to accept the duel, but had
a iuft excufe for difpenfmg with it, as being too old,
infirm, or being ecHefiaflics, and the like. Such
caufes’as could not be decided by the courfe of com¬
mon law were often tried by fingle combatanu he
who had the good fortune to conquer, was always re¬
puted to have juftice on his fide. See the article
Battle.
Champion of the king [campio regis), is an ancient
officer, whofe office is, at the coronation of our kings,
when the king is at dinner, to ride armed cap-a-pee,
into Weftminfter-hall, and by the proclamation of a
i ] CHA
herald make a challenge, “ That if any man (hall de-Champlain
ny the king’s title to the crown, he is there ready to
defend it in fingle combat, &c.” which being done, 1
the king drinks to him, and fends him a gilt cup with
a cover full of wine, which the champion drinks, and
hath the cup for his fee. This office at the corona¬
tion of King Richard II. when Baldwin Freville exhi¬
bited his petition for it, was adjudged from him to his
competitor Sir John Dymocke (both claiming from
Marmion), and hath continued ever fince in the fami¬
ly of the Dymockes; who hold the manor of Sinvelf-
by in Lincolnfhire, hereditary from the Marmions by
grand ferjeantry, viz. that the lord thereof fhall be
the king’s champion as aforefaid. Accordingly Sir
Edward Dymocke performed this office at the coro-
nation of King Charles II. , a perfon of the name of
Dymocke performed at the coronation of his prefent
majefly George III.
CHAMPLAIN, Samuel de, a celebrated French
navigator, the founder of the colony of New Fiance,
or Canada. He built Quebec j and wTas the firif go¬
vernor of the colony in 1603. Died after 1649* bee
Quebec.
CHANAN/EI, in Ancient Geography, the name
of the ancient inhabitants of Canaan in general, de-
fcendants of Canaan } but peculiarly appropriated to
fome one branch } though uncertain which branch or
fon of Canaan it was, or how it happened that they
preferred the common gentihtious name to one more
appropriated as defendants of one of the fons of Ca¬
naan j unlefs from their courfe of life, as being in the
mercantile way, the import of the name of Canaan;
and for which their fituation was greatly adapted, they
living on the fea and about Jordan, and thus occupy¬
ing the greater part of the Land of Promife.
CHANCE, a term we apply to events, to denote
that they happen without any neceffary or foreknown
caufe. See Cause.
Our aim is, to afcribe thofe things to chance whicn
are not neceffarily produced as the natural efte£ls of
any proper caufe : but our ignorance and precipitancy
lead us to attribute effe£Is to chance which have a ne¬
ceffary and determinate caufe.
When we fay a thing happens by chance, we really
mean no more than that its caufe is unknown to us s
not, as fome vainly imagine, that chance itfelf can be
the caufe of any thing.
The cafe of the painter, who unable to ex'prefs the
the foam at the mouth of a horfe he had painted,
threw his fponge in defpair at the piece, and by
chance, did that which he could not before do by de-
fign, is an eminent inftance of the force of chance :
yet, it is obvious, all we mean here by chance, is,
that the painter was not aware of the effect ; or that
he did not throw the fponge with fuch a view : not
but that he actually did every thing neceffary to pro¬
duce the effect ; infomuch, that confidering the direc¬
tion wherein he threw his fponge, together with its
form, fpecific gravity, the colours wherewith it was
fmeared, and the diltance of the hand from the piece,
it was impoffible, on the prefent fyftem ol things, the
effect ihould not follow.
Chance is frequently perfonified, and eredted into a
chimerical being, whom we conceive as acting aibitra-
rilv.
C H A
Caance,
^Chance-
Medley.
tily, and producing all the effe&s whofe real caufes do
not appear to us j in which fenfe the word coincides
■with the Tv%ii, fortuna, of the ancients.
.Chance is alfo ufed for the manner of deciding
things, the conduS or direction whereof is left at large,
and not reducible to any determinate rules or meafures,
or where there is no ground for preference: as at
cards, dice, lotteries, &c.
far the laws ^/'Chance, or the Proportion of Ha¬
zard in Gaming, fee Game.
I he ancient fortilege, or chance, M. Placette ob-
ferves, was inftituted by God himfelf: and in the Old
Felfament we find feveral Handing laws and exprefs
commands which prefcribed its ufe on certain occa-
fions. Hence.the Scripture fays, “ The lot, or chance,
fell on Matthias,” when it was in queftion who fhould
fill Judas’s place in the apoftolate.
Hence alfo arofe the fortes fanBorum, or method of
determining things, among the ancient Chriftians, by
opening fome of the facred books, and pitching on the
firft verfe they caft their eye on, as a fare prognoftic
of what was to befal them. HVt fortes Homerica, Vir-
giliance, Pr<tnefina, &c. ufed by the heathens, were
with the fame view, and in the fame manner. See
Sortes.
St Auguftine feems to approve of this method of
determining things future, and owns that he had prac-
tned it himlelf j grounded on this fuppofition, that
God prefides over chance ; and on Prov. xvi. 3 3.
Many among the modern divines hold chance to
be conduced in a particular manner by Providence 5
and efteem it an extraordinary w^ay which God ufes
to declare his will, and a kind of immediate revela¬
tion.
CuANCE-Medley, in Law, is wdiere one is doing a
lawful a£l, and a perfon is killed by chance thereby j
for if the a£t be unlawful, it is felony. If a perfon
call, not intending harm, a Hone, which happens to
hit one, whereof he dies 5 or (hoots an arrow in a
highway, and another that paffeth by is killed there¬
with ; or if a workman, in throwing dowm rubbilh
from a houfe after warning to take care, kills a per¬
fon ; or. a fchoolmafter in correfting his fcholar, a
mafter his fervant, or an officer in whipping a criminal
in a reafonable manner, happens to occafion his death;
it is chance-medley and mifadventure. But if a man
throw (tones in a highway where perfons ufually pafs ;
or (hoot an arrow, &c. in a market-place among a
great many people ; or if a workman caft down rub-
unh from a houfe in cities and towns where people are
continually paffing ; or a fchoolmafter, &c. correfl
.ns fervant or . fc.holar, &c. exceeding the bounds of
moderation ; it is manflaughter : and if with an im¬
proper inftrument of corredion, as with a fword or
iron bar,, or. by kicking, (tamping, &c. in a cruel
manner, it is murder. If a man whips his horfe in a
ftreet to make him.gallop, and the horfe runs over a
child and kills it, it is manftaughter : but if another
whips the horfe, it is manflaughter in him, and chance-
medley in the rider. And if two are fighting and a
third perfon coming to part them is killed by’ one of
them without any evil intent, yet this is murder in
him, and not manflaughter by chance-medley or mif¬
adventure. In chance-medley, the offender forfeits
his goods; but hath a pardon of courfe.
[ 382 ]
C H A
CHANCEL, is properly that part of the choir of a Chancel,
church, between the altar or communion-table and the Chancellor.
baluftrade or rail that e.nclofes it, where the minifter ‘ * ’
is placed at the celebration of the communion. The
word comes from the Latin cancel/us, which in the
lower. Latin is ufed in the fame fenfe, from cancelli,
attices or crofs bars,” wherewith the chancels were
anciently encompaffed, as they now are with rails.
I he right of.a.feat and a fepulchre- in the chancels is
one of the privileges of founders.
CHANCELLOR, was at firft only a chief notary
or fcribe under the emperors; and was called cancel-
larius, becaufe he fat behind a lattice (in Latin cancel-
lus) to avoid being crowded by the people : though
fome derive the word from cancellare, “ to cancel.”
(See Chancery). This officer was afterwards in-
vefted with feveral judicial powers, and a general fu-
penntendency over the reft of the officers of the prince.
From the Roman empire it paffed to the Roman
church, ever emulous of imperial ftate : and hence
every bifliop has. to this day his chancellor, the prin¬
cipal judge of his confiftory. And when the modern
kingdoms of Europe were eftabliflied upon the ruins of
the empire, almoft every ftate preferved its chancellor
with different jurifdiaions and dignities, according to
their different conftitutions. But in all of them he
feems to have had the fupervifion of all charters, let¬
ters, and fuch other public inftruments of the crown
as were authenticated in the moft folemn manner : and
therefore, when feals came in ufe, he had always the
cuftody of the king’s great feal.
■ Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, or Lord
Keeper of the Great Seal, is the higheft honour of the
long robe, being created by the mere delivery of the
king’s great feal into his cuftody : whereby he be¬
comes,. without writ or patent, an officer of the great-
eft weight and powrer of any now (ubfifting in the
kingdom. He is a privy counfellor by his office ; and
according to Lord Chancellor Eilelinere, prolocutor
of the houfe of lords by prefcription. To him belongs
the appointment of all the juftices of the peace through¬
out the kingdom. Being in former times commonly
an ecclefiaftic (for none elfe were then capable of an
oilice (o converlant in writing), and prefiding over the
royal chapel, he became keeper of the king’s con-
fcience ; vifitor, in right of the king, of all hofpitals
and colleges of the king’s foundation ; and patron of
all the king’s, livings under the value of 20I. per an¬
num in the king’s books. He is the general guardian
of all infants, idiots, and lunatics ; and has the gene¬
ral fuperintenden.ee of all charitable ufes in the king-
d.om ; and all this over and above the vaft extenfive ju-
rndiCHon which he exercifes in his judicial capacity in
the court of chancery. He takes a precedence of eve¬
ry temporal lord except the royal family, and of all
others except the archbifliop of Canterbury. See
Chancery.
Chancellor, in Scotland, was the chief in mat¬
ters of juftice. In the laws of King Malcolm II. he
is placed before all other officers; and from thefe
it appears that he had the principal dire&ion of the
chancery, or chaneellary as it is called, which is his
proper office. He had the cuftody of the king’s feal;
and he was the king’s moft intimate counfellor, as ap¬
peals by an old law cited by Sir James Balfour : “ The
chancella;
C H A
[ 3^3 ]
C H A
Chancellor, chancellar fal at al tymes aflift the king, in giving him
'—■'Y—-J counfall mhir fecretly nor the reft of the nobility, to
quais ordinances all ofticiaris, als well of the realme as
of the kingis hous, fould anfwer and obey. The chan¬
cellar fall be ludgit neir unto the kingxs grace, for
keiping of his bodie, and the feill ; and that he may
be readie baith day and nicht at the kingis command.”
By having the cuftody of the great feal, he had an
opportunity of examining the king’s grants, and other
deeds which were to pafs under it, and to cancel them
if they appeared againft law, and were obtained iur-
reptltioully or by falfe fuggeftions.
King James VI. ordained the chancellor to have the
firft place and rank in the nation, rat tone officii; by
virtue whereof he prefided in the parliament, and in
all courts of judicature. After the reftoration of King
Charles II. by a particular declaratory law, parliament
firft, the lord chancellor was declared, by virtue and^
right of his office, prefident, in all the meetings of
parliament, or other public judicatures of the king¬
dom. Although this aft was made to declare the
chancellor prefident of the exchequer as well as other
courts, yet in 1663 the king declared the treafurer to
be prefident of that court.
The office of lord chancellor was aboliffied by the
Union, there being no farther ufe for the judicial part
of this office j and to anfwer all the other parts of the
chancellor’s office, a lord keeper of the great leal was
erefted, with a falaiy of 3000I. a-year.
Chancellor of a cathedral, an officer that hears
leffons and lesftures read in the church, either by hira-
felf or his vicat j to correct and fet right the reader
when he reads amifs ; to infpeft fchools j to hear
caufes; apply the feal •, write and defpatch the letters
of the chapter j keep the books •, take care that there
be frequent preachings, both in the church and out
of it •, and affign the office of preaching to whom he
pleafes.
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancafier, an officer
appointed chiefly to determine controverfies between
the king and his tenants of the duchy land, and other*
wife to diredt all the king’s affairs belonging to that
court. See Duchy Court.
Chancellor of the Exchequer, an officer who pre-
fides in that court, and takes care of the intereft of the
crown. He is always in commiffion with the lord*
treafurer, for the letting of crown lands, &c. and has
power with others, to compound for forfeitures of
lands upon penal ftatutes. He has alfo great authori¬
ty in managing the royal revenues, and in matters re¬
lating to the firft fruits.
Chancellor of the order of the Garter, and other
Military Orders, is an officer who feals the commif-
fions and mandates of the chapter and affembly of the
knights, keeps the regifter of their proceedings, and
delivers adls thereof under the feal of their order.
Chancellor of an Univcrftty, is he who feals the
diplomas, or letters of degrees, provifion, &c. given in
the univerfity.
The chancellor of Oxford isufually one of the prime
nobility, chofen by the ftudents themfelves in convo¬
cation. He is their chief magiftrate j his office is,
dir-ante vita, to govern the univerfity, preferve and
defend its rights and privileges, convoke affemblies,
and do luftice among the members under this junfdic- Chancei-
J 0 lor’s Court
Uon.
Under the chancellor is the vice chancellor, who is Qiancerv,
chofen annually, being nominated by the chancellor, w—y—
and ele61ed by the univerfity in convocation. He is
always the head of fome college, and in holy orders.
His proper office is to execute the chancellor’s power,
to govern the univerfity according to her ftatutes, to
fee that officers and ftudents do their duty, that courts
be duly called, &c. When he enters upon his office,
he choofes four pro-vice chancellors out of the heads of
the colleges, to execute his power in his abfence.
The chancellor of Cambridge is alfo ufually one of
the prime nobility, and in moft refpe&s the fame as
that in Oxford , only he does not hold his office du~
rante vita, but may be elefted every three years. Un¬
der the chancellor there is a commiffary, who holds a
court of record for all privileged perfons and fcholars
under the degree of matter of arts, where all caufes
are tried and determined by the civil and ftatute law,
and by the cuftom of the univerfity.
The vice chancellor of Cambridge is chofen annual¬
ly by the fenate, out of two perfons nominated by the
heads of the feveral colleges and halls.
Chancellor"1 s Court. See University Courts.
CHANCERON, in Natural Hijtory, a name given
by the French writers to the Imall caterpillar, that eats
the corn, and does vaft mifchief in their granaries.
See the article Corn-Butterfly.
CHANCERY, the higheft court of juftice in Bri¬
tain next to the parliament, and of very ancient infti-
tution. It has its name chancery [cancellana) from
the judge who prefides here, the lord chancellor, or
cancellarius; who according to Sir Edward Coke, is
fo termed, a cancellando, from cancelling the king’s
letters patent when granted contrary to law, which is
the higheft point of his jurifdi&ion. In chancery
there are two diftindl tribunals : the one ordinary, be¬
ing a court of common law ; the other extraordinary,
O r ,
being a court of equity.
1. The ordinary legal court holds pleas of recogni- Bladjl,
zances acknowledged in the chancery, writs olfcire Commenf.
facias, for repeal of letters patent, writs of partition,
&c. and alfo of all perfonal aftions by or againft any
officer of the court. Sometimes a fuperfedeas, or writ
of privilege, hath been here granted to dilcharge a
perfon out of prifon : one from hence may have a ha¬
beas corpus prohibition, &c. in the vacation and here
a fubpcena may be had to force witneffes to appear in
other courts, when they have no power to call them ,
But, in profecuting caufes, if the parties defcend to
iffue, this court cannot try it by jury j but the lord-
chancellor delivers the record into the king’s bench
to be tried there p and after trial had, it is to be re¬
manded into the chancery, and there judgment given y
though if there be a demurer in law, it llrall be ar¬
gued in this court.
In this court is alfo kept the qfficina jujht'uz ; out of
which all original writs that pafs under the great feal,
all commiffions of charitable ufes, fewers, bankruptcy,
idiocy, lunacy, and the like, do iffue j and for which
it is always open to the iubjeft, who may there at any
time demand and have, ex debtto jujlitice, any writ that
his occafions may call for. Thefe writs, relating to tho
bufinefa
C H A [ 384 ] C H A
Chancellor, bufinefs of the fubjeft, and the returns of them, were,
w”~'v according to the fimplicity of ancient times, originally
kept in a hamper, in hanaperio ; and the others (relat¬
ing to fuch matters wherein the crown is mediately or
immediately concerned) were preferved in a little lack
or bag, in parva baga ; and hence hath arifen the di-
llimfHon of the hanaper office, and the petty-bag of¬
fice, which both belong to the common law court in
chancery.
2. The extraordinary court, or court of equity, pro¬
ceeds by the rules of equity and confcience, and mo¬
derates the rigour of the common law, cenfidering the
intention rather than the words of the law. It gives
relief for and againft infants notwithftanding their mi¬
nority, and for or againft married women notwith¬
ftanding their coverture. All frauds and deceits for
svhich there is no redrefs at common law j all breaches
of truft and confidence ; and accidents, as to relieve
obligors, mortgagers, &c. againft penalties and forfei¬
tures, where the intent was to pay the debt, are here
remedied : for in chancery, a forfeiture, &c. {hall not
bind, where a thing may be done after, or compenfa-
tion made for it. Alfo this court will give relief againft
the extremity of unreafonable engagements entered
into without confideration ; oblige creditors that are
unreafonable to compound with an unfortunate debtor;
and make executors, &c. give fecurity and pay in-
tereft for money that is to lie long in their hands.
This court may confirm title to lands, though one hath
loft his writings ; and render conveyances defective
through miftake, &c. good and perfect. In chancery,
copy-holders may be relieved againft the ill ufage of
their lords; enclofures of lands that are common be
decreed ; and this court may decree money or lands
given to charitable ufes, oblige men to account with
each other, &c. But in all cafes wffiere the plaintiff
can have his remedy at law7, he ought not to be reliev¬
ed in chancery ; and a thing which may be tried by a
jury is not triable in this court.
The proceedings in chancery are, firft to file the bill
of complaint, figned by fomc counfel, fetting forth the
fraud or injury done, or wrong fuftained, and praying
relief: after the bill is filed, procefs of fabpcena iffuew to
compel the defendant to appear ; and when the defen¬
dant appears, he puts in his anfwer to the bill of com¬
plaint, if there be no caufe for the plea to the jurifdip-
tion of the court, in difability of the perfon, or in bar,
&c. Then the plaintiff brings his replication, unlefs
he files exceptions againft the anfw7er as infufficient,
referring it to a mafter to report whether it be fuflicient
or not ; to which report exceptions may alfo be made.
The anfwer, replication, rejoinder, &c. being fettled,
and the parties come to iffue, witneffes are to be exa-
mmed upon interrogatories, either in court or by com-
miffion in the country, wherein the parties ufually join;
and when the plaintiff and defendant have examined
their witneffes, publication is to be made of the de-
politions, and the caufe is to be fet down for hearing ;
after which follows the decree. But it is now ufual to'
appeal to the houfe of lords; which appeals are to
be figned by tw7o noted counfel, and exhibited by way
of petition ; the petition or appeal is lodged with the
clerk of the houfe of lords, and read in the houfe,
whereon the appellee is ordered to put in his anfwer,
and a day fixed for hearing the caufe : and after coun-
I
fel heard, and evidence given on both fides, the lords Chandelier
will affirm or reverfe the decree of the chancery, and H
finally determine the caufe by a majority of votes, &c. . iaI^ eI\
CHANDELIER, in fortification, a kind of move-
able parapet, confiding of a wooden frame, made of two
upright flakes, about fix feet high, with crols planks
between them ; ferving to fupport fafcines to cover the
pioneers.
CHANDERNAGORE, a French fettlement in the
kingdom of Bengal in the Eaft Indies. It lies on the
river Ganges, two leagues and a half above Calcutta.
The diftrict is hardly a league in circumference, and
has the difadvantage of being fomewhat expofed on the
weftern fide ; but its harbour is excellent, and the air
is as pure as it can be on the banks of the Ganges.
Whenever any building is undertaken that requires
ftrength, it muft here, as well as in all other parts of
Bengal, be built upon piles, it being impoffible to dig
three or four feet without coming at water.
CHANDLER, Mary, diftinguiftied by her talent
for poetry, w7as the daughter of a diffenting minifter
at Bath, and was born at Malmfhury in Wiltflhire in
1687. She was bred a milliner ; but from her child¬
hood had a turn for poetry, and in her riper years ap¬
plied herfelf to the ftudy^of the poets. Her poems
for which fire was complimented by Mr Pope, breathe
the fpirit of piety and philofophy. She had the mif-
fortune to be deformed, which determined her to live
fingle; though {he had great fweetnefs of counte¬
nance, and was folicited to marry. She died in 1745,
aged 58.
Chandler, Dr Samuel, a learned and refpeftable
diffenting minifter, defcended from anceftors who had
heartily engaged in the caufe of religious liberty, and
fuffered for the fake of confcience and nonconformity ;
was born at Hungerford in Berks, where his father wras
a minifter of confiderable w7orth and abilities. Being by
his literary turn deftined to the miniftry, he was firft
placed at an academy at Bridgewater, and from thence
removed to Gloucefter under Mr Samuel Jones. A-
mong the pupils of Mr Jones were Mr Jofeph Butler,
afterwards biffiop of Durham, and Mr Thomas Seeker,
afterwards archbiffiop of Canterbury. With thefe emi¬
nent perfons he contrafted a friendftiip that continued
to the end of their lives, notwdthftanding the different
views by which their condu6t was aftenvards diredled,
and the different fituations in which they were placed.
Mr Chandler having finiftied his academical ftudies,
began to preach about July 1714 ; and being foon di¬
ftinguiftied by his talents in the pulpit, he was chofen
in. 1716 minifter of the Prefbyterian congregation at
Peckham near London, in which ftation he continued
fome years. Here he entered into the matrimonial ftate,
and began to have an increafing family, when, by the
fatal South fea fcheme of 1720, he unfortunately loft
the whole fortune which he had received with his wife.
His circumftances being thereby embarraffed, and his
income as a minifter being inadequate to his expences,
he engaged in the trade of a bookfeller, and kept a
{hop in the Poultry, London, for about two or three
years, {till continuing to difeharge the duties of the
paftoral office. He alfo officiated as joint preacher with
the learned Dr Lardner of a winter weekly evening
lefture at the meeting houfe in the Old Jewry, London :
in which meeting he was eftabliftied affiftant preacher
about
C H A
Chandler, about tbe year 1725, and then as the paftor.
i—v-—> he admimftered to the religious improvement of a very
refpeddable congregation for 40 years with the greatell
applaufeand with what diligence and application he
improved the vacancies of time from his paftoral duties,
for improving himfelf and benefiting the world, will
appear from his many writings on a variety of import¬
ant fubjefts. While he was thus laudably employed,
not only the univerfities of Edinburgh and Aberdeen
gave him, without any application, tellimonies of their
eifeem in diplomas, conferring on him the degree of
D. D. but he alfo received offers of preferment from
fome of the governors of the eftablifhed church, which
he nobly declined. He had likewife the honour of be¬
ing afterwards ele£led F. R. and A. SS.
On the death of George II. in 1760, Dr Chandler
publifhed a fermon on that event, in which he compa¬
red that prince to King David. This gave rife to a
pamphlet, which was printed in the year 1761, entitled
“ The Hiftory of the Man after God’s own Heart
wherein the author ventured to exhibit King David as
an example of perfidy, luff, and cruelty, fit only to be
ranked with a Nero or a Caligula j and complained of
the infult that had been offered to the memory of the
late Britifh monarch by Dr Chandler’s parallel between
him and the king of Ifrael. I his attack occafioned
Dr Chandler to publifh in the following year “ A Re¬
view of the Hiftory of the Mian after God’s own Heart j
in which the Falfehoods and Mifreprefentations of the
Hiftorian are expofed and correfted.” He ajfo pre¬
pared for the prefs a more elaborate work, which was
afterwards publifhed in two volumes 8vo, under the fol¬
lowing title 1 A Critical Hiftory of the Life of Da¬
vid ; in which the principal Events are ranged in Or¬
der of time ; the chief Objeftions of Mr Bayle and
others againft the Charadter of this Prince, the Scrip¬
ture Account of him, and the Occurrences of his
R eign, are examined and refuted; and the Pfalms
which refer to him explained.” As this was the laft,
it was likewife one of the beft, of Dr Chandler’s pro-
dudlions. The greateft part of this work was printed
off at the time of our author’s death, which happened
May 8. 1766, aged 73. During the laft year of his
life, he was vifited with frequent returns of a very
painful diforder, which he endured with great refigna-
tion and Chnftian fortitude. He was interred in the
burying-ground at Bunhill-fields on the 16th of the
month 5 and his funeral was very honourably attended
by minifters and other gentlemen. He exprefsly de-
fired, by his laft will, that no delineation of his cha-
radler might be given in his funeral fermon, which was
preached by Dr Amory. He had feveral children ;
two fons and a daughter who died before him, and
three daughters who furvived him •, two of whom are
yet living, and both married, one of them to the
Rev. Dr Harwood.
Dr Chandler was a man of very extenfive learning and
eminent abilities ; his apprehenfion was quick and his
judgment penetratinghe had a warm and vigorous ima¬
gination ; he was a very inftruftive and animated preach¬
er ; and his talents in the pulpit and as a writer procur¬
ed him very great and general efteem, not only among
the diffenters, but among large numbers of the eftabliih-
ed church. He was principally inftrumental in the
eftabliftiment of the fund for relieving the widows and
Vol. V. Parti.
[ 3S5 1 C ^ .
Here orphans of poor Proteftant diffenting minifters : the plan
of it wYas firft formed by him } and it was by his inter- ^
eft and application to his friends that many of the lyb-
fcriptions for its fupport were procured.
In 1768, four volumes of our author’s fermons were
publiflred by Dr Amory, according to his own direc¬
tions in his laft will 5 to which were prefixed a neat
engraving of him, from an excellent portrait by Mr
Chamberlin. He alfo expreffed a defire to have fome
of his principal pieces reprinted in four volumes 8vo ;
propofals were accordingly publiftied for that purpofe,
but^did not meet with lufficient encouragement. But
in 1777, another work of our author was publiftied in
one volume 4to, under the following title : “ A Para¬
phrase and Notes on the Epiftles of St Paul to the
Galatians and Ephefians, with doctrinal and practical
Obfervations : together with a critical and practical
Commentary on the two Epiftles of St Paul to the
Theffalonians.” Dr Chandler alfo left, in his inter¬
leaved Bible, a large number of critical notes, chiefly
in Latin, which are now the property of Dr Kippis,
Mr Farmer, Dr Price, and Dr Savage, and which
have been intended to be publiftied •, but the defign has
not yet been executed. A complete lift of Dr Chand¬
ler’s works is given in the Biographia Britannica,
vol. iii. p. 435.
CHANG-tong, a province of China, bounded on
the eaft by Petcheli and part of Honan, on the fouth
by Kiang-nan, on the eaft by the lea, and on the
north by the fea and part of Petcheli. I he country
is wrell watered by lakes, ftreams, and rivers 5 but is
neverthelefs liable to fufter from drought, as rain falls
here but feldom. The locufts alfo fometimes make
great devaftation. However, it abounds greatly in
game •, and there is perhaps no country where quails,,
partridges, and pheafants, are fold cheaper, the in¬
habitants of this province being reckoned the keeneft
fportfmen in the empire. The province is greatly en¬
riched by the river Yun, called the Grand luipenal Ca¬
nal, through which all the barks bound to Pekin muft
pafs in their w7ay thither. The duties on this canal
alone amount to more than 430,000!. annually. I he
canal itfelf is greatly admired by European travellers
on account of its ftrong and long dikes, the banks de¬
corated with cut ftone, the ingenious mechanifm of its
locks, and the great number of natural obftacles w'hich.
have been overcome in the execution of the work.—■
The province produces filk of the ordinary kind 5 and
befides this, another from a fort of infedl refembling
our caterpillar. It is coarfer than the ordinary filk,
but much ftronger and more durable ) fo that the fluffs
made from it have a very extenfive fale throughout the
empire.
Chang-tong is remarkable for being the birthplace
of the celebrated philofopher and lawgiver Confucius.
His native city is called Kio-feou, where there are fe¬
veral monuments erefted in honour of this great man.
The province is divided into fix diftridls, which con¬
tain fix cities of the firft clafs, and 114 of the fecond
and third. Along the coaft, alfo, are 15 or 16 vil¬
lages of confiderable importance on account of their
commerce ; there is likewife a.number of fmall iflands,
moft of w'hich have harbours very convenient for the
Chinefe junks w'hich pafs from thence to Corea or Lea-
tong. The moft remarkable cities are, 1. Tfi-nan-fou,
3 C the
Chang-
tong*
C H A [ 386 ] C H A
Chang- the capital, which ftands fouth of the river Tfing-ho or
long It is large and populous; but chiefly celebrated
Changes ^or having been the refidence of a long feries of kings,
■ whofe tombs, riling on the neighbouring mountains,
afford a beautiful profpefl. 2. Yen-tcheu-fou, the fe-
cond city of the province, fituated between two rivers,
and in a mild and temperate climate. Great quanti¬
ties of gold are faid to have been formerly collefled in
fts neighbourhood. 3. Lm-t<jin-tcheu, fituated on the
great canal, is much frequented by Ihips, and may be
called a general magazine for every kind of merchan-
dif’e. Here is an odlagonal tower, divided into eight
ftories, the walls of which are covered on the outfide
with porcelain loaded with various figures neatly exe¬
cuted, and incrufled on the infide with varioufly co¬
loured marble. A flaircafe, conftrudled in the wall,
eondu&s to all the flories, from which there are paf-
fages that lead into magnificent galleries ornamented
with gilt balluflrades. All the cornices and projec¬
tions of the tower are furnifhed with little bells j
which, fays M. Grofier, when agitated by the wind,
form a very agreeable harmony. In the highefl flory
is an idol of gilt copper, to which the tower is dedi¬
cated. In the neighbourhood are fome other temples,
the architefture of which is exceedingly beautiful.
CHANGER, an officer belonging to the king’s
mint, who changes money for gold or filver bullion.
See Mint.
Money-CnANGER, is a banker, who deals in the ex¬
change, receipt, and payment, of moneys. See Bank¬
er.
CHANGES, in Arithmetic, &c. the permutations
or variations of any number of quantities 5 with regard
to their pofition, order, &c. See Combination.
7<3 find all the pcjjible Changes of any number of
Quantities, cr how oft their Order may be varied.^ Sup-
pofe two quantities a and b. Since they may be ei¬
ther wrote ab or b a, it is evident their changes are
Suppofe three quantities a b c \ their changes
will be as in the margin ; as is evident by com-
c a b bining c firft with ab, then with b a; and hence
a c b the number of changes arifes 3. 2. Izr6. If
a b c the quantities be 4, each may be combined four
■   ways with each order of the other three ;
c b a whence the number of changes arifes 6. 4- = 4.
bca 3. 2. 1.=24. Wherefore, if the number of
b a c quantities be fuppofed «, the number of changes
will be n.n—\.n—2.77—3.77—4. &c. If the fame
quantity occur twice, the changes of two will be found
b b i oi three, bab,abb, b be four, c b ab, b c ab,
babe. And thus the number of changes in the firli
cafe will be 1 —(2. 1) : 2. I j in the fecond, 3=1(3. 2.
1) : 2. 1 : in the third, I2 = (4. 3. 2. 1) : 2. 1.
If a fifth letter be added, in each feries of four quan¬
tities, it will beget five changes, whence the number
of all the changes will be 6o=(^. 4. 3. 2.) 1, : 2. 1.
Hence if the number of quantities be 77, the number of
changes will be (77.77—1.77—2.77—3 77—4. &c.) : 2. 1.,
From thefe fpecial formulae may be colledled a general
one, viz. if n be the number of quantities, and m the
number which ffiows how oft the fame quantity occurs j
we fliall have (73.77—1.»—i.n—^.n—4.77—5.77 — 6.
n—7.77—8.?7—9. &c.): (777 —1.7?7—-2.773—3.777—4. &c.)
the feries being to be continued, till the continual
fubtra&ion of unity from n and m leave o. After the
fame manner we may proceed further, till putting n
for the number of quantities, and /, m, r, &c. for the
number that (hows hoxv oft any of them is repeated,
we arrive at an univerfal form. (77.77—1.77—2.77—3.
n—4.7?—5.7/—6.77—7.77—8. &c,): (/./.—1./—2./—3.
/ 4./ 5. &C. 777.777 1 .773 2.777 3. &C. T.r I.r 2.
r—3.7-—4./-—5. &c.)
Suppofe, for inftance, 77=6, l—l, rzzo. The number
of changes will be (6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.) : (3. 2. 1.3. 2. 1.)
= (6. 5- 4-) : (3- 3=2- 5- 2=20).
Hence, luppofe thirteen perfons at a table, if it be
required hoxv oft they may change places; we {hall
find the number 13. 12. 11. 1 o. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.
=6227020800.
In this manner may all the poffible anagrams of any
word be found in all languages, and that wdthout any
ftudy : fuppofe, v. g. it were required to find the ana¬
grams of the word amor, the number of changes xvill
be
73f a
a m
0 m a
m 0 a
mao
0 a 773
a 0 tn
a m 0
r 0 m a
0 r m a
0 m r a
0 m a r
r m 0 a
m r 0 a
m 0 r a
m 0 a r
r m a 0
m r a 0
tn a r 0
m a 0 r
r a 0 m
0 r a i7i
0 a r m
0 a m r
a r 0 m
a 0 r m
a o m r
r a m 0
a r m 0
a m r 0
a ?n 0 r
Changes
II „
Chan-fi.
room
The anagrams therefore of the word amor, in the
Latin tongue, arc roma, mora, maro, ramo, armo. See
Anagram.
Whether this new method of anagramatizing be like
to prove of much fervice to that art, is left to the
poets.
CHANNA, in Zoology, the name of a fiffi caught
in great plenty in the Mediterranean, and brought to
market in Italy and elfewhere, among the fea perch,
which it fo nearly refembles, that it would not be di-
ftinguifhable from it, but that the fea perch is bigger,,
and has only broad tranfverfe lines on its back, wffiere-
as the channa has them both tranfvexfe and longitudi¬
nal. It has a very wide mouth, and its loxver jaw7 is
longer than its upper ; fo that its mouth naturally falls
open. Its eyes are fmall, and its teeth very {harp :
its back is of a blackiffi red : it has feveral longitudinal
lines of a reddifh hue ; and its tail is marked with red-
diih fpots. There is an obfervation, that in all the
fiffi of this kind which have been examined by natu-
ralifts, there have been found none but females. This
is as old as the days of Ariftotle, Whether this be
true in faft, xvould require many obfervations. If it
Ihould prove fo, the xvhole feems to end in this, that
the channa is no diftin6l fpecies, but only the female
of fome other fifii. There is another fiffi not unlike
this, called cannadella, or rather channadella, which at
Marfeilles is known by the name of charina.
CHANNEL, in Geography, an arm of the fea, or
a narrow fea betxveen two continents; or between a
continent and an ifland. Such are the Britiffi channel,
St George’s channel, the channel of Conftantinople,
&c.
Channel of a fhip. See CnAiN-lVales.
CHAN-si, a province of China, and one of the
fmallefi: in the empire, is bounded on the eafl by Pe-
tcheli, on the fouth by Honan, on the weft by Chen-fi,
and on the north by the great xvall. The climate is
healthful
C H A [387
fThan-fi, healthful and agreeable, and the foil generally fertile,
Chant, though the country is full of mountains. Some of
T thefe laft are rough, wild, and uninhabited ; but others
are cultivated with the greateft care from top to bot¬
tom, and cut into terraces, forming a very agreeable
profpedl ; while fome have on their tops vaft plains no
lefs fertile than the richeft low lands. Thefe moun¬
tains abound with coal, which the inhabitants pound
'"and make into cakes with water ; a kind of furi which,
though not very inflammable, affords a ftrong and lad¬
ing fire when once kindled. It is principally ufed for
heating their doves, which are condrufted with brick
as in Germany; but the inhabitants of this province
give them the form of fmall beds, and fleep upon them.
The bed grapes to be met with in this part of Afia
grow: in the province of Chan-fi } fo that good wine
might be made, but- the people choofe rather to dry
•and fell them to the neighbouring provinces. The
country abounds with mufk, porphyry, marble, lapis
lazuli, and jafper of various colours1, and iron mines, as
well as fait pits and crydal, are very common. Here
are five cities of the fird clafs, and eighty-five of the
fecond and third : the mod remarkable are, 1. Tai-
youen-fou the capital, an ancient city about three
leagues in circumference, but much decayed in confe-
quence of being no longer the refidence of the princes
of the blood as it was formerly. Nothing now remains
of the palaces of thofe princes but a few ruins j but
their tombs are dill to be feen on a neighbouring
mountain. The burying place is magnificently orna¬
mented ; and all the tombs are of marble or cut done,
having near them triumphal arches, datues of heroes,
figures of lions and different animals, efpecially horfes,
and wdiich are difpofed in very elegant order. An
awful and melancholy gloom is preferved around thefe
tombs by groves of aged cypreffes which have never
felt the droke of an axe, placed chequer-wife. The
principal articles of trade here are, hardware, duffs of
different kinds, particularly carpets in imitation of
thofe of Turkey. 2. Ngan-y is fituated near a lake as
fait as the ocean, from which a great quantity of fait is
extra£led. 3. Fuen-tcheou-fou, an ancient and com¬
mercial city built on the banks of the river Fuen-ho :
it has baths and fprings almod boiling hot, which, by
drawing hither a great number of drangers, add great¬
ly to its opulence. 4. Tai-tong-fou, fituated near the
wall, is a place of great drength, and important by
reafon of its fituation, as being the only one expofed
to the incurfions of the Tartars. Its territories abound
■with lapis lazuli, medicinal herbs, and a particular kind
of jafper caWtA. yieche, which is as white and beautiful
as agate *, marble and porphyry are alfo common ; and
a great revenue is produced from the Ikins which are
dreffed here.
CHANT, (cantus), is ufed for the vocal mufic of
churches.
In church hidory we meet with divers kinds of
chant or fong. The fird is the Ambrofian, edablifhed by
St Ambrofe. The fecond, the Gregorian chant, intro¬
duced by Pope Gregory the Great, who eflabliflied
Ichools of chantors, and corredled the church-fong.
This is dill retained in the church under the name of
plain fong: at fird it was called the Roman fong. The
plain or Gregorian chant, is where the choir and people
iiug in unifon, or all together in the fame manner.
Chaos.
■\ C H A
CHANTILLY, a village in France, about fevcn Chantilly
leagues from Paris, where there is a magnificent palace
and fine fored formerly belonging to the duke of*.
Bourbon.
CHANTOR, a finger of a choir in a cathedral.
The word is almod grown obfolete, chorifler ox finging-
man being commonly ufed indead of it. All great
chapters have chantors and chaplains to aflid the ca¬
nons, and officiate in their abfence.
Chantor is ufed by way of excellence for the pre¬
centor or mader of the choir, which is one of the fird
dignities of the chapter. At St David’s in Wales,
where there is no dean, he is next in dignity to the
biffiop. The ancients called the chantor primicerhts
cantorum. To him belonged the dire&ion of the dea¬
cons and other inferior officers.
Chantors, in the temple of Jerufalem, were a num¬
ber of Levites employed in finging the praifes of God,
and playing upon indruments before his altar. They
had no habits didinft from the red of the people ; yet
in the ceremony of removing the ark to Solomon’s
temple, the chantors appeared dreffed in tunics of byf-
fus or fine linen. 2. Chron. v. 12.
CHANTRY, oiChauntry, w^as anciently a church
or chapel endowed with lands, or other yearly revenue,
for the maintenance of one or more prieds, daily fay¬
ing or finging mafs for the fouls of the donors, and
fuch others as they appointed. Hence chauntry-rents
are rents paid to the crown by the tenants or purchafers
of chauntry-latids.
CHAOLOGY, the hidory or defeription of the
chaos. See Chaos.
Orpheus, in his chaology, fets forth the different al¬
terations, fecretions, and diverfe forms, which matter
went through till it became inhabitable, which a-
mounts to the fame with what we otherwife call cof-
mogony. Dr Burnet, in his theory of the earth, re-
prefents the chaos as it was at fird, entire, undivided,
and univerfally rude and deformed ; or the tohu bohu :
then ffiows how it came to be divided into its refpeftive
regions ; how the homogeneous matter gathered itfelf
apart from all of a contrary principle 5 and ladly, how
it hardened and became a folid habitable globe. See
Earth.
CHAOS, that confufion in which matter lay when
newly produced out of nothing at the beginning of the
world, before God, by his almighty word, had put it
into the order and condition wherein it was after the
fix days creation. See Earth.
Chaos is reprefented by the ancients as the firfi:
principle, ovum, or feed of nature and the world. All
the fophifts, fages, naturalifts, philofophers, theologues,
and poets, held that chaos wTas the eldeft and firfi: prin¬
ciple, to #£405. The Barbarians, Phoenicians,
Egyptians, Perfians, &c. all refer the origin of the
world to a rude, mixed, confufed mafs of matter. The
Greeks, Orpheus, Hefiod, Menander, Ariftophanes,
Euripides, and the writers of the Cyclic Poems, all
fpeak of the firft chaos •, the Ionic -and Platonic philo-
fophers build the world out of it. The Stoics hold,
that as the world was firft made of a chaos, it lhall at
laft be reduced to a chaos} and that its periods and
revolutions in the mean time are only tranfitions from
one chaos to another. Laftly, The Latins, as Ennius,
Varro, Ovid, Lucretius, Statius, &c. are all of the
3 C 2 fame
C H A [ 388 ] C H A
Chaos fame opinion. Nor is there any feci or nation what-
II ever that does not derive their thejlruclure of
ha’^e ' . the 'world, front a chaos.
The opinion firft arofe among the Barbarians, whence
it fpread to the Greeks, and from the Greeks to the
Romans and other nations. Dr Burnet obferves, that
befides Ariftotle and a few other Pfeudo-Pythagoreans,
nobody ever afferted that our world was always from
eternity of the fame nature, form, and ftrudlure, as at
prefent ; but that it had been the Handing opinion of
the wife men of all ages, that what wTe now call the
terrejlrialglobe, was originally an unformed, indigefted
mafs of heterogeneous matter, called chaos; and no
more than the rudiments and materials of the prefent
world.
It does not appear who firft broached the notion of
a chaos. Mofes, the eldefl of all writers, derives the
origin of this world from a confufion of matter, dark,
void, deep, without form, which he calls tohu bohu ;
which is precifely the chaos of the Greek and Barba¬
rian philofophers. Mofes goes no further than the
chaos, nor tells us whence it took its origin, or whence
its confufed Hate ; and where Mofes Hops, there pre¬
cifely do all the reft. Dr Burnet endeavours to fhow
that as the ancient philofophers, &c. who wrote of the
cofmogony, acknowledged a chaos for the principle of
their world ; fo the divines, or writers of the theogony,
derive the origin or generation of their fabled gods
from the fame principle.
Mr Whifton fuppofed the ancient chaos, the origin
1 of our earth, to have been the atmofphere of a comet 5
which, though new, yet, all things confidered, is not
the moft improbable aflertion. He endeavours to make
it out by many arguments, drawn from the agreement
wdiich appears to be between them. So that, accord¬
ing to him, every planet is a comet, formed into a re¬
gular and lafting conftitution, and placed at a proper
diftance from the fun, revolving in a nearly circular
orbit : and a comet is a planet either beginning to be
deftroyed or re-made; that is, a chaos or planet unform¬
ed or in its primeval ftate, and placed as yet in an or¬
bit very eccentrical.
Chaos, in the phrafe of Paracelfus, imports the air.
It has alfo fome other fignifications amongft the alche-
mifts.
Chaos, in Zoology, a genus of infers belonging to
the order of vermes zoophyta. The body has no {hell
or covering, and is capable of reviving after being dead
to appearance for a long time : it has no joints or ex¬
ternal organs of fenfation. There are five fpecies, moft-
ly obtained by infufions of different vegetables in wa¬
ter, and only difcoverable by the microfcope. See Ani¬
malcule.
CHAPEAU, in Heraldry, an ancient cap of digni¬
ty worn by dukes, being fcarlet-coloured velvet on the
outfide, and lined with a fur. It is frequently borne
above a helmet inftead of a wreath, under gentle¬
men’s crefts.
CHAPEL, a place of divine worftiip, fo called*
The word is derived from the Latin capella. In for¬
mer times, when the kings of Fiance were engaged in
war, they always carried St Martin’s hat into the
field, which was kept in a tent as a precious relick :
from whence the place, was called capella ; and the
oriefts, who had thecuftody of the tent, capellanu Af¬
terwards the word capella became applied to private Chapel
oratories. H
In Britain there are feveral forts of chapels. I. Pa- a^e e
rochial chapels : thefe differ from parifti churches only
in name } they are generally fmall, and tlie inhabitants
within the diftri£l few. If there be a prefentation ad
ecclejiam inftead of capellam, and an admiftion and in-
ftitution upon it, it is no longer a chapel, but a church.
2. Cha^fts, which adjoin to, and are part of the church :
fuch were formerly built by honourable perfons, as
burying places for themfelves and their families. 3. Cha¬
pels of eafe : thefe are ufually built in very large pa-
rhhes, where all the people cannot conveniently repair
to the mother church. 4. Free chapels j fuch as were
founded by kings of England. They are free from
all epifcopal jurifdiclion, and only to be vifited by the
founder and his fucceffors j which is done by the lord
chancellor : yet the king may licenfe any fubjedl to
build and endow a chapel, and by letters patent ex¬
empt it from the vifitation of the ordinary. 5. Cha¬
pels in the univerfities, belonging to particular col¬
leges. 6. Domeftic chapels, built by noblemen or
gentlemen for the private fervice of God in their fami¬
lies. See Chaplain.
Chapel is alfo a name given to a printer’s work-
houfe ; becaufe, according to fome authors, printing
was firft actually performed in chapels or churches ; or,
according to others, becaufe Caxton, an early printer,
exercifed the art in one of the chapels in Weftminfter
abbey. In this fenfe they fay, the orders or laws of the
chapel, the fecrets of the chapel, &c.
Knights of the Chapel, called alfo Poor knights of
Windfor, were inftituted by Henry VIII. in his tefta-
ment. Their number rvas at firft thirteen, but has been
fince augmented to 26. They affift in the funeral
fervices of the kings of England : they are fubjedt to
the office of the canons of Windfor, and live on pen-
fions affigned them by the order of the Garter. They
bear a blue or red cloak, wdth the arms of St George
on the left fhoulder.
CHAPELAIN, James, an eminent French poet,
born at Paris in 1595, and often mentioned in the
works of Balzac, Menage, and other learned men. He
wrote feveral works, and at length diftinguiftied himfelf
by a heroic poem called La Pucellc, ou France Dehv-
ree, which employed him feveral years j and which
railing the expectation of the public, was as much de¬
cried by fome as extolled by others. He w7as one of
the king’s counfellors 5 and died in 1647, very rich,,
but was very covetous and fordid.
CHAPELET, in the manege, a couple of ftirrup-
leathers, mounted each of them with a ftirrup, and
joined at top in a fort of leather buckle, called the
head of the chapelet, by which they are made fall to the
pummel of the faddle, after being adjuftedtothe rider’s
length and bore. They are ufed both to avoid the
trouble of taking up or letting down the ftirrups every
time that the gentleman mounts on a different horfe
and faddle, and to fupply the place of the academy,
faddles, which have no ftirrups to them.
CHAPELLE, Claudius Emanuel Luillier,
the natural fon of Francis Luillier, took the name of
Chapelle from a village between Paris and St Denys,
where he wTas born. He diftinguiftied himfelf by writing
fmall pieces of poetry, in which he difeovered great
delicacy
.rC H A
t 389 ]
C H A
chaperon delicacy, an eafy turn, and an admirable felicity of ex-
11 preflion. He was the friend of Gaflendt and Moliere;
^Chaplain ^ an(j (]ied in 1686.
^ CHAPERON, Chaperonne, or Chaperoon, pro-
perly fignifies a fort of hood or covering for the head,
anciently worn both by men and women, the nobles
and the populace, and afterwards appropriated to the
dodtors and licentiates in colleges, &c. Hence the
name paffed to certain little fhields, and other funeral
devices, placed on the foreheads of the horfes that
drew the herfes in pompous funerals, and which are
{till called chaperoons or Jhaffcroons 5 becaufe fuch de¬
vices were originally fallened on the chaperonnes, 01
hoods, worn by thofe horfes with their other coverings
of date. . • 1 r j
Chaperon of a bit-mouth, in the manege, is only u.ea
for fcatch-mouths, and all others that are not cannon-
mouths, fignifying the end of the bit that joins to
the branch juft by the banquet. In fcatch-mouths
the chaperon is round, but in others it is oval . and
the fame part that in fcatch and other mouths is called
chaperon, is in cannon-mouths czWzd. frongeau. .
CHAPITERS, in ArchiteBure, the fame with ca¬
pitals.
Chapiters, in Lava, formerly figmfied a lummary
of fuch matters as were inquired of, or prefented be¬
fore juftices in eyre, juftices of affize, or of the peace,
in their feflions.
Chapiters, at this time, denotes fuch articles as are
delivered by the mouth of the juftice in his charge to
the inqueft.
CHAPLAIN properly fignifies a perion pro¬
vided with a chapel, or who difeharges the duty
thereof. , „ n. , r
Chaplain is alfo ufed for an ecclefiaftical perion,
in the houfe of a prince, or a perfon of quality, who
officiates in their chapels, &c. _ ’
In England there are 48 chaplains, to the king,
who wait four each month, preach in the chapel,
read the fervice to the family, and to the king in
his private oratory, and fay grace in the abfence of
the clerk of the clofet. While in waiting thfcy have a
table and attendance, but no falary. j In Scotland the
king has fix chaplains, with a falary ot 50I. ^ack»
three of them having in addition the deanery of the
chapel royal divided between them, making up above
look to each. The only duty at preient is to lay
prayers at the ele&ion of peers for Scotland to fit in
parliament.—According to a ftatute of Henry VIII.
the perfons veiled with a power of retaining chaplains,
together with the number each is allowed to qualify,
is as follows : An archbilhop, eight •, a duke or bilhop,
fix ; marquis or earl, five •, vifeount, four •, baron,
knight of the garter, or lord chancellor, three j a du-
chefs, marchionefs, countefs, baronefs, the treafurer
and comptroller of the king’s houfe, clerk of the clo¬
fet, the king’s fecretary, dean of the chapel, almoner,
and matter of the rolls, each of them two j chief juf¬
tice of the king’s bench, and warden of the cinque-
ports, each one. All thefe chaplains may purchafe a
licenfe or difpenfation, and take two. benefices with
cure of fouls. A chaplain muft be retained by letters
teftimonial under hand and fealfor it is not fufficient
that he ferve as chaplain in the family. .
The foil chaplains are faid to have been thofe mfti-
tuted by the ancient kings of France, for prefervmg
the chape, or cape, with the other relicks of St Martin, _
which the kings kept in their palace, and carried
out with them to the war. The firft chaplain is
faid to have been Gul. de Mefmes, chaplain to St
Louis. . r ,
Chaplain in the order of Malta, is tiled for the
fecond rank or clafs in that order ; otherwife called
diaco. .
The knights make the firft clafs, and the chaplains
the fecond. _
Chaplains of the Pope, are the auditors, or judges
of caufe in the facred palace 5 fo called, becaufe the
pope anciently gave audience in his chapel, for the de-
cifion of cafes fent from the feveral parts of Chriften-
dom. He hither fummoned as affeflors the moft learn¬
ed lawyers of his time •, and they hence acquired the
appellation of capellani, chaplains. It is from the de¬
crees formerly given by thefe that the body of decretals
is compofed : their number Pope Sixtus IV. reduced
to twelve. .
Some fay, the fhrines of relicks were covered with a
kind of tent cape, 01 capella, i. e. little cape ; and that
hence the priefts, who had the care of them, were called
chaplains. In time thefe relicks were repofited in a
little church, either contiguous to a larger or feparate
from it *, and the fame name, capella, which was given
to the cover, was alio given to the place wffiere it was
lodged : and hence the prieft who luperintended it
came to be called chaplain.
CHAPLET, an ancient ornament for the head, like
a garland or wreath : but this word is frequently ufed
to fignify the circle of a crown, d here are inftances
of its being borne in a coat of arms, as well as for
crefts ; the paternal arms for Lafcelles are argent, three
chaplets, gules. _ .
Chaplet alfo denotes a firing of beads uled by the
Roman Catholics, to count the number of their prayers.
The invention of it is alcribed to Peter the hermit,
who probably learned it of the Turks, as they owe it
to the Eaft Indians.
Chaplets are fometimes called pater-nofers j and are
made of coral, of diamonds, of wrood, &c. The com¬
mon chaplet contains 50 ave-marias, and five pater-
nofters. There is alfo a chaplet of our Saviour, con¬
fining of 33 beads, in honour of his 33 years living
on the earth, inftituted by Father Michael the Camai-
dufian. . , ,
The Orientals have a kind of chaplets which they
call chains, and which they ufe in their prayers, re-
hearfing one of the perfe&ions of God on each link or
head. The Great Mogul is faid to have 18 of thefe
chains, all precious ftones j fome diamonds, others ru-
bieSj pearls, &c. The Turks have likewife chaplets,
which they bear in the hand, or hang at the girdle .
but Father Dandini obferves, they differ from thofe
ufed by the Rorqanifts, in that they are all of the fame
bignefs, and have not that diftindlion into decades,
though they confift of fix decades, or 60 heads. He
adds, that the Muffelmans run over the chaplet almoft
in an inftant, the prayers being extremely ihort, as
containing only thefe words, “ praife to God, or
“ glory to God,” for each bead. Befides the com¬
mon chaplet they have likewife a larger one confift-
injr of 100 beads, where there is iome diftindtion,. as
5 being
Chaplain?
Chaplet.
C H A
being divided by little threads into three parts ; on one
of which they repeat 30 fimes foubhan Allah, i. e.
“ God is worthy to be praifed on another, ellamh
Allah, “ glory be to God and on the third, Allah
echer, “ God is great.” Thefe thrice thirty times ma¬
king only 90 ; to complete the number 100, they add
other prayers for the beginning of the chaplet He
adds, that the IVTahometan chaplet appears to have
had its rife from the mea beracoth, or “ hundred be¬
nedictions,” which tlie Jews are obliged to repeat
daily, and which we find in their prayer books j the
Jews and Mahometans having this in common, that
they fcarce do any tiling without pronouncing forne
laud or benediction.
Menage derives the word chaplet from chapeau,
“ hat.” The modern Latins call it chapellina, the Ita¬
lians more frequently corona.
Chaplet, or Chape let, in Archite&ure, a little
moulding, cut or carved into round beads, pearls,
olives, or the like.
CHAPMAN, George, born in 1557, a man high¬
ly efieemed in his time for his dramatic and poetic
works. He wrote 17 plays; tranflated Ploiner and
fome other ancient poets •, and was thought no mean
genius. He died in 1634; and was buried in St Giles’s
m the Fields, where his friend Inigo Jones ereCted a
monument to him.
CHAPPE, in Heraldry, the dividing an efcutcheon
by lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to
the angles below, into three parts, the feClions on the
fides being of difterent metal or colour from the reft.
CHAPPEL tn frith, a market town of Derby-
fhire, about 26 miles north-weft of Derby. W. Long,
i. 50. N. Lat. 53. 22.
Chappel, William, a learned and pious bifhop of
'^ork, Cloyne, and Rofs in Ireland, born in Notting-
h am {hire in 1582.. When the troubles began under
C.iailes I. he was prolecuted by the puritan narty in
parliament, and retired to Derby, where he devoted
himfelf to ftudy till his death in 1649. He wrote
Methodus Concionandi, i. e. “ the Method of Preach¬
ing:” and he is one of thole to whom the Whole Duty
of Man has been attributed. Pie left behind him alfo
his own life written by himfelf in Latin, which has
been twice printed.
CHAPTER, in ecclefiaftical polity, a fociety or
community of clergymen belonging to the cathedrals ,
and collegiate churches.
It was in the eighth century that the body of canons
began to be called a chapter. The chapter of the ca¬
nons of a cathedral were a Handing council to the bi-
ihop, and, during the vacancy of the fee, had the iurif-
difhon of the diocefe. In the earlier ages, the biftiop
was head of the chapter ; afterwards abbots and other
dignitaries, as deans, provofts, treafurers, &c. were
preferred to this diftinclion. The deans and chapters
had the privilege of choofing the bifhops in England •
but Henry VIII. got this power veiled in the crown •
and as the fame prince expelled the monks from the
cathedrals, and placed fecular canons in their room,
tiioie he thus regulated were called deans and chapters
of the new foundation ; fuch are Canterbury Win
chefter, Ely, Carlifle, &c. See Dean.
Chapter, in matters in literature, a divifion in a
[ 39° 1
C H A
book for keeping the fubjefl treated of more clear and Char
diftindf. ||
CHAR, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Sal mo. Charaflers.
CHAR A. See Botany Index. " v~
CHARABON, a fea port town on the northern
coal! of the ifland of Java in the Eaft Indies. E. Long,
10. 8. S. Lat. 6.
CHARACENE, the mo ft fouthern part of Sufiana,
a province of Perfia, lying on the Perfian gulf, be¬
tween the. Tigris and the Eulaeus. It was fo named
from the city of Chorax, called firft Alexandria, from
its. founder Alexander the Great; afterwards Antio-
chia. from Antiochus V. king of Syria, who repaired
and beautified it; and laftly, Chorax Spafinte, or Pa-
finae, that is, tne Mole of the Spafines, an Arabian
king of that name having fecured it againft the over¬
flowing of the Tigris, by a high bank cr mole, extend¬
ing three miles, which ferved as a fence to all that
country. Dionyfius Periegetes, and Ifidorus, author
of the Parthicm Manfiones, were both natives of this
city. The fmall diftrid of Characene was feized by
Pafines, the fon of Sogdonacus, king of the neighbour¬
ing Arabs, during the troubles of Syria, and erefted
into a kingdom. Lucian calls him Hyfpafines, and
adds, that he ruled over the Characeni and the neigh¬
bouring people : he died in the 85 th year of his age.
The other kings of this country we find mentioned by
the ancients are, 'Perseus, who died in the 92d year
of his age, and after him Artabazus the feventh, as
Lucian informs us, who was driven from the throne
by his own fubjecls, but reftored by the Parthians.
And this is all we find in the ancients relating to the
kings of Characene.
CHARACTER, in a general fenfe, fignifies a mark
or figure, drawn on paper, metal, Hone, or other mat¬
ter, with a pen, graver, chiffel, or other inftrument,
to fignify or denote any thing. The word is Greek|
•'/j&ey/.Ttg, formed from the verb, 'ga.pa.rrs-m, infculpere,
“ to engrave, imprefs,” &c.
The various kinds of charadlers may be reduced to
three heads, viz. Literal Charallers, Numeral Charac¬
ters, and Abbreviations.
I. Literal Character, is a letter of the alphabet,
ferving to indicate fome articulate found, expreftive
of fome idea or conception of the mind. See Al¬
phabet .
1. Thefe may be divided, with regard to their na¬
ture and ufe, into Nominal CharaSlers, or thofe we pro¬
perly call letters; which ferve to exprefs the names of
things : See Letter. Real CharaSlers; thofe that
inftead of names exprefs things and ideas: See Idea,
&c. Emblematical or Symbolical CharaSlers: which have
this in common writh real ones, that they exprefs the
things themfelves ; but have thus further, that they in
{ome meafure perfonate them, and exhibit their form :
fuch are the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians.
See Hieroglyphic, Symbol, &c.
2. Literal Characters may be again divided, with
regard to their invention and ufe, into particular and
general or univerfal.
Particular Characters, are thofe peculiar to this
or that nation. Such are the Roman, Italic, Greek,
Hebrew7, Arabic, Gothic, Chinefe, &c. charaSlers. 
See Hebrew, Gothic, Chinese, &c;
LJniverfai
C H A [ 391
Characters. Univerfa! Characters, are alfo realcharnHers, and
'■“""Y-"—' make what fome authors call a Philofophical Lan-
gi/nge.
That diverfity of chara&ers ufed by the leveral na¬
tions to exprefs the fame idea, is found the chief ob-
ftacle to the advancement of learning: to remove this,
feveral authors have taken occafion to propofe plans
of characlers that fliould be univerfal, and which each
people fhould read in their own language. The cha-
rafter here is to be real, not nominal: to exprefs things
and notions; not, as the common ones, letters or founds:
yet to be mute, like letters, and arbitrary; not emble¬
matical, like hieroglyphics.
Thus, every nation fliould retain its own language,
yet every one underftand that of each other, without
learning it; only by feeing a real or univerfal chara&cr,
which Ihould fignify the fame things to all people, by
what founds foever each exprefs it in their particular
idiom. For inflance, by feeing the charaBer deflined
to fignify to drink, an Englifhman Ihould read to drink;
a Frenchman, boire; a Latin, bibere; a Greek ttiveiv; a
Jew, nnif; a German, trincken ; and fo of the reft :
in the fame manner as feeing a horfe, each people ex-
preffes it after their own manner; but all mean the
fame animal.
This real characier is no chimera ; the Chinefe and
Japanefe have already fomething like it. They have
a common charatfer which each of thofe nations un¬
derftand alike in their feveral languages; though they
pronounce them with fuch different founds, that they
do not underftand one another in fpeaking.
The firft and moft confiderable attempts for a real
characier, or philofophical language, in Europe, are
thofe of Bifhop Wilkins and Dalgarme : but thefe,
with how much art foever they were contrived, have
yet proved ineffe&ual.
M. Leibnitz had fome thoughts the fame way ; he
thinks thofe great men did not hit the right method.
It was probable, indeed, that by their means, people,
who do not underftand one another might eafily have
a commerce together; but they have not hit on true
real characters.
According to him, the charaElers fhould refemble
thofe ufed in algebra: which, in efteeft, are very
Ample, yet very expreflive ; without any thing fuper-
fluous or equivocal; and contain all the varieties re¬
quired.
The real charader of Biftiop Wilkins has its juft ap-
plaufe : Dr Hook recommends it on his own know¬
ledge and experience, as a moft excellent fcheme; and
to e-ngage the world to the ftudy thereof, publiftres
fome fine inventions of his own therein.
M. Leibnitz tells us, he had under confideration an
alphabet of human thoughts \ in order to a new philofo¬
phical language, on his own fcheme : but his death
prevented its being brought to maturity.
M. Lodwic, in the Philofophical Tranfaflions, gives
us a plan of an univerfalalphabet or character of another
kind : this was to contain an enumeration of all fuch
Angle founds, or letters, as are ufed in any language ;
by means .whereof, people fhould be enabled to pro¬
nounce truly and readily any language ; to deferibe
the pronunciation of any language that (hall be pro¬
nounced in their hearing, fo as others accuftomed to
this language, though they had never heard the Ian-
1
C H A
guage pronounced, (hall at firft be able truly to pro-Chara<fters.
nounce it: and, laftly, this charaBer to ferve as a ftand- v—'
ard to perpetuate the founds of any language. In
the Journal Litteraire, an. 1720, we have a very inge¬
nious projeft for an univerfal charaBer. The author,
after obviating the objeftions that might be made a-
gainft the feafiblenefs of fuch fchemes in the general,
propofes his own: his charaBers are to be the common
Arabic, or numeral figures. The combinations of
thefe nine are fufficient to exprefs diftinflly an incre¬
dible quantity of numbers, much more than we fhall
need terms to fignify our a£Hons, goods, evils, duties,
paftions, &c. Thus is all the trouble of framing and
learning any new charaBer 2X once faved; the Arabic
figures having already all the univerfality required.
The advantages are immenfe. For, \mo, We have
here a liable, faithful interpreter ; never to be cor¬
rupted or changed, as the popular languages continu¬
ally are. zdo, Whereas the difficulty of pronouncing
a foreign language is fuch as ufually gives the learner
the greateft trouble, and there are even fome founds
which foreigners never attain to: in the charaBer here
propofed, this difficulty has no place : every nation is-
to pronounce them according to the particular pro¬
nunciation that already obtains among them. All the
difficulty is, the accuftoming the pen and the eye to
affix certain notions to charaBers that do not, at firft:
fight, exhibit them. But this trouble is no more than
we find in the ftudy of any language whatever.
The infte61ions of words are here to be expreffed by
the common letters. For inftance, the fame charaBer
lhall exprefs a filly or a colt, a horfe or a mare, an old
horfe or an old mare, as accompanied with this or that
diftindtive letter, which fhall fnow the fex, youth, ma¬
turity, or old age: a letter alfo to exprefs the bignefs
or fize of things ; thus v. g. a man with this or that
letter, to fignify a great man, or a little man, &c.
The ufe of thofe letters belongs to the grammar;
which, once well underftood, would abridge the voca¬
bulary exceedingly. An advantage of this grammar
is, that it would only have one declenfion and one
conjugation ; thofe numerous anomalies of gramma¬
rians are exceeding troublefome; and arife hence, that
the common languages are governed by the populace,
who never reafon on what is beft : but in the charaBer
here propofed, men of fenfe having the introdudlion
of it, would have a new ground, whereon to build re¬
gularly.
A new univerfal characier has been propofed by Mr
Northmore of London, by which different nations may
communicate their fentiments to each other. His ori¬
ginal plan was, to make the fame numerical figure re-
prefent the fame word in all languages. But he found
afterwards that it might be improved, by ufinga figure
not for every word, but every ufefulword. And even
thefe he thinks might be abbreviated by adopting cer¬
tain uniform fixed figns, the number of which wmuld
not exceed 20, for the various parts of fpeech. Words
of negation, he propofed, to be exprefled by a prefixed
fign. A few inftances will explain the author’s meaning.
Suppofe the number 5 to reprefent the word fee,
a man,
happy,
never,
I
I
1
C H A [392
'Characters. tl 1 would then (fays he) exprefs the tenfes, genders,
v'—*' cafes, &.c. in all languages, in fome fuch uniform xnan-
as following:
^ — prefent tenfe, — ^ee»
— perfeEl tenfey — faw>
:g — perfeEl participle, — feen,
5: rr prefent participle, *— feeing,
zz. future, — ^ee»
5 = fubjlantive,
5 =: perfonal fubfantive, *— fpedlator,
6 =r nominative cafe, — a tnan,
6 — genitive, — a man»
6 — dative, —* to a man,
6 = feminine, —
(0
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(i°)
(iO 6
(l2)+f
(r3) 7
(H) 7
M
(15)
_7_ =
(16)—7
plural,
poftive,
comparative,
fuperlative,
as above, Nc
6.
a woman,
men,
happy,
happier,
happieft,
happinefs,
unhappy.
negation, —
“ From the above fpecimen, I (hould find no difficul¬
ty in comprehending the following fentence, though
it were written in the language of the Hottentots :
gf 8, .5,—7, 6. I never faw a more unhappy woman.
“ Thofe languages which do not ufe the pronoun
prefixed to the verb, as the Greek and Roman, &c.
may apply it, in a fmall character, {imply to denominate
the perfon j thus, inftead of 9, 8, .5, I never faw;
they may write, 8, 5.5, which will fignify that the
verb is in the firft perfon, and will ftill have the fame
meaning.”
Our author thinks, that according to this fcheme of
an univerfal character, about 20 figns, and lefs than
10,000 chofen words (fynonyms being fet afide), would
anfwer all the ends propofed 5 and that foreigners, by
referring to their numerical dictionary, would eafily
comprehend each other. He proceeds next to ffiew
how appropriate founds may be given to his figns, and
■an univerfal living language formed from the univerfal
characters.
To attain this end, he propofes to diftinguiffi the ten
numerals by ten monofyllabic names of eafy pronuncia¬
tion, and fuch as may run without difficulty into one
another. To illuftrate his fcheme, however, he calls
them, for the prefent, by their common Englifh names j
but would pronounce each number made ufe of by ut¬
tering feparately its component parts, after the manner
of accountants. Thus let the number 6943 reprefent
the word horfe, he would not, in the univerfal language,
call a horfe fix tboufand nine hundred and forty-three, but
fix, nine, four, three, and fo on for all the words of a
fentence, making the proper flop at the end of each.
In the fame manner, a dillinft appellation muft be ap¬
propriated to each of the prefixed figns, to be pronoun¬
ced immediately after the numeral to which it is an ap-
2
] C H A
pendage. Thus if plu be the appellation or the fign of Character
the plural number, fx, nine, four, three, plu will be —v—
horfes.
“ Thus (fays our author), I hope, it is evident that
about 30 or 40 diftinft fyllables are fufficient for the
above purpofe 5 but I am much miftaken if eleven only-
will not anfwer the fame end. This is to be done by
fubftituting the firft 20 or 30 numerals for the figns,
and faying, as in algebra, that a term is in the power of
fuch a number, which may be exprefled by the fimple
word under. Ex. gr. Let 6943 reprefent the word
horfe •, and fuppofe 4 to be the fign of the plural num¬
ber, Twould write the word thus, anc^ pronounce
it, fix, nine, four, three, in the power of or under four.
By thefe means eleven diftinft appellations would be
fufficient, and time and ufe would much abbreviate the
pronunciation.”
But the difficulty is not in inventing the moft fimple,
eafy, and commodious charaBer, but in engaging the
feveral nations to ufe it; there being nothing they
agree lefs in, than the underftanding and purfuing their
common intereft.
3. Literal charafters may again be divided, with
refpeft to the nations among whom they have been in¬
vented, into Greek charafters, Roman charafters, He¬
brew charafters, &c. The Latin charafter now ufed
through all Europe, was formed from the Greek, as the
Greek was from the Phoenician j and the Phoenician,
as well as the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic chara61ers,
were formed from the ancient Hebrew, which fubfifted
till the Babylonifii captivity ; for after that event the
character of the Aflyrians, which is the fquare Hebrew
now in ufe, prevailed, the ancient being only found on
fome Hebrew medals, commonly called Samaritan me¬
dals. It was in 1091 that the Gothic characters, in¬
vented by Ulfilas, were abolifhed, and the Latin ones
•eftabliffied in their room.
Medallifts obferve, that the Greek charaCler, con¬
fiding only of majufcule letters, has preferved its uni¬
formity on all medals, as low as the time of Gallienus,
from which time it appears fomewhat weaker and
rounder : from the time of Conftantine to Michael we
find only Latin characters : after Michael, the Greek
characters recommence j but from that time they be¬
gan to alter with the language, wffiich was a mixture of
Greek and Latin. The Latin medals preferved both
their characters and language as low as the tranflation
of the feat of the empire to Conftantinople : towards
the time of Decius the character began to lofe its
roundnefs and beauty; fome time after, it retrieved
and fubfifted tolerably till the time of Juftin, when it
degenerated gradually into the Gothic. The rounder,
then, and better formed a character is upon a medal,
the fairer pretence it has to antiquity.
II. Numeral Characters, or characters ufed to ex¬
prefs numbers, are either letters or figures.
The Arabic character, called alfo the common one,
becaufe it is ufed almoft throughout Europe in all forts
of calculations, confifts of thefe ten digits, x, 2, 3, 4,
5» 7» 8, 9>
The Roman numeral character confifts of feven ma¬
jufcule letters of the Roman alphabet, viz. I, V, X,
L, C, D, M. The I denotes one, V five, X ten,
L fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and M a thou-
fand. The I repeated twice makes two, II. 5 thrice,
three,
C H A [393
Ctarterj. three. III. Four is exprefled thus, IV. as I before V
     or X takes an unit from the number expreffed by theie
letters. To exprefs fix, an I is added to a V, VI. j
for feven, two, VII. 5 and for eight, three^ VIII. Nine
is expreffed by an I before X, thus, IX. The fame
remark may be made of the X before L or C, except
that the diminution is by tens; thus, XL denotes
forty, XC ninety, and LX fixty. The C before D
or M diminifhes each by a hundred. The number
five hundred is fometimes expreffed by an I. before a
C inverted, thus, ID ; and inftead of M, which figm-
fies a thoufand, an I is fometimes ufed between two
C’s, the one direft, and the other inverted, thus. Cl J.
The addition of C and D before or after raifes CIDby ,
tens : thus, CCIDD expreffes ten thoufand, LLCIJJJ
a hundred thoufand. The Romans alfo exprefied any
number of thoufands by a line drawn over any numeral
lefs than a thoufand ; thus, V denotes five thoufand,
LX fixty thoufand ; fo likewife M is one million, MM
is two millions, u
The Greeks had three ways of expreffing numbers:
1. Every letter, according to its place in the alphabet,
denoted a number, from «, one, to a, twenty-four.
2. The. alphabet was divided into eight units, * one,
/two, y three, &c.; into eight tens, i ten, * twenty>
X thirty, &c. ; and eight hundreds, § one hundred,
c two hundred, r three hundred, &c. 3. I flood for
one, n five, A ten, H a hundred, X a thoufand, M ten
thoufand ; and when the letter n enclofed any of theie,
except I, it fhowed the enclofed letter to be five times
its value ; as, |Z| fifty, \n\ five hundred, \x\ five thou¬
fand, Jm! fifty thoufand. , , , r
The French Characters ufed in the chamber of ac¬
counts, and by perfons concerned in the management
of the revenue, is properly fpeakmg, nothing elie than
the Roman numerals, in letters that are not majufcule .
thus, inftead of exprefiing fifty-fix by L\ I, they de¬
note it by fmaller charafters, Ivj. . .
III. Characters of Abbreviations, &c. in ieveral
©f the arts, are fymbols contrived for the more concife
and immediate conveyance of the knowledge of things.
Characters ufed in Algebra, fee Algebra, Intro-
du&ion.
Of the Afpe&s.
<5 or S Conjun&ion A Trine
SS Semifextile Bq Biquintile
* Sextile Vc Quincunx
O Quintile 0° Oppofition
□ QuartHe a Dragon’s head
Td Tredecile OS Dragon’s tail
Of Time.
A. M. ante meridiem, before the fun comes upon the
meridian.
O. or N. noon.
P. M. pojl meridiem, when the fun is paft the meridian.
Characters in Commerce.
D° ditto, the fame
N° numero, or number
folio, or page
C or ® hundred
weight, or 11 2
pounds
Vol. V. Part I.
qrs quarters
S or r {hillings
d pence or deniers
lb pound weight.
w™30! /«/»
V° vero 3 J
1 .c
f. or /. pounds fterling
pr per, or by, pr ann.
by the year, pr cent.
H A
Rx rixdollar
Dc ducat
P. S. poftfeript, &c.
Character''
Characters in Geometry and Trigonometry,
|| the chara£ter of pa- equiangular or fimi-
rallelifm lar
A triangle equilateral
□ fquare an angle
03 reftangle ^ right angle
© circle JL perpendicular
0 denotes a degree ; thus, 450 implies 45 degrees. ^
> denotes a minute ; thus, 50' is 50 minutes. ",
an, denote feconds, thirds, and fourths : and the fame
chara&ers are ufed where the progreffions are by tens,
as it is here by fixties.
Characters in Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, &cc.
D. D. doflor in divi¬
nity
V. D. M. minifter of
the word of God
LL. D. do£tor of laws
J. V. D. do£tor of ci¬
vil and canon law
“ quotation
M. D. dodlor in phyfic
A. M. mafter of arts
A. B. bachelor of arts
( ) parenthefis
[ ] crotchet
- hyphen
’ apoftrophe
' emphafis or accent
breve
.. dialyfis
a. caret and circumflex
f | and * references
§ feftion or divifion
paragraph
F. R. S. fellow of the royal fociety.
For the other charaaers ufed in grammar, fee Com¬
ma, Colon, Semicolon, &c.
Characters among the ancient Lawyers, and in ancient
Infcriptions.
§ paragraph
/'digefts
Scto. fenatus con-
fulto
E. extra
S. P. Q^R- fena¬
tus populufque
Romanus
P. P. pater patriae
C. Code
C. C. confules
T. titulus
P. P. D. D. propria
pecunia dedicavit
D. D. M. dono dedit
monumentum.
Characters in Medicine and Pharmacy.
recipe
^ or ana, of each
alike
lb a pound, or a pint
§ an ounce
5 a drachm
V) a fcruple
gr. grains
ft or fs half of any
thing
cong. congius, a gallon
coch. cochleare, a
fpoonful
Characters upon Tomb-fanes.
S. V. Sifte viator, i. e. Stop traveller.
M. S. Memoriae facrum, i. e. Sacred
mOry.
3D
M. manipulus, a hand¬
ful
P. a pugil
P. 7E. equal quanti¬
ties
S. A. according to
art
q. s. a fufficient quan¬
tity
q. pi. as much as you
pleafe
P. P. pulvis patrum, the
Jefuits bark.
to the me-
D.
C H A
Characters. J3. Rf. j);js manibus.
'"^TT'V' '.liy J. H. S. Jefus.
X. P. a chara&er found in the catacombs, about
the meaning of which authors are not agreed.
Characters ufed in Mu/jc, and of Mujical Notes 'with
their proportions, are as follo w.
crotchet
quaver
femiquaver
demifemiquaver
T?
j-j chara&er of a large
J-j a long
a breve ■
© a femibreve
Cj a minim
$ character of a lharp note ; this character at the
beginning of a line or fpace, denotes that all the notes
in that line are to be taken a femitone higher than in
the natural feries j and the lame aifefts all the oflaves
above and below, though not marked : but when pre¬
fixed to any particular note, it (hows that note alone
to be taken a femitone higher than it would be with¬
out fuch a character.
\) or h, character of a flat note : this is the contra¬
ry to the other above ; that is, a femitone lower.
§ character of a natural note : when in a line or
feries of artificial notes, marked at the beginning or
the natural note happens to be required, it is de¬
noted by this chara&er.
charafter of the treble cliff.
1—| character of the mean cliff.
Q; bafs cliff.
T or 4, characters of common duple time, fignify-
ing the meafure of two crotchets to be equal to two
notes, of which four make a femibreve.
$ characters that diftinguifh the movements
of common time, the firft implying flow, the fecond
quick, and the third very quick.
4, -f> characters of fimple triple time, the
meafure of which is equal to three femibreves, or to
three minims.
I, or ,6-g, characters of a mixed triple time, where
the meafure is equal to fix crotchets, or fix quavers.
or tt> or or t» or i) characters of compound
triple time.
tt, f |> or -j-V, or xx, characters of that fpecies
of triple time called the meafure of twelve times.
Character, in human life, that which is peculiar
in the manners of any perfon, and diftinguifhes him
from all others.
Good Character is particularly applied to that con¬
duct which is regulated by virtue and religion j in an
inferior but very common fenfe, it is underftood of
mere honefty of dealing between man and man. The
importance of a good character in the commerce of
life feems to be univerfally acknowledged.—To thofe
who are to make their own way either to wealth or
honours, a good charafter is ufually no lefs neceffary
than addrefs and abilities. To tranfcribe the obfervation
of an elegant moralift: though human nature is de¬
generate, and corrupts itfelf ftill more by its own in¬
ventions •, yet it ufually retains to the lafl an efteem
for excellence. But even if we are arrived at fuch an
extreme degree of depravity as to have loft our native
reverence for virtue j yet a regard to our own intereft
and fafety, which we feldom lofe, will lead us to ap-
394 1 C H A
ply for aid, in all important tranfaCHons, to men whofe Character.
integrity is unimpeached. When we choofe an affift-^  y-—■»'
ant, a partner, a fervant, our firft inquiry is concerning
his character. WTen we have occafion for a counfel-
lor or attorney, a phyfician or apothecary, whatever
we may be ourfelves, we always choofe to truft our
property and perfons to men of the beft character.
W hen we fix on the tradefmen who are to fupply us
with neceffaries, we are not determined by the fign of
the lamb, or the wolf, or the fox ; nor by a {hop fitted
up in the molt elegant tafte ; but by the faireft repu¬
tation. Look into a daily newfpaper, and you will
fee, from the higheft to the loweft rank, how import¬
ant the chara&ers of the employed appear to the em¬
ployers. After the advertifement has enumerated the
qualities required in the perfon wanted, there conftant-
ly follows, that none need apply who cannot bring an
undeniable character. Offer yourfelf as a candidate
for a feat in parliament, be promoted to honour and
emolument, or in any refpeCt attraCl the attention
of mankind upon yourfelf, and if you are vulner¬
able in your character, you will be deeply wound¬
ed. This is a general teftimony in favour of ho¬
nefty, which no writings and no practices can poffibly
refute.
Young men, therefore, whofe characters are yet
unfixed, and who confequently may render them juft
fuch as they wifh, ought to pay great attention to the
fir ft fteps which they take on entrance into life. They
are ufually carelefs and inattentive to this objeCt. They
purfue their own plans with ardour, and negleCt the
opinions which others entertain of them. By fome
thoughtlefs aCfion or expreftion, they fuffer a mark to
be impreffed upon them, which fcarcely any fiibfequent
merit can entirely erafe. Every man will find fome
perfons, who, though they are not profeffed enemies,
yet view him with an envious or a jealous eye, and who
will gladly revive any tale to which truth has given the
flighteft foundation.
In this turbulent and confufed fcene, where our
words and aftions are often mifunderftood, and oft-
ener mifreprefented, it is indeed difficult even for in¬
nocence and integrity to avoid reproach, abufe, con¬
tempt, and hatred. Thefe not only hurt our intereft
and impede our advancement in life, but forely afflift
the feelings of a tender and delicate mind. It is then
the part of wifdom firft to do every thing in our power
to preferve an irreproachable charader, and then to let
our happinefs depend chiefly on the approbation of our
own confciences, and on the advancement of our inte¬
reft in a world where liars ffiall not be believed, and
where Handers fliall receive countenance from none
but him who, in Greek, is called, by way of eminence,
Diabolus, or the calumniator.
Character, in Poetry, particularly the epopee and
drama, is the refult of the manners or peculiarities by
which each perfon is diflinguiffied from others.
The poetical charafter, fays M. Boffu, is not pro¬
perly any particular virtue or quality, but a compofi-
tion of feveral which are mixed together, in a differ¬
ent degree, according to the neceffity of the fable and
the unity of the adfion j there muft be one, however,
to reign over all the reft *, and this muft be found, in
fome degree, in every part. The firft quality in A-
chilles, is wrath; in Ulyfies, diffimulation 5 and in
iEneas,
C H A
[ 395 1
C H A
Cl.an&er, ./Eneas, mildnefs : but as thefe cliara&ers cannot be
Charadte- alone, they muft be accompanied with others to em-
bellhli them, as far as they are capable, either by
" hiding their defeats, as in the anger of Achilles, which
is palliated by extraordinary valour j or by making
them centre in fome folid virtue, as in Ulyffes, whofe
diffimulation makes a part of his prudence ; and in
/Eneas, whofe mildnefs is employed in a fubmiffion to
the will of the gods. In the making up of which
union, it is to be obferved, the poets have joined to¬
gether fuch qualities as are by nature the moll com¬
patible •, valour with anger, piety with mildnefs, and
prudence with diflimulation. 1 he fable required pru¬
dence in Ulyfles, and piety in iEneas j in this, there¬
fore, the poets were not left to their choice : but Ho¬
mer might have made Achilles a coward without a-
bating any thing from the juftnefs of this fable*, fo that
it was the neceflity of adorning his chara&er, that
obliged him to make him valiant: the charadler, then
of a hero in the epic poem, is compounded of three
forts of qualities ; the firft effential to the fable ; the
fecond, embellilhments of the firll j and valour, which
fuftains the other two, makes the third.
Unity of chara&er is as necelfary as the unity of
the fable. For this purpofe a perfon Ihould be the
fame from the beginning to the end : not that he is
always to betray the fame fentiments, or one paffion ;
but that he Ihould never fpeak nor a£t inconlillently
with his fundamental chara&er. For inftance, the
weak may fometimes fally into a warmth, and the
breaft of the paffionate be calm, a change which often
introduces in the drama a very affedling variety : but
if the natural difpofition of the former was to be re-
prefented as boillerous, and that of the latter mild and
foft, they would both a£l out of character, and con¬
tradict their perfons.
True characters are fuch as we truly and really fee
in men, or may exift without any contradiction to
nature: no man queltions but there have been men
as generous and as good as /Eneas, as paffionate and
as violent as Achilles, as prudent and wife as Ulyffes,
as impious and atheiftical as Mezentius, and as amo¬
rous and paffionate as Dido ; all thefe characters,
therefore, are true, and nothing but juft imitations
of nature. On the contrary, a character is falfe when
an author fo feigns it, that one can fee nothing like
it in the order of nature wherein he defigns it (hall
ftand: thefe characters ftiould be wholly excluded
from a poem, becaufe tranfgreffing the bounds of pro¬
bability and reafon, they meet with no belief from the
-readers } they are fiCtions of the poet’s brain, not imi¬
tations of nature } and yet all poetry confifts of an imi¬
tation of nature.
Character is alfo ufed for certain vifible qualities,
which claim refpeCt or reverence to thofe veiled there-
Vith.—The majefty of kings gives them a character
which procures refpeCt from the people. A bilhop
ihould fuftain his character by learning and folid piety,
rather than by worldly luftre, &c. The law of na¬
tions fecures the character of an ambaffador from all
infults.
Character, among naturalifts, is fynonymous with
the definition of the genera of animals, plants, &c.
CHARACTERISTIC, in general, is that which
‘characterizes a thing or perfon, i. e. conftitutes
See ChA- Charade-
riftic,
its character, whereby it is diftinguilhed.
RACTER. _ ^ Charade.
Characteristic, is peculiarly ufed in grammar,
for the principal letter of a word : which is preferved
in moft of its tenfes and moods, its derivatives and
compounds.
Characteristic of a Logarithm^ is its index or ex¬
ponent. See Logarithm.
Characteristic Triangle of a Curve, in the high¬
er geometry, is a reCtilinear right-angled triangle, whofe
hypothenufe makes a part of the curve, not fenfibly
different from a right line. It is fo called, becaufe
curve lines are ufed to be diftinguifhed hereby. See
Curve.
CHARADE, the name of a new fpecies of compo-
lition or literary amufement. It owes its name to the
idler who invented it. Its fubjeCt muft be a word of
two fyllables, each forming a diftinCt word : and tbefe
two fyllables are to be concealed in an enigmatical
defcription, firft feparately, and then together. The
exercife of charades, if not greatly inftruCtive, is at
leaft innocent and amufing. At all events, as it has
made its way into every fafhionable circle, and has
employed even Garrick, it will fcarcely be deemed un¬
worthy of attention. The fillineffes indeed ot moft that
have appeared in the papers under this title, are not
only deftitute of all pleafantry in the ftating, but are
formed in general of words utterly unfit for the pur¬
pofe. They have therefore been treated with the con¬
tempt they deferved. In trifles of this nature, inac¬
curacy is without excufe. The following examples
therefore are at leaft free from this blemifti.
I.
My frf, however here abufed,
Defigns the fex alone ;
In Cambria, fuch is cuftom’s pow’r,
’Tis Jenkin, John, or Joan.
My fecond oft is loudly call’d,
When men prepare to fift it:
Its name delights the female ear j
Its force, may none refift it !
It binds the weak, it binds the ftrong.
The wealthy and the poor j
Still ’tis to joy a paffport deem’d,
For fullied fame a cure.
It may enfure an age of blifs,
Yet mis’ries oft attend it *,
To fingers, ears, and nofes too,
Its various lords commend it.
My nuhole may chance to make one drink,
Though vended in a fifti ftiop j
’Tis now the monarch of the leas,
And has been an archbilhop. Hearing.
u.
My frf, when a Frenchman is learning Englifh,
ferves him to fwear by. My fecond, is either hay or
corn. My vchole, is the delight of the prefent age j
and will be the admiration of pofterity. Gar-rick.
in.
My frf, is plowed for various reafons, and grain is
frequently buried in it to little purpofe. Nly fecond,
is neither riches nor honours yet the former would
generally be given for it, and the latter is oiten tafie-
lefs without it. My whole applies equally to Ipring,
fummer, autumn, and winter : and both filh and^flefti,
3 D 2 Faife
C H A [396
Charadrius pralfe and cenfure, mirth and melancholy, are the bet-
11 ter for being in it. Sea-fon.
knarcoai. I'V^"
~ My firj}, with the moft rooted antipathy to a French¬
man, prides himfelf, whenever they meet, upon flick¬
ing clofe to his jacket. My fecund, has many virtues,
nor is it its leaft that it gives name to my firft. My
whole, may I never catch ! Tar-tar!
V.
My firjl, is one of England’s prime boafts 5 it re¬
joices the ear of a horfe, and anguiflies the toe of a
man. My fecond, when brick, is good 5 when ftone,
better j when wooden beft of all. My whole is famous
alike for rottennefs and tin. Corn-wall.
VI.
My frjl is called bad or good,
May pleafure or offend ye ;
My fecond, in a thirfty mood,
May very much befriend ye.
My whole, though ftyled a “ cruel word,”
May yet appear a kind one ;
It often may with joy be heard,
With tears may often blind one. Fare-well.
VII.
My frf is equally friendly to the thief and the lo¬
ver, the toper and the ftudent. My fecond is light’s
oppofite : yet they are frequently feen hand in hand $
and their union, if judicious, gives much pleafure.
My whole, is tempting to the touch, grateful to the
light, fatal to the tafte. Night-fhade.
CHARADRIUS, the plover and dotterel. See
Ornithology Index.
CHAR AG, the tribute which Chriftians and Jews
pay to the grand fignior.
It conlifts of ten, twelve, or fifteen francs per an¬
num, according to the eftate of the party. Men be¬
gin to pay it at nine or at fixteen years old 5 women
are difpenfed with, as alfo priefts, rabbins, and reli¬
gious.
CHAR AIMS, a feft of the Jews in Egypt. They
live by themfelves, and have a feparate fynagogue $
and as the other Jews are remarkable for their eyes,
fo are thofe for their large nofes, which run through
all the families of this fed!. Thefe are the ancient
Effenes. They ftridtly obferve the five books of Mo-
fes, according to the letter \ and receive no written
traditions. It is faid that the other Jews would join
the Chara'uns ; but thofe not having obferved the exadt
rules of the law with regard to divorces, thefe think
they live in adultery.
CHARANTIA. See Momordica, Botany In¬
dex.
CHARBON, in the manege, that little black fpot
or mark which remains after a large fpot in the cavity
of the corner teeth of a horfe : about the feventh or
eighth year, when the cavity fills up, the tooth being
fmooth and equal, it is faid to be rafed.
CHARCAS, the fouthern divifion of Peru in
South America, remarkable for the filver mines of Po-
tofi.
CHARCOAL, a fort of artificial coal, or fuel,
confifting of wood half burnt} chiefly ufed where a
clear ftrong fire, without fmoke, is required j the hu¬
midity of the wood being here moftly diffipated, and
exhaled in the fire wherein it is prepared.
] c H A
The microfcope difcovers a furprifing number of CharcoaL
pores in charcoal : they are difpofed in order, and '—""N ^
traverfe it lengthwife 5 fo that there is no piece of
charcoal, how long foever, but may be eafily blown
through. If a piece be broken pretty fhort, it may be
feen through with a microfcope. In a range the 18th
part of an inch long, Dr Hook reckoned 150 pores ;
whence he concludes, that in a charcoal of an inch dia¬
meter, there are not lefs than 5,724,000 pores. It is
to this prodigious number of poies, that the blacknefs
of charcoal is owing : for the rays of light ftriking on
the charcoal, are received and abforbed in its pores,
inftead of being refledled ; whence the body muft of
neceflity appear black, blacknefs in a body being no
more than a want of refledlion. Charcoal was ancient¬
ly ufed to diftinguifh the bounds of eftates and inheri¬
tances ; as being incorruptible, wdren let very deep
within ground. In effect, it preferves itielf fo long,
that there are many pieces found entire in the ancient
tombs of the northern nations. M. Dodart fays,
there is charcoal made of corn, probably as old as
the days of Caefar : he adds, that it has kept fo well,
that the wheat may be ftill diftinguiftred from the
rye j which he looks on as proof of its incorruptibi¬
lity.
The operation of charring wood, is performed in
the following manner : The wood intended for this
purpofe is cut into proper lengths, and piled up in
heaps near the place where the charcoal is intended to
be made : when a fufficient quantity of wood is thus
prepared, they begin conilrufting their flacks, for
which there are three methods. The firft is this : They
level a proper fpot of ground, of about I 2 or 15 feet
in diameter, near the piles of wood ; in the centre of
this area a large billet of wood, fplit acrofs at one end
and pointed at the other, is fixed w-ith its pointed ex¬
tremity in the earth, and two pieces of wood inferted
through the clefts of the other end, fotming four right
angles ; againft thefe crofs pieces four other billets of
wood are placed, one end on the ground, and the
other leaning againft the angles. This being finifhed,
a number of large and ftraight billets are laid on the
ground to form a floor, each being as it were the ra¬
dius of the circular area : on this floor a proper quan¬
tity of brufli or fmall wood is ftrew’ed, in order to fill
up the interftices, when the floor wall be complete ;
and in order to keep the billets in the fame order and
pofition in which they wrere firft arranged, pegs or
flumps are driven into the ground in the circumfe¬
rence of the circle, about a foot diftant from one ano¬
ther : upon this floor a ftage is built with billets fet
upon one end, but fomething inclining towards the
central billet 5 and on the tops of thefe another floor
is laid in a horizontal direftion, but of fhorter billets,
as the whole is, when finiflred, to form a cone.
The fecond method of building the ftacks for mak¬
ing charcoal is performed in this manner : A long
pole is erefted in the centre of the area above defcrib-
ed, and feveral fmall billets ranged round the pole on
their ends: the interftices between thefe billets and
the pole is filled with dry bruftrwood, then a floor is
laid, on that a ftage in a reclining pofition, and on
that a fecond floor, &c. in the fame manner as de-
fcribed above ; but in the lower floor there is a billet
larger and longer than the reft, extending from the
centraV
/
C H A
[ 397 1
C II A
Charcoal, central pole to fome distance beyond tbe circumference
1 of the circle.
The third method is this: A. chimney, or aperture
of a fquare form, is built with billets in the centre,
from the bottom to the top j and round thefe, floors
and inclined ftages are eretted, in the fame manner as
in the flacks above defcribed, except that the bafe of
this, inftead of being circular like the others, is fquare ;
and the whole flack, when completed, forms a pyra-
tnid- .
The flack of either form being thus fimfhed, is coat¬
ed over with turf, and the furface plaflered with a
mixture of earth and charcoal dull well tempered to¬
gether.
The next operation is the fetting the flack on fire.
In order to this, if it be formed according to the firfl
conflru£lion, the central billet in the upper flage is
drawn out, and fome pieces of very dry and combui-
tible wood are placed in the void fpace, called, by
■workmen, the chimney, and fire fet to thefe pieces.
If the flack be built according to the fecond cojiflruc-
tion, the central pole is drawn out, together with the
large horizontal billet above defcribed } and the volcl
fpace occupied by the latter being filled with pieces of
very dry combuftible wood, the fire is applied to it at
the bafe of the flack. With regard to the third con-
flru£lion, the fquare aperture or chimney is filled with
fmall pieces of very dry wood, and the fire applied to
it at the top or apex of the pyramidal flack. When
the flack is fet on fire, either at the top or bottom,
the greatefl attention is neceffary in the workman ;
for in the proper management of the fire the chief
difficulty attending the art of making good charcoal
confifls. In order to this, care is taken, as foon as
the flame begins to iffue fome height above the chim¬
ney, that the aperture be covered with a piece o. turf,
but not fo dole as to hinder the fmoke from paffing
out; and whenever the fmoke appears to iffue very
thick from any part of the pile, the aperture muff be
covered with a mixture of earth and charcoal dull.
At the fame time, as it is neceffary that every part of
the flack ffiould be equally burnt, it will be requifite
for the workman to open vents in one part and (hut
them in another. In this manner the fire muff be
kept up till the charcoal be lufficiently burnt, wdnch
will happen in about two days and a half if the wood
be dry ; but if green, the operation will not be fimlh-
ed in lefs than three days. When the charcoal is
thought to be fufficiently burnt, which is eafily known
from the appearance of the fmoke, and the flames no
longer iffuing with impetuofity through the vents j all
the apertures are to be clofed up very carefully with a
mixture of earth and charcoal duft, which, by exclud¬
ing all accefs of the external air, prevents the coals
from being any further confumed, and the fire goes out
of itfelf. In this condition it is fuffered to remain, till
the whole is fufficiently cooled ; when the cover is re¬
moved, and the charcoal is taken away. If the whole
procefs is fkilfully managed, the coals will exactly re¬
tain the figure of the pieces of wood : fome are fa.d to
have been fo dexterous as to char an arrow without al¬
tering even the figure of the feather. . f
There are eonfiderable differences in the coals oi
different vegetables, in regard to their habitude to
fire : the very light coals of linen, cotton, jome -ungi,
&c. readily catch fire from a fpark, and foon burn Charcoal^
out} the more denfe ones of woods and roots are fet
on fire more difficultly, and burn more flowly : tbe
coals of the black berry-bearing alder, of tbe hazel,
the willow, and the lime tree, are faid to anfwer beft
for the making of gunpowder and other pyrotechnical
compofitions, perhaps from their being eafil} inflam¬
mable : for the reduflion of metallic calces thofe of
the heavier woods, as the oak and the beech, are pre¬
ferable, thefe feeming to contain a larger proportion of
the phlogiftic principle, and that, perhaps, in a more
fixed Hate ; confidered as common fuel, thofe of the
heavy woods give the greatefl heat, and require^ the
mod plentiful fupply of air to keep them burning j-
thofe of the light woods preferve a glowing heat, with¬
out much draught of air, till the coals themfelves are
confumed the bark commonly crackles and flies about
in burning, which the coal of tne wood itfelf \ery .el-
dom does.
Mathematical inflrument makers, engravers, occ.
find charcoal of great ufe to polifh their brafs and cop¬
per plates after they have been rubbed clean with
powdered pumice flone. Plates of horn are polifhable
in the fame way, and a glofs may be afterwards given
with tripoli.
The coals of different fubflances are alio uied as
pigments 5 hence the bone-black, ivory-black, &c. of
the fhops. Moll of the paints of this kind, befides
their incorruptibility, have tbe advantage of a full co¬
lour, and work freely in all tbe forms in which pow^-
dery pigments are applied ; provided they have been
carefully prepared, by thoroughly burning tbe fubjed
in a clofe veffel, and afterwards grinding the coal into
a powder of due finenefs. Pieces of charcoal are ufed
alfo in their entire flate for tracing the outlines ot
drawings, &c.} in which intention they have an
cellence, that their mark is eafily wiped out. lor
thefe purpofes, either the finer pieces of common char¬
coal are picked out and cut to a proper ffiape 5 or the
pencils are formed of wood, and afterwards burnt into
charcoal in a proper veffel well covered. The artifls
commonly make choice of the fmaller branches of the
tree freed from the bark and pith 5 and the willow and
vine are preferred to all others. This-choice is con¬
firmed by the experiments of Dr Lewis, who has found PhUofoph.'-
that the wood of the trunks of trees produces charcoal C°™’"err
of a harder nature than their fmall twigs ox branches •,
and the hard woods, fuch as box and guaiacum, pro-
duced coals very fenfibly harder than the fofter woods.
Willow he prefers to all others. The {hells and ftones
of fruits yielded coals fo hard that they would fearce
mark on paper at all ", while the coals of the kernels of
fruits were quite foft and mellow. The feveral coals
produced by the doftor’s experiments were levigated
into fine powder, mixed both with gum water and
oil, and applied as paints both thin and thick, and di¬
luted with different degrees of white. All of them,
when laid on thick, appeared of a ftrong full black,
nor could it be judged that one was of a finer colour
than another 5 diluted with white, or when (bread thin,
they had all fomewhat of a bluifli call. ^
Horns and the bones both of fillies and land animals,
gave coals rather gloffier and deeper coloured
getables; and which, in general, were very hard, lo
as difficultly, or not at all, to {lain paper. Here alio
the
C H A
Robins' Pro
pofal for
increajing
the Jlrength
of the Na¬
vy-
the hardnefs of the coal feemed to depend on that of
the fubjefl from whence it was prepared ; for filk,
woollen, leather, blood, and the flefliy parts of ani¬
mals, yielded foft coals. Some of thefe differed from
others very fenfibly in colour ; that of ivory is fuperior
to all the reft, and indifputably the fineft of all the
charcoal blacks. The animal coals had much lefs of
the bluifh caft in them than the vegetable, many of
them inclining rather to a brown. Charred pit coal,
on the other hand, feemed to have this bluenefs in a
greater degree. For the chemical properties of char¬
coal fee Chemistry Index.
CHARDIN, Sir John, a celebrated traveller,
was born at Paris in 1643. His father, who was a
jeweller, had him educated in the Proteftant religion ;
after which he travelled into Perfia and India/ He
traded in jewels, and died at London in 1713. The
account he wrote of his travels is much efteemed.
CHAREN TON, the name of two towns of France,
the one upon the Marmaude in the Bourbonnois \ the
other in the Me of France, near the confluence of the
Marne with the Seine.
CPIARES the Lydian, a celebrated ftatuary, was
the difciple of Lyfippus ; and made the famous Colof-
fus of the fun in the city of Rhodes. Flourilhed 288
years before Chrift.
CHARGE, in Gunnery, the quantity of powder
and ball wherewith a gun is loaded for execution.
The rules for charging large pieces in war are, That
the piece be fir ft cleaned or fcoured within fide : that
the proper quantity of powder be next driven in and
rammed down : care, however, being taken, that the
powder, in ramming, be not bruifed, becaufe that
weakens its effeft j that a little quantity of paper, hay,
lint, or the like, be rammed over it $ and that the ball
or fhot be intruded. If the ball be red hot, a tompion,
or trencher of green wood, is to be driven in before
it. The common allowance for a charge of powder of
a piece of ordnance, is half the weight of the ball. In
.the Britilh navy, the allowance for 32 pounders is but
feven fixteenths of the weight of the bullet. But a
late author is of opinion, that if the powder in all Ihip-
cannon whatever was reduced to one third weight of
the ball, or even lefs, it would be of confiderable ad¬
vantage, not only by faving ammunition, but by keep-
ing the guns cooler and quieter, and at the fame time
more efteflually injuring the velfels of the enemy.
With the prefent allowance of powder the guns are
heated, and their tackle and furniture ftrained \ and
this only to render the bullets lefs efficacious : for a
bullet which can but juft pafs through a piece of tim¬
ber, and lofes almoft all its motion thereby, has a
much better chance of rending and fradluring it, than
if it paffes through with a much greater velocity.
Charge, in Heraldry, is applied to the figures re-
prefented on the efcutcheon, by which the bearers are
diftinguiftied from one another j and it is to be obferv-
ed, that too many charges are not fo honourable as
fewer.
Charg'k of Lead, denotes a quantity of 36 pigs. See
Pig.
To Charge, in the military language, is to attack
the enemy either lyith horfe or foot.
Charge, in Law, denotes the inftru&iofcs given
t 398 ]
c H A
to the grand jury, with refpea to the articles of their
inquiry, by the judge wdio prefides on the bench.
_ Charge, in Law, alfo fignifies a thing done that <
bindeth him who doth it ; and difeharge is the remo¬
val of that charge. Lands may be charged in va¬
rious ways j as, by grant of rent out of it, by ftatutes,
judgments, conditions, warranties, &c.
Charge of horning, in Scots Law. See Horn-
ING.
Charge to enter Heir, in Scots Law, a writing paf-
fing under the fignet, obtained at the inftance of a cre¬
ditor, either againft the heir of his debtor, for fixing
upon him the debt as reprefenting the debtor, which
is called a general charge ; or, againft the debtor him-
felf, or his heir, for the purpofe of veiling him in the
right of an heritable fubjeft to which he has made
up no title, in order the creditor may attach that fub-
je£f for payment of his debt, in the fame manner as if
his debt or his heir were legally veiled in it by fer~
vice or otherwife. This laft kind is called a fpeciai
charge. 1
Charge, or rather Overcharge, in painting, is an
exaggerated reprefentation of any perfon $ wherein the
likenefs is preferved, but at the fame time ridiculed.
Few painters have the genius necelfary to fucceed in
thefe charges : the method is, to feleft and heighten
fomething already amifs in the face, whether by way
of defect, or redundancy : thus v. g. if Nature hath
given a man a nofe a little larger than ordinary, the
painter falls in with her, and makes the nofe extrava¬
gantly long : or if the nofe be naturally too Iliort, in
the painting it will be a mere Hump 5 and thus of the
other parts.
CHARGED, in Heraldry, a ftiield carrying fome
imprefs or figure, is laid to be charged therewith ; fo
alio, when one bearing, or charge, has another figure
added upon it, it is properly faid to be charged.
Charged, in ele&rical experiments, is when a phial
pane of glafs, or other ele&ric fubftance, properly coat!
ed on both fides, has a quantity of eleftricity commu¬
nicated to it ; in which cafe the one fide is always elec¬
trified pofitively, and the other negatively.
CHARIOT, a half coach, having only a feat be¬
hind, with a ftool before. See Coach.
The chariots of the ancients, chiefly ufed in war
were called by the feveral names of bigee, trigee, &c.
according to the number of horfes applied to draw
them. Every chariot carried two men, who were pro¬
bably the warrior and the charioteer ; and we read of
feveral men of note and valour employed in driving
the chariot. When the wuirriors came to encounter in
dofe fight, they alighted out of the chariot, and
fought on foot; but when they were weary, which
often happened by reafon of their armour, they re¬
tired into their chariot, and thence annoyed their ene¬
mies with darts and miflile wreapons. Theie chariots
were made fo ftrong, that they lafted for feveral gene¬
rations.
Befides this fort, we find frequent mention of the
Currus falcati, or thofe chariots armed with hooks or
Icjthes, with which w'hole ranks of foldiers were cut
oft together, if they had not the art of avoiding the
danger ; thefe wTere not only ufed by the Perfians, Sy¬
rians, Egyptians, &.c. but w^e find them among the an-
i cient
Charge
II.
Chariot.
C H A
Chariot, cient Britons j and notwithftanding the impei-refl ftate
—-v   of fome of the moft neceffary arts among that nation
before the invafion of the Romans, it is certain that they
had war chariots in great abundance. By the Greek
and Roman hiftorians, thefe chariots are defcribed by
the fix following names : viz. Benna, Petoritum, Cur-
rus or Carrus, Covinus, Efledum, and Rheda. The
benna feems to have been a chariot defigned rather for
travelling than war. It contained two perfons, who
were called combennones, from their fitting together in
the fame machine. The petoritum feems to have been
a larger kind of chariot than the benna ; and is thought
to have derived its name from the Britifh word ped-
war, fignifying four; this kind of carriage having
four wheels. The carrus or currus was the common
cart or waggon. This kind of chariot was ufed by
the ancient Britons, in times of peace, for the purpo-
fes of agriculture and merchandife, and, in time of
war, for carrying their baggage, and wives and chil¬
dren, who commonly followed the armies of all the
Celtic nations. The covinus was a war chariot, and a
very terrible infirument of deftru£lion ; being armed
■with fharp fcythes and hooks for cutting and tearing
all who were fo unhappy as to come within its reach.
This kind of chariot was made very flight, and had
few or no men in it befides the charioteer ; being de¬
figned to drive with great force and rapidity, and to
do execution chiefly with its hooks and fcythes. The
efledum and rheda were alfo war chariots, probably of
a large fize, and ftronger made than the covinus, de¬
figned for containing a charioteer for driving it, and
one or twTo wrarriors for fighting. The far greateft
number of the Britiflr war chariots feem to have been
of this kind. Thefe chariots, as already obferved,
were to be found in great numbers among the Britons j
infomuch that Csefar relates, that Caflibelanus, after
difmifling all his other forces, retained no fewer than
40CO of thefe war chariots about his perfon. rI he
fame author relates, that, by continual experience,
they had at laft arrived at fuch perfeftion in the ma¬
nagement of their chariots, that 44 m the moft fteep
and difficult places they could flop their horfes upon
full ftretch, turn them which way they pleafed, run
along the pole, reft on the harnefs, and throw them-
felves back into their chariots, with incredible dexte¬
rity.”
Chariots, in the heathen mythology, were fome-
times confecrated to the fun \ and the Scripture ob-
ferves, that Jofiah burnt thofe which had been offered
to the fun by the kings his predeceflors. 1 nis fuperfti-
tious cuftom was an imitation of the heatnens, and
principally of the Perfians, who had horfes and cha¬
riots confecrated in honour of the fun. Herodotus,
Xenophon, and Quintus Curtius, fpeak of white cha-
riots crowned, which were confecrated to the mn,
among the Perfians, which in their ceremonies were
drawn by white horfes confecrated to the fame lumi-
™Triumphal Chariot, was one of the principal orna¬
ments of the Roman celebration of a victory.
The Roman triumphal chariot was generally made
of ivory, round like a tower, or rather of a cylindri¬
cal figure *, it was fometimes gilt at the top, and or¬
namented with crowms ; and to reprefent a victory
more naturally, they ufed to ftain it with blood. It
[ 399 1
CHA
was ufually drawn by four white horfes ; but often¬
times by lions, elephants, tygers, bears, leopards,
dogs, &c. ‘
CHARISIA, in the heathen theology, a wake, or
night feftival, inftituted in honour of the Graces. It
continued the whole night, moft of wftiich time was
fpent in dancing j after which, cakes made of yellow
flour mixed with honey, and other fweatmeats, wrere
diftributed among the affiftants.—Charifia is alfo lome-
times ufed to fignify the fweatmeats ufed on fuch occa-
fions.
CHARISIUS, in the heathen theology, a furname
given to Jupiter. The word is derived from
gratia, “ grace” or “ favour *” he being the god by
whofe influence men obtain the favour and affeblion of
one another. On which account the Greeks ufed. at
their meals to make a libation of a cup to Jupiter;
Charifius.
CHARISTIA, a feftival of the ancient Romans,
celebrated in the month of February, wherein the re¬
lations by blood and marriage met, in order to preferve
a good correfpondence ; and that if there happened
to be any difference among them, it might be the
more eafily accommodated by the good humour and
mirth of the entertainment. Ovid. FaJI. i. 617.
CHARISTICARY, commendatory, or donatory,
a perfon to whom is given the enjoyment of the reve¬
nues of a monaftery, hofpital, or benefice.
The Charifticaries among the Greeks, were a kind
of donatories, or commendatories, who enjoyed all the
revenues of hofpitals and monafteries without giving
an account thereof to any perfon.—The original of
this abufe is referred to the Iconoclaftm, particularly
Conftantine Copronymus, the avowed enemy of the
monks, whofe monafteries he gave away to ftrangers.
In after times, the emperors and patriarchs gave many
to people of quality, not by way of gift to reap any
temporal advantage from them, but to repair, beauti¬
fy, and patronize" them. At length avarice crept in,
and thofe in good condition were given away, efpecr-
ally fuch as were rich ; and at laft they were all gi¬
ven away, rich and poor, thofe of men and of women,,
and that to laymen and to married men.
CHARITY, among divines, one of the three grand
theological virtues, confifting in the love of God and-
of our neighbour, or the habit and diipofition of lov¬
ing God with all our heart, and our neighbour as our-
felves.
Charity is alfo ufed for the effea of a moral vir¬
tue, which confifts in fupplying the neceffities of
others, whether with money, counfel, affiflance, or the
like.
As pecuniary relief is generally the moft efficacious,
and at the fame time that from which we are moft apt
to excufe ourfelves, this branch of the duty merits par¬
ticular illuftration ; and a better cannot be offered than
what is contained in the following extraiSls (if we may
be permitted to make them) from the elegant Mora*
Sflem of Archdeacon Paley. _ , . .
Whether pity be an inftinft or a habit, it is m Taft
a property of our nature, wftiich God appointed : and
the final caufe for which it was appointed, is.to afford
to the miferable, in the compafiion of their fellow-
creatures, a remedy for thofe inequalities and diftrefle^
which God forefaw that many muff be expofed to,
under
Gh arid a
II
Charity.
c H A [ 400 ] C H A
Chanty, under every general rule for the diftribution of pro-
"v perty.
The Chriftian Scriptures are more copious and ex¬
plicit upon this duty than almoft any other. The de-
fcription which Chrifl: hath left us of the proceedings
of the laft day, eftablifhes the obligation of bounty
beyond controverfy. “ When the Son of Man (hall
-come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him,
then (hall he fit upon the throne of his glory, and be¬
fore him (hall be gathered all nations ; and he lhall
feparate them one from another. Then lhall the King
lay unto them on his right hand, Come ye blefled of
my father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from
the foundation of the world : For I was an hungered,
and ye gave me meat; I was thirfty, and ye gave me
drink ; I was a ftranger, and ye took me in ; naked,
and ye clothed me *, I was lick, and ye vifited me •, I
was in prifon, and ye came unto me. And inafmuch
as ye have done it to one of the leaft of thefe my bre¬
thren, ye have done it unto me.” It is not neceflary
to underftand this palfage as a literal account of what
will a&ually pafs on that day. Suppofing ft only a
Icenical defeription of the rules and principles by
which the Supreme Arbiter of our deftiny will regu¬
late his decifions, it conveys the fame leflbn to us; it
equally demonftrates of how great value and import¬
ance thefe duties in the fight of God are, and what
ftrefs will be laid upon them. The apollles alfo de-
icribe this virtue as propitiating the divine favour in
an eminent degree. And thefe recommendations have
produced their effeft. It does not appear that, before
the times of Chriftianity, an infirmary, hofpital, or
public charity of any kind, exifted in the world j
whereas moll; countries in Chriltendom have long
abounded with thefe inllitutions. To which may be
added, that a fpirit of private liberality feems to
flourilh amidft the decay of many other virtues: not to
mention the legal provifion for the poor, which ob¬
tains in this country, and which was unknown and
unthought of by the moll polilhed nations of anti¬
quity.
St Paul adds upon the fubjedl an excellent direc¬
tion ; and which is practicable by all w'ho have any
thing to give. “ Upon the firft day of the week (or
any other Hated time) let every one of you lay by in
Here, as God hath profpered him.” By which the
apollle may be underllood to recommend what is the
very thing wanting with molt men, the being charitable
upon a plan ; that is, from a deliberate comparifon of
our fortunes with the reafonable expences and expecta¬
tions of our families, to compute what we can fpare,
and to lay by fo much for charitable purpofes, in fome
mode or other. I he mode will be a confideration af¬
terwards.
The effeu which Chriltianity produced upon fome
of hs converts, was fuch as might be looked for from
a divine religion coming with full force and miracu¬
lous evidence upon the confciences of mankind. It
overwhelmed all worldly confiderations in the expec¬
tation of a more important exiltence. “ And the mul¬
titude of them that believed were of one heart and of
one foul; neither faid any of them that aught of the
things which he poffelfed was his own j but they had
all things in common.-—Neither was there any among
L-em that lacked; for as many as were poffelfors of
lands or houfes fold them, and brought the prices of Charity
the things that were fold, and laid them down at the v—
apoftles feet 5 and diftribution was made unto every
man according as he had need.” ACts iv. 32.
Neverthelefs, this community of goods, however it
manifefted the fincere zeal of the primitive Cbriftians,
is no precedent for our imitation. It was confined to
the church at Jerufalem ; continued not long there j
was never enjoined upon any (ACts v. 4.) •, and, al¬
though it might fuit with the particular circumftances
of a fmall and feleCt fociety, is altogether impractica¬
ble in a large and mixed community.
The conduCt of the apoftles upon the occafion de-
ferves to be noticed. Their followers laid down their
fortunes at their feet : but fo far were they from tak¬
ing advantage of this unlimited confidence to enrich
themfelves or eftablifh their authority, that they foon
after got rid of this bufinefs as inconfiftent with the
main objeCt of their miffion, and transferred the cufto-
dy and management of the public fund to deacons
elefted to that office by the people at large (ACts vi.)
There are three kinds of charity, our author ob-
ferves, which prefer a claim to attention.
1. The firft, and apparently one of the bell, is to
give itated and confiderable fums, by way of penfion
or annuity to individuals or families, with whofe beha¬
viour and diftrefs we ourfelves are acquainted. In
fpeaking of confiderable fums, it is meant only, that
five pounds, or any other fum, given at once or di¬
vided amonglt five or fewer families, wall do more good
than the fame fum diftributed amongft a greater num¬
ber in ihillings or half crowns ; and that, becaufe it is
more likely to be properly applied by the perfons vffio
receive it. A poor fellow who can find no better ufe
for a fhilling than to drink his benefaCtor’s health, and
purchafe half an hour’s recreation for himfelf, wmuld
hardly break into a guinea for any fuch purpofe, or be
fo improvident as not to lay it by for an occafion of
importance, for his rent, his clothing, fuel, or flock of
winter’s provifion. It is a ftill greater recommenda¬
tion of this kind of charity, that penfions and annui¬
ties, which are paid regularly, and can be expeCted at
the time, are the only way by which we can prevent
one part of a poor man’s bufferings, the dread of
want.
2. But as this kind of charity fuppofes that proper
objeCts of fuch expenfive benefactions fall within our
private knowdedge and obfervation, which does not
happen to all, a fecond method of doing good, W’hich
is in every one’s power who has the money to fpare,
is by fubfeription to public charities. Public charities
admit of this argument in their favour, that your mo-
ney goes farther towards attaining the end for which
it is given, than it can do by any private and feparate
beneficence. A guinea, for example, contributed to
an infirmary, becomes the means of providing one pa¬
tient, at leaft, with a phyfician, furgeon, apothecary,
wuth medicine, diet, lodging, and fuitable attendance j
which is not the tenth part of what the fame affiftance,
if it could be procured at all, would coft to a fick per-
fon or family in any other fituation.
3. The laft, and, compared wuth the former, the
low'eft exertion of benevolence, is in the relief of beg¬
gars, Neverthelefs, the indiferiminate rejection of all
W’ho implore oUr alms, in this wray, is by no means ap-
I proved.
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