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Encyclopaedia Britannica,
M I C
Microfcope. "J\ /|" ICROSCOPE, an optical inflrument, confifting
  jLVX of lenfes, or mirrors, by means of which fmall
objects appear larger than they do to the naked eye.
Sing/e microfcepes confill: of a fingle lens or mirror ; or if
more lenfes or mirrors be made ufe of, they only ferve
to throw light upon the objeft, but do not contribute to
enlarge the image of it. Double or compound mi-
crofcopes are thofe in which the image of an object is
eompofed by means of more lenfes or mirrors than
one.
For the principles on which the conftru&ion of mi-
crofcopes depends, fee Optics. In the prefent ar¬
ticle, it is intended to defcribe the finilhed inftrument,
with all its varied apparatus, according to the lateft im¬
provements ; and to illuftrate by proper details its ufes
and importance.
I. Of Single Microfcopes.
The famous microfcopes made ufe of by Mr Leeu-
w^enhoeck, W'ere all, as Mr Baker affures us, of the
Tingle kind, and the conftruftion of them was the moft
iimple poflible ; each confifting only of a fingle lens fet
between two plates of filver, perforated with a fmall
hole, with a moveable pin before it to place the ob-
jeft on and adjuft it to the eye of the beholder. He
informs us alfo, that lenfes only, and not globules, were
uied in every one of thefe microfcopes.
Plate i. The fingle microfcope now moft generally known
cccxxxvn. and ufed is that called Wilfon's Pocket Microfcope. The
body is made of brafs, ivory, or filver, and is repre-
fented by AA, BB. CC is a long fine=threaded male
fcrew that turns into the body of the microfcope ; D
a convex glafs at the end of the fcrew. Twm con¬
cave round pieces of thin brafs, with holes of different
diameters in the middle of them, are placed to cover
the above mentioned glafs, and thereby diminifti the
aperture when the greateft magnifiers are employed.
EE, three thin plates of brafs within the body of the
microfcope ; one of which is bent femicircularly in the
middle, fo as to form an arched cavity for the recep¬
tion of a tube of glafs, the ufe of the other two be¬
ing to receive and hold the Aiders between them. F,
a piece of wood or ivory, arched in the manner of
the femicircular plate, and cemented to it. G, the
other end of the body of the microfcope, where a hol¬
low female fcrew is adapted to receive the different
magnifiers. H is a fpiral fpring of fteel, between
VOL. XIV. Part I.
M 1 C
the end G and the plates of brafs, intended to keep Microfcope.
the plates in a right pofition and counteraft the long —v-—-'
fcrew CC. I is a fmall turned handle, for the better
holding of the inftrument, to fcrew on or off at plea-
fure.
To this microfcope belong fix or feven magnifying
glaffes : fix of them are fet in filver, brafs, or ivory,
as in the figure K ; and marked i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, the
loweft numbers being the greateft magnifiers. L is
the feventh magnifier, fet in the manner of a little
barrel, to be held in the hand for the viewing of any
larger object. M is a flat flip of ivory, called a
fider, with four round holes through it, wherein to
place objefts between turn pieces of glafs or Mufcovy
talc, as they appear at dddd. Six fuch Aiders, and
one of brafs, are ufually fold with this microfcope,
fome with objedls placed in them, and others empty
for viewing any thing that may offer : but whoever
pleafes to make a colledlion, may have as many as he
defires. The brafs Aider is to confine any fmall obje£l,
that it may be viewed without cruftiing or deftroying
it. N is a tube of glafs contrived to confine living ob-
jefts, fuch as frogs, fifties, &c. in order to diicover
the circulation of the blood. All thefe are contained
in a little neat box of fifti-fldn or mahogany, very con¬
venient for carrying in the pocket.
When an object is to be viewed, thruft the ivory
Aider, in which the faid objeift is placed, between the
twm flat brafs plates EE : obferving always to put
that fide of the Aider where the brafs rings are far-
theft from the eye. Then fcrew on the magnifying
glais you intend to ufe, at the end of the inftrument
G ; and looking through it againft the light, turn the
long fcrew CC, till your objeift be brought to fuit your
eye ; which will be known by its appearing perfe6fly
diftinft and clear. It is moft proper to look at it firft
through a magnifier that can ftiow the whole at once,
and attenvards to infpeft the feveral parts more parti¬
cularly with one of the greateft magnifiers \ for thus
you will gain a true idea of the whole, and of all its
parts. And though the greateft magnifiers can ftiow
but a minute portion of any objedl at once, fuch as the
claw ol a flea, the horn of a loufe, or the like ; yet by
gent1^ moving the Aider which contains the objeil, the
eye may gradually examine it all over.
As objefts murt be brought very near the glaffes
when the greateft magnifiers are made ufe of, be care¬
ful not tp fcratch them by rubbing the Aider againft
A them
MIC [2
Microfcepe. them as you move it in or out. A few turns of the
v fcrew CC will eafily prevent this mifchief, by giving
them room enough. You may change the objeds in
your Aiders for any others you think proper, by taking
out the brafs rings with the point of a penknife j
the talcs will then fall out, if you but turn the Aiders j
and after putting what you pleafe between them, by
replacing the brafs rings you will faften them as they
were before. It is proper to have fome Aiders furniAi-
ed with talcs, but without any obje£t between them,
to be always in readinefs for the examination of Auids,
falls, fands, powders, the farina of flowers, or any
other cafual objefts of fuch fort as need only be applied
to the outfide of the talc.
The circulation of the blood may be eafieft feen in
the tails or fins of fiflies, in the fine membranes be¬
tween g frog’s toes, or beft of all in the tail of a
water-newt. If your objeft be a fmall fifli, place it
within the tube N, and fpread its tail or fin along the
fide thereof: if a frog, choole fuch a one as can but
juft be got into your tube *, and, with a pen, or fmall
ftick, expand the tranfparent membrane between the
toes of the frog’s hind foot as much as you can. When
your objedl is fo adjufted that no part of it can inter¬
cept the light from the place you intend to view, un-
fcrew the long fcrew CC, and thruft your tube into
the arched cavity, quite through the body of the mi-
crofcope ; then fcrew it to the true focal diftance, arid
you will fee the blood palling along its veffels with a
rapid motion, and in a moft furprifing manner.
The third or fourth magnifiers may be ufed for
frogs or fifties : but for the tails of water-newts, the
fifth or fixth will do $ becaufe the globules of their
blood are twice as large as thofe of frogs or fifli. The
firft or fecond magnifier cannot well be employed for
this purpofe j becaufe the thicknefs of the tube in
which the objedt lies, will fcarce admit its being
brought fo near as the focal diftance of the magni:
fkr.
An apparatus for the purpofe of viewing opaque,
objedts generally accompanies this microfcope ; and
which confifts of the following parts. A brals arn\
QR, which is fcrewed at Q, upon the body of the mi¬
crofcope at G. Into the round hole R, any of the^
magnifiers fuitable to the objedl to be viewed are to.
be fcrewed j and under it, in the fame ring, the con¬
cave poliftied filver fpeculum S. Through a fmaH
aperture in the body of the microfcope under the
brafs plates EE, is to Aide the long wire with thq
forceps T : This wire is pointed at one of its ends;
and fo, that either the points or forceps may be ufed
' for the objedts • as may be neceflary. It is eafy to
conceive, therefore, that the arm at R, which turns,
by a twofold joint at# and b, may be brought with
its magnifier over the objedt, the light reAedted upon
it by the application of the fpeculum, and the true,
focus obtained by turning of the male fcrew CC as
before diredted.— As ol jedts are fometimes riot'well
fixed for view, either by the forceps, or .point,; the
imall piece thown at V is added, and in. fuch cafes
anfwers better : it fcrews over the point of TiCcun-
tains a fmall round piece of ivory, blackened on one
fide, and left white upon the other as a contraft to
coloured objedts, and by a fmall piece of vvatch-fpring
fallens down the objedts upon the ivory.
] MIC
2. Sing/e Micr^ofcope by refleElion. In fig. 2. A is a Microfcope..
fcroll of brafs fixed upright upon a round wooden —y—”j
bafe B, or mahogany drawer or cafe, fo as to ftand
perfedtly firm and fteady. C is a brafs fcrew, that paf-
fes through a hole in the upper limb of the fcroll in¬
to the fide of the microfcope D, and fclews it faft to
the faid fcroll. E is a concave fpeculum fet in a
box of brafc, which hangs in the arch G by two fmall
fcrews ff that fcrew into the oppolite fides thereof.
At the bottom of this arch is a pin of the fame metal,
exadlly fitted to a hole h in the wooden pedeftal, made .
for tire reception of the pin. As the arch turns on
this pin, and the fpeculum turns on the end of the
arch, it may, by this twofold motion, be eafily adjuft¬
ed in fuch a manner as to refledl the light of the fun,
of the fky, or of a candle, diredtly upwards through
the microfcope that is fixed perpendicularly over it j
and by fo doing may be made to anfwer many pur-
pofes of the large double refle&ing microfcope. The
body of the microfcope may alfo be fixed horizon¬
tally, and obje£ls viewed in that pofition by any light
you choofe; which is an advantage the common double,
reflefting microfcope has not. It may alfo be render¬
ed further ufeful by means of a flip of glafs $ one end
of which being thruft through between the plates where
the Aiders go, and the other extending to fome diftance^
fuch o! je£ls may be placed thereon as cannot be ap¬
plied in the Aiders : and then, having a limb of brafs
that may faften to the body of the microfcope, and ex.-,
tend over the projecting glafs a hollow ring wherein
to fcrew the magnifiers, all forts of fubjefts may be
examined with great convenience, if a hole be made in
the pedeftal, to place the fpeculum exaftly underneath,
and thereby throw up the rays of, light. The pocket-
microfcope, thus mounted, fays Mr Baker, “ is as eafy
and pleafant in its ufe ; as fit for the moft curious ex¬
amination of the animalcules and falls in fluids, of the.
farinae in vegetables, and of the circulation in fmall
animals; in fliort,, is as likely to make conflderable
difco.veries in objeCts that have fome degree of tranf-
parency, as, any microfcope I have ever feen or heard
of.”
The brafs fcroll A is now generally made to un-
ferew into three parts, and pack with the microfcope
and apparatus into the drawer of a mahogany pocket-
cafe, upon the lid of which the fcroll is made to fix
when in ufe.
The opaque apparatus alfo, as above deferibed, is
applicable this way by refledion. It only confifts in
turning the arm R (fig. I.), with the magnifier over
the concave fpeculum below (fig. 2.), or to receive
the light as reflected obliquely from it : the filver fpe¬
culum fcrewed into R will then refleCt the light, which
it receives from the glafs fpeculum, ftrongly upon the
objeCt that is applied upon the wire T underneath.
This microfcope,, however, is not upon the moft
convenient conftruCtion,, in comparifon with others:now
made: it has been efteemed for many years paft from
its popular name, and recommendation by its makers.
Its portability is certainly a great advantage in its fa¬
vour ; but in moft refpeCts it is fuperfeded by the mi-
crofcopes hereafter deferibed.
3. Microfcope for Opaque Obje&s, called the Single Fig- 3.
Oppque Microfcope. This microfcope remedies the in¬
convenience of having the dark fide of an objeCI next
the
M I C [
Microfcope. tlie eye, which formerly was an infmmountable ob-
jedlion to the making obfervations on opaque objcdts
with any confiderable degree of exaftnefs or fatisfac-
tion : for, in all other contrivances commonly known,
the nearnefs of the inftrument to the object (when
glaffes that magnify much are ufed') unavoidably over-
ihadows it fo much, that its appearance is rendered ob-
fcure and indiflindt. And, notwithftanding ways have
been tried to point light upon an objedt, from the fun
or a candle, by a convex glafs placed on the fide there¬
of, the rays from either can be throtvn upon it in fuch
an acute angle only, that they ferve to give a confufed
glare, but are infufficient to afford , a clear and perfedt
view of the objedt. But this microfcope, by means of
a concave fpeculum of filver highly polilhed, in whofe
centre a magnifying lens is placed, fuch a ftrong and
diredl light is refledfed upon the objedt, that it may be
examined with all imaginable eafe and pleafure. The
feveral parts of this inftrument, made either of brafs or
filver, are as follow.
Through the firft fide A, paffes a fine fcrew B, the
other end of which is faftened to the moveable fide C.
D is a nut applied to this fcrew, by the turning of
which the two fides A and C are gradually brought
together. E is a fpring of fteel that feparates the
two fides wThen the nut is unfcrewed. F is a piece of
brafs, turning round in a focket, whence proceeds a
fmall fpring tube moving upon a rivet ; through which
tube there runs a fteel wire, one end whereof termi¬
nates in a ftiarp point G, and the other writh a pair of
. pliers H faftened to it. The point and pliers are to
thruft into, or take up and hold, any infedl or objedt ;
and either of them may be turned upwards, as beft
fuits the purpofe. I is a ring of brafs, with a female
fcrew within it, mounted on an upright piece of the
fame metalwhich turns round on a rivet, that it may
be let at a due riiitance when the leaf! magnifiers are
employed. This ring receives the fcrews of all the
magnifiers. K is a concave fpeculum of filver, po¬
lilhed as bright as poflible ■, in the centre of which is
placed a double convex lens, with a proper aperture
to look through it. On the back of this fpeculum a
male fcrew L is made to fit the brafs ring I, to fcrew
into it at pleafure. Theie are four of thefe concave
Ipecula of different depths, adapted to four glaifes of
different magnifying powers, to be ufed as the ob-
jedis to be examined may require. The greateft mag¬
nifiers have the leaft apertures. M is a round objedt-
plate, one fide of which is w’hite and the other black :
The intention of this is to render objedfs the more vi-
fible, by placing them, if black, on the white fide,
or, if white, on the black fide. A feel fpring N turns
dowm on each fide to make any objedf fall; and if-
fuing from the objedl-plate is a hollowr pipe to fcrew
it on the needle’s point G. O is a fmall box of brafs,
with a glafs on each fide, contrived to confine any liv¬
ing objedl, in order to examine it : this alfo has a
pipe to fcrew upon the end of the needle G. P is a
turned handle of wood, to fcrew into the inftrument
W’hen it is made ufe of. Q, a pair of brafs pliers to
take up any objedl, or manage it with conveniency.
R is a foft hair-brufh for cleaning the glaffes, &c.
S is a fmall ivory box for talcs, to be placed, when
wanted, in the fmall brafs r O.
When you would view any objedf with this micro-
3 1 M 1C
fcope, fcrew the fpeculum, with the magnifier you Mhrofcope.
think proper to ufe, into the brafs ring I. Place your “*
objedl, either on the needle G in the pliers H, on the
objedl-plate M, or in the hollow brafs box O, as may
be moil convenient: then holding up your inftrument
by the handle P, look againft the light through the
magnifying lens; and by means of the nut D, together
wdth the motion of the needle, by managing its lower
end, the objedl may be turned about, raifed, or de-
preffed, brought nearer the glafs, or removed farther
from it, till you find the true focal diflance, and the
light be feen ftrongly refledled from the fpeculum up¬
on the objedt, by which means it will be fhown in a
manner lurprifingly diftindt and clear} and for this
purpofe the light of the fky or of a candle w ill anfwer
very well. Tranfparefit objedts may alfo be viewed by
this microfcope ; only obferving, that when fuch come
under examination, it will not always be proper to
throw on them the light refledled from the fpeculum j
for the light tranfmitted through them, meeting the
refledted light, may together produce too great a glare.
A little pradtice, however, will fhow how to regulate
both lights in a proper manner.
4. Ellis'1 s Jingle and Aquatic Microfcope. Fig. 4. re-Fig. 4,
prefents a very convenient and uleful microfcope, con¬
trived by Mr John Ellis, author of An Effay upon Co-*
rallines, &c. To pradlical botanifts, obfervers of ani-
malcula, &c. it poffeffes many advantages above thofe
juft deferibed. It is portable, fimple in its conftruc-
tion, expeditious, and commodious in ufe. K re-
prefents the box containing the whole apparatus : it
is generally made of filh-lkin ; and on the top there
is a female fcrew, for receiving the fcrew that is at the
bottom of the pillar A : this is a pillar of brafs, and
is ferewed on the top of the box. D is a brafs pin
which fits into the pillar ; on the top of this pin is a
hollow' focket to receive the arm w’hich carries the
magnifiers ; the pin is to be moved up and down, in
order to adjuft the lenfes to their focal or proper di-
ftance from the objedl. [A. B. In the reprefenta-
tions of this microfcope, the pin _D is delineated as
palling through a focket at one fide of the pillar A j
whereas it is ufual at prefent to make it pafs down a
hole bored through the middle of the pillar.] E, the
bar which carries the magnifying lens \ it fits into the
focket X, which is at the top of the pin or pillar D.
This arm may be moved backwards and forwards in
the focket X, and fideways by the pin D j fo that the
magnifier, which is ferewed into the ring at the end
E of this bar, may be eafily made to traverfe over any
part of the objedt that lies on the ftage or plate B.
FF is a polilhed filver fpeculum, with a magnifying
lens placed at the centre thereof, which is perforated
for this purpofe. The filver fpeculum fcrews into the
arm E, as at F. G, another fpeculum, with its lens,
w'hicli is of a different magnifying power from the
former. H, the femicircle which fupportsthe mirror 1 •,
the pin R, affixed to the femicircle H, paffes through
the hole which is towards the bottom of the pillar A.
B, the ftage, or the plane, on which the objedts are to
be placed ; it fits into the fmall dove tailed arm which
is at the upper end of the pillar DA. C, a plane
g’afs, with a fmall piece of black filk ftuck on it 5 this
glafs is to lay in a groove made in the ftage C. M,'
a hollow glafs to be laid occafionally on the ftage m-
A 2 ftead
MIC [ <
Micrbfcope. ftead of the plane glafs C. L, a pair of nippers.
' v Thefe are fixed to the ftage by the pin at bottom ;
the fteel wire of thefe nippers Hides backwards and
forwards in the focket, and this focket is moveable
upwards and downwards by means of the joint, fo fchat
the pofition of the .objeft may be varied at pleafure.
The object may be fixed in the nippers, ftuck on the
point, or affixed, by a little gum-water,. &c. to the
ivory cylinder N, which occafionally fcrews to the point
of the nippers. „
To «/ethis microfcope : Take all the parts of the ap¬
paratus out of the box ; then begin by fcrewing the
pillar A to the cover thereof 5 pais the pin R of the
femicircle which carries the mirror through the hole
that is near the bottom of the pillar A; puffi the ftage
into the dove-tail at B, Aide the pin into the pillar (fee
the N. B. above) j then pafs the bar E through the
focket which is at the top of the pin D, and fcrew one
of the magnifying lenfes into the ring at F. The mi
. crofcope is nowr ready for ufe : and though the enumer¬
ation of the articles may lead the reader to imagine the
inftrument to be of a complex nature, we can fafely
affirm that he will find it otherwife. The inftrument
has this peculiar advantage, that it is difficult to put
any of the pieces in a place which is appropriated to an¬
other. Let the objedl be now placed either on the
ftage or in the nippers L, and in fuch manner that it
may be as nearly as poffible over the centre of the ftage:
bring the fpeculum F over the part you mean to 6b-
ferve ; then throw as much light on the fpeculum as
you can, by means of the mirror I, and the double mo¬
tion of which it is capable ; the light received on the
ipeculum is reflefted by it on the objedh The diftance
6f the lens F from the objeft is regulated by moving
the pin D up and down, until a diftinft view of it is
obtained. The belt rule is, to place the lens beyond
its focal diftance from the objeft, and then gradually
to Aide it down till the objeft appears ffiarp and well
defined. The adjufiment of the ienfes to their focus,
and the diftribution of the light on the objeft, are
what require the moft attention : on the firft the di-
ftinftnefs of the vifion depends j the pleafure arifing
from a clear view of the parts under obfervation is due
to the modification of the light. No precife rule can
be given for attaining accurately thefe points; it is
from practice alone that ready habits of obtaining
thefe neeeffary properties can be acquired, and with
the affiftanc? of this no difficulty will be found.
5. A very fimple and convenient microfcope for
botanical and other purpofes, though inferior in many
refpe&s to that of Mr Ellis, w7as contrived by the
ingenious Mr Benjamin Martin, and is reprefented at
-yjg fig. 5. where AB reprefents a fmall arm fupporting
two or more magnifiers, one fixed to the upper part
as at B, the other to the lower part of the arm at C ;
thefe may be ufed feparately or combined together.
The arm AB is fupported by the fquare pillar IK,
the lower end of which fits into the focket E of the
foot FG ‘y the ftage DL is made to Aide up and down
the fquare pillar $ H, a concave mirror for reAe&ing
light on the objeft.—To ufe this microfcope, place
the objeft on the Aagc, reAedt the light on it from the
concave mirror, and regulate it to the focus, by moving
the ftage nearer to or farther from the lens at B. The
ivory Aiders pafs through the ftage} other objects may
] MIC
be fixed in the nippers MN, and then brought under Micmfccpe.
the eye-glafles; or they may be laid on one of the sr-**
glaffes which fit the ftage. The apparatus to this in¬
ftrument confifts of three ivory Aiders j a pair of nip¬
pers j a pair of forceps •, a fiat glafs and a concave
ditto, both fitted to the ftage.
The two laft microfcopes are frequently fitted up
with a toothed rack and pinion, for the more ready
adjufiment of the glafies to their proper focus.
6. Withering's portable Botanic Microfcope. Fig. 6. Fig. <$.
reprefents a fmall botanical microlcope contrived by
L)r Withering, and deferibed by him in his Bota¬
nical Arrangements. It con lifts of three brafs plates,
ABC, which are parallel to each other $ the wires
D and E are rivetted into the upper and lower plates,
which are by this means united to each other j the
middle plate or ftage is moveable on the aferefaid wares
by two little fockets which are fixed to it. The two
upper plates each contain a magnifying lens, but of
difierent powers ; one of thefe confines and keeps in
their places \he fine point F, the forceps G, and the
fmall knife H.—To ufi this inftrument, unferew the
upper lens, and take out the point, .the knife, and the
forceps j then fcrew the lens on again, place the ob-
jedV on the ftage, and then move it up or down till
you have gained a diftinft view of the obje<ft, as one
lens is made of a Aiorter focus than the other j and
fpare lenfes of a ftill deeper focus may be had if re¬
quired. This little microfcope is the moft portable
of any. Its principal merit is its fimplicity.
7. Botanical Lenfes or Magnifiers. The hafte with
which botanifts, &c. have frequently oceafion to view
obje&s, renders an extempore pocket-glafs indifpen-
fably neceftary. The moft convenient of any yet con-
ftrufted, appears to be that contrived, in regard to
the form of the mounting, by Mr Benjamin Mar¬
tin ; and is what he called a Hand Megalafcepey be-
caufe it is well adapted for viewing all the larger fort
of fmall objefts univerfally, and by only three lenfes
it has feven different magnifying pow’ers.
Fig, 7. reprefents the cafe with the three frames and Fig. 7,
lenfes, which are ufually of 1, lx? and 2 inches focus: °
they all turn over each other, and ffiut into the cafe,
and are turned out at pleafure.
The three lenfes fingly, afford three magnifying
powers; and by combining two and twro, we make three
more : for d with e makes one, d with f another, and
<? withy a third ; w hich, with the three fingly, make
fix ; and laftly, all three combined together make an¬
other ; fo that upon the wffiole, there are feven powers
of magnifying w ith thefe glaffes only.
When the three lenfes are combined, it is better to
turn them in, and look through them by the fmall
apertures in the Tides of the cafe. The eye in this
cafe is excluded from extra light ; the aberration of
the fuperilnous rays through the glaffes is cut off; and
the eye coincides more exaftly with the common axes
of the lenfes.
A very ufeful and eafy kind of microfcope (deferib- P*ate...
ed by Joblot, and which has been long in ufe), adapt- cccx*5cviir’
ed chiefiy for viewing, aiM confining at the fame time,
any living infeifts, fmall animals, &c. is fiiown at fig. 8.Fie 8
where A reprefents a glafs tube, about inches dia- S*
meter, and 2 inches high. B, a cafe of brafs or wood,
containing a Aiding tube, with two or three magnify¬
ing
M 1 c [ s ] MIC
Microfcooe. ing glaffes thf*t may be ufed either 5spstately or com-
bined. In the infide, at the bottom, is a piece of
ivory, black and white on oppofite fides, that is occa-
fionally removed, and admits a point to be fcrewed in¬
to the centre. The cap unfcrews at D, to admit the
placing of the objetf:: the proper diftance of the glafies
from the objeft is regulated by pulling up or down
the brafs tube hi at top containing the eye-glalfes.*
I his microfcope is particularly ufehil for exhibiting
the well-known curious curcuho imperiahs, vulgarly call¬
ed the diamond beetle, to the greateif advantage ; for
which, as well as for other objefts, a glafs bottom,
and a polilhed refieftor at the top, are often applied,
to condenfe the light upon the objetS. In this cafe,
the Hand and brafs-bottom F, as fhown in the figure,
are taken away by unfcrewing.
9- Mi' Lyonefs Single Slnatotmcal DiffeRirig Micro-
■tl'g- 9‘ fC0Pe'—Fig- 9* reprefents a curious and extremely ufe-
ful microlcope, invented by that gentleman for the pur-
pofe of minute diffedtions, and microfcopic prepara¬
tions. {This inftrument muft be truly ufeful to ama¬
teurs of the minutire of infedis, &c. being the beft
adapted of any for the purpofes of diffedlion. With
this inftrument Mr Lyonet made his very curious mi-
crofcopical diffedlion of the chenille de [aide, as related
in his Traite Anatomiq ue de la chenille qui range le kois
de /aide, zj.to.
AB is the anatomical table, which is fupported by
a pillar NO ; this is fcrewed on the foot CD. The
table AB is prevented from turning round by means
ot twro fteady pins. In this table or board there is a
hole G, which is exadtly over the centre of the mirror
EF, that is to refledi the light on the objedt j the hole
G is defigned to receive a Hat or concave glafs, on
which the objedfs for examination are to be placed.
RXZ is an arm formed of feveral balls and fockets,
by which means it may be moved in every poffible fi-
tuation ; it is fixed to the board by means of the fcrew
H. I he laft arm IZ has a female fcrewT, into which
a magnifier may be fcrewed as at Z. By means of the
fcrew H, a fmall motion may be occafionally given to
the arm IZ, for adjufting the lens with accuracy to its
focal diftance from the objedt.
Another chain of balls is fometimes ufed, carrying a
lens to throw light upon the objedi; the mirror is like-
wife fo mounted, as to be taken from its place at K, and
fitted on a clamp, by w'hich it may be fixed to any part
of the table AB.
To ufe the DiffeBing Table.—Let the operator fit
with his left fide near a light window 5 the inftrument
being placed on a firm table, the fide DH to%vards the *
ftomach, the obfervations fhould be made with the
left eye. In difledling, the two elbows are to be fup¬
ported by the table on which the inftrument refts, the
hands refting againft the board AB ; and in order to
give it greater liability (as a fmall {hake, though im¬
perceptible to the naked eye, is very vifible in the mi¬
crofcope), the difledling inftruments are to be held
one in each hand, between the thumb and two fore¬
fingers.
II. Of Dcublk Microfcopes, commonly called Compound
Microfcopes.
Double microfcopes are fo called, from being a com¬
bination cf two or more Isnfes,
Fne particular and chief advantages which the com* Microfcope,
pound mictofcopes have over the ifingle, are, that the 'n-—
objedts are reprefented under a larger field of view, and
with a greater amplification of reftedled light.
1. Culpeper"1 s Microfcope—The compound microfcope,
originally contrived by Mr Culpeper, is reprefented at
fig. 10. It confifts of a large external brafs body A, Fig. ro.
B, C, D, fupported upon three fcrolB, which are fixed
to the ftage EF j the ftage is fupported by three lar¬
ger ierolls, that are fcrewed to the mahogany pedeftal
GH. There is a drawer in the pedeftal, which holds'
the apparatus. The concave mirror I is fitted to a
focket in the centre of the pedeftal. The lower part
LMCD of the body forms an exterior tube, into which
the upper part of the body ABLM Hides, and may
be moved up or down, fo as to bring the magnifiers,
which are fcrewed on at N, nearer to or farther from
the object.
To ufe this microfcope : Screw one of the buttons,
which contains a magnifying lens, to the end N of the
body : place the Aider, with the objedfs, between the
plates of the Aider-holder. Then, to attain diftindl
vifion, and a pleaftng view of the objedt, adjuft the bo¬
dy to the focus of the lens you are uiing, by moving
the upper part gently up and down, and regulate the
light by the concave mirror.
For opaque objedfs, two additional pieces muft be
ufed. The firft is a cylindrical tube of brafs (reprefent¬
ed at L, fig. 11.), which fits on the cylindrical part at Fig. ii>.
N of the body. The fecond piece is the concave fpecu-
lum h ; this is to be fcrewed to the lower end of the
aforefaid tube : the upper edge of this tube fhould be
made to coincide with the line which has the fame num¬
ber affixed to it as to the magnifier you are ufing j e. g.
if you are making ufe of the magnifier marked 5, Aide
the tube to the circular line on the tube N that is
marked alfo with N0 5. The Aider-holder ftiould be
removed when you are going to view opaque ob-
jedls, and a plane glafs Ihould be placed on the ftage
in its ftead to receive the objedl; or it may be placed
in the nippers, the pin of which fits into the hole in-
the ftage.
The apparatus belonging to this microfcope confifts
of the following particulars : viz. Five magnifiers, each
fitted in a brafs button ; one of thefs is feen at N,
fig. 10. Six ivory Aiders, five of them with objedts.
A brafs tube, to hold the concave fpeculum. The
concave fpeculum in a brafs box. A filh pan. A fet
of glafs tubes. A flat glafs fitted to the ftage. A
concave glafs fitted to the ftage. A pair of forceps.
A.fteel wire, with a pair of nippers at one end and a
point at the other. A fmall ivory cylinder, to fit on
the pointed end of the aforefaid nippers. A convex
lens, moveable in a brais femicircle ; this is affixed to
a long brafs pin, which fits into a hole on the ftage.
T he conftrudlion of the foregoing microfcope is very
Ample, and it is eafy in ufe; but the advantages of the
ftage and mirror are too much confined for an extenfive
application and management of all kinds of objedts. Its
greateft recommendation is its cheapnefs ; and to thofe
who are defirous of having a compound microfcope at a
low price, it may be acceptable.
2. Cuff's Microfcope. The improved microfcope
next in order is that of Mr Cuff. Befides remedying
the difadvantages above mentioned, it' contains the
additipa-
M I C
[
Microfcope. addition of an adjuiling ferew, “which is a confider-
v able improvement, and highly necefl'ary to the ex¬
amination of objeffs under the belt defined appear-
Fig. ii. ance from the glaffes. It is reprefented at fig. 11.
with the apparatus that ufually accompanies it. A-
J3, C, Ihows the body of this microfcope ; which
contains an eye-glafs at A, a broad lens at B, and
a magnifier which is fcrewed on at C. The body
is fupported by the arm DE, from which it may
be removed at pleafure. The arm DE is fixed
on the Hiding bar F, and may be raifed or depref-
fed to any height within its limits. The main pil¬
lar a b \s fixed in the box be; and by means of the
brafs foot d is fcrewed to the mahogany pedellal XY,
in which is a drawer containing all the apparatus. G is
a milled-headed fcrew, to tighten the bar F when the
adjuiling fcrew eg is ufed. /» O’ Is the ftage, or plate,
which carries the objefls j it has a hole at the centre
n. G, a concave mirror, that may be turned in any
dire&ion, to refleft the light of a candle, or the fky,
upon the objecl.
To ufe this microfcope : Screw the magnifier you
intend to ufe to the end C of the body j place the
flider-holder P in the hole «, and the Aider with the
objedt between the plates of the flider-holder ; fet the
upper edge of the bar DE to coincide with the di-
t^fions which correfpond to the magnifier you have in
ufe, and pinch it by the milled nut ; now refleft a
proper quantity of light upon the objeft, by means
of the concave mirror G, and regulate the body ex-
a£Uy to the eye and the focus of the glaffes by the
adjulting fcrew cg.
To view opaque obje&s, take away the flider-holder
P, and place the object on a flat glafs under the cen¬
tre of the body, or on one end of the jointed nippers
op. Then fcrew the filver concave fpeculum h to the
end of the cylinder L, and Hide this cylinder on the
lower part of the body, fo that the upper edge thereof
may coincide with the line which has the fame mark
with the magnifier that is then ufed : refledl the light
from the concave mirror G to the filver fpeculum,
from which it will again be refle&ed on the objed.
The glaffes are to be adjufted to their focal diflance as
before direded.
The apparatus confifts of a convex lens H, to col¬
led the rays of light from the fun or a candle, and
con den fe them on the objed. L a cylindrical tube,
open at each fide, with a concave fpeculum fcrewed to
the lower end h. P the flider-holder : this confifts of a
cylindrical tube, in which an inner tube is forced up¬
wards by a fpiral fpring } it is ufed to receive an ivory
Aider K, which is to be Aid between the plates h
and i. The cylinder P fits the hole n in the ftage ;
and the hollow part at h is defigned to receive a glafs
tube. R is a brafs cone, t6 be put under the bottom
of the cylinder P, to intercept occafionally fome of
the rays of light. S, a box containing a concave and
a flat glafs, between which a fmall living infed may
be confined : it is to be placed over the hole n. T
a flat glafs, to lay any occafional objed upon ; there
isjsho a concave one for fluids. O is a long fteel wire,
wdth a fmall pair of pliers at one end, and a point at
the other, defigned to rtick or hold objeds : it flips
backwards and forwards in the Ihort tube o; the pin
/>-fits into 'the hole of the ftage. W, a little round
6 ] MIC
ivory box, to hold a fupply of talc and rings for the Microfcope.
Aiders. V, a fmall ivory cylinder, that fits on the “
pointed end of the fteel wire : it is deligned for opaque
objeds. Light-coloured ones are to be ftuck upon
the dark fide, and vice verfa, M, a fiih pan, v/hereon
to fafh n a fmall fith, to view the circulation of the
blood : the tail is to be fpread acrofs the oblong hole
k at the fmall end, and tied fart, by means of a rib¬
band fixed thereto j the knob / is to be ftiovcd through
the flit made in the ftage, that the tail may be brought
under the magnifier.
3. This microfcope has received feveral material im¬
provements fiom Mr Martin, Mr Adams, &c. By
an alteration, or rather an enlargement, of the body of
tire tube which contains the eye-glaffes, and ai!o of the
eye glaffes themlelves, the field of view is made much
larger, the mirror below' for refleding light is made to
move upon the lame bar with the ftage j by w'hich means
the diftance of it from the ftage may be very eafily and
fuitably varied. A condenfing glafs is applied under
the ftage in the flider-holder, in order to modify and
increafe the light that is refleded by the mirrors be¬
low from the light of a candle or lamp. It is furnilh-
ed alfo with two mirrors in one frame, one concave
and the other plane, of glafs filvered ; and by limply
unferewing the body, the inftrument, w'hen defired, may
be converted into a fingle microfcope. Fig. 12. is a Fig. n.
reprefenta ion of the inftrument thus improved j and
the following is the defeription of it, as given by
Mr Adams in his Effays.
AB reprefents the body of the microfcope, con¬
taining a double eye glafs and a body-glafs : it is
here Iho vn as fcrewed to the arm CD, from whence
it may be occafionally removed, either for the conve¬
nience of packing, or when the inftrument is to be ufed
as a fingle microfcope.
The eye-glaffes and the body-glaffes are contained
in a tube which fits into the exterior tube AB j by
pulling out a little this tube when the microicope is
in ufe, the magnifying power of each lens is increaled.
The body AB of the microfcope is fupported by
the arm CD ; this arm is fixed to the main pillar CF,
which is fcrewed firmly to the mahogany pedeftal
GH 5 there is a drawer to this pedefial, which holds
the apparatus.
NIS, the plate or ftage which carries the flider-holder
KL : this ftage is moved up or down the pillar CF, by
turning the milled nut M ; this nut is fixed to a pinion,
that works in a toothed rack cut on one fide of the pil¬
lar. By means of this pinion, the ftage may be gradu¬
ally raifed or depreffed, and the objetft adjufted to the
focus of the different lenfes.
KL is a flider-holder, which fits into a hole that is in
the middle of the fiage NIS ; it is ufed to confine and
guide either the motion of the Riders which contain the
objefts, or the glafs tubes that are defigned to confine
fmall fifties for viewing the circulation of the blood.
The Aiders are to be paffed between the two upper plates,
the tubes through the bent plates.
L is a brafs tube, to the upper part of which is fixed
the condenfing lens before fpoken of; it fits into the
under part of the flider-holder KL, and may be fet at
different diftances from the objedl, according to its di¬
flance from the mirror or the candle.
O is the frame which holds the two refle£ling mir-
MIC [
Microfcope. ror?, one of which is plane, the other concave. Thefe
'v mirrors may be moved in various diredlions, in order
to reflect the light properly, by means of the pivots
on which they move, in the femicircle Q^SR, and the
motion of the femicircle itfelf on the pin S : the con¬
cave mirror generally anfwers bell in the day-time ;
the plane mirror combines better with the condenfing
lens, and a lamp or candle. At D there is a focket for
receiving the pin of the arm £) (fig. 31.), to which the
concave Ipeculum, for refledding light on opaque objefls,
is fixed. At S is a hole and flit for receiving either the
Plate nippers L (fig. 31.) or the fifh-pan I ; when thefe are
CCCXLI. ufed, the Aider-holder muff be removed. 7’, a hole to
fig-3i>
receive the pin of the convex lens M.
To ufe this microfcope : Take it out of the box.
Screw the body into the round end of the upper part
of the arm CD. Place the brafs Aiders, which con¬
tain the magnifiers, into the. dove-tailed flit which is
on the under fide of the aforefaid arm, as feen at E,
and Aide it forwards until the magnifier you mean
to ufe is under the centre of the body : oppofite to
each magnifier in this flit there is a notch, and in
the dove-tailed part of the arm CD there is a fpring,
which falls into the above-mentioned notch, and thus
makes each magnifier coincide with the centre of the
body. Pafs the ivory Aider you intend to ufe between
the upper plates of the Aider-holder KL, and then
refledt as ftrong a light as you can on the fubjedf by
means of one of the mirrors j after this, adjuft the ob¬
ject to the focus of the magnifier and your eye, by
turning the milled fcrewT M, the motion of which raifes
and depreffes the' flage NIS. The degree of light,
neceffary for each objedl, and the accuracy required in
the adjuftment of the lenfes to their proper focal di-
ftance from the objedf will be eafily attained by a little
practice.
When opaque objedls are to be examined, remove
the Aider-holder, and place the objedf on a fiat glafs,
or fix it to the nippers L, the pin of thefe fit into the
hole on the fiage ; fcrew the concave fpeculum R
into the arm £) (fig. 31.), and then pafs the pin of this
arm through the focket D (fig. 1 2.) •, the light is now' to
be refledled from the concave mirror to the filver fpe-
eulum, and from this down on the objedl. No exadf
rule can be given for refiedling the light on the object j
we mufi therefore refer the reader to the mother of all
aptnefs, pradlice. The fpeculum muft be moved lower
or higher, to fuit the focus of the different magnifiers
and the nature of the objedl.
The foregoing direbtions apply equally to the ufing
of this inffrument as aJtn^/e microjcope; with this dif¬
ference only, that the body AB is then removed, and
the eye is applied to the upper furface of the arm CD,
exactly over the magnifiers.
This microfcope is lometiraes made with the follow'- -
ing. alterations, which are fuppofed to make it (till
more convenient and ufeful. The arm CD that car¬
ries the body and magnifiers is made both to turn on
a pin, and to Aide backwards and forwards in a focket
at C ; fo that, inflead of moving the objedts below' on
the fiage, and dilturbing them, the magnifiers are more
conveniently brought over any part of the objects as
defired. The condenfing glafs is made larger, and
Aides upon the fqnare bar CF quite difiinct from the
ffage, like the mirrors below 5 and id is thereby made
7 ] MIC
ufeful for any other objedls that may be applied on Microfcope.
glafles fitted to the fiage, as well as thofe put into —-v ~~'1
the Aider-holder K. It is thereby not confined to
this ftage alone as in the preceding. When the
body AB is taken away, the arm CD may be flipt
away from its bar, with the magnifiers, and the for¬
ceps, w’ire, and joint, applied to it j and it there¬
by ferves the purpofe of a fmall fingle or opaque hand
microfcope, for any objedl occafionally applied to this
wfire. The magnifiers in the Aider E are mounted in a
wheel cafe, w'hich perhaps prevents its being in the way
fo'much as the long Aider E before defcribed.—This
contrivance is reprefented at X, fig. 12.
4. Martin's New Vniverfal Compound Microfcope.—
This inffrument was originally conftrubfed by Mr B.
Martin, and intended to comprife all the ufes and ad¬
vantages of the fingle, compound, opaque, and aquatic
microfcopes. The following is a defcription of it.
Fig. 12. is a reprefentatioa of the inftrument pla- Plate
ced up for ufe. ABCD is the body of the micro- gg
fcope : which confifts of four parts, viz. AB the eye¬
piece, or that containing the eye-glaffes, and is fcrew- .
ed into C, which is a moveable or Hiding tube on the
top } this inner tube contains the body-glafs fcrewed
into its low'er part. D is the exterior tube or cafe,
in which the other Aides up and down in an eafy and
fleady manner. This motion of the tube C is ufeful
to increafe and decreafe the magnifying power of the
body-glafs when thought neceflary, as before mention¬
ed. E is a pipe or fnout fcrewed on to the body of the
microfcope D, and at its lower part, over the feveral
magnifying lenfes hereafter defenbed. FGFII is the
fquare ftem of the microfcope, upon which the ffage R
moves in an horizontal pofition, upwards or downward,
by means of the fine rack-w’ork of teeth and pinion.
KL is a ftrong folid joint and pillar, by which the pc-
fition of the inftrument is readily altered from a vertical
one to an oblique or to a perfectly horizontal one as may
be required : it is thus well adapted to the eafe of the
obferver either fitting or (landing •, and as it is very
often convenient to view objects by direft unreflefl-
ed light, when the fquare ftem FI is placed in a
horizontal pofition for this purpofe, the mirror T is
then to be taken off in order to prevent the obftruc-
tion of the rays. M is a circular piece of brafs, ferv-
ing as a bafe to the pillar. NOP, the tripod or foot
by which the whole body of the microfcope is ftea-
dily fupported ; it folds up w'hen packed into the cafe.
W is a brafs frame, that contains the condenfing lens,
and a£ls in conjumftion with the large concave and
plane mirrors below at T ; the reflected rays from
which, either of the common light or of that of a
candle or lamp, it agreeably modifies, and makes ffea-
dy in the field of view.
The particulars of the apparatus to tins microfcope
are as follow- : P is a circular br.ls box, containing fix
magnifiers or obiedd lenfes, numbered r, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ;
the digits of which appear feverally through a fmall
round hole in the upper plate of it. To tlie upper fide
is fixed a fmall circle of br.tb, by vnich it is connected
with, and fcrewed into, the round end of the arm
abed; which is a long piece of brafs, ?nd moves through,
either by teeth or pinion, or not, as nay be defi ed, in
ef; which is a focket on the upper part of the pillar,
and admits, w-ith a motion both ealy and heady, the
brais
%• I4*
-MIG [
Microfcope. braFs arns.* R is a fixed fiage, upon which the objedts
’ to be viewed are to be placed : it is firmly faftened to
the fquare pillar, which is moved by the rack-work.
In the middle is a large circular hole, for receiving
concave glafles, with fluids, &c. it has alfo a Aiding
fpring frame to fafien dowm flips of glafs or other thing*:
at abc are three imall fockets or holes, intended to
receive feveral parts of the apparatus. S is the refrac¬
tor, or illuminating lens, for converging the fun’s rays
upon opaque objects laid upon the fiage R. To this
purpofe it moves on a femicircle upon a long fliank g,
in a fpring focket h, in the arm i ; this arm moving
every-way by a flout pin h in the focket a of the ftage.
In this manner it is eafily adjulled to any pofition of the
fim,. candle, &.c.—T, the refledling glafs frame, con¬
taining a concave and plane fpeculum, which is moved
upon the fquare pillar by the hand. The ufe of it is to
illuminate all tranfparent objects that are applied to the
ftage above.
Fig. 14. N° i. is an auxiliary moveable ftage ; which
by means of a pin h is placed in the hole a of the ftage
xv, and can be moved in a horizontal direftion over
the wThole field of the ftage. In this ftage, there are
three circular holes with fliouldered bottoms j a
large one in the middle, and on each fide a fmall
one, for the reception of the three following neceffary
articles: N® 2. a watch-glafs to be placed in the large
hole, to hold fluids containing animalcules, &c. ; a
circular piece of ivory, N°3. one fide of which is black,
the other white, to fupport opaque objefls of different
contra fled colours 5 and circular plane and concave
glaffes, N® 4. for extemporaneous tranfparent objetls.
—The fame ufe is made of the other fmall hole as of
the large one, only in a leffer degree, to receive fmall
concave glaffes, plates, &c.
N° 5. is the filvered fpeculum, called a LibcrViun,
which makes the fingle opaque microfcope, by being
icrewed to the Aider abed (fig. 13.) in room of the box
. of lenfes. and. the body AE above it. The chief
ufe of this is to view very fmall objects ftrongly illu¬
minated near the compounded focus of the mirror
l (%• I3*)* N° 6. is the forceps or pliers, for
holding fuch kind of objefts, and by which they
can be applied very readily to the focus of the lens
in the liberkhun. j hey have a motion all wTays by
means of the fpring focket a, the joint b, and the
fliank c : they are placed in the focket c of the fixed
ftage R (fig, 13.). N° 7. is a Imall piece of ivory,
to be placed upon the pointed end of the pliers :
it is black upon one fide, and white upon the other,
to receive opaque objeifls.
r •^° 8* is a liberkhun of a larger fize than that
iirft mentioned, with a hole in its centre : this is
j crewed into N° 9. the hole rt of a brafs ring, fall-
cned to a long wire b; wftiich moves up and down
in the fpring focket b of the ftage R, in which it al¬
io moves Tideways 5 and thus, with the body AE above,
forms an aquatic compound microfcope for fliowin-r all
torts of objefts in water and other fluids placed under
it m Uie watch-glafs N° /2. on the ftage.
i ^ V* JS 3 cone> with a proper aperture a to ex¬
clude fuperfluous light, that wxiuld diftuft) a critical
observation of a curious objea 5 it is placed on the
under fide of the fixed flage R.
N° I2* is what is ufually called a bug-box, confift-
4
3 ] MIC
ing of a concave glafs with a plane one ferewed over Microfcope*
it j by means of which a bug, loufe, flea, &c. may be v—
fee are d and viewed alive. It is to be placed on either
of the ftages R (fig. 13.), or N° 1. (fig. 14.).
N° 13. is the fiih-pan. In the long concave body
ab, a fith may be fo confined by the ribband c, that
the tranfparent tail may be in part over the flit or hole
at a. In this ftate, it is placed on the ftage R, with
the pin d in the hole c of the ftage, and moves free¬
ly and horizontally for viewing the circulation of the
blood, &c.
N° 14. is the Aider-holder that is placed on the ftage
R : it receives the Aiders and tubes w'hen filled with
tranfparent objefls, to be viewed either by the com¬
pound or fingle microfcope.
N° 15. reprefents the ivory Aider, to hold the objefts
between the talcs as ufual.
N® 16. is a ufeful auxiliary Aider framed in brafs.
In this Aider fmall concave glaffes are cemented j and
a flip of plane glafs Aides over them j by wEich any
final.! living objeft, as mites, &c. may be confined with¬
out injury, and deliberately viewed.
N° 17. reprefents a fet of glafs tubes, three in num¬
ber, one within another;, they are ufeful for fmall tad¬
poles, water newts, eels, &c. when the circulation of
the blood is to be viewed. There is a fmall hole at
one end of each tube, that ferves to admit the air 5 for
when they are filled with water, the other end is flop¬
ped wflth a cork.
N° .i8. is a fmall ivory box, containing fpare talcs
and wires, to fupply the Aiders with occafionally.
N° 19. a brafs cell or button, containing a very
fmall lens,. properly fet between two fmall plates of
brafs, that it may be brought very near to the objeft
when viewed therewith as a fingle microfcope. This
magnifier is ferewed into the fame hole as the wheel of
fix magnifiers are (fig. 13.).
N 20. is a lens, adapted to view and examine ob-
jeds, by magnifying them fufficiently, fo as to be able
to apply them to the microfcope for infpeflion : on this
account it is called the explorator.
The preceding are the chief articles of the appara¬
tus : which, on account of their being fomewhat dif¬
ferent from what is applied to other microfcopes, we
have been thus particular in deferibing. In ufing
the micioicope, and wEile viewing objects by either
the fingle or compound inflrument, the focal diftances
of the magnifiers are made perfe&ly exa& by turn¬
ing of the pinion at the nut u>, in one way or the
other, very gently in the teeth of the rack-work at
X (fig. 13.).
It is neceffary that the centres of the objea ienfes
or magnifiers, the ftage, and the mirrors at bot¬
tom, fhould all be in a right line in the axis of the
microfcope, when opaque objeds are to be viewed,
that are placed upon the ivory piece N° 7. or the for¬
ceps N 6. and all other fuch lort of obje£ls which are
placed in the centre of the ftage R, or Aider-holder
N°_ 1 4: But when aquatic or living objefts, which re¬
quire a great fpace to move in, are to be viewed, then
the horizontal motion at <?/(fig. 13.) is made ufe of,
and the view may be extended laterally over the whole
of the diameter of the objeft or field of view j and
by putting the arm abed forward or backward in
ks focket efj tiie view is extended in the contrary
direftioa
M I C
Microfcope. direftion equally Well j and in this manner tlie whole
* of the objedts may be viewed without the leaft di-
flurbance.
As the brafs arm abed may be brought to the
height of three or four inches above the llage R ; fo,
by means of the rack-work motion of the ftage, a
lens of a greater focal diflance than the greateft in
the wheel may be occalionally applied in place of
the wheel, and thereby the larger kind of objefls be
viewed 5 the inftrument becoming, in this cafe, what is
called a megalafcope.
In viewing moving living objefts, or even fixed ones,
when nice motions are requifite, a rack-work and pi¬
nion is often applied to the arm abed: the arm is
cut out with teeth j and the pinion, as Ihown at Y, is
applied to work it. This a els but in one direftion j
and, in order to produce an equally neceffary motion
perpendicular to this, rack-work and pinion is applied
tangent-wife to the ftage, which is then jointed.
What has been related above refpe&s the conftruc-
tion of thofe denominated parlour microfcopes, in con-
tradiftinftion to thofe which are portable: their di-
menfions, however, have been confiderably reduced by
opticians, in order to render them fit for the pocket}
and as they are for the moft part conflrufted on nearly
the fame principles as thofe which have been already de-
feribed, what has been faid will fufficiently inftruft our
readers in ufing any pocket microfcope whatever.
Only it may be obferved, that in thofe reduced inflru-
ments, both the field of viexv and the magnifying power
are proportionably diminiflied.
We fhall conclude the account of this fort of mi¬
crofcope with deferiptions of a very portable pocket
apparatus of microfcopic inftruments, and of a new mi-
crofcopic pocket telefcope, both invented by the late
Mr B. Martin, and fince made by moft inftrument-
makers in London.
The former is reprefented at fig. 15. It confifts
of two parts, viz. the body abt and the pedeftal ihy
which is joined by a ferew at the part between b and
. It confifts of three cylindric tubes^ viz. (1.) the
exterior tube, or cafe, ab; (2.) a middle tube cb;
and (3.) the interior tube fg. The middle tube
cd is the adjafter j and is connedted with the outer
tube by the rack-work of teeth and pinion, as ftiown
at e: by which means it is moved up and down at
pleafure through the fmalleft fpace, and carries with
it the internal tube Jg. The interior tube Jg receives
on its lower part at b the feveral capfules or boxes 2,
3, 4, 5, (fig. 16.) which contain the objett lenfes or
magnifiers.
The method of u/tng this compound microfcope in
the perpendicular pofition, is as follows : The ftage
N° 1. is put within the exterior tube at b. Un¬
der the Springs are applied the four ivory Aiders,
which contain a variety of trailfparent objedls j then
move the interior tube fg up and down with the hand,
till you difeern the objeft in the Aider, and there let
it reft. After this, turn the pinion at e very tenderly
one way or the other, till you obtain a perfedl view
of the tranfparer.t objedls properly illuminated, from
a mirror contained in the pedeftal or ftand ik, fuf-
pended upon, and moveable about, the points of
Vol. XIV. Part I.
M I C
two ferevto (7/). N° 6. (fig. i6.\ reprefents a move-Mlcrefeo^
able ftage, which is placed in the fpring focket m. It
contains a concave glafs, for the reception of animal¬
cules in Auids j and has the advantage of bringing any
part into view by moving the handle at n. If living
and moving obje£ts are required to be ftiown, they muft
be confined in. the concave, by putting a glafs cover,
N° f\ upon the ftage $ and then a fmall fpider, a loufe*
a flea, bug, &.c. may be feen, and the motion or circu-
laton of the blood, &c. obferved with furprifing di-
flindlnefs.
To view the circulation of the blood in the moft
eminent degree, it muft be done by placing fmall frogs*
tadpoles, water-newts, fifties, &c. in a tube as reprefent¬
ed N° 8. (fig. 17.J ; which tube is placed in the holes
0 in the oppofite fides of the cafe ab, fig. 15. in the
lower part.-—N® 9. (fig. 16.) is a pair of pincers or
pliers dy for holding any objeft $ the other end of the
Aeel wire is pointed to receive a piece of ivory b, with
one end black, and the other white, on which you flick
obje£ts of different hue : this alfo, when ufed, is placed
in the fpring focket m.~
To ufe this inftrument as a compound opaque, you.
ferew off the body part ab, and ferew to it the handle
r (fig. j6.) -y by this means you may bold the micro¬
fcope in a horizontal pofition, as ftiown in the figuret
The filver difti or fpeculum (which is contained in the
bottom or bafe h, fig. 15.), is then ferewed on at b.
N® 9. is placed in the fpring focket m, and adjufted
backward and forward in m, till the refie&ed light from
the fpeculum falls in a proper manne'r on the opaque
obje£t. Either of the 4 magnifiers, 2, 3, 4, 5, may be
ufed, and brought to a proper focus, as before deferib-
ed by the tooth and pinion e (fig. 15.). If you take
off the opaque apparatus, and apply the ftage N° 1. (fig.
16.) with an ivory Aider, and at the end b ferew in either
of the two lenfes, N° 10. (which are diftinguiftied by
the name of illuminators), the microfcope being held up
to the light (and properly adjufted), the whole field of
view will be ftrongly illuminated, and prefent a moft
pleafing appearance of any tranfparent object. Thefe
two convex lenfes are of different focufes, and arc to be
ufed fingly or together 3 N° 2. being the greateft magni¬
fier, will require the obje£t to be ftrongly illuminated,
and of courfe both the lenfes muft be ufed together.
By candle-light, this method of viewing tranfparent ob-
je£is will prove very entertaining j by ferewing the
handle r into the part s of N° 10. it becomes a delight¬
ful hand megalafcope for viewing fiowers, foftils, ftiells,
&c. ; and each lens, as before mentioned, having a
different focus, produces two magnifying pow'ers ufed
fingly, and when combined a third.
The manner of ufing this inftrument as a fingle mi¬
crofcope (like Wilfon’s) is reprefented in fig. 17. where
the button or magnifier at each is to be ferewed off, and
the circular piece N° x 1. is ferewed in its place. This
piece has a fpring focket made to receive the Aider-hol¬
der N° 1 2. N° 13. is a circular piece of brafs, with a
long Aiank and fpring, and is introduced through the
outfide tube ab at t. N° 2, 3, 4, 5, are ferewed occa-
fionally in the centre of this piece, and ufed as fingle
lenfes with ivory Aiders, &cc. N° 14. contains a lens of
a great magnifying power, for viewing very minute ob- .
je6ls : to reder this inftrument the moft complete Angle
opaque microfcope, you have only to ferew into N° 1 3.’
B the
[ 9 1
MIG [ i
Micrcfcope. the filver fpeculum N° 15. which has a fmail lens fet in
its centre. The Aider-holder N° 12. is taken out of
N° 11. and the pincers or nippers db, being detached
from the other part of NG 9. are paffed through the
long fpring focket N° II. and ready to receive any
opaque body in the pincers, or on the black and white
piece of ivory. To the large fcrewr of N° I 3. are ajjplied
the two lenles N° 10. which make it the completed
megalalcope that can be defired.
"1 he handle r contains the four ivory Aiders wdth
objedls.
The Aragreen cafe which contains this univerfal mi*
crofcope and its apparatus, is fix inches long, three
inches wide, two inches deep; and weighs together 16
ounces. “ Thus (fays Mr Martin) fo fmail, fo light,
fo portable, and yet fo univerfally complete, is this
pocket microfcopic apparatus, that you find nothing
material in the large three pillared microfcope, the
opaque microfcope, Wilfon’s fingle microfcope, and
the aquatic microfcope, all together, which you have
not in this; befides fome very confiderable advantages
in regard to the field of view, &c. which they have
rot (a).”
This inventive artifi having contrived a conAruc-
tion of the compound microfcope fo fmall as to ad¬
mit of being packed in a common walking cane,
thought next of introducing the fame inftrument into
the infide of what he called his Pocket Three-brafs
drawer Achromatic Telefcope. The fame eye glalles
that ferve the purpofe of a telefcope, anfw’er as the
compound magnifier, for viewing tranfparent and
opaque objedls in a microfcope.
Fig. 18, 19, 20, reprefent the telefcope feparated
by unferewing it at in order that the whole of
the neceffary parts in ufe may be exhibited. Fig. 19.
reprefents the exterior tube, which is of mahogany,
and its rims of brafs. It is detached from the relt of
the telefcope, as not making any part of the micro¬
fcope. The brafs cover k /, that fiiuts up the objett-
glafs of the telefcope, is alfo the box which contains
the two-wheel objed frames, and a fmall plain refied-
ing mirror.
In fig/ 20. A is the cover taken off, by unferew¬
ing the top part-: The mirror B is taken out ; and al¬
fo, by unferewing the bottom part, the twTc circular
wheels, with the objeds Aiown in C and D.
Fig. 18. is a reprefentation of the three internal
brafs Aiding tubes of the telefcope, wdfich form the
microfcopic part. The tubes are to be drawn out as
fiiown in this figure ; then, at the low'er end of the
large tube in the infidc, is to beguiled out a fiiort
tube be, that ferves as a kind of Aage to hold the
wheels with objeds, and fupport the refieding mirror.
This tube is to be partly drawn out, and turned fo
that the circular hole that is pierced in it may coin¬
cide with a fimilar hole that is cut in the exterior tube.
This tube is reprelented as drawn out in the figure ;
o ] MIC
and the mirror B placed therein, and the wheel with Microfcope.
tranfparent objeds. C (fig. 20.) reprefents the wheel v '
with tranfparent objeds, and D the w'heel wdth opaque
objeds. They are both made of ivory ; and turn
round upon a centre brafs pin Ait upon the top, which
fits upon the edge of the tube; which tube is then to
be puAied up into the telefcope tube, fo that its lower
end may rell upon the upper edge of the wheel ac¬
cording to its view at a fig. 18.
In viewing the objeds, the fecond brafs tube of'the
telefcope mult be pufired down, till its milled edge at
top falls upon that of the exterior tube ; taking care
fhat the circular hole is duly placed to the exterior one.
Thefe circular holes are not feen in fig. 18. being fup-
pofed in the oppofite fide, where the wheel is fixed.
The adjufiment for the focus is now only neceffary ;
which is obtained by puffing downwards or upwards
the proper tube, till the objed appear quite diAind.
In viewing tranlparent objeds, the inArument may be
uffd in two pofitions; one vertical, when the light is to
be refleded upon the objed by the mirror; the other,
by looking up diredly againA the light of a candle,
common light, &c ; in which cafe the mirror muA be
taken away. In viewing opaque objeds, the mirror is
not ufed ; but as much common light as pofiible muA be
admitted through the circular holes in the fides of the
tubes.
There is a fpare hole in the tranfparent wheel, and
alio one in the opaque, to receive any occafional objed
that is to be viewed. Any fort of objed whatfoever
may be viewed, by only puAiing up the microfcope
tube into its exterior, and bringing the firA eye-tube
to its focal diAance from the objed.
The brafs tubes are fo contrived, that they Aop
when drawn out to the full length : fo that by
applying one hand to the outfide tube, and the
other to the end of the fmalleA tube, the telefcope at
one pull may be drawn out ; then any of the tubes
(that next to the eye is beA) may be puAied in gra¬
dually, till the moA diAind view of the objed be ob¬
tained.
1 he tubes all Aide through ffort brafs fpring tubes,
any of w'hich may be unfere ved from the ends of the
Aiding tubes by )means of the milled edges which pro-
jed above the tubes, taken from each other, and the
fprings fet clear if required.
III. Of Solar Microfcopcs.
This inArument, in its principle, is compofed of a Plate
tube, a looking-glafs or mirror, a convex lens, and t CCCXL
Wilfon’s fingle microfcope before deferibed. The fun’s
rays being reAeded through the tube by means of the
mirror upon the objed, the image or pidure of
the objed is thrown difiindly and beautifully upon
a fereen of white paper or a white linen Aieet, placed
at a proper diAance to receive the fame; and may be
magnified
(a) Notwithffanding the properties that have been aferibed to the above inArument, and the praifes be-
itowed upon it by feme, which induced us to admit fo minute a defeription ; we muA apprife our readers
that it lias been omitted in Mr Adams’s enumeration: and upon inquiry we learn, that it has fallen into
neg ed among the moff judicious opticians, being found too imperfed to ferve the purpofes of fcience, and
loo complicated for the ufe of perfons whe feek cply entertainment.
MIC [i
Microfcope magnified to a fize not to be conceived by thofe
* - v—— ' who have not feen it : for the farther the fcreen is re¬
moved, the larger will the objeft appear j infomuch,
that a loufe may thus be magnified to the length of
five or fix feet, or even a great deal more ; though it
is more didindf when not enlarged to above half that
fize.
The different forms in which the Solar Microfcope
is conftru&ed, are as follow.
I. The old conftrudfion is reprefented in fig. 21. A
is a fquare wooden frame, through which pafs two
long fcrews affifted by a couple of nuts I, I. By thefe
it is faftened firmly to a window flmtter, wherein a hole
is made for its reception j the two nuts being let into
the fhutter, and made faft thereto. A circular hole
is made in the middle of this frame to receive the piece
of wood B, of a circular figure $ whofe edge, that
ppje£ls a little beyond the frame, compofes a (hallow
groove 2, wherein runs a catgut 3 j which, by twill¬
ing round, and then eroding over a brafs pulley 4,
(the handle whereof 5, paffes through the frame),
affords an eafy motion for turning round the circular
piece of wood B, with all the parts affixed to it. C
is a brafs tube, which, ferewing into the middle of the
circular piece of wood, becomes a cafe for the unco¬
vered brafs tube D to be drawm backwards or forwards
in. E is a fmaller tube, of about one inch in length,
cemented to the end of the larger tube D. F is
another brafs tube, made to Aide over the above de-
feribed tube E j and to the end of this the microfcepe
mud be ferewed, when we come to ufe it. 5, A con¬
vex lens, whofe focus is about 12 inches, defigned to
coile£l the fun’s rays, and throw them more llrongly
upon the objecl. G is a looking-glafs of an oblong
figure, fet in a wooden frame, fallened by hinges in
the circular piece of wood B, and turning about
therewith by means of the above-mentioned catgut.
H is a jointed wire, partly brafs and partly iron j
the brafs part, whereof 6, which is flat, being faften¬
ed to the mirror, and the iron part 7, which is
round, paffing through the wooden frame, enable the
obferver, by putting it backwards or forwards, to ele¬
vate or deprefs the mirror according to the fun’s alti¬
tude. There is a brafs ring at the end of the jointed
wire 8, whereby to manage it with the greater eafe.
The extremities of the catgut are faftened to a brafs
pin, by turning of which it may be braced up, if at
any time it becomes too flack.
When this microfcope is employed, the room muft
be rendered as dark as poflible j for on the darknefs
. of the room, and the brightnefs of the funlhine, de¬
pend the (harpnefs and perfeflion of your image.
Then putting the looking-glafs G through the hole in
your window (butter, fallen the fquare frame A to the
(butter by its two fcrews and nuts 1, 1. This done,
adjull your looking-glafs to the elevation and fituation
of the fun, by means of the jointed wire H, together
with the catgut and pulley, 3, 4. For the firft of
thefe railing or lowering the glafs, and the other in¬
clining it to either fide, thete refults a twofold mo¬
tion, which may eafily be fo managed as to bring the
glafs to a right pofition, that is, to make it refleft the
fun’s rays diredlly through the lens 5, upon the paper
fcreen, and form thereon a fpot of light exa£lly round.
But though the obtaining a perfect circular fpot of
i ] MIC
light upon the fcreen before you apply the micro-Microfcope.'
fcope, is a certain proof that your mirror is adjuited ~ v ~ *
right, that proof muft not always be expected : for the
fun is fo low in winter, that if it (hine in a direft line
againft the window, it cannot then afford a fpot of
light exaflly round; but if it be on either fide, a
round fpot may be obtained, even in December. As
foon as this appears, ferew the tube D into the brafs
collar provided for it in the middle of your wood-work,
taking care not to alter your looking-glafs : then
ferewing the magnifier you choofe to employ to the
end of your microfcope in the ufual manner, take away
the lens at the other end thereof, and place a Aider,
containing the obje&s to be examined, between the
thin brafs plates, as in the other ways of ufing the mi¬
crofcope.
Things being thus prepared, ferew the body of
the microfcope over the fmall end E of the brafs tube
F; which (lip over the fmall end E of the tube D,
and pull out the faid tube D lefs or more as your ob-
je<ft is capable of enduring the fun’s heat. Dead ob-
jefls may be brought within about an inch of the
focus of the convex lens 5 ; but the diftance mud
be ftiortened for living creatures, or they will foon be
killed.
If the light fall not exa&ly right, you may eafily,
by a gentle motion of the jointed wire and pulley, di¬
rect it through the axis of the microfcopic lens. The
(hort tube F, to which the microfcope is ferewed,
renders it eafy, by Aiding it backwards or forwards on
the other tube E, to bring the obje&s to their focal
diftance ; which will be known by the (harpnefs and
clearnefs of their appearance : they may alfo be turn¬
ed round by the fame means without being in the lead
difordered.
The magnifiers moft ufeful in the folar microfcope
are in general, the fourth, fifth, or fixth. The fcreen
on which the reprefentations of the objects are thrown,
is ufually compofed of a (beet of the largeft elephant
paper, drained on a frame which Hides up or down, or
turns about at pleafure on a round wooden pillar, after
the manner of fome fire fereens. Larger fereens may
alfo be made of feveral (beets of the fame paper pafted
together on cloth, and let down from the ceiling with
a roller like a large map.
“ This microfcope (fays Mr Baker) is the moft en¬
tertaining of any; and perhaps the moft capable of
making difeoveries in objefts that are not too opaque:
as it (hows them much larger than can be done any
other way. There are alfo feveral conveniencies at¬
tending it, which no other microfcope can have: for
the weakeft eyes may ufe it without the lead ftraining
or fatigue : numbers of people together may view any
objeft at the fame time ; and by pointing to the parti¬
cular parts thereof, and difeourfing on what lies before
them, may be able better to uriderftand one another,
and more likely to find out the truth, than in other
microfcopes, where they muft peep one after another,
and perhaps fee the obje£l neither in the fame light nor
in the fame pofition. Thofe alfo, who have no (kill in
drawing, may, by this contrivance, eafily (ketch out
the exa£t figure of any objeft they have a mind to pre-
ferve a pufture of; fince they need only fallen a paper
on the fcreen, and trace it out thereon either with a
pen or pencil, as it -appears before them. It is worth
B 2 the
M I C [
Mfcmtrope tfie wlille of tTiofe who arc defirous of taking many
' * draughts in this way, to get a frame, wherein &a flieet
of paper may be put in or taken out at pleafure ; for if
the paper be Angle, the image of an object will be feen
aim oil as plainly on the back as on the fore fide ; and,
by Handing behind tbe fcreen, the fnade of the hand
will not obfi.ru(ft the light in drawing, as it mufi in
feme degree when one Hands before it.” This con-
llraction, however, has now become rather obfolete,
and is fuperfeded by the following.
II. The improved Solar Microfcope, as ufed with the
improvedJing/e Microfcope, with teeth and pinion. Fig.
17. reprefents the whole form of the Jingle microfcope ;
the parts of which are as follows: ABCD the external
tube; GHIK the internal moveable one; QM part
of another tube within the laft, at one end of which
is fixed a plate of brafs hollowed in the middle, for re¬
ceiving the glafs tubes: there is alio a moveable flat
plate, between which, and the fixed end of the fecond
lube, the ivory Aiders are to be placed. L, a part
of the microscope, containing a wire fpiral fpring, keep¬
ing the tube QM with its plates firm againlt the fixed
part IX of the fecond tube.
FF is the finall rack-work of teeth and pinion, by
which the tube IG is moved gradually to or from the
AJ3, for adjutling the objects exactly to the focus
of different lengths. NO is a brafs Aider, with fix
magnifiers ; any one of which may eafily be placed be¬
fore the objedt. It is known when either of the glaffes
is in the centre of the eye-hole, by a fmail fpring fail¬
ing into a notch in the fide of the Aider, made againit
each of the glades. Thofe parts of the apparatus,
fig. 14. marked N° 15, 16, 17, i3, 19, 20, 21
and 22. are made ufe of here to this microfcope.
GH is a brafs cell, which holds an illuminatino-
glafs for converging the fun’s beams or the light
of a candle Itrongly upon the objects. The aperture
of the glafs is made greater or lefs, by two circular
pieces of brafs, with holes of different fizes, that are
ferewed feparately over the faid lens. But at times
objedts appear belt when the microfcope is held up to
the common light only, without this glafs. It is alfo
taken away when the microfcope is applied to the ap¬
paratus now to be deferibed.
.Fig. 23. reprefents the apparatus, with the fingle
microfcope ferewed to it, which conflitutes the So/ar
Microfcope. . AB is the inner moveable tube, to which
the fingle microfcope is ferewed. CD is the external
tube, containing a condenfing convex glafs at the end
D, and is ferewed into the plate E.F, which is cut
with teeth at its circumference, and moved by the pi¬
nion I, that is fixed with the plate GH. This plate
is ferewed faft againfi the window-fhutter, or board
fitted to a convenient window of a darkened room,
when the infirument is ufed. KL is a long frame,’
fixed to the circular plate EF ; containing a looking-
glafs or mirror for refledting the folar rays through the
lens in the body of the tube D. O is'a brafs milled
neat, fafiened to a wrorm or endlefs ferew ; which on
the outfide turns a fmail wheel, by which the refledtinv
mirror ivi is moved upwards and downwards.
In uftng this microfcope, the fquare frame GH is
firft to be ferewed to the window-fhutter, and the
room well darkened: which is belt done by cutting
a iound hole or the fize of the moveable plate EF,
Flats-
CCCXXXIX.
12 ] MIC
tuat carries the reflector, in the window ihutter
board ; and, by means of two brafs nuts a a, let in-
to the fhutter to receive the ferews PP, when placed
through the holes in the fquare frame GH, at the two
holes QQ: which will firmly fatten the microfcope to
tne Anitter, and is eafily taken away by only unferewina'
the ferews PP.
The white paper fcreen, or white cloth, to receive
the images, is to be placed feveral feet diftant from
the window : which will make the reprefentations the
larger in proportion to the diftance. The ufual di-
ftances are from 6 to 16 feet.
I he frame XT, with its mirror M, is to be moved
by turning the pinion I, one way or the other, till
the beams of the fun’s light come through the hole
into tire room : then, by turning of the worm at O,
the mirror mud be raifed or depreffed till the rays be¬
come perfectly horizontal, and go ftraight acrofs the
room to the fcreen. The tube CD, with its lens at
D, is now to be ferewed into the hole of the circular
plate EF : by this glafs the rays will be converged to
a focus ; and from thence proceed diverging to the
fereen, and there make a large circle of light. The
Angle microfcope, fig. 22. is to be ferewed "on to the
(%• 23.). of the inner tube; and the Aider
NO, with either of the lenfes marked 1, 2, 3, 4, y, cr
6, m the centre of the hole at the end AB. ’ Tim
will occafion a circle of light upon the fcreen much
larger than before. The Aider or glafs-tube, with the
objects to be viewed, is to be placed between the plates
at IK again ft the fmail magnifier, and moved at plea-
lure. By fhifting the tube AB in or out, you mav
place the object in fuch a part of the condenfed rays
as fhall be fufficient to illuminate it, and not fcorch
or burn it ; which will generally require the glafs to
be about one inch diftant from the focus. It now re¬
mains only to adjuft the objeft, or to bring it fo near
to tne magnifier that its image formed upon the fcreen
Inall be the molt difiindt or perfect: and it is effedted
by gently turning the pinion F, fig. 22, a fmall matter
one way cr the other. If the object be rather large
m fize, the leaft magnifiers are generally ufed, and vice
ver/a.
. ^ T‘ h the greatest magnifier, and N° 6. the leaft
m the brafs Aider NO. But, if defired, fingle lenfes’
of greater magnifying powers are made : and they are
applied, by being ferewed to the end AB, fig. 22.
and the brafs Aider NO is then taken away.
. The fame object may be variouAy magnified, by the
lenles feverally^applied to it ; and the degree of mag¬
nifying power is eafily known by this rule : the di-
Jtcnce of the objecl is to that of its image from the mag-
nijier ; fo is the length or breadth of the objecl to that of
the image. J
^ In (lead of the brafs Aiders with the lenfes NO
tnere is fometimes ferewtd a lens of a large fize, and
longer focal difiance : the inftrument is then converted
into a megalafcope; and is adapted for viewino- the
larger kind of objects contained in large Aiders^Vu-h
as is reprefented at It. And, in the fame manner,
imall objects of entertainment, painted upon glafs like
the Aiders of a magic lanthorn, are much magnified
and reprefented upon the fame fereen.
The folar microfcopes juft deferibed are capable on¬
ly of magnifying tranfparent objeds; for which pur.
pofe
MIC [ 13 1 MIC
rofc-.pe. pofe the laft niftrament h extremely well adapted. Tig. 25. reprefents a large tooth and pinion micro- IVTWof
v~ But as opaque obje&s form the moft confiderable part fcope : at m, within the body of this microfcope are ' v"
of the curious colleaions in the works of art as well two thin plates, that are to be feparated in order to
as nature, a folar microfcope for this purpofe was a let the ivory Hiders pafs between them ; they are pref-
,long time wanted.—For feveral years previous to fed together by a fpiral fpring, which bears up the
1 . /4> hlartin made icveral elfays towards the under plate, and forces it againft the upper one
conltruftion of fach an inilrument; and at lad com- The Aider S (under fig. 24.), which contains the
pleted one about the time juft mentioned, which he magnifiers, fits into the hole -v;- and any of the magni-
na™eTd’ _ r* / 7i>f** r „T. , . fiers may be placed before the objeift, by moving ^the
i.i. J ie Qpaqus Solar Microfcope. With this m- a fore faid Aider: when the magnifier is at the centre of
ftrument (to ufe his own words) “ all opaque objefts, the hole P, a fmall fpring falls into one of the notches
whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral king- which is on the fide of the Aider.
dora, may be exhibited in great perfeaion, in all their Under the plate m are placed two lenfes, for en-
native beauty •, the lights and ftiades, the prominences larging the field of view on the fcreen : the fmaller of
and cavities, and all the varieties of different hues, the two is fixed in a piece of brafs, and is neareft the
tints, and colours; heightened by retleclion of the fo- plate m ; this is to be taken out when the magnifiers
lar rays condenfed upon xhtm.—Tranfparent objeBs N° 4, 5, or 6, are ufed, or when the megalafcope lens
are alio ftiown with greater perfedion than by the com- T (fig. 24.) is ufed ; but is to be replaced for
xnon folar microfcope. K° t 2 1
Fig. 24. reprefents the folar opaque microfcope,
mounted for exhibiting opaque objeds.
Fig. 25. is the fingle tooth and pinion microfcope,
as before, which is ufed for Aiowing tranfparent objedls j
the cylindrical tube Y thereof being made to fit into
the tube FE of the iolar microfcope*
ABCDEF, (fig. 24.) reprefents the body of the
folar microfcope 5 one part thereof, A'BCD, is coni¬
cal ; the other, CDEF, is cylindrical. The cylindri¬
cal part receives the tube G of the opaque box, or the
tube Y of the fingle microfcope. At the large end
AB of the conical part, there is a lens to receive the
rays from the mirror, and refrad them towards the
box HIKE. NOP is a brafs frame; which is fixed
to the moveable circular plate ah c: in this frame there
is a plane mirror, to reded the folar rays on the afore¬
mentioned lens. This mirror may be moved into the
moft convenient pofition for refleding the light, by
means of the nuts Q and R. By the nut £) it may be
moved from eaft to weft; and it may be elevated or
depreffed by the nut R. d e, Two fcrews to fallen the
microfcope to a window (butter. The box for opaque
ohjeds is reprefented at KIEL : it contains a plane
mirror M, for rededing the light which it receives from
the large lens to the objed, and thereby illuminating
it ; S is a ferew to adjuft this mirror, or place it at a
proper angle for rededing the light. VX, two tubes
of brafs, one Hiding within the other, the exterior one
in the box HIKE ; thefe carry the magnifying lenfes :
the interior tube is fometimes taken out, and the ex-
teiior one is then ufed by itfelf. Part, of this tube may
be feen in the plate within the box HIKE. At H
there is a brafs plate, the back part of which is fixed
to the hollow tube //, in which there is a fpiral wire,
which keeps the plat? always bearing againft the fide
H of the brafs box HIKE. The Aiders, with the
opaque objeds, pafs between this plate and the fide of
the box ; to put them there, the plate is to be drawn
back by means of the nut g : ik is a door to one fide of
the opaque box. The foregoing pieces conftitute the
feveral parts neceffary for viewing opaque objeds. We
(hall now proceed to deferibe the fingle microfcope,
which is ufed for tranfparent objeds : but in order to
examine thefe, the box HIKE muft be firft removed,
and in its place we muft infert the tube Y of the fingle
tnicrofccpe that we are now going to deferibe.
This microfcope is adjufted to the focus by turnincr
the milled nut O.
To vfe the folar microfcope :—Make round hole
in the window (hotter, a little larger than the circle
abc; pafs the mirror ONP through this hole, and
apply the fquare plate to the (hutter ; then mark with
a pencil the places which correfpond to the two holes
through which the ferew is to pafs ; take away the mi¬
crofcope, and bore two holes at the marked places, fuf-
ficiently large to let the milled fcrews de pafs through
them. 0
The fcrews are to pafs from the outfide of the (Imt-
ter, to go through it and being then ferewed into
their refpedive holes in the fquare plate, they will,
when ferewed home, hold it faft againit the infide of
the (hutter, and thus fupport the microfcope.
Screw the conical tube ABCD to the circle a 3 r,
and then Aide the tube G of the opaque box into the
cylindrical part CD EF of the body, if opaque objeds
are to be examined ; but if they be tranfparent objeds
you mean to fhow, then place the tube Y within the
tube CDEF.
f he room is to be darkened as much as podible,
that no light may enter but what paffes through the
body of the microfcope; for, on this circumftancev,
together with the brightnefs of the funfhine, the per¬
fedion and diftindnefs of the image in a great meafure
depend.
When the microfcope is to be ufed for opaque ob¬
jeds, 1. Adjuft the mipror'NOP, fo as to receive the
folar rays, by, means of the two finger ferews or nuts,
QR ; the fiift, O, turns the mirror to the right or
left; the fecond, R, raifes or depreffes it: this you
are to do till you have rededed the fun’s light through
the lens at AB ftrongly upon a fcreen of white paper
placed at icme didance from the window, and formed
thereon a round fpot of light. An unexperienced ob-
ferver will find it more convenient to obtain the light
by forming this fpot before he puts' on either the -
opaque box or the tomb and pinion microfcope.
Now put in the opaque box, and place the objed:
between the plates at II; open the door z'e, and ad¬
juft the mirror M till you have illuminated the objed
ftrongly. If you cannot effed this by the ferew S,
you muft move the fcrews £), R, in order to get the
light rededed ftrongly from the mirror NOP, or the •
MIC • ' [ i
Microfcope. mirror M, without which the latter cannot illuminate
“ the object.
The objeft being ftrongly illuminated, fhut the door
i hy and a diftinft view of the object will foon be
obtained on your fcreen, by adjufting the tubes VX,
which is effected by moving them backwards or for¬
wards.
A round fpot of light cannot always be procured In
northern latitudes, the altitude of the fun being often
too low $ neither can it be obtained when the fun is
dire&ly perpendicular to the front of the room.
As the fun is continually changing its place, it will
be neceffary, in order to keep his rays full upon the
objeft, to keep them continually direded through the
axis of the inftrument, by the two fcrews £) and R.
To view tranfparent objeds, remove the opaque box,
and infert the tube Y, fig. 25* in its place 5 put the
Aider S into its place at //, and the Aider with the ob-
jeds between the plates at m; then adjuft the mirror
NOP, as before direded by the fcrew's Q, R, fo that
the light may par3 through the objed j regulate the
focus of the magnifier by the fcrewT O. The moft
pleafing magnifiers in ufe are the fourth and fifth.
. The fize of the objed may be incteafed or dimi-
nilhed, by altering the diftance of the fcreen from the
microfcope: five or fix feet is a convenient diftance.
To examine tranfparent objeds of a larger fize, or
to render the inftrument what is ufually called a mega-
lafcope, take out the Aider S from its place at w, and •
fcrew the button T (fig. 24.) into the hole at P, fig.
25. and remove the glafs which is under the plate at
m, and regulate the light and focus agreeable to the
foregoing diredions.
N. R. At the end of the tube G there is a lens for
increafing the denfity of the rays, for the purpofe of
burning or melting any combuftible or fufible fub-
hance : this lens muft be removed in moft cafes, left
the objeds (hould be burnt. The intenfity of the
light is alfo varied by moving this tube backwards or
Towards.
Apparatus of the Opaque Solar Microfcope. The
large fquare plate and mirror; the body of the micro¬
fcope •, the opaque box and its tube j the tooth and
pinion microfcope ; the Aider wdth the magnifiers j the
megalafcope magnifier j the two fcrew’S and e ; feme
ivory Aiders 5 fome Aiders with opaque objeds 3 a brafs
frame, with a bottom of foft deal to ftick any ob]e6l
on 3 a brafs cylinder K (fig. 31.), for confining opaque
objeds.
MIC
He accordingly fucceeded fo far
Plate
CCCXLI
IV. The Camera Obscura, or Lucernal, Microfcope.
The great facility wuth which objeds can be repre-
fented on paper or a rough glafs in the camera obfcura,
and copies drawn from them by any perfon though
unlkilled in drawing, evidently fuggefted the applica¬
tion of the microfcope to this inftrument. The great-
eft number of experiments that appear to have" been
made with this view, were by Mr Martin and Mr
Adams 3 the former of whom frequently applied the
mxroicope to the portable camera, and with much
cited and entertainment. But thefe inftruments being
found to anfwer only with the afliftance of the fun,
. r Adanis. chre&ed his experiments to the conftruc-
tion of an mftrument of more extended utility, which
fiould be equally employed in the day-time and by
night. He accordingly fucceeded fo far as to pro-MIcrofcc
duce, by candle-light, the images of objeds refraded
from a fingle magnifier upon one or two large convex
lenfes (of about five inches or upwards in diameter),
at the end of a pyramidal ftiaped box, in a very pleaf¬
ing and magnified appearance, fo as to give opaque
objeds as w'ell as tranfparent ones the utmoft diftind-
nefs of reprefentation 3 but ftill the light of a candle
or lamp wTas found generally infufficient to throw the
renuifite degree of illumination upon the objeds. The
invention of what is called Argand's lamp, within thefe
few years offered a complete remedy for this defed, by
the intenfity and fteadinefs of its light. This did not
cfcape Mr Adams (fon of the former), wrho immedi¬
ately applied it ; and wdio had likewife fo altered and
improved his father’s inftrument, both in conftrudion
and form, as to render it altogether a different one, and
far more perfed and ufeful.
The advantages and properties of this excellent¬
ly conceived inftrument are numerous and important.
“ -A-s the far greater part of the objeds which fur-
round us are opaque (fays our author), and very few
are fufficiently tranfparent to be examined by the com¬
mon microfcopes, an inftrument that could be readily
applied to the examination of opaque objeds has al¬
ways been a defideratum. Even in the examination
of tranfparent objeds, many of the fine and more cu¬
rious portions are loft, and drowned, as it were, in the
light which muft be tranfmitted through them 5 while
different parts of the fame objed appear only as dark
lines or fpots, becaufe they are fo opaque as not to
permit any light to pafs through them. Thefe diffi¬
culties, as well as many more, are obviated in the lu-
cernal microfcope 3 by which opaque objeds of vari¬
ous fizes may be feen with cafe and diftindnefs-: the
beautiful colours with which moft of them are adorn¬
ed, are rendered more brilliant, without changing in
the leaft the real tint of the colour 3 and the concave
and convex parts retain alfo their proper form. The
facility with which all opaque objeds are applied to
this inftrument, is another confiderable advantage, and
almoft peculiar to itfelf 3 as the texture and configu¬
ration of the more tender parts are often hurt by pre¬
vious preparation, every objed may be examined by
this inftrument, firft as opaque, and afterwards (if the
texture will admit of it) as tranfparent The lucer-
nal microfcope does not in the leaft fatigue the eye 3
the objed appears like nature itfelf, giving eafe to the
fight and pleafure to the mind : there is alfo, in the
ufe. of this inftrument, no occafion to Ihut the eye
which is not direded to the objed. A further ad¬
vantage peculiar to this microfcope is, that by it the
outlines of every objed may be taken, even by thofe
who are not accuftomed to draw 3 while thofe who
can draw well will receive great affiftance, and execute
their work with more accuracy and in lefs time than
they would otherwife have been able to have perform-
ed it. I ranfparent objeds as well as opaque may be
copied in the fame manner. The inftrument may be
ufed at any time of the day, but the beft effed is by
night 3 in which refped it has a fuperiority over the
folar microfcope, as that inftrument can only be ufed
when the fun (bines.
Tranfparent objeds may be examined with the lu-
cernal microfcope in three or four different modes,
from
MIC [
Microfcope. from a blaze of light almofl too great for the eye to
bear, to that which is perfeftly eafy to it : And by
the addition of a tin lanthorn to the apparatus, may
be thrown on a fcreen, and exhibited at one view to
a large company, as by the foiar microfcope.
We (hall now proceed to the defcription of the in-
ftrument and apparatus as given by Mr Adams.
Fig. 26. reprefents the improved Lucernal Microfcope,
mounted to view opaque obje&s. ABCD is a large
mahogany pyramidal box, which forms the body of
the microfcope $ it is fupported firmly on the brafs
pillar FG, by means of the focket H and the curved
piece IK.
LMN is a guide for the eye, in order to direft it
in the axis of the lenfes ; it confifls of two brafs tubes,
one Hiding within the other, and a vertical flat piece,
at the top of which is the hole for the eye. The outer
tube is feen at MN, the vertical piece is reprefented
at LM. The inner tube may be pulled out, or pufh-
ed in, to adjuft it to the focus of the glaffes. The
vertical piece may be raifed or deprefied, that the hole,
through which the objeff is to be viewed, may coin¬
cide with the centre of the field of view ; it is fixed by
a milled fcrew at M, which could not be fhown in this
figure.
At N is a dove-tailed piece of brafs, made to re¬
ceive the dove tail at the end of the tubes MN, by
which it is affixed to the wooden box ABCDE. The
tubes MN may be removed from this box occafionally,
for the convenience of (packing it up in a lefs com-
pafs.
OP, a fmall tube which carries the magnifiers.
O, one of the magnifiers $ it is fcrewed into the end
of a tube, which Aides wutbin the tube P ; the tube
P may be unfcrewed occafionally from the wooden
body.
QRSTVX, a long fquare bar, -which pafifes through
the lockets YZ, and carries the fiage or frame that
holds the objects ; this bar may be moved backward
or forward, in order to adjufl it to the focus by means
of the pinion wffiich is at a.
b, A handle furniffied with an univerfal joint, for
more conveniently turning the pinion. When the
handle is removed, the nut (fig. 27.) may be ufed in
it (lead.
de, A brafs bar, to fupport the curved piece KI,
and keep the body AB firm and Heady.
f g h /, The llage for opaque objecls: it fits upon
the bar QRST by means of the focket h i, and is
brought nearer to or removed farther from the mag¬
nifying lens by turning the pinion a : the objefts are
placed in the front fide of the ftage (wffiich cannot be
feen in this figure) between four fmall brafs plates j
the edges of two of thefe are feen at k /. The tw o
upper pieces of brafs are moveable j they are fixed to.
' a plate, which is a£led on by a fpiral fpring, that
prefies them down, and confines the Aider with the
cbjebls : this plate, and the two upper pieces of brafs,
are lifted up by the fmall nut m.
At the lower part of the ftage, there is a femicircu-
kir lump of glafs «, which is defigned to receive the
light from the lamp, fig. 29. and to colleft and throw
it on the concave mirror 0, whence it is to be refie&ed
on the objeft.
The upper part (fig. 26.) of the opaque ftage
15 ] MIC
takes out, that the ftage for tranfparent obje&s may be Microfcope,
inferted in its place. v “-,'
Fig. 28. reprefents the ftage for tranfparent obje£ts;
the tw’o legs 5 and 6 fit into the top of the under part
rshi of the ftage for opaque obje&s; 7 is the part
which confines or holds the Aiders, and through which
they are to be moved ; 9 and 10 a brafs tube, which
contains the lenfes for condenfing the light, and throw¬
ing it upon the object ; there is a fecond tube within,
that, marked 9 and 10, which may be placed at differ¬
ent diffances from the objc6t by the pin 11.
When this Aage is ufed as a Angle microfcope, with¬
out any reference to the lucernal, the magnifiers or
objedl lenfes, are to be fcrewed into the hole J2, and to
be adjufted to a proper focus by the nut 13.
N. B. At the end AB (fig. 26.) of the wooden body
there is a Aider, which is reprefented as partly drawn>
out at A : wffien quite taken out, three grooves will be
perceived*, one of which contains a board that forms
the end of the box j the next contains a frame with a
grayed glafs *, and the third, or that fartheft from the
end AB, tw*o large convex lenfes.
Fig. 29. reprelents one of Argand’s lamps, which
are the molt fuitable for microfcopic purpofes, on ac¬
count of the clearnefs, the intenfity, and the lleadinefs
of the light. The following account of the method,
of managing them, with other obfervations, is copied
from an account given by Mr Parker w’ith. thofe he
fells.
The principle on which the lamp a£ls, confiAs in
difpofing the wick in thin parts, fo that the air may-
come into conta<ft wdth all the burning fuel ; by which
means, together with an increafe of the current of air
occafioned by rarefadlion in the glafs tube, the w'hole
of the fuel is converted into Aame-
The wicks are circular 5 and, the more readily to
regulate the quantity of light, are fixed on a brafs col¬
lar, with a w’ire handle, by means of which they are
raifed or depreffed at pleafure.
To fix the wick on, a wooden mandril is contrived,
which is tapered at one end, and has a groove turned
at the other.
The wick has a felvage at one end, which is to be
put foremoft on the mandril, and moved up to the
groove 5 then putting the groove into the collar of
the wick-holder, the wick is eafily puflied forward
upon it.
The wTick-holder and wick being put quite down in
their place, the fpare part of the wick Arould, wffiile
dry, be fet a-light, and fuffered to burn to the edge
of the tubes; this will leave it more even than by
cutting, and, being black by burning, will be much
eafier lighted : for this reafon, the black Aiould never
be quite cut off.
The lamp Aiould be filled an hour or twTo before it:
is wranted, that the cotton may imbibe the oil and
draw the better.
The lamps which have a refervoir and valve, need
no other diredlion for filling than to do it with a pro¬
per trimming pot, carefully obferving when they are
full; then pulling up the valve by the point, the re¬
fervoir, being turned with the other hand, may be re¬
placed without fpilling a drop.
Thofe lamps which fill in the front like a bird-foun«>
tain, muft be reclined on the back to fill j and this
ffiould.
MIC [ i
(hould be done gently, that the oil in the burner may
return into the body when fo placed and filled : if, by
being too full, any oil appears above the guard, only
move the lamp a little, and the oil will difappear j the
lamp may then be placed ere£t, and the oil will flow to
proper level.
The oil muft be of the fpermaceti kind, commonly
called chamber oil, which may generally'be diftinguilh-
ed by its palenefs, tranfparency, and inoffenfive fcent :
all thofo oils which are of a red and browm colour,
and of an offenfive fcent, ftiould be carefully avoided,
as their glutinous parts clog the lamp, and the impu¬
rities in fuch oil, not being inflammable, wTill accumu¬
late and remain in the form of a cruft on the wick.
Seal oil is nearly as pale and fweet as chamber oil;
but being df a heavy fluggilh quality, is not proper for
lamps with fine wicks.
Whenever bad oil has been ufed, on changing it,
the wick muft alfo be changed j becaufe, after having
imbibed the coarfe particles in its capillary tubes, it
will not draw up the fine oil.
To obtain the greateft degree of light, the wick
fh’ould be trimmed exactly even, the Hame will then be
completely equal.
There will be a great advantage in keeping the lamp
clean, efpecially the burner and air tubes •, the negledl
of cleanlinefs in lamps is too common : a caridleftick
is generally cleaned every time it is ufed, fo fhould a
lamp ; and if a candleftick is not to be objefted to be¬
caufe it does not give light after the candle is ex-
haufted, fo a lamp ftiould not be thought ill of, if it
does not give light when it wants oil or cotton : but
this laft has often happened, becaufe the deficiency is
lefs vifible.
The glafs tubes are beft cleaned with a piece of
walk leather.
If a fountain lamp is left partly filled with oil, it
may be liable to overflow : this happens by the con-
tradlion of the air when cold, and its expanfion by
the warmth of a room, the rays of the fun, or the
heat of the lamp when re-lighted : this accident may
be effectually prevented by keeping the refervoir filled,
the oil not being fubjeft to expanfion like air. On
this account, thofe with a common refervoir are beft
adapted for microfcopic purpofes.
To examine Opaque Objcffs, with the Lucenial Mi-
crofcope. To render the ufe of this inftrument eafy, it
is ufually packed with as many of the parts together as
poffible : it occupies on this account rather more room,
but is much lefs embarrafling to the obferver, who has
only three parts to put on after it is taken out of its
box, namely, the guide for the eye, the ftage, and the
tube with its magnifier.
But to be more particular : Take out the wooden
Aider A (fig. 26 ), then lift out the cover and the
gray glafs, from their refpeftive grooves under the
Aider A.
Put the end N of the guide for the eye LMN into
its place, fo that it m#y ftand in the pofition which is
xeprefented in this figure.
Place the focket which is at the bottom of the
opaque ftage, on the bar QXT, fo that the concave
mirror 0 may be next the end DE of the wooden
body.
6 ] MIC
Screw' the tubes PO into the end DE. The mag- Microfcope.
nifier you intend to ufe is to be fcrewed on the end O
of thefe tubes.
The handle G b, or the milled nut, fig. 27. muft be
placed on the fquare end of the pinion a.
Place the lamp lighted before the glafs lamp «,
and the objeft you intend to examine between the
fpring plates of the ftage j and the inftrument is ready
for ufe.
In all microfcopes there are two circumftances which
muft be particularly attended to : firft, the modifica¬
tion of the light, or the proper quantity to illuminate
the objeft j fecondly, the adjuftment of the inftrument
to the focus of the glafs and eye of the obferver. In
the ufe of the lucernal microfcope there is a third cir-
cumftance, which is, the regulation of the guide for the
eye.
1. To throw the light upon the object. The flame
of the lamp is to be placed rather below the centre of
the glafs lump », and as neap it as poflible j the con¬
cave mirror 0 muft be fo inclined and turned as to re¬
ceive the light from the glafs lump, and refledl it
thence upon the objeft j the beft fituation of the con¬
cave mirror and the flame of the lamp depends on a
combination of circumftances, which a little pradftice
wTill Hifcover.
2. To regulate the guide for the eye, or to place the
centre of the eye-piece L fo that it may coincide with
the focal point of the lenfes and the axis of vifion :
Lengthen and fhorten the tubes MN, by drawing out
or puftiing in the inner tube, and raifing or deprefling
the eye-piece ML, till you find the large lens (which
is placed at the end AB of the wooden body) filled by
an uniform field of light, without any prifmatic colours
round the edge •, for till this piece is properly fixed,
the circle of light will be very (mail, and only occupy
a part of the lens ; the eye muft be kept at the centre
of the eye-piece L, during the whole of the opera¬
tion } which may be rendered fomewhat eafier to the
obferver, on the firft ufe of the inftrument, if he hold
a piece of white paper parallel to the large lens, re¬
moving it from or bringing it nearer to them till he
find the place where a lucid circle, which he will per¬
ceive on the paper, is brighteft and moft diftinft 5 then
he is to fix the cenre of the eye-piece to coincide with
that fpot •, after which a very linall adjuftment will fet
it perfedlly right.
3. To adjuft the lenfes to their focal diftance. This
is effefted by turning the pinidn a, the eye being at
the fime time at the eye-piece L. Tire gray glafs
is often placed before the large lenfes, while regulat¬
ing the guide for the eye, and ,adjufting for the focal
diftance.
If the obferver, in the procefs of his examination ef
an objedl, advance rapidly from a (hallow to a deep
magnifier, he will fave himfelf fome labour by pulling
out the internal tube at O.
The upper part fgrs of the ftage is to be raifed or
lowered occafionally, in order to make the centre of the
objeft coincide with the centre of the lens at O.
To delineate objefts, the gray glafs muft be placed
before the large lenfes j the piflure of the objedt will
be formed on this glafs, and the outline may be accu¬
rately taken by going over the pidlure with a pencil.
The
3
M I C [ i
Microfcope. The opaque part may heufed in the daytime without
a lamp, provided the large lenfes at AB are fcreened
from the light.
To ufe the Lucerr.al Microfcope in the examination of
Tranfparent Obje&s.—The inftrument is to remain as
before : the upper part fgs cf the opaque ftage muft
be removed, and the ftage for tranfparent objedls, re-
prefented at fig. 28. put in its place j the end 9 10
to be next the lamp.
Place the grayed glafs in its groove at the end AB,
and the objects in the flider-holder at the front of the
ftage *, then tranfmit as ftrong a light as you are able
on the objebt, which you will eafily do by raifing or
lowering the lamp.
The objeift will be beautifully depicted on the gray
glafs : it muft be regulated to the focus of the magni¬
fier, by turning th« pinion a.
The objecft may be viewed either with or without
the guide for the eye. A Angle obferver will fee an
obieS to the greateft advantage by ufing this guide,
which is to be adjufted as rve have defcribed above. If
two or three wifh to examine the objebb at the fame
time, the guide for the eye muft bejaid afide.
Take the large lens out of the groove, and receive
the image on the gray glafs; in this cafe, the guide
for the eye is of no ufe : if the gray glafs be taken
away, the image of the objeff may be received on a
paper fcreen.
Take out the gray glafs, replace the large lenfes,
and uie the guide for the eye; attend to the forego¬
ing direbfions, and adjuft the objeft to its proper fo¬
cus. You will then fee the object in a blaze of light
almoft too great for the eye, a circumftance that will
be found very ufeful in the examination of particular
objecls. The edges of the objeft in this mode will be
fomewhat coloured : but as it is only ufed in this full
* fight f°r occafional purpofes, it has been thought bet¬
ter to leave this fmall imperfection, than, by remedying
it, to facrifice greater advantages; the more fo, as this
fault is eafily correfled, a new and interefting
view of the object is obtained, by turning the inftru¬
ment out of the direct rays of light, and permitting
them to pafs through only in an oblique direction,
by which the upper furface is in fome degree illumi¬
nated, and the object is feen partly as opaque, partly
as tranfparent. It has been already obferved, that the
tranfparent objefts might be placed between the Aider-
holders of the ftage for opaque obje&s, and then be
examined as if opaque.
Some tranfparent objedls appear to the greateft ad¬
vantage when the lens at 9 1 o is taken away ; as, by
giving too great a quantity of light, it renders the
edges lefs (harp.
The variety of views which may be taken of every
objeft by means of the improved lucernal microfcope,
will oe found to be of great ufe to an accurate obferv¬
er : it will give him an opportunity of corre£ling or
VOL. XIV. Part I.
7 ] MIC
confirming his difeovenes, and inveftigating thofe parts Microf ope.
in one mode which are invifible in another. —y—<
To throve the image of tranfparent objecis on a fcreen
as in the folar microfcope. It has been long a microfco-
pical delideratum, to have an inftrument by which
the image of tranfparent objects might be thrown on
a fcreen, as in the common folar microfcope ; and this
not only becaufe the fun is fo uncertain in this cli¬
mate, and the ufe of the folar microfcope requires
confinement in the fineft part of the day, when time
feldom hangs heavy on the mind ; but as it alfo affords
an increafe of pleafure, by difplaying its wonders to
feveral perfons at the fame inftant, without the leaft
fatigue to the eye.
This purpofe is now effe&ually anfwered, by affix¬
ing the tranfparent ftage of the lucernal to a lanthorn,
with one of Argand’s lamps.—The lamp is placed
within the lanthorn, and the end 9 10 of the tranf¬
parent flage is ferewed into a female ferew, which is
rivetted in the Aiding part of the front of the lan¬
thorn ; the magnifying lenfes are to be ferewed into
the hole reprefented at 12, and they are adjufted by
turning the milled nut. The quantity cf light is to be
regulated by raifing and lowering the fiiding-plate or
the lamp.
apparatus which ufually accompanies the improved
Lucernal Microfcope.—The ftage for opaque objects,
with its femicircular lump of glafs, and concave mirror.
The ftage for tranfparent objects, which fits on the
upper part of the foregoing ftage. The Aiding tube,
to which the magnifiers are to be affixed : one end of
thefe is to be ferewed on the end D of the wooden
body ; the magnifier in ufe is to be ferewed to the
other end of the inner tube. Eight magnifying
lenfes: thefe are fo conftrudled that they may be
combined together, and thus produce a very great
variety of magnifying powers. A fiffi-pan, Inch as
is reprefented at I. A fteel wire L, with a pair of
nippers at one end, and a fmall cylinder of ivory l at
the other. A Aider of brafs N, containing a fiat
glafs Aider, and a brafs Aider into which are fitted
fome fmall concave glafies. A pair of forceps. Six
large and fix fmall ivory Aiders, with tranfparent
objects. Fourteen wooden Aiders, with four opaque
objefts in each Aider ; and two fpare Aiders. Some
capillary tubes for viewing fmall animalcula.
Ingenious men feldom content themfelves with an
inftrument under one form ; hence fuch a variety of
microfcopes, hence many alterations in the Lucernal
Microfcope. Mr Adams himfelf, we underftand, has
fitted up this laft in a great many different ways ; and
it is reafonable to think that no perfon is more likely
to give it every improvement of which it is fufceptible.
Ol the alterations by other hands we ffiall only parti¬
cularize one, made by Mr Jones of Holborn (b),
whofe defer!ption is as follows :
A reprefents a portion of the top of the mahogany
C box
(b) We .tmft the reader will never confider any paragraph wherein the name of an inftrument-maker or
other artift is mferted, as a recommendation of thofe artifts by the editors of this work. In the courfe of a
pretty extenfive correfpondence, they have been favoured with very liberal communications from various artifts,
for which they are greatly indebted to them : the inferting their names in this work is therefore to be conlidered
as
MIC [ i
Alirrofcopc box in which it packs, to preferve it fteady 5 it Aides
V““- jn a dovc-ta]! groove withinfide, a Amilar groove to
which is cut in the top of the box A ; fo that when
the inftrument is to be ufed, it is dipt out of the box
withinfide, and then dipt into the groove at top ready
for ufe, almod: infiantly, as fhown in the figure. The
adjufiment of the objects is at the Rage JL 5 for the
right focal diftance is readily and conveniently made
by turning the long fcrew-rod BB, which goes through
ihe-two pillars lupporting the box, and works in the
bafe of the brafs Rage E; which bate is alio dove¬
tailed, fo as to have a regular and Ready motion in ano¬
ther brafs bafis that fupports it. In this infirument,
therefore, the pyramidical box does not move ; but
the Rage part only, which, from its fmall weight,
moves in the mofl agreeable and Ready manner. While
obferving the image of the objeft upon the glafs
through the fight-hole at G, the objedl may be moved
or changed by only turning the rack-work and pinion
applied to the Rage by means of the handle D, for
that purpofe. By this contrivance you have no occa-
fion to change your pofition during the view of the
objefts upon one of the Riders. This motion changes
the objefts horizontally only 5 and as they are gene¬
rally placed exactly in one line, it anfwers all the pur-
pofes for which this motion is intended very well.
But it may fometimes happen that the obferver w-ould
wifir to alter the vertical pofition of the objeff ; to
perform which there is another plane rod at F, that
a£ls limply as a lever for this purpofe, and moves the
Riding part of the Rage E vertically either upwards
or downwards.
Thus, without altering his pofition, the obferver
may invefligate all parts of the obje&s in the mod fa-
tisfadlory manner. Rack-work and pinion might be
applied to the Rage for the vertical motion alfo j but
as it would materially enhance the expence, it is fel-
dom applied. The brafs wrork at the handle of D
contains a Hooke’s univerfal joint.
The brilliancy of the images of the objedfs fiiowm
upon the large lenfes at the end of the box, being very
frequently fo great as to dazzle the eyes, Mr Jones ap¬
plies a Right tinge of blue, green, and other coloured
glafs, to the fight-hole at G, which loftens this glare,
and cafls an agreeable hue upon the objedfs.
Defcription of thofe Parts of a Microfcofcal Appara¬
tus^ common to tnof Infruments, which are delinea¬
ted at fig. 31.
A and B reprefent the brafs cells which contain the
magnifiers belonging to the different kinds of com¬
pound microfcopes. The magnifier^ are fometimes
contained in a Rider like that which is delineated at S
(fig. 24.) The lenfes of A and B are confined by a
fmall cap ; on unferewing this, the fmall lens may be
taken out and cleaned. The magnifiers A of the, lu-
eernal microicope are fo contrived, that any tw:o of
B ] MIC
them may be ferewed together, by which means a con- Mlcrofcope*
fiderable variety of magnifying powers is obtained.  v' *
To get at the lenfes in the Rider S (fig. 24.) take
out the two ferews which hold on the cover.
C reprefents the general form of the Rider-holder.
It confilis of a cylindrical tube, in which an inner tube
is forced up by a fpring. It is ufed to receive the
ivory or any other Rider, in which the tranfparent
objedfs are placed ; thele are to be Rid between the
two upper plates : the hollow part in one of the plates
is defigned for the glafs tubes.
D, the condenfing lens and its tube, which fits into
the Rider-holder C, and may be moved up and down
in it. When this piece is pufhed up as far as it wall
go, it condenfes the light of a candle, which is refledl-
ed on it by the plain mirror of the compound micro-
fcope, and fpreads it uniformly over the objedt; in
this cafe it is beff adapted to the fliallowrefi magnifiers.
If the deeper lenfes are ufed, it fliould be drawn dowm,
or rather removed further from the objedt, that it may
concentrate the light in a fmall compafs, and thus
render it more denfe. The; condenfing lens is fome¬
times fitted up differently ; but the principle being the
fame, it will be eafy to apply it to ufe notwithRanding
fome variations in the mechanifm.
E, a brafs cone. It fixes under the Rider-holder,
and is ufed to leffen occafionally the quantity of light
which comes from the mirror to any objedf.
F, a box writh two flat glaffes, which may be placed
at different diflances from each other in order to con¬
fine a fmall living infedf.
G, a frnall brafs box to hold the filver fpeculum H.
H, a fmall filver concave fpeculum, defigned to re-
fledt the light from the mirror on opaque objedts j it
fliould only be ufed wuth the .(hallow magnifiers. It is
applied in different ways to the compound microfcope $
fometimes to a tube fimilar to that reprefented at X,
W'hich Rides on the lower part of the body ; fometimes
it is ferewed into the ring of the piece ; the pin
of this generally fits into one of the holes in the Rage.
When this fpeculum is ufed, the Rider-holder (hould be
removed.
I, a fifli-pan, whereon a fmall fifli may be faRened,
in order to view the circulation of the blood : its tail
is to be fpread acrofs the oblong hole at the fmalleit
end, and tied faR by means of the ribbon fixed there¬
to, by (hoving the knob which is on the back of it
through the flit made in the Rage ; the tail of the fish
may be brought under the lens which is in ufe.
K, a cylindrical piece, intended for the folar opaque
microfcope ; by pulling back the fpiral fpring, fmaller
or larger objedls may be confined in it.
k, A pair of triangular nippers for taking hold of
and confining a large objedf.
L, a long Reel wire, with a fmall pair of pliers
at one end and a Reel point at the other: the wire flips
backwards or forwards in a fpring tube, which is af¬
fixed to a joint, at the bottom of which is a pin to fit
one
as a grateful acknowledgement From the editors (or favoms conferred on them,—not as a teflimonial of their opi¬
nion o the anilities of an individual, or as defigned to infinuate any preference over others in the fame line, where
tuch preference, has not been already bedewed by the public..
MIC f j
Wicrofcaoe. one of the holes in the ftage ; this piece is ufed to con-
s.—< £ne pmau obje^s<
/, A fmall ivory cylinder that fits on the pointed
end of the fteel wire L ; it is defigned to receive
opaque objefts. Light-coloured ones are to be Ituck
on the dark fide, and vice verfa.
M, a convex lens, which fits to the flage by means
of the long pin adhering to it. This piece is defigned
to colleft the light from the fun or a candle, and to
throw them on any objed placed on the ftage 5 but it
is very little ufed at prefent.
N, a brafs il der, into which is fitted a flat piece of
glals, and a brafs Aider containing four fmall glalfes,
one or two of them concave, the others flat j it is de¬
figned to confine fmall living objeds, and when ufed is
to be placed between the two upper plates of the Aider-
holder.
O, a glafs tube to receive a fmall filh, &c.
P, reprefents one of the ivory Aiders, wherein ob-
jeds are placed between two pieces of talc, and con¬
fined by a brafs ring.
£), a piece to hold the fpeculum H : this piece is
generally fitted to the microfcope reprefented at fig. 1 2.
R, a pair of forceps, to take up any occafional ob-
jed.
S, a camel’s hair pencil to brufti the duft off the
glaffes ; the upper part of the quill is fcooped out, to
take up a drop of any fluid, and place it on either of
the glaffes for examination.
T, an inftrument for cutting thin tranfverfe fedions
of wood. It confifts of a wooden bafe, which fup-
ports four brafs pillars ; on the top of the pillars is
placed a flat piece of brafs, near the middle of which
there is a triangular hole.
A (harp knife, which moves in a diagonal diredion,
is fixed on the upper fide of the afore-mentioned plate,
and in fuch a manner that the edge always coincides
with the furface thereof.
The knife is moved backwards and forwards by
means of the handle a. The piece of wood is placed
in the triangular trough which is under the brafs
plate, and is to be kept fteady therein by a milled
fcrew which is fitted to the trough j the wood is
to be preffed forward for cutting by the micrometer
fcrew b.
The pieces of wood ftiould be applied to this in¬
ftrument immediately on being taken out of the
ground, or elfe they Ihould be foaked for fome time in
water, to foften them fo that they may not hurt the
edge of the knife.
When the edge of the knife is brought in conta£t
with the piece of wood, a fmall quantity of fpirits of
wine Ihould be poured on the furface of the wood, to
prevent its curling up j it will alfo make it adhere
to the knife, from which it may be removed by prefling
a piece of blotting 'paper on it.
y. An appendage to the cutting engine, which is
to be ufed inftead of the micrometer fcrew, being pre-
lerred to it by fome. It is.placed over the triangular
hole, and kept flat down upon the furface of the brafs
plate, while the piece of wood is preffed a>?alnft a cir¬
cular piece of brafs which is on the under fide of it.
This circular piece of brafs is fixed to a fcrew, by
which its diftance from the flat plate on which the knife
moves may be regulated.
9 1
M I C
a, An ivory box, containing at one end ip are talcMicro/c pe
for the ivory Aiders, and at the other fpare rings for  v~—1
prefling the talcs together and confining them to the
Aider.
I luid microfcopes have been alfo propofed ; the firft,
it would appear, was fuggefted by Mr Grey. This was
formed of w’ater, and an account of it will be found in
N 22i, 223, Phil. 1 ranf. An improved microfcope,
on a iimilar principle, has been invented by Mr Biew-
fter, of which the following is a defeription, taken from
a note by the tranAator of Haiiy’s Natural Philofo-
phy.
A vertical bar” (fays Mr Gregory), is fixed upon
a horizontal pedeftal j and from the top of this bar
proceeds a horizontal arm, which fupports a circular
cafe containing the lenfes j below this another horizon¬
tal arm Aides up and down, capable of adjuftment by
means of a fcrew, and carrying the ufual Aiders to hold
the objeff which it is propofed to examine ; and upon
the pedeftal. is fixed the frame of a mirror, which has
both an inclined and a horizontal motion, in order to
illuminate any object upon the Aider. The upper cir¬
cular cafe is hollow, and contains four or more plano¬
convex lenfes, which are conftiiuted each of a drop of
very pure and vifeid turpentine varnifh, taken up by
the point of a piece of wood, and dropped upon a piece
of very thin and well polilhed glafs. The lenfes thus
formed may be made of any focal length by taking up
a greater or a lefs quantity of fluid. The lower furface
of the glafs having been firft fmoked with a candle, the
black pigment immediately below the lenfes is then to
be removed, fo that no light may pafs but through the
lenfes. The piece of glafs is then perforated at its
centre, and furrounded by a toothed wheel, which,
when the wheel is put in the upper circular cafe, may
be turned by a common endlefs fcrew, fo that the fluid
lenfes fnall be brought feverally under an eye-aperture
properly difpofed, and any obje£l be fuccefsfully exa- '
mined with a variety of magnifying powers.” Note
p. 365. See alfo Fergufon’s Ledtures by Brewfter,
vol. ii.
After what has been related of microfcopes, they
cannot be laid to be complete without the valuable ad¬
dition of a micrometer; for the ufe and advantages of
which, fee the article Micrometer.
Having prefented our readers with deferiptions of
the various microfcopes generally ufed, we think it our
duty to point out to them thofe which we conceive to
be beft calculated to anfwer the purpofes of fcience.
The firft which prefects itfelf to our mind is that of
FJhs: It is better adapted than any other portable mi¬
crofcope, to the purpofe of general obfervation ; Ample
in its conftrudlion, and general in its application. To
thofe who prefer a double microfcope, we Ihould recom¬
mend that figured in Plate CCCXXXVIII. fig. 12. If
opaque objedts, as infedfs, &c. be fubjedts of inveltiga-
tion, the Lucernal Microfcope claims the preference :
but if amufement alone guides the choice, the Solar
Microfcope mult be fixed upon.
We fliall now proceed to explain fome-neceffary par¬
ticulars refpedting the method of ufing micr ftcopes •
after which, we lhall fubioin an enumeration, of the prin-
C 2 cipal
M I C [20
Microfcop? cipal obje&$ diicovered or elucidated by their means,
w v— Qn th;, fu'ujecl Mr Adams, in his E/Jay on the Micro-
fcope, has been very copious ; with a view, as he in¬
forms us, to remove the common complaint made by
Mr Baker, “ that many of thofe who pupchafe micro-
fcopes are fo little acquainted with their general and
extenfive uiefulnefs, and fo much at a lofs for ob}e6iS
to examine by them, that after diverting their friends
fome few times with what they find in the Aiders
which generally accompany the inftrument, or perhaps
with two or three common objedfs, the microfcope is
laid afide as of little further value \ whereas no inftru-
ment has yet appeared in the world capable of afford¬
ing fo conflant, various, and fatisfadlory an entertain¬
ment to the mind.
I. In ufing the microfcope, there are three things ne-
ceffary to be conlidered. (i.) The preparation and
adjuflment of the inflrument itfelf. (2.) The proper
quantity of light, and the befi: method of diredling
it to the objedl. (3.) The method of preparing the
objedls, fo that their texture may be properly under-
flood.
1. With regard to the microfcope itfelf, the firlt
]
M I C
thing necelfary to be examined is, whether the glaffes
be clean or not: if they are not fo, they muft be wiped
with a piece of fort leather, taking care not to foil
them afterwards with the fingers; and, in replacing
them, care muff be taken not to place them in an ob¬
lique fituation. We muft likewife be careful not to let
the breath fall upon the glaffes, nor to hold that part
of the body of the inflrument where the glaffes are
placed with a warm hand ; becaufe thus the moiflure
expelled by the heat from the metal will condenfe upon
the glafs, and prevent the objedl from being diftindlly
feen. The objedl fhould be brought as near the centre
of the field of view as poflible ; for there only it will be
exhibited in the greatefl perfedlion. The eye fhould
be moved up and down from the eye-glafs, of a com¬
pound microfcope, till the fituation is found where the
largefl field and mofl diflindl view of the objedl are to
be had : but every perfon ought to adjuft the micro¬
fcope to his owm eye, and not to depend upon the lituation
it was placed in by another. A fmall magnifying
power (hould always be begun with ; by which means
the obferver will bell obtain an exadl idea of the fitua¬
tion and connexion of the whole ; and will of confe-
quence be lefs liable to form any erroneous opinion
when the parts are viewed feparately by a lens of greater
power. Objedls fhould fclfo be examined firfl in their
mofl natural pofition : for if this be not attended to,
we fhall be apt to form very inadequate ideas of the
flrudlure of the whole, as well as of the connexion and
ufe of the parts. A living animal ought to be as little
hurt or difcompofed as poflible.
From viewing an objedl properly, xve may acquire a
knowledge of its nature : but this cannot be done with¬
out an extenfive knowledge of the fubjedl, much pa¬
tience, and many experiments; as in a great number
of cafes the images will refemble each other, though
derived from very different fubftances. Mr Baker
therefore advifes us not to form an opinion too fuddenly
after viewing a microfcopical objedl; nor to draw our
inferences till after repeated experiments and examina¬
tions of the objedt in many different lights and pofitions;
to pafs no judgement upon things extended by force, or
contradled by drynefs, or in any manner out of a na-Microfcojie.
tural date, without making fuitable allowances. The " v~—
true colour of objedls cannot be properly determined
by very great magnifiers ; for as the pores and intei dices
of an objedl are enlarged according to the magnifying
power of the glafl'es made ufe of, the component parti¬
cles of its fubflance will appear fepar-ated many thou-
fand times farther afunder than they do to the naked
eye : hence the refledlion of the light from thefe parti¬
cles will be very different, and exhibit different colours.
It is likewife fomewhat difficult to obferve opaque ob¬
jedls ; and as the apertures of the larger magnifiers are
but fmall, they are not proper for the purpofe. If an
objedl be fo very opaque, that no light will pafs through
it, as much as poC ble muft be thrown upon the up¬
per furface of it. Some conftderation is likewife ne-
ceffary in forming a judgement of the motion of living
creatures, or even of fluids, when feen through the
microfcope ; for as the moving body, and the fpace
wherein it moves, are magnified, the motion will alfo
be increafed.
2. On the management of the light depends in a
great meafure the diitindtnefs of the vifion : and as, in
order to have this in the greateft perfedtion, we muft
adapt the quantity of light to the nature of the objedl
and the focus of the magnifier, it is therefore necel¬
fary to view it in various degrees of light. In fome
objedls, it is difficult to diftinguifh between a promi¬
nence and a deprefhon, a fhadovv or a black ftain : or
between a refledlion of light and whitenefs, which is
particulaily obfervable in the eye of the libellula and
other flies : all of thefe appearing very different in one
pofition from what they do in another. The bright-
nefs of an objedt likewife depends on the quantity of
light, the diftindlnefs of vifion, and on regulating
the quantity to the objedl; for fome will be in a man¬
ner loft in a quantity of light fcarcely fufficient to ren¬
der another viiible.
'I here are various ways in which a ftrong light may
be thrown upon objedls; as by means of the fun and
a convex lens, lor this purpofe, the microfcope is
to be placed about three feet from a fouthern window ;
then take a deep convex lens, mounted on a femicircle
and Hand, fo that its pofition may eafily be varied :
place this lens between the objedl and the window, fo
that it may colledl a confiderable number of folar ravs,
and refradl them on the objedt or the mirror of the
microfcope. If the light thus colledled from the fan
be too powerful, it may be leflened by placing a piece
of oiled paper, or a piece of glafs lightly grayed, be¬
tween the objedl and lens. Thus a proper degree of
light may be obtained, and diffufed equally all over
the furface of an objedl: a circumftance which ought
to be particularly attended to ; for if the light be
thrown irregularly upon it, no diftindl view can be
obtained, if we mean to make ufe of the folar light,
it will be found convenient to darken the room, and
to refledt the rays of the fun on the above-mentioned
lens by means of the mirror of a folar microfcope fix¬
ed to the window-ftmtter : for thus the obferver will
be enabled to preferve the light on his fubjedl, notwith-
ftanding the motion of the fun. But by reafon of this
motion, and the variable ftate of the atmofphere, fo¬
lar obfervations are rendered both tedious and incon¬
venient ; whence it will be proper for the obferver to
be
M I C
Microfcope.be fur milled with a large tin lanthorn, formed fome-
 thing like the common magic lanthorn, capable of
containing one of Argand’s lamps. This, however,
ought not to be of the fountain kind, left the rarefac¬
tion of the air in the lanthorn fiiould force the oil over.
There ought to be an aperture in the front of the
lanthorn, which may be moved up and down, and be
capable of holding a lens j by which means a pleafant
and uniform as well as ftrong light may eaftly be pro¬
cured. The lamp ihould likewife move on a rod, fo
that it may be ealily raifed or deprelTed. This lan¬
thorn may likewife be ufed for many other purpofes ;
as viewing of pidlures, exhibiting microfcopic obje£ls
on a fcreen, &c. A weak light, however, is beft for
viewing many tranfparent objefts : among which we
may reckon the prepared eyes of Hies, as w’ell as the
animalcules in fluids. The quantity of light from a
lamp or candle may be leflened by removing the mi-
crofcope to a greater diftance from them, or by dimi¬
ni Iliing the ftrength of the light which falls upon the
objects. This may very conveniently be done by
pieces of black paper wnth circular apertures of diffe¬
rent fizes, and placing a larger or fmaller one upon the
refleiling mirror, as occafion may require. There is
an oblique fituation of the mirrors, which makes like¬
wife jfn oblique reflection of the light eafily difcovered
by praCtice, (but for which no general rule can be giv¬
en in theory) 5 and which will exhibit an objeCl more
diftinCtly than any other pofltion, ftiowing the furface,
as well as thofe parts through which the light is tranf-
mitted. The light of a lamp or candle is generally
better for viewing microfcopic objeCts than day light j
it being more eafy to modify the former than the lat¬
ter, and to throw it upon the objeCts with different de¬
grees of denfity.
3. Swammerdam has excelled in the preparation of
objeCts a bn oft all other inveftmators. Neither difficulty
nor difappointment could make him abandon the pur-
fuit of any objeCt until he bad obtained a fatisfaCtory
idea of it. But unhappily the methods he ufed in pre¬
paring his objeCts for the microfcope are now entirely un¬
known. Boerhaave examined with the ftriCteit atten¬
tion all the letters and manufcripts of Swammerdam
which he could find ; but his refearches were far from
being fuccefsful. The following are all the particulars,
which have thus come to the knowledge of the pub¬
lic.
For diffeCting fmall infeflx, Swammerdam had a
brafs table made by S. Mufchenbroek, to which were
affixed two brafs arms moveable at pleafure to any part
of it. The upper part of thefe vertical arms was con-
ftrucfed in fuch a manner as to have a flow vertical
motion •, by which mean* the operator could readily
alrer their height as he law convenient. One of thefe
arms was to hold the minute objeCts, and the other to
apply the microfcope.
The lenfes of Swammerdam’s microfcopes were of
various fizes as well as foci : but all of them the beft
that coifld be procured, both for the tranfparcncy of
the glafs and the finenefs of the workmanffiip. His
obfervations were always begun with the fmalleft mag¬
nifiers, from which he proceeded to the greateft j but
in the ufe of them, he wTas fo exceedingly dexterous,
that he made every obfervation fubfervient to that wffiich
fucceeded it, and all of them to the coafinnatioti of
M I C
each other, and to the completing of the defer*ption. M*fcrofcope.
His chief art feems to have been in conftru ting feif- ““ *
fars of an exquifite finenefs, and making them very
fliarp. Thus he was enabled to cut very minute ob¬
jeCts to much more advantage than could be done by
knives and lancets; for thefe, though ever fo fharp and
fine, are apt to diforder delicate fubftances by dif-
placing fome of the filaments, and drawing them af¬
ter them as they pafs through the bodies j but the
feiffars cut them all equally. The knives, lancets,
and ftyles he made ufe of in his diffeCtions, were fo
fine that he could not fee to fharpen them without
the affiftance of a magnifying glafs ; but with thefe
he could diffeCf the inteftines of bees with the fame ac¬
curacy that the beft anatomifts can do thofe of large
animals. He made ufe alfo of very fmall glafs tubes
no thicker than a brittle, and drawn to a very, fine
point at one end, but thicker at the other. Thefe
were for the purpofe of blowing up, and thus render¬
ing vifible the fmalleft veffels which could be difcover¬
ed by the microfcope ; to trace their courfes and com¬
munications, or fometimes to injeCt them with co¬
loured liquors.
Swammerdam fometimes made ufe of fpirit of wane,
water, or oil of turpentine, for fuffocating the infeCts
he wiihed to examine j and would preferve them for
a time in thefe liquids. Thus he kept the parts from
putrefying, and gave them befides fuch additional
ftrength and firmnefs, as rendered the diifeCHons much
more eafy than they would otherwife have been. Hav¬
ing then divided the body tranfverfely with the
feiffars, and made what obfervations he could with¬
out farther diffeiffion, he proceeded to extradf the
inteftines carefully with very fine inftruments, to
wafti aw'ay the fat in the like careful manner j and
thus to put the parts into fuch a ftate as would
beft expofe them to view ; but thefe operations' are
beft performed while the infects are in their nympha
ftate.
Sometimes the delicate vifeera of the infects, after
having been fuffocated as above mentioned, were put
into water : after which, having fhaken them gently,
he procured an opportunity of examining them, efpe-
cially the air veffels, which laft he could thus feparate
entire from all the other parts, to the admiration of
all who beheld them : as thefe veffels cannot be di-
ftinffly feen in any other manner, or indeed in any
W’ay whatever, without injuring them. Frequently al¬
fo he injected water with a fyringe to cleanfe the parts
thoroughly, after which he blew them up with air and
dried them ; thus rendering them durable, and fit for
examination at s proper opportunity. Sometimes he
made very important difeoveries, by examining infetfts
which he had preferved for feveral years in balfara..
Other infedfs he pundlured with a very fine needle ;
and after fqueezing out all their moifture through the
holes made in this manner, he filled them with air,
by means of very flender glafs tubes*, then dried them
in the fhade ; and laftly, anointed them with oil of fpike
in which a little rofin had been diffolved $ and by
which means they for a long time retained their pro¬
per forms. He was likewife in poffeffion of a fingular
fecret, by which he could preferve the limbs of infedls
as limber and perfpicuous as ever they had been. He
ufed to make a fmall pun dure or inqifion in the tails ufi
wormsy.
c 21 i
mic r *
■op'- woirns ■ and after having with great caution fqneczed
out all the humours, as well as great part of the vifceraj
he injected them with wax in fuch a manner as to give
them the appearance of living creatures in perfect
health. He found that the fat of all infedts-was entire¬
ly diffolvable in oil of turpentine •, by which means he
Was enabled plainly to difcern the vifcera ; though,
after this diflblution, it was neceffary to cleanfe and
walh them frequently in clean water. In this manner
he would frequently have fpent whole days in the prepara¬
tion of a lingle caterpillar, and cleanring it from its fat,
in order to difcover the true fituation of the infers
heart. He had a lingular dexterity in dripping off the
{kins of caterpillars that were oh the point of fpinning
their cones. This was done by letting them drop by
their threads into fcalding water, and then fuddenly
withdrawing them. Thus the epidermis peeled oft’
very eafily ; and, when this was done, he put them
into diftilled vinegar and fpirit of wine mixed together
in equal proportions; which, by giving a due degree
bf firmriefs to the parts, gave him an opportunity of
feparating them with very little trouble from the exu¬
viae, without any danger to the internal parts. Thus
the nympha could be fliown to be wrapped up in the
caterpillar and the buttertly in the nympha ; and there
is little doubt that thofe who look into the works of
Swammerdam, will be amply recompenfed, whether
they confider the unexampled labour or the piety of the
author.
M. Lyonet, an eminent naturalift, ufually drowned
the infeds he defigned to examine ; by which means he
was enabled to preferve both the foftnefs and tranfparency
of the parts. According to him, the infedl, if very
fmall, viz. one tenth of an inch, or little more, in
length, Chould be difledled on a glafs fomewhat concave.
If it (hould be fufpedted that the infeft will putrefy by
keeping for a few days, fpirit of wine diluted with
water muft be fubftituted inftead of pure water. The
infedl mutt be fuffered to dry ; after which it may
be fattened by a piece of foft wax, and again covered
with water.—Larger objedts fliould be placed in a
trough of thin wood ; and for this purpofe the bottom
of a common chip box will anfwer very well $ only
furrounding the edge of it with foft wax, to keep in
the water Or other fluid employed in preferving the in-
fedl. The body is then to be opened •, and if the parts
are foft like thofe of a caterpillar, they Ihould be turn¬
ed back, and fixed to the trough by fmall pins, which
ought to be fet by a fmall pair of nippers. At the
fame time, the {kin being ftretched by another pair of
finer forceps, the infedl muft be put into water, and
difledted therein, occafionally covering it with fpirit
of wine. Thus the fubjedt will be preferved in per-
fedtion, To that its parts may be gradually unfolded, no
other change being perceived than that the foft elaftic
parts become {tiff and opaque, while fome others lofe
their colour.
The following inttruments were made ufe of by M.
Lyonet in his diffedlion of the Chenille de Saule. A
pair of fciffars as fmall as could be made, with long and
fine arms : A pair of forceps, with their ends fo nicely
adjulted, that they could eafily lay hold of a fpider’s
thread, or a grain of fand : Two fine fteel needles fixed
in wooden handles, about two inches and three quarters
2 j M I C
in length 5 which were the moft generally ufeful inftru- Mierfefcofft.
meats he employed. » ~ "J
Dr Hooke, who likewife made many microfcopic
obfervations, takes notice, that the common ant or
pifmire is much more troublefome to draw than other
infedls, as it is extremely difficult to get the body in a
quiet natural poflure. If its feet be fettered with wax
or glue, while the animal remains alive, it fo twifts its
body, that there is no poflibility of gaining a proper
view of it *, and if it be killed before any obfervation
is made, the fhape is often fpoiled before it can be exa¬
mined. The bodies of many minute infecls, when their
life is deftroyed, inftantly fhrivel up ; and this is obferv-
able even in plants as well as infedls, the furface of
tliefe fmall bodies being affedled by the leaft change of
air; which is particularly the cafe with the ant. If
this creature, however, be dfopped into redlified fpirit
of wine, it will inftantly be killed; and when it is taken
out, the fpirit of wine evaporates, leaving the animal
dry, and in its natural pollute, or at leafl in fuch a
ftate, that it may eafily be placed in whatever pofture
we pleafe.
Parts of InfeBs. The wings, in many infedls, are fb
tranfparent, that they require no previous preparation :
but fome of thofe that are folded up under elytra or
cafes, require a confider&ble fhare of dexterity to unfold
them ; for thefe wings are naturally endowed with fuch
a fpring, that they immediately fold themfelves again,
unlefs care be taken to prevent them. The wing of
the earwig, when expanded, is of a tolerable fize, yet
is folded up under a cafe not one eighth part of its
bulk j and the texture of this wing renders it difficult
to be unfolded. This is done with the leaft trouble
immediately after the infedl is killed. Holding then
the creature by the thorax, between the finger and the
thumb, with a blunt-pointed pin endeavour gently to
open it, by fpreadingfit over the forefinger, andx at the
fame time gradually Aiding the thumb over it. When
the wing is fufficiently expanded, feparate it from the
infedl by a {harp knife or a pair of fciflars. The wing
fhould be preffed for fome time between the thumb and
finger before it be removed 5 it ffiould then be placed
between two pieces of paper, and again preffed for at
leafl an hodr j after which time, as there will be no
danger of its folding up any more, it may be put
between the talcs, and applied to the microfcope.
Similar care is requifite in difplaying the wings of the
notonedla and other water infedls, as well as mod kinds
of grylli.
The minute fcales or feathers, which cover the
wings of moths or butterflies, afford very beautiful ob-
jedls for the mjcrofcope. Thofe from one part of the
wing frequently differ in fhape from fuch as are taken
from other parts ; and near the thorax, fhoulder, and
on the fringes of the wings, we generally meet with
hair inftead of fcales. The whole may be bruffied
off the wing, upon a piece of paper, by means of
a camels hair pencil •, after which the hairs can be
feparated with the affiflance of a common magnifying
glafs.
It is likewife a matter of confiderable difficulty to
diffedl properly the probofcis of infedls, fuch as the
gnat, tabanus, &c. and the experiment muft be repeat¬
ed a great number of times before the flrudlure and fi¬
tuation
MIC [23
Microfcope. tuation of the parts can be thoroughly inveftigated, as
' v the obferver will frequently difcover in one what he
could not in another. The collecior of the bee, which
forms a very curious object, ought to be firft carefully
waflred in fpirit of turpentine j by which means it will
be freed from the unftuous matter adhering to it :
when dry, it is again to be walhed with a camel’s hair
pencil to difengage and bring forward the fmall hairs
which form part of this microfcopic beauty. The
beft method of managing the flings of infedls, which
are in danger of being broken by reafon of their hard-
nefs, is to foak the cafe and the relt of the apparatus for
fome time in fpirit of wine or turpentine 5 then lay
them on a piece of paper, and with a blunt knife drawr
out the ding, holding the (heath with the nail of the
finger or any blunt inftrument j but great care is necef-
fary to preferve the feelers, which when cleaned add
much to the beauty of the objedl. The beard of the
lepas anatifera is to be foaked in clean foft water, fre¬
quently brufhing it while wet with a camel’s hair
pencil : after it is dried, the brulhing mult be repeated
with a dry pencil to difengage and feparate the hairs,
W’hich are apt to adhere together.
To view to advantage the fat, brains, and other fi-
milar fubftances, Dr Hooke advifes to render the fur-
face fmooth, by prefting it between two plates of thin
glafs, by which means the matter will be rendered
much thinner and more tranfparent : without this pre¬
caution, it appears confufed, by reafon of the parts
lying too thick upon one another. For mufcularfibres,
take a piece of the flefh, thin and dry ; moilfen it with
warm w^ater, and after this is evaporated the veffels
will appear more plain and diftimfl \ and by repeated
macerations they appear Hill more fo. The exuvice of
infers afford a pleafing objeft, and require but little
preparation. If bent or curled up, they will become fo
relaxed by being kept a few hours in a moift atmofphere,
that you may eafily extend them to their natural po-
fitions j or the fleam qf warm water wall anfwer the
purpofe very well.
The eyes of infe£fs in general form very curious
and beautiful obje&s. Thofe of the libellula and other
flies, as w^ell as of the lobfler, &c. mull firft be cleaned
from the blood, &c. after which they (hould be foaked
in water for fome days,: one or two Ikins are then to be
Separated from the.eye, which would be otherwife too
opaque and confufed •, but fome care is requifite in this
operation 5 for if the fldn be rendered too thin, it is
irnpoflible to form a proper idea qf the organization of
the part. In fome fubflances, however, the organi¬
zation is fuch, that by altering the texture of the part,
we deflroy the obje£b which we wifli to obferve. Of
this fort are the nerves, tendons, mufcular fibres,
many of which are viewed to moft advantage when
floating in fome tranfparent fluid. Thus very few' of
the mufcular fibres can be difcovered when we attempt
to view them .in the open air, though great numbers
may be feen if they be placed in water or oil. By
viewing the thread of a ligament in this manner, we
find it compofed of a vail number of fmooth round
threads lying clofe together. Elaftic objedls flrouid
be pulled or ftretched out w'hile they are under the mi¬
crofcope, that the texture and nature of thofe parts,
the figure of which is altered by being thus pulled out,
may be more fully difcovered.
]
M I G
Other objeEis. To examine bones by the microfcopc, Microfcope-
they (hould firft be viewed as opaque objects j but af- v J
tenvards, by procuring thin flices of . them, they may
be viewed as tranfparent. The feclions flrould be cut
in all directions, and be wTell waflied and cleaned ; and
in fome cafes maceration will be ufeful, or the bones
may be heated red hot in a clear fire, and then taken
out 5 by which means the bony cells will appear more
confpicuous. The pores of the fkin may be examined bv
cutting off a thin (lice off the upper Ikin with a razor,
and then a fecond frpm the fame place ; applying the
latter to the microfcope. The lizard, guana, &c. have
two Ikins, one very tranfparent, the other thicker apd
more opaque; and, feparatmg thefe two, you obtain
very beautiful qbjeCls.
To view the fcales of fifh to advantage, they ought
to be foaked in water for a few' days, and then care¬
fully rubbed to clean them from the Ikin and dirt
which may adhere to them. The fcales of the eel are
a great curiofity j and the more fo, as this creature
, was not known to have any fcales till they were difco¬
vered by the microfcope. The method of difeovering
them is this. Take a piece of the Ikin of an eel from
. off its fide, and fpread it while moift on a piece of
glafs, that it may dry very fmooth : w'hen thus dried,
the fur face will appear all over dimpled or pitted by
the fcales, w'hich lie under a fort of cuticle or thin
Ikin ; which may be raifed with the (harp point of a
penknife, together with the fcales, which will then
eafily flip out} and thus we may procure as many as
wre pleafe.
The leaves of many trees, as well as of fome plants,
when diflefted, form a very agreeable objedt. In or¬
der to diiTeft them, take a few of the moft perfedl
leaves you can find, and place them in a pan w ith clean
water. Let them remain there three wrecks, or a
month, without changing the water : then take them
up; and if they feel very foft, and almoft rotten, they *
are fufficiently foaked. They muft then be laid on a
flat board, and holding them by the ftalk, draw the
edge of a knife over the upper fide of the leaf, w'hich
wdll take off moft of the (kin. Then turn the leaf,
and do the fame with the. under fide -, and when the
(kin is taken off on both (ides, wadi out the pulpy
matter, and the fibres will be exhibited in a very
beautiful manner. The leaf may be flit into two
parts, by fplitting the ftalk ; and the (kins peeled
from the fibres wdll alio make a good objecl. This
operation is beft performed in the autumn ; the fibres
of the leaves are much ftronger at that feafon, and
lefs liable to be broken.—The internal ftrufture of
(hells may be obferved by grinding them dowm on a
hone : and all ores and minerals (hould be carefully
waflied and brufhed with a fmall brufh, to remove any
fordes that may adhere to them.
To view’ the circulation of the blood, we muft ob-.
ferve living animals of the moft tranfparent kind.—
A fmall eel is fometimes ufed for this purpofe; in
which cafe it muft be cleanfed from the (lime naturally
adhering to it ; after w'hich it may be put into a tube
filled with water, where it can be viewed in a fatis-
factory manner. The tail of any other fmall fi(h may
be viewed in the fame manner, or put upon a flip of
flat glafs, and thus laid befoie the miprofeope. By
filling the tube wdth w’ater when an eel is made ufe of,
Wfe
MIC [ 24 ] MIC
Microfcope.we prevent in a great rneafure the riiminefs of the
animal from foiling the glafs.
I he particles of the blood form a very curious ob-
je&, and have been carefully viewed by different phi-
lofophers; who, nevertheless, differ from one another
very much in their accounts of them. The bell:
method ol viewing thefe is to take a fmall drop of
blood when warm, and fpread it as thin as poiTible
upon a flat piece of glafs. By diluting it a little
with warm water, fome of the large globules will be
feparated from the fmaller, and many of them fubdivid-
ed ; or a fmall drop of blood may be put ifcto a ca¬
pillary glafs tube, and then placed before the micro-
fcope. Mr Baker advifes warm milk as proper to be
mixed with the blood j but Mr Hewffon, diluted the
blood with its owm ferum : and by this method he could
preferve the fmall particles entire, and view them di-
ifincfly 5 and thus he found that they wrere not globular,
as had been imagined by other anatomifls, but flat. Ha¬
ying fhaken a piece of the craffamentum of the blood
in lerum till the latter became a little coloured, he
fpread it with a foft hair pencil on a piece of thin glafs,
which he placed under the microfcope, in fuch a man¬
ner as not be quite horizontal, but rather higher
at one end than the other. Thus the ferum flows
from the higher to the lower part ; and, as it flows,
fome of the particles will be found to fwim on their
flat fides, and will appear to have a dark fpot in the
middle ; while others will turn over from one fide to
the other as they roll dowm the glafs. Many cruel
experiments have been tried in order to obferve the
circulation of the blood in living creatures, and an
apparatus has been invented for viewing the circula¬
tion in the mefentery of a frog ; but as this can an-
fwer .no ufeful purpofe, and will never be put in
praflice by perfons of humanity, wTe forbear to men¬
tion it.
< II. Befides the objects for the microfcope already
mentioned, there are innumerable others, fome hardly
vifible, and others totally invifible, to the naked eye j
and which therefore, in a more peculiar fenfe, are de¬
nominated
Microfcopic Animals. They are the animalcules or
moving bodies in water, in wdiich certain fubflances
have been infuled j and of which there are a great
many different kinds. Thefe animalcula are fometimes
found in water which we would call pure, did not the
microfcope difcover its minute inhabitants; but not
equally in all .kinds of water, or even in all parts of the
fame kind of it. The furfaces of infufions are general¬
ly covered with a fcum which is eafily broken, but ac¬
quires thicknefs by Handing. In this fcum the great-
ell number of animalcules are ufually found. Some¬
times it is neceffary to dilute the infufions; but this
ought always to be done with w-ater, not only diflill-
ed, but viewed through a microfcope, left it ftiould
alfo have animalcules in it, and thus prove a fource of
deception It is, hovyever, moft proper to obferve
thole minute objefts alter the water is a little evapo¬
rated ; the attention being lefs diverted by a few ob-
jeffs tuan when they appear in great number. One
or two of the animalcules nfay be feparated from the
reft by placing a fmall drop of water on the glafs near
th.w o, the mfufion ; join them together by making a
ima.l connexion between them with a pin j and as
2
foon as you perceive that an animalcule has entered the Microfcope.
clear drop, cut off the connexion again. '—
Eels in pafte are obtained by boiling a little flour
and water into the confidence of bookbinders pafte j
then expofing it to the air in an open veffel, and beat¬
ing it frequently together to keep the furface from
growing mouldy or hard. In a few days it wall be
found peopled with myriads of little animals vifible to
the naked eye, which are the eels in queftion. They
may be prelerved for a w:hole year by keeping the
pafte moiftened with water j and while this is done,
the motion of the animals will keep the furface from
growing mouldy. Mr Baker direcfts a drop or two
of vinegar to be put into the pafte now and then. •
When they are applied to the microfcrope, the pafte
mull be diluted in a piece of water for them to fwim
in
Numberlefs animalcules are obferved by the micro¬
fcope in infufions of pepper. To make an infufion for
this purpofe, bruife as much common black pepper as
will cover the bottom of an open jar, and lay it there¬
on about half an inch thick : pour as much foft water
into the veffel as will rile about an inch above the
pepper. Shake the whole well together : after which
they muff not be ftirred, but be left expofed to the
air for a few days ; in which time a thin pellicle will
be formed on the furface, in which innumerable ani¬
mals are to be obferved by the microfcope.
I he microfcopic animals are fo (jifferent from thofe
of the larger kinds, that fcarce any fort of analogy
feems to exift between them; and one wTould almolt
be tempted to think that they lived in confequence of
laws directly oppofite to thofe which preferve ourfelves
and other vifible animals in exiftence. They have
been fyftematically arranged by O. F. Muller ; though
it is by no means probable that all the different claffes
have yet been difcovered. Such as have been obferv¬
ed, however, are by this author divided in the following
manner:
I. Such as have .no external organs,
1. Monas: Pundtiforme. A mere point.
2. Proteus : Mutabilis. Mutable.
3. Volvox : Sphaericum. Spherical.
4. Enchelis : Cylindracea. Cylindrical.
5. Vibrio : Elongatum. Long.
* Membranaceous.
6. Cyclidium : Ovale. Oval.
7. Paramecium : Oblongum. Oblong.
8. Kolpoda : Sinuatum. Sinuous.
9. Gonium : Angulatum. With angles.
10. Burfaria. Hollow like a purfe.
II. Thofe that have external organs,
* Naked, or not enclofed in a thell.
1. Cercaria: Caudatum. With a tail.
2. Trichoda : Crinitum. Hairy.
3. Kerona : Corniculatum. With horns.
4. Himantopus: Cirratum. Cirrated.
5. Leucophra : Ciliatum undique. Every part cili¬
ated.
6. Vorticella : Ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated.
* Covered with a fhell.
7. Brachionus > Ciliatum apice. T he apex ciliated.
In
MIC [2
Mkrofcope. In the treatife on Helminthology under the fifth
1   ' order of the clafs vermes, viz. Infuforia, the genera
here enumerated have already been noticed according
to an arrangement fomewhat different, and a few of the
fpecies have been defcribed. For the fake of thofe
Tvho wifh to profecute microfcopical inquiries we fhall
introduce defcriptions of a few more, and particularly
thofe whofe habitats arc known.
I. Monas.
This is by our author defined to be “ an invifible
(to the naked eye), pellucid, fimple, punfliform
worm but of which, fmall as it is, there are feveral
fpecies.
The monas termo or gelatinofa, is a fmall jelly-
like point, which can be but imperfe&ly feen by the
fingle microfcope, and not at all by the compound one.
In a full light they totally difappear, by reafon of
their tranfparency. Some infufions are fo full of them
that fcarce the leaft empty fpace can be perceived j
the water itfelf appearing compofed of innumerable
globular points, in which a motion may be perceived
fomewhat fimilar to that which is obferved when the
fun’s rays {bine on the water; the whole multitude of
animals appearing in commotion like a hive of bees.
This animal is very common in ditch-water, and in
almoft all infufions either of animal or vegetable fub-
fiances.
Monas atomus or albida; white monas with a variable
point. This appears like a white point, which through
a high magnifier appears fomewhat egg-fhaped. The
fmaller end is generally marked with a black point,
the fituation of which is variable ; fometimes it ap¬
pears on the large end, and fometimes there are two
black fpots in the middle. This fpecies w’as found in
fea wrater, which had been kept through the whole
winter, but w-as not very fetid. No other kind of ani¬
malcule was found in it.
II. The Proteus.
An invifible, very fimple, pellucid worm, of a variable
form.
The tcnax, running out into a fine point/ This is a
pellucid gelatinous body, ftored with black molecules,
and likewife changing its figure, but in a more regular
order than the former. It firft extends itfelf in a
ftraight line, the lower part terminating in a bright
acute point. It appears to have no inteftines ; and
when the globules are all collected in the upper part,
it next draws the pointed end up toward the middle of
the body, which affumes a round form. It goes
through a number of different fhapes, part of which
are defcribed under the article Animalcule. It is
found in fome kinds of river water, and appears con--
fined almoft entirely to one place, only bending fide-
wife.
III. Vo/vox.
An invifible, very fimple, pellucid, fpherical worm.
The punBum ; of a black colour, with a lucid point.
This is a fmall globule, with one hemifphere opaque
and black, the other having a cryftalline appearance ;
and a vehement motion is obferved in the black part.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
5 1 MIC
It moves as on an axis, frequently palling through the Microfcope.
drop in this manner. Many are often feen joined to-' ‘
gether in their^paffage through the water j fometimes
moving as in a little whirlpool, and then feparating.
They are found in great numbers on the furface of
fetid fea water.
The globulus, with the hinder part fomewhat ob-
fcure, fometimes verges a little towards the oval in its
fliape, having a flow fluttering kind of motion, but
more quick when difturbed. The inteftines are but
juft vifible. It is found in moft vegetable infulions,
and is ten times larger than the monas lens.
The lunula, with lunular molecules, is a final?
roundiih tranfparent body, confifting of an innumerable
multitude of homogeneous molecules of the lhape of a
crefcent, without any common margin. It moves con¬
tinually in a twofold manner, viz. of the molecules
among one another, and the whole mafs turning flowly
round. It is found in marfliy places in the beginning of
fpring.
IV. Enchelis.
A fimple, invifible, cylindric worm.
The viridis, or green enchelis, has an obtufe tail,
the fore part terminating in an acute truncated angle ;
the inteftines are obfcure and indiftinft. It continual¬
ly varies its motion, turning from right to left.
The punSiifera, having the fore part obtufe, the
hinder part pointed. It is opaque, and of a green
colour, with a fmall pellucid fpot in the fore' part, in
which two black points may be feen •, and a kind of
double band crofi'es the middle of the body. The
hinder part is pellucid and pointed, with an incifion
fuppofed to be the mouth, at the apex of the fore
part. It is found in marlhes.
The papula, with the fore part papillary, is found in
dunghill water in November and December : it has a
rotatory motion on a longitudinal axis, and moves in an
oblique diredlion through the water. Both ends are
obtufe ; and the hinder part is marked with a tranf¬
parent circle, or circular aperture.
V. Vibrio:
A very fimple, invifible, round, and rather long worm.
The lineola is found in moft vegetable infufions in
fuch numbers, that it feems to fill up almoft the whole
of their fubftance. It is fo fmall, that with the bell
magnifiers we can difcern little more than an obfcure
tremulous motion among them. It is more {lender than
the monas terma.
The ferpens, with obtufe windings or flexures, is
found in river water, but feldom. It is (lender and ge¬
latinous, refembling a ferpentine line, with an inteftine
down the middle.
The fpirilium is exceedingly minute, and twilled in
a fpiral form, which feems to be its natural lhape as it
never untwifts itlelf, but moves forwrard in a ftraight
line, vibrating the hind and fore parts. It was found
in 1782 in an infufion of the fonchus arvenfis.
The vermiculus has a milky appearance, -with an ob¬
tufe apex, and a languid undulatory motion, like that of
the common worm. It is found in marftiy water in
D November
MIC [ 26 ]' MIC
Microfcope. November, but feldom. It is thought to be the animal
mentioned by Leeuwenhoeck as found in the dung of
the frog and fpawn of the male libellula.
The fagitta, with a fetaceous tail, has a long and
fle.xible body ; broadeft about the middle, and filled
there alfo with gray molecules; the fore part being
drawn out into a thin and tranfparent neck, and the
upper end thick and black. It is found in fait water,
and feems to move by contradling and ^extending its
«ieck.
veral globules, and has an oblique incifion a little belotv Microfcope.
the apex. w""'v
The ren, or crajfa, is found in ah infufion of hay,
commonly about 13 hours after the infufion is made,
and has a quick and vacillatory motion. Its body is yel¬
low, thick, and lomewhat opaque j curved a little in
the middle, fo that it refembles a kidney *, and full
of molecules. When the water in which it fwims is
about to fail, it takes an oval form, is compreffed, and
at laft burfts.
. VI. Cyclidium.
A fimple, invifible, flat, pellucid, orbicular or oval
worm.
The bulla, or orbicular bright cyclidium. This is
found occafionally in an infufion of hay. It is very
pellucid and white, but the edges fomewbat darker
than the reft. It moves flowly, and in a iemicircular
dir^&ion.
The millium is very pellucid, and fplendid like cry-
ftal j and of an elliptical figure, with a line through
the whole length of it. The motion is fwift, i iterrupt-
ed, and fluttering.
VII. Parcruzcium.
An invililale, membranaceous, flat, and pellucid worm.
The chryfalls is found in fait water, and differs very
little from the former, only the ends are more obtufe,
and the margins are filled with black globules.
The verfutum is found in ditches, and has an oblong,
green, and gelatinous body, filled with molecules ; the
lower part thicker than the other ; and both ends ob¬
tufe. It propagates by divifion.
VIII. Kolpoda.
An invifible, pellucid, flat, and crooked worm.
The lamella is very feldom met with. It refembles
a long, narrow, and pellucid membrane, with the hind
part obtufe, narrower, and curved towards the top. It
has a vacillatory and very Angular motion ; going upon
the fharp edge, not on the flat fide as is ufual with mi-
crofcopic animals.
The gallinula is found in fetid fait water ; and has
the apex fomewhat bent, the belly oval, convex, and
ftriated.
The roflrum is found, though feldom, in water
where the lemna grows -y and has a flow and horizontal
motion. The fore part is bent into a kind of hook j
the hind part obtuie, and quite filled with black mole¬
cules.
The triqueira was found in fait water, and appears
to confift of two membranes ; the upper fide flattened,
the lower convex, with the apex bent into a kind of
fhoulder.
The ajfimilis is found on the fea-coaft, and has an
elliptic mafs in the middle, but is not folded like the
former. The margin of the fore part is notched from
the top to the middle ; the lower part fwelis out, and
contrafts again into a fmall point.
The cucullulus is found in an infufion of the fonchus
arvenfis. It is very pellucid and cryftalline, with fe-
IX. Gaiiium.
An invifible, fimple, fmooth, and angular worm.
The pulvinatum is found in dunghills j and appear*
like a little quadrangular membrane, plain on both
fides 5 but with a large magnifier it appears like a
bolfter formed of three or four cylindric pillows funk
here and there.
The corrugatum is found in various kinds of infii-
fions j and is, fomewhat of a fquare fliape, very final!,
and in fome pofitions appears as ftreaked.
The truncatum is found chiefly in pure water, and
then but feldom. It has a languid motion, and is much
larger than the foregoing. The fore part is a ftraight
line, with which the fides form obtufe angles, the end
of the fides being united by a curved line. The inter¬
nal molecules are of a dark green, and there are two
little bright veficles in the middle.
X. Burfaria.
A very fimple, hollow, membranaceous worm.
The truncatella is vifible to the naked eye ; white,
oval, and truncated at the top, where there is a large
aperture defeending towards the bafe. Moft of them
have four or five yellow eggs, at the bottom. They
move from left to right, and from right to left; af-
cending to the furface in a ftraight line, and fometimes
rolling about while they defeend.
The bullina is pellucid and cryftalline, having fpleiv
did globules of different fizes fwimming about with it.
The under fide is convex, the upper hollowq with the
fore part forming a kind of lip.
The hirundinella has two fmall projecting wings,
vduch give it fomewhat of the appearance of a bird :
and it moves fomething like a fwallow. It is invifible
to the naked eye; but by the microfcope appears a
pellucid hollow membrane.
The duplella was found among duckweed, and ap¬
pears like a cryftalline membrane folded up, without
any vifible inteftines except a fmall congeries of points
under one of the folds.
XT. Cercaria.
An invifible tranfparent worm with a tail.
The gyrinus greatly refembles the fpermatic animal¬
cules. It has a white gelatinous body *, the fore part
fomewhat globular; the hind part round, long, and
pointed. Sometimes it appears a little compreffed on
each fide. When fwimming it keeps its tail in conti¬
nual vibration like a tadpole.
The gibba is found in the infufions of hay and other
vegetables;.
MIC £
Micracope. vegetables; and is fmall, opaque, gelatinous, white,
and without any vilible inteftines.
The inquieta is found in fait water, and is remarkable
for changing the (hape of its body : fometimes it ap.
pears fpherical, fomethnes like a long cylinder, and
fometimes oval. It is white and gelatinous, the tail fi¬
liform and flexible, the upper part vibrating violently.
A pellucid globule may be obferved at the bafe, and
two very fraall black points near the top.
1 he turbo, with a tail like a briftle, is found among
duckweed. It is of a talcy appearance, partly oval and
partly fpherjcal j and feems to be compoled of two glo¬
bular bodies, the lowermofl of which is the fmallefl,
and it has two little black points like eyes on the upper
part. The tail is fometimes ftraight, fometimes. turned
back on the body.
The poduria is found in November and December,
in marlliy places covered withfcJemna. It is pellucid \
and feems to confift of a head, trunk, and tail: the
head refembles that of a herring ; the trunk is ventri-
cofe and full of inteftines, of a fpiral form and black
colour. The tail moft commonly appears to be divided
into two briftles. The inteftines are in a continual mo¬
tion when the body moves, and by reafon of their va¬
rious {hades make it appear very rough. There are
likewife home hairs to be perceived. It turns round as
upon an axis when it moves.
The viridis is found in the fpring in ditches of Hand¬
ing water ; and in fome of its ftates has a confiderable
re emblance to the laft, but has a much greater pow’er
of changing its ihnps. It is naturally cylindrical, the
lower end iharp, and divided into two parts; but fome¬
times contracts the head and tail io as to aflame a fphe-
rical figure.
The fetifera is found in fait water, but feldom.
It is final!, the body rather opaque, and of a round fi¬
gure. The upper part is bright, and fmailer than the
reft: the trunk is more opaque j the tail fharp, and
near it a little row of ihort hairs. It has a flow rotato¬
ry motion.
The htrta was likewife found in fait water. It is
opaque and cylindrical; and when in motion, the body
appears to be furrounded with rows of finall hairs fepa-
rated from each other.
The pleuronecies is found in water which has been
kept for feveral months. It is membranaceous, round¬
ish, and white, with two blackiih points in the fore
part, the hinder part being furnilhed with a {lender
{harp tail. It has orbicular inteftines of different fizes
in the middle ; the larger of them bright. The mo¬
tion is vacillatory j and in fwimming it keeps one
edge of the lateral membrane upwards, the other folded
dowm.
The tripos is flat, pellucid, triangular, having each
angle of the bafe or fore part bent down into two linear
arms, the apex of the triangle prolonged into a tail. It
is found in fait water.
XII. Leucophra.
An invisible, pellucid, and ciliated worm.
The mamilla is of a dark colour, and filled with glo¬
bular molecu’e- ; ftiort hairs are curved inwards j and
it occasionally projetfs and draws in a little white pro¬
tuberance, It is pretty common in marfliy water.
27 ] MIC
ihe virefeens is a large, pear-fliaped, greenith-co-Microfrepe-
loured animalcule, filled with opaque molecules, and *
covered with Ihort hairs j generally moving in a ftraight
line. It is found in fait water.
The lurfata is found in fait water, and is fimilar in
many refpecls to the former. It is of a long oval ftiape,
bulging in the middle, and filled with green molecules,
everywhere ciliated except at the apex, which is trun¬
cated and Shaped fomewhat like a purfe 5 the hairs are
fometimes colledled into little fafcicles.
_ The pojlhuma is globular, and covered as it were
with a pellucid net; is found in fetid fait water.
^ T'AtJigaata is common in fait water in jthe months 06
November and December. It is oblong and fubdepref-
fed, wdth a black margin filled w-ith little molecules,
but more particularly diftinguifhed by a curved line in
the middle fomewhat in the Shape of the letter S ; one
end of which is fometimes bent into the form of a fmall
fpiral.
XIII. Trichoda.
An invifible, pellucid, hairy worm.
The gyrinus is one of the fmalleft of this genus, and
is found in fait water. It is fmpoth and free from hairs,
except at the fore part, where there are a few.
The nigra was found in fait w^ater, and has an opaque
body ; . but when at reft one fide appears pellucid.
When in violent motion, it feems entirely black.
d he is found in rvater wTtiere duckweed groxvs,
chiefly in the month of December. It has a bunch
above the hind part marked with black fpots, depreffed
towards the top, a little folded, and fomewhat convex
on the under part. The apex is furniftied with hairs,
but they are feldom visible till the creature is in the
agonies of death, when it extends and moves them ve¬
hemently, and attempting as it were to draw in the very
laft drop of water.
patens is found in fait water j and is of a long
cylindrical fliape, filled with molecules, the fore part
bright and clear, with a long opening near the top
which tapers to a point, and is befet with hairs.
r\iheJ}riata is found in the month of December in rx-
vei. water. It is a beautiful animalcule, of a fox colour.
It is of an oblong ftiape, the lower end fomewhat lar¬
ger than the other. It has a fet of ftreaks running
from one end to the other, and at the abdomen a
double row of little eggs lying in a tranfverfe di¬
rection.
The uvu/a is found in the infufion of hay and other
vegetables. It is fix times longer than broad, round,
flexuous, of an equal fize, the greater part filled with
obfeure molecules; the fore part rather empty, with
an alimentary canal and lucid globules near the middle.
The margin of the fore part is covered with Ihort
hairs.
The linter is found in air infufion of old grafs. It is
egg-fliaped, oblong, with both extremities raifed fo that
the bottom becomes convex, and the upper part de-
prefled like a boat : it is of different ftiapes at different
ages, and fometimes has a rotatory motion.
The paxillus is found in fait water ; and is long, full
of gray molecules ; the fore part truncated and hairy
and rather fmaller than the other.
The vermicularis is found in river water : and is pel-
2 lucid
MIC
MIC [ 2
Micrdicope.lucid in the fore part, with the hind part full of mole-
cults.
The mt/itcea is found in fait water, but very rarely.
It is oblong, ciliated, with a globular apex, a dilatable
neck, and a kind of periftaltic motion perceivable with¬
in it. .
The perillum is frequently found in marfhes. It is
cylindrical, pellucid, mufcular, and capable of being
folded up. It appears double j the interior part full of
molecules, with an orbicular mufcular appendage, which
it can open and Ihut, and which forms the mouth. The
external part is membranaceous, pellucid, dilated, and
marked with tranfverfe ftreaks *, and it can protrude or
draw in the orbicular membrane at pleafure. Some
have four articulations in the tail, others five ; and it
has two pairs of briftles, one placed at the fecond joint,
the other at the laft.
The delphis is found in river water. It is fmooth,
pellucid, having the fore part dilated into a femicircle,
gradually decreafing in breadth towards the tail. The
front is hairy, the hairs Handing as rays from the fe-
micircular edge : one of the edges is fometimes con-
Uadled.
The delphinus is found in hay that has been infufed
for fome months. It is pellucid, fmooth* and egg-lha-
ped j the hinder part terminating in a tail about half
the length of the body, dilated at the upper end, trun¬
cated, and always bent upwards. It moves fometimes
on its belly and fometimes on its fide.
The rojlrata is found in w'ater where duckwTeed has
been kept. It is depreffed, capable of changing its
fhape, yellow, with long ciliated hairs ; it has four feet
tapering to a point, one of them longer than the reft.
Both feet and hairs are within the margin. The ftiape
of the body is generally triangular ; the apex formed
into an obtufe beak, which the creature fometimes draws
in fo that it appears quite round.
The charon rvas found in fait water. It is oval, and
refembles a boat as well in its motion as fhape •, the up¬
per part is hollowed, the under part furrowed and eon-
vex j the ftern round, with feveral hairs proceeding
from it.
XIV. Kerona.
An invifible worm with horns.
The raftellum is found in river ivater. It has three
rows of horns on the back, which occupy almoft the
whole of it.
The cypris is found in wTater covered with lemna.
It is fomewhat of a pear ftiape, compreffed, with a
broad and blunt fore part j the front furniftied with
hairs, or little vibrating points inferted under the edge,
fhorter in the hind part, partly extended ftraight, and
partly bent down, having a retrograde motion.
The calvitium is found in the infufion of vegetables.
The body is broad and flat, both fides obtufe, filled
with black molecules, and there is a black fpot near
the hinder part, where there are likewife a few ftiort
briftles.
The puftulata is found in fait wrater. It is oval, con¬
vex one edge of the hinder part finuated, both ends
{et with hairs, and fome horns on the fore part.
8 ]
XV. Hitnantopus.
A pellucid, invifible, and cirrated worm.
Microfcope.
The acarus is lively, conical, ventricofe, full of
black molecules, with a bright and tranfparent fore
part. The lower part of the apex has rows of long
hairs on the under part fet like rays. Four locks of
long crooked hair or feet proceed from the belly, and
it is continually moving thefe and other hairs in various
directions.
The /udio is a lively diverting animalcule, fmooth,
pellucid, full of fmall points, the fore part clubbed and
a little bent, the hinder part narrow ; the bafe oblique¬
ly truncated, and terminating in a tail ftretched out
tranfverfely. The top of the head and middle of the
back are furniftied with long and vibrating hairs 5 three
moveable and flexible curls hang down from the fide
of the head at a diftance from each other. When the
creature is at reft, its tail is curled ; but when in mo¬
tion, it is drawm tight and extended upwards.
The fannia is found, though feldom, in water where
the lemna growTs._ The cilia are longer than the hairs,
and are continually vibrating : it has twro moveable
curls hanging on the fide of the head.
The charon is found in fea water, but rarely. It is
oval, pellucid, and membranous, with longitudinal fur-
tows and feveral bent diverging rows of hair below the
middle, but none on the hinder part.
XVI. Vorticella.
A naked worm with rotatory cilia, capable of contract¬
ing and extending itfelf.
The lunifera is found in fait water j has the fore part
obtufe, the bafe broad, and hollowed away like a crel-
cent, with a ftiort protuberance in the middle of the
concave part : the fore part is ciliated.
The burfata is found in fait water, and is ventri¬
cofe, crammed wdth molecules; the fore part truncat¬
ed, and both fides of it pellucid : there is a prominent
papilla in the middle, which when the animalcule is at
fell appears notched, the edge of the aperture being
ciliated 5 the hairs are capable of moving in various di-
reCHons.
The fputarium is found in OClober, with the lefler
lemna, and is one of the moft Angular of the microfco-
pic animalcules. When viewed fidewife, it is fometimes
nearly cylindrical, only tapering a little towards the
hinder part, and having a broad pellucid edge. Viewed
from the top, it has fometimes a broad face or dilk,
furniftied with radiating hairs, the under part contract¬
ed into a globular ftiape, of a dark green colour, and
filled with fmall grains.
The multiformis is found in fait water, and very much
refemblei the former.
The nigra is found in Auguft in meadows covered
with w^ater. It may be feen with the naked eye, ap¬
pearing like a black point fwimming on the furface.
Through the microfcope it appears as a fmall conical
body, obtufe and ventricofe at one end, and acute at
the other. When the extremities are extended, two
fmall white hooks become vifibl > y the afliltance of
which.
M 1 C
t 29 ]
M I C
Microfcope. vvliicli it moves in the water, and it probably has a ro-
tatory organ : it moves continually in a vacillating
manner on the top of the water.
The ocreata is met with in rivers, though very fel-
dom, and in (hape fomewhat refembles the lower part
of a boot. The apex of the upper part is truncated and
ciliated, the heel pointed, and the foot round.
The valga is as broad as long, and the apex trunca¬
ted and ciliated j both angles of the bafe projecting
outwards, one fomewhat like a wrart, the other like a
finger. It is found in marlhy waters.
The papillaris is likewife found in marthes where the
conlerva nitida grow'S. It is ventricofe ; the fore part
truncated, with a papillary tail, and a beautiful papil¬
lary excrefcence on the fide.
The cratiTgaria is found in the month of April, both
in the mud and on the tail of the monoculus quadricor-
nis. They are generally heaped together in a fpherical
form, and united to one common ftalk. They are like-
wdfe often to be found without a pedicle, the body ra¬
ther contrafted, the aperture circular, and furrounded
with a marked margin. It has two finall arms ; and
with a powerful magnifier a violent rotatory motion may
be obferved. Sometimes an individual will feparate
from the community, and move in a kind of fpiral line
for a little time, and then go back to the reft.
The rotatoria is the wheel animal defcribed by Mr
Baker 5 and of which an account is given under the ar¬
ticle Animalcule.
The furcata is commonly found in water, and has
a cylindric body with a rotatory organ, confifting of a
row of hairs at the apex : the tail is divided into two
parts, turning a little inwards. When at reft it joins
the fegments of the tail, but opens them w’hen in mo¬
tion.
The citrina is found in ftagnant water j the head
full of molecules, round, everywhere of an equal fize,
and very tranfparent. Both fides of the orifice are ci¬
liated, and each has a rotatory motion appearing fome-
times without and fometimes wdthin the edge of the
mouth. *
The convallaria is the fame with the bell-animal
mentioned by Mr Baker. See the article Animal¬
cule.
The acinofa inhabits that whitifh fubftance which of¬
ten entirely covers plants, wmod, fliells, &c. When
this fubftance is examined by a microfcope, it appears
to be wholly compofed of living animals of the polype
kind. See Polype.
The pyraria.
The anajlatica. V See the article Polype.
The digitalis. J
XVII. Brachionus.
A contraClile worm, covered wdth a ftiell, and furnilhed
with rotatory cilia.
The patella is found in marlhy water in the winter¬
time. It is univalve, the (hell oval, plain, cryftal-
iine, wdth the anterior part terminating in two acute
points on both fides, though the intervening fpace is
commonly filled up with the head of the animal. By
thefe points it fallens itfelf, and whirls about the body
eretl. The rotatory cilia are perceived with great dif¬
ficulty.
To what has been already faid on this fubjeCl, under Micrcfcopt.
the article Animalcule, we lhall here add the follow-  '
ing obfervations from Mr Adams.—44 How many kinds
of thefe invifibles there may be (fays he), is yet un¬
known ; as they are difcerned of all fizes, from thofe
which are barely invifible to the naked eye, to fuch as
refill the force of the microfcope as the fixed liars do
that of the telefcope, and with the greateft powers hi¬
therto invented appear only as fo many moving points.
The fmalleft living creatures our inftruments can Ihow,
are thofe which inhabit the waters ; for though animal-
cula equally minute may fly in the air, or creep upon
the earth, it is fcarcely poftible to get a view of them *,
but as w'ater is tranlparent, by confining the creatures
within it we can eafily oblerve them by applying a drop
of it to the glafies.
“ Animalcules in general are obferved to move in
all directions with equal eafe and rapidity, fometimes
obliquely, fometimes llraight forward ; fometimes mov¬
ing in a circular diredion, or rolling upon one another,
running backwards and forwards through the whole ex¬
tent of the drop, as if diverting themfelyes ; at other
times greedily attacking the little parcels of matter they
meet with. Notwithftanding their extreme minutenefs,
they know7 how to avoid obilacles, or to prevent any in¬
terference with one another in their motions : fometimes
they will fuddenly change the direClion in which they
move, and take an oppofite one ; and, by inclining the
glafs on which the drop of water is, as it can be made
to move in any direflion, fo the animalcules appear to
move as eafily againft the ftream as with it. When the
water begins to evaporate, they flock towards the place
where the fluid is, and ihow a great anxiety and un¬
common agitation of the organs with which they drawT
in the water. Thefe motions grow languid as the wa¬
ter fails, and at laft ceafe altogether, without a poflibi-
lity of renewal if they be left dry for a ftrort time.
They fuftain a great degree of cold as well as infedls,
and will periih in much the fame degree of heat that
deftroys infects. Some animalcules are produced in w-a-
ter at the freezing point, and fome infedls live in fnow.
—By mixing the leaft drop of urine with the water in
which they fwim, they inftantly fall into convulfions
and die.
“ The fame rule feems to hold good in thofe minute
creatures, which is obfervable in the larger animals,
viz. that the larger kinds are lefs numerous than fuch
as are fmaller, while the fmalleft of all are found in
fuch multitudes, that there feem to be myriads for one
of the others. They increafe in-fize, like other animals,
from their birth until they have attained their full
growth ; and when deprived of proper nourifhment,
they in like manner grow thin and periih.”
The modes of propagation among thefe animalcules
are various, and the obfervation of them is extremely
curious. Some multiply by a tranfverfe divifion, as is
obferved under the article Animalcule : and it is re¬
markable, that though in general they avoid one an¬
other, it is not uncommon, when one is nearly divided,
to fee another pulh itfelf upon the fmall neck which
joins the two bodies in order to accelerate the fepara-
tion.—Others, when about to multiply, fix themfelves
to the bottom of the water ; then becoming firft ob¬
long, and afterwards round, turn rapidly as on a centre,
but perpetually varying the diredlion of their rotatory
motion. .
MIC [ 30 1 MIC
jVT\ rofcope. motion. In, a little time, two lines forming a crofs they adhere, and magnified by the microfcope. TheMicrofcope*
  v—~ are perceived ; after which the fpherule divides into ftrong ground-work vifible in many places Ihows '
four, which grow, and are again divided as before, the gum by which they are faftened together j
A third kind multiply by a longitudinal divifion, which and this connexion is llrengthened by a very te-
iu feme begins in the fore part, in others in the hind nacious fubftance interpofed between the eggs, and
part ; and from others a fmall fragment detaches it- filling up the vacant fpaces. Fig. 34. fhows a vertical
feif, which in a (hort time afl'umes the fhape of the fe&ion of the eggs, exhibiting their oval (hape.—
parent animalcule. Laftly, others propagate in the Fig. 35. is an horizontal feftion through the middle
fame manner as the more perfedl animals. of the egg.' Thefe eggs make a beautiful appearance
In our obfervations under the article ANIMALCULE, through the microfcope. The fmall figures re-
we fuggetted fome doubts whether all thofe minute bo- prefent the objects in their natural ftate, without being
dies which go under the name of animalcules really do ihagnified.
enjoy animal life; or whether they are not in many Fig. 36. {hows the larva of the tnufca chameleon, an
cafes to be accounted only inanimate and exceedingly aquatic infedl. When viewed by the naked eye, it ap-
minute points of matter actuated by the internal motion pears (hs here reprefented ) to be compofed of twelve
of the fluid. This has alfo been the opinion of others: annular divifions, feparating it into an head, thorax,
but to all hypothefes of this kind Mr Adams makes and abdomen ; but it is not eafy to diftinguiflr the two
the following reply : “ From what has been faid, it laft parts from each other, as the inteftines lie equally
clearly appears, that their motions are not purely me- both in the thorax and abdomen. The tail is furnifhed
chanical, but are produced by an internal fpontaneous with a fine crown or circle of hair b, difpofed in the
principle ; and that they muft therefore be placed form of a ring, and by this means it is fupported on
among the clafs of living animals, for they pofTefs the the furface of the w7ater, the head and body hanging
ftrongeU marks and the moft decided charafters of ani- down towards the bottom, in which poflure it will
mation ; and, confequently, that there is no foundation fometimes remain for a confiderable time without any
for the fuppofition of a chaotic and neutral kingdom, motion.—When it has a mind to fink to the bottom, it
which can only have derived its origin from a very clofes the hairs of the ring, as in fig. 37. Thus an hol-
tranfient and fuperficial view of thefe animalcules.—It low fpace is formed, including a fmall bubble of air j
may alfo be further obferved, that as we fee that the by enlarging or diminilhing which, it can rife or fink
motions of the limbs, &c. of the larger animals, are in the water at pleafure. When the bubble efcapes, the
produced by the mechanical ccnflruilion of the body, infe£t can replace it from the pulmonary tubes, nnd
and the aftion of the foul thereon, and are forced by fometimes confiderable quantities of air may be feen
the ocular demonitration which arifes from anatomical to efcape from the tail of the worm into the common
dilie&ion to acknowledge this mechanifm which is a- atmofphere j which operation may eafily be obferved
dapted to produce the various motions neceffary to the when the worm is placed in a glafs of water, and af-
animal ; and as, when we have recourfe to the micro- fords an entertaining fpeclacle. The fnout of this in-
fcope, we find thofe pieces which had appeared to the fe6t is divided into three parts, of which that in the
naked eye as the primary mechanical caufes of particu- middle is immoveable ; the other two, which grow
lar motions, to confifi: themfelves of lefier parts, which from the fides of the middle one, are moveable, and
are the haufes of motion, extenfion, &c. in the larger $ vibrate like the tongues of lizards or ferpents. In thefe
when the ftru£ture therefore can be traced no farther lateral parts lies moft of the creature’s ftrength •, for it
by the eye, or by the'glaffes, we have no right to con- walks upon them when out of the water, appearing to
elude that the parts which are invifible are not equally walk on its mouth, and to ufe it as the parrot does its
the fubjedt of mechanifm : for this would be only to af- beak to aflift it in climbing.
fert, in other words, that a thing may exift becaufe we The larva is Ihown, fig. 38. as it appears through a
fee and feel it, and have no exiftence when it is not the microfcope. It growrs narrower towards the head, is
objedl of our feufes.—The fame train of reafoning may largeft about that part which we may call the thorax,
be applied to microfcopic infedts and animalcula : w7e converges all along the abdomen, and terminates at
fee them move •, but becaufe the mufcles and members length in a {harp tail furrounded with hairs, as has al-
which occafion thefe motions are invifible, {hall vve in- ready been mentioned. The twelve annular divifions
fer that they have not mufcles, with organs appropri- are now extremely vifible, and are marked by numbers
ated to the motion of the whole and its parts ? To fay in the plate. The {kin appears fomewhat hard, and
that they exift not becaufe we cannot perceive them, refembling {hagreen, being thick fet with grains pret-
would not be a rational conclufion. Our fenfes are ty equally diftributed. It has nine holes, or fpiracula,
indeed given us that we may comprehend fome effedls; probably for the purpofe of breathing, on each fide j
but Chen we have alfo a mind, with reaibn, beftowed but it has none of thefe on the tail divifion a, nor any
upon iis, that, from the things which we do perceive eafily vifible on the third from the head. In the lat-
with our fenfes, we may deduce the nature of thofe ter, indeed, it has fome very fmall holes concealed un-
caufes and effe&s which are imperceptible to the cor- der the Ikin, near the place where the embryo wings
poreal eye.” of the future fly are hid. “ It is remarkable (fays Mr
Leaving thefe /peculations, however, vve {hall now Adams) that caterpillars, in general, have two* rings
proceed to give a particular without thefe fpiracula, perhaps becaufe they change
Explanation oj the figures of the various animals, into flies with four wings, whereas this worm produces
'ivith their parts, ova, <&c. reprefented in the plates. a fly with only two.” The {kin of the larva is adorn-
Plate Fig. 32. 33. reprefent the eggs of the phalsena ed with oblong black furrows, fpots of alight colour,
CCCXLII. neuftria, as they are taken from the tree to which and orbicular rings, from which there generally fprings
3 ' ‘ a
MIC
[ 3i ]
M I C
Microicope. a liair 5 but Only thofe hairs which grow on the infeft’s
■’ fides are reprefented in the figure. There are alfo fome
larger hairs here and there, asatrc. The difference
of colour, however, in. this worm arifes only from the
quantity of grains in the fame fpace $ for where they
are in very great numbers, the furrows dre darker, and
paler where they are lefs plentiful.
The head d is divided into three parts, and covered
with a 1km which has hardly any difcernible grains.—
The eyes are rather protuberant, and lie near the fnout j
on which laft are tvvofmall horns at ii. It is crooked,
and ends in a (harp point as at f. The legs are placed
near the fnout between the finufes in which the eves
are fixed. Each of thefe legs confifts of three joints,
the outerraoft of which is covered with ffiff hairs like
briftleS £■ From the next joint there fprings a horny
bone h h, ufed by the infect as a kind of thumb : the
joint is.alfo compofed of a black fubftance of an inter¬
mediate hardnefs between bone and horn; and the third
joint is of the fame nature. In order to diftinguilh
thefe parts, thofe that form the upper fides of the mouth
and eyes muff be feparated by means of a fmali knife ;
after ^vhich, by the affidance of the microfcope, we
may perceive that the leg is articulated by fome parti¬
cular ligaments, with the portion of the infe&’s mouth
which anfwers to the lower jaw in the human frame.
We may then alfo difcern the mufcles which ferve to
move the legs, and draw them up into a cavity that
lies between the fnout and thofe parts of the mouth
which are near the horns i i. The infedl walks upon
tail anfwers the double purpofe of fwimming and breath* Microfcope•
ing, and through it the infeft receives what is the prin- v  
ciple of life and motion to all animals. By means of
thefe hairs alfo it can flop its motion when fwimming,
and remain fufpended quietly without motion for any
length of time. Its motions in fwimming are very
beautiful, efpecially when it advances with its whole
body floating on the furface of the water after filling
itfelf with air by the tail.—To fet out, it firft bends
the body to the right or left, and then contraffs it
in the form of the letter S, and again ftretches it out
in a ftraight line : by thus contradling and then ex¬
tending the body alternately, it moves on the furface
of the water. It is very quiet, and is not diflurbed by
handling.
Thefe creatures are commonly found in (hallow
(landing waters in the beginning of June : but fome
years much more plentifully than others. They crawl
on the grafs and other plants which grow in fuch wa¬
ters, and are often met with in ditches floating on the
furface of the winter by means of their tail, the head
and thorax at the fame time hanging down ; and in
this pofture they turn over the clay and dirt with their
fnout and feet in fearch of food, which is commonly
a vifcous matter met with in fmall ponds and ditches.
It is very harmlefs, though its appearance would feem
to indicate the contrary. It is moft eafily killed for
difleflion by fpirit of turpentine.
Fig. 39. (hows in its natural fize a beautiful infefl,
defcribed by Linnaeus under the name of Leucopjis dor-
thefe legs, not only in the water, but on the land alfo. Jtgera, and which appears to be a kind of iutermedi-
It likevvife makes ufe of them in f.vimming, keeping its ate genus between a fpbex and a wafp. The antennce
tail on the furface contiguous to the air, and hanging are black and cylindrical, increafing in thicknefs to-
downward with the red of the body in the water. In wards the extremity ; the joint neareft the head is
this fituation, the only perceptible motion it has is in
its l$gs, which it moves in a mbfl elegant manner, from
whence it is reafonable to conclude, that the moft of
this creature’s (Length lies in its legs, as we have al¬
ready obferved.
The fnout of this larva is black and hard ; the back
part quite folid, and fomewhat of a globular form ; the
yellow; the head and thorax are black, encompaffed
with a yellow line, and furnilhed with a crofs line of the
fame colour near the head. The fcutellum is yellow,
the abdomen black, with two yellow bands, and a
deep fpot of the fame colour on each fide between the
bands, A deep polilhed groove extends down the
back from the thorax to the anus, into which the
front yiharp and hollow. Three membranaceous di- fling turns and is depofited, leaving the anus very cir-
viuons may be perceived on the back part; by means cular ; a yellow line runs on each fide of the fling.—
of which, and the mufcles .contained in the fnout, the The anus and whole body, when viewed with a (mall
creature can contract or expand it at pleafure. magnifier, appear pumfluated ; but when thefe points
The extremity of the tail is furroanded with thirty are feen through a large magnifier, they appear hexa-
hairs, and the fides adorned with others that are fmall- gonal. Fig. 40. (hews the infeed very much magni-
er ; and here and there the large hairs branch out into iied. Fig. 41. gives a fide view of it magnified in a
fmaller ones, which may be reckoned lingle hairs. All fmailer degree.
thefe have their roots in the outer (kin, which in this Fjg, '42. (hows an infetd lately difeovered by Mr
place is covered with rough grains, as may be obferv-
ed by cutting it off and holding it again:! the light
upon a flip of glafs. Thus alfo we find, that at the ex¬
tremities of the hairs there are grains like thofe on the
(kin; and in the middle of the tail there is a fmall open¬
ing, within which are minute holes, by which the infeed
John Adams of Edmonton, as he happened to be at
an inn. It was firft feen by fome labouring people
who were there a: the time, by whom it was conjec¬
tured to be a loufe with unufually long horns, a mite,
&c. Mr Adams hearing the debate, procured the
infetd ; and having viewed it through a microfcope, it
takes in and lets out the air it breathes. Thefe hairs, prefented the appearance exhibited in fig. 42. The Plate
however, are feldom difpofed in fuch a regular order as infect feems to be quite diftimd from the phalangium CCCXLIIL
is reprefented in fi<j. 38. unlefs when the infed floats cancroides of Linnaeus. The latter has been deferibed
with the body in the water, and the tail with its hairs a by feveral authors, but none of their defcriptions agree
little lower than the furface, in which cafe they are dif- with this. The abdomen of this infe<d is more ex-
pofed exadly in the order delineated in the plate. The tended, the claws larger, and much more obtufe ; the
lead motion of the tail downward produces a concavity body of the other being nearly orbicular, the claw*
in the water ; and it then affumes the figure of a wine (lender, and almoft terminating in a point, more tranf-
ghfs, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom. The parent, and of a paler colour. Mr Marfham has one
MIC [5
cfcope In 15.s- polTefllcn not to be diftingulHied from that re-
prefented in fig. 42. excepting only that it wants the
break, or dent in the claws, which is fo confpicucus
in this. He found that iniedl firmly fixed by its claws
to the thigh of a large fly, which he caught on a
flower in EfTex in the firft week of Auguft, and from
which he could not difengage it without great difficul¬
ty, and tearing off the leg of the fly. This was done
upon a. piece of writing paper j and he was furprifed
to fee the little creature fpring forward a quarter of
an inch, and again feize the thigh with its claws, fo
that he had great difficulty in difengaging it. The na-
■ tural fize of this creature, which Mr Adams calls the
lobfler-infeB, is exhibited at a.
Fig. 43. fliows the infedl named by M. de Geer
Phyfapus, on account of the bladders at its feet,
.(Thrifts phtjfapus, Lin.) This infect is to be found in
great plenty upon the flowers of dandelion, Sic. in
the fpring and fummer. It has four wings, two up¬
per and two under ones (reprefented fig'. 44.) but
the two un derm oft are not to be perceived without
great difficulty. They are very long ; and fixed to the
upper part of the bread, lying horizontally. Both of
them are rather pointed towards the edges, and have
a flrong nerve running round them, which is fet with
a hair fringe tufted at the extremity. The colour of
thefe wings is whitifh : the body of the infeft is black ;
the head fmall, with two large reticular eyes. The an¬
tennae are of an equal fize throughout, and divided in¬
to fix oval pieces, which are articulated together. 
The extremities of the feet are furnilhed with a mem¬
branaceous and flexible bladder, which it can throw
out or draw in at pleafure. It prefles this bladder
againft the fubfxances on which it walks, and thus
feems to fix itfelf to them j the bladder fometimes
appears concave towards the bottom, the concavity
diminifliing as it is lefs preffed. The infedt is reprefent¬
ed of its natural fize at b.
Fig. 45. reprefents the CimexJiriatus of Linnaeus,
remarkable for very bright and elegantly difpoled
colours, though few in number. The head, pro-
bofeis, and thorax, are black : the thora* orna¬
mented with yellow fpots ; the. middle one large,
and occupying almofl; one third of the pofterior part j
the other two are on each fide, and triangular.
Ihe fcutellum has two yellow oblong fpots, pointed
at each end. The ground of the elytra is a bright
yellow ; fpotted and ftriped with black. The nerves
are yellow ; and there is a brilliant triangular fpot of
orange, which unites the cruflaceous and membrana¬
ceous parts; the latter are brown, and clouded. It is
found in the elm tree in June. It is reprefented of its
natural fiz'E at c.
Fig. 46. fhows the chryfomela afparagi of Linnceus,
fo called from the larva of the infedb feeding upon that
plant. It is a common infedt, and very beautiful. It
is of an oblong figure, with black antennae, compofed
of many joints, nearly oval, The head is a deep and
bright blue •, the thorax red and cylindrical: the elytra
are blue, with a yellow margin, and having three fpots
of the fame colour on each 5 one at the bafe, of an
oblong form, and two united with the margin : the
legs are black j but the under fide of the belly is of
the fame blue colour with the: elytra and head.’ This
littie animal, when viewed by the naked eye, fcarcely
2 ] MIC
appears to deferve any otice ; but when examined by M:crofcope
the microfcope, is one of the moil pleafing opaqm ub- ' 
jedis we have. It is found in June on th-e ai’paiagus
after it has run to feed; and it is fiiown of its natural
fize at d. De Geer fays that it is very fcarce in
Sweden.
, Fig. 47. fhows an infedl of a fhape fo remarkable,
that nr iuralifts have been at a lofs to determine the
genus to which it belongs. In the Fauna Suecica,
-L.innaeus makes it an attelabus : but in the lafl edition
of the Syftema Naturae, it is ranged as a meloe, un¬
der the title of the Meloe moncceros ; though of this
alfo there feems to be feme doubt. The true’figure of
it can only be dffcovered by a very good micrcfcope.
f he bead is black, and appears to be hid or buried
under the thorax, which projedfs forward like a horn :
the antennae are compofed of many joints, and are of
a dirty yellow colour, as well as the feet : the hinder
part of the thorax is reddifh, the fore part black 
The elytra are yellow, with a black longitudinal line
down the future ; there is a band of the fame colour
near the apex, and alfo a black point near the bafe, the
whole animal being curioufly covered with hair. The
natural bze of it is fhown at e. It was found in
May. Geoffrey fays that it lives upon umbelliferous
plants. <
Fjg* 43—57. exhibit the anatomy of the coffus ca¬
terpillar, which lives on the willow. The egg from
which it proceeds is attached to the trunk of the
tree by a kind of vifeous juice, which foon becomes
fi> hard that the ram cannot difiolve it. Tlje egg it¬
felf is very fmall and fpheroidical, and, when examined
by the microfcope, appears to have broad waving fur¬
rows running through the whole length of it, which are
again crofied by clofe ftreaks, giving it the appearance
of a wicker balket. It is not exadlly known what
time they are hatched ; but as the fmall caterpillars
appear in September, it is probable that the eggs are
hatched fome time in Auguff. When fmall, they are
generally met with under the bark of the tree to which
the eggs were afhxed ; and an aqueous moiflure, oozing
from the hole through which they got under the bark5
is frequently, though not always, a dire&ion for find¬
ing them. Thefe caterpillars change their colour but
very little, being nearly the fame when young as wffien
old. Like many others, they are capable of fpinning
as foon as they come from the egg. They alfo change
their Ikin feveral times ; but as it is almofl; impoffible
to rear them under a glafs, fo it is very difficult to
know exadly how often this moulting takes place. 
Mr Adams conjectures that it is more frequently than
the generality of caterpillars do, fome having been
obferved to change more than nine times.
The coffus generally fafts for fome days previous to
the moulting ; during which time the flefliy and other
interior parts of the head are detached from the old
flcull, and retire as it were within the neck. The new
coverings foon grow on, but are at firft very foft.—.
■When the new Ikin and the other parts are formed,
the old Ikin is to be opened, and ail the members with¬
drawn from it ; an operation naturally difficult, but
which muft be rendered more fo from the foft and weak
ft ate of the creature at that time. It is always much
larger after each change.
From Mr Lyonet’s experiments, it appears, that the
coffus
MIC [ 33
Microfcope. coflus generally paffes at leaft two winters, if not three,
' v ' before it affumes the pupa ftate. At the approach of
winter, it forms a little cafe, the infide of which is
lined with filk, and the outfide covered with wood
ground like very fine faw-dulf. During the whole fea-
fon it neither moves nor eats.
This caterpillar, at its firlt appearance, is not above
one-twelfth of an inch long; but at laft attains the
length of two, and fometimes of three inches. In the
month of May it prepares for the pupa ftate ; the find:
care being to find a hole in the tree fufficient to allow
the moth to blue forth ; and if this cannot be found,
it makes one equal in fize to the future pupa. It then
begins to form of wood a cafe or cone ; uniting the
bits, which are very thin, together by filk, into the
form of an ellipfoid, the outfide being formed of fmall
bits of wood joined together in all direffions; taking
care, however, that the pointed end of the cafe may
always be oppofite to the mouth of the hole : having
finilhed the outfide of the cafe, it lines the infide with
a filken tapedry of a clofe texture in all its parts, ex¬
cept the pointed end, where the texture is loofer, in
order to facilitate its efcape at the proper time. The
caterpillar then places itfelf in fuch a pofiure, that the
head may always lie towards the opening of the hole
in the tree or pointed end of its cafe. Thus it re-
. mains at reft for forne time : the colour of the fkin firft
becomes pale, and afterwards brown; the interior
parts of the head are detached from the fkull ; the
tegs withdraw themfelves from the exterior cafe ; the
body fiiortens; the pofterior part grows fmall, wdiile
the anterior part fwells fo much, that the Ikin at laft
burfts : and, by a variety of motions, is puftied down
to the tail ; and thus the pupa is exhibited, in which
the parts of the future moth may be eafily traced.—
The covering of the pupa, though at firft foft,
humid, and white, foon dries and hardens, and be¬
comes of a dark purple colour ; the pofterior part
is moveable; but not the fore part, which contains
the rudiments of the head, legs, and wings. The
fore-part of the pupa is furnifhed with two horns,
one above and the other under the eyes. It has alfo
feveral rows of points on its back. It remains for
feme weeks in the cafe ; after which the moth begins
to agitate itfelf, and the points are then of efiential
Service, by adling as a fulcrum, upon which it may reft
in its endeavours to proceed forward, and not flip back
by its efforts for that purpofe.
T he moth generally continues its endeavours to open
the cafe for a quarter of an hour ; after which, by re¬
doubled efforts, it enlarges the hole, and preffes for¬
ward until it arrives at the edge, where it makes a full
flop, left by advancing further it fiiould fall to the
ground. After having in this manner repofed itfelf
Jor fome time, it begins to difengage. itfelf entirely ;
and having refted for fome hours with its head upwards,
it becomes fit for adlion. Mr Marlham fays, that it
generally pufties one third of the cafe out of the hole
before it halts.
The body of the caterpillar is divided into twelve
rings, marked I, 2, 3, &c. as reprefented in fig. 48,
49>_ 5°r 5l- each °f which is diftinguilhed from that
which precedes, and that which follows, by a kind of
neck or hollow ; and, by forming boundaries to the
rings, we make twelve other divifions, likevvife expref-
Vol. XIV. Part I.
] MIC
fed in the figures ; but to the firft of thefe the word Microfcopk
ring is affixed, and to the fecond, divijion. To facili-  —'
tate the defeription of this animal, M. Lyonet fuppofed
a line to pafs down through the middle of the back,
which he called the fuperior line, becaufe it marked
the moft elevated part of the back of the caterpillar ;
and another, paffing from the head down the belly to
the tail, he called the inferior line.
All caterpillars have a fmall organ, refembling an
elliptic fpot, on the right and left of each ring, ex¬
cepting the fecond, third, and laft ; and by thefe we
are furniffied with a further fubdivifion of this caterpil¬
lar, viz. by lines paffing through the fpiracula, the one
on the right fide, the other on the left of the caterpil¬
lar. Thefe four lines, which divide the caterpillar
longitudinally into four equal parts, mark each the
place under the Ikin which is occupied by a confider-
able vifeus. Under the fuperior line lies the heart, or
rather thread of hearts ; over the inferior line, the fpi-
nal marrow ; and the two tracheal arteries follow the
courfe of the lateral lines. At equal diftances from
the fuperior and two lateral lines, ive may fuppofe
four intermediate lines. The two between the fupe¬
rior and lateral lines are called the intermediate fupe¬
rior ; the two others oppofite to them, and between
the lateral and inferior lines, are called the intermediate
inferior.
Fig. 48, 49. fliow the mufcles of the caterpillar, ar¬
ranged with the moft wonderful fymmetry and order,
efpecially when taken off by equal ftrata on both fides,
which exhibits an aftonilhing and exaft form and cor-
refpondence in them. The figures fhow the mufcles
of two different caterpillars opened at the belly, and
fuppofed to be joined together at the fuperior lines.
The mufcles of the back are marked by capitals; the
gaftric mufcles by Roman letters ; the lateral ones by-
Greek chara&ers. Thofe marked t are called, by M.
Lyonet, dividing mufcles, on account of their fitua-
tion.
The caterpillar was prepared for diffeftion by being
emptied, and the mufcles, nerves, &c. freed from the
fat in the manner formerly directed ; after which the
following obfervations were made.
T he mufcle A in the firft ring is double ; the ante¬
rior one being thick at top, and being apparently di¬
vided into different mufcles on the upper fide, but
without any appearance of this kind on the under fide.
One infertion is at the Ikin of the neck towards the
head ; the other is a little above ; and that of the fe¬
cond mufcle A is a little below the firft fpiraculum,
near which they are fixed to the fkin.
The mufcle marked * is long and flender, fixed bv
its anterior extremity under the gaftric mufcles a and
b of the firft ring, to the circumflex fcale of the bafe
of the lower lip. It communicates with the mufcle
c of the fecond ring, after having paffed under fome
of the arteries, and introduced itfelf below the
mufcle 6.
The mufcle /3 is fo tender, that it is fcarcely poffible
to open the belly of the caterpillar without breaking
it. It is fometimes double, and fometimes triple.—
Anteriorly it is fixed to the pofterior edge of the fide
of the parietal fcale, the lower fixture being at the mid¬
dle of the ring near the inferior line.
There are three mufcles marked |; the firft affixed
E at
MIC [ 34 ] MIC
Microfccpe. at one extremity near the lower edge of the upper
part of the parietal fcale j the other end divides itfelf
into three or four tails, fixed to the fkin of the cater¬
pillar under the mufcle The anterior part of the
lecond is fixed near the firft ; the anterior part of the
third a little under the firft and fecond, at the fkin of
the neck under the mufcle A. Thefe two laft paffing
over the cavity of the firft pair of limbs, are fixed by
feveral tails the edge cppofite to this cavity. In
this fubjeft there are two mufcles marked 2, but fome-
times there is only one anteriorly; they are fixed to
the knver edge of the parietal fcale, the other ends be¬
ing inferted in the firft fold of the fkin of the neck on
the belly-fide. Fig. 50. beft reprefents the mufcles /S
and £; as in that figure they do not appear injured by
any unnatural connexion.
In the fecond and four following rings we dif-
cern two large dorfai mufcles A and B. In the 7th,
9th, and 10th rings are three, A, B, and C; in
the 11th are four A, B, C, and D; and in the an¬
terior part of the 12th ring are five, A, B, C, D,
and E. All thefe ranges of mufcles, howrever, as
well as the gaftric mufcles a, b, c, d, appear at firft
fight only as a fingle mufcle, running nearly the whole
length of the caterpillar ; but when this is detached
from the animal, it is found to confift of fo many di-
ftinft mufcles, each confifting only of the length of
one of th.j rings, their extremities being fixed to the
divifion of each ring, excepting the middle mufcle a,
which, at the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th rings, has its in-
fertions rather beyond the divifion. Each row of
mufcles appears as one, becaufe they are clofely con-
hefted at top by fome of the fibres which pafs from one
ring to the other.
The nmfcles A, which are 12 in number, gradually
diminifh in breadth to the lower part of the laft ring :
at the 8th and three following divifions they communi¬
cate with the mufcles B, and at the nth with D. In
the lower part of the laft ring, A is much broader than
it was in the preceding ring; one extremity of it is
contrafted, and communicates with B ; the lower in-
fertion being at the membrane I, which is the exterior
fkin of the fecal bag. The mufcles A and B, on the
lower part of the laft ring, cannot be feen until a
large mufcle is removed, which on one fide is fixed to
the fubdivifion of the ring and on the other to the fecal
bag.
The right mufcles B, which are alfo 12 in number,
begin at the fecond ring, and grow larger from thence
to the feventh. They are ufually narrower from thence
to the 12th ; the deficiency iri width being fupplied by
the fix mufcles C, which accompany it from the 7th to
the fubdivifion of the 12th ring. The mufcles B and C
communicate laterally with the 8rh, nth, and 12th di¬
vifions. C is wanting at the fubdivifion of the 12th ;
its place being here fupplied by B, which becomes
broader at this part.
The firft of the three floating mufcles V originates
at the firft ring, from whence it introduces itfelf under
N, where it is fixed, and then fubdivides, and hides it¬
felf under other parts. The fecbnd begins at the fecond
divifion, being fixed to the anterior extremity B of the
fecond ring ; from thence direfting itfelf towards the
ftomach ; and, after communicating with the cafe of
thq corpus crajfum^ it divides, and fpreads into eight
mufcles which run along the belly. The third begins Microfcope.
at the third divifion, originating partly at the Ikin, and ■'v'—
partly at the junftion of the mufcles B of the fecond
and third ring. It direfts itfelf obliquely towards the
belly, meeting it near the third fpiraculum ; and
branching from thence, it forms the oblique mufcles of
fome of the vifcera.
The thin long mufcle 0, which is at the fubdiviffon
of the laft ring, and covers the anterior infertion of the
mufcle (tf) where the ring terminates, is fingle. It be¬
gins at one extremity of the mufcle (c) ; at the fore
part of the ring runs along the fubdivifion" round the
belly of the caterpillar, and finifhes, on the other fide,
at the extremity of a fimilar mufcle C.
Fig. 49. fhows the dorfai mufcles of the coffus. To
view which in an advantageous manner, we muft ufe
the following mode of preparation.
1. All the dorfai mufcles, 35 in number, muft be
taken out, as well as the feven lateral ones already de-
fcribed.
2. All the ftraight mufcles of the belly muft be taken
away, as wrell as the mufcular roots (rj, and the ends
of the gaftric mufcles (<•), wThich are at the third and
fourth divifions.
3. At the fecond divifion the mufcle t muft be re¬
moved ; only the extremities being left to {how w7here
it was inferted.
The parts being thus prepared, wTe begin at the third
ring ; where there are found, four dorfai mufcles C, D,
E, and F. The firft one C, is inferted at the third di¬
vifion, under the mufcles 6 and a, "where it communi¬
cates by means of fome fibres w ith the mufcle f of the
fecond ring ; proceeding from thence obliquely towards
the intermediate fuperior line, and is fixed at the fourth
divifion. As foon as C is retrenched, the mufcle D is
feen ; which grows wfider front the anterior extremity :
it lies in a contrary direftion to the mufcle C, and is
inferted into the third and fourth divifions. The mufcle
E lies in the fame direftion as the middle C, but not fo
obliquely : the lower infertion is at the fourth divifion ;
the other at the third, immediately under C. The
mufcle F is nearly parallel to D which joins it; the
firft infertion is vifible, but the other is hid under the
mufcles E and G at the fourth divifion.
In the eight following rings, there are only two dor¬
fai mufcles ; and of thefe D is the only one that is com¬
pletely feen. It is very large, and diminiftres gradually
in breadth from one ring to the other, till it comes to
the laft, fending off branches in fome places.—E is
one of the ftrait mufcles of the back ; and is inferted
under the dividing mufcles 0, at the divifions of its own
ring.
On the anterior part of the 12th ring there are three
dorfai mufcles, D, E, and F. D is fimilar to that of
the preceding ring, marked alfo D, only that it is no
more than half the length ; terminating at the fubdivi¬
fion of its owTn ring. E is of the fame length, and
differs from the mufcle E of the preceding ring only
in its direftion. F is parallel to E, and ftiorter than
it; its anterior end does not reach the twelfth divi¬
fion.
On the pofterior part there is only one dorfai
mufcle, faftened by fome ftiort ones to the fubdivi¬
fion of the laft ring, traverfing the mufcles «t ; and be¬
ing fixed there as if defigned to ftrengthen them, and
tQ
(
M 1 c r 35 1 MIC
Microfcope.tQ vary tlieir direflion.—a Is a Angle mufcle, of which
the anterior infertion is vifible, the other end being
fixed to the bottom of the foot of the laft leg ; its
tiie is to move the foot. The anterior part of the
mufcle £ branches into three or four heads, which
crofs the fuperior line obliquely, and are fixed to the
Ikin a little above it. The other end is faftened to
the membrane T.
Fig. 50. and 51. (how the mufdes of the caterpillar
when it is opened at the back. The preparation for
this view is to difengage the fat and other extraneous
matter, as before diredied.
The firft ring has only two gaftric mufcles (c) and
(<f) : the former is broad, and has three or four little
tails : the firft fixture is at the bafe of the lower lip,
from whence it defcends obliquely, and is fixed be¬
tween the inferior and lateral line. * The fmall mufcle
(V) is faftened on one fide to the firft fpiraculum ; on
the other, a little lower, to the intermediate inferior
and lateral line ; and feems to be an antagonift to the
mufclc P, which opens the fpiracula. The pofterior
fixture ol 3 is under the mufcle C, near the Ikin of the
neck ; /3 is fixed a little on the other fide of C, at the
middle of the ring.
In the fecond ring there are three gaftric mufcles,
g, h, and i: g and h are fixed at the folds which ter¬
minate the ring 5 but only the anterior part of i is fixed
there. The mufcle h is triple, and in one of the divi-
fions feparated into two parts ; that marked i comes
nearer the inferior line, and is fixed a little beyond the
middle of the ring, where the correfponding mufcle of
the oppofite fide is forked to receive it.
In the third ring, the mufcle which was triple in
the foregoing ring, is only double here, that part which
is neareft the inferior line being broadeft : it has three
tails, of which only two are vifible in the figure. It is
exaflly fimilar to that of the preceding ring j and is
crofled in the fame manner by the mufcle from the op¬
pofite fide of the ring.
1 hroughout the eight following rings, the mufcle jT
which runs through them all is very broad and ftrong.
'The anterior part of it is fixed at the intermediate infe¬
rior line, on the fold of the firft divifion of the ring :
the other part is fixed beyond the lower divifion j with
this difference, that at the 10th and nth rings it is fix¬
ed at the laft fold of its ring ; whereas, in the others it
paffes over that ring, and is inferted into the fldn of
the following one. In all thefe, the firft extremity of
the mufcle g is faftened to the fold which feparates the
ring from the preceding one, and is parallel to/, and
placed at the fide of it. The firft fix mufcles marked g,
are forked j that of the fourth ring being more fo than
the reft, nor does it unite till near its anterior infertion.
The longeft tail lays hold‘of the following, and is
inferted near the inferior line ; the other inferts itfelf
near the fame line, at about the middle of its own
ring 5 the two laft do not branch out ; but termi¬
nate at the divifions, without reaching the follow-
ing ring. The mufcle d, placed at the fide of /, has
nearly the fame dire&ion, and finifties at the folds of
the ring.
_ The anterior part of the 12th ring has only one gaf-
tnc mufcle, marked <?: it is placed on the intermediate
inferior line ; and is inferted at the folds of the upper
divifion, and at the fubdivifion of this ring. The lower
part has a larger mufcle marked c, writh feveral divi- Micrbfcopp.
fions; one placed under b, with one extremity fixed
near the lateral line, at the fubdivifion of its ring j
the other to the fecal bag, a little lower than the
mufcle b.
In fig. 51. all the gaftric mufcles defcribed in fig.
50. difappear, as well as thofe lateral and dorfal
ones of which the letters are not to be found in this
figure.
In the firft ring are the gaftric mufcles, e, f g,
which are beft feen here : the firft is narrow and long,
pafting under and crofting/; one of its infertions is at
the lower line, the other at the lateral, between the fpi¬
raculum and neck : /is (hort, broad, and nearly ftraight,
placed along the intermediate line $ but between it and
the lateral it paffes under e, and is fixed to the fold of
the fkin which goes from the one bag to the other j the
lower infertion is near the fecond divifion. There are
fometimes three mufcles of thofe marked g, and fome-
times four : the lower parts of them are fixed about the
middle of the ring, and the anterior parts at the fold
of the fkin near the neck. The mufcles i and /i are
fixed to the fame fold ; the other end of /i being fixed
under the mufcle n, near the fpiraculum. Above the
upper end of / a mufcular body, g, may be feen. It
is formed by the feparation of two ftoating mufcles.
The fecond ring has fix gaftric mufcles, k, /, ;//, //,
0, p. The firft is a large oblique mufcle, with three or
four divifions placed at the anterior part of the ring :
the head is fixed between the inferior line and its inter¬
mediate one, at the fold of the fecond divifion ; from
whence it crofles the inferior line and its correfponding-
mufcle, terminating to the right and left of the line.
I is a narrow mufcle, whofe head is fixed to the fold of
the fecond divifion ; the tail of it lying under //, and
faftened to the edge of the fkin that forms the cavity
for the leg. The two mufcles marked m have the fame
obliquity, and are placed the one on the other; the
head is inferted in the fkin under the mufcle /3, and
communicates by a number of fibres with the tail of
the mufcle y \ the other end is fixed to the intermediate
inferior line at the fold of the third divifion. The
large and broad mufcle «, covers the lower edge of the
cavity of the limb, and the extremity of the tail of /.
It is fixed firft at the fkin, near the intermediate line,
from whence it goes in a perpendicular direction to¬
wards ra, and introduces itfelf under 0 and m, where it
is fixed. The mufcle 0 is narrow and bent, and covers
the edge of the cavity of the leg for a little way ; one
end terminating there, and the other finifhing at the
third divifion near m. That marked p is alfo bent : it
runs near the anterior edge of the cavity of the leg ;
one end meets the head of 0, the other end terminates
at a raifed fold near the inferior line. There is a trian¬
gular mufcle on the fide of the lateral mufcle 0, fimilar
to that marked g in the following ring ; in this figure
it is entirely concealed by the mufcle m.
The third ring has no mufcle fimilar to m; that
marked k differs only from that of the fecond ring
in being croffed by the oppofite mufcle. Thofe mark¬
ed /, n, 0, p, are fimilar to thofe of the preceding one.
The mufcle q is triangular ; the bafe is faftened to the
laft fold of the ring ; on the lower fide it is fixed to
the mufcle 0, the top to the fkin at the edge of the ca¬
vity for the leg.
E 2
The
MIC [ 36 ] MIC
'Microlcope. The eight following rings have the gaflric mufcles,
/, /J, /, and m. The mufcle i is quite ftrajght, and
placed at fome diftance from the inferior line : it is
broad at the fourth ring, but diminishes gradually in
breadth to the nth. In the fourth it is united ; but
divides into two heads, which divaricate in the follow¬
ing rings. In the fix next rings thefe heads are fixed
nearly at the fame place with a and/V and in the other
two it terminates at the fold of the ring. The anterior
infertion of the firft and laft is at the fold where the
ring begins \ that of the fix others is fomewhat lower
under the place where the mufcle i terminates. The
lower part of the oblique mufcle £ is inferted in the Ikin
near i; the upper part at the intermediate inferior
wufcle upon the fold which feparates the following
ring, but is wanting in the nth. The mufcle / is
large, and co-operates with M : in the opening and
Shutting the fpiraculum, one of its fixtures is near the
intermediate inferior line, at about the fame height as
i. The tail terminates a little below the fpiracu¬
lum.
The twelfth ring has only the fingle gafiric mufcle
</, which is a bundle of fix, feven, or eight mufcles :
the firft fixture of thefe is at the fubdivifion of the ring
near the inferior line : one or two crofs this, and at the
fame time the fimilar mufcles of the oppofite fide.
Their fixture is at the bottom of the foot ; and their
office is to affift the mufcle a in bringing back the foot,
and to loofen the claw from what it lays hold of. One
of the infertions of this mufcle a is obferved in this
figure near dy the other near the fubdivifion of the
ring.
Fig. 52. and 53. ftiow the organization of the head
of the coffus, though in a very imperfeft manner, as
M. Lyonet found it neceffary to -employ twenty figures
to explain it fully. The head is reprefented as it ap¬
pears when fepavated from the fat, and difengaged from
the neck. HH are the two palpi. The truncated
mufcles D belong t® the lower lip, and affift moving it.
K (hows the two ganglions of the neck united. 11 are
the two veffels which affift in fpinning the filk. L, the
oefophagus. M, the two diffolving veffels. The He¬
brew charadlers Hast (how the continuation of the four
cephalic arteries. In fig. 52. the ten abduftor mufcles
of the jaw are reprefented by SS, TT, VV, and Z.
Four occipital mufcles are feen in fig. 53. under ee and
ff. At ah is reprefented a nerve of the firft pair be¬
longing to the ganglion of the neck j is a branch of
this nerve.
Fig. 54. exhibits the nerves as feen from the under
part 5 but excepting in two or three nerves, which may
be eafily diftinguiffied, only one of each pair is drawn,
in order to avoid confufion. The nerves of the firft
ganglion of the neck are marked by capital letters,
thofe of the ganglion (a) of the head by Roman let¬
ters •, the nerves of the fmall ganglion by Greek cha-
rafters. Thofe of the frontal ganglion, except one, by
numbers.
The mufcles of the coffus have neither the colour
nor form of thofe of larger animals. In their natu¬
ral date they are foft, and of the confidence of a jelly.
Their colour is a grayiffi blue, which, with the filver-
coloured appearance of the pulmonary veffels, form a
glorious fpeftacle. After the caterpillar has been
Xoaked for fome time in fpiri^ of wine, they lofe their
elafticity and tranfparency, becoming firm, opaque, Mlcrofcope,
and white, and the air-veffels totally difappear. The ' J
number of mulcles in a caterpillar is very great. The
greateft part of the head is compofed of them, and -
there is a vaft number about the cefophagus, inttf-
tines, &c. $ the (kin is, as it were, lined by different
beds of them, placed the one under the other, anff
ranged with great fymmetry. M. Lyonet has been
able to diftinguifh 228 in the head, 1647 *n *-^e
body, and 2066 in the inteftinal tube, making.in all
4041.
At firft fight the mufcles might be taken for ten¬
dons, as being of the fame colour, and having nearly
the fame luitre. They are generally flat, and of an
equal fize throughout $ the middle feldom differing
either in colour or fize from either of the extremities.
If they are feparated, howrever, by means of very fine
needles, in a drop of fome fluid, we find them com¬
pofed not only of fibres, membranes, and air-veffels,
but likewife of nerves j and, from the drops of oil
that may be feen floating on the fluid, they appear al-
fo to be furnifhed with many untluous particles. Their
ends are fixed to the (kin, but the reft of the mufcle
is generally free and floating. Several of them branch
out confiderably ; and the branches fometimes extend
fo far, that it is not eafy to difeover whether they
are diftinff and feparate mufcles or parts of another.
They are moderately ftrong ; and thofe which have
been foaked in fpirit of wnne, when examined by the
microfcope, are found to be covered with a membrane
which may be feparated from them 5 and they appear
then to confift of feveral parallel bands lying longi¬
tudinally along the mufcle, which, when divided by-
means of fine needles, appear to be compofed of ftiil
fmaller bundles of fibres lying in the fame direftion ;
which, when examined by a powerful magnifier, and
in a favourable light, appear twifted like a fmall cord.
The mufcular fibres of the fpider, which are much lar¬
ger than thofe of the caterpillar, confift of two different
fubftances, one foft and the other hard ; the latter be¬
ing twifted round the former fpirally, and thus giving
it the twifted appearance juft mentioned.
There is nothing in the caterpillar fimilar to the
brain in man. We find indeed in the head of this
infetfl a part from which all the nerves feem to. pro¬
ceed ; but this part is entirely unprotected, and fo
fmall, that it does not occupy one fifth part of the
head $ the furface is fmooth, and has neither lobes
nor any anfraCtuofity like the human brain. But if
we call this a brain in the caterpillar, we muft fay
that it has thirteen : for there are twelve other fuch
parts following each other in a ftraight line, all of
them of the fame fubftance with that in the head, and
nearly of the fame fize j and from them, as well as
from that in the head, the nerves are diftributed
through the body.
The fpinal marrow in the coffus goes along the
belly j is very fmall, forking out at intervals, nearly
of the fame thicknefs throughout, except at the gan¬
glions, and is not enclofed in any cafe. It is by no
means fo tender as in man j but has a great degree
of tenacity, and does not break without a confider-
able degree of tenfion. The fubftance of the gan¬
glions differs from that of the fpinal marrow, as no
veffels can be difeovered in the latter j but the for¬
mer
MIC [ 37 ] MIC
Microftope. mcr are full of very delicate ones. There are 94
w ^ 1 principal nerves, which divide into innumerable rarruii-
cations.
The colTus has two large tracheal arteries, creeping
under the ikin clofe to the fpiracula : one at the right
and the other at the left fide of the infe<Et, each of
them communicating with the air by means of nine
fpiracula. They are nearly as long as the whole ca¬
terpillar 5 beginning at the firft fpiraculum, and ex¬
tending fomewhat farther than the laft ; lome branches
alfo extending quite to the extremity of the body.
Round each fpiraculum the trachea puihes forth a
great number of branches, which are again divided
into fmaller ones, and thefe further fubdivide and
fpread through the wdiole body of the caterpillar. The
tracheal artery, with all its numerous ramifications,
are open elaltic velfels, which may be prefled clofe to¬
gether, or drawn out confiderably, but return imme¬
diately to their ufual fize w’hen the tenfion ceafes.
They au naturally of a filver colour, and make a
beautiful appearance. This veflei, with its principal
branches, is compofed of three coats, which may be
feparated from one another. The outmoft is a thick
membrane furnilhed ■with a great variety of fibres,
which deferibe a vail number of circles round it, com¬
municating w ith each other by numerous (hoots. The
fecond is very thin and tranfparent, without any par¬
ticular vefiel being difiinguifiiable in it. The third is
compofed of fcaly threads, generally of a fpiral form ;
and fo near each other as fcarcely to leave any inter¬
val. They are curioufly united with the membrane
which occupies the intervals; and form a tube which
is always open, notw'ithfianding the flexure of the vef-
fel. There are alfo many other peculiarities in its ftruc-
ture. The principal tracheal veflTels divide into 1326
different branches.
I he heart of the coflfus is very different from that of
larger animals, being almolt as long as the animal it-
feif. It lies immediately under the (kin at the top of
the back, entering the head, and terminating near the
mouth. Towards the laft rings of the body it is large
and capacious, diminifliing very much as it approaches
the head, from the fourth to the twelfth divifion. On
both fides, at each divifion, it has an appendage, which
partly covers the mufcles of the back, but which,
growing narrower as it approaches the lateral line, it
forms a number of irregular lozenge-lhaped bodies.—
This tube, however, feems to perform none of the func¬
tions of the heart in larger animals, as we find no vef¬
iel opening into it which anfwers either to the aorta or
vena cava. It is called the heart, becaufe it is general¬
ly filled with a kind of lymph, which naturalifis have
fuppofed to be the blood of the caterpillar j and becaufe
in all caterpillars which have a tranfparent ficin, wre may
perceive alternate regular contraflions and dilatations
along the fuperior line, beginning at the eleventh ring,
and proceeding from ring to ring, from the fourth j
whence this veflfel is thought to be a firing or row of
hearts. There are two white oblong bodies v/hich join
the heart near the eighth divifion 5 and thefe have been
called renform bodies, from their having fomewhat of
the fhape of a kidney.
The mofi confiderabie part of the whole caterpillar
with regard to bulk is the corpus crafl’um. It is the
firft and only fubftance that is feen on opening it. It
forms a kind of (heath which envelopes and covers all Microfcope,
the entrails, and, introducing itfelf into the head, enters ^
all the mufcles of the body, filling the greateft part of
the empty fpaces in the caterpillar. It very much re-
fembles the configuration of the human brain, and is of
a milk-white colour.
The cefophagus defeends from the bottom of the
mouth to about the fourth divifion. The fore part,
which is in the head, is fielhy, narrow, and fixed by
difterent mufcles to the cruftaceous parts of it; the
lower part, which pafles into the body, is wider, and
forms a kind of membranaceous bag, covered with
very fmall mufcles j near the ftomach it is narrower,
and, as it were, confined by a ftrong nerve fixed to id
at difiant intervals. The ventricle begins a little above
the founh divifion, where the cefophagus ends, and
finiihes at the tenth. It is about feven times as long
as broad ; and the anterior part, which is broadeft, is ge¬
nerally folded. Thefe folds diminith with the bulk as
it approaches the inteftines j the furface is covered with
a great number of aerial veffels, and opens into a tube,
w'hich M. Lyonet calls the large inteftine.—There are
three of thefe large tubes, each of which differs fo much
from the reft, as to require a particular name to diitin-
guilh it from them.
The two veffels from which the coffus fpins its filk
are often above three inches long, and are diftinguithed
into three parts ; the anterior, intermediate, and polte-
rior. It has likewife two other veffels, which are fup¬
pofed to prepare and contain the liquor for diflblving the
wood on which it feeds.
Fig. 55. (hows the wing of an earwig magnified ; Plate
a reprefents it of the natural fize. The wings of thisCCCXLIV.
infett are io artificiafty folded up under ihort cafes,
that few people imagine they have any. Indeed, they
very rarely make ufe of their wings. The cafes under
w'hich they are concealed are not more than a fixth part
of the fize of one wing, though a fmall part of the
wing may be difeovered, on a careful infpeclion, pro¬
jecting from under them. The upper part of the wing
is cruftaceous and opaque, but the under part is beau¬
tifully tranfparent. In putting up their wdngs, they
firft fold back the parts AB, and then (hut up the
ribs like a fan ; the ftrong mufcles ufod for this purpofe
being feen at the upper part of the figure. Some of
the ribs are extended from the centre to the outer edge;
others only from the edge about half way : but they
are all united by a kind of band, at a fmall but equal
diftance from the edge; the whole evidently contrived
to ftrengthen the wing, and facilitate its various mo¬
tions. The infeCI itfelf differs very little in appearance
in its three different dates. De Geer aflerts, that the
female hatches eggs like a hen, and broods over her
young ones as a hen does.
Fig. 56. repreients a wdng of the hemerobius perla
magnified. It is an infeCI which feldom lives more
than two or three days.—The wings are nearly of a
length, and exaftly fimilar to one another. They are.
compofed of fine delicate nerves, regularly and elegant¬
ly dilpofed as in the figure, beautifully adorned wdth
hairs, and lightly tinged with green. The body is of a
fine green colour ; and its eyes appear like txvo bur-
nilhed beads of gold, whence it has obtained the name
oigolden eye. This infeCt lays its eggs on the leaves
of the plum or the rofe tree; the eggs are of a white
colour.
MIC [38
Microfcope colour, and eacli of them fixed to a little pedicle or
^ foot-ftalk, by which means they ftand off a little from
the leaf, appearing like the fruflification of fome of
the moffes. The larva proceeding from thefe eggs re-
fembles that of the coccinella or lady-cow, but is much
more handfome. Like that, it feeds upon aphides or
pucerons, fucking their blood, and forming itfelf a cafe
with their dried bodies j in which it changes into the
pupa ftate, from whence they afterwards emerge in the
form of a fly.
Fig. E, F, I, reprefent the duft of a moth’s wing
magnified. This is of different figures in different
moths. The natural fize of thefe fmall plumes is re-
prefented at H.
Fig. 57. (hows a part of the cornea of the libellula
magnified. In fome pofitions of the light, the fides of
the hexagons appear of a fine gold colour, and divided
by three parallel lines. The natural fize of the part
magnified is ftiown at b.
Fig. 58. (hows the part c of a lobfter’s cornea mag¬
nified.
Fig. 59. fhows one of the arms or horns of the lepas
anatifera, or barnacle, magnified $ its natural fize being
reprefented at d. Each horn confifts of feveral joints,
and each joint is furniftied on the concave fide of the
arm with long hairs. When viewed in the microfcope,
the arms appear rather opaque; but they may be ren¬
dered tranfparent, and become a moft beautiful obje£!,
by extra&ing out of the interior cavity a bundle of
longitudinal fibres, which runs the whole length of the
arm. Mr Needham thinks that the motion and ufe of
thefe arms may illuftrate the nature of the rotatory mo¬
tion in the wheel-animal. In the midft of the arms is
an hollow trunk, confifting of a jointed hairy tube,
which enclofes a long round tongue that can be pufli-
ed occafionally out of the tube or (heath, and retrac¬
ed occafionally. The mouth of the animal confifts of
fix laminae, which go off with a bend, indented like a
faw on the convex edge, and by their circular difpofi-
tion are fo ranged, that the teeth, in the alternate ele¬
vation and depreflion of each plate, a& againft what¬
ever comes between them. The plates are placed to¬
gether in fuch a manner, that to the naked eye they
form an aperture not much unlike the mouth of a
ccntraCed purfe.
Fig. 60. (hows the apparatus of the tabanus or gad¬
fly, by which it pierces the {kin of horfes and oxen, in
order to fuck the Wood. The w'hole is contained in a
flefhy cafe, not expreffed in the figure. The feelers a a
are of a fpongy texture and gray coloured, covered with
{hort hairs. They are united to the head by a fmall
joint of the fame fubftance. They defend the other
parts of the apparatus, being laid upon it fide by fide
whenever the animal flings, and thus preferve it from
external injury. The wound is made by the two lan¬
cets bb and B, which are of a delicate ftruCure, but
very (harp, formed like the diffeCing knife 'of an ana-
tomift, growing gradually thicker to the back.—The
two inftruments cjc and C, appear as if intended to en¬
large the wound, by irritating the parts round it j for
which they are jagged or toothed. They may alfo
ferve, from their hard and horny texture, to defend the
tube e E, wEich is of a fofter nature, and tubular to ad¬
mit the blood, and convey it to the ftomach. This part
is totally enclofed in a line d'D, which entirely covers
4
Plate
CCCXLV.
] MID
it. Thefe parts are drawn feparately at B, C, D, E. Microfeopei
De Geer obferves, that only the females fuck the blood Midas. ^
of animals j and Reaumur informs us, that having made " ' * "
one, that had fucked its fill, difgorge itfelf, the blood it
threw up appeared to him to be more than the whole
body of the infeft could have contained. The natural
fize of this apparatus is ftiown rt f.
Fig. 61. (hows a bit of the {kin of a lump-fifti (cy-
clopterus) magnified. When a good fpecimen of this
can be procured, it forms a moft beautiful objeft. The
tubercles exhibited in the figure probably fecrete an
un&uous juice.
Fig. 62. {how's the fcale of a fea perch found on the
Englifti coaft j the natural fize is exhibited at h.
Fig. 63. the fcale of an haddock magnified 5 its na¬
tural fize as within the circle.
Fig. 64. the fcale of a parrot fifti from the Weft In*
dies magnified j / the natural fize of it.
Fig. 65. the fcale of a kind of perch in the Weft In¬
dies magnified ; k the natural fize of the fcale.
Fig. 66. part of the {kin of a foie filh, as viewed
through an opaque microfcope j the magnified part, in
its real fize, ftiown at /.
The fcales of fifties afford a great variety of beauti¬
ful objedfts for the microfcope. Some are long; others
round, fquare, &c. varying confiderably not only in
different fifties, but even in different parts of the fame
fifti. Leeuwenhoeck fuppofed them to confift of an
infinite number of fmall fcales or ftrata, of which thofe
next to the body of the fifti are the largeft. When
viewed by the microfcope, we find fome of them or¬
namented with a prodigious number of concentric flu-
tings, too near each other, and too fine, to be eafily
enumerated. Thefe flutings are frequently traverfed by
others diverging from the centre of the fcale, and ge¬
nerally proceeding from thence in a flraight line to the
circumference.
For more full information concerning thefe and
other microfcopcial objefts, the reader may confult
Mr Adams’s Effays on the Microfcope, who has made
the moft valuable colleftion that has yet appeared on
the fubjeft. See alfo the articles Animalcule, Cry¬
stallization, Polype, Plants, and Wood, in the
prefent work.
MIDAS, in Fabulous Ht/lory, a famous king of
Phrygia, who having received Bacchus with great
magnificence, that god, out of gratitude, offered to
grant him whatever he ftiould alk. Midas defired that
every thing he touched Ihould be changed into gold.
Bacchus confented *, and Midas, with extreme pleafure,
everywhere found the effedts of his touch. But he had
foon reafon to repent of his folly j for wanting to eat
and drink, the aliments no fooner entered his mouth
than they were changed in gold. This obliged him to
have recourfe to Bacchus again, to befeech him to re-
ftore him to his farmer ftate •, on which the god ordered
him to bathe in the river Padlolus, wkich from thence
forward had golden fands. Some time after, being
chofen judge between Pan and Apollo, he gave an¬
other inftance of his folly and bad tafte, in preferring
Pan’s mufic to Apollo’s •, on which the latter being
enraged, gave him a pair of affes ears. This Midas
attempted to conceal from the knowledge of his fub-
jetls : but one of his fervants faw the length of his ears,
and being unable to keep the fecret, yet afraid to re¬
veal
Plate C CCXXXV U
MIC R O sc on
f /'.'///'Ssr/i.//. t/i A*/' /\vY.
MIC R o sc O r K
Tlate CCCXL.
M I C KO S C O r K.
rlate CCCXLl
Vw/.
Mil
.GyftflSO/yet'/i
f /;y.3£r
Plate CCCXXiH
S4M*// cA^n.n.W.
e c cxi.nt
y-y .140
JHv-i&oilI
x nn^
X>
"/'#,//&>)' Sv'fr/or/™y~>
>'> I fi fty)
/3r//,°i/l v/t. /At //l/nr^b frrffrv/.
JV1 idas^
Middle-
bur^.
MID [ 39 ]
veal it from apprehenfion of the king’s refentment, he thaven.
opened a hole in the earth, and after he had whifpered
th're that Midas had the ears of an afs, he covered the
place as befpre, as if he had buried his words in the
ground. On that place, as the poets mention, grew a
number of reeds, which when agitated by the wind ut¬
tered the fame found that had been buried beneath, and
publilhed to the world that Midas had the ears of an
afs. Some explain the fable of the ears of Midas, by
the fuppolition that he kept a number of informers and
fpies, who were continually employed in gathering
every feditious wrord that might drop from the mouths
of his fubjeCls. Midas, according to Strabo, died of
drinking bull’s hot blood. Ihis he did, as Plutarch
mentions, to free himfelf from the numerous ill dreams
which continually tormented him. Midas, according
to fome, w7as fon of Cybele. He built a town w'hich he
called Ancyree. »
Midas, Ear-JheU. See Haliotis, Conciiology
Index.
MID-HEAVEN, the point of the ecliptic that culmi¬
nates, or in which it cuts the meridian.
MIDDLEBURG, one of the Friendly iflands in
the South fea. The ifland was firft dilcovered by
Tafman, a Dutch navigator, in January 1742-3 j and
is called by the natives Ea-Oo-whe: it is about 16
miles from north to fouth, and in the wideil part about
8 miles from eaft to weft. T he fkirts are chiefly laid
out in plantations, the fouth-weft and north-weft ftdes
efpecially. The interior parts are but little cultivat¬
ed, though very capable of it: but this neglefl adds
greatly to the beauty of the ifland j for here are agree¬
ably difperfed grooves of cocoa-nuts and other trees,
lawns covered wdth thick grafs, here and there planta¬
tions and paths leading to every part of the iftand, in
fuch beautiful diforder, as greatly to. enliven the pro-
fpe£h The hills are low ; the air is delightful } but
unfortunately water is denied to this charming fpot.
Yams, with other roots, bananas, and bread-fruit, are
the principal articles of food $ but the latter appeared
to be fcarce. Here is the pepper tree, or ava-ava,
with which they make an intoxicating liquor, in the
fame difgufting manner as is praftifed in the Society
iflands. Here are feveral odoriferous trees and fhrubs,
particularly a fpecies of the lemon tribe ; and the bo¬
tanical gentlemen met with various new fpecies of plants.
Here alfo are a few hogs and fowls. ,
There are no towns or villages } moft of the houfes
are built in plantations, w'hich are laid out in different
parts, with no other order than vs^iat convenience re¬
quires. They are neatly conftnnfted, but .are .lefs
roomy and convenient than thofe in the Society iiles.
The floors are a little raifed, and covered with thick
ftrong mats. The fame fort of matting ferves to enclofe
them on the windward fide, the others being open.
They have little areas before moft of them, which are
planted round with trees or ornamental fhrubs, whofe
fragrance perfumes the air. T heir houfehold furniture
confifts of a few wooden platters, cocoa-nut {hells, and
pillow's made of wood, and fhaped like four-footed
ftools or forms: their common clothing, with the ab-
dition of a mat, ferves them for bedding.
The natives are of a clear mahogany or chefnut
browm, w'ith black hair, in ftiort frizzled curiS, which
feems to be burnt at the tips j their beards are cut or
M I £>
The general ftature of the men is equal to
our middle fize, from five feet three to five feet ten ^
inches 5 the proportions of the body are very fine, and
the contours of the limbs extremely elegant, though
fomething more mufcular than at Otaneite, which
may be owing to a greater and more conftant exertion
of ftxength in their agriculture and domeftic economy.
Their features are extremely mild and pleafing j and
differ from the old Otaheitian faces in being.more ob¬
long than round, the nofe iharper, and the lips rather
thinner. The women are, in general, a few inches
fhorter than the men, but not fo fmall as the lower
clafs of women at the Society iilandv. The practice
of punfturing the fkin, and blacking it, which is
called tallowing, is in full force among the men here,
for their belly and loins are very ftrongly marked in
configurations more compounded than thofe at Ota-
heite. The tendered parts of the body were not free
from thefe punctures; the application of which, belides
being very painful, muft be extremely dangerous on
glandulous extremities.
The men in general go almoft naked, having only
a fmall piece of cloth round the loins, but fome wrap
it in great abundance round them from their waift :
this cloth is mar.ufaflured much like that at Ota-
heite, but overfpread with a ftrong glue, which makes
it ftitf, and fit to refift the wet. The women are
likewdie covered from the waift downwards: they often
have loofe necklaces, confifting of feveral ftrings of
fmall fhells, feeds, teeth of fifties; and in the middle
of all, the round operculum^ or cover of a fhell as large
as a crown-piece. The men frequently wear a firing
round their necks, from which a mother-oi-pearl flieli
hangs down on the breaft } both the ears of the wro-
men were perforated with two holes, and a cylinder
cut out of tortoife-fhell or bone was ftuck through
both the holes. The moft remarkable circumftance
obferved of this people was, that moft of them wanted
the little finger on one, and fometimes on both hands:
the difference of fex or age did not exempt them. kom
this amputation} for even among the few children
that were feen running about naked, the greater part
had already fuffered fuch lofs. This circumftance was-
obferved by Tafman. Another Angularity which was
obferved to be very general among thefe people, was
a round fpot on each cheek-bone, which appeared to
have been burnt or bliftered. On fome it feemed to
have been recently made, or others it was covered
with feurf, and many had only a flight mark of its
former exiftence : how, or for what purpole it was
made, could not be learnt. The women here, in ge¬
neral, were referved •, and turned, with difguft, from
the immodeft behaviour of ungovernable feamen : there-
were not, however, wanting fome who appeared to be
of eafy virtue, and invited their lovers with lafeivious
geftures. The language fpoken here is foft, and not
unpleafing j and whatever they faid was fpoken in a
kind of finging tone. Omai and Mahine, who were
both paffengers on board the fhip, at firft declared that
the language was totally new and unintelligible to
them ; however, the affinity of feveral words being
pointed out, they foon caught the particular modifica¬
tion of this dialect, and converfed much better with
the natives than any on board the (hips could have
done, after a long intercourfe. They have the neat-
cifi
Micklfe-
burz.
MID [ 40 ] MID
Middle- eft ornaments imaginable, confifting of a number of
Middle ^tt^e ^at ^c^s» at>out five inches long, of a yellow
ham ” wood like box, firmly and elegantly conne£ted toge-
y-—ther at the bottom by a tiffue of the ffibres of cocoa-
nut, fome of which were of their natural colour, and
others dyed black ; the fame fibres were likewife ufed
in the making of balkets, the talle of which was high¬
ly elegant, and varied into different forms and pat¬
terns. Their clubs are of a great variety of lhapes,
and many of them fo ponderous as fcarcely to be ma¬
naged with one hand. The moft common form was
'quadrangular, fo as to make a rhomboid at the broad
end, and gradually tapering into a round handle at the
other. Far the greater part wTere carved all over in
many chequered patterns, which feemed to have re¬
quired a long fpace of time, and incredible patience,
to work up j as a (harp ftone, or a piece of coral, are
the only tools made ufe of: the whole furface of the
plain clubs was as highly polilhed as if an European
■workman had made them with the beft itvftruments.
Befides clubs, they have fpears of the fame wood,
which were fometimes plain fharp-pointed flicks, and
fometimes barbed with a fting-ray’s tail. They have
likewife bows and arrows of a peculiar conftrutftion :
the bow, which is fix feet long, is about the thick-
nefs of a little finger, and when fladt forms a flight
curve; its convex part is channelled with a Angle
deep groove, in which the bow-ftring is lodged. The
arrow is made of reed, near fix feet long, and pointed
with hard wood : when the bow is to be bent, inftead
of drawing it fo as to increafe the natural curvature,
they draw it the contrary way, make it perfe&ly
flraight, and then form the curve on the other fide.
Moft of their canoes have outriggers, made of poles ;
and their workmanlhip is very admirable : twro of
thefe canoes are joined together with a furprifing ex-
adtnefs, and the whole furface receives a very curious
polifti. Their paddles have (hort broad blades, fome-
thing like thofe at Otaheite, but more neatly wrought
and of better wmod.
They keep their dead above ground, after the man¬
ner of the Society iflands j as a corpfe was feen depo-
fited on a low hut.
Here were feen feveral men and women affticled
with leprous difeafes, in fome of whom the diforder
had rifen to a high degree of virulence : one man in
particular had his back and {boulders covered with a
large cancerous ulcer} which was perfedfly livid with¬
in, and of a bright yellow all round the edges. A
woman was likewife unfortunate enough to have her
face defiroyed by it in the moft (hocking manner;
there was only a hole left in the place of her nofe ; her
cheek was fwelled up, and continually oozing out a
purulent matter ; and her eyes feemed ready to fall out
of her head, being bloody and fore. Though thefe were
fome of the moft miferable objedls that could poftibly
be feen, yet they feemed to be quite unconcerned about
their misfortunes, and traded as briftdy as any of the reft.
MIDDLEHAM, a town in the north riding of
Yorkfliire, fituated on the river Ure, 255 miles from
London. It had once a caftle, where was born Ed¬
ward prince of Wales, only fon of Richard III ; and
is noted for a woollen manufaflory and frequent horfe-
races. Its market is on Monday ; and fairs Nov. 6,
and 7. The town ftands on a riling ground ; and the
2
caftle, which was on the fouth fide, was formerly Mickllcfex,
moated round by the help of a (pring conveyed in pipes
from the higher grounds. . ,i
MIDDLESEX, a county of England, which de¬
rives its name from its fituation amidll the three king¬
doms of the Eaft, Weft, and South Saxons. It is
bounded on the north by Hertfordfhire ; on the fouth
by the river Thames, which divides it from Surry ; on
the weft by the river Colne, which feparates it from
Buckingbamftiire ; and on the eaft by the river Lea,
which divides it from Effex. It extends about 23
miles in length, but hardly 14 in breadth, and is not
more than 115 in circumference; but as it compre¬
hends the two vaft cities of London and Weftminfter,
which are fituated in the fouth-eaft part of the coun¬
ty, it is by far the wealthieft and moft populous
county in England. It is divided into 602 liberties,
containing 200 parifl\es, befides a vaft number of cha¬
pels of eafe, and 5 market towns, exclufive of the cities
of London and Weftminfter. The air is very pleafant
and healthy, to which a fine gravelly foil does not a
little contribute. The foil produces plenty of corn,
and the county abounds with fertile meadows and
gardeners grounds. In a word, the greater part of the
county is fo prodigioufly aflifted by the rich compoft
from London, that the whole of the cultivated part
may be confidered as a garden. The natural produc¬
tions are cattle, corn, and fruit; but its manufa£!ures
are too many to be enumerated here, there being hardly
a fingle manufa&ure praftifed in Great Britain but
what is alfo eftabliftied in this county.—Though Lon¬
don is the chief city, Brentford is the county town
where the members of parliament are elefted. It con¬
tains 77,712 houfe% inhabited by 130,742 families,
containing 340,958 males, and 294,371 females, fo that
the whole amount of its population is 635,329 perfons.
MIDDLESEX is alfo the name of four different counties
in the United States of America; one of them is in Maf-
fachuffetts, another in Connetticut, a third in New Jer-
fey, and the fourth in Virginia.
MIDDLETON, Dr Conyers, a very celebrated
Englifti divine, the fon of a clergyman in Yorklhire,
was born at Richmond in 1683. He diftinguiftied him-
felf, while fellow of Trinity college, Cambridge, by
his controverfy with Dr Bentley his mafter, relating to
fome mercenary conduct of the latter in that ftation.
He afterwards had a controverfy with the whole body
of phyficians, on the dignity of the medical profeflion ;
concerning which he puDliftied De medicorum apud ve-
teres Romanos degentium conditione differtctio ; qua, con¬
tra viros celeberrimos Jacobutn Sponium et Riclardum
Meadium, fervilem atque ignobHem earn fuijfe ojlenditur:
and in the courfe of this difpute much refentment
and many pamphlets appeared. Hitherto he had
flood well with his clerical brethren; but he drew the
refentment of the church on him in 1729, by writing
“ A Letter from Rome, (bowing an exa£l conformity
between Popery and Paganifm,” &c.; as this letter,
though politely W’ritten, yet attacked Popifti miracles with
a gaiety that appeared dangerous to the caufc of miracles
in general. Nor were his Objeflions to Dr Water-
land’s manner of vindicating Scripture againft Tindal’s
“ Chriftiarity as old as the Creation,” looked on in a
more favourable point of view’. In 174I> came out his
great work, “ The hiftory of the life of M. Tullius
Cicero,”
Mi <1(11 e-
wich
_ ii _
Mid (hip-
MID [4
Cicero,” 2 vols 410 : which is indeed a fine perform¬
ance, and will probably be read as long as tafle and
polite literature fubfift among us : the author has never-
thelefs fallen into the common error of biographers,
who often give panegyrics inifead of hifiory. In
1748, he publillied, “ A free inquiry into the miracul¬
ous powers which are fuppofed to have fubfilled in the
Chriftian church from the earlieff ages, through feveral
fucceflive centuries.” He was now attacked from all
quarters ■, but before he took any notice of his anta-
gonills, he fupplied them with another fubjeft,. in “ An
examination of the Lord Bifhop of London’s difcourfes
concerning the ufe and extent of prophecy,” &c.
Thus Dr Middleton continued to d-'fplay talents and
learning, which are highly etleemed by men of a free
turn of mind, but by no means in a method calculated
to invite promotion in the clerical line. He was in
1723 chofen principal librarian of the public library at
Cambridge 5 and if he rofe not to dignities in the
church, he was in eafy circumltances, which permitted
him to aiTert a dignity of mind often forgotten in the
career of preferment. He died in 175c, at Hilderlham
in Cambridgefhire, an eftate of his own purchafing j
and in 17^2, all his works, except the life of Cicero,
were collected in 4 vols, 4to.
MIDDLEWICH, a town of Chelhire, 167 miles
from London. It Hands near the conflux of the Croke
and Dan, where are two falt-water fprings, from which
are made great quantities of fait, the brine being faid
to be fo flrong as to produce a full fourth part fait.
It is an ancient borough, governed by burgelfes ; and
its parifli extends into many adjacent townfhips. It
has a fpacious churchy By means of inland navigation,
it has communication with the rivers Merfey, Dee,
Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber,
Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, including its
windings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties of
Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lahcafter, Weftmoreland,
Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
The river Wheelock, after a courfe of about 1 2 miles
from Mowcop-hill, runs into the Dan a little above
this town.
MIDHURST, a town of Suffex, 52 miles from
London, has been reprefented in parliament every fince
the 4th of Edward II. It is a neat fmail town, on a
hill furrounded with others, having the river Arun at
the bottom •, and is a borough by prefcription, govern¬
ed by a bailiff, chofen annually by a jury at a court-
leet of the lord of the manor.
MIDIAN, or Madian, in Ancient Geography, a
town on the fouth fide of Arabia Petraea, fo called
from one of the fons of Abraham by Keturah.—Ano¬
ther Midian, near the Arnon and AEoplis, in ruins in
Jerome’s time. With the daughters of thefe Midianites
the Ifraelites committed fornication, and were guilty of
idolatry. A branch of the Midianites dwelt on the
Arabian gulf, and wrere called Kemtes: fome of wdiom
turned profelytes, and dwelt with the Ifraelites in the
land of Canaan.
MID-LOTHIAN. See Lothian and Edin¬
burghshire.
MIDSHIP-FRAME, a name given to that timber,
or combination of pieces formed into one timber,
which determines the extreme breadth of the fhipi
Yol. XIV. Part I.
i ] MID
as well as the figure and dimenfion of all the inferior
timbers.
In the article SiiiP-Bui/ding, the reader will find a
full explanation of what is meant by a frame of tim¬
bers. He will alfo perceive the outlines of all the
principal frames, with their gradual dimenfions, from
the midflhip-frame, delineated in the plane of projection
annexed to that article.
MIDSHIPMAN, a fort of naval cadet, appointed
by the captain of a fhip of war, to fecond the orders
of the fuperior officers, and aflift in the neceffary bufi-
nefs of the veffel, either aboard or affrore.
The number of midfliipmen, like that of feveral
other officers, is always in proportion to the fize of the
flup to which they belong. Thus a firff-rate man of
war has 24, and the inferior rates a fuitable numoer in
proportion. No perfon can be appointed lieutenant
without having previoufly ferved two years in the royal
navy in this capacity, or in that or mate, beiides having
been at leaff four years in aCtual fervice at fea, either
in merchant drips or in the royal navy.
Midlhipman is accordingly the ffation in which a
young volunteer is trained in the feveral exerciles ne¬
ceffary to attain a lufficient knowledge of the machi-
nprv movements, and militarv operations of a drip, to
Mid fliip-
qualify him for a fea officer.
On his firff entrance in a ffrip of war, every midfhip-
man has feveral difadvantageous circurnftances to en¬
counter. Thefe are partly occafioned by the nature
of the fea fervice ; and partly by the miffaken preju¬
dices of people in general refpedting naval ditripline,
and the genius of failors and their officers. No cha-
rafler, in their opinion, is more excellent than that of
the common lailor, whom they generally luppoie to
be treated with great feverity by his officers, drawing
a comparifon between them not very advantageous to
the latter. The midlhipman ufually comes aboard tinc¬
tured with thefe prejudices, efpecially if his education
has been amongft the higher rank of people ; and if
the officers happen to anfwer his opinion, he conceives
an early difguff to the fervice, fvom a very partial and
incompetent view of its operations. Blinded by thefe
prepofleflions, he is thrown off his guard, and very
foon furprifed to find, amongff thofe honeff failors, a
crew of abandoned miicreants, ripe for any milchief
or villany. Perhaps, after a little obfervation, many
of them will appear to him equally deffitute of grati¬
tude, ffiame, or juffice, and only deterred from the
commiflion of any crimes by the terror of fevere pu-
nifhment. He will difeover, that the pernicious ex¬
ample of a few of the vileft in a fhip of war is top
often apt to poifon the principles of the greatell num¬
ber, efpecially if the reins of difcipline are too much
relaxed, fo as to fofter that idlenefs and diffipation,
which engender floth, difeafes, and an utter profligacy
of manners. If the midfhipman on many occafions is
obliged to mix with thefe, particularly in the exercifes
of extending or reducing the fails in the tops, he ought
refolutely to guard againft this contagion, with which
the morals of his inferiors may be infedted. He ffmuld,
however, avail himfelf of their knowledge, and acquire
their expertnefs in managing and fixing the fails and
rigging, and never fuffer himfelf to be excelled by an
inferior. He will probably find a virtue in almoff
F every
M I D
[ 42 ]
M T D
MiAfh ip-
man.
every private failor, which is entirely unknown to
many of his officers : that virtue is emulation, which
is not indeed mentioned amongft their qualities by the
gentlemen of terra ftrtna, by whom their chara&ers are
often copioufly deferibed with very little judgement.
There is hardly a common tar who is not envious of
fuperior fkill in his fellow’s, and jealous on all ocea-
fions to be outdone in what he confiders as a branch
of his duty : nor is he more afraid of the dreadful con-
fequences of whiftling in a flbrm, than of being ftig-
raatized with the opprobrious epithet of lubber. For¬
tified again!! this fcandal, by a thorough knowdedge
of his bufinefs,, the failor will fometimes fneer in pri¬
vate at the execution of orders which to him appear
awkward, improper, or unlike a feaman. Nay, he
will perhaps be malicious enough to fupprefs his ovrn
judgement, and, by a punflual obedience to command,
execute whatever is to be performed in a manner
which he knows to be improper, in order to expofe
the perfon commanding to difgrace and ridicule. Little
fkilled in the method of the fchools, he confiders the
officer who cons his leffon by rote as very ill qualified
Tor 1 ris flatkm, becaufe particular lituations might ren¬
der it neceffary for the faid officer to affift at putting
his own orders in practice. An ignorance in this prac¬
tical knowledge will therefore neceffarily be thought
an unpardonable deficiency by thofe who are to follow
his diredlions. Hence the midffiipman wffio affociates
with thefe bailors in the tops, till he has acquired a
competent fkiil in the fervice of extending or reducing
the fails, &;c. will b$ often entertained with a number
of fcurrilous jefts, at the expence of his fuperiors.
Hence alfo he will learn, that a timely application to
thofe exercifes can only prevent him from appearing
in the fame defpicable point of view, which muft cer¬
tainly be a cruel mortification to a man of the fmallelt
fenfibility.
If the midffiipman is not employed in thefe fervices,
which are undoubtedly neceffary to give him a clearer
idea of the different parts of his occupation, a variety
of other objefls prefent themfelves to his attention.
Without prefuming to didate the fludies which are
moft effential to his improvement, vve could wiffi to
recommend fuch as are moft fuitable to the bent of his
inclination. Aftronomy, geometry, and mechanics,
which are in the firft rank of fcience, are the mate¬
rials which form the fkilful pilot and the fuperior ma¬
riner. The theory of navigation is entirely derived
from the two former, and all the machinery and move- s
ments of a ftiip are founded upon the latter. The ac¬
tion of the wind upon the fails, and the refiftance of
the water at the ftem, naturally didate an inquiry into
the property of folids and lluids j and the ftate of the
(hip, floating on the water, feems to dired his appli¬
cation to the ftudy of hydroftatics, and the effeds of
gravity. A proficiency in thefe branches of fcience
will equally enlarge his views, w’ith regard to the ope¬
rations of naval war, as direded by the efforts of
powder and the knowledge of projediles. The moft.
effedual method to excite his application to thofe ftu-
dies, is, perhaps, by looking round the navy, to ob-
lerve the charaders of individuals. By this inquiry
he will probably dilcover, that the officer who is emi¬
nently ikilled in the fciences, will command univerfal
refped and approbation 5 and that whoever is fatisfied
with the defpicable ambition of fhining the hero of an
^ffembly, will be the objed of univerfal contempt.
The attention of the former will be engaged in thole
ftudies which are highly ufeful to himfelf in particular,
and to the fervice in general. The employment of
the latter is to acquire thofe fuperficial accompliftiments „
that unbend the mind from every ufeful fcience, emaf-
culate the judgement, and render the hero infinitely
more dexterous at falling into his ftation in the dance
than in the line of battle.
Unlefs the midffiipman has an unconquerable aver-
fion to the acquifition of thofe qualifications which
are fo effential to his improvement, he will very rare¬
ly want opportunities of making a progrefs therein.
Every ftep he advances in thofe meritorious employ¬
ments vdll facilitate his acceflion to the next in order.
If the dunces, who are his officers or meffmates, are
rattling the dice, roaring bad verfes, hifling on the
flute, or feraping difeord from the fiddle, his atten¬
tion to more noble ftudies will fweeten the hours of re¬
laxation. He ffiould recoiled, that no example from
fools ought to' influence his condud, or feduce him
from that laudable ambition wffiich his honour and ad¬
vantage are equally concerned to purfue.
MIDWIFE, one whofe profeffion is to deliver wo¬
men in labour. See Midwifery.
Midfhip-
man,
Midwife.
MIDWIFERY,
1
Definition. r I ^HE art of affifting w’omen in labour. In a more
extended fenfe, it is underftood to comprehend al¬
fo the treatment of the difeafes of women and children.
In this wmrk we {hall confider it in the former limited
fenfe, viz. as relating to the birth of the offspring of
man.
ii Hi/lory of Midwifery.—It muft be very obvious that
this art muft have been almoft coeval wuth mankind :
but in Europe it continued in a very rude ftate till the
1 yth century ; and even after phyfic and furgery had
become diftind profeffions, it remained almoft totally
uncultivated.
It is a curious fad, that in the empire of China
the very reverfe of this has taken place. In that em¬
pire, according to the lateft accounts, both phyfic and
furgery are ftill in a ftate of the utmoft degradation,
even more fo than among the favages of America;
but for fome hundred years, the art of midwifery has
been pradifed by a fet of men deiiined to the purpofe
by order of government. Thefe men, wffio hold in fo..
ciety the fame rank which lithotomifts did in this coun¬
try about the beginning of laft century, are called in
whenever a woman has been above a certain number of
hours in labour, and employ a mechanical contrivance
for
MIDWIFERY.
43
Hiftory
4
5
*
for completing the delivery without injury to the in¬
fant. A certain number of fuch individuals is allotted
to each dillridf of a certain population.
It is faid, that the Chinefe government was led to
make this provilion for alleviating the fufferings of
child-bearing women, in confequence of a reprefenta-
tion, that annually many women died undelivered, and
that in the majority of cafes the caufe of obftru&ion
might have been removed by very Ample mechanical
expedients.
Both Sir George Staunton and Mr Barrow were
ignorant of this fail; and the latter in particular ex-
prefsly mentions, that there are no men-midwives in
China. But the writer of this article had his informa¬
tion from a more authentic fource than the works of
gentlemen who were only a few months in that coun¬
try, and were in a great meafure treated as date pri-
foners. He has it, through the medium of a friend,
from a gentleman w:ho refided upwards of twenty years
as furgeon to the Britilh failory at Canton, and vvho
had both the ability and the inclination to learn, during
the courfe of fo long a refidence, all the cuftoms and
prejudices of the natives relating to the prefervation of
human health.
Towards the end of the 17th century, the fame
caufes which had fo long before led to the cultivation
of midwifery in China produced the fame effedt in
Europe. The dangers to which women are fometimes
expofed during labour excited the compaffion of the be¬
nevolent ; fo that a confiderable part of the firft hof-
pital which was eftabliihed for the reception of the
indigent fick, the Hotel Dieu of Paris, was appropri¬
ated to lying in women.
The opportunities of pra&ice which that hofpital
afforded, direfled the attention of medical men to the
numerous accidents which happen during labour, and
to the various difeafes which occur after delivery. Pm
blic teaching followed, and foon after the cutlom of
employing men in the pra&ice of midwifery began.
From this period the art became rapidly improved ;
and it is now in many parts of Europe, and particular¬
ly in Great Britain, in as great a date of perfe&ion as
phylic or furgery.
In the year 1725, a profefforfliip of midwifery was
eftablifhed in the univerfity of Edinburgh 5 and the town
council at the fame time ordained, that no woman
fliould be allowed to praflife midwifery within the li¬
berties of the city, without having previoufly obtained a
certificate from the profeffor of her being properly
qualified. This falutary regulation has fallen into
defuetude.
There can be no doubYthat the improvement of the
art of midwifery vvas chiefly in confequence of medical
men direfling their attention to the fubjefl} but the
propriety of men being employed in fuch a profefiion is
much queflioned by many individuals of confiderable
refpeff ability.
Dr John Gregory, in his Comparative View, p. 22.
fays, “ every other animal brings forth its young with¬
out any affiftance, but we think a midwife underflands
it better.” Had this eminent philofopher laid, other
animals content themfelves with the clothing which
providence has bellowed, but we tnink it neceffaiy to
cover our bodies with the workmanlhip of w'eavers,
very few in this northern climate would have attended
to the fneer. His fon, the prefent profeffor, has impro- Of .
ved upon the idea. He feems to fuppofe that women Conception,
without any inftruflion, and of courfe without any
knowledge of the fubjefl, are capable of aflfifting one
another while in labour ; and in the fportivenefs of
his lively imagination, he compares men-midwives to
that fpecies of frog, in which, according to the allega¬
tion of Reaumur, the male draws out the ova from
the female, or, to ufe the naturalill’s words, “ accouche
la feme lie?'
It appears to us that this queftion, on which much
declamation has been employed by the parties who
have agitated it, may be brought within a very narrow
compais. It may be affumed as a faff eftablifhed be¬
yond the reach of controverfy, that fometimes dangers
and difficulties occur during labour (from caufes to be
explained in a fubfequent part of this effay), which can
be leffened or removed by thofe only who have an inti¬
mate knowledge of the ftrufture of the human body
and of the pradlice of phyfic. On fuch occafions, it
muft be admitted, medical men alone can be ufeful.
But as Inch labours occur only in the proportion of two
or three in the hundred, the general pradlice might be
confided to midwfives, if they could be taught to manage
ordinary cafes, and to forefee and diftinguilh difficulties
or dangers, fo as to procure in fufficient time additional
affiftance. It is on this point that the decifion of the
queftion muft depend. It confifts with the knowledge
of the writer of this article, that women may be taught
all this. But there are many who allege, that a little
knowledge being a dangerous thing, midwives acquire
a felf-fufficiency which renders them averfe from call¬
ing in fuperior affiftance, and that, in confequence, they
often occafion the moll, deplorable accidents both to
mother and child. In England this is the popular opi¬
nion, fo that there women are almoft entirely excluded
from the practice of midwifery. x\ fimilar prejudice
again!! midwives has, it is believed, begun in fome parts
of Scotland; but it is prefumed this will gradually
ceafe, when it is confidered that, in general, the Scotch
midwives are regularly inftrudled, and are at the fame
time both virtuous and induftrious. If they attend
ftridlly to their duty, and invariably prefer their patients
fafety to their own feelings or fuppofed intereft, they
will defervediy retain the public confidence. But if
in cafes of difficulty or danger they trull to their own
exertions, or from interefted motives decline the affift-
ance of able prailitioners, and if they interfere in the
treatment of the difeafes of women and children, they
will in a few years be excluded from praflice.
Divifon of the fubjeSl. In order to exhibit an ac- 7
curate view of what relates to the birth of man, we
fliall confider, in the firft place, conception j fecondly the
effefts of impregnation j thirdly, the aft of childbearing;
and laftly, the deviations from the ordinary courfe which
fometimes happen. Thefe topics will form the fubjefts
of the following chapters.
Chap. I. Of Conception.
Three circumftances are required for conception in *
the human race, viz. puberty; a healthy, vigorous, and
natural Hate of the parts fubfervient to the operation in
both fexes ; and fuccefsful fexual intercourfe.
1. The age of puberty in women differs confiderably
F 2 in
44
M I D W I F E R Y.
Chap. I.
Of
Conception
9
31
in different climates. In Europe it takes place com¬
monly between the fourteenth and fixteenth year. This
important era is marked by certain changes both in
the mind and body. The girl feels fenfations to which
fhe had been formerly unaccuftomed. She lofes a relifh
for her former amuiements, and even for her youthful
companions. She feeks folitude, indulges in the de-
preffing paffions, and thefe are excited by the moft ap¬
parently trilling caufes. She'feels occaiionally certain
delires which modefty repreffes; and it is by degrees on¬
ly that fhe regains her former tranquillity.
The changes in her body are even more flrongly
marked than thofe in her mind. Her breads affume
that form which adds to the beauty of her perfon, and
renders them fit for Rourifhing her infant j and every
part of the genital fyftem is enlarged. A periodi¬
cal difcharge from the uterus renders the woman
perfect.
In young men the fame caufes produce very different
effects. The lad, about fifteen or fixteen, feels a great
incr; afe of ftrength; his features expand, his voice be¬
comes rough, his ftep firm, his body athletic 5 and he
engages voluntarily in exercifes which require an exer¬
tion of ftrength and activity. The changes in his
mind are as ftrcngly marked as thofe in his body. He
loies that reftlefs puerility which had diftinguifhed his
Carly years, and becomes capable of attending fteadily
to one object. His behaviour to the fair fex is fudden-
ly altered. He no longer fliews that contempt for wo¬
men, which he had formerly betrayed. He is foftened,
approaches them with deference, and experiences a de¬
gree of pleafure in their company, for which he can
fcarcely account. In him too there is an important
change in the condition of the genital organs.
2. Unlefs the parts which conflitute peculiarity of
fex be in a healthy, vigorous, and natural ftate, concep¬
tion cannot take place.
In women, conception is prevented if the organs be
too much relaxed ; if there be obltrudlion between the
external and internal parts j if any preternatural dif¬
charge take place from the internal parts j if the men-
fliua! evacuation be not natural in every refptft, and if
the appendages of the uterus, called fallopian tubes, and
ovaria, be not of the natural flruflure.
In men, the fame circumftance happens if the organs
be too much relaxed ; if the orifice of the urethra be
in an improper fituation j if the urethra be difeafed ; if
the teftes be not in a natural healthy ftate ; and if there
be any defedl in the ereflores penis, which prevents the
proper eredlion of that organ.
3. The fexual intercourfe cannot be fuccefsful unlefs
fomewhat r.eceffary for conception be furnilhed by both
fexes. This confifts in the male of a fluid fecreted by
the teftes j and in the female, of the detachment of a
fubftance, fuppofed to refemble a very minute veficle
fnuated in the ovarium, and called by phyftologifts
ovum. Each ovarium contains a number of thefe vefi-
cles. After every conception, certain marks of the
detachment of the ovum remain in the refpe£live
ovarium.
Wh rn the circumflances required for conception con¬
cur, a being is produced which generally refembles
both parents. This refemblance is moft ftrikingly
marked in the human fubjeft, when one of the parents
is an European, and the other an African. What is Of
called a mulatto is produced. Conception.
The human rftce poffeffes the power of propagation
in common with all the other fpecies of the animal
kingdom, and alfo, it has been faid, with the vegetable
kingdom.
As generation then, as it has been ftyled, is com¬
mon to two of the kingdoms of nature, it has been ima¬
gined by ingenious men, that this wonderful operation
is regulated in both by a certain general lav/. But
they have differed much in their account of this law.
The queftion at iffue between the two parties is whether
the embryos of animals be prepared by the fexual in¬
tercourfe out of inorganic materials, or whether they
pre-exift in the bodies of animals, and are only deve¬
loped as it were by that intercourfe. The former of
thefe opinions is called the dodfrine of epigenefis, the
latter that of evolution.
Both dodtrines have been maintained with much in¬
genuity by equally relpediable authorities. Negative
arguments have been adduced in favour of the one,
pofitive in fupport of the other, and it mutt be confefs-
ed that the balance between them feems nearly equal.
The pre exiftence of ova in the oviparous animals ap¬
pears a pofitive argument in favour of evolution 5 but
the fatirical remark of a late witty author, * that, were '
this theory true, every individual of the human race
muft have been lodged in the ovaria of our firit parent,
by affording a negative argument in favour of epigeneli^
reft ores the balance.
The various arguments advanced on each fide by the
oppofite parties in this difpute are fo very numerous,
that we cannot attempt to detail them in this work j
and on a fubjedt which has divided the opinions of fo
many able phyfiologifts, it would be prefumption to de¬
cide peremptorily.
If generation be regarded as an animal operation,
one is led to inquire whether the produdt be the refult
of the combined influence of both fexes, or whether it
be produced by either fex alone.
The firft opinion was generally adopted by phyfiolo- 13
gifts, till about the end of the 17th century, when an
accidental difeovery convinced many that the embryo
was produced by the male parent alone •, and another
difeovery fome years afterwards again overturned that
opinion, and rendered it believed by not a few that
the embryo is furnilhed exclulively by the female
parent.
Several circumftances concurred to render the firft
opinion probable *, the ftrudture of the organs which con-
ftitute peculiarity of fex in both parents, the circum¬
ftances neceffary for fuccefsful impregnation, and the
fimilitude of children to both parents, appear very ftrong
arguments in its favour.
The fecond theory, although firft brought into vogue 14
about the end of the 17th century by the difeoveries of
Leeuwenhoeck, had been foimerly propofed by the fol¬
lowers of Pythagoras. Their argument w'as analogy :
the feed, faid they, is fown in the earth, nourilhed
and evolved there ; fo the male femen is fown in
the uterus, and in the fame manner nouriihed and
evolved.
Leeuwenhoeck’s difeovery feemed a more cenclufive
argument in favour of the theory than vague analogy.
He
M I D W
obferved innumerable aijimalcula in the feminal
Thefe he imagined
IS
Chap. T.
Of He
Conception Qf t’ne maies 0f many animals.
» ^ to be embryos.
But as animalcula of apparently the fame nature
have been obferved in many animal fluids befides the fe-
men mafeulinum, the opinion of Leeuvvenhceck and
the theory itfelf are overturned.
It was owing principally to the labours, induftry, and
ingenuity of Baron Haller, that the third theory, that
of the pre exifting germ, became falhionable.
His obfervations feem to contain a demonftration of
the fa£l.
Thofe who have adopted this theory, imagine that
the femen mafeulinum poffefles the power of flimulating
the various parts of the pre-exifting embryo. And
hence they explain the ftmihtude to both parents, and
particularly the appearance of the hybrid productions, to
that fluid nouiifhing certain parts, and new-arranging
others. But if this were true, then the femen mafeuli¬
num of all animals fliould poffefs the power of ftimulat-
ing the forms of all female animals •, and befides, in each
clals of animals it ftiould poffefs certain fpecific powers
of giving a dire&ion to the growth of parts. Experi¬
ment, horvever, has not proved this to be the cate, for
the hybrid produ&ions are very limited •, and we may
be permitted perhaps, without the imputation of arro¬
gance in pretending to fearch into the intentions of the
Author of nature, to obferve, that had the femen maf¬
eulinum been pofleffed of fuch powers, the whole Ipe-
cies of animals would have been foon confounded, and
the whole animal kingdom would loon have returned to
that chaos from which it has been allegorically laid it
originated.
Yet we are reduced to the alternative of either re-
jefting the theory, or of believing that the femen does
pofiefs the powers alluded to. If we examine attentive¬
ly the anatomical dilcovery on which this theory is
built, we lhall perhaps be inclined to believe that the
foundation of the whole is very infufficient •, and hence
to conclude that the great fuperftructure is in a very
tottering condition. If it be poflible that the attach¬
ment of the chick to the yolk of the egg Ihould be in
confequence of inofculation, the theory mull fall to the
ground. Haller has endeavoured to obviate this objec¬
tion, but not with his ufual judgement.
Two circumftances, however, feem to (how that the
attachment is really by inofculation : I. That veflels
are feen in the membrane of the yolk evidently con¬
taining blood before the heart of the chick begins to
beat •, yet thefe veftels afterwards appear to depend on
the vafcular fyftem of the chick. And 2. lhat in
many animals, as in the human fubjeft, the umbilical
cord feems to be attached to the abdomen by inolcula-
tion ; for there is a circle round the root of the cord
which refembles a cicatrix, and within a few days af¬
ter birth, the cord uniformly drops off at that very
circle, whatever-portion may have been retained after
delivery.
There is one obje&ien equally applicable to all the
three theories, viz. the difficulty of explaining the fteps
of the procefs. A variety of explanations have been
offered by ingenious men. Spallanzani and IMr John
Hunter lately, Haller and Bonnet formerly, have rea-
<lered themfelves conspicuous on this fubjeS. Spallan¬
zani, in particular, appears to many to have produced
16
I F E R Y. 45
by his artificial impregnation, the moft convincing Effe&s ot
proofs of the pre-exiltence of the germ. But to what
do his celebrated experiments amount ? They fnow, that -v j
in all animals it is neceffary that the femen mafeulinum
fliould be applied to the fomevvhat expelled by the fe¬
male during the coitus, otherwife impregnation cannot
take place. But ivas not this univerfally acknowledged
before the abbe was born ? In the unfortunate frogs
wffio were the fubjefts of his experiments, the whole
operation of generation was completed except the ap¬
plication of the male femen to the iubflances expelled
by the female. Nature, by eftabliffiing that the bufi-
nefs ffiould be carried on in water, fliows that the fe¬
men muft be diluted, otherwife it cannot fecundate.
i?
The abbe only imitated nature. He left the queftion
in the flate in which he found it. His experiment on
the bitch may appear more conclufive; but alas ! it has
nev r succeeded with any perfon but himfelf.
On the whole, ftnee the procefs of generation is fa
obfeure that no rational explanation of it has yet been
ottered, are we not entitled to conclude that the gene¬
ral theory which accounts moft fatisfa£torily for the
various phenomena which impregnation exhibits is' tne
beft ; and confequently, that the product of genera¬
tion cannot pre-exift in the body of either parent exclu-
fively ?
Chap. IT. of Impregnation. T^
In' confequence of impregnation, certain important
changes take place in the uterine fyflem ot the human
fubjeft. We fliall confider the natural changes only.
On fome occafions, there are morbid changes j but wye
ffiall not notice them, except in fo far as fome of them
lerve to illuftrate the nature ol the ulual ones.
The firft vifible change is on the ovarium. One of
thofe organs fwells out at one point like a fmail papilla,
then burfts, and fomewhat is difeharged.
A fubftance is found in the ovarium after this, which 19-
is called corpus luteum. Roederer has deferibed very
accurately its appearance a few hours after delivery.
He fays “ corpus luteum locatur in rotundo apice. Io-
tam ovarii craffitiem occupat, immediate pone ovarii
membranam ilia lede tenuiorem locatum •, ab ovario
cum quo cellulofae ope cohaeret feparari fine lastione
poteft ; null! peculiari ovarii rimae refpondet : neque
canalis in illo excavatus, fed totum folidum eft. Lu-
teus color eft, fubftantia acinofa, acinis admodum com-
paflis et ad fefe preffis ambitus rotundus. Poteft aliquo
modo, velut in glandulis fuprarenalibus, duplex fubftantia
diftingui, corticalis et medullaris j quarum ilia inasqua-
lis craffitiei I—2 lin. lutea comprehendit hanc medul-
larem albam, qua; tenuis et membrana quafi callofa, ali-
um nucleum flavum includit caffiorem It is very * Roederer.
large foon after conception, and then gradually ^
comes fmaller-, but never totally difappears. Roederer,. in f
obferves, “ poll puerperium eo magis contral i et indu- Arwif 1'/-
rari ilia corpora videntur, quo remotior lit partus j -iji. p 42.
qualia videlicet obfervantur in feminis quae nuper par-
turn non ediderunt.
“ Lutea corpora quoferius a partu ohfervantur cunfta
glandulis fuprarenalibus fimilia effe videntur, dunlice
nempe fubftantia, exterioie cortical', folida feu fiava
lutea et nucleo fufeo : velut etiam illae glandulae com.
preffa funt. f” In gaf^s where there is a plurality of t Rfd:
children,P-3.^
46
M i D W I F E R f.
tion.
EfFed? of children, there is evidently a corpus luteum to each
mp.egna- jn fome quadrupeds, as in the bitch or cat, the
number of young in the uterus may be generally known
by the correfponding corpora lutea in the ovaria.
1 he next change in the human uterine fyftem which
deferves notice is that in the fallopian tubes. They
fwell out towards the fimbriated extremity, and form a
cavity which has been called antrum. Roederer was
. the firft w7ho oblerved and accurately delineated this
change.
He fays, p. 14. loco citato, “ In hoc etiam uterO an¬
trum tubae dextras apparet, c.f. tab. i. not. 5. ubi qui-
dem in utraque tuba adefl, in hujus iconis utero ad fo-
lam tubam dextram antrum pertinet. Ad uterum fe-
minae odtiduum puerperee non longe a fimbria in iftiuf-
modi antrum tuba finifira prominet : dextra quidem
fine antro ell, fed verlus fimbriam ita tledlitur ut ultima
flexura dimidium pollicem ultra reliquam tubam etfera-
tur. Tubae feminre quae mox a mature partu mortua
eh, et alterius tres dies puerpene antris quidem carent,
led multum verfus fimbrias dilatantur. An eft fadta
conceptione ilia antra nafeuntur ?
In uteri, tab. iv. ovario dextro luteum corpus latet
■in uteri feminae o&iduum puerperae ovario finiltro ; in
uteri, tab. i. ovario finiftro.” He adds, “ ulteriori inda-
gine ilia antra non indigna efle mihi videntur. Licebit
forfan conjeflare aliquid liquoris ex veficula graafiana
in tubam laplum et ad introitum morans illam dila-
tam.”
lint the molt aflonifliing changes are thofe produced
in the uterus itfelf. Its parietes feparate, a cavity is
formed which becomes filled with a fluid, and the os
.uteri is clofed up. The matter contained within the
cavity foon affumes an organized form. It is faid that
fome time after conception, a fmall veficle is obferved
attached at one point to the internal furface of the
uterus •, that the reft of the parietes is covered with a
gelatinous fluid; and that the whole internal furface af¬
fumes a flocculent appearance. By degrees the veficle,
which is in fail the ovum containing the embryo, increafes
fo much in fize that it nearly fills the whole cavity in
which it is contained, and then its ftru&ure becomes
the object of our fenfes.
I he mcreafe of fize in the uterus is very gradual.
It is at firft confined almoft entirely to the fundus, and
it proceeds fo ftowly that it does not leave the cavity of
the pelvis till nearly the ' fourth month. The prin¬
cipal change in the cervix for the firft five months is the
complete clofure of the orifice, which is eftedled by a
gelatinous fluid : afterwards the cervix is gradually ex¬
tended, and at laft its form is obliterated, the whole
uterus becoming like an oval pouch.
After the fifth month the increafe of fize in the ute-
erus is very rapid. The fundus can be juft felt above the
pubes about the fifth month, but at the end of the
ninth month it extends to the fcrobiculus cordis.
Some authors have alleged that the changes in the
cervix and in the fituation of the fundus are fo uni-
torvnly regular in every cafe, that by attending to them
it is poiTible to sfeertain the exadft period of impregna¬
tion. But in this refpetft they are much mlftaken ; the
changes ^being not only different in different women,
but alio in the fame woman in different pregnancies.
I he texture of the parietes of the uterus feems much
a a
^3
M
Chap. IT.
altered after impregnation. It becomes fpongy and Eft'edb of
fibrous. The fibres run in very different directions, and ImPregna-
from their power and appearance are certainly mufeu- tl0n'
lar. Ihe blood-veffels become much enlarged, but are
ftill in a tortuous direction. They are particularly
large at one part of the uterus.
I he lymphatic veffels, which in the unimpregnated
uterus cannot be demonftrated by anatomifts, become, as
well as the blood-veffels, remarkably large.
The ovum is not often expelled entire till after the
eighth or twelfth week after conception. It is fhaped
fomewhat like an egg, and is about the latter period
about four inches in length. When cut into, it is
found to confift of four layers or membranes, and to
contain a feetus furrounded by a certain quantity of
water and conne&ed to one part of the parietes (which
is confiderably thicker than the reft) by a vafcular
cord.
'The external membrane covers the whol« ovum.
It is thick, fpongy, and very vafcular, the veffels evident¬
ly deriving their blood from the uterus ; it has three
peiiorations which correfpond with the openings of the
os tineas and fallopian tubes. It has been called
decidiWy tunic a Ji!anient ofa &c. but its moll ordinary ap¬
pellation is fpongy chorion.
1 he fecond membrane proceeds from the edges ot
that part into which the vafcular rope which connedts
the foetus is attached. It was firft pointed out to ana¬
tomifts by Dr William Hunter, and called by him
decidua reflexa. The name unfortunately records to
pollerity the abfurd idea refpedling its origin which
was entertained by Dr Hunter. It is not fo°thick and
fpongy as the former membrane, nor fo .vafcular. It lies
loofely between the external membrane and that to be
next deferibed ; but it appears only for a Ihort time, as
it foon becomes blended with the others.
The third membrane is thin and tranfparent, but
ftrong. It is lined with the fourth membrane, and lies in
the fame fituation with it. It contains no veffels at this
peiiod of impregnation conveying red blood in the hu¬
man fubjedl, but in the cow the veffels are very diftintft
at every period. This membrane however in the early
period of impregnation is very vafcular, and its veffels
are derived from the fetus. The hiftory of a cafe of
morbid impregnation, where the fetus was extra-uterine,
detailed by Dr Clarke in the “ Tran factions of a
Society for the Improvement of Medical and Chirurgi-
cal Knowledge,” proves this circumftance very clearly.
He fays, p. 220 “a laceration was found to be in the
fallopian tube about an inch and a half in length, each
oxiiemity of which was about an equal diftance from
the refpeaive termination of the tube in the fimbrite
ana in the uterus. Ihe diffenfion of the tube at this
part was nearly of the fize of a large walnut, forming a
kind of pouch. More of the coagulated blood being
removed from the lacerated part, \X\zf!;aggy vejfels of the
chorion immediately appeared, interfperfed with fmall
coagula, and lying in contaeft with the internal furface
of the pouch formed by the fallopian tube ; thefe being
leparated, and the chorion divided, the amnios (hewed it-
felf, containing a fetus perfedlly formed of above fix or
feven weeks growth &c.”
This membrane is called the true chorion.
The fourth membrane is even thinner and more tranf-
26
27
parent
3
Chap. II.
MIDWIFE!! Y.
47
Effects of parent than the former. It lines the whole internal
Impregna- furface 0f j;he ovum, and together with the chorion is
■ ' continued along the vafcular cord which connefts the
ovum and foetus. Between this membrane and the
chorion, near the infertion of the vafcular cord, a {mall
white veficle appears very diftinft at this period ; it was
hrft deferibed and delineated by Dr W. Hunter, and
was called by him veiicula umbilicalis. At the full
period of utero-geftation it is no longer vifible, being
then quite tranfparent.
The foetus at this period is between two and three
inches in length, and its external conformation is nearly
complete.
The fluid contained in the ovum is in fuch quantity
as to prevent the foetus from touching the parietes of
the covering in which it is included. It is a clear
watery fluid, of greater fpecinc gravity than water, and
of a falthh tafte. When examined chemically it is
found not coagulable by heat or alcohol, and to contain
a proportion of ammoniacal and fea fait. This fluid is
called liquor amnii.
The connexion of the parts thus enumerated with the
uterus cannot be explained, unlefs the appearance of the
ovum at the full period of geftation be deferibed.
2S The ovum then confifls of three membranes*, a {pongy
vafcular fubftance called placenta, to w'hich the foetus
is connected by a vafcular rope, and the liquor
amnii.
The three membranes confift of the fpongy chorion,
the true chorion, and the amnios.
The fpongy chorion covers the whole. Its veffels
are numerous, and they can be filled by throwing hot
wax into the veffels of the uterus.
The true chorion and amnios are in the fame fitua-
tion as in the early months, being continued along the
They are quite tranfparent, and contain no viflble vef¬
fels of any defeription.
The placenta is a large vafcular fpongy mafs, of va¬
rious forms in different cafes, moft generally approaching
to a round one, placed on the outfide of the true chorion,
between it and the fpongy chorion. Its external furface
is lobulated *, its internal or that towards the foetus is
fmooth, except from the riflng of the blood-veffels.
It is not attached to the uterus at any regular place,
being fometimes at the cervix or lide, but moil generally
about the fundus. On the one fide it receives blood
from the mother, and on the other from the child.
Mr John Hunter was the firft who clearly traced the
infertion of the blood-veffels in the uterus into the
placenta. He deferibes it thus (d) : “ The late inde¬
fatigable Dr M’Kenzie, about the month of May 1754,
when afliftant to Dr Smellie, having procured the body
of a pregnant wmman who had died undelivered at the
full term, had injefted both the veins and arteries with
particular fuccefs *, the veins being filled with yellow,
the arteries with red.
“ Having opened the abdomen, and expofed the ute¬
rus, he made an incifion into the fore part, quite
through its fubftance, and came to fomewhat having
the appearance of an irregular mafs of inje<fted matter,
which afterwards proved to be the placenta, ihis ap¬
pearance being new, he flopped, and greatly obliged Eff«ffs of
me by defiring my attendance to examine the parts, in Impregna-
which there appeared fomething fo uncommon. , tl°n~ .
“ I firft raifed, with great care, part of the uterus
from the irregular mafs above mentioned 5 in doing
which, I obferved regular pieces of wax, pafling ob¬
liquely between it and the uterus, which broke off,
leaving part upon this mafs j and when they were at¬
tentively examined, towards the uterus, plainly appear¬
ed to be a continuation of the veins paffing from it to
this fubftance or placenta.
“ I likewife perceived other veffels, about the fize of
a crow quill, pafling in the fame manner, although not
fo obliquely : thefe alfo broke upon leparating the pla¬
centa and uterus, leaving a fmall portion on the furface
of the placenta ; and, on examination, they were dif-
covered to be continuations of the arteries of the uterus.
My next ftep was to trace thefe veffels into the fub¬
ftance of what appeared placenta, which 1 firft at¬
tempted in a vein ; but that foon loft the regularity of
a veffel, by terminating at once upon the furface of the
placenta, in a very fine fpongy fubftance, the interfaces
of which were filled with the yellow injefted matter.
This termination being new, I repeated the fame kind
of examination on other veins, which always led me to
the fame terminations, never entering the fubftance of
the placenta in the form of a veffel. I next examined
the arteries, and, tracing them in the fame manner to¬
ward the placenta, found that they made a twift, or
clofe fpiral turn upon themfelves, and then were loft
on its furface. On a more attentive view, I perceived
that they terminated in the fame way as the veins 5 for
oppofite to the mouth of the artery, the fpongy fub¬
ftance of the placenta was readily obferved, and wTas in¬
termixed with the red injeflion.
“ Upon cutting into the placenta, I difeovered, in
many places of its fubftance, yellow injeftion ; in others
red, and in many others thefe two colours mixed.
This fubftance of the placenta, now filled with injec¬
tion, had nothing of the vafcular appearance, nor that
of extravafation, but had a regularity in its form, which
{hewed it to be a natural cellular ftrufture fitted for a
refervoir for blood.
“ In fome of the veffels leading from the placenta
to the uterus, I perceived that the red injection of the
arteries (which had been firft inieCied) had paffed into
them out of the fubftance of the placenta, mixing itfelf
with the yellowr injection. I alfo obierved, that the
fpongy chorion, called the decidua by Dr Hunter, wTas
very vafcular, its veffels coming from, and returning to,
the uterus, being filled with the different coloured in-
jeftions.”
It appears then that the placenta has a cellular ftruc- 29
ture, which receives blood from the arteries of the mo¬
ther, and that there are veins by which that blood is
returned, fo that not a drop paffes into the foetus. Of
this praflitioners of midwifery have a very familiar
proof. When the placenta is retained attached to the
uterus, after the birth of the child, not a drop of blood
paffes from the umbilical cord, except what was con¬
tained in the ramifications of the foet,al veffels when the
child
(d) Obfervations on certain parts of the Animal Oeconomy, by John Hunter, p. 127.
48
Effects of child vyas feparated. Yet, if a fmall portion of the
I'nP'egna- edge 0f the placenta be detached, fuch a quantity of
t blood efcapes from the uterine veflels of the mother, as
lometimes proves fatal to life : a circumftance which
clearly fhews that the blood is full conveyed into the
cellular part of the placenta.
It has been faid, that the placenta on one fide re¬
ceives blood from the foetus. In fact, the greatelt part
of the placenta feems to be made up of ramifications of
the foetal veffels. The internal iliacs of the foetus are
conveyed, through the vafcular rope which connects the
placenta and child, into the placenta : they then ramify
into as many minute branches as the pulmonary aiteries
do in the lungs of the adult; they then terminate in
various branches, which, uniting, form one large trunk
that is conveyed along the vafcular rope, and returns
all the blood which had been diftributed by the ar¬
teries.
As Mr Hunter remarks, “ the arteries from the foe¬
tus pafs out to a confiderable length, under the name
of the umbilical cord ; and when they arrive at the pla¬
centa, ramify upon its furface, fending into its fub-
flance branches which pafs through it, and divide into
fmaller and fmaller, till at laft they terminate in veins :
tlaefe uniting, become larger and larger, and end in one
which at laft terminates in the proper circulation of the
foetus. This courfe of veflels, and the blood’s motion
in them, is fimilar to the courfe of the veffels, and the
& J. Hun- motion of the blood, in other parts of the body*.”
ter, loc. cit. The foetus, at the full period, weighs from between
P-135- 6 and 7, to between 10 and II pounds, and mealures
20 from 18 to 22 inches. It is placed within the ovum in
fuch a manner as to occupy the leaft pofftble fpace.
This pofttion has been beautifully defcribed by Harvey.
“ Infans in utero utplurimum reperitur, adducftis ad
abdomen genibus, flexis retrofum cruribus, pedibus de-
cuffatis, manibufque ad caput fublatis, quarum alteram
circa tempora vel auriculas, alteram ad genam detinet,
ubi maculae albae, tanquam confricationis veftigia, in
cute cernuntur : fpina in orbem fleftitur, caput ad ge¬
nua incurvato collo propendet. Tali membrorum litfU
f Harvey qualem in fomno per quietem quaerimusf.”
Lxercit. de Js diftinguilhed from the adult by a great
~ar ^ many peculiarities in ftruflure : thefe the limits of this
work do not permit us to enumerate. We fhall there¬
fore notice only one peculiarity, which diftinguifhes the
foetus not only from the adult, but even from the na-
tus, viz. the diftribution of the blood through its
body.
f It is well known, that, in the adult and in the na-
tus, all the blood of the body, brought by the two cavae
into the anterior auricle of the heart, and from that in¬
to the correfponding ventricle, is diftributed by the
pulmonary artery over the whole fubftance of the lungs,
by means of the moft minute ramifications j from
whence it is returned by the pulmonary veins into the
pofterior auricle, and being then lent into the pollerior
ventricle, is, by its adlion, tranfmitted to every part of
the body, through the aorta and its ramifications.
But in the foetus the blood follows another courfe.
AH the blood of the foetus is returned from the placen¬
ta by the umbilical vein, which, penetrating the abdo¬
men, paffes between the lobes of the liver, and thence
at right angles divides into two branches nearly, by one
Chap. II.
of which, called (hiFlus vertofus^ a confiderable quantity Effsdls of
of blood is carried into the vena cava; by the other the Iinl,regna-
remainder of the blood is fent to the vena portarum ;  ^ .
and, after having circulated through the liver, it too is
brought by two ihort venous trunks, the vente cavae he-
paticce, juft aeove the diaphragm, into the vena cava.
All the blood thus received into the vena cava, is car¬
ried to the anterior auricle ; but a part only is tranfrait-
ted to the correfponding ventricle, for by a particular
apparatus, a quantity is at once fent into the pofterior
or left auricle. Anatomifts kave differed in opinion
concerning the apparatus by which tins is accomplilhed.
As there is a fmall oval hole of communication be¬
tween the auricles of the foetus, called foramen ovale,
having a valve placed in fuch a manner as to prevent
any fluid from pafling from the left into the right, but
to admit it from the right into the left, it has been ge¬
nerally imagined that the blood paffed through that
opening. But the fimultaneous aefion of the auricles
in the natus leemed to contradict this opinion. A dif-
covery made by Dr Wolfe of Peterfburgh appears to
folve the riddle. He obferved, that in the calf, before
birth, the vena cava, at its entry into the heart, di¬
vides into two branches, by the one of which it fends
blood to the right, and by the other to the left auricle.
It is probable that a fimilar effefl is produced in the
human foetus by a different ftru&ure.
Of the blood fent by the right ventricle into the pul¬
monary artery, a finall quantity only is carried to the
lungs ; for near the point at which that artery is di¬
vided into the two branches that go into the lobes of
the lungs, a large branch is fent off, wdftch joining the
aorta and pulmonary artery, carries a great proportion
of the blood immediately into it. What is circulated
through the lungs is conveyed by the pulmonary veins
into the left auricle, &c.
All the blood thus received into the aorta is diftri¬
buted through the feveral parts of the fyftem, and a
large part of it is fent out by the internal iliacs, wdiich,
palling out at the abdomen, conftitute the umbilical ar¬
teries, and diftribute the blood in the manner already
mentioned over the placenta, from which it is returned
by the veins.—The great difference then between the
foetus and natus in the circulation of the blood, confifts
in the quantity diftributed through the lungs.
To complete the defeription of the ovum at the full 33
period of gertation, it only remains that we fhould fay
fomething on the vafcular rope, which connects the
placenta and foetus, and on the liquor amnii.
This rope is called the funis umbilicalis. It termi¬
nates by ore end at the placenta, and by the other at
the centre of the abdomen of the foetus. Its length
and thicknefs differ materially in different cafes. It is
longer in the human fubject than in any other animal.
It is found generally to be from eighteen to twenty fix
inches in length, and in thicknefs about the fize of the
little finger. Externally it is formed of the chorion
and amnios, together with cellular fubliance. Inter¬
nally it is found to be compofed of three blood-veffels,
and a quantity of gelatinous matter. The veffels con-
fift of two arteries and one vein : the vein being as
large as both arteries united. Thefe go in a fniral di¬
rection, and often form knots by their coils ort'nffmgs.
A very fmall artery and vein are like wife perceived to
go
MIDWIFERY.
2
Chap. II.
MIDWIFERY.
33
34
Effects of go along tlie cord between the two layers of chorion
Impregna- ancj airin}OSj which cover it, into the veficula umbilica-
. tl011'  lis. Thefe are called omphalo-mefenteric.
In quadrupeds, a canal, called urachus, is continued
from the urinary bladder, along the umbilical cord, and
communicates with a membrane, which, like this canal,
does not exill: in the human fubjeft, called allantois.
The urine of the young animal is colleiled in that
membrane.
Some anatomifts, as Albinus, have imagined, that
the urachus and allantois do exift in the human fubjeft.
They were deceived by the appearance of the veficula
mbil icalis and omphalo-mefenteric veffels.
The liquor amnii is never in fuch proportion to the
foetus in the latter, as in the early periods of pregnan¬
cy. It is lefs pure too at that period, being often pol¬
luted with the ftools of the foetus. Except in this cir-
cumdance, its chemical qualities are the fame.
We lhall now offer a few obfervations on the changes
which have been defcribed.
1. The caufe of the increafe of growth in the uterus
is very obfcure. The acceffion of fluids will account
for the phenomenon 5 but a ftrong obje&ion occurs
againfl confidering that as the caufe, i. e. that the ute¬
rus increafes to a certain degree in fize, even although
the di^edlion of fluids be to another part, as where the
foetus is extra-uterine. Boehmerus has marked this very
accurately in a cafe of extra-uterine conception, which
he has detailed (a). The developement of its fibres
feems to prove, that the increafe of lize depends on a
certain energy of the uterus itfelf; perhaps this may
appear a very ambiguous mode of expreflion, yet we can
offer no other explanation of this curious pheno¬
menon.
2. The great bulk of the uterus, during the latter
months, fufbciently explains the caufe of the various
comf ' :ints which occur at that period. Van Doeveren
has defcribed this very accurately. He fays, “ uteri
gravidi incrementum, adfcenfus e pelvis cavo, et imma-
nis expanfio, innumeros excitat gravidarum morbos j
primo quidem ar&ando abdomen et mechanice compri-
mendo vifcera quae in eo continentur, hepar, lienem,
ventriculum, inteflina. omentum, nec minus partes iis vi-
cihas, nempe, renes, ureteres, aortam, venam cavam, ar-
terias et venas iliacas, nervofque e medulla fpinali pro-
deuntes inferiores; accidit pefloris coarftatio, fimilefque
effedfus inde excitati in corde, pulmonibus vafifque ma-
joribus ; ex quibus multiplici modo circulatio, digeftio,
chylificatio et refpiratio laeduntur, inque tota corporis
oeconomia, ejufque fundtionibus ingentis, folent produci
turbae variaque vitia topica excitari, inter quae tenfiones,
fpafmi, dolores, flupores, obturationes, obftrudliones, in-
flammationes, congeftiones prae caeteris memorabiles
funt ; unde nafcitur magna feries morborum abdominis,
pedloris, ipfiufque capitis ; nec non artuum inferiorum
VOL. XIV. Part I.
49
35
torpores, dolores, crampi, oedemata, eryfipelata, varices. Effects of
haemorrhaging, ulcera, labiorum vulvie inflationes, varia- rmPreSna‘-
que vitia partium genitalium, et alia multa pro diverfa , tl^a' _j
partium compreflarum aut diflentarum adlione, variis no-
minibus infignienda (b).”
3. The origin of the membrane, which appears about
the third month, called by Dr Hunter membrana de¬
cidua reflexa, has afforded matter of difpute among
phyfiologifts. Dr Hunter imagined, that the decidua
vera confifted of two layers, and that the ovum, enve¬
loped in chorion and amnios, got fomehow between
thefe : but this is a very unfatisfadlory opinion. T e
more probable opinion is, that the decidua vera and de¬
cidua reflexa are diftinbt membranes, although both
formed in the fame manner. If, as we have already
Hated, the uterus, foon after conception, be filled with
a gelatinous fluid, and if the ovum be in contadl with
that organ at one point only, then it is probable that
the veffels of the internal furface of the uterus, by
fhooting into the fluid with w^hich it is covered, wall
form one membrane, the decidua vera j while the vef¬
fels on the external furface of the chorion, will Ihoot
into the fluid with which the ovum mull have been co¬
vered in its defcent, and form another membrane,,the
decidua reflexa.
In proof that both membranes are formed in this
way, it may be obferved, that where the foetus is extra- '
uterine, the uterus is lined with the decidua vera, and
there is no decidua reflexa.—Boehmer is the firfl: who
demonftrated this j and not Dr Hunter, as has been al¬
leged. He fays, “ Quum vero uterus magnitudine gra-
vido unius circiter menfis fimilis videretur, eundem po-
fterius longkudinaliter, et fuperius tranfvterfaliter diffe-
cuimus, inque ejus cavo, intuitu baud impregnati fatis
magno, nihil praeter tenacem et flavefcentem mucum,
mollemque porofo-villofam et valvulofam quafi turgefcen-
tem membranam undique uteri parietes et tubas inve-
ftentem, hinc inde inflammatam et erofam, flrudurara
autem uteri fatis compadtam invenimus * Boehmer.
4. The formation of the placenta is a curious fubjedl loc. cit.
of inquiry. That it depends principally on the foetus, P-27-
is proved by the appearances in extra-uterine concep-
tions. In the cafe of ventral conception, publifhed by
Mr Turnbull of London, this circumtlance is very
clearly pointed out(c).
5. I he origin of the liquor amnii has been explained
very differently by different phyfiologilfs. Some ima¬
gine that it is furnifhed by the mother ; others by the
child. Baron Haller adopts the former opinion.
“ Ergo (he fays) ab utero eft, et a matre, fiquidem 3
foetu effe non poteft. Non aufim experimentum produ-
cere, in quo crocus, quern mater fumferat, liquorem
amnii tinxitf.” But if this were the cafe, How could f Hallen
the liquor amnii exift when the foetus is extra uterine ? Phyfiologi*
Yet it cannot be a fecretion from the foetus itfelf, be-
n ’ lib. xxix.
^ caufe iva. 3. § 9.
(a) D. Philippi Boehmeri Obfervationum Anatomicarum variarum fafciculus notabilia circa uterum humanum
continens, p. $2.
(b) Prim a; lineae de cognofcendis mulierum morbis, in ufus academicos, dudlae a Gualth. van Doeverec, M. D.
et Prof. p. 16.
(c) Vid. A Cafe of Extra-Uterine Geftation of the ventral kind, by William Turnbull, A. M. F. M. S.
Bond. 1791. Plate ift.
M I D w I F E R Y. Chap. III.
Effects of caufe it is in very large proportion when the fetus is
Impregna- fcarcely vilible. From what fource then does it pro-
. tlt)n' . ceed ? Mo'ft probably from the coats of the amnios.
6. Since from the fituation of the fetus it has no
diredl communication with the atmofpheric air, two
queftionscccuron the fubjedt j firft, whetheritbeneceffary
that the fetus fliould receive the vivifying fomewhat
which the natus receives from the atmofphere. 2dly,
If this be anfwered in the affirmative, by what means is
this fomewhat furnilhed ?
I. On lookilfe into the works of Nature, we find that
there is a clafs of animals placed in a fimilar fituation
with the fetus, viz. the locomotive fiffies. Thefe re¬
ceive the vivifying fomewhat furniffied by the atmo¬
fphere through the medium of the fluid in which they
are immerfed ; for their blood is always diftributed by
the fmalleft ramifications over a fubftance in conflant
contadl with the water, before it return into the arterial
fyftem to ferve for the purpofes of nutrition.
From analogy therefore it nauft be allowed, that the
fetus does receive, through fome means or other, the
vivifying principle of the atmofphere.
40 2. By what means then is this furniffied ? Many cir-
cumfiances concur to prove that it is by means of the
placenta. For,
l ft, The ftru&ure of the placenta refembles much
that of the lungs. It is cellular, and has the wftiole
blood of the fetus diftributed in the fmalleft branches
over its fubftance.
2dly, The blood returning from the placenta is fent
by the neareft poffible means to the left fide of the
heart. And 3dly, Compreffion of the umbilical cord to
fuch a degree as to interrupt the circulation through it,
deftroys the fetus as loon as compreffion of the trachea
does the natus.
It appears therefore that the placenta ferves to the
fetus the fame purpofe which lungs do to the natus.
41 The celebrated Haller has objefted to this probable
ufe of the placenta in the following wrords. “ Non
pauci etiam auclores fecundis pulmonis officium tribue-
runt, cum in vena umbilicali fanguis ruber fit et flori-
dus, fi cum fanguinis fodalis arteriae comparetur. Id ex-
perimentum mea non confirmant. In pullo arteria fere
coccinea, vena violacea eft. In icetu humano nunquam
fioridum fanguinem vidi; neque intelligo ut placenta,
in qua certiffime nulla lint aereae mutabiles veficulie
* Haller- P0ffit pulmonis munere fungi
loc. cit. lib- But later obfervations have contradi&ed the affertions
xxix. ie<ft 3.0f Haller on this occafion. In particular, Dr Jeffray
* profeiTor of anatomy in the univerfity of Glafgow, in
an inaugural differtation publilhed here in the year
1786, relates an experiment made by him which is
completely oppofite to the opinion ol Haller. “ Puero
“ he fays” in obftetricatoris firm jacenti, funiculus
tribus vinculis circumjedtis, et fimul in ardlum traftis
colligatus eft ; quo dein juxta umbilicum incifo, in
arteriis umbilicalibus et venis, inter duo vincula pla-
centam proxime, fanguinis copia interceptum eft. In-
tercepti fpatii vafa, gelatinofa funiculi parte cultro
dempta, in confpedlum venerunt; et arteria, quae fangui-
nem jam ante in parte circumlatum, ad placentum per- Natural
ferebat, pundla eft; quam prope arteriae pundturam PdrturitI0‘n
vena quoque umbilicalis fimiliter pundla eft. Quo ~*’~v
fadlo ex vena fanguis effluens, cum eo qui ex arteria
effluebat facile comparari poterat. Ille, venofi fan¬
guinis inftar, nigricabat; hie, fanguinis in adulta arteriis
mox vivide florebat (d).”
7. The means by which the faetus is nourilhed have 4.3
hitherto efcaped the inveftigation of phyfiologifts.
That the ftomach and inteftines do not ferve this pur-
pofe is obvious from many concurrent teftimonies j but
particularly from thefe organs being on fome occafions
entirely wanting, while other parts of the fyftem of the
fetus were complete. It is probable that the placenta
fupplies nourilhment, as well as the vivifying principle
of the air, to the fetus in utero.
Chap. III. Natural Parturition. 44
Human parturition, wffiere every thing is natural, is
perhaps one of the moft beautiful and interefting opera¬
tions in nature j for what can be more beautiful than a
procefs accompliftied by the combined a&ion of a num¬
ber of powers admirably w'ell adapted to the intended
purpofe ? and what can be more interefting than the con¬
tinuation of our fpecies which depends on the operation >
In treating of this fubjeft, we ffiall firft confider the
term of geftation j 2dy, the phenomena of natural par¬
turition ; and 3dly, the caufes of thofe phenomena.
Sect. I. Term of Gejlation. 45
The ancients imagined that although nine kalendar
months be the moft ufual pep’od of human pregnancy, yet
on lome occafions that period maybe, and adluallyis, pro*
tradled even beyond ten kalendar months. Accordingly,
itlwas laid down as a maxim in ancient jurifprudence, that
children born within eleven months after the death of
their fuppofed father ffi.ould be declared legitimate.
In modern times the queftion has been often agitated,
both among medical pra<ftitioners and among lawyers.
Pradlitioners of midwifery however have had moft fre¬
quent occafion to inveftigate this fubjeft, and they have
differed materially in their conclufions.
Roederer fays, “ Hunc terminum, finem nempe tri- 4$
gefimae nonae et nonnunquum quadragefimae hebdoma-
dis partui maturo natura, uti accuratior obfervatio do-
cet conftituit, ultraque eum non facile differtur. Ni¬
hil hie valet energia feminis deficiens, morbofa vel
debilis patris conftitutio, matris difpofitio phthifica,
hedlica, qua fetus fufficienti alimento privatur j nihil,
flatus matris cachtdticus, fluxus menftruus tempore
geftationis contingens, diarrhoea aliufve morbus; nihil
nimia uteri amplitude 5 nihil affedlus matris vehemen-
tior, qualis triftitia ; nihil diseta matris extraordinaria,
vel inedia ^ nihil fetus debilitas et difpofitio morbofa j
nihil plures fetus in utero detenti.
“ Tantum enim abell ut hae caufae foetus moram in
utero retardent, ut potius accelerent. Viduae qui-
dero vanis hifee fpeciebus, illicitam venerem defendere
atque hereditates aucupari, quin in eo medicos nimis cre-
dulos,
(d) Tentamen medicum inaugurale, qusedam de placenta proponens, au&ore Jacobo Jeffray &;c. Edinburgh
1786, p. 41.
<wifery,
p. 192.
48
Chap. III.
Natural dulos, vel lucri cupidos in fuas partes trahere {Indent,
Parturition. pej mera funt ludibria, praetereaque nihil (e).”
  ^   gut many eminent teachers of midwifery believe
that in fome cafes human pregnancy is protradled for
two or three weeks beyond the more common period.
47 Dr Hamilton efpecially fays, “ In the human fpe-
cies nine kalendar months feem neceffary for the per-
fedlion of the foetus ; that is, nearly thirty-nine weeks,
or two hundred and feventy-three days from concep¬
tion. The term does not, however, appear to be fo
arbitrarily eftabliihed, but that nature may tranfgrefs
her ufual laws 5 and as many _ circumftances frequently
concur to anticipate delivery, it certainly may in fotne
inftances be protrafted. Individuals in the fame cla s
of quadrupeds, it is well known, vary in their periods
of pregnancy. May we not, therefore, from analogy
reafonably infer, that women fometimes exceed the
more ordinary period ? In feveral tolerably well atteft-
ed cafes, the birth appears to have been protracted le-
veral weeks beyond the common term of delivery. If
the charaCter of the woman be unexceptionable, a fa¬
vourable report may be given for the mother, thoug
the child fhould not be produced till nearly ten ka¬
lendar months after the abfence or fudden death of her
\ Outlines huiband f.”
^ - " Sect. II. Phenomena of Natural Labour.
The fufferings of a woman during labour having been
compared to the fatigues of a perfon on a journey, the
phenomena of labour have been divided into three Itages.
The find llage confilts of the opening of the mouth of
the womb 5 the fecond, of the aaual paffage of the child j
and the third, of the feparation and expulfion of the
fecundines. .
Phenomena of the Firjl Stage. — In mod muances
the bulk of the belly fubfides for a day or two before
labour begins*, but the firlt evidence of the aftual
commencement of that procefs is the occuirence o
pains in the belly affefting the loins, and linking
down the thighs, occafioning confiderable irritation of
the bladder and bowels. Thefe pains, Sic. however,
often take place during fome hours of the night, for
days, or even weeks, before true labour begins, and
are then ftyled fpurious pains. It is not eafy on many
occafions to dillinguilh true labour throes from fpu¬
rious pains, unlefs the ftate of the mouth of the womb
be examined, fo very nearly do they referable eacn
other. But in general fpurious pains recur at irregu¬
lar intervals, and do not increafe in force according to
their duration ; whereas true pains gradually recur at
(horter intervals, and become more and more violent.
Spurious pains are fometimes attended with an occur¬
rence which was firft publicly noticed and defcribed by
the prefent profeffor of midwifery in the univerfity of
Edinburgh (f), viz. the protrufion of the urinary blad¬
der. This refembles, to a fuperficial obfervrer, the bag
formed by the membranes which inclofe the child, and
in confequence has repeatedly been burft by the fingers
of the operator. Incurable incontinence of urine, in¬
flammation of the paffages, See. have followed this ac¬
cident.
49
MIDWIFERY. _ Si
Prottuiion of the urinary bladder may be readily b'atu.J
diftinguiflied from that of the membranes which m-
elude the infant by two circumftances. Firft, the bag
recedes completely during the interval of the pain }
and fecondly, when puthed down, the finger cannot be
paffed round it at the fore part of the pelvis 5 jt feems
as if fixed to the pubis. True labour-pains arife from
the contra£tions of the womb by which that organ is
ftiortened and thickened } and, at tne fame time, its
contents are forced through its orifice. When they
become regular and forcing, they have the effe£l of open-
inf the mouth of the womb, io that a practitioner can
readily afeertain the difference between them and fpuri¬
ous pains. The opening of the mouth of the womb, in
moft inftances, is accompanied by the difeharge of a
flimy, bloody-like matter, termed ihews j but in many
women there is no fuch circumftance.
This procefs is generally gradual, the pains in-
creafing in frequency and force and eight, ten, or
twelve hours, commonly elapfe before they complete
the opening of the womb. In fome ca:es the dilatation
takes place to a confiderable extent before pains occur,
fo that a few pains accomplifti this ftage. But thefe
exceptions are not fo frequent' as thole of an ©ppofite
defeription, where one or two complete days are requi¬
red to open the womb, though the pains be uni emit-
t‘n£*
In proportion as the firft ftage advances, the mem¬
branous bag containing the child is pufhed tniough
the mouth of the womb, and forced gradually into the
vagina. During the pain it is tenfe, and during the in¬
terval it becomes relaxed. When this happens, the
head of the infant can be diftin&ly felt behind it. At
laft, the paffages being fufficiently opened, the pains ha¬
ving become ftronger and more frequent, the mem¬
branes give way, and the water contained within them
is difeharged j which fimfhes the firft ftage. Shivering,
vomiting, headach, thirft, and pain in the back, taice
place in many inftances during this ftage..
Phenomena 0/ the Second<$/<7ge.—-sometimes an inter-
val of cafe of fome minutes duration lucceeds the dif¬
eharge of the waters. T. he pains then become much
more violent and forcing, and the head, by the con-
traftions of the uterus thus becoming more powerful,
is puffed through the brim of the pelvis into the va¬
gina. For this purpofe the vertex is forced foremoft,
and the brow is turned to one facro-iliac fynchondrofis,
fo that the largeft part of the head is applied to the
wideft part of the bafon *, for as the head is oval, and the
opening through which it is to pais is of tne lame form,
this is abfolutely neceffary.
After the head is in the vagina, the pains ftill con¬
tinuing, the vertex is turned into the arch of the pubis,
and the face into the hollow of the facrum, by which
the largeft part of the head is brought into the direc¬
tion of the wideft part at the outlet. All the foft parts
are now protruded in the form of a tumour, a portion
of the vertex is puffed through the orifice of the vagi¬
na, and every paiS advances the progrefs of the infant,
till at laft the head is expelled. An interval of a mi-
G 2 nute
(e) Roedereri Elementa Artis Obftetricae. Goettingae, 1766. page 98.
(f) Seled Cafes in Midwifery, by James Hamilton, M. D. 1795* Page l6-
52 MID W
FiirmriUon. 0r t'vo now enlVes> u^er which another pain ta-
iln§ P^ace, the face is turned to one thigh and the
ihouiders of the child being placed towards pubis and
lacrum, the whole of the body is born. During this pro-
cefs the patient generally adds voluntary efforts to the
contractions of the uterus.
ihis itage is in many inflances extremely tedious;
but after the woman has had one child, it often is com*
pieted within the time of fix or eight pains.
5r 1 henomena of the 'Ihird Stage.-—Whenever the in¬
fant is born, if there be no other in the womb, the pa-
netes of the abdomen become relaxed, arid the womb
can be perceived through them, contracted almoit into
the fize of a child’s head. An interval of eafe of fome
minutes duration now elapfes, after which pains again
recur, commonly attended with the difeharge of fome
clots of blood, occafioning a kind of gurgling noife,
and the placenta and membranes are thrown off, and
the womb remains quite contracted or nearly fo, with
a cavity fcarcely capable of containing a hen’s egg.
In fome cales a fingle pain accomplilhes this, and in
others leveral pains are required ; but generally fpeak-
ing, this ftage is completed within an hour after the
birth of the child.
It fometimes, however, happens that the natural
efforts are inadequate to the expulfion of the fecun¬
dities. . T he caules are, want of fufficient contraCtile
power in the uterus, irregular contradion of that or¬
gan, and indurated flate of the placenta itfelf.
From the above defeription it is obvious that all
the three ftages of labour are completed by one fimple
power, viz. the contraction of the womb.
S? Sect. III. Catfes of the Phenomena of Labour.
I. The firft phene non which requires explanation is
the aCtion of the uterus. Why does that organ gene¬
rally aCt at a certain period, after having remained in a
quiefeent Hate for fo long a time ?
1 his queftion has puzzled phyfiologilts ftrangely.
Some have attributed the circumftance to a ftimulus
communicated by the foetus : but their opinion is over¬
turned by a well-known faCt, that the fame phenomena
occur though the foetus be dead. Others have imagin¬
ed that the uterus is excited to aCt in confequence of
previous diftenfion. But were this the cafe, women
fhould never have the uterus of a larger bulk in one
pregnancy than in another ; whereas, on the contrary, it
is well known that wmmen who have twins or triplets
often have the womb diftended to fully double the
ufual fize.
Phyfiologifts as w^ell as phyficians have fallen into
very great errors from referring complex phenomena to
a fingle caufe. A variety of fads concur to prove,
that in the prefent inftance it is abfurd to impute the
aClion of the uterus to any fingle caufe.
I o w’hat then ftiould we attribute it ? To a variety of
circumflances.
iff, To Che ftru&ure of the uterus. From the ap¬
pearance of that organ in its unim^regnated flate, it
would feem that nature had laid up in ftore a certain
proportion ol fibres to be developed during pregnancy,
I b E R Y. Chap IH.
When thefe fibres are evolved, if the uterus be diftend- Natural
ed iarther, the edges of the os tincae muff be feparated, Parturition,
in confequence of which part of the uterine contents v~"
paffmg through it, the contraaion of the uterus follows.
A fa Cl very familiar to praditioners of midwifery af¬
fords apparently a complete confirmation of this hypo-
tnelis, viz. that in fome women labour occurs as regu¬
larly and naturally, in the feventh or eighth month of
gelfation, as in others it does at the end of the ninth,
the cervix uteri having become quite obliterated.
2d, It is probable, however, that in ordinary cafes
this ftore of mufcular fibres is feldom entirely exhaufted.
from the circumftance of women having fometimes
twins or triplets; fome other caufe therefore muft concur
in exciting the aClion of the uterus. The contents of
the uterus perhaps furnilh this caufe.
In the latter months of geftation, fome parts of the
foetus come in conta& with the parietes of the uterus,
in confequence of the decreafe in proportion of the li¬
quor aninii. This is principally the cafe with refpeCl
to the head, which preffeson the cervix, and that part of
the uterus, it is probable, is more irritable than anv
other; for w^e find that the entrance or exit of all hol¬
low mufcular organs is more irritable than the other
parts, as we fee exemplified in thecardiaof the ftomach,
and in the cervix of the urinary bladder.
3d, It is not improbable too, that the preffure of
the neighbouring parts contributes fomewhat to in¬
duce the a6Hon of the uterus ; for it is remarked by
praaitioners of midwifery, that women feldom arrive
at the full period of geftation in a firft pregnancy, and
the parietes of the abdomen yield with difficulty' at firft,
as is obferved in cafes of dropfy. Befides all farmers
know well, that in every fucceeding pregnancy, cows
exceed their former period of geftation.
II. The next phenomenon worthy of notice is the
manner, in which the child’s head enters the pelvis.
Two circumftances contribute towards this, firft the
connexion of the head of the child with the neck; and
2dly, The form of the brim of the pelvis.
The firft of thefe circumftances has been accurately
pointed out by Dr Offiorn. He fays, “ after the os
uteri has been firft opened by the membranes and con¬
tained. waters, forming a w^edge-like bag, the next
operation and effedl of the labour-pains or contractions
of the uterus (for they are convertible terms) muft be
on the body of the child, which being united to the bafs
of the cranium at the great foramen and nearer the oc¬
ciput than forehead, the greater preffure will be applied
to the occiput, which being likewife Imaller, and ma¬
king lefs refiftance, will be the firft part fqueezed into
the cavity of the pelvis (e).”
The latter circumftance has been clearly explained
by Pro.feffor Saxtorph. He remarks, “ caufa hujus di-
rectionis capitis, concurrente toto mechanifmo perfedti
partus, potiffimum haeret in pelvi. Nam agente utero
in fee turn,, in axi pelvis locatum, caput ejus hucufque
liberum,, in humore amnii fluduans, propter molam
fuam majorem in introitum ipfo pelvis magnam refiften-
tiam patitur h .prominentia ? offis facri, quae in pofteriori
parte fegmenti inferioris uteri ita impreffa eft, ut pro-
montorii
(E) Eflays on the PraClice of Midwifery, &c. by William. Offiorn, M. D.
Chap. III.
Natural montorn inftar foetus frontem glabram, rotundam, unico
Parturition pUnft0 tantummodo illam tangentem et fatis mobilem,
y_ blando motu ad latus dirigat, in fpatium ei exafte re-
fpondens inter protuberantiam ipfam et marginem in¬
ternum acutum ilii excavatum, quam ob rem, fincipitis
praevii futura fagittalis cadit neceffario in diametrum
obliquum aperturae fuperioris pelvis (f).”
It is remarkable, that neither of thefe celebrated au¬
thors difcovered that a combination of both the circum-
flances juft enumerated, is neceflfary to occafion the
phenomenon.
Two advantages refult from this pofition of the head
of the child j for, ill, The largeft part of the head is
applied to the wideft part of the fuperior aperture 5 and,
2dly, The head, when the occiput is forced foremoft,
occupies the leaft poflible fpace.
£4 III. The phenomenon which next ftrikes us, is that
change in the pofition of the head by which the face is
turned into the hollow of the facrum.
Although the advantage, and even neceffity, of this
change in the pofition of the head, has been long known
to practitioners ; yet Dr Olborn is, perhaps, the firft
author who has clearly explained the efficient caufe of
this. His remarks are thefe : “ As it (viz. the head)
defcends obliquely through the pelvis, the preffure of
the two converging ifchia will not be exaftly oppofite
to each other on the two parietal bones ; but one if-
chium aCling or preffing on the part of that bone con¬
tiguous to the occiput, and the other on the oppofite
fide next to the face, the head being made up of dif¬
ferent bones, united by membranes, and forming va¬
rious futures and fontanels, which permit the ffiape to
be changed, and the volume to be lef[ened, it neceffa-
rily follows, that the head, thus cbmpreffed, will take
a ffiape nearly refembling the cavity through which it
paffes ; and, as from the convergency of the ifchia, the
cavity of the pelvis fomewhat approaches the form of a
cone, the child’s head is moulded into that ffiape, the
fhape of all others beft adapted to open the foft parts,
and make its way through the os externum. This un¬
equal preffure of the two ifchia upon the head, will, in
the firft inftance, direCl the occiput, or apex of the
cone, to turn under the arch of the pubis, where there
is little or no refiftance ; while the preffure of the other
ifchium, in its further defcent, will have the fame ef-
fe61 on the other fide, and direft or compel the face to
+ Dr Of turn 'nto t^ie han°w of the facrum f.”
bomfoc. This change of pofition is produclive of three advan-
cit. p. 30. tages.
ift, The largeft part of the head is again adapted to
the wideft part of the pelvis.
2dly, The fmalleft poffible furface of the head is ap¬
plied to the furface of the bones of the pubes. And,
3dly, As Dr Ofborn, in the paffage quoted, very
juftly obferves, the head is moulded into that fhape
which is beft calculated to pafs without doing harm,
through the foft parts.
IV. The phenomena which occur when the head
paffes through the external parts, are eafily explained.
After the head has made that turn, by which the
face is placed in the hollow of the facrum, the coccyx
53
and perinaeum refill its further defcent in that direflion, Natural
and by forcing the nape of the neck againft the inferior ^ tu’lUon'
edge of the fymphyfis pubis, every fucceffive pain con¬
tributes to make the occiput rife up towards the abdo¬
men, by which the chin leaves the top of the thorax,
on which it had refted during the preceding prpcefs of
delivery.
By this fimple mechanifm, the foft parts are gra¬
dually prepared for the paffage of the child, wffiile, at
the fame time, the ffioulders are brought into the moft
favourable pofition for paffing through the pelvis.
V. The phenomena of the third ftage of labour ob- 56'
vioufly originate from the contradfion of the uterus,
which both feparates and expels the fecundines. Some
authors have imagined that nature has provided for this
purpofe a particular apparatus, placed at the fundus
uteri ; but as the placenta, when attached to the cer¬
vix uteri, is thrown off as readily as when it is attached
to the fundus, it is very evident that thefe authors have
been deceived by a feeming regularity of fibres, which
is fometimes obferved.
Laftly, The obftacles which nature has oppofed to 55-
the paffage of the child, occafion all the difficulties of
human parturition. Thefe obftacles are formed by the
fituation and ffiape of the pelvis, and the ftrudture of
the foft parts concerned in parturition.
The pelvis is fituated in fuch a direblion, that its
axis forms an obtufe angle with that of the body ; con-
fequently, it is not placed perpendicularly, but oblique¬
ly to the horizon 5 and hence nothing can pafs through
it by the force of gravity.
The fliape of the pelvis, too, is fuch, that the head
of the child cannot pafs through the outlet in the fame
direction in wdiich it entered the brim ; and, from the
ftruflure of the foft parts concerned in parturition, they
yield with confiderable difficulty.
By thefe means, the Author of our exiftence has
guarded againft the effecfts of the erect pofture of the
body, and has prevented the premature expulfion of
the child and the hidden laceration of the foft parts.
Sect. IV. Treatment of Natural Labour. 55
$
Firflfage.—When this ftage proceeds naturally and
regularly, there is very little elfe to be done, after
having afcertained that labour has really begun, and
that the child is in the ordinary pofition, than taking
care that the bowels be open, and palliating any un-
pleafant fymptoms, fuch as Ihivering or vomiting, &c,
which may occur.
But if after the pains have become fo regular as, by
their continuance, to difturb the ordinary functions of
life, that is, moft commonly, after they have been quite
regular for twelve or fifteen hours 5 if this ftage be not
completed, it is neceffary to interfere, and to endea¬
vour, by art, to effect the dilatation. The reafon for
this rule is abundantly evident. If this ftage of fuffer-
ing be longer protradled, the ftrength of the patient
muft be exhaufted by the long-continued exertion, and,
of courfe, the remaining procefs of labour cannot be
completed. Hence the child may be loft, or alarming
difcharges
M I D W 1 F E R Y.
(f) Differtatio inauguralis de Diverfo Pa tu, &c. Auflore Matthia Saxtorph. Hafniae, 1771. p= 19
54
Natural difcliarg€S of blood may follow the birth of the in-
tiou. fant> ^
This very obvious eifefl: of the protraction, beyond
certain limits, of the firit ftage of labour, was firft pub¬
licly infilled on by the prefent profefibr of midwifery in
the univerfity of Edinburgh.
The means to be adopted for completing the dilata¬
tion, when that affiftance becomes necefiary, are vene-
ieClion or opiates, or fupporting the os uteri, according
to circumfiances.
When the refifianre to the opening of the womb
Eudfes from the premature difcharge of the w ater, or
from natural rigidity of the w'ornb, copious blood-let¬
ting affords the adequate remedy. But if the patient
be already reduced by previous difeafe, fo that fire can¬
not fafely be bled, an opiate, in the form of glyfter,
ought to be adminiflered.
And w'hen, on the recurrence of every pain, the
mouth of the wTomb is forced down upon the external
paffage before the child, its edges ought to be fupport-
ed, injitiiy by the fingers cautioufly applied to each
fide.
^ SecondWhen it is found that the head has be¬
gun fairly to enter the pelvis in the natural direClion, no
afiiftance is neceffary till the perineal tumour be formed;
and then fuch fuppert muff be given to the protruded
parts as lhall both relieve the diftreffing feelings of the
patient, and, at the fame time, prevent any laceration
from happening. Of courfe, the precife manner of
fupporting the perinseuin muff be varied according to
the circumrtances of the cafe. Inattention to this has
very frequently occafioned the mott deplorable acci¬
dents.
After the bead is born, it muff be afcertained whether
there be any portion of the navel-ftring round the neck
of the infant, and if there be, it muff be flackened or
drawn over the head, otherwife the infant will be
loft.
If poffible, time fhould be allow'ed for the accommo¬
dation of the fhoulders, and the expulfion of the body
of the infant j and, at any rate, the utmoft attention
fhould be paid to fupporting the perinseum during that
part of the procefs.
ThirdJlage.—When the child is born, and it is af¬
certained that there is no other infant remaining in the
womb, the patient fhould be allowed to reft for a little,
unlefs pains again come on, by which the fecundines
are feparated. In that cafe, the cord is to be firmly
grafped, and pulled gently, till the placenta be brought
down to the external parts, when it is to be drawm out
carefully, in fuch a manner as to bring off at the fame
time the complete membranous bag.
Should pains not recur at the diftance of an hour af¬
ter the birth of the infant, it becomes neceffary, for fe-
veral reafons, to introduce the hand into the womb to
feparate and extradl the fecundines.
Firft, If the cord were pulled by before the
womb had contrafled, or the after-birth had be¬
come feparated, the womb muff inevitably be turned
infide out; an accident that has occafionally hap¬
pened.
Secondly, If a longer period than an hour were fuf-
fered to elapfe, the paffages would become fo much
•ontraded, that the force required again to dilate
M I D W I F E R Y. Chap. IV.
them, ■would produce inflammaticn, with all its alarm- Natural
ing confequences. Parturition.
Thirdly, If the after-birth wrere allowed to remain
longer than an hour, exceffive flooding might take
place, which w’ould foon prove fatal.
Fourthly, Were the patient to efcape the danger of
flooding, Ihe would incur that of putrefadion of the
placenta, which is equally, though not fo rapidly, pro-
dudive of mortal event.
In thus introducing the hand to feparate the placen¬
ta, the two great cautions to be attended to, are to ap¬
ply the fingers to the fubftance of the placenta, n6t to
infinuate them between its furface and that of the ute¬
rus, and to bring off only that portion of the pla¬
centa which can be feparated from the uterus without
force. '
W hen any alarming circumftance happens after the
birth of the infant, requiring the extradion of the pla¬
centa, the praditioner is not to delay for an hour,
indeed not for a minute, giving the requifite aflift-
ance.
Chap. IV. Of the Deviations from Nature in Hu-
man Parturition.
From the view thus given of human parturition, un¬
der the moft favourable circumftances, it muff be ob¬
vious that many deviations from nature may occur.
Thefe deviations may proceed ; firft, from the pro¬
pelling powers concerned in parturition j fecondly, from
the ftate of the fecundines; thirdly, from the Hate of
the child itfelf 5 or, fourthly, from the ftate of the paf¬
fages through which the child is forced. There may al-
fo be a combination of thefe caufes. We (hall confider
each of thefe caufes of deviation in the order juft enu¬
merated. But as a minute inveftigation of the fubjed:
would far exceed the neceffary limits of this work, we
fhall treat each of thefe caufes as ftiortly as poffible, and
notice only the moft linking circumftances.
Sect. I. Of the Deviations from Natural Labour, g*
which proceed from the Propelling Powers,
The propelling powers concerned in parturition con-
fift of voluntary and involuntary mufcular adion.
The diaphragm and abdominal mufcles furnilh the for¬
mer, and the uterus the latter.
An excefs or diminution of the adion of thofe powers
mull interrupt the ordinary progrefs of labour.
a. The violent adion of the diaphragm and abdomi- 63
nal mufcles, if exerted at the beginning of labour, tends
to ex haul! the patient and to retard delivery, and if in¬
duced when the head is within the vagina may, pro¬
vided proper precautions be not taken, lacerate the
perinaeum, and render the future life of the patient
miferable.
T he adion of thefe mufcles being quite voluntary,
may be readily prevented by the patient fubmitting to
proper advice.
b. Impaired adion of the diaphragm and abdominal 64
mufcles, generally originates from the improper exer¬
tion of thofe mufcles at the beginning of labour, or
from paffions of the mind. It always retards delivery,
and confequently protrads the fufferings of the patient.
c. Violent
3
Chap. IV. M I D W
Preterna- c. Violei.t a^ion of tlie uterus at tlie beginning of
tural Partu-]akourj js frequently produftive of much mifchief. It
rit!^in' exhaufts tbe patient, and renders the fubfequent procefs
65 of delivery exceedingly tedious and difficult. It al-
fo fometimes occafions an accident which generally
proves almoft immediately fatal, viz. rupture of the
uterus.
This accident has been defcribed by authors under
the title of fpontaneous rupture of the uterus. The lacera¬
tion in the uterus in thofe cafes is fometimes tranfverfe and
fometimes longitudinal. When the accident happens from
this caufe, the laceration is moft frequently in the cervix.
The accident is preceded by excruciating pain, efpe-
cially during the aftion of the uterus, at one part, as
in the loins or towards the pubes; and it is announced
by a mod agonizing increafe of the pain fucceeded by
violent vomiting, the difcharge of a little blood, a total
ceffation of the labour throes, • very great irregularity
and feeblenefs of the pulfe, cold fvveat, coldnefs of the
extremities, difficulty of breathing, inability to lie in
the horizontal poflure, and fometimes delirium. Along
with thefe fymptoms, it often happens that the prefent-
ing part of the child recedes entirely, and the limbs of
the infant may be readily diftinguifired through the pa¬
rities of the abdomen. But this circumftance does
not always take place, for fometimes the head of
the child is fo firmly wedged within the pelvis, that
it does not recede although the other parts be in the
cavity of the abdomen.
The rupture of the uterus is generally fatal. A few
cafes, however, are on record, where, by prudent ma¬
nagement, the patient, even under fuch dangerous cir-
curnflances has been faved. Such are the cafes record¬
ed by Dr Hamilton (h), by Dr Douglas (i), and Dr
Hamilton, junior (k). But the injuries which muft enfue
from lofs of blood, acute pain, the prefence of the child
in the cavity of the abdomen, and the probable protru-
fion and ftrangulation of the inteflines are fuch, that it
cannot be expefted that many patients can furvive the
accident.
The caufe of violent aftion of the uterus at the be¬
ginning of labour, is obvioufly the premature difcharge
of the liquor amnii. By this*circumftance, the body
of the child comes in contaft with the parietes of the
uterus, by which the aftion of that organ is imme¬
diately and violently excited. How much mifchief
then may the rafh interference of an ignorant operator
produce ?
The caufe of rupture of the uterus from its own vio¬
lent adlion, is the refiftance to the paffage of the child,
either from undilated os uteri, or from deformities of the
pelvis, or from wrrong pofition of the child. When¬
ever, therefore, the rupture is threatened, means mull
be inllantly adopted to remove the refiftance, or to fuf-
pend the aftion of the uterus. The former is in general
the more eafily accomplifiied.
When the uterus has actually burft, the only chance
which can be afforded to the patient, is inftant delivery;
per vias naturales, where that is practicable -7 and where
66
I F E R Y. ~ 55
there is extreme narrownefs of the pelvis, by an incifion Preterna-
through the parietes of the abdomen. A cafe wdiere^^V1111'
this latter practice was fuccefsfully had recourfe to oc-
curred a few years ago in Lancafhire.
Violent aCtion of the uterus during the latter flage
of labour, although not productive of the fame dangers
which enfue from it at the beginning, is by no means
exempt from hazard ; for if the fuft parts be rigid or
not fufficiently relaxed, the woman may be miferably
torn.
The violent aCtion of the uterus towards the termi¬
nation of labour proceeds from fome power of that or¬
gan itfelf, or from the flimulus communicated by the
pofition of the child.
This circumftance, however, is fometimes beneficial;
as, for inftance, when the child is in an unfavourable
pofition. Dr Denman was the firft who difcovered
this effeft of violent uterine aClion, and publilhed it
in the fifth volume of the London Medical Journal,
page 64.
d. Impaired aftion of the uterus during the firft
ftage of labour is in many inftances produftive of no
other inconvenience than the protraclion of labour ", but
if it exhaufts the ftrength of the patient, it influences
materially the fubfequent procefs, as already ftated.
When it occurs during the fecond ftage, it occafions the
moft dangerous fymptoms. Firft, If the head of the
child continue to prefs for a confiderable time on the
foft parts within the pelvis, thefe parts muft neceffarily
from the impeded circulation become fwelled, and con-
fequently the aCtion of the uterus, though it fliould re¬
turn, would then be totally infufficient for the expul-
fion of the child. This efteCi of the protraClion of the
fecond ftage was firft pointed out to the public in Dr
Hamilton’s Letters to Dr Ofborne. It merits moft par¬
ticular attention ■, not only as it is one of the moft fre¬
quent caufes of the lofs of the infant during labour, and
of confiderable danger to the parent, but alfo as it may
be very readily prevented by an attentive practitioner.
Previous to this fwelling becoming fo confiderable as
to impede theprogrefs of the infant, there is a tendernefs
and heat, and drynefs in the paflage, which announces
the aftual commencement of the inflammation. Im¬
mediate delivery ought then to be iiad recourfe to.
Many difagreeable fymptoms alto proceed from the
fame caufe, fuch as fuppreflion of urine, and violent
cramps in the lower extremities.
When it is afcertained, that, in confequence of the de¬
ficiency of aCtion of the uterus, the child is detained fo
long in the paffage as to endanger the health or life of
the mother, it becomes neceffary to extraCt the infant
by mechanical means. Two contrivances have been
thought of for this purpofe, viz. the veCtis or lever, and
the forceps.
Roonhuyfen, a Dutch praCtitioner, who flouriflied
about the beginning of the 18th century, contrived the
veCtis, and from the great fuccefs which attended its
ufe in his hands, an ediCt was iffued by the ftates-ge-
neral, that no furgeon fliould praClife midwifery with¬
out
67
(h) Outlines of Midwifery, p. 348.
(1) Obfervations on the rupture of the gravidutenus, &c. by A. Douglas, M. D. &c. 8vo. London 1789*
(k) Seleft Cafes of Midwifery, p. 138.
MIDWIFERY.
Pretcrna- out being poUtlTed of tbe Roonbuyfen fecret, for the in-
turalPartu-^rument was not publicly known. In the year 1756,
1 t ^ ' however, the fecret having been purchafed bv two li
beral-minded phylicians, Vifcher and Van de Poll, was
publifhed by them for the benefit of mankind. Since
that time, the infhument has undergone a variety of al¬
terations in its form ; for a particular account of which,
the reader is referred to Mulder’s Hidoria Forcipis.
There can be no doubt that Roonhuyfen and his
fucceffors employed the vedtis as a lever of the hrft fpe-
cies, the head of the infant being the refiftance, the
parts of the woman the fulcrum, and the hand of the
operator forming the moving power. The injuries ari-
fing from this praftice have been well explained by Dr
Ofborne in his Effays on Laborious Labours. Al¬
though Dr Bland and Dr Denman (till recommend the
fame practice, there can be no doubt that wdienever the
ufe of the veflis proves fuccefsful according to their
dire£tions, the fortunate termination is to be attributed
to the adtion of the uterus being exerted by the preiTure
of the inftrument *, or in other words, the delivery
might have been completed without any mechanical in¬
terference at all. On the other hand, whenever the
adlion of the uterus is either quite fufpended or much
weakened, both mother and child fuflfer from the appli¬
cation of the vedtis.
#8 The late Dr Deafe in altering the fhape of the vec-
tis, wifhed to imprefs upon the profeffion the neceffity
for changing the mode of employing it; and according¬
ly he called his inflrument an extraffior. This power,
however, feems to be poffeffed in a fuperior degree by
Dr Lowder’s inftrument, of which a defcription is con-
tained in the eighth volume, fecond decade, of Dr Dun-
cap’s Medical Commentaries, p. 400. As this inftru¬
ment may be ufed with perfedi fafety, both to mother and
child, and as in fome cafes it is fuperior to the forceps,
we have reprefented its form in one of the plates, and
now add the defcription and an account of the manner
of applying it from the work already referred to.
The inftrument “ confifts of a blade and handle
(between which there is a hinge, that renders it por¬
table), meafuring in length 11-J inches. Its length,
before it be curved is 1inches. The curve be¬
gins about half an inch from the hinge. It defcribes,
reckoning an inch from its firft curvature, as nearly as
can be eftimated, an arc of 87 degrees of a circle, the
radius of which is four inches. The breadth of the
blade, at the beginning of the curve, is half an inch,
and is gradually increafed, till within three quarters
of an inch of thq extremity, where it meafures an
inch and three-fourths. Its extremity is femicir-
cular. Within inches of the extremity there is an
oval opening, meafuring 2^ inches in length, and
at its greateft breadth. By this opening, the depth of
the curve is confiderably increafed, without rendering
the inftrument inconvenient in its introduction.”
70 Let us fuppofe that it is found neceffary to ufe Lowder’s
lever, when the head of the child has juft begun to enter
the cavity of the pelvis. The patient is to be placed in
the ordinary pofition, on the left fide, in bed. The oc¬
ciput of the child is to be carefully diftinguiftied, and
the curve of tbe inftrument is to be applied, with all
the neceflary precautions, over it. The extremity of
the blade ftiould be within a very little of the nape of
the neck. To accomplilh this part of the operation
Chap. IV.
with facility, it is neceflary that the operator be well Preterna-
acquaintfcd with the (hape of the pclvr, and that he tura‘Part'u"
have accuftomed himfelf to apply the inftrument over a j
round fubftance.
When the inftrument is applied in this manner, the
operator will find, that he can exert very coniiderable
power in drawing down, without prefliug on any o her
part than the occiput of the child. The mother can¬
not poftibly feel the inftrument 5 while, at the iame
time, the many points of the foetal cranium, on which
it refts, prevent any injury whatever to the infant
If there be any pains, however flight they ma y be,
the operator flrould draw’ down only during the pain :
in the intervals, a foft w'arm cloth fhould be wrapped
round the handle. If there be no pains, he mull draw
down from time to time, imitating, as nearly as he can,
the natural efforts. It is aftonhhing, of what ufe eren
the moft trifling pains are, on iuch occafions. With¬
out pains, a long time is required before the head be
made to advance in a perceptible degree (though,
after it ,has advanced a little, it foon yields entirely) j
while, with them, the progrefs is often rapid.
The operator (hould continue to draw down in the
fame manner, till the head be completely in the ca-
tity of the pelvis. Should any circutnftance, as danger¬
ous uterine hsemorrhagy, or convulfions, require that
the delivery be expe.ditioufly finifhed, after the head is
brought into this pofition, the forceps muft be applied ;
for it is in the power of the operator, by means of
them, to accomplilh the extraftion of the head within a
very ihort fpace of time, or at leaft, within a much
fhorter fpace than would be required, were the ufe of
Low’der’s lever continued.
But if there be no dangerous fymptom, the opera¬
tion may be completed by the firft inftrument, without
any afliftance from the forceps.
For this purpofe, the operator fhould continue to
draw down, by prefling on the occiput, as already
directed, until the face ftrall have turned into the hol¬
low of the facrum. The direction of the. inftrument
muft then be changed. The reafon of this is very ob¬
vious. After the face is in the hollow of the facrum,
the occiput becomes engaged in the arch of the pubis,
and rifes under it, while, at the fame time, the chin
leaves the top of the breaft, on which it had refted
during the preceding procefs of labour, and defcribes
a courfe equal to a full quarter of a circle, which is
the confequence of the occiput defcribing a fimilar
courfe under the arch of the pubis. Were the practi¬
tioner, then to continue to prefs in the fame direction
as he did while the head was palling through the brim,
he would counteract this natural procefs, and hence
would retard delivery, and injure the parts againft
which he would neceffarily prefs the child.
The inftrument muft, therefore, be withdrawn from
the occiput, and applied with the proper precautions over
the chin, when the operator is to imitate the procefs
of nature, by difengaging the chin from the breaft,
and making the occiput rife under the arch of the pu¬
bis, while, with his left hand, he proteffs the peririEeum
from injury.
From thefe obfervations it is obvious, that the inftru¬
ment introduced into praCtice by Dr Lowder, affords
exaCtly the aftiftance, in the firft order of laborious la¬
bour, which is required j for it fapplies the place of the
propelling
/
Chap. IV.
Preterna- propelling powers, or increafes their efficacy, by a&ing
tura.l Par* on the body of the child, without iniuring any part of
. the mother.
^ t “ This property renders it of great ufe in certain cafes
of deformed pelvis, viz. where the ffiort diameter of the
brim is about three inches. In fuch cafes, the long
continued ftrong aftion of the uterus, often eventually"*
forces the head into the pelvis j but the ftrength of the
patient is in confequence fo much reduced, that after
it has proceeded fo far, the pains are entirely fufpended,
pnd the delivery muft neceflarily be finilhed by the ufe
of mechanical expedients; but the child’s life is
commonly previoully deftroyed, by the compreffion of
the brain.
If, in fuch cafes, it be poffible to increafe with fafe-
ty the vis a tergo, the child would then be forced
through the brim of the pelvis before the woman’s
ftrength were exhaufted, and before its life were en¬
dangered $ confequently, many children, commonly
doomed to inevitable deftruftion, would lie preferved.
“ Lowder’s lever, I apprehend, poffeffes this power.
It may be calculated, that, by its ufe, the efficacy of
the labour throes is at leaft doubled. Hence the child,
in cafes of flight deformity of the pelvis, is forced
through the oppoling part within one half of the time
which would be otherwife required j and this is ac-
compliffied without injury either to the mother or in¬
fant y for the inftrument preffes on no part of the form¬
er ; and it refts on fuch parts of the latter, that no
harm can poffibly be done.
“ In face-cafes, too, where the interference of the prac¬
titioner is neceffary (which, indeed, is a rare occur¬
rence), this inftrument may be employed with much
advantage. The' great aim ffiould be, to draw down
the occiput.
“ As it appears, therefore, that Lowder’s lever is ap¬
plicable in many cafes where the forceps are inadmiffi-
ble, and that its ufe is not produ&ive of fo much ha¬
zard to the mother as that of the forceps, it might per¬
haps be inferred, that the latter inftrument may be
banifhed from practice, as unneceffary and dangerous.
Accordingly, many pra&itioners of midwifery have
adopted an opinion of this kind j and, indeed, there are
very few who do not employ one or other of thefe in-
ftruments exclufively.
“ But however defirable it may be to leflen the num¬
ber of mechanical expedients, and to Amplify practice, I
apprehend, that many lives would be loft if we poffeffed
or employed no fuch inftrument as the forceps. As
they have the property of a lever, delivery can in many
cafes be accompliffied much more expeditioufly by them
than by Dr Lowder’s inftrument. This feems to be
the foie advantage which they poffefs over it ; and that
is counterbalanced by feveral great difadvantages.
Many authors, indeed, have alleged, that the forceps
have excluftvely the power of diminilhing the ftze of
the foetal cranium, by the preffure of their blades, and
hence have attributed a degree of preeminence to them,
, which in fa£t is not their due ; for as the flze of the
child’s head is, in natural cafes, diminiffied as far as is
neceflarv, by the contractions of the uterus forcing it
forward through the bones of the pelvis, an increafe of
the vis a tergo will of courfe increafe that diminution,
if the ffiape of the paflage require it. While Lowder’s
lever, therefore, poffeffes the power of compreffing the
VOL. XIV. Part I.
MIDWIFERY.
57
cranium in common with the forceps* it has a decided Pieterna-
fuperiority over them in this, that it accomplilhes that tural .Par*
end by Imular means with na^’-e. i ^ 
“ The great difadvantages ol the forceps are, that they
are inapplicable when the child’s head is fltuated high
in the pelvis j that their application is often difficult to
the operator, and painful to the patient $ and that, as
their centre of aClion is on the parts of the patient, they
muft injure h£r in proportion to the reflftance oppofed
to the delivery.
“ On the whole, then, in cafes of the firft order of la¬
borious labours, both inftruments muft be occaftonaliy
had recourfe to. When the head is not completely
withiii the cavity of the pelvis, Lovrder’s lever muft be
employed j and even when it is in that pofltion, the
fame means may be ufed, if there be pains. But, when
the labour throes are entirely fufpended, or wffien any
circumftance renders it neceflary to terminate the de¬
livery with expedition, the forceps ought to be em¬
ployed in preference to every other inftrument, if the
head of the child be within their reach.”
The forceps are fuppofed to have been invented by 7 a
Dr Hugh Chamberlain, who was phyftcian to King
Charles II. j but their form has been greatly altered
flnce his time. The moft approved form is that repre-
fented in the plate.
This inftrument is only applicable in prefentations of
the head; but it was formerly, by Dr Smellie and others,
recommended in face cafes.
In order that this inftrument be applicable, it is ne¬
ceflary that the head be completely, or nearly fo, in
the cavity of the pelvis $ but fometimies a lengthened
pair is ufed for cafes where the head is fltuated high.
The employment of long forceps, however, being ex¬
tremely dangerous, is feldom juftitiable ; and there¬
fore we ffiall limit our directions to the ule of the com¬
mon ffiort forceps.
There are three principal cafes in which that inftrument
may be had recourfe to, viz. 1. where the face is in the
hollow of the facrum ; 2. where the face is wedged un¬
der the pubis j and 3. where it is on one tide of the
pelvis.
' In whatever fituation the head is, the inftrument is
to be applied over the ears, othmwife there could be
no fafe and fecure hold. In the procefs of extracting
the child with this inftrument too, it is to be obferved,
that the convex edge of the blades is to be brought
along the hollow of the facrum.
The inftrument being applied fo cautioufly over the
ears of the infant that no part of the woman be injured
by their introduction, the locking parts are to be
brought together, and fecured by a ligature 5 after
which the operator, fupporting carefully the perinaeura
with one hand, is to draw gently in a direction of from
blade to blade during a pain, or now and then to imi¬
tate labour throes, while he at the fame time favours
the mechanifm of labour by accommodating the child’s
head to the paflage fo as to make it take up the leaft
poffible room. If this be done with fuitable caution
and gentlenefs, no part of the woman ffiould be injur¬
ed, and the parts of the infant on which the inftrument
had refted fhould not even be marked. But as there
can be no. doubt, that in the procefs of ufing the for¬
ceps, the parts of the w'oman are prefled upon by the
blades, if much force be exerted, or if due attention be
H - • not
73
53 M I D W
'Preterna- not paid to the adaptation of the head of the infant to
tura'h,Par* the apertures through which it is to be brought, the
■■ mo(t dreadful effedhs refu^ hom the operation.
Sect II. Of the Deviation.'! from Natural Labour, which
proceed from the fate of the Secundines.
74 The membranes which envelope the foetus are in
fome cafes more tender, and in others more rigid, than
in general they are found ; circumflances which have a
conflderable elFect on the procefs of parturition. Be-
fides this, the placenta is on fome occalipns attached to
the cervix or os uteri, by which not only is the order
of labour interrupted, the placenta being expelled be¬
fore the child, but alfo is the patient’s life expofed to
much danger. _
-75 a. Where the membranes are too tender, the liquor
amnii is difcharged at the beginning of labour before
the os tincae be dilated, and then all the bad confe-
quences detailed under the article b, Se£t. I. neceffarily
enfue.
b. Where the membranes are too rigid, the labour
may be protrafled to fuch a period as (hall injure the
mother moll materially, and at laft, as the whole ovum
may be expelled entire, the life of the child may be
endangered.
After the os uteri is completely dilated, if the
child included in the membranes do not advance into
the cavity of the pelvis, the membranes fhould be rup¬
tured. But if it do, they ought not to be broken till
they prefs on the external parts.
c. But the molt alarming deviation from nature,
which can proceed from the ftate of the fecundines, is
that which originates from the attachment of the pla¬
centa over the cervix or os uteri. As there can be no
doubt that the uterine veflels dip into the fubflance of
the placenta, and that they are lacerated when the pla¬
centa is feparated from its attachment, it is obvious
that in fuch a lituation ha;morrhagy to a moft danger¬
ous extent mull unavoidably enfue during the procefs
of the labour.
7^ Mr Rigby of Norwich was the firft Britilh practi¬
tioner who publicly explained this caufe of haemor-
rhagy. In the firft edition of his work ; viz. that pu-
blifhed in 1775, he expreffes himfelf in the following
words. “ But from the uncertainty with which (as
before obferved) nature fixes the placenta to the ute¬
rus, it may happen to be fo fituated, that when the full
term of pregnancy is arrived, and labour begins, a
flooding neceffarily accompanies it, and without the in¬
tervention of a' y of the above accidental circumftancesj
that is, when it is fixed to that part of the womb which
always dilates as labour advances, namely, the collum
and os uteri, in which cafe it is very certain that the
placenta cannot, as before deferibed, remain fecure till
the expulfion of the child, but muft of neceflity be fe¬
parated from it, in proportion as the uterus opens, and
by that means an haemorrhage muft unavoidably be
^ produced.
“ That floodings, which arife from thefe two different
1 F £ II Y. " Chap. IV.
eaufes, which I will diftinguifh by the names of acci- Tietema-
dental and unavoidable, though they may appear exact- tural Par¬
ly fimilar in their firft fymptoms, fhould terminate very L'"'u"l'“ ,
differently, if left to nature, aftifted only by the palli¬
ative means before mentioned, cannot feem ftrange \ nor
can it be a doubt, that of thele two kinds of floodings,
only one of them, namely, that which is produced by
an accidental feparation of the placenta, can be relieved
by the ufe of thefe palliatives •, and that the other, in
which the placenta is fixed to the os uteri, and the
flooding is therefore unavoidable, cannot poflibly be
fuppreffed by any other method whatever than the time¬
ly removal of the contents of the womb j for fuppoiing
the difeharge to be for a while reftrained by bleeding,
medicine, cool air, &c. it will inevitably return, when
nature is fo far recovered as again to bring on labour :
in the firft cafe, if the haemorrhage have been checked
by the ufe of the above means, it is not impoftible but
labour may come on, and the child be fafely expelled
by the natural pains before it returns ; or if it fhould
return, it may not increafe in quantity ; as in this cafe
very probably the feparated part of the placenta which
occafions the difeharge remains nearly the fame ; where¬
as in the other cafe, in which the dilatation of the os
uteri produces the feparation of the placenta, every re¬
turn of pain muff be a return of the bleeding, and it
murt become greater and greater as the uterus opens
more and more, and the placenta is in proportion de¬
tached, till it increafes to a degree that exhaufts the pa¬
tient, and ftie dies before nature has been able to expel
the child. That fuch muft inevitably be the progrefs
and event of floodings arifing from fuch a caufe, if left
to nature, is too obvious further to be infifted on.
“ That this attachment of the placenta to the os
uteri is much oftener a caufe of floodings than authors
and pra&itioners are awrare of, I am from experience
fully fatisfied, and fo far am I convinced of its frequent
occurrence, that I am ready to believe that moft, if
not all of thofe cafes which require turning the child
are produced by this unfortunate original fituation
of it ( l).”
No cafe in pra&ice requires more decifion and more
attention than this. It muft be obvious that no inter¬
nal remedy can be of any avail in flooding from fuch a
caufe, and that the life of the patient can be faved by
immediate delivery alone, whenever confiderable hse-
morrhagy takes place. But it is to be recolleffed that
the difeharge in many inftances threatens for days or
even weeks before it becomes ferious, and that for the
fake of the child, the patient fliould be allowed to ad¬
vance as near as her own fafety will permit to the full
period. Thefe threatenings may often be removed by
aftringent injedlions, per vaginam, while at the fame
time every means of moderating the circulation of the
blood fliould be fuggefted.
But whenever the difeharge becomes profufe, de¬
livery by art is to be had recourfe to. The rule of Mr
Rigby, and of fome other eminent pradlitioncrs, “ to
watch from time to time the dilatability of the os
uteri,” and take advantage of that ftate, founds well j
but
(l) Effay on the Uterine Haemorrhagy which precedes the delivery of the full-grown Foetus, illuftrated by
Cafes by Ed. Rigby, London 1775, p. 14. Vide alfo 3d edition 1784, fame page.
Chap. IV.
Prtterna- but if fcHowed in prafiice, mud: either give fuch a
.tural Par- {bock to the woman’s conftitution, as (hall end in
, tUl^10-'1- dr0pfy or marafmus, or mud prove immediately fatal.
In all thofe cafes the os uteri may be forced, and al¬
though it be not more open than barely to admit the
introdutdion of the finger, it may in a very few minutes,
if the operator have fteadinefs and perfeverance, be ren¬
dered capable of allowing the hand to pafs.
If poffible, the hand fhould be carried forward at
one fide of the placenta, for if that part be torn (which
it mud be ad.Yiitted is fometimes inevitable) the infant
muft be deflroyed. After the feet are brought down,
the child is to be extradied as expeditioufly as regard to
its fafety will permit, and the hand is then to be again
paiTed into the uterus for the purpofe not merely of de¬
taching completely the fecundines, but chiefly of fe-
curing the contraction of that organ which is the great
bbjedt of the delivery.
2$ Sect. III. Of the Deviations from Natural Labour,
which proceed from the fate of the Child,
The regular procefs of parturition may be inter¬
rupted, in confequence of the pofition and of the fliape
of the child.
i. Pqfition of the child. The mod natural po¬
fition of the child, at the beginning of labour, is
with the head placed at the brim of the pelvis,
*he face towards the facro-iliac fynchondrofis of one
fide, and the occiput towards the groin of the oppofite
fide. But there are many deviations from this natural
pofition.
Sj a. Although the head be applied to the brim of the
pelvis, it may be forced with the finciput towards the
promontory of the facrum, and the occiput towards the
-fymphyfis pubis. In this fituation the largeft diameter
of the head is oppofed to the fmalleft of the pelvis, con-
fequently the head remains firmly fixed in that pofition,
for as the finciput cannot advance a point beyond the
promontory of the facrum, the occiput is forced jufl fo
much below the brim at the pubis as to wedge the
head firmly between the facrum and pubis. By the
long-continued prefifure the foft parts become much
Iwelled, and at laft the head is found fo immoveably
fixed, that it can neither be made to recede, nor can it
advance in the fame dire&ion. This conftitutes what
has been flyled the caput incuneatum, or, as it is called
by French praftitioners, la tete enclavee. This cafe
mcft commonly is the effe£l of mifmanagement ; for if
a very little preffure be made on the head when it pre-
fents at the brim of the pelvis in this unfavourable pofi¬
tion, the pains will readily force it into the paffage in
the proper direction.
When the locked head has aflually taken place, the
prabHce mufl: be varied according to the circumftances
cf the individual cafe •, hence ’ the long forceps, and
fometimes even the crotchet, are required. Turning is
quite inadmiffible, and the three-bladed forceps fo
ftrenucufly recommended by Dr Leake, in this cafe are
totally inapplicable.
jj b. The long diameter of the head may alfobe applied
to the fhort diameter at the brim, in a different manner,
viz. with the face towards the pubis, and the occiput
to the bsfe of the facrum. 1 he cbftacles to the pro¬
gress of the head are not in this cafe fo great as in the
59
former (tr) ; for as the occiput is round, and its fur- Preterna-
face inconfiderable, while at the fame time the promon- t“‘*
tory of the facrum is round, the labour throes, after - -|‘ »
fome time, force the occiput either a little to one fide,
or at leaft paft the promontory. The cafe, however, is
tedious, painful, and even dangerous to the patient; for
as the face prefents a larger i’urface to the pubis than
the occiput, it muff require longer time to pafs, and
as there are many inequalities on the face, the patient
muff fuffer much pain from their preffure, and from the
fame circumflance muft incur the hazard of having the
urinary bladder or the urethra irreparably injured.
In this cafe Profeffbr Saxtorph remarks, “ vel occi- Si
put primo deicendit, quod cum accidit, frons ab offibus
pubis fuftentata elevatur, mentumque pedtori infantis
imprimitur, urgentibus porro doloribus, verfus anum
et perinmum, adagitur acuminatum occiput, et nullo
modo fub arcu oflium pubis extorqueri poteft inflexile
finciput, bine partus in exitu pelvis impoffibilis redditur.”
That this is a miftake, the obfervation of other prac¬
titioners has fufficiently demonftrated; for it is well
known that in fuch cafes, after the perinaeum has been
much ftretched the occiput is forced through the parts,
and immediately flips back towards the anus, while
the nape of the neck being applied to the anterior
edge of the perinaeum, moves on it as on an axis, fo that
the finciput and face emerge from under the fymphyfis
pubis, the chin leaving the top of the thorax in the
fame manner as if the face were lituated naturally in
the hollow of the facrum.
Although in this cafe the natural efforts moft ordi¬
narily complete the procefs, yet in many inftances the
injury which threatens the urinary bladder renders
the application of the forceps expedient.
c. Although the head may have entered the pelvis in g.
the moft natural pofition, yet it may not make thofe
changes in fituation which are required to accommodate
it to the outlet j for the face may turn under the fym¬
phyfis pubis inftead of into the hollow of the facrum.
When this happens the phenomena already defcribed(^)
take place.
d. It lometimes happens, that inftead of the fmooth Su.
part of the cranium being forced firft into the pelvis,
the face prefents. In this cafe it may be fituated in
three pofitions, viz. with the chin to the facrum, or
pubis, or fide.
aa. The firft cafe is efteemed the moft dangerous
both for the mother and child. For the mother,
becaufe the child in this pofition requires more room
than the pelvis affords, confequently the foft parts in
contadl 'with the chin and fmooth part of the crani¬
um are much compreffed, and hence if the delivery be
not fpeedily accomplithed, much injury to thofe parts
will enfue. As the chin too muff pafs along a curved
line formed by the facrum and coccyx, the obftacles to
delivery are very great; and even after the face has
been forced fo low as to prefs on the perinaeum, that
part is in much hazard of being torn by the violent dif-
tenfion which it undergoes. The delivery in fuch cafes
is very rarely accomplifhed naturally.
This fpecies of labour is equally dangerous to the
child as to the mother, not only on account of the long-
continued preffure on the brain, but alfo from the occi¬
put being forced fo ftrongly on the fuperior dorfal ver¬
tebra that the free return of the blood from the bead is
K 2 interrupted,
MIDWIFER Y.
6o M I D W
Pretema- interrupted, and hence apoplexy enfues; a circumftance
rural Par- is proved even by the appearance of children
. tun*lon' ^v}10 jn fnLir cafes are born alive, for the face of fuch
children is perfeftly livid. Jacobs has pointed out
thefe dangers pretty accurately. “ II eft dangereux
pour 1’enfant, (he fays), parce que la tete etant pen-
chee et portant fur fon cou, elle cotnprime les vaiffeaux
fanguins au point que.le fang ne pouvant plus circuler,
il meure d’une apoplexie pour peu que I’on tarde a I’ex-
traire.” Ecole pratique des Accouchemens, par le Pro-
fejjeur J. B. Jacobs. A Paris, 1785. p. 366.
bb. The fecopd cafe, viz. where the chin is placed
towards the pubis and the finciput to the facrum, is
neither fo dangerous for the mother nor child. For if
by the force of the pains the face be pufhed fo far for¬
ward that the chin becomes engaged within the arch of
the pubis, then the inferior edge of the fymphyfis pubis
foriris a fulcrum on which the inferior jaw moves, by
which the finciput and occiput pafs readily and eafily
along the hollow of the facrurrv, their furface being
well adapted to that of the facrum, and the feveral parts
of the face pafs in fucceflion through the vulva.
cc. The third cafe, viz. where the chin is to one fide,
, is ftill more favourable than the fecond j for the face
pafies readily through the oblique diameter <?f the pel¬
vis till ftopt by the tuberofities of the ifchia, when the
chin turns into the arch of the pubis, and then the fame
phenomena which occur in the fecond cafe take place.
The caufe moft generally afligned for face cafes is
the ill direfted exertion of the propelling powers.
May it not alfo depend in many cafes on the original
pofition of the foetus >
When any extraordinary difficulty occursin face-cafes,
Lowder’s lever is the inftrument to which recourfe
ought to be had. The forceps, as recommended by
Smellie and others, being quite infufficient to afford a
fafe and fecure hold of the infant.
e. On fome rare occafions the fide of the head pre-
fents, fo that one ear is in the centre of the pelvis. In
fuch a cafe, the ftrongeft contra&ions of the uterus
cannot make the head enter the pelvis, and the w7omar>
would generally die undelivered were it not for the in¬
terference of art. Cafes of this kind are remarkably
rare
The hand of the operator muft be carried up in fuch
cafes, and moderate preflure muft be made in fuch a
direction as (hall allow the contradlions of the uterus to
pufti the fmooth part of the cranium into the cavity of
the pelvis.
*6 J". The head of the child is not the part always^ ap¬
plied to the pelvis j for fometimes the head paffes laft.
Whenever any other part than the head prefents, the
labour is ftyled by authors preternatural.
All preternatural labours have been divided into two
orders. A. Prefentations of the inferior extremities 5
and B. Prefentations of the fuperiqr extremities.
A. Prefentations of the lower extremities comprehend
cafes where one or both feet, one or both knees, and the
breech prefent.
g. Cafes where both feet prefent are more frequent
than thofe where one only prefents. It has been cal- '
I - F E K Y. Chap. IV.
culated that the feet prefent once in 105 cafes of Preterna-
labour. tural Par-
Some authors have divided labours of this kind into tantion. ,
a great variety of fpecies. There is,' however, no ne-
ceffity for fuch divifions, and they tend to miflead and
embarrafs praciitioners. All the varieties may be re¬
duced under three heads ; for the toes muft be either
towards the fide of the pelvis, or towards the facrum or
pubes.
dd. Where the toes are towards the fide of the pel¬
vis, the child is generally placed in fuch a manner that
the abdomen, breaft, and face pafs in fucceffion along
the facro-iliac fyhchondrofis of that fide. This is the
moft favourable fituation in which the child under fuch
circumftances can be placed $ for the largeft parts of its
body pafs through the largeft aperture of the pelvis.
In this cafe, then, the a&ion of the uterus forcing
forward the child, the feet are by degrees excluded
through the external parts, the toes being fituated be¬
tween the point of the coccyx and the tuberofity of the
ifchium; the thighs follow, then the abdomen and
thorax ; but the farther progrefs of the child is for fome
time interrupted by the arms paffing up along each fide
of the head, which add confiderably to its bulk ; at
laft, however, the repeated contra&ions of the uterus
force the face into the hollow of the facrum, and then
the nape of the neck turning on the inferior edge of the
fymphyfis pubis as on a pivot, the face is excluded, fol¬
lowed by the finciput and occiput.
Where the efforts of nature in this procefs are fole-
ly trufted, the child, unlefs it be fmall and the pelvis
be very capacious, wffiile the foft parts are much relaxed,
is generally ftill-born j for before the obftacles to the
delivery of the head be overcome, the long-continued
compreffion of the funis umbilicalis, by intercepting the
courfe of the blood, proves fatal.
ee. Authors have generally confidered that to be the
moft favourable pofition in which the feet can prefent,
where - the toes are towards the facrum. Roederer for
example fays, “ pedum tunc digiti fi ofli facro obver-
tantur, foetus abdomini incumbens refle fitus eft (l).”
But two difadvantages attend this pofition : Firft, the
largeft part of the child’s body is forced through the
fmalleft part of the outlet of the pelvis •, and 2dly, The
longeft diameter of the head is applied to the fhorteft
diameter of the brim of the pelvis. In fuch cafes, there¬
fore, the patient commonly fuffers much pain, and the
child’s life is deftroyed. £
ff. When the toes are turned to the pubes, it has
been univerfally acknowledged, that the feet are in the
worft poffible pofition. Indeed not only do the difad¬
vantages ftated as refulting from the laft pofition (eej
equally take place in this one, but another caufe of
difficulty and danger is added, viz. that the face being
applied to the pubes, the progrefs of the child muft be
impeded in no inconfiderable degree. Hence in fuch a
cafe the patient may be very much injured, and th«
child muft be almoft inevitably loft.
The management of footling cafes was firft explained,
in as far as we know, in X)r Hamilton’s Selcdl Cafes in
Midwifery, p. 89.
“ It
(l) Roederer Elementa Artis Obftetricse, p. 249.
Chap. IV. MID W
Pretema- “ Jt is a curious circumftance that the beft mode of
-^urition"' ^e^very *n footling cafes has not yet been explicitly
■ — v‘- pointed out by any author. This muft appear furpri-
88 fing when it is confidered that fuch prefentations fre¬
quently occur j that the life of the child depends upon
the pra£Hce adopted j and that the management of every
preternatural labour muft be influenced by the rules ap¬
plicable to footling cafes.
“ When the feet prefent, the infant’s fituation rela¬
tively to the mother muft be with its belly placed to¬
wards her back, her belly, her fide, or fome interme¬
diate point. The firft of thofe pofitions Jias been
generally confidered asr the moft favourable, and the laft
as the reverfe. But a little reflexion muft convince every
praftitioner that the infant occupies the leaft poflible
** * fpace, when its belly is towards the fide of the mother,
or, to fpeak more accurately, towards the facro-iliac
lynchondrofis ; for then the largeft part of its body is
within the largeft diameter of the pelvis at the brim,
while in its progrefs through the pelvis, 'the breech is
not forced through the Ihorteft diameter at the outlet,
viz. that between the tuberofities of the ifchia.
“ In every cafe therefore where the feet are brought
down, the toes fhould in the procefs of extraftion be
turned into fuch a pofition, that the belly, the breaft,
and the face, ftiall be made to pafs in fucceflion along
the neareft facro-iliac fynchondrofis. After the arms
are difengaged, the face can be readily turned into the
hollow of the facrum.”
One foot may prefent in the fame variety of direc¬
tions as both feet. Where one foot prefents naturally,
if the pains be regular and ftrong, the cafe is attended
with lefs pain to the mother and lefs danger to the child,
than where under the fimilar circumftances both feet
prefent. It it lefs painful to the mother, becaufe the
child is formed into the (hape of a cone, and the apex
pafles firft through the pelvis, by which the parts are
gradually prepared, and not fuddenly forced open j and,
it is lefs dangerous for the child, becaufe the one leg
being folded along the belly and breaft, the umbilical
cord is prote&ed from compreflion.
From thefe circumftances, a very erroneous inference
has been deduced by fome celebrated authors, viz. that
in cafes where it is neceflary to perform the operation
ftyled turning, the one foot Ihould be brought down
in preference to both. But as on fuch occafions the ope¬
rator cannot be aflifted by pains, it is obvious that he
• could not have a fufficient hold of the child by a fingle
foot.
\Vith the exceptions juft ftated, the phenomena w'here
one foot prefents are the fame with thofe which occur
in cafes where both feet are in the pafiage.
90 i. When the knees prefent, all the inconveniences of
footling cafes take place, with this additional danger to
the child, that if the legs be croffed, one or both may be
fraciured before the knees be expelled.
The management of knee prefentations muft depend
on the advance wdiich thefe parts have made at the
time afliftance is procured. If they be ftill at the brim
of the pelvis, the feet fhould be hooked down. But if
they be fairly within the cavity of the pelvis, or in the
vagina, they muft be allowed to protrude without the
parts until the feet be expelled.
91 k. Breech cafes occur more frequently than footling
I F E It Y. 61
ones. It has been calculated that they happen once in Pr^tema-
52 cafes of labour. tural Par-
The breeck may prefent in the fame variety of po-, turitlon- ,
fitions as the feet, viz* with the belly of the child to
the back, to the belly, or to the fide of the mother.
Certain advantages and difadvantages attend each of
thofe pofitions.
When the belly is to the back of the mother, the
thigh bones being ftraight, pafs with difficulty along the
curved line of the facrum j after that obftacle is fur-
mounted, the largeft part of the child is applied to the
fmalleft diameter at the brim of . the pelvis j and after
the body is delivered, the head is fituated in fuch a direc¬
tion that it cannot enter the brim j for the finciput is op-
pofite to the promontory of facrum and the occiput to
the fymphyfis pubis.
If the belly of the child be to the belly of the
mother, then the thigh bones pals very readily along
the bones of the pubes, while .the fpine bending, accom¬
modates itfelf admirably to the hollow of the facrum,
confequently at firft the labour proceeds fpeedily and
fafely ; but after the breech has palled through the ca¬
vity of the pelvis, it is applied with its largeft diameter
to the (horteft diameter at the outlet, and after it has at
laft overcome the refiftance occafioned by that circum¬
ftance, and the body is expelled, the face, being towards
the fymphyfis pubis, fubjefrs the patient to all the pain,
and the child to all the dangers, already enumerated (j^).
When the belly of the child is placed towards the
fide of the mother in breech cafes, then the fame advan¬
tages attend the fituation which have been enumerated
under the firft footling cafe (dd) j for the largeft
part of the child is uniformly applied to the largeft aper¬
ture of the pelvis. Befides this, the child incurs lefs
hazard in this pofition than where the feet originally pre¬
fent ; for the legs being folded on the belly protedl the
.the funis umbilicalis from compreffion.
Breech cafes, where the pains are powerful, are to be
left entirely to nature, taking care to fupport the pe-
rinaeum, till the infant be expelled 5 the ftavel-ftring
is then to be taken off the ftretch, and the child accom¬
modated to the paffage on the fame principle as footling
cafes.
When the pains prove inadequate to the expulfion of
the breech, various methods have been recommended,
fuch as hooking the finger in the groin, firft on the
one fide, and then on the other; employing a blunt
hook for the fame purpofe •, fixing a garter or piece of
tape over one or both thighs, and applying the forceps.
_ The firft of thefe methods is ufeful where there are
flight pains, and the infant is not large. The fecond
and third methods are injurious both to the mother and
child, for they add to the vis a tergo, without dimi-
nifliing the refiftance. But the fourth method, that is,
applying the forceps, is invariably both fafe and fuccefs-
ful ; becaufe, while it enables the praflitioner to draw
forward the child,without any uterine action, it at the
fame time puts it in his power to accommodate it to
the paffage by turning it round in the proper direction.
B. The fecond divifion of preternatural labours, in¬
cludes all cafes wffiere any other part than the head 9%
or lower extremities prefents; fuch as the neck, the
arm or ftioulder, the breaft, the back, the belly or the
fide.
It
93
94
M I D W I
It is obvious, that a full-grown child cannot poflibly
be expelled through the natural paffages in fuch pofi-
tions, and confequently, unlefs nature perform the ope¬
ration firft defcribed by Dr Denman, both mother and
child mufl be dellroyed j for the unavailing contrac¬
tions of tne uterus wiil firfl operate in impeding the
circulation of the child; and then by puftiing forward
its body with great force on the foft parts of the mo¬
ther, will induce fuch a degree of pain and indamma-
tion, that (he mufl: at lafl: fink exhaufted.
The praflice of turning, as it is called, that is, of
bringing down the feet in cafes belonging to this divifion
o! preternatural labours, originally fuggellcd by Pierre
Franco, but firli properly ellablilhed by Ambrofe
Parre, has been the means of having many valuable
lives. Indeed the fuperiority of this pra&ice to that of
making the head prefent under fuch circumilances mufl
be very obvious; for after the operator has got hold of
the infant’s feet, he can complete the delivery without
requiring the affiftance of pains.
The dangers to be dreaded in performing the opera¬
tion of turning are rupture of the uterus, or fubfe-
quent inflammation of the paffages, and lofs of the child.
The firli of thefe, is to be guarded again!!, by pur-
fuing fuch means as (hall fufpend the labour-pains, and
remove the uterine flriclure, when the opportunity of
turning before the difcharge of the water which fur-
rounds the infant has been loft. Thefe are blood-letting
and opiates‘in large dofes, fingly or combined, accord¬
ing to circumftances.
Great gentlenefs and caution, on the part of the ope¬
rator, are indifpenfibly requifite to prevent both rupture
of the uterus and the fubfequent inflammation of the
paiTages. When it is added, that a perfeverance for
feveral hours is fometimes neceffary for accompliftiing
this operation, it mull be obvious, that it demands in
many inftances a greater degree of patience, as well as
dexterity, on the part of the operator, than moll cafes of
furgery.
The fafety of the infant, can only be fecured, by at¬
tending very accurately to the rules for the manage¬
ment of footling cafes.
Dr Denman, whole difcovery of the fpontaneous evo¬
lution has been already mentioned, at one time fuppof-
ed that in the cafes under confideration, the operation
of turning might be difpenied with, and that the pa¬
tient might be faved much hazard, and the practitioner
great anxiety and trouble, by waiting for that change.
But although in the later editions of his valuable
work (Introduction to Midwifery), he has relinquilhed
this idea, his obfervations on the management of pre¬
ternatural labour of the fecond order, are evidently in¬
fluenced by his former opinion.
He fays (vol. ii. p. 249.), “ Yet the knowledge of
this faCl, however unqueftionably proved, does not free
us from the neceflity and propriety of turning children
prefcnting with the fuperior extremities, in every cafe
in which that operation can be performed with fafety to
the mother or give us a better chance of faving the
child. Under fuch circumftances, the inftruCtions given
by former writers, and the obfervations we have before
made, muft ftill be confidered as proper to guide our
conduCl. But when wre are called to a patient with a
preternatural labour, in which there is no room to
hope for the prefervation of the child, or in which we
F E R Y. Chap. IV.
are aflured of its death, or when the operation of turn- Preterna-
ing cannot be performed without violence and fome tural Par-
danger to the mother, then the knowledge of this pro- turitlon‘J,
bability of a fpontaneous evolution, will fet our minds
at eafe, and difengage us from the confideration of ma¬
king any hafty attempts to perform a hazardous ope¬
ration, from which no poffible good can be derived,
except that of extraCling a dead child, and which at ail
events might be effefted by a method much more fafe
to the mother.
“ The time required for the fpontaneous evolution of
the child, and the facility with which it may be made,
will depend upon a variety of circumftances, but chief¬
ly upon the fize of the child, the aptitude of its pofi-
tion, the dimenfions of the pelvis, and the power ex¬
erted by the uterus. If the child be very large or
much below the common fize, the flower I believe will
be the evolution, nor can it be made at all without a
ftrong adlion of the uterus. It is poftible, therefore,
when we have conduced overfelves on the ground of
expectation that the evolution would be made, that the
pains may fall off or be unequal to the effect, and we
may be difappomted. It might then be apprehended,
that the difficulty of extracting the child would be in¬
finitely increafed. But though the evolution was not
penecled, I have not found this confequence } for the
child, though not expelled, has been brought into fuch
a ftate that I could afterwards pafs my hand with
eafe, and bring dowm its feet, though in an attempt to do
this at the beginning of the labour I had bJen foiled.
In one cafe in which the evolution did not take place,
I could not bring dowm the inferior extremities, but I '
had no difficulty in fixing an inftrument upon the cur¬
ved part of the body of the child, or in bringing it
awTay with entire fafety to the mother. It was*before
prefumed that the child was dead, and the foie objeCt
was to free the mother from her danger ; and with her
fafety no appearances of the child, however difagree-
able, are to be put in competition. In cafes of this
kind another mode of praCtice has been recommend¬
ed, that of feparating the head from the body with a
blunt hook or other convenient fafe inftrument 5 but as
I have never praClifed the method, I give the deferip-
tion of it in a note.”
-1 here are twro points in the above obfervations, in
which it appears that Dr Denman has erred. In the
firft place, in fanCtioning delay in having recourfe to
the operation of turning where the fuperior extremity
prefents. In ‘many fuch cafes, if the pains be not
fpeedily fufpended, or the pofition of the child altered,
the uterus would burft; an accident which has re¬
peatedly fallen under the obfervation of the waiter of
this article.
The fecond error is, the fuppofition that, after it has
been found by experience in any given cafe, that the
fpontaneous evolution is not to happen, it is eafy to ex¬
tract the child either by the feet or by fome inftru¬
ment. But it will, be found in the, majority of fuch
cafes, that the infant is impacted into fo clofe a body,
while the parts are all in a ftate of fwelling and in¬
flammation, that immenfe difficulty and great danger at¬
tend the attempt.
The following obfervations on this fubjeft cannot be
too itrongly impreffed on the minds of, efpecially young,
pra£iitioners.
95
“ Several
Chap. IV.
M I D W I F E It Y.
Prcterna- “ Several years ago it was difcovered by Dr Den-
tura. rar- m5n> ;n prefentations, fuch as that in the above
. cafe, the pofition of the child is fometimes altered, and
<j6 its expulfion accomplilhed, by the natural contraftions
of the uterus. Although the doftor, with his ufual
candour, has allowed, that this favourable event, under
fuch planning circumftances, is rather to be wifhed than
expeded ; yet he has offered it as his opinion, that if
all interference of art were avoided, “ the woman would
not, in this cafe, die undelivered.”
“ '|,ihe preceding hiftory, however, affords a melancho¬
ly contradidion to this opinion. The midwife, who
attended from the beginning, did nothing to interrupt
the natural procefs, as far as could be learned. Her
fatal error wTas having only looked on, and having nei¬
ther given that afliftance wdiich was necelfary, nor fent
for others who could do fo.
“ The fpontaneous evolution, as Dr Denman has call¬
ed it, can only take place where the child lies in a par¬
ticular htuation, viz. wdiere the adion of the uterus
cannot be exerted on the preferring part, or where that
part is fo fhaped that it cannot be wredged within the
pelvis. A praditioner may, therefore, by a careful
examination, be able to decide whether the evolution
will happen or not. This obfervation is by no means a
matter of (peculation, being, cn the contrary, of much
pradical utility ; for, if there be figns wHch indicate
the event alluded to, it follows, as a confequence, not
only that the natural procefs is not to be counteraded,
but alfo, that it is to be affilled. Two cafes occurred
during one year, where the author of thefe remarks had
an opportunity of prognoflicating and affifling the evo¬
lution, in prefence of two gentlemen then attending
the profeffor of midwdfery, as annual pupils.
“ That the uterus fhould continue rigidly contraded
on the body of the child, while the ftrength of the wTo-
man rvas fo much exhaufted that no pulfe could be felt,
and that (lie appeared finking very fall, is a Angular
and an inftrudive fad. It will, it is to be hoped,
teach praditioners the fallacy of the aflertion, that the
longer the operation of turning is delayed, the more eafly
it will be accompli [lied.
“ It may feem afionifiiing, that the body of the child
could not be drawn down with the crotchet, fince it
was in a ftate of great putridity : But when it is confi-
dered, that the long-continued adion of the uterus had
rvedged it very ftrongly within the pelvis, while, at the
fame time, the preffure on the foft parts lining that ca¬
vity had fwelled them much, the circumftance wdll be
readily underflood, (n)”
Authors have endeavoured to afeertain the caufes of
preternatural labours j but little fatisfadion has been
derived from their refearches. It is probable, that
fome cafes depend on different caufes from others. For
example, in fome wTomen preternatural labour occurs
more than once. Such cafes feem to depend on fome
peculiarity in the uterus or ovum. Again, it is wrell
known to praditioners of midwifery, that, on fome oc-
cafions, where the child had been found to prefent na¬
turally at the commencement of labour, the pofition is
perceived to be preternatural after the firfl flage is com¬
pleted (o). In thefe cafes, the change of poficion may
perhaps be juftly attributed to irregularity of adion of
the uterus. Befides, there can be little doubt that fome
cates of preternatural labours originate from the prema¬
ture rupture of the membranes.
2. The bulk of the foetus alfo occafions confiderable
deviations from nature in labour \ for it may be either
too fmall or too large.
/. The foetus, at the full period of geftation, is never
of fo fmall a fize as to occafion any deviation from na¬
ture, unlefs it have been for fome time dead. It is in¬
deed a very remarkable fad, that women often carry to
the full time a foetus wdiich had died about the fifth op
fixth month.
In fuch cafes, the child is fometimes expelled fo ra¬
pidly, the paffages oppofing little or no refiflance, that
the uterus is fuddenly emptied of its contents; and
hence, from the irregularity of its contradion, the
placenta is retained, or uterine haemoirhagy takes
place.
m. The patient, however, is expofed to more dangers
from the increafed than the diminiflied bulk of the
foetus. The feetus may exceed the ordinary fize, either
from a natural increafe of bulk, or from monftrofity, or
from difeafe.
k k. It has been already ftated that the foetus at the
full term of geftation, generally weighs from feven to
nine pounds; but on iome rare occafions it is found to
exceed ten or twelve pounds, or even thirteen. Al¬
though, however, the procefs of delivery is not fo rapid
where the child is fo large, yet if no other circumftance
occurs to impede labour, it will be eventually termi¬
nated with fafety both to mother and child in moft cafes.
Where indeed, under fuch circumftances, the patient
has not formerly had a child, there is always reafon to
apprehend that the infant may be deftroyed by apo¬
plexy, or the mother may be very much bruifed. In
fome cafes of this kind, it becomes neceffary to open the
head of the infant. _
//. When the child is monftrous, from the redundan¬
cy of fome large parts, as from two heads or two bo¬
dies, it is fufficiently obvious that if the mother be at
the full term of geftation, the obftacles to delivery will
be infurmountable by the natural powers. Fortunately,
however, in by far the greateft number of cafes of mon-
fters of that kind, the adtion of the uterus is excited be¬
fore the ordinary period.
m m. The moft frequent difeafe of children, which
proves an obftacle to labour, is the enlargement of the
head from hydrocephalus. On fome occafions the head
is enlarged to an extraordinary fize.
Sometimes too, the thorax or abdomen is difttnded
and enlarged by a watery fluid. Profeffor Saxtorph
has recorded the following example of an obftacle to
delivery from a very uncommon difeafe. “ D. 18. Sept.
1775. in domo obftetricia regia, mox paritura admitte-
batur gravida. Inftante partus principio dolores partus
veri debito modo alternantes, fed folita proportione ve-
hementia, duratione et celeriori recurfu infligebant. Rite
tendebatur
Preterna¬
tural Par¬
turition.
 ^ /
ps
99
ICC
(n) Selefl: Cafes in Midwifery, p. no.
(o) Vide Denman’s Introduction, vol. ii. p. 254,
64 M 1 D W I
Pret in a- tendebatur orificium pofteriora veifus inclinans j jufta
tural Par- erant capitis fitus, direftio et aquarum formation pelvis
, tuntion, partefqUe molliores, viam partus conftituentes, nuilo la-
boraba'nt vitio •, quibus orrmibus acceffit adhuc fanus et
robuftus corporis feminei habitus, et partus aliquoties
antea perpeffx felix eventus, quae indubie ominabantur
incaepturn hocce negotium partus feliciter quoque finien-
durn fore. In progreffivo rite procedebat partus.
“ In fine vero capite fponte nato, truncus folita facili¬
tate fequi nolebat, quare obftetrix in arte adhuc novitia
conftitutam domus oblletricem expertenvfatis fociamlioi
advocabat. . .
“ Corpore foetus ad latus revoluto, ut humeri in ma-
jore diametro aperturae pelvis infenori minorem fa-
cerent reuftentiam, brachiifque edu£lis, junftis viri-
bus truncum ad axin pelvis extranere moliebantur j
attamen obftabat abdomen nulla illarurn vi ulterius
cedens.
“ In auxilium tunc accedens, qux domum ilio tem¬
pore artem addifcendi gratia habitabat fludiofus, manum
fub abdomine prudenter intulit, quod tenfum ^atque
complanatum fine omni obftaculo inveniebat ; uiteuus
vero manum protrudens pedes tetigit, interque crura
tumorem ingentem tenfum fluidoque contento plenum
reperiebat.
Compreffa hocce tumore, dum adftantes omni vi
truncum fimul attrahebant, difrumpebatur fubito, in-
fignifque aquae copia effluxit j fuperato fic obftacu¬
lo, facillime extrahebatur foetus, vitam per biduum
trahens.
“ Foetus poftea examinatus fsemellus erat, ingentem
faccum inter femora gerens, qui ex elongatione integu-
mentorum univerfalium corporis a tergo verfus anteriora
ita protraftorum, ut orificium ani ex facie antenore
corporis prope vulvam confpiceretur, ortum haoebat.
In ipfo facco poft efBuxionem humoris, aquae fere lib. jv.
capiente, nihil praeter h^datides parvas obfervatu dig-
num erat. Os facro vero, ad angulurn reaum ver¬
fus pofteriora curvatum caudse inftar prominebat.” (l)
Sect. III. Of the Deviations from Natural Labour,
181 which depend on the State of the Pafages through
which the Child is forced.
The deviations from natural labour occafioned by the
ftate of the paffages, originate either from the foft parts,
or the bones.
The obftacles from the foft parts are tumours withm
the womb, thickening and induration ot the neck
and mouth of the womb, enlargement of the ovary, ci¬
catrix in the vagina, colleilion of faeces within the tec¬
tum, fwelling of the parts lining the pelvis, malforma¬
tion and extreme rigidity of the external parts.
It is a curious fa£I, not mdy that conception fome-
times takes place when there is a tumour within the
womb, but alfo that pregnancy goes on to the full pe¬
riod. When this has happened, the tumour has been
puthed down before the infant, and has filled up the
paffages. .
If this obftacle be afcertained at an early period of
the labour, which it muft be if the pradlitioner oe in
F E H Y. Chap. IV.
any ordinary degree Ikilful and attentive, the tumour Preterna-
may be puffed back, and the feet of the child may be ™ti^
brought down. In a cale of this kind, where the writ- t j
er of this article was called in after the tumour had .
become wedged within the pelvis, and the head had
been opened, the delivery wTas accompliihed with ex¬
treme difficulty, and the poor woman furvived only a
few hours.
The following fingular cafe of an excrefcence on the
os uteri, is ftated by Dr Denman, vol. ii. p. 6$. .
“ In June 1770, I was defired to fee a patient in the I02
eighth month of her pregnancy, who in the preceding
night had a profufe hemorrhage. Her countenance
fliewed the effefts of the great lofs of blood ffe had
fuftained ; and from the reprefentation of the cafe given
me by the gentleman who was firft called in, I con¬
cluded that the placenta was fixed over the os uteri.
On examination I felt a very large fteftiy tumour at
the extremity of the vagina, repreienting and nearly
equalling in fize the placenta, which I judged it to be.
Had this been the cafe, there could not be a doubt of *
the propriety and neceftity of delivering the patient
fpeedily •, and with that intention I paffed my finger
round the tumour, to difcover the ftate ox the os uteri.
But this I could not find, and on a more accurate exa¬
mination, I was convinced that this tumour was an ex¬
crefcence growing from the os uteri, with a very ex¬
tended and broad bafts. I then concluded that the
patient was not with child, notwithftanding the diften-
tion of the abdomen, but that fixe laboured under fome
difeafe which refembled pregnancy, and that the he¬
morrhage was the confequence of the difeafe. A mo¬
tion which was very evidently perceived when I ap¬
plied my hand to the abdomen, did not prevail with,
me to alter this opinion.
“ It was of all others a cafe in which a confultation
was defirable, both to decide upon the difeaie, and the
meaiures which it might be neceffary to purfue 5 and
feveral gentlemen of eminence were callett in. Fhat
flie was" actually pregnant, was afterwards proved to
the fatisfaftion of every one j and it was then conclud¬
ed, that fuch means ftiould be ufed as might prevent or
leffen the hemorrhage, and that we ffould wait and fee
what efforts might be naturally made for accompliffing
the delivery.
44 No very urgent fyrnpfcoin occurred till the latter end.
of July, when the 'hemorrhage returned in a very
alarming way, and it was thought neceffary that the
patient (hould be delivered. There was not a poffibili-
ty of Extirpating the tumour, and yet it was of fuch a
fize, as to prevent the child from being born in any
other way than by leffening the head. This was per¬
formed •, "but after many attempts to extra# the child,
the patient was fo exhaufted, that it became neceffary
to leave her to her repofe, and very loon after our leav¬
ing her, expired. . , , ,
“ We were permitted to examine the body. I here
was no appearance of difeafe in any of the abdominal
vifeera, or on the external furface of the uterus, which
was of its regular form ; and when a large oval piece
was taken out of the anterior part, the child, which
had
(l) Vide Societatis medicae Haumcnfis Colkaanea, vol. 2d, p. 23.
3
Chap. IV. M I D W
J^retema- had no marks of putrefaclion, was found in a natural
tural Par- p0fltj0n> Jncifion was made on each fide of the
t y  , cervix to the vagina, ana then a large cauhtlower ex-
crefcence was found growing to the whole anterior part
of the os uteri. The placenta adhered with its whole
furface ; fo that the blood which fhe had loll muft
have been wholly difcharged from the tumour (m).”
103 In two cafes, where a great thickening and indura¬
tion of the neck and mouth of the w’omb, approaching
to the nature of fchirrofity, had taken place previous to
conception, the natural a6Hon of the uterus, though af¬
ter a very confiderable time indeed, affifted by copious
blood-letting, eventually overcame the refiflance. One
of the patients died ten months after, with all the
fymptoms of real cancer uteri. The other was reftored
to perfedf health after lying-in.
104 Dr Denman has recorded (vol. ii. p. 73.) two cafes,
where the enlarged ovarium impeded the progrefs of
the child. In the one cafe the head of the infant was
opened, and the delivery completed by the crotchet ;
but the patient died at the difiance of three weeks. In
the other, a trocar u'as puffed into the tumour, and a
living child was born. The patient recovered from her
lying-in 5 but died hedfic at the end of fix months. In
fuch cafes, the ovary may be pufhed back, if the cir-
cumltance be difcovered early enough.
r35 Cicatrix of the vagina, in confequence of former in¬
jury, may appear at firft to impede the progrefs of
the infant ; but it will always be found to yield to the
pains, if the flrength of the patient be fupported, and
proper means be adopted to counteraft the effe&s of the
long-continued labour throes. A cafe occurred fome
time ago to Dr Hamilton, where a fubltance, of the
hardnefs of grirtle, as thick as an ordinary fized finger,
placed between the vagina and reftum, and apparently
extending from the ramus of one ifehium to that of the
other, prefented an unfurmountable obifacle to the paf-
iage of the child. He was called in after an unfuccefs-
rul attempt had been made to tear away the infant, and
found the woman in a date of extreme danger. He
was informed, that five years before that period, die
had had a very fevere tedious labour, follow’ed by great
inflammation and fuppuration of the external parts.
Tiie indurated part was cut through without the patient
making any complaint, and the child was very eafily
extracted ; but die furyived the delivery only two
days. The relations would not permit the b.dy to be
opened.
106 A colledllon of fames within the re&um has been
known to occafion fuch refidancc to the paffage of the
child, that the woman has died undelivered. In ge¬
neral, however, it is in the pow’er of an active practi¬
tioner to empty the gut at the beginning of labour.
But if, from negledt, the head of the child be jammed
in the pelvis, and immoveably wedged in confequence
of an'accumulation of fmces, it then becomes neceffary
to open the head.
107 Perhaps the mod frequent affeftion of the foft parts
which impedes the procefs of the infant is, fwelling of
the parts lining the pelvis. This circumdance has been
Vol. XIV. Part I.
(vt) Were fiich a ca'e again to occur, there could be
round the neck of the tumour.
I F E R Y. ,s5
already hinted at. It can never happen where the Preterna-
pradtitioner is ordinarily attentive j for the tendernefs tural Par-
heat, and drynefs of the paffages, which precede the t^^tlon•-.
adual fwelling, cannot be overlooked by one at all ~
aware of the podibility of Inch an event. When it
has adually happened, nothing can fave the mother
but opening the head of the infant. After this mod
unpleafant operation is completed, the extraction of the
child is feldom a matter of much difficulty.
Malformation of the external parts in fome cafes does re?
not prevent conception. Two cafes have fallen within
the knowledge of the writer of this article, where the
woman had conceived though the orifice of the vagina
had not been capable of permitting the introduction
of even the little finger. And it confids with his
knowledge, that about thirty years ago a woman under
dmilar circumdances, was brought into the Royal In¬
firmary of this place, and was delivered by the cajfarean
operation. She died within two days.
It is fufficiently obvious that the fafe praCtice under
fuch circumdances is to enlarge the natural opening, by
making an incifion in the direflion of the paerineum,
taking care not to wound the fphinCIer ani.
Extreme rigidity of the external parts is one of the I0$
mod frequent caufes of deviation which depends on the
date of the foft parts. It takes place, in a greater or
lefs degree, in the greated number of women who lie in
for the fird time ; and generally in all women who are
condderably advanced in life before they have children.
It is feldom that the redftance oppofed by the exter¬
nal parts is fo very great as to prove an invincible ob-
dacle to labour. But, on many occafions, the long-con¬
tinued preffu re of the child on thofe parts produces the
mod difagreeable confequences, as inflammation of all
theie parts and of the bladder. Inflammation in thofe
parts is always dangerous, for there feems to be a re¬
markable tendency to gangrene. Cafes are on record
where the whole parts have floughed off, and where
the reCIum, vagina, and bladder, have formed one ca¬
nal. Perhaps death is mucli preferable to life under
fuch circumdances.
Copious blood-letting, and the liberal life of fome
unCluous application, with time and patience, in gene¬
ral overcome the rigidity of the external parts. Pla¬
cing the patient over the beams of hot water was for¬
merly recommended in fuch cafes, but this practice is
now exploded.
B. Many deviations from natural labour occur from rri '
the date of the bones of the pelvis, For they may be fo
much altered in diape as either to increafe or diminifh
confiderably the aperture of that part.
When the apertures of the pelvis are too large,
the mother incurs much danger, and the child is not
totally exempt from hazard.
(?a. The danger incurred by the mother arifes from
there being no refidance to the paffage of the child, fd
that when the affion of the uterus begins, the child
may be pufhed by the force of the pains through the
paffage before the foft parts be dilated ; hence the ute¬
rus may be ruptured, or the foft parts lacerated. If
' I ’
1 on
no ooud. re:pe£t;ng the propriety of fixing a ligature
M I D W I F E R Y.
Chap. IV.
112
513
114
on the other hand, the external parts be foft and
yielding, a confiderable portion of the uterus may be
excluded without the parts. There is a very wonder¬
ful hiftory of a cafe of this kind alluded to by Saxtorph
in the following words. “ Memorabilius adhuc ex-
emplum eft illud a cel. Wolfg. Mullnero allatum, ubi
totus uterus una cum fcetu extra genitalia dilapfus, foe*
tufque vivus extra pelvim vei'fione extradfus fuit, matre
poll redudlionem uteri fuperftite. Vide ejus Bahrneh-
mung von einer famt deni Rinde aufgefalienen Debahr-
mutter, Nurnberg 1771 (l.)
bb. The hazard wdiich the child undergoes is that of
being fuddenly expelled, included within the entire
ovum, fo that it may be loft before proper aftiftance
can be afforded. Another danger is, that the mem¬
branes having given way, it may be daftied w'ith vio¬
lence upon the floor on wdaich the patient wTalks.
Whenever from the great width of the hips, there is
reafon to fufpedf that the pelvis is too large, the prac¬
titioner fhould continue in conftant attendance from the
very commencement of labour, and (hould carefully
adopt the appropriate and obvious means to prevent the
hazards juft enumerated.
e. But deficiency of fpace in the apertures of the pel¬
vis occurs much more frequently than increafe. The
apertures of the pelvis may be diminithed from natural
fmall fize or malformation of the bones, from exoftolis,
or from altered ftiape in confequence of mollities
effium.
Cafes v'here the facrum and ilia are of an uncommon
fmall ftiape are not frequent. Narrownefs of the bafe
of the facrum is fometimes met with ; and in a few cafes
it has been found that the apex of the facrum has ap¬
proached too nearly to the anterior part of the pelvis,
fo as to diminifti the apertures at the outlet.
Txoftofes feldom prove an obftacle to delivery •, but
one exception to this rule fell under the obfervation of
the writer of this article feveral years ago. The exof-
tofis extended along the whole extent of the fymphyfis
pubis, and w'as fully as thick as an ordinary fized fin¬
ger. The woman had been delivered previous to his
being called in, but the exhauftion which followed,
(for fhe had been allowed to continue five - days and
nights in conftant hard labour) qccafioned her finking
a very ftiort time after delivery. In this inftance both
mother and child were loft from the felf-fufficiency and
ignorance of the midwife.
The deficiency may exift in the brim, ths outlet, or
the cavity fingly or combined.
The brim is much more frequently affecled by mol¬
lities offium than the outlet ; and, as was long ago re¬
marked by Levret, it generally happens, that when
the brim is narrow’ed from this caufe, the outlet is wid¬
ened.
The brim maybe diminiftred in fize by the projeftion
of the promontory of the facrum, or by the flattening
of the pubes, or by the approximation of the bones
where the pubes and ilia unite, or by a combination of
fome of thefe circumftances. The projeflion of the
promontory of* the facrum, however, is by far the moft
common. When this happens, the projeflion fome¬
times renders one fide of the pelvis wider than the
other, and this conftitutes what authors call the diftort-
ed pelvis. Sometimes, however, it leaves both fides
of an equal wddth, and this is called the deformed pelvis.
The deficiency in the brim produced by thefe caufes
is very various; moft frequently (light, but fometimes
fo great that there is not an inch between pubes and
facrum.
The outlet may be diminiftied by the approximation
of the tuberofities and rami of the ifehia, or by the
apex of the facrum and coccyx projecting more than
ufually forward, while they are at the fame time hook¬
ed up.
When both the brim and outlet are diminithed in
aperture, the cavity of the pelvis is generally affefted
alfo ; but when the deficiency of (pace is confined to
either, the cavity is commonly more (hallow than na¬
tural, by which both the refiftance and the danger are
confiderably leffened. Melancholy are the cafes wdiere
the cavity is rendered deeper than ufual.
As the praftice in cafes of extreme deficiency in the
apertures of the pelvis is to be regulated by the degree
of narrownefs, it is a matter of the firft importance to
be able to afeertain the dimenfions in any given cafe
with tolerable preciuon.
For this purpofe, inftrufnents called pelvimetres have
been invented. M. Coutuoli has propofed one for in¬
ternal u(e, and M. Baudelocque has recommended one
for external application. But however plaufible in
theory the ufe of fuch contrivances may appear, it is
now well known that no dependence can be placed
upon them in adlual practice, and therefore the hand
of the operator muft be had recourfe to for determining
both the drape and the extent of the apertures of the
pelvis, wherever there is any narrowmefs. The fol¬
lowing directions for this purpofe given by Dr Wallace
Johnfon are extremely judicious.
“ On palling the finger along the vagina, if the coc¬
cyx, or any part of the facrum, be felt unufually forwards
or near at hand j or if the fymphyfis, or any other
part of the pubes, is found projecting rather inwards
than outwards, it is evident that the pelvis is diftort
ed. In wdrich ca(e, as well as in thofe where it is
not diftorted, but only very fmall, the principal part of
the child’s head (allowing the prefentation right) re¬
mains high, the vertex making only a little round tu¬
mor within the brim : fo that when the os uteri is open¬
ed, and come a little forv/ards towards the pubes, the
capacity of the pelvis may be found out by moving the
end of the finger round that part of the head which
has entered the upper ftrait. This method is ufed by
feveral praftitioners in London. However, (hould the
finger not be long enough to effeCl it properly, as
fometimes is the cafe, there is then another method,
which, being more certain, may be ufed, provided it
be done with tendernefs and caution, and when the ori¬
fices are fo well opened as to admit of it with fafety.
But previous to it, the operator muft be wTell acquainted
with the dimenfions of his own hand, viz.
“ Firft,
II5
116
11S
(l) Differtatio Inauguralis de Diverfo Partu, &c. AuClore Matth. Saxtorph. p. d&.
1
Chap. TV.
M I D W I F E R Y.
Fretrrna-
tural Par¬
turition.
irp
“ Firft, The fingers of a mlddle-fized hand (as we
may fuppofe the operator’s to be) being gathered toge¬
ther equally into the palm, and the thumb extended and
applied clofely along the fecond or middle joint of the
finger 5 the diftance between the end of the thumb, and
outer edge of the middle joint of the little finger, is ufu-
ally four inches.
“ Secondly, Whilft they are in the above pofition,
the diitance from the thumb, at the root of the nail, in a
ftraight line to the outfide of the middle joint of the
little finger, is full three inches and a half.
“ Thirdly, The fingers being ftill in the fame fitua-
tion, and the thumb laid obliquely along the joints next
the nails of the firft two fingers, and bent down upon
them ; the diftance between the outfide of the mid¬
dle joint of the fore finger, and the outfide of that of
the little finger is three inches and a quarter.
“ Fourthly, The hand being opened, and the tops of
the four fingers being a little bent, fo as to come nearly
in a ftraight line; their whole breadth, acrofs the joint
next the nails, is twTo inches and a half.
“ Fifthly, When the firft three fingers are thus bent,
their breadth acrofs the fame joint is two inches.
“ Sixthly, The breadth of the firft two, acrofs the
nail of the firft; finger, is one inch and a quarter.
“ And feventhly, The fingers being gathered into a
conical form, the thumb lying obliquely upon the
palm of the hand with its point upon the firft joint of
the ring finger, reckoning downwards, will meafure in
thicknefs, between its back and the fore part of the
thumb, two inches and two eighths.
‘W Now, as hands are extremely various, the operator
ought always to know how much the lize of his dif-
fereth from the above dimenfions j and this being
rightly underftood, the application may be made as
follows:
“ The patient, being in the pofition as for natural
delivery, and the operator’s left hand being well
anointed, and the fingers and thumb gathered into a
cone, it muft be gently pafled into the vagina* and then
through the os uteri, unlefs in this part there is ftill a
rigidity to forbid it; if fo, the fingers only muft be paf-
fed, their extremities formed into the fourth dimenfion,
and then placed edgeways in the ftrait 5 which being
done, if the fore finger touch the angle of the fa-
cram, and the little one the fymphyfis of the pubes, the
width is then manifeftly no more than two inches and a
half a fpace through which a mature child can neither
pafs alive, nor be brought fo by art, unlefs it happens to
be preternaturally final! indeed.”
Three methods of pra&ice have been adopted in
cafes of fuch narrewnefs of the pelvis as renders it
impoffible for the child to be produced alive, viz.
the operation of embryulcia or embryotomy, the
Caefarean fc&ion, and the divifion of the fymphyfis
pubis.
I. Embryotomy. The cafes requiring this molt
Ihocking operation are thofe where the infant cannot
be extrafled alive through the natural paffages; w'hile
there is, neverthelefs, fuch fpace that it may be torn
away piece-meal without injury to the mother. Of
courfe, in thefe cafes the life' of the woman can be faved
only at the expence of her infant.
But although authors and pradlitioners in modem
times adopt in general this principle, they differ ma¬
terially in their account of the precife cafes requiring
the operation.
Dr Ofborn alleges, that, as the head of the infant
at the full time of utero-geftation cannot be diminiih-
ed to lefs than three inches between the parietal pro¬
tuberances by the natural contraftions of the uterus
forcing it againft the bones of the pelvis j wherever the
aperture at the brim or outlet falls under three inches,
the operator ought to proceed as foon as poflible to open
the head of the infant.
But on fo very ferious an operation as that by which
one life is deflroyed, it becomes a praftitioner to adopt
no rule which can be at all liable to error; and it is
evident, that there are three very ftrong objeftions to
this precept of Dr Ofborn.
Firft, It is impoffible in any cafe at the beginning
of labour, to afcertain that the infant is at the full
term of utero-geftation •, but it is well known, that a
child at the age of between feven and eight months,
it bom alive, may be reared to maturity, and that
fuch a child is capable of being expelled without>in-
jury, through an aperture incapable of permitting the
paffage of a full grown foetus.
Secondly, The heads of children, even at the full
time, are iometimes fo fmall and fo yielding as to ad¬
mit readily of their fliort diameter being diminiffied be¬
low three inches.
Thirdly, Every candid practitioner muft allow, that
it is quite impoffible to afcertain with geometrical ac¬
curacy the precife dimenfions of the pelvis 5 and con-
fequently wdiat in any given cafe may appear to the
operator to be lefs than three inches, may in fa£t be
above thefe dimenfions.
For thefe reafons, wherever the narrowmefs is not ob-
vioufly very confiderable, the prudent rule is to afcer¬
tain the effeft of the labour-throes, firpporting the
ftrength of the patient, and palliating diftreffing fymp-
toms. By adopting this rule, the practitioner will not
only have the confcioufnefs of not having deftroyed life
unneceffarily, where he is eventually forced to open
the head, by the conviClion that it is too large to pafs
unopened, but alfo the innate fatisfaCHon of fcmetimes
faving a life, which under lefs cautious .management
muft have been facrificed. Great care indeed is ne-
ceffary in fuch cafes not to be deceived in the eftimate
of theprogrefs of the child, for the fwelling of the fcalp
may miflead a young praftitioner. <
There has been a variety of opinion too, refpeCling
the lowed: dimenfions of the pelvis which permit the
operation of embryulcia wath fafety to the mother ; and
it is furely unneceffary to ftate, that unlefs there be a
moral probability of faving the life of the mother by
this operation, it ought never to be had recourfe to.
Dr Kellie, of London (p), and Dr Ofborn (q), have
recorded fome cafes where this operation was performed,
I 2 although
(p) Dr Wallace Johnfon.
(O Dr Ofborn’s Effays.
68 M I D W I F E P. Y. Chap. IV.'
Pretema• altliough the naiTownefs was very great; and the latter
^tuntim\' gent^erDan5 funding on a fmgle cafe, affumes the prin-
 - ciple, that whenever there is a fpace equal to an inch
and an half between pubes and facruin, the operation
of embryulcia is praflicable. But a careful perufal of
the cale alluded to (a) mull fatisfy any unprejudiced
perfon that there mull have been lome miltake, moll
probably, from the fwelling of the foft parts lining the
pelvis having added to the apparent narrownefs, and
having, after the head had been opened above 36
hours, fublided. And at any rate, fince experience has
noxv fully eftablidied the faff, that the danger refulting
from this operation is always in proportion to the de¬
gree of reiiftance, it may be concluded that the opera¬
tion of embryulcia cannot prove fafe to the mother, un-
lefs, firlf, there be an aperture equal to about two inches
by four 5 and, fecondly, the narrownefs be chiefly, if not
altogether, confined either to the brim or the outlet.
When both brim and outlet are deficient, and the cavity
is deeper than ufual, even although the feveral apertures
be quite fufficient to allow the diminilhed head to be ex-
trafled, the injury that mull accrue from the violent
preffure on all the parts within the pelvis would de¬
ter any prudent practitioner from hazarding fuch an
operation.
When it is determined to have rccourfe to the opera¬
tion of embryotomy, the inflruments required are the
perforator, the crotchet, and the embryotomy forceps
delineated in the plate.
^22 r] he operation is to confift of two different procelfes ;
fir ft, the diminution of the head ; and, fecondly, the
extra&ion of the mangled child. In many cafes the
latter ftiould be performed immediately after the former
is accompliflied ; but whenever the refiftance is very
confiderable, an interval (hould be interpofed between
the two. The advantages refulting from this praCtice
were firft publicly noticed by Dr Oihorn, though there
can be little doubt that the praCtice itfelf was the eflieCt
of neceffity. By waiting after the head has been open¬
ed, the woman’s ftrength will be reftored, fo that the
afliftance of the pains in the expuliion of the child may
be obtained •, the fwelling of the foft parts will fubfide,
by which the refiftance may be greatly leffened, as well
as the danger of inflammation removed, and the child’s
body will become putrid, by which its extraction may
be greatly facilitated.
323 In opening the head, which is to be done by means
of the perforator, the two great points to be aimed at
are to avoid injuring any part of the w’oman, and to
make a fu flic lent ly large opening of the head. On the
complete accomplifhment of the latter, the eventual
fuccefs of the operation muft depend in all cafes of ex¬
treme deficiency of fpace.
Should it be found expedient to delay the extfaClion
of the imarst after the head has been opened and its
contents evacuated, the teguments are to be carefully
brought over the ragged edges of the bones, fo that in
the event of labour throes recurring, there (hall be no
rifk of the parts within the pelvis being injured.
When it has been found proper to proceed to the ex- Preterna-
traClion of the infant, the firft; thing to be attempted is ^ral Pan¬
to diminiih the bulk of the cranium as much as poflible. tur^K^" .
This may be done by means of the embryulcia forceps, l2A
delineated in the plates, and contrived it is believed by
Dr Lyon of Liverpool. It is an inftrument far fupe-
rior to the almifdach of the Arabians, in ufe even
within thefe fifty years among the praClitioners of this
ifland (b).
After the head has been fufficiently reduced in bulk,
the crotchet is to be fixed at firft on the infide of the
cranium •, and while two fingers of the left hand are to
be kept conftantly fo applied that if the inftrument
fhould flip in the procefs of extraClion, it (hall be re¬
ceived on the fingers, and cannot poffibly touch any
part of the mother, the operator is to draw down with
a fuitable exertion of force, in fuch a direction that the
largeft part of the head (hail be brought through the
wideft part of the pelvis.
In fome cafes, much time and very violent exertions
are required to accomplifti the delivery ; but, if the
proper precautions to prevent any injury to the paffages
be adopted, and if at the fame time the operator imi¬
tate nature by working only from time to time, and in-
creafe the force employed gradually as may be required,
and perfevere patiently, notwithftanding the refiftance,
taking care to fupport by nouriftiment and cordials
the ftrength of the woman, the delivery at laft will be
completed.
The dangers to be dreaded from this moft (hocking 125.
operation, are injuries of the paffages, from the inftru-
ment’s flipping through the embarraffment of the prac¬
titioner 5 or violent inflammation of all the contents of
the pelvis extending to the abdomen, in confequence
of the parts through which the child muft; be fo forci¬
bly extracted being feverely bruifed. Accordingly, a
greater number of women die from the effefls of this
operation than praflitioners are willing to admit ; and
indeed, in every cafe of extreme deficiency of fpace,
where embryotomy is performed, the recovery is to be
regarded as doubtful.
This operation is fometimes had recourfe to in cafes
where the forceps ftiould have been ufed had the child
been alive. But fuch cafes are very rare, becaufe the
evidence of the infant in utero being dead, is feldom fo
complete as to juftify the practitioner proceeding on
the principle that it is fo.
II. By the Ccefarean feElion is meant the extraction of ^
the infant through the parietes of the abdomen by an in-
cifion into the uterus.
This bold operation was perhaps never performed by
the ancients on the living fubjeCt, and certainly was
firft recommended to practitioners by M. Rouffet in his
Traite nouvelle, de PHysterctomie, &c. 1581. Since
that time it has been often performed on the continent,
and about twenty times in Great Britain. The fuccefs
of this operation recorded in the early works has cer¬
tainly been exaggerated ; but it appears by an elabo¬
rate memoir by M. Baudelocque, tranflated into Englifh
by
(a) Ofborn’s Effay, p. 240.
(b) For an account of the ancient inftruments employed in the praClice of midwifery, fee Sculteti Arma-
jqent. Qhir.
Chap. IV.
M I D W 1 F E R Y.
69
Preterna- by Dr Hull of Mancbetfer, that during the 50 years
tural Par- preceding 1801, the operation has been had recourfe
turn,on. to on t.jle contjnenj times, and that 37 of thefe cafes
proved fuccefsful. In Great Britain, on the contrary,
this operation has never yet fucceeded, a circumftance
to be attributed partly to the delay which has always
taken place after the neceffity for fuch an expedient
had been determined, and hence the patient, at the time
the operation was performed, muft have been in a ftate
of exhauftion ; and partly, perhaps chiefly, to the pre¬
vious very alarming ftate of health of the fubjetls of
the operation in this iflar.d. It is at any rate certain
that all over the continent practitioners have lefs horror
at performing the Csefarean feclion than Britifh practi¬
tioners have commonly fhewn •, and it is deemed neceffary
in cafes where the operation of embryulcia is preferred
in this country, and where of courfe the women are
not in fuch a precarious ftate of health as thofe com¬
monly are who have extreme narrownefs of the pelvis.
127 In confequence of the fatality of the Ccefarean fec-
tion in Great Britain, feveral eminent praftitioners
have regarded it as unjuftifiable. Dr Oihorn has ren¬
dered himielf particularly confpicuous on this fubjeCt,
and ufes very ftrong language in reprobation of it. His
arguments are, its acknowledged fatality ) the capability
of completing the delivery by means of the crotchet,
in cafes of fuch deformity of the pelvis, that there is
no more than one and a half inch between the pubi»
and facrum, or to one fide of the projecting facrum j
and the impoffibility of impregnation taking place in
cales of greater deficiency of fpace. We (hall notice
thefe arguments in their turn.
1 ft, IVte acknowledged fatality of the operation.—
This relates only to the refult of the operation in Great
Britain ) for, as already mentioned, a great proportion
of the patients has been faved on the continent. But
in infilling on this argument Dr Olborn has over¬
looked that the objeCt of the operation is to fave, if
polfible, two lives, and at any rate one. Now if it can
be fatisfaClorily proved, that on fome occafions the
operation of embryotomy is abfolutely impracticable, it
becomes the duty of the practitioner to fave one life
at leaft) and it is well known that the Caefarean opera¬
tion is far lefs painful to the woman than that of em¬
bryotomy, even where that latter operation is eventual¬
ly luccefsful. In fuch cafes of extreme deformity,
either an attempt ihould be made to deliver the woman
and fave the child, or both muft be allowed to perifti;
for the operation of embryotomy, if attempted, muft be
' regarded as wilful murder.
229 2dly, Ihe praBicability of tearing away the child in
pieces by means of the perforation and crotchet, in cafes
wTere there is no more than an inch and a half be¬
tween the pubft> and facruna, or to one fide of the pro-
jeCIing facrum, is alleged by the doCIor on the founda¬
tion of a fingle cafe, that of Elizabeth Sherwood al¬
ready referred to. But any perfon who fhall take the
trouble to have the aperture of Sherwood’s pelvis, as
ftated by Dr Olhorn cut out in wood, and to compare
this with the balls of an infant’s fkull as much diminilh-
ed. as polfible by the crotchet (which is done in the
courfe of his leClures by the profelfor of midwifery in
this univerfity), muft be convinced, that there was
fome miftake in the fuppofed dimenfions of that wo¬
man’s pelvis. And it is quite obvious, that unlefs there
be the fpace already ftated, viz. three and a half or
four inches by two, it is unfafe to extraCl the mangled
child through the natural paffages.
allegation that wrhere there is a greater degree
of narrownefs of the pelvis than that which was luppo-
fed to have happened in the cafe of Shenvood impreg¬
nation cannot take place, is quite inconfiftent with fafls.
One of the moft remarkable cafes of extreme defor¬
mity is that of Elizabeth Thompfon, on Whom the
Cmfarean operation was performed at >Manchefter in
1802. The defcription as given by Dr Hull (g) is as
follow-s: “ The pelvis of this patient w’as not nearly fo foft
as has fometimes been obferved. It Hill had a confider-
able degree of bony firmnefs. The olfa innominata at
their facro-iliac fynchondrofes, and at the fymphyfis
pubis, before the pelvis was dried, admitted of a flight
degree of motion.—The diftance from the crifta of one
os ilium to the other, at their moft remote points,
meafures ten inches and a half.
“ The alte of both ofla ilia are very much bent"; and
on the left fide the curvature is fo great, that it
meafures only two inches from the anterior and inferi¬
or fpinous procels to the oppofite pofterior point. The
lumbar vertebrae project forwards or inwards, and make
a confiderable curve to the left fide of the pelvis.
The diftance from the lower part of the fecond lum¬
bar vertebra to the anterior part of the fpine of the os
ilium, on the left fide, is two inches. The diftance
from the low'dl part of the fecdnd lumbar vertebra to
the anterior part of the fpine of the os ihum, on the
right fide, is five inches.
“ Superior aperture. The conjugate or antero-pof-
terior diameter, from the fymphyfis pubis to the upper
edge of the laft lumbar vertebra is one inch and a half.
—This diameter is not taken from the os lacrum, or its
jundion with the laft lumbar vertebra, becaule the point
of their junction is fo much funk into the pelvis, that
the place it flrould have occupied, is reprefented by the
jundion of the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebra.
The tranfverfe'diameter meafures four inches and five-
eighths. It is taken from one facro-iliac fymphyfis to
the other. The diftance of the point of this aperture,
which is oppofite to the anterior part of the right aceta¬
bulum, from the lumbar vertebra, is only half an inch.
The diftance from that part of this aperture, which
correfponds with the pofterior part of the right aceta¬
bulum, to the os facrum is three-fourths of an inch.
The diftance of the point, correfponding with the an¬
terior part of the left acetabulum, from the lumbar
vertebra is five-eighths of an inch. The diftance
of the point of this aperture, oppofite to the pofte¬
rior part of the left acetabulum, from the os fa¬
crum, is three-fourths of an inch. The diftance of
one os pubis from the other, in the points marked
in the plate, is feven-eighths of an inch. The di¬
ftance from the right ;fercro-iliac fymphyfis to the fym¬
phyfis pubis is three inches and three-fourths. The di¬
ftance
Preterna¬
tural Par¬
turition.
150.
132
(c) Obfervations on Mr Simmons’s Detedion, &c. p. 195.
70 M 1 t> W
Pretcrna- Aance from the right facro-iiiac fymphyfis to the left os
Puhis is three inches and three-eighths. The diilance
u——from the left' facro-iiiac fyrnphyfis to the fymphyfis
pubis is three inches and five-eighths. The di-
ilance from the left facro-iiiac fymphyfis to the right os
pubis is three inches and one-fourth. The largeft
circle, that can be formed in any part of the fuperior
aperture, does not exceed in diameter one inch.
1'52 “ Inferior aperture. The diflance from one ramus
offis ilchii to the other, where they are united with the
rami ollium pubis, meafures only half an inch. The
diftance from the tuberolity of one os ifchium to the
other meafures one inch and two-tenths. The conju¬
gate or antero-pofterior diameter, taken from the fym¬
phyfis pubis to the point of the os coccygis is three
inches.
“ The angle, included by the rami of the ofifa pubis,
is very acute, viz. an angle of about 20 degrees. The
perpendicular height from the tubera of the offa ifchia
to the inferior margin of the fymphyfis pubis is two
inches and a half. The perpendicular height of the
fymphyfis pubis is one inch and a half. The tuberofi-
ty of the left os ifchium advances forwards, beyond that
of the right, about fix-tenths of an inch, and the
whole of the rami ofiis pubis and ifchii on the left fide
projects beyond thofe of the right. The perpendicular
height of the os facrum and coccyx is two inches and
one-fourth only, the os facrum being bent fu as to form
a very acute angle. The acetabula, at their neareft
points, are only three inches diftant. The fymphyfis
pubis is much more prominent than natural. The up¬
per margin of the fymphyfis pubis is fituated as high as
• the bottom of the fourth lumbar vertebra.”
It appears then, that Dr Ofborn’s arguments are fal¬
lacious, and that cafes occur where the operation of
efnbryotomy is neither fafe nor practicable. Under
iuch circumftances, the Crefarean ftClion muft be had
recourfe to ; and it is therefore to be regarded as an
operation of neceffity, not one of choice. If this rule
be adopted, the cafes requiring fo formidable an expe¬
dient will happily be very feldom met with.
*33 Mr Simmons ' of Manchefter, obferving that Dr
Ofborn’s third argument is untenable, has propofed in
the following words, another fubftitute for the Ctefarean
operation.
“ When a cafe fliall arife in which the child cannot
be delivered by the crotchet, from the brim of the pel¬
vis being no more than one inch in diameter ; I propofe
to combine the two operations, and to divide the fym¬
phyfis pubis to make way for the crotchet. Dr Ofborn
has urged feveral objections againft this propofal, al¬
though he admits that the operation at the fymphyfis is
not fo certainly fatal as the Caefarean feCtion. Weighty
objections doubtlefs prefs againft it ; but whilft there
are no other means for preferving life, bad as the
chance is, it becomes a queftion whether it be worth
rifking ; and, after maturely confidering the cafe,
fhould an attempt for faving the life of the mother be
judged expedient, as the laft refoutce it may be adopted.
“ 1 he (pace gained has been differently ftated at from
three to eight or nine lines in the diameter •,—the me¬
dium diftance would probably be fufficient to accomplifh
delivery by the crotchet.
“ The objections urged againft this mode of delivery,
when the head is of the full ftze, will not apply to its
I F E R Y. Chap. IV.
reduced bulk •, and it fhould be remembered, that the Pretema-
fymphyfis is formed of cartilage and ligament ; fo that turaj far_
whatever preffure fhall be made againft; the divi- , tuntlon- _
ded edges, will not be made againft the fharp angles v
oi bone. That much injury may be done anteriorly
will not be denied ; but, does the continued preffure
of the child’s-head never produce mifebief in other ca¬
fes ? By the introduction of a female found for a guide,
a cautious and fteady operator will avoid wounding- the
urethra j and, as the bafe of the fkull will probably be
turned fideways, it will fuffer lefs in extraction than in
other cafes of the crotchet j in which it mult in general
be injured from preffure againft the pubis. If the repa¬
ration, however, be carried beyond a certain length,
laceration will probably enfue and, Ihould this acci¬
dent occur, I fee no realon to apprehend more danger
from it than follows the extraction of a large ftone
from the bladder through a fmall opening, which will
induce a lacerated wound, but whieh we know will
not uncommonly heal. The lacro-iiiac ligaments would
certainly not be injured by choice, but the confequences,
I believe, are not generally fatal} and, fhould it be
urged that great pain and lamenefs will affliCt the pa¬
tient for a long time after, a reply wall readily occur,
that life was at flake ; and finely there are few-who
would not compound, for the profpeCt of temporary
pain and inconvenience, to have it preferved to them.
“ A fpontaneous feparation fometimes occurs, both
there and at the pubis •, and yet the patient has been
again reftored to health.
“ I do not fee, in other refpedts, in what this com¬
pound operation differs from the molt difficult crotchet
cafe—the Caefarean fedtion is certainly fatal to the mo¬
ther in this country—the life of the child, it is agreed,
fhall not be put in competition wuth the parent’s life—
the fedtion of the fymphyfis is neither fo formidable nor
fo fatal as the Caefarean fedtion—and the crotchet has
been fiiccefsfully applied in dimeniions which will pro¬
bably be thus acquired.
“ Upon the whole, then, in that fuppofed cafe of dif-
tortion (which I hope will never happen) in which the
mother muft be doomed to death, from the impoffibi-
lity of delivering the child by the crotchet, the com¬
pound operation I have recommended will furnifh a re-
fource, approved by reafon and fandtioned by experience 5
inafmuch as the fedtion of the fymphyfis pubis has been
made, and the crotchet has been ufed, though feparate-
ly, yet with fafety. Such a cafe will be attended, un-
queftionably, wdth additional hazard •, but it offers the
only chance to the mother, to the prefervation of whofe
life our chief care flisuld be diredted : and, I hope that
in future all trace of the Caefarean operation will be
baniffied from profeffional books •, for it can never be
juftifiable during the parent’s life, and ftands recorded
only to difgrace the art.”
He himfelf has afforded the moft fatisfadlory evidence 13^
of the abfurdity of his owm propofal ; for he had not
publifired it many months when the very cafe he had
deferibed as ideal adiually occurred in his neighbourhood,
and he had the oppoi’tunity of making the experiment of
his own plan. But he fhrunk from it, and no wonder j
for the w'oman was Elizabeth Thompfon, whole pelvis
has juft been deferibed. It is unfortunate that Mr
Simmons has not had the candour to confefs his error,
and to retraft his opinions, more efpecially fince his re¬
flexions
Chap. IV.
MIDWIFERY.
7i
tuntion.
*35
Pretema- flefllons againft the Cuefarean operation, were couched
tural Par- jn language peculiarly bitter and inventive.
With refpeft to the mode of performing the Caefarean
fe&ion, there has been confiderable variety of opinion.
On theoretical principles, the external incifion, viz.
that through the parietes abdominis, ought to be in the
diredion of the linea alba, becaufe there is lefs chance
of any conliderable retradion of mufcular fibres, or of
interfering with the inteftines, than if it were made in
any other diredion. But the refult of the pradice
feems at variance with the theory. According to the
teftimony of Baudelcque, of 35 operations, where the
incifion was made on the fide of the abdomen, eighteen
proved fuecefsful; of thirty in the diredion of the linea
alba, ten only fucceeded ; and of eight in the manner
recommended by Lauverjat, that is, by a tranfverfe in¬
cifion between the redi mufcles and fpina dorfi, three
fucceeded. But it may be remarked, that the event,
in many of thofe cafes, may have been influenced by a
variety of circumftances, totally independent of the line
of diredion of the external incifion.
In whatever part of the abdomen the external inci¬
fion be made, it ought to be extended to fix inches 5 and,
previous to cutting Into the- uterus, any adive arterial
branch, which may have been divided, muff be fecured ;
and the liquor amnii, if not already difcharged, muft
be drawrn off. «The opening into the uterus need not
be above five inches in length, and fhould be made as
much towards the fundus as poffible. Means are to be
employed to prevent the protrufion of the inteflines at
the time the uterus is emptied. Both foetus and fecun-
dines are to be quickly extraded j after wdrich, the
hand is to be paffed into the uterus, to clear out any
coagula w7hich may have formed within its cavity, to
prevent the os tincae being plugged up, and, at the
fame time, to promote the contradion of the uterus.
The wound in the uterus is to be left to nature •, but
that of the parietes of the abdomen is to be carefully
clofed by means of the interrupted future and achefive
flraps •, and the w-hole belly is to be properly fupported
by a fuitable bandage or waiflcoat. In the after treat¬
ment of the patient, the great objeds to be held in
view, are to fupport the flrength and moderate the de¬
gree of local inflammation.
III. Divijion of the fymphysis pubis.—This was origi¬
nally propofed and performed by M. Sigault of Paris.
His propofal wTas made in 176S ; but he had no opportuni¬
ty of making the adual experiment till September 1777.
—The fuccefs of his firft cafe wTas fuch, that a medal
was flruck to commemorate the event \ and the opera¬
tion w?as admired and recommended, with all the extra¬
vagance of French enthufiafm.
The operation confifts of the divifion of the fymphyfis
pubis and feparation of the innominata. For this pur-
pofe, a catheter is to be introduced into the urethra,
and, with a common fcalpel, the articulation is to be
cut through from the upper edge of the fymphyfis, to
within a quarter of an inch of the inferior edge. By
feparating the thighs, the divided bones are forced
afunder. After this, the operator is either to turn the
tural Par¬
turition.
r37
child, or to extradt it by the forceps, according to the Pnterna-
circumftances of the cafe.
This expedient was propofed as a fubflitute, both for
the operation of embryulcia, and for the Caefarean fec-
tion, as it w’as alleged to be perfectly confident with
the fafety both of mother and child.
It is quite unneceffary for us to offer any theoretical
objedlions to this operation, becaufe wre can {now reafon
on the event of thirty-fix cafes, which have been publilh-
ed.—But thole who may wilh to invedigate this fubjedl,
may confult Baudelocque, par. 1994. and 2091. inclufive;
and Dr Olborn, p. 271. To that latter pradlitioner’s
profeflional zeal and ability is chiedy to be aferibed the
total rejedlion of this operation in Great Britain.
Of the thirty-five fubjecls of the publhbed cafes (for
in one woman it wras periormed twice), fourteen women
and eighteen children died.—Of the twenty-one wo¬
men who furvived, nine had either'had living chil¬
dren before the Sigaultian operation, or had fuch at a
fubfequent period. Mod of the remainder differed
much from the operation. Some had incurable incon¬
tinence of urine, others lamenefs, &c. But the mod
important fa£l is, that whenever the bones of the pelvis
were feparated from each other above an inch (and no
fpace of any confequence could be added to the brim,
unlefs they wTere fo), the facro-iliac fynchondrofes wTere
torn, and no woman furvived that accident.
Thefe fafts have at lad convinced foreign practition¬
ers of the futility of this expedient j and, accordingly,
for above ten years, it has not been performed on the
continent by any pradlitioners of refpectability.
When a woman, with a narrow pehis, who has had
the good fortune to recover after the operation of em¬
bryotomy, again falls with child, die fhould not incur
the hazard of a repetition of fo horrible an operation ;
But ought to have premature labour induced between
the feventh and the eighth month. Under the direc¬
tion of an intelligent pradlitioner this operation is eafily
performed ; and, while it affords the only chance of
faving the infant, which it is the duty of the mother
and of the praclitioner to attempt, it at the fame time,
by leffening the refidance, diminilhes both the differing
and the rifk of the patient (n).
For a further account of the practice in cafes of ex¬
treme deformity of the pelvis, the reader is referred to
Olborn’s Effays; Hamilton’s Letters to Oiborn j Sim¬
mons’s Reflections, and Hull’s Deletion of Simmons.
Sect. IV. Of the Deviations from Natural Labour T3i>
which happen from anomalous circum/lances.
Certain circumdances befides thofe already enume¬
rated occafion deviations in the procefs of labour.
Some of thefe refpet the child, and others the woman.
a. The child’s life is endangered if the navel-dring
be fo drongly convoluted round its neck, that after the
head is born the remainder cannot be expelled without
the cord being drawn fo tight as to interrupt the circu¬
lation through it. Dr Denman, vol. ii. p. 16. has
dated this as a caufe of protradted labour, and has ad-
vifed
*32
140
(n) See a paper on this fubjedf, in the 18th volume of the Medical Fadls and-Obfervations, by Mr Barlow.
Preterna¬
tural Par¬
turition.
Mi
142
M3
M I D W I F E R Y.
Chap. IV
vifed certain modes of practice in confequence. But
if there be pains, there cannot be any material protrac¬
tion of the labour from this caufe.
All rilk of-the infant may be prevented by flacken-
ing the cord, and waiting for the action of the uterus,
if the operator find that he cannot draw the loop of
cord which furrounds the child’s neck eafily over its
head. But this in mod cafes can be readily done.
b. The cord is fometimes pufhed down before the
prefenting part of the child.
If this happen before the membranes are burft, the
only certain method of faving the ^child is to perform
the operation of turning as foon as the date of the paf-
fages will permit.
When the cord is pufhed down along with feme
other part, as the head, after the waters are difcharged,
a variety of pradlice is required according to the cir-
cumdances of the particular cafe) hence merely keeping
the cord for a little time beyond the prelenting part
by means of the fingers, or wrapping it up in a piece of
fbft rag, and pulhing it above the prefenting point, or
the application of the forceps, are feverally found ufe-
ful in different cafes.
c. Sometimes one or both arms of the child are for¬
ced down along with the head, where proper adidance
is not had at the beginning of labour. If the pelvis
be roomy, and the woman have formerly had children,
the delivery may be at lad completed by the natural
powers, notwithdanding this increafed degree of refid-
ance. But in many cafes of this kind an experienced
pra&itioner is not called in till the drength of the wo¬
man be very much exhauded, and then it becomes ne-
ceffary to ufe the forceps, or even on fome occafions to
have recourfe to the operation of embryulcia.
It is well known, that fometimes there is
more than one child in the womb. Indances where
there are twins are not unfrequent *, cafes of triplets are
alleged to happen once in between three or four thou-
fand births ; four at a birth have not occurred in this
city for the lad twenty-feven years ; and there afe 'only
two, or at mod three, well-authenticated cafes of five
at a birth having happened within a hundred years in
this illand.
All the figns by which the exidence of more than
one child in utero can be afeertained, previous to the
actual commencement of labour, are fallacious 5 and in
general it is not till after the birth of one child that it
can be determined that another remains in the womb;
and, unlefs under very particular circumdances, it is of
no importance. The circumdances alluded to are
where different parts of both children are forced in¬
to the paffage at the fame time. Of this a very re¬
markable cafe is recorded in the book of Geneds, verfe
27. chap, xxxviii.
When the womb appears to remain bulky and hard
after the birth of one child, there is reafon to fuppofe
that it contains a fecond. But if there be any
doubt on the fubjecl, the praftitioner has it in his
power to afeertain the point by examination. When
there is no fecond child in the uterus, the further the
fingers are carried, up within the paffages, the more con-
traefed do they feel-, whereas, if there be a fecond child,
the more @pen are they found.
Whtm it is afeertained that another infant remains,
the woman’s belly diculd be immediately compreffed by¬
means of a roller, in order to prevent faintidmep, from
the hidden relaxation of the parietes abdominis, and
the portion of the naval firing remaining attached
to the after-birth of the firft born fhould be care¬
fully fecured, left the veffels of the placenta anafto-
mofe.
In regard to the fubfequent treatment, there Ins
been much variety of opinion among praftitioners.
Some have propofed waiting till the aftion of the
uterus expel the fecond as it had done the firft in¬
fant. Others urge ftrongly the necefiity for immediate
delivery.
Againft the former of thefe praflices it is to be ob¬
jected -, firft, that in fome cafes, days or even weeks
have been known to intervene between the birth of one
child and the a£Hon of the uterus which expelled the
fecond. Secondly, that if this happen, the paffages
muft become contracted and their fubfequent dilatation
may be productive of infiasronatory fymptoms. Ihird-
ly, that during the time the uterine aCtion is fufpended,
internal haemorrhagy may take place, and may deftroy
the patient. And, fourthly, the fecond child may be
fuddenly forced down in fuch a pofition, as may endan¬
ger its life, and at the fame time occafion great pain to
the mother.
For thefe reafons it is now an eftablifiied rule among
judicious praftitioners, to examine the iituation of the
fecond infant, as foon as the patient (hall have reco¬
vered from the (hock of the birth of the firft child ;
and, if its pofition be natural and the patient have not
been exhaufted by the previous labour, and pains come
on, to rupture the membranes, and allow the natural
powers to complete the delivery. But if the infant
prelent any other part than the head, or though the
head do prefent, if the woman be exhaufted, or if there
be no appearance of the return of pains within an hour
after the birth of the firft, then the hand is to be palled
up to bring down the feet of the fecond child, and the
delivefy is to be expedited. The extrafUon of the pla¬
centae is to be condufted with great care, and every
poflible precaution is to be adopted againft the occur¬
rence of flooding, which is always to be dreaded as the
confequence of plurality of children.
The fame principles apply to the management of tri-
- plets, &c.
d. Umbilical hernia, to which women are perhaps
more |fubjeCt than to 'any other fpecies of rupture,
may influence the labour materially.
If it be reducible, it difappears after the fifth month
of pregnanfiy but immediately after the expulfion of
the child it returns, and occafions frightful huntings
and floodings. This may be prevented by the Ample
expedient of having the belly compreffed by a roller in
fuch a manner, that in proportion as ther infant advan¬
ces, the compreflion may be increafed.
Should it be irreducible, if the hernia be affeCted by
the continuance of labour, as may be known by the
colour &c. the operation of turning muft be had re¬
courfe td.
e. Convulfions fometimes happen during labour, and
occafion great danger both to the mother and the child.
The woman is quite infeftfible during the fit,, which
con fills of violent convulfions of the mufcles which
move the body, and of thofe of the eyes, the face, and
the lower jaw; it iafts in-fome cafes only a few feconds,
Preterna¬
tural Par¬
turition.
MS
146
M7
M4
Chap. IV. M I B W
Pi term- and in others for feveral minutes. After the fit has
tur d Par- ceafe(jj Sometimes happens that the patient remains
^ tuiu.on. -r) ^ C0mat0fe flate; in other cafes the fenfibility retyrns.
The circumfiances which diftinguiih this difeafe from
epilepfy were firft dated explicitly by Dr Hamilton in the
Dr'Bun- following words: “ The old diftin&ion betweeheclampfia
m// volv ant* eP^eP^a ^as been rejected by Dr Cullen, without fuffi-
p ‘ 'cient reafon. The con vulfions that occur during pregnan¬
cy and labour, (bould be diftinguiftied by the formername,
for the difeafe is always an acute one, and it never, as far
as my experience, goes, lays the foundation for habitual
epilepfy. To an inattentive pra&itioner, indeed, the
phenomena appear fimilar to thofe of epilepfy •, but, in¬
dependent of its violence and fatality, there are many
circumftances peculiar to it. This has been remarked
by feveral authors, particularly Dr Denman 5 but thofe
circumftances have never been accurately pointed out
in any publication which has fallen into my hands.
“ The eclampfia, peculiar to pregnancy and la¬
bour,' differs from epilepfy in the following refpefts.
“ 1. The fymptoms which precede the attack are
well marked, announcing to an experienced prabtitioner
the approach of the difeafe.
“ 2. If the firft fit do not prove fatal, and if no
means of cure be attempted, it is within a few hours
followed by other paroxyfms, provided delivery do not
take place.
“ 3. After the paroxyfms, even where they have
been very fevere, the patient in many cafes continues
quite fenfible during the intervals, and the fenfibility
returns the ‘moment the fit is off.
“4. What may appear ftill more extraordinary is,
that, in fome cafes there is a remarkably increafed fuf-
ceptibility of impreflion of the external fenfes 5 and this
fuperfenfation is not confined to patients in whom the
convulfions are flight.
“ 5. The aura epileptica never occurs in the cafes
alluded to.
“ 6. The pulfe is, in every cafe, affebied in fome
degree during the remifiions of the fits. It is flow, or
oppreffed, or intermitting, or frequent and rapid. But
it is moft tommonly flow and oppreffed, becoming ful¬
ler and more frequent after blood-letting.
149 The fymptoms above hinted at as preceding the fits
are, violent, headach, or hidden delirium, or violent
tremors during the fecond flage of labour. Impaired
or depraved vifion commonly prove the immediate har¬
bingers of the fit. The event of this occurrence is al¬
ways precarious, for a fingle fit may deflroy the pa¬
tient. Death happens in fuch cafes imtwo ways 5 viz.
either by rupture of fome of the veffels within the head,
or by the rupture of the womb itfelf.
150 The caufe of the difeafe is evidently an overload in
the vefiels within the cranium, and this may be occa-
fioned from a variety of caufes, as violent labour throes,
paflions of the mind, irritations in the primae vise, &c.
151 In cafes of fo very alarming a nature, it is not won-,
derful that prabiitioners have differed much refpebfing
the pradtice to be adopted. The following is what has
been recommended by Dr Hamilton in the volume of
Dr Duncan’s annals already referred to.
“ When fits have abfiially occurred during the latter
months of pregnancy, the firff remedy to be employed,
after having adopted the fuitable means for protebfing
the tongue, is blood-letting, both general and topical.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
I F E R Y. 73
Opening the external jugular might anfwer both pur- Preterna-
pofes, but the reftlefsnefs of the patient in many cafes turfl.*
makes the furgeon or attendants dread this operation.. ' <
A quantity of blood, therefore, adapted to the exigency
of the cafe, is to be drawn from the arm, and either a
branch of the temporal artery is to be divided,-or feve¬
ral leeches are to be applied to the temples. After the
bleeding, a powerful laxative glyfter ought to be exhibit¬
ed. And if there be any evidence of difordered primse
vise, an emetic muff, if poflible, be given. The (fate
of the os uteri is then to be afeertained ; and if labour
have not commenced, no attempts whatever are to bfc
made to promote that process. In fome rare cafes,
however, where the bulk of the gravid uterus is enor¬
mous, it may be neceffary to remove a part of its con¬
tents ; but fuch cafes cannot happen once in a thoufand
inftances of the difeafe.
“ Should the fits ftill continue, the head muft be fhav-
ed, and covered with a large blifter ; and if the oppref-
fion or fulnefs, or hardnefs of the pulfe, be not removed,
the blood-letting is to be repeated.
“ As foort as the patient becomes capable of fwallow-
ing, the camphor, in dofes of ten grains, ought to be
given every three or four hours. The moft efficacious
and . palatable form in which this medicine can be pre-
ferihed, is by fufpending it in boiling water, through
the medium of alcohol, fugar and magnefia. Its ufe
muft be perfevered in for feveral days, gradually leffen-
ing the number of dofes.
“ Where the eclampfia has been preceded by cedema,
the digitalis may be employed with much fuccefs.
“ Convulfions during labour are to be treated upon
the fame principles, with thefe additional precautions,
that delivery is to be accomplifhed by the meft expedi¬
tious poflible means, and that if the ‘delivery be follow¬
ed by uterine haemorrhagy, the difeharge is for fome
time to be rather encouraged than checked. J I knew ttvo '
inftances of the fits, which had been fufpended for fome
hours, recurring, in confequence of the Hooding being
flopped, and in both cafes-the convulfions were remo¬
ved, by allowing the difeharge to return.
“ When the fymptoms that precede eclampfia, take
place in the latter months of pregnancy, the moft cer¬
tain method of guarding againft the threatening ae-'
cident is, having recourfe to immediate blood-lettin<j,
and afterwards preferibing camphor, attention to the
ftate of the bowels, and a fpare diet.
“ When the fame fymptoms occur during labour, a
copious bleeding ftiould be inftantly ordered, and the
appropriate means of terminating the delivery ihould be
adopted with as much expedition as may be confident
with the fafety both of mothet and child.
“ In thefe concife pra&ical fuggeftions, praflitioners
will obferve circumftances omitted, which have been
recommended by gentlemen of deferved profeflional
eminence, and novelties of pra&ice propofed, which I
believe have not hitherto been explicitly advifed.
Some explanation, therefore, of the plan above recom¬
mended may perhaps be expe&ed.
“ The moft obvious remedy apparently omitted is
opium. This powerful medicine was not preferibed, as
far as we have reafon to know, by the praftitioners who
lived at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th
centuries. The firft author who, in ftrong terms, afferts
the efficacy of opium in fuch cafes, appears to be the
K tranflator
1
MIDWIFERY.
Preterna- tranflator of Atfrue’s Midwivery (a) 5 and his opinion
rural Par- ^ acj0pt;ecl by Dr Denman (b), and by Dr
runtion. j3iancj gut jn every cafe 0f true eclampiia, during
pregnancy or labour, opiates do irreparable mifehief,
where a copious bleeding has not been premifed ; and-
even where that precaution has been attended to, they
have been found ufelefs, if not hurtful. Melancholy
experience has completely eftablilhed in my mind this
praflical precept; and I conlider it to be a matter of
very great moment, that it fhould be univerfally known;
for general practitioners, who are often firit called to
thofe cafes where the fits happen during pregnancy, are
extremely apt to preferibe opium. I can folemnly de¬
clare, that no patient to wdiofe afliftance I have been
called, who had taken a dofe of opium previous to my
arrival, has recovered, and I have known that medi¬
cine given in almoft every variety of dofe. My father,
Dr A. Hamilton, of whofe judgement and praClical
knowdedge it does not become me to fpeak in the terms
\ they fo juflly merit, prevented my ever employing opium
under fuch circumftances.
“ A fecond remedy extolled by Dr Denman, and
now, after a fair trial, rejefted in my praftice, is vo¬
miting. This feems to have been a very common pre-
feription in the time of Mauriceau, as he takes great
pains to point out its hurtfulnefs in feveral parts of his
works (d). Where there are unequivocal marks of
difordered^ftomach, an emetic may be preferibed with
advantage after blood-letting, but it fhould be avoided
under all other circumftances.
“ With regard to the warm-bath, which is a favou¬
rite remedy among foreign praftitioners, and has been
advifed by feveral Britifh authors, I have never had an
opportunity of trying its effefts. Upon theoretical
principles I fhould rejeft it •, but my chief reafon for
never haring direfted its ufe, has been the impoflibility,
in ordinary cafes of praClice, of commanding a warm-
bath into w’hich a woman in fuch actuation could be put.
“ Dafhing cold water by furprife upon the face is a
praUice fuggefted by Dr Denman, and on which he
had much dependence at one period. Experience lef-
fened his hopes, and, many years ago, prevented my
ever indulging any. I gave it feveral fair trials, (once
or twice in public in the lying-in-ward of the Royal
Infirmary), and had even reafon to be convinced, that
it rather aggravated than diminifhed the violence of the
paroxyfms.”
in addition to thefe obfervations it may be pro¬
per to remark, that a much larger quantity of blood
Ihould be drawn in thofe cafes than has commonly
been done. Dr H. advifes forty ounces to be taken
at this firft bleeding, and the fame quantity to be again
drawn within an hour, if tire fymptoms be not miti¬
gated ; and he talks with the utmoft confidence of the
utility of this praCtice.
y. Although the woman be delivered fafely both of
the child and afterbirth, fhe may fink very fooa af-
Chap. IV.
ter in conlequence of internal flooding. This is to Pretema-
. be fulpeded if the patient fuddenly complain of giddi- tura‘Par-
nefs or ficknefs, or finging in the ears, or impaired vi- tnmion.^
lion 5 or if fhe become delirious, with a pallid face and
cold limbs. The ftate of the pulfe at the wrift too
fhould lead a judicious praftitioner to fufpeCt the exift-
ence of internal flooding. Pofitive certainty of this ac¬
cident may be obtained by feeling through the belly
the condition of the uterus; or, more certainly ftill, by
feeling the ftate of the vagina, for if its parietes ap¬
proach, there is not much probability of there being
any confiderable internal hsemorrhagy ; whereas, if it
be found filled with coagulated blood, there is a certain¬
ty, that the womb too is diiiended from the fame caufe.
This accident is entirely owing to the womb not
having contradled with fufheient energy. It very often
proves the caufe of fudden and unexpected death.
The boldeft and apparently moft violent meafures
are required to fave the patient in many of thofe
cafes. The womb and vagina muft be immediately
emptied, and fuch preffure muft be made on the in-
fide of the uterus with the hand, as fhall force it in¬
to contraction. In feme cafes cold w’ater in great
quantity muft be dafhed from a height on the naked
belly at the fame time •, and in the mean while the
ftreiigth of the patient muft be fupported with large
dofes of opium. If there be vomiting, which is a
frequent fymptom in fuch cafes, five grains of folid
opium fliould be given at firft, and afterwards three
grains every three of four hours, till the pulfe becomes
fteady and the ftrength recruited, when the opiates are
to be withdrawn and leffened by degrees. The wri¬
ter of this article cannot avoid this opportunity of pay¬
ing a juft tribute of refpeCl to the practical difeern-
ment of the able editor of the New London Medical
Dictionary, who feems the firft author who has mention¬
ed this praCtice t)f giving large dofes of opium ; a prac¬
tice by which many valuable lives have beenfaved.
Conclufion.—In the preceding account of the devia¬
tions, which fometimes happen in the procefs of human
parturition, although w’e have endeavoured to give a
full view of the fubjeCt, we have not purfued the beaten
track. But as this article may rather be confulted by
many as a dictionary, than purfued regularly as a trea-
tife, we fhall add the ordinary arrangement of labours,
with the reference to the numerical aiticles, under
which the feveral varieties may be found.
Labours are divided into four clafles j viz. natural,
laborious, preternatural, and complex.
Natural labour comprehends all cafes where the head
of the infant is forced foremoft ; and the whole procefs
is completed with fafety, both to mother and child,
within twenty-fours from the commencement. It is de-
feribed under articles 48. to 60.
Laborious labour is that where, although the head of
the infant be forced foremoft, the procefs is protraCled
beyond
(a) The Art of Midwifery, &c. 8vo. London, printed for J. Nourfe 1767. Appendix, page 295.
(b) Vol. ii. page 418.. (c) Loco citato, page 136.
(d) Particularly in Aphorifm 232. “ L’emctique eft pernicieux aux femmes grolTes, ou nouvellement ac*
couchees, qui font furprifes des convulfions.” And Levret, page 451. of his L’Art des Accouchemens, fays,
in reference to that aphorifm, “ Cete featence eft des mieux fondees, et elie doit ecre rigoureufement obfervee dans
tons fes points,”
75
Chip. IV. MID W
beyond twenty-four hours from the commencement.
It is divided into three orders : Firft, where the na¬
tural powers at laft, after much fuffering on the part
of the mother, complete the delivery. See article 64.
Secondly, Where, although the action of the uterus
be inadequate to the expulfion of the infant, it is prac¬
ticable to extract the child through the natural paffa-
ges, without injury either to it or to the mother. See
articles 66. to 74. 82. and 84. '
Thirdly, Where it is impoffible to extraft the child
alive through the natural palfages. See articles 80. and
99. to 133.
Preternatural labours comprehend all cafes where
any other part of the child than the head is forced fore-
raoft j and confift of two orders :
Firfl, Prefentations of the lower extremities, viz.
footling cafes, article 87. Breech cafes, article 91.
Cafes where one foot prefents, article 89. and knee-
cafes, article 90.
Secondly, Prefentations of the fuperior extremities or
EXPLANATION
Plate CCC.
Fig. 1. A front view of the uterus in the unimpreg¬
nated ftate, in jitu, fufpended in |the vagina ; the ante¬
rior parts of the offa ifchia, with the offa pubis, puden¬
da, perineum, and anus being removed, in order to (how
the internal parts.
A, The laft lumbar vertebra.
B, B, The offa ilia.
C, C, The acetabula.
D, D, The inferior and pofterior parts of the offa
ifchia.
E, The part covering the extremity of the coccyx.
F, The inferior part of the re£lum.
G, G, The vagina cut open longitudinally, and
ftretched on each fide of the cervix uteri, in order to
fhow the manner in which the uterus is fufpended in it.
H, H, Part of the urinary bladder ftretched on each
fide of the vagina and inferior part of the fundus uteri.
I, The cervix uteri.
K, The fundus uteri.
L, L, The fallopian tubes.
M, M, The ovaria.
N, N, The broad ligaments.
O, 0, The fuperior part ^f the reflum.
Fig. 2. A view of the internal parts as feen from
the right groin, the pelvis having been divided vertically.
A, The loweft vertebra of the loins.
B, C, The os facrum and coccyx with the integu¬
ments.
D, The left os ilium.
E, The inferior part of the os ifchium.
F, The os pubis of the fame fide.
G, The foramen magnum.
H, The acetabulum.
I, The inferior part of the re61um.
K, The os externum and vagina, the os uteri lying
loolely in the latter.
L, The vefica urinaria.
M, N, The cervix and fundus uteri, with a view of
the cavity of the uterus. The attachment of the vagina
to the uterns, and the fituation of the uterus when pref-
I F E 11 Y.
other parts than the head or lower extremities, articles
192. to 196.
Complex labours include all cafes where any other
circumftances than thole enumerated under the former
three claffes take place, viz.
Cafes where the pelvis is too large, articles no. and
in.
Cafes where htemorrhagy occurs at the beginning of
labour, article 76. or at the conclufion of that procefs,
articles 152. and 153.
Cafes where there is more than one child, articles 142.
144. 145.
Cafes where the patient had previoully been affe£ted
with umbilical herniae, article 146.
Cafes where convulfion^ happen, articles 147. 148.
Cafes where the navel firing is twifted round the neck
of the infant, article 140. or where it is forced down
along with fome part of the child, article 141.
And cafes of rupture of the uterus, article 65.
OF the PLATES.
fed down by the inteftines and bladder into the concave
part of the os facrum, are likewife fhown.
O, The broad ligament of the left fide.
P, P, The left fallopian tube.
Q, The left ovarium.
R, R, The fuperior part of the re£lum and inferior
part of the colon.
Fig. 3. Is a Iketch taken from Dr Hunter’s magnifi¬
cent plate, N° 6. of the gravid uterus. All the fore
part of the uterus and fecundines ( which included the
placenta) is removed. The navel firing is cut, tied,
and turned to the left fide over the edge of the womb.
At the fundus the invefting membranes are likewife
turned over the edge of the womb, that they might be
more apparent. The head of the child is lodged in the
lower part of the womb, or in the cavity of the pelvis,
and its body lies principally in the right fide. Its pofi-
tion is diagonal or oblique, fo that its pofterior parts
are turned forwards, and to the right fide of the mo¬
ther, and its fore parts are dire£led backwards, and to
the left fide. Its right foot appears between its left
thigh and leg. Every part is ftated by Dr Hunter to
have been reprefented juft as it was found.
Fig. 4. A front view of the gravid uterus in the firft
ftage of labour j the anterior parts are removed, but the
membranes not being ruptured, form a large bag con¬
taining the foetus and the liquor amnii.
A, A, The fubftance of the uterus.
B, B, C, C, D, D, E, E, The bones of the pelvis.
G, G, The vagina.
H, H, The os uteri dilated during a pain ; with
I, The membranes containing the liquor amnii pro¬
truding through it.
K, The chorion.
L, The chorion differed off at the back of the ute¬
rus, to {how the head of the child through the amnios.
M, The placenta •, the lobulated furface, or that
which is attached to the uterus, being {howm.
Plate CCCI.
Fig. I. Reprefents a w7ell-formed pelvis.
A, A, The offa ilia, properly fo called.
K 2 a.
76 M I D W
/?, g. The iliac folTae.
b, b, The linea innominata, making part of the brim
of the pelvis.
c, c, The crifta of the ofia ilia.
<•, e, Their fuperior anterior fpinous procefles.
B, B, The os ifchium.
y, f. Its tuberolities.
h, h. Its branches.
C, C, The body of the os pubis.
i. The crifta pubis.
h, Its defcending branch uniting with that of the
ifchium.
/, The fymphyfis pubis.
I), D, The os facrum.
m, tn, Its bafe.
//, «, The facro-iliac fynchondrofis.
o, Its internal furface called hollow.
/>, Its apex to which the coccyx is joined.
T, The coccyx.
Fig. 2. Beprefents a vertical feftion of the pelvis.
A, The promontory of the facrum.
B, The point of the coccyx.
The diftance from thefe two points marks the depth
of the pelvis behind, which in the majority of cafes is
ftx inches.
C, The fpinous procefs of the ifchium.
D, The tuberofity of the ifchium.
E, The crifta pubis, the diftance which two points
marks the depth of the pelvis at the fides, and is ordi¬
narily about four inches.
F, The foramen thyroideum.
G, The furface by which the two olTa pubis are join¬
ed to form the fymphyfis pubis, and by which jumftion
" the depth of the pelvis at the front is reduced to about
one and a half inches.
Fig. 3. Reprefents the brim of a well formed pelvis.
A, B, The Ihort or conjugate diameter between pu¬
bis and facrum, which meafures commonly a little lefs
than four inches.
C, D, The long diameter in the Ikeleton, which,
however, in the living fubjedt, is rendered almoft as
Ihort as the former, in confequence of the bellies of the
pfoae mufcles being lodged in the lower cavity of the
tunica innominata.
E, F, The diagonal diameter in the fkeleton, which,
in fa£l, is the long diameter in the living body, and
meafures fomewbat lefs than five inches.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the outlet of a w'ell-formed pelvis.
A, B, The fliort diameter, extending from one tu¬
berofity of the ifchium to the other, and meafuring lefs
than four inches.
C, D, The long diameter, extending from the lotver
edge of the fymphyfis pubis to the point of the coccyx,
and meafuring nearly five inches.
Fig. 5. Reprefents the brim of a diftorted pelvis.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the outlet of a deformed pelvis.
Plate CCCII.
Fig. I. The foetal heart.
<?, The right ventricle.
£, The right auricle.
c, The left auricle.
r/, Branches of the pulmonary veins of the right lobe
of the lungs, thofe of the left being cut off flrort.
f, Arteries of the left lobe of the lungs.
I F E R Y. Chap. IV
f The vena cava defcendens.
(g, The aorta defcendens.
h, The trunk of the arteria pulmonalis.
z, The duftus arteriofus.
Fig. 2. Reprefents the firft ftage of natural labour,
towards its termination.
A, The membranes of the ovum diftendmg the cer¬
vix uteri, while the head of the child is juft entering
the brim of the pelvis.
B, B, T he os uteri nearly dilated.
C, The vagina.
1), Th e orificium externum.
Fig. 3. Reprelents the fecond ftage of natural la¬
bour, when the head-has defcended into the cavity of
the pelvis, while the face is ftill towards the facro-iliac
fynchondrofis.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the fecond ftage of natural labour,
after the head has advanced fo far that the face is in
the hollow of the facrum, and the vertex in the arch of
the pubis.
Plate CCCIII.
Fig. 1. A view of a deformed pelvis when the defi¬
ciency of fpace is not very confidcrable.
Fig. 2. The child’s fkull.
The vertex, or pofterior fontanelle.
The anterior fontanelle.
Fig. 3. and 4. The common ftiort forceps, reduced
to one-fourth of the natural fizc.
The inftrument, when of the proper fize, is in length
ix inches. The length of each handle is four inches
and a half. If a ftraight line be drawn through the
plane furface of one handle, and be produced to the
extremity of the inftrument (which forms the axis of
the handles when both are joined), the convex edge of
the blade, at the g.reateft diftance from this line, is di-
ftant 11 inches'j and the extreme diftance of the point
on the oppofite edge is T|ths of an inch. When both
blades are joined their greateft width is 2^ inches. The
right-hand blade has a hinge between the handle and
blade, by which it is eafily introduced, while the pa¬
tient lies on the left fide.
Fig. 5. and 6. Views of Lowder’s lever j for a par¬
ticular defeription of which, fee par.
Fig. 7. Orme’s perforator reduced to one-fourth the
natural fize.
Fig. 8. Embryotomy forceps, cne-fourth the natural
fize.
Fig. 9. The crotchet, one-fourth the natural fize.
Plate CCC1V.
Fig. 1. Reprefents an ordinary fized child forced a-
gainft the brim of a deformed pelvis.
Fig. 2. Reprefents the child when the feet had pre-
fented, turned into that direftion by which its head is
beft brought through the brim and cavity of the pelvis,
viz. with the face towards the facro iliac fynchondrofis
of one fide.
Fig. 3. Reprefents the ordinary fituation of the in¬
fant in breech prefentations ; from which it is evident,
that unlefs the infant be very fmall, the natural adtion
of the uterus cannot force it through the pelvis in this
direction.
Fig. 4. Reprefents an arm prefentation, and commu¬
nicates an idea of the difticulty of bringing down the
feet, and turning the infant in that pofition.
ERRATA.
Xt I 1) AVIK E R Y.
Plate CCCXEA^I
ft.// rr/[t
^riDWIFIER Y.
'i- ■
>
I
' r f r Srt'/f ,
' ■ ' ' —   —
MIDWIFERY.
77
Page 45. col- 1. lin.
47. 1.
56. 1.
61. 1.
67. I-
ERRATA.
16. for explain read attribute.
for forms read germs.
2^. for experiment read experience.
35. add to the at the end of the line, navel-11 ring.
20. for exerted read excited.—Same line, the paragraphs from Ai t. 69. to the end of the page
f joitld have been marked with inverted commas.
34. dele the.
53* produced read protruded.
M I E
Mie! MIEL, Jan, called Giovanni della Vite, a molt
Mieris. eminent painter, was born in Flanders in 1 j99’
—v—was at fir ft a difciple of Gerard Seghers, in whofe
fchool he made a diftinguilhed figure 5 but he quitted'
that artift, and went to Italy, to improve himfelf in
defign, and to obtain a more extenfive knowledge of
the Teveral branches of his art. At Rome he parti¬
cularly ftudied and copied the works of the Caracci
and Corregio ; and was admitted into the academy of
Andrea Sacchi, where he gave fuch evident proofs of
extraordinary merit and genius, that he was invited by
Andrea to aftift him in a grand deiign wnich he had
already begun. But Miel, through ibme difguft, re-
je&ed "thofe°elevated fubje&s which at firft had enga¬
ged his attention, refufed the friendly^ propofal of
Sacchi, and chofe to imitate the ftyle of Bamboccio,
as having more of that nature which pleafed his own
imagination. His general fubjecls were huntings, car¬
nivals, g.ypfies, beggars, paftoral feenes, and conver-
fations; of thofe he compofed bis eafel piftures, which
are the fineft of his performances. But he alfo paint¬
ed hiftory in a large fize in freico, and in oil j which,
though they feem to want elevation cl defign, and a
- greater degree of grace in tne heads, yet appear fupe-
rior to what might be expelled from a painter of fuch
low fubje&s as "he generally was fond of reprefenting.
His pi Clares of huntings are particularly admired : the
figures and animals of every fpdeies being defigned with
uncommon fpirit, nature, and truth. Ihe tranfparence
of his colouring, and the clear tints of his Ikies, eftli-
ven his compofitions •, nor are his paintings in any ue-
gree inferior to thofe or Bamboccio either m their
force or iuftre. His large w'orks are not 10 much to
be commended for the goodnefs of tne defign as for
the expreflion and colouring but it is m his linail
pieces that the pencil of Miel appears in its greats ft
delicacy and beauty. Flic Angular merit oi this maf-
ter recommended him to the favour of Charles Ema¬
nuel duke of Savoy, who invited him to his court,
where he appointed Miel his principal painter, and
afterwards honoured him with the order or St Mauri¬
tius, and made him a prefent of a cro»i fet witn dia¬
monds of great vale?, as a particular mark of h.s
eftcem. He died in 1664. ^ 1
MIERIS, Francis, the Old, a juftly celebrated
painter, was born at Leyden in 16355 and was
at firft placed under the diveaion of Abraham
Toorne Viiet, one of the beft deftgners of the Low
Countries, and afterwards entered himfelf as a diiciple
with Gerard Douw. In a fiiort time he far furpafted
all his companions, and was by his mafter called tne
prince of his difciples. H’-s manner of painting fuksj
M I E
velvets, fluffs, or carpets, was fo Angular, that the Mieris.
different kinds and fabric of any of them might ealily ’ v"—-
be diftinguiftied. His pidlures are rarely to be feen,
and as rarely to be fold 5 and when they are, the pur-
chafe is extremely high, their intrinfic value being fo
inconteftably great. Betides portraits, his general fub-
jefts were converfations, perfons performing on mufical
inftruments, patients attended by the apothecary or
doffbr, chemifts at work, mercers {hops, and iuch like 5
and the ufuM valuation he fet on his pictures was efti-
mated at the rate of a ducat an hour. The fineft por¬
trait of this mailer’s hand is that which he painted for
the wife of Cornelius Phats, which is faid to be ftill
preferved in the family, although very great Aims have
been offered for it. In the poffeffioft of the fame
gentleman was another picture of Mieris, reprefenting
a lady fainting, and a phyfician applying the remedies
to relieve her. For that performance he was paid
(at his ufual rate of a ducat an hour) fo much money
as amounted to fifteen hundred florins when the pic¬
ture was finilhed. The grand duke of Tufcany wiftied
to purchafe it, and offered three thoufand florins for
it 5 but the offer was not accepted. However, that
prince procured feveral of his pidlures, and they are at
this day an ornament to the Florentine coileilion. One
of the moft curious of them is a girl holding a candle
in her hand, and it is accounted ineftimable. This
painter died in 1681.
Mieris, William, called the Young Mieris, was
foil of the former, and born at Leyden in 1662. During
the life of his father, he made a remarkable pro-
grefs : but, by being deprived of his director when
he was only arrived at the age of nineteen, he had re-
courfe to nature, as the moll inftruflive guide 5 and by
ftudying with diligence and judgement to imitate her,
he approached near to the merit of his father. At
firft he took his fubjefts from private life, in the man¬
ner of Francis 5 fuch as tradefmen in their {hops, or a
peafar.t felling vegetables and fruit, an i fometimes a
woman looking out at a window 5 ail which he copied
minutely after nature, nor did he paint a Angle objeift:
without his model. As Mieris had obferved the com¬
pofitions of Gerard Laireffe, and other great hiitorical
painters, with Angular delight, he attempted to defign
fubjects in that ftyle 5 and began frith the ftory of Ri-
naldo lleeping on the lap of Armfda, furrounded wjjh
the Loves and Graces, the fore ground being enriched
wdth plants and flowers; a work which added greatly
to his fame, and was fold for a very high price. This
mafter alfo painted hmdfcapes. and animals with equal
truth and neatnefs 5 and modelled in clay and wax, in
fo fharp and accurate a manner, that he might juftly
be
MIG [ 78 ] MIG
be ranked among the moft eminent fculptor?. In the
delicate finxfliing of his works, he imitated his father j
, as he likewife did in the luftre, harmony, and truth,
of his paintings, which makes them to be almon as
highly prized ; but they are not equal in refpedl of
defignj or of the linking elfefl, nor is ,his touch lo
very exquiiite as that of the father. The works of
the old Mieris are better compofed, the figures are bet¬
ter grouped, and they have lefs confufion ; yet the
younger Mieris is ackhowledged to be an artilt of ex¬
traordinary merit, although inferior to him, who had
fcarcely his equal. He died in 1747.
Mieris, Fr-aticis, called the Young Francis, was
the fon of William, and the grandfon of the celebrated
Francis Mieris ; and was born at Leyden in 1689. He
learned-the art of painting from bis father, whofe
manner and ftyle he always imitated j be chofe the
fame fubjedls, and endeavoured to refemble him in his
colouring and pencil. But with all his induftry he
proved far inferior to him : and moll of thofe pidlures
which at the public fales are faid to be of the young
Mieris, and many alfo in private colte£tions aferibed
to the elder Francis, or William, are perhaps origi¬
nally painted by this mailer, who was far interior to
both j or are only his copies after the works of thofe
excellent painters, as he fpent abundance of his time
in copying their performances.
MIEZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedo¬
nia, which was anciently called Strymonium, fituated
near Stagira. Here, Plutarch informs us, the ftone feats
and lhady walks of Ariftotle were fiiown. Of this place
was Peuceftas, one of Alexander’s generals, and there¬
fore furnamed (Arrian.)
MIGDOL, or Magdol, in Ancient Geography, a
place in the Lower Egypt, on this fide Pihahiroth, or
between it and the Red fea, towards its extremity. The
term denotes a tower or fortrefs. It is probably the
Magdolum of Herodotus, feeing the Septuagint render
it by the fame name.
MIGNARD, Nicholas, an ingenious French
painter, born at Troyes in 1628 j but, fettling at Avig¬
non, is generally diftinguilhed from his brother Peter
by the appellation of Mignard of Avignon. He was
afterwards employed at court and at Paris, where he be¬
came reftor of the royal academy of painting.
There is a great number of his hillorical pieces and
portraitsin the palace of the Thuilleries. He died in 169®.
Mignard, Peter, the brother of Nicholas, was
born at Troyes in 16105 and acquired fo much of the
tafte of the Italian fchool, as to be known by the name
of the Roman. He ivas generally allowed to have a
fuperior genius to his brother Nicholas 5 and had the
honour of painting the popes Alexander VII. and
Urban VIII. befides many of the nobility at Rome,
and feveral of the Italian princes : his patron, Lo lis,
fat ten times to him for his portrait, and refpefted his
talents fo much as to ennoble him, make him his princi¬
pal painter after the death of Le Bruo, and appointed
him dire£lor of the manufa&ories. He died in 1695.
and many of his pieces are to be feen at St Cloud.
MIG NON, or MinJON, Abraham, a celebrated
painter of flowers and Hill life, was born at Francfort
in 1639 5 and his father having been deprived of the
greatelt part of his fubftance by a feries of Ioffes in,
trade, left him in very neceffitous circumftances when
he was only feven years of age. From that melan-Migration,
choly fituation he was refeued by the friendfhip of v'-~
James Murel, a flower painter in that city 5 who took
Mignon into his own houfe, and iiidru&ed him in
the art, till he was 17 years old. Murel had often
obferved an uncommon genius in Mignon : he there¬
fore took him along with him to Holland, where he
placed him as a difciple with David de Heem 5 and
while he was under the direflion of that mailer he la¬
boured with inceffant application to imitate the man¬
ner of De Heem, and ever afterwards adheied to itj
only adding daily to his improvement, by ftudying
nature with a molt exadt and curious obfervation.—■
“ When we confider the paintings of Mignon, one is
at a lofs (Mr Pilkington obferves) cvhether moi! to
admire the frefttnefs and beauty of his colouring, the
truth in every part, the bloom on his objects, or the
perfedl refemblance of nature vifible in all his perform¬
ances- He always fliows a beautiful choice in thofe
flowers and fruits from which his fubjedts are compof¬
ed : and he groups them with uncommon elegance.
His touch is exquifitely neat, though apparently eafy
and unlaboured 5 and he was fond of introducing in-
fedts among the fruits and flowers, wonderfully finiihed,
fo that even the drops of dew appear as round and as
tranflucent as nature itfelf.” He had the good for¬
tune to be highly paid for his works in his lifetime j
and he certainly would have been accounted the heft
in his profeffion even to this day, if John Van Huy-
fum had not appeared. Weyerman, who had leen
many admired pidtures of Mignon, mentions one of a
moft capital kind. The fubjedt of it is a cat, which
had thrown down a pot of flowers, and they lie fcat-
tered on a marble table. That pidture is in every re-
fpedt fo wonderfully natural, that the fpedlator can
fcarce perfuade himfelf that the water which is fpiiied
from the veffel is not really running down from the
marble. This pidture is diftinguifhed by the title of
Mignon's Cat. This painter died in 1679, aged only 40.
MIGRATION, the paffage or a removal of a thing
out of one place into another.
Migration of Birds.—It has been generally be-Migration
lieved, that many different kinds of birds annually pafsgenerally
from one country to another, and fpend the fummer or believed,
the winter where it is moft agreeable to them j and
that even the birds of our own ifland will feek the moft
diftant fouthern regions of Africa, when diredted by
a peculiar inftindl to leave their own country. It has
long been an opinion pretty generally received, that
fwallows refide during the winter feafon in the wrarm
fouthern regions 5 and Mr Adanfon particularly relates
his having feen them at Senegal when they were obli¬
ged to leave this country. But befides the fwallow,
Mr Pennant enumerates many other birds which mi¬
grate from Britain at different times of the year, and
are then to be found in other countries 5 after which
they again leave thefe countries, and return to Bri¬
tain. The realon of thefe migrations he fuppofes to
be a defedt of food at certain feafons of the year, or
the want of a fecure afylum from the perfecution of
man during the time of courtfliip, incubation, and nutri¬
tion. The following is his lift of the migrating fpecies.
f. Crows. Of this genus, the hooded crow migrates £^*1^
regularly with the woodcock. It inhabits North Bri-mignue.
tain the whole year : a few are faid annually to breed
MIG [ 79 ] M I G
Migration, on Dartmoor, in Devonihire. It breeds alfo in Swe-
den and Auilria : in fbme of the Swedifh provinces it
only drifts its quarters, in others it relides throughout
the year. Our author is at a lofs for the fummer re¬
treat of thofe which vifit us in fuch numbers in winter,
and quit our country in the fpring ; and for the reafort
why a bird, whofe food is fuch that it may be found at
all feafons in this country, Ihould leave us.
2. Cuckoo. Difappears early in autumn j the retreat
of this and the following bird is quite unknown to us.
3. Wryneck. Is a bird that leaves us in the winter.
If its diet be ants alone, as feveral aflert, the caufe of
its migration is very evident. This bird difappears be¬
fore winter, and revifits us in the fpring a little earlier
than the cuckoo.
4. Hoopoe. Comes to England but by accident;
Mr Pennant once indeed heard of a pair that attempt¬
ed to make their neft in a meadow7 at Selborne, Hamp-
fhire, but w7ere frighted aw7ay by the curiofity of people.
It breeds in Germany.
5. Grous. The whole tribe, except the quail, lives
here all the year round : that bird either leaves us, or
elfe retires towards the fea coafts.
6. Pigeons. Some few of the ring doves breed
here ; but the multitude that appears in the winter is
fo difproportioned to w’hat continue here the whole
year, as to make it certain that the greateft part quit
the country in the fpring. It is molt probable they
go to Sweden to breed, and return from thence in au¬
tumn ; as Mr Ekmark informs us they entirely quit
that country before winter. Multitudes of the com¬
mon wild pigeons alfo make the northern retreat, and
vilit us in winter; not but numbers breed in the high
cliffs in all parts of this ifland. The turtle alfo pro¬
bably leaves us in the winter, at leaft changes its place,
removing to the fouthern counties.
7. Stare. Breeds here. Poffibly feveral remove to
other countries for that purpofe, fince the produce of
thofe that continue here feems unequal to the clouds
of them that appear in wunter. It is not unlikely that
many migrate into Sweden, w'here Mr Berger obferves
they return in fpring.
8. Thrujloes. The fieldfare and the redwing breed
and pafs their fummers in Norway and other cold coun¬
tries ; their food is berries, which abounding in our
kingdoms, tempts them here in the winter. Thefe two
and the Royfton crow are the only land birds that re¬
gularly and conftantly migrate into England, and do
not breed here. The hawfinch and crofsbill come here
at fuch uncertain times as not to deferve the name of
birds of paffage.
9. Chatterer. The chatterer appears annually about
Edinburgh in flocks during wfinter \ and feeds on the
berries of the mountain afh. In South Britain it is
an accidental vifitant.
10. Grojbeaks. The grofbeak and crofsbill come
here but feldom ; they breed in Aurtria. The pine
grofbeak probably breeds in the forefls of the High¬
lands of Scotland.
11. Buntings. All the genus inhabits England
throughout the year j except the greater brambling, wdiich
is forced here from the north in very fevere feafons.
12. Pinches. All continue in fome parts of thefe
kingdoms, except the fifkin, which is an irregular viii-
tant, faid to come from Ruffia, The linnets ihift
their quarters, breeding in one part of this ifland, and Migration,
remove with their young to others. All finches feed v ^
on the feeds of plants.
13. Larks, fly-catchers, wagtails, and warblers. All
of thefe feed on infedls and worms 5 yet only part of
them quit thefe kingdoms ; though the reafon of mi¬
gration is the fame to all. The nightingale, black¬
cap, fly-catcher, w'illow-wren, wheat-ear, and white-¬
throat, leave us before winter, while the fmall and de¬
licate golden-crelled wren braves our feverelt frofts.
The migrants of this genus continue longed: in Great
Britain in the fouthern counties, the winter in thofe
parts being later than in thofe of the north •, Mr
Stillingfleet having obferved feveral wheat-ears in the
ifle of Purbeck on the 18th of November. As thefe
birds are incapable of very diftant flights, Spain,
or the fouth of France, is probably their winter afy-
lum.
14. Swallows and goatfucker. Every fpecies difap-.
pears at the approach of winter.
Water-Fowl.
Of the vaft variety of water-fowl that frequent Water
Great Britain, it is amazing to. reflect how few are fowl-
known to breed here : the caufe that principally urges
them to leave this country, feems to be not merely the
w-ant of food, but the defire of a fecure retreat. Our
country is too populous for birds fo fliy and timid as
the bulk of thefe are : when great part of our ifland
was a mere wafte, a tradt of woods and fen, doubt-
lefs many fpecies of birds (which at this time mi¬
grate) remained in fecurity throughout the year.—.
Egrets, a fpecies of heron now fcarcely known in
this ifland, were in former times in prodigious plen¬
ty ; and the crane, that has totally forfaken this coun¬
try, bred familiarly in our marlhes : their place of
incubation, as well as of all other cloven-footed wTa-
ter-fowl (the heron excepted), being on the ground,
and expofed to every one. As rural economy increafed
in this country, thefe animals were more and more di-
fturbed 5 at length, by a feries of alarms, they were ne-
ceflitated to feek, during the fummer, fome lonely fafo
habitation.
On the contrary, thofe that build or lay in the al-
mofl: inacceflible rocks that impend over the Britifli
feas, breed there ftill in vatt numbers, having little to
fear from the approach of mankind : the only difturb-
ance they meet with in general being from the defpe-
rate attempts of fome few to get their eggs.
Clovix-footed Water-Fowl.
15. Herons. The white heron is an uncommon
bird, and vifits us at uncertain feafons j the common
kind and the bittern never leave us.
16. Curlews. The curlew breeds fometimes on our
mountains : but, confidering the vaft flights that ap¬
pear in winter, it is probable that the greater part
retire to other countries : the whimbrel breeds on the
Grampian hills, in the neighbourhood of Invercauld.
17. Snipes. The woodcock breeds in the moift
w7oods of Sweden, and other cold countries. Some
fnipes breed here, but the greateil part retire elle-
where : as do every other fpecies of this genus.
18. Sandpipers. The lapwing continues here the
whole year: the ruff breeds here, but retires,in winter-;
thfe
I
\
MIG [ 80 ]
tile redfliank anti fandpiper breed in this country, and pole
' refide here. All the others abfent themfelves during
fummer.
19. P/overs and oyster-catcher. 'Ihe long-legged
plover and fanderlfng vifit us only in winter ; the dot¬
trel appears in fpring and in autumn } yet, what is very
Angular, we do not find it breeds in South Britain.
The oyller-catcher lives with us the whole year. 9 he
Norfolk plover and fea-lark breed in England. I he
green plover breeds on the mountains of the north of
England, and on the Grampian hills.
We muft here remark, that every Ipecies of the. ge¬
nera of curlews, woodcocks, fandpipeis, and plovers,
that forfakes us in the fpring, retires to Sweden, Po¬
land, Pruflia, Norway, and Lapland, lo breed : as foon
as the young can fly, they return to us again, ueoaufe
the frofts which fet in early in thofe countries totally
deprive them of the means of fubfifting 5 as the dry-
nels'and hardnefs of the ground, in general, during
our fummer, prevent them from penetrating the earth
with their bills, in fearch of worms, which are the na¬
tural food of thefe birds. Mr Ekmark (peaks thus of
the retreat of the whole tribe of cloven-footed water-
fowl out of his country (Sweden) at the approach of
winter; and Mr Klein gives much the fame account of
thofe of Poland and Pruflia.
20. Rails and gallinules. Every fpecies ot thefe two
genera continues with us the whole year j the land-rail
excepted, which is not feen here in winter. It likewiie
continues in Ireland only during the fummer months,
when they are very numerous, as Mr Smith tebs us in
the Hiftory of Waterford, p. 3*36. Great numbers ap¬
pear in Anglefea the latter end of May ; it is fuppoled
that they pafs over from Ireland, the paflfage between
the two iflands being but fmall. As we have inftances
of thefe birds lighting on (hips in the Channel and the
b|v of Bifcay, we may conjeflure their winter quar¬
ters to be in Spain.
Finned-footed Water Birds.
21. Phalaropes. Vifit us but feldom •, their breeding
place is Lapland, and other arfiic regions.
22. Grebes. The great creded grebe, the black and
white grebe, and little grebe, breed with us, and never
migrate •, the others vifit us accidentally, and breed in
Lapland.
Web-footed Birds.
23. Avcfet. Breed near Fofsdike in Lincolnfnire,
but quit tlieir quarters in winter. They are then Ihot
in different parts of the kingdom, which they vifit, not
regularly, but accidentally.
24. Shds and guillemots. The great auk or pinguin
fometimes breeds in St Kilda. The auk, the guillemot,
and puffin, inhabit moft of the maritime cliffs of Great
Britain, in amazing numbers, during fiunmer. The
black guillemot breeds in the Bafs Hie, and in St Kilda,
and fometimes in Llandidno rocks. We are at a lofs
for the breeding place of the other fpecies \ neither can
We be very certain of the winter reiidence of any of
them, excepting of the leffer guillemot and black-billed
auk, which, during winter, vifit in vaft flocks the frith
of Forth.
25. Divers. Thefe chiefly breed in the lakes of
Sweden and Lapland, and in fome countries near the
2
M I G
r„_ 7 but fome of the red-throated divers, the northern Mr •ration,
and the imber, may breed in the north of Scotland and
its ifles.
26. Terns. Every fpecies breeds here 5 but leaves
us in the winter.
27. Petrels. The fulmar breeds in the Hie of St
Kilda, and continues there the whole year except Sep¬
tember and part of October : the Ihearwater vifits the
Hie of Man in April ; breeds th|re ; and, leaving it in
Auguft or the beginning of September, difperfes over
all parts of the Atlantic ocean. The fformfinfch is
feen at all difhnces from land on the fame vaft watery
traft ; nor is ever found near the ihore except by fome
very rare accident, unlefs in ths breeding feafon. Mr
Pennant found it on fome little rocky ifles oif the north
of Skye. It alfo breeds in St Kilda. He alfo fufpcifts
that it neftles on the Blafquet ifles off Kerry, and that
it is the gourder of Mr Smith.
28. Merganfers. This whole genus is mentioned
among the birds that fill the Lapland lakes during
fummer. Mr Pennant has feen the young of the red-
breafted in the north of Scotland : a few of tnefe, and*
perhaps of the goolanders, may breed there.
29. Ducks. Of the numerous.Ipecies that form this
genus, we know of lew that breed nere : Fhe fvvan and
goofe, the Afield duck, the eider cluck, a few fhovelers,
garganics, and teals, and a very fmall portion ol the
wild ducks.
The reft contribute to form thai amazing multi¬
tude of water-fowl that annually repair from moft parts
of Europe to the woods and lakes of Lapland and
other ar&ic regions, there to perform the functions of
incubation and nutrition in full fecurity. They and
their young quit their retreat in September, and dii-
perfe themfelves over Europe. With us they make
their appearance the beginning oi October; circulate
firft round our (bores ; and, when compelled by fevere
froft, betake themfelves to our lakes and rivers. Of
the web-footed fowl there are fome of hardier confti-
tutions than others: thefe endure the ordinary winters
of the more northern countries •, but when the cold
reigns there with more than common rigour, they repair
for flrelter to thefe kingdoms : this regulates the ap¬
pearance of fome of the diver kind, as ado of the wild
fwans, the fwallow-tailed llfield duck, and the different
lorts of goofanders which then vifit our coafts. Barents
found the barnacles with their nefts in great numbers
in Nova Zembla. (JColleEi. Voy. Dutch Kofi-India Com¬
pany, 8vo, 1703, p. 19.). Clufius, in his Exot. 368.
alfo obferves, that the Dutch difeovered them on the
rocks of that country and in Waygate ftraits. They,
as well as the other fpecies of wild geefe, go very far
north to breed, as appears from the hiftories of Green¬
land and Spitzbergen, by Egede and Crantz. 1 hefe
birds feem to make Iceland a refting place, as Horre-
bow obferves : few continue there to breed, but only
vifit that ifland in the fpring, and after a fliort ftay
retire ftill further north.
30. Corvorants. The corvorant and (hag breed on
molt of our high rocks : the gannet in fome ol the
Scotch ifles and on the epaft of Kerry : the two firft
continue on our ftrores the whole year. I he gannet
difperfes itfeif all round the Teas of Great Britain, in
purfuit of the herring and pilchard, and even as iar as
the 'Pa us to prey on the lardina.
But
MIG [ 81 ] MIG
Migration. But of tire numerous fpecies of fowl here enumerat-
1 ed, it may be obferved how very few intruft them-
Few breed ^e^ves t0 us *n ^ie breeding feafon, and what a diftant
in this ' flight they make to perform the firfl: great didlate of
country. nature.
There feems to be fcarcely any but what we have
traced to Lapland, a country of lakes, rivers, fwamps,
* and alps, covered with thick and gloomy forefts, that
afford flicker during fummer to thefe fowls, which in
winter difperfe over the greateft part of Europe. In
thofe ardlic regions, by reafon of the thicknefs of the
woods, the ground remains moift and penetrable to the
woodcocks, and other flender-billed fowl : and for the
web-footed birds, the waters afford larvae innumerable
of the tormenting gnat. The days there are long j
and the beautiful meteorous nights indulge them with
every opportunity of cclledling fo minute a food j wdiilft
mankind is very fparingly fcattered over that vaft nor¬
thern wafte.
Why then fliould Linnaeus, the great explorer of
thefe rude deferts, be^ amazed at the myriads of water-
fowl that migrated wdth him out of Lapland i* which
exceeded in multitude the army of Xerxes ; covering,
for eight whole days and nights, the furface of the river
Calix ! His partial obfervation as a botaniit, would
confine their food to the vegetable kingdom, almoft
denied to the Lapland waters} inattentive to a more
plenteous table of infedff food, which the all-bountiful
Creator had fpread for them in the wildernefs. It may
be remarked, that the lakes of mountainous rocky
countries in general are deftitute of plants : few or
none are feen on thofe of Switzerland ; and Linnaeus
makes the fame obfervation in refpect to thofe of Lap-
land ; having, during his whole tour, difcovered only
a fingle fpecimen of a lemma trifu/ca, or “ ivy-leaved
duck’s meat,” Flora Lap. Ne 470. *, a few of the fcir-
pus lacujlris, or “ bullrufli,” N° 18.; the alopecurus
geniculatus, or “ flcte foxtail-grafs,” N° 38. ; and the
ranunculus aquatilis, N° 234. •, which are all he enu¬
merates in his Prolegomena to that excellent perform-
^ ance.
Arguments We fliall afterwards flate the principal arguments for
againft mi- and againft the migration of fwallows; but here we
gration. fliall give a fliort abftrafl of the arguments ufed by the
Hon. Daines Barrington againft the migration of birds
in general, from a paper publiftied by him in the 62ft
volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions. This gen¬
tleman denies that any well-attefted inftances can be
produced of this fuppofed migration •, which, he thinks,
if there were any fuch periodical flight, could not pofli-
bly have efcaped the frequent obfervation of feamen.
It has indeed been afferted that birds of paffage become
invifibie in their flight, becaufe they rife too high in
the air to be perceived, and becaufe they choofe the
night for their paffage. The author, however, expref-
fes his doubts u wrhether any bird was ever feen to rife
to a greater height than perhaps twice that of St Paul’s
crofs 5” and he further endeavours to (how, that the
extent of fome of thefe fuppofed migrations (from the
northern parts of Europe, for inftance, to the line) is
too great to be accounted for, by having recourfe to
the argument founded on a noflurnal paffage.
The author next recites, in a chronological order,
all the inftances that he has been able to colledl, of
birds having been actually feen by mariners when they
Vol. XIV. Part I.
were crofling a large extent of fea $ and he endeavours Migration,
to (how that no ftrefs can be laid on the few cafual v J
obfervations of this kind that have been produced in
fupport of the dodtrine of a regular and periodical mi¬
gration.
Mr Barrington afterwards proceeds to invalidate
M. Adanfon’s celebrated obfervation with refpedf to
the migration of the fwTallow in particular, and which
has been confidered by many as perfeftly decifive of
the prefent queftion. He endeavours to (how that the
four fwallows which that naturalift caught, on their
fettling upon his (hip, on-the 6th of Odlober, at about
the diftance of 50 leagues from the coaft of Senegal,
and which he fuppofes to have been then proceeding
from Europe to pafs the winter in Africa, could not
be true European fwallows •, or, if they were, could
not have been on their return from Europe to Africa.
His objedtions are founded principally on fome proofs
which die produces of M. Adanfon’s want of accuracy
on this fubjedl, wdiich has led him, in the prefent in¬
ftance, to miftake two African fpecies of the fwallow
tribe, deferibed and engraved by Briffon, for Euro¬
pean fwallows, to which they bear a general refem-
blance 5 or granting even that they were European
fwallows, he contends that they were flitting from the
Cape de Verd iflands to the coaft of Africa ; “ to which
fhort flight, however, they were unequal, and accord- * Natural
ingly fell into the failors hands.”—We fliall here only °f
add, in oppofition to the remarks of Mr Barrington,
the following obfervations of the Rev. Mr White * in p, i ^*
a letter to Mr Pennant on this fubjeef. 6
“We muft not (fays he) deny migration in gene-A1#111116013
ral; becaufe migration certainly does fubfift in fome "^upport
places, as my brother in Andalufia has fully informed0 U'
me. Of the motions of thefe birds he has ocular de-
monftration, for many weeks together, both fpring
and fall : during wkich periods myriads of the (wallow
kind traverfe the Straits from north to fouth, and
from fouth to north, according to the feafon. And
thefe vaft migrations confift not only of hirundines,
but of bee-birds, hoopoes, oro pendolos, or golden
thrulhes, &.c. &c. and alfo of many of our foft-billed
fummer birds of paffage ; and moreover of birds which
never leave us, fuch as all the various forts of hawks
and kites. Old Belon, 200 years ago, gives a curious
account of the incredible armies of hawdts and kites
which he faw in the fpring time traverfing the Thra¬
cian Bofphorus from Afia to Europe. Befides the
above mentioned, he remarks that the proceflion is
fw'elled by whole troops of eagles and vultures.
“ Now it is no wonder that birds refiding in Africa
(hould retreat before the fun as it advances, and retire
to milder regions, and efpecially birds of prey, whofe
blood being heated with hot animal food, are more im¬
patient of a fultry climate : but then I cannot help won¬
dering why kites and hawks, and fuch hardy birds as
are known to defy all the feverity of England, and even
of Sweden and all northern Europe, fliould want to mi¬
grate from the fouth of Europe, and be diffatisfied with
the winters of Andalufia.
“ It does not appear to me that much ftrefs may be
laid on the difficulty and hazard that birds muft run in
their migrations, by reafon of vaft oceans, crofs winds,
&c. *, becaufe, if we reflect, a bird may travel from
England to the equator without launching out and ex-
L poling
MIG [ 8:
Migration, pofing itfelf to boundlefs feas, and that by eroding the
' ' 'v 1 ' water at Dover and again at Gibraltar. And I with
the more confidence advance this obvious remark, be-
caufe my brother has always found that /ome of his
birds, and particularly the (Wallow kind, are very (pa¬
ring of their pains in eroding the Mediterranean : for
when arrived at Gibraltar, they do not,
  “ rang’d in figure, wedge their way,
“ and fet forth
j
M l G
“ Their airy caravan high over feas
* “ Flying, and over lands wdth mutual wing
“ Eafing their flight.” Milton.
but fcout and hurry along in little detached parties of
fix or (even in a company 5 and fweeping low, juft over
the furface of the land and water, diretft their courfe to
the oppofite continent at the narroweft paffage they, can
find. They ufually dope acrofs the bay to the fouth-
weft, and fo pafs over oppofite to Tangier, which it
feems is the narroweft (pace.
“ In former letters wre have confidered whether it
was probable that woodcocks in moon^fhiny nights
crofs the German ocean from Scandinavia. As a proof
that birds of lefs (peed may pafs that fea, confiderable
as it is, I fhall relate the following incident, which,
though mentioned to have happened (0 many years
ago, was ftriflly matter of faff:-—As fome people
were (hooting in the parifti of Trotton, in the county
of Suffex, they killed a duck in that dreadlul winter
1708-9, with a filver collar about its neck (I have
read a like anecdote of a fwTan), on which wrere en¬
graven the arms of the king of Denmark. This anec¬
dote the reftor of Trotton at that time has often told
to a near relation of mine j and, to the beft of my re¬
membrance, the collar wras in the poffeffion of the rec¬
tor.
“ At prefent I do not know any body near the fea
fide that will take the trouble to remark at what time
of the moon woodcocks firft come. One thing I ufed
to obferve when I was a fportfman, that there were
times in which wmodcocks wTere fo fluggiftr and fleepy
that they would drop again when flulhed juft before
the fpaniels, nay juft at the muzzle of a gun that had
been fired at them : whether this ftrange lazinefs was
the eft'eft of a recent fatiguing journey, I ftiall not
prefume to fay.
“ Nightingales not only never reach Northumber¬
land and Scotland, but alfo, as I have been always told,
Devonfliire a,nd Cornwall. In thofe two laft counties
we cannot attribute the failure of them to the want of
warmth : the defeft in the weft is rather a prefumptive
argument that thefe birds come over to us from the
continent at the narrovveft pallage, and do not ftroll fo
^ far weftward.”
Queftion, Upon the fubjedft of the migration of the fwallow
What be- there are three opinions. Some fay that it migrates to
comes of a warrner climate ; fome, that it retires to hollow trees
winter? anc‘ caverns? where it lies in a torpid ftate 5 and others
have affirmed, that it lies in the fame ftate in the bot¬
tom of lakes and under the ice. The firft opinion is
fupported by Marfigli, Ray, Willoughby, Catefby,
Reaumur, Adanfon, Buffon, &c. The firft and fecond
opinion are both adopted by Pennant and White. The
third is faneftioned by Schaeffer, Hevelius, Derham,
Klein, Ellis, Linnaeus, Kalm : and the fecond and
third have been ftrongly defended by'the honourable Migratio*.
DaineS Barrington. v' ~-f
Though we cannot help giving a preference to that
opinion which appears the rnoft probable*, yet we do not
think that any7 one of them is eftablifhed upon fuch evi¬
dence as fo curious a fubje£t requires, and as the advan¬
ced ftate of natural hittory would lead us to expedl.
We fhall therefore ftate the arguments upon which each
opinion is founded as fairly and diftindlly as we can,
and as often as poffible in the very words of their re-
fpeftive advocates. By doing fo, we (hall place the
whole fubjeft before the eyes of our readers, who will
thus have an opportunity of examining it attentively,
and of making fuch obfervations and experiments as may
lead to the truth. 8
Thofe who affert that the fwallow migrates to a war- op1-
mer country in winter, argue in this manner: That ^tec‘*
many birds migrate, is a fa eft fully proved by the obfer- mi orate to
vations of natural hiftorians. Is it not more probable, warm cli--
therefore, that (wallows, which difappear regularly mates,
every feafon, retire to fome other country, than that
they lie in a ftate of torpor in caverns or lakes ? But
this opinion does not reft on probability, it is founded
on fa<5ls.
We often fee them collected in great flocks 911 chur¬
ches, rocks, and trees, about the time when they an¬
nually difappear. The diredftion of their flight has been
obferved to be fouthward. Mr White, the ingenious Natural
hiftorian of Selborne, travelling near the coaft of the Hiftory *'
Britifli Channel one morning early, faw a flock of j/?K>
(wallows take their departure. At the beginning of his
jsurney he was environed with a thick fog -, but on a
large wild heath the mift began to break, and difeover-
ed to him numberlefs (wallows, cluftered on the (land¬
ing bullies, as if they had roofted there : as foon as the
fun burft out, they were inftantly on wing, and with an
eafy and placid flight proceeded towards the fea. After '
this he faw no more flocks, only now7 and then a ftraggler.
Mr Lafkey of Exeter obferved attentively the direc¬
tion which a flock of fwallows took in the autumn of
1793. On the 22d of Sept, about feven o’clock in the
morning, the wind being eafterly, accompanied with a
cold drizzling rain, Mr Lafkey’s houfe was entirely
covered with houfe-fwallovvs. At intervals large flocks
arrived and joined the main body, and at their ar¬
rival an unufual chirping commenced. The appear¬
ance of the whole company was fo lethargic, that he
found it an eafy matter to catch a confiderable number Gent. Mag.
of them, which-he kept in a room all that day. By/or 1796.
heating the room they all revived : he opened four of
them, and found their ftomachs quite full. The main
body occupied the houfe top all day, except for two
hours. About half an hour after nine in the morning
of the 23d, there was a great commotion, with very
loud chirping, and within a few minutes after, the
whole multitude took their flight, in a diredl fouth-eaft
direflion, having afeended to a great height in the at-
mofpherei He let go the birds which he had caught,
at certain intervals till four o’clock, and they all flew
toward the fame quarter.
Not only has the direftion of their flight been obfer¬
ved, but they have alfo been found on their paffage at
a great diftance from land. Mr Adanfon informs us,
that about 50 leagues from the coaft of Senegal four
fwallows fettled upon the (hip on the 6th of Oflober j
that
1
MIG
[ 83 ]
M I G
Migration
Phildfophi-
■cal Tranf-
actions,
voi. liii.
Kahn's
Voyage,
vol. i. p. 24.
Second opi¬
nion, that
feme he
in caverns
in a torpid
ftate.
Pennant's
Briti/h
Zoology,
vol. ii.
p. 250.
■ that thefe birds rvere taken j and that he knew them to
*e European fwallows, which, he conje£tures, were
returning to the coaft of Africa. Sir Charles Wager’s
authority may alfo be appealed to : “ Returning home
(fays he) in the fpring of the year, as I came into
foundings in our channel, a great flock of fwallows
came and fettled on all my rigging \ every rope was
covered, they hung on one another like a fwarm of
bees; the decks and carving were filled with them.
They feemed almofi: famifhed and fpent, and were only
feathers and bones •, but, being recruited with a night’s
reft, took their flight in the morning.” This vaft fa¬
tigue proves that their journey muft have been very great,
confidering the amazing fwiftnefs of thefe birds : in all
probability they had croffed the Atlantic ocean, and
were returning from the {bores of Senegal, or other parts
of A.friqa $ fo that this account from that moft able and
honeft feaman, confirms the later information of Mr
Adanfon.
Mr Kalm, who is an advocate for the opinion that
fwallows lie immerfed in lakes during wdnter, acknow¬
ledges that in crofling the Atlantic from Europe a
frvallow lighted on the fliip on the 2d September, when
it had paffed only two-thirds of the ocean. Since,
therefore, fwallows have been feen affembled in great
flocks in autumn flying off in company towards fouthern
climes, fincethey have been found both in their paffage
from Europe and returning again, can there be any
doubt of their annual migration ?—Mr Barrington’s
objections to this opinion have been noticed above in
N° 5.
The fecond notion (fays Mr Pennant) has great anti¬
quity on its fide. Ariilotle and Pliny give it as their
belief, that fwallows do not remove very far from their
fummer habitation, but winter in the hollows of rocks,
and during that time lofe their feathers. The former
part of their opinion has been adopted by feveral inge¬
nious men ; and of late feveral proofs have been brought
of fome fpecies, at leaft, having been difcovered in a
torpid ftate. Mr Collinfon favoured us with the evi¬
dence of three gentlemen, eye-wdtneffes to numbers of
fand martins being drawn out of a cliff on the Rhine,
in the month of March 1762. And the honourable
iDaines Barrington communicated to us the following
fad, on the authority of Lord Belhaven, That numbers
of fwallows have been found in old dry walls and in
fand-hills near his Lordfhip’s feat in Eaft Lothian ; not
once only, but from year to year 5 and that when they
were expofed to the warmth of a fire, they revived.
We have alfo heard of the fame annual difcoveries near
Morpeth in Northumberland, but cannot fpeak of them
with the fame affurance as the two former : neither in
the two laft inftances are we certain of the particular
fpecies.
“ Other witneffes crowd on us to prove the refidence
of thofe birds in a torpid ftate during the fevere feafon.
Firft, In the chalky cliffs of Suffex j as was feen on the
fall of a great fragment fome years ago. Secondly, In
a decayed hollow tree that was cut down, near Dolgel-
li, in Merionethlhire. Thirdly, In a cliff near Whitby,
Yorklhire; w'here, on digging out a fox, whole buftiels
of fwallows were found in a torpid condition. And,
laftly, The reverend Mr Conway of Sychton, Flint-
fhire, was fo obliging as to communicate the following
fa£t: A few years ago, on looking down an old lead-
mine in that county, he obferved numbers of fwallows Migration,
clinging to the timbers of the fhaft, feemingly afleep 5 v
and on flinging fome gravel on them, they juft moved,
but never attempted to fly or change their place : this
was between All Saints and Chriftmas.
“ Thefe are doubtlefs the lurking places of the later
hatches, or of thofe young birds which are incapable of
diftant migrations. There they continue infenfible and
rigid ; but like flies may fometimes be reanimated by
an unfeafonable hot day in the midft of winter : for very
near Chriftmas a fewT appeared on the moulding of a
window of Merton college, Oxford, in a remarkably
warm nook, which prematurely fet their blood in mo¬
tion, having the fame effect as laying them before a
fire at the fame time of year. Others have been known
to make this premature appearance 5 but as foon as the
cold natural to the feafon returns, they withdraw again
to their former retreats.
“ The above are circumftances w7e cannot but affent
to. though feemingly contradictory to the common courfe
of nature in regard to other birds. We muft, therefore,
divide our belief relating to thefe turo fo different opi¬
nions ; and conclude, that one part of the fwallow tribe
migrate, and that others have their winter quarters
near home. If it fliould be demanded, why fwallows
alone are found in a torpid ftate, and not the other
many fpecies of {oft-billed birds, which likewife dif-
appear about the fame time ? reafons might be affign-
ed.” i<s
The third opinion we {hall ftate and fupport in the Third opi»
words of Mr Kalm. “ Natural hiftory (fays he), as|?'on»^at
all other hiflories, depends not always upon the intrin-• merfe(j
fie degree of probability, but upon fails founded on thein water,
teftimony of people of noted veracity.—SwTallow7s are
feldom feen finking down into water 5 fwallows have
not fuch organs as frogs or lizards, which are torpid
during winter; ergo, fwallowTs live not, and cannot
live, under water.—This way of arguing, I believe,
wmuld carry us, in a great many cafes too far : for
though it is not clear to every one, it may however be
true ; and lizards and frogs are animals of a clafs widely
different from that of birds, and muft therefore of courfe
have a different ftruilure $ hence it is they are claffed
feparately. The bear and marmot are in winter in a
torpid ftate, and have, however, not fach organs as
lizards and frogs $ and nobody doubts of their being,
during fome time, in the moft rigid climates, in a tor¬
pid ftate for the Alpine nations hunt the marmots
frequently by digging their holes up 5 and find them fo
torpid, that they cut their throats, without their reviv¬
ing or giving the leaft fign of life during the operation j
but when the torpid marmot is brought into a warm
room, and placed before the fire, it revives from its
lethargy. The queftion muft: therefore be decided by
fadls 5 nor are thefe wanting here. Dr Wallerius, the
celebrated Swedifli chemift, informs us, That he has
feen, more than once, fwallows affembling on a reed,
till they were all immerfed and went to the bottom j
this being preceded by a dirge of a quarter of an hour’s
length. He attefts likewiie, that he had feen a fwallow
caught during winter out of a lake with a net, drawn,
as is common in northern countries, under the ice ; this
bird was brought into a warm room, revived, fluttered
about, and foon after died.
“ Mr Klein applied to many farmers-general of the
L 2 king
MIG r 84 ] M I G
Migration, king of PrmTia’s domains, who had great lakes In their
v diftridls, the fiflsery in them being a part of the revenue.
In winter the fifhery thereon is the molt confiderable
under the ice, with nets fpreading more than 2QO or
300 fathoms, and they are often wound by fcrews and
engines on account of their weight. All the people
that were queftioned made affidavits upon oath before
the magiftrates. Firft, The mother of the countels
Lehndorf faid, that die had feen a bundle of fwallows
brought from the Friihe-Haff (a lake communicating
with the Baltic at Pillaw), which, when brought into
a moderately warm room, revived and fluttered about.
Secondly, Count Schileben gave an inftrument on
damped paper, importing, that by filhing on the lake
belonging to his eftate of Gerdauen in winter, he faw
feveral fwallows caught in the net, one of which he
took up in his hand, brought it into a warm room,
where it lay about an hour, when it began to flir, and
half an hour after, it dew about in the room. Thirdly,
Farmer-general (Amtman) Witkoufki made affidavit,
that, in the year 1740, three fwallows were brought
up with the net in the great pond at Didlacken ; in the
year 1741 he got two fwallows from another part of
the pond, and took therrvhome (they being all caught
in his prefence) ; after an hour’s fpace they revived
all in a warm room, duttered about, and died in three
hours after. Fourthly, Amtman Bonke fays, that
having had the edate of Klefkow in farm, he had feen
nine fwallows brought up in the net from under the ice,
all which he took into a warm room, where he diflindf-
ly obferved how' they gradually revived 5 but a few
hours after they all died. Another time his people got
likewife fome fwallows in a net, but he ordered them
to be again thrown into the water. Fifthly, Andrew
Rutta, a mader fidierman at Oletfko, made affidavit,
1747» t^at 22 years ago, two fwallows were taken
up by him in a net, under the ice, and, being brought
into a warm room, they dew about. Sixthly, Jacob
Kodulo, a mader fifherman at Stradauen made affidavit,
that, in 1736, he brought up in winter, in a net, from
under the ice of the lake at Rafki, a feemingly dead
fwallow, which revived in half an hour’s time in a
warm room ; and he faw, in a quarter of an hour after,
the bird grow weaker, and foon after dying. Seventh¬
ly, I can reckon myfelf (fays our author) among the
eye-witneffes of this paradox of natural hidory. In the
year I735> being a little boy, I faw feveral fwallows
brought in winter by the fifhermen from the river
Vidula to my father’s houfe ; where two of them were
brought into a warm room, revived, and flew about. I
faw them feveral times fettling on the warm dove
(which the northern nations have in their rooms) ; and
I recolleft well, that the fame forenoon they died, and
I had them, when dead, in my hand. In the year
1754, after the death of my uncle Godefroy Wolf,
captain in the Polifh regiment of foot guards, being
myfelf one of his heirs, I adminidered for my co-heirs
feveral edates called the Starq/ly of Difchau, in Polifh
Pruffia, which my late uncle fanned under the king.
In January, the lake of Lybdiaw, belonging to thefe
edates, being covered with ice, I ordered the fifhermen
to fifh therein, and in my prefence feveral fwallows
were taken, which the fidrermen threw in again ; but
ene I took up myfelf, brought it home, which was five
miles from thence, and it revived, but died about an Migmiojj,
hour after its reviving. '——y—*
“ Thefe are fails atteded by people of the highefl:
quality, by fome in public offices, and by others w'ho,
though of a low rank, however, made thefe affidavits
upon oath. It is impoffible to fuppofe indifcriminately
that they were prompted, by views of intered, to aifert
as a fait a thing which had no truth in it. It is there*
fore highly -probable, or rather inconteftably true, that
fwallows retire in the northern countries, during winter,
into the water, and day there in a torpid date till the
return of warmth revives them again in fming. The
quedion therefore, I believe, ought for the future to
be thus dated : The fwallows in Spain, Italy, France,
and perhaps fome from England, remove to warmer
climates; fome Englifh ones, and fome in Germany
and other mild countries, retire into clefts and holes in
rocks, and remain there in a torpid date. In the col¬
der northern countries the fwallows immerfe in the fea,
in lakes, and rivers; and remain in a torpid date,
under ice, during winter. There are dill fome objec¬
tions to this latter affertion, which we mud remove. It
is faid, Why do not rapacious fifh, and aquatic qua¬
drupeds and birds, devour thefe fwallows ? The anfwer
is obvious, fwallows choofe only fuch places in the
wTater for their wunter retreat as are near reeds and
rudies; fo that finking down there between them and
their roots, they are by them fecured againd the rapa-
cioufnefs of their enemies. But others objedf, Why are
not thefe birds caught in fuch frefh waters as are conti¬
nually haraffed by nets ? I believe the fame anfwer
which has been made to the fird objection will ferve
for this likewife. Fifhermen take care to keep off with
their nets from places filled with reeds and rufhes, for
fear of entangling and tearing their net •, and thus the
fituatlon of fwallows under water, is the reafon that
they are feldom didurbed in their filent winter retreats.
What confirms this opinion dill more is, that fwallows
were never caught in Pruffia according to the above-
mentioned affidavits, but with thofe parts of the net
which pafled near to the reeds and ruffies; and fome-
times the fwallows were yet fadened with their feet to
a reed, -when they were drawn up by the net. As to
tile argument taken from their being fo long under
water without corruption, I believe there is a real
difference between animals fuffocated in water and ani¬
mals being torpid therein. We have examples of
things being a long time under wTater ; to which w7e
may add the intenfe cold of thefe northern regions,
which preferves them. Who would have thought that
fnails and polypes might be diflefted, and could repro¬
duce the parts fevered from their bodies, if it was not a
fadil ? Natural hidory ought to be dudied as a collec¬
tion of fafts, not as the hidory of our guelfes or opi¬
nions. Nature varies in an infinite manner ; and Pro¬
vidence has diverfified the inflindl of animals and their
economy, and adapted it to the various feafons and
climates.” ir
With Mr Kalm’s concluding obfervations we hearti- This que-
ly concur. Natural hidory ought to be dudied as a ^I01’ 0US^lt
colledlion of fafts ; and it was from this very notion
that we have dated the above-mentioned opinions fonotbyrea-
fully, and brought together the fafts which the bed foning, but
advocates for each opinion have judged mod proper for^y expen..
fupporting ment*
M 1 G
[ 85 ]
M I G
Migraticr.fupportlng them. We are fenfible of the great impro-
-—v—— bability of the third opinion, and know that many ar¬
guments have been ufed to prove its abfurdity : fuch as
thefe, The fwallow is lighter than water, and therefore
cannot fink ; if it moults at all, it muft moult under
water during its torpid ftate, which is very improbable^
there is no inftance of land animals living fo long un¬
der water without refpiration. Many other arguments
of the fame fort have been advanced, and certainly af¬
ford a fhort way of deciding the queftion j but unlefs
they were fuflicient to prove the immerfion of fwallows
a phyfical impoffibility, they are of no force when op-
pofed to the evidence of teftimony, if there be no caufe
to fufpefl the witneffes of inaccuracy or defign. The
true way to refute fuch an opinion is by accurate
obfervation and experiment. We have not heard of
any accurate inquiries being made by philofophers in
thofe northern countries where fwallows are faid to pafs
the winter under water. The count de Buffan, indeed,
fhut up fome fwallows in an ice houfe by way of experi¬
ment, which died in a few days ; but as he does not
tell us what precautions he took to make the experi¬
ment fucceed, it is not entitled to any attention.
Mr John Hunter made a very judicious experi¬
ment on the banks of the Thames, which is defcrib-
ed by a correfpondent in the Gentleman’s Maga¬
zine, who afferts that he had it from Mr Hunter him-
felf.
One year in the month of September, he prepared a
room, with every accommodation and convenience which
he could conti ive, to ferve as a dormitory for fwallows,
if they were difpofed to fieep in winter. He placed in
the centre a large tub of water with twigs and reeds,
&c. which reached to the bottom. In the corners of
the room he contrived artificial caverns and holes, into
which they might retire ; and he laid on the door, or
fufpended in the air, different lengths of old wooden
pipes, which had formerly been employed in conveying
water through the fireets, &c.
When the receptacle was rendered as complete as
poffible, he then engaged fome watermen to take by
night a large quantity of the fwallows that hang upon
the reeds in the Thames about the time of their depar¬
ture. They brought him, in a hamper, a confiderable
number ; and had fo nicely hit the time of their cap¬
ture, that on the very day following there were none
to be feen.
He put the fwallows into the room fo prepared,
where they continued to fly about, and occafionally
perch on the twigs, &c. But not one ever retired in¬
to the ivater, the caverns, holes, or wooden pipes, or
fliewed the lead; difpofition to grow toroid, &.c. In
this fituation he let them remain till they all died but
one. This appearing to retain fome vigour, was fet at
at liberty ; when it mounted out of fight, and flew a-
way. All the birds lay dead fcattered about the room ;
but not one was found afleep or torpid, or had, if the
correfpondent remembers, fo much as crept into any of
the receptacles he had fo provided.
This experiment wTas ingenious, and certainly does
render the do£lrine of immerfion much more improba¬
ble ; but it is not decifive •, for it may ftill be urged
by the advocates for that dodflrine, as Mr Kalm has
done, that it may only be in the colder countries where
fwallows retire into the water. We formerly faid that
Gentle¬
man's Ma¬
gazine,
May 1796.
12
Mr Hun¬
ter’s expe¬
riment in¬
genious;
13
but net
decifive
with r@-
fpeft to
northern
climates.
none of the three opinions is fupported by fuch evi-Migration,
dence as to fatisfy the mind completely. Opinions - ‘
refpefling events which happen every year ought to
be confirmed by a great number of obfervations, and
not by a few inftances divefted of almofl: all their con¬
comitant circumftances. Can no better proofs be
brought to prove the migration of fwallows than thofe
of Adanfon and Sir Charles Wager, or the circumflan-
ces mentioned by Mr White and Mr Lafkey refpecling
their difappearing ? We ought not merely to know that
fome fwallows have taken a foutherly flight in autumn,
that fome have been found at a great di(lance from land
in the fpring, or in harveft *, but we ought to know to
what countries they aflually retire. Before wre can
reft fatisfied, too, that it is a general fact that fwallaws
remain in a torpid ftate during winter, either' in ca¬
verns or in the bottom of lakes, &c. wre muft have
more proofs j we muft know what fpecies of (wallows
they are faid to be, in what countries this event takes
place, and feveral other circumftances of the fame
kind. ... . x4
We cannot help being of opinion that much remains Many
to be done in order properly to afcertain what becomes t^ings yet
of the fwallows in Europe during winter. It would be
neceffary, in the firft place, to know accurately what0rderto
are the countries in which fwallows are found. 2. Do determine
they remain vifible the whole year? or, if they difap-d1'5
pear, at what feafon does this happen, and when do
they appear again ? 3. Do they ever appear while a
ftrong north wind blows, or do they only come in
great numbers with a fouth wind ? We will endeavour
to anfwer fome of thefe queftions in part ; but muft re¬
gret, that all the information on this fubjeft which we
have been able to cull from the beft writers in natural
hiftory is very fcanty; and we merely give it by way of
fpecimen, hoping that future obfervations will render it
more complete. 15
There are five fpecies which vifit Britain during the ^ ^cw irn“
fummer months; the common or chimney fwallow, the ftatedi
martin, fand martin, fwift, and goat-fucker. 1. The
chimney fwallow frequents almoft every part of the
old continent ; being known (fays Dr Latham) from
Norway to the Cape of Good Hope on the one fide,
and from Kamtfchatka to India and Japan on the other.
It is alfo found in all parts of North America, and in
feveral of the Weft Indian ifiands. In Europe it dif-
appears during the winter months. It appears general¬
ly a little after the vernal equinox ; but rather earlier
in the fouthern, and later in the northern latitudes. It
adheres to the ufual feafons with much regularity; forr
though the months of February and March fhould be
uncommonly mild, and April and May remarkably
cold, it never deviates from its ordinary time. In the
cold fpring of 1740 iome appeared in France before
the infers on which they feed had become numerous
enough to fupport them, and great numbers died f. t
In the mild and even warm fpring of 1774 they ap- ^aturai
peared no earlier than ufual. They remain in fome j^°i7
warm countries the whole year. Kolben affures usvol. vl.
that thi-s is the cafe at the Cape of Good Hope ; but P- 5*27, .
(he fiys) they are more numerous in winter. Some
birds of this ipecies live, during winter, even in Eu¬
rope ; for example, on the coaft of Genoa, where they
fpend the night in. the open coqptry on the orange
Ihrubs,
2. The
'-jyUsratlcn',
MIG [
2. The martins are alfo widely diffufed through the
- oijj continent 5 but the countries where they refide or
vifit have not been marked by naturalifls with much
attention, 3. The fand martins are found in every part
f Hid. 537.01' Europe, and frequently fpend the winter in Malta J.
1 wo birds of this fpecies were feen in Perigord in
France, on the syth December 1775, when there was
H Ibid. 454.3 foutherly wdnd, attended wdth a little rain |j. 4. The
fvjft vifits the whole continent of Europe j has alfo
been obferved at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Ca¬
rolina in jNorth America. 5. Hht go at-fuckers are not
very common birds, yet are widely fcattered. They
are found in every country between Sweden and Afri¬
ca : they are found alfo in India. In April the fouth-
wefl: wind brings them to Malta, and in autumn they
repafs in great numbers.
thnfof the ^•ar^w^c^ Catsfield, near Battle in Suffex,
Linnian ^las drawn up an accurate table, exprefling the day of
Societyt the month on which the birds, commonly called migra-
vol. i. torij, appeared in fpring, and difappeared in autumn,
for 16 years, from 1768 to 1783 inclufive. The ob-
fervations w^ere made at Catsfield. From this table we
ft all extraft the dates for five years, and add the very
few obfervations which we have been able to colledl ref-
pedting the time when the fwailow appears and difap-
pears in other countries.
Chimney Swrallow
Martins
Sand Martin
Swift
Chimney Swallow
Martins
Sand Martin
Swift
Chimney Swallow
Martins
Sand Martin
Swift
Chimney Swallow-
Martins
Sand Martin
Swift
Chimney Swallow
Martins
Sand Martin
Swift
Firf fcen.
1779.
April 14.
14-
May 7.
9-
1780.
April 29.
8.
May 6.
1781.
April 8.
May 12.
April 26.
May 12.
1782.
April 22.
26.
May 15.
18.
1783-
April 13.
May 1.
July 25.
May 13.
Laf feen.
Odlober 29.
I5-
November 3.
3-
September 8.
8.
Odlober 15.
September 7.
September 1.
September 1.
November 2.
Augult 28.
28.
November 6.
6.
September 1.
November 6.
f Buffon,
ibid.
I White's
Natural
Hijiory of
Selborne,
| Buff on,
ibid.
Chim. Swal.
In Burgundy f
In Selborne, Hamplhire t Ap. 4.
In South Zele, Devonfhire f 25.
In Blackburn, LancafUire f 29.-
In Upfal in Sweden 5
Swifts. Martins.
Appear about
Ap. 9.
Ap. 24.
May 1.
Ap. 28.
Ap. 30.
May 15.
May 9.
S. Mart.
Ap. iz.
Were tables of the fame kind made in every different
country, particularly within the torrid zone, it would
be eafy to determine the queftion which we have been
confidering. To a.any, perhaps, it may not appear a
matter of fuch importance as to be worth the labour.
3
86 ] . MIG
We acknowledge it to be rather a curious than an im- Migration,
portant inquiry j. yet it is one which muff be highly Miguel,
gratifying to every mind that can admire the wifdom v "J
of the Great Architedl of nature. The inftindl of the
fwailow is indeed wonderful : it appears among us juft
at the time when infects become numerous j and it con¬
tinues witn us during the hot weather, in order to pre¬
vent them from multiplying too much. It difappears
when thefe infedts are no longer troublefome. It is ne¬
ver found in folitude ; it is the friend of man, and al¬
ways takes up its refidence with us, that it may protedt
our houfes and our ftreets from being annoyed with
fwarms of flies. '
Migration of Fijhes. See Ci.upea.
St MIGUEL, one of the Azore iflands, fituated .
in W. Long. 22. 45. N. Lat. 38. 10. This ifland
appears to be entirely volcanic. The belt account we
have of it hath been publiflied in the 68th volume of
the Philofophical Tranfadtions by Mr Francis Maffon.
According to him, the produdtions differ greatly from
thofe of Madeira, infomuch that none of the trees of
the latter are found here, except the faya : it has a
nearer affinity to Europe than Africa. The mountains
are covered with the erica vulgaris, and an elegant
evergreen Ihrub very like a phillyrea, which gives them
a moft beautiful appearance.
It is one of the principal and moft fertile of the
Azorian iflands, lying nearly eaft and weft. Its length
is about 18 or 20 leagues ; its breadth unequal, not
exceeding five leagues, and in fome places not more
than two. It contains about 80,000 inhabitants.
Its capital, the city of Ponta del Guda, which con¬
tains about 12,000 inhabitants, is fituated on the fouth
fide of the illand, on a fine fertile plain country, pretty
regularly built ; the ftreets ftraight, and of a good
breadth. It is ftp plied with good water, which is
brought about the diftance of three leagues from the
neighbouring mountains. The churches and other
religious edifices are elegant and well built for ftch an
illand. There is a large convent of Francifcan friars
and one of the order of St Auguftine, four convents
for profeffed nuns, and three Ricolhimentos for young
women and widows who are not profeffed. The veL
fels anchor in an open road ^ but it is not dangerous,
as no wind can prevent their going to fea in cafe of
ftormy weather.
The country round the city is plain for feveral
miles, well cultivated, and laid out with good tafte in¬
to fpacious fields, which are fown with wheat, barley,
Indian corn, pulfe, &c. and commonly produce an¬
nually two crops 5 for as foon as one is taken off, an¬
other is immediately fown in its place. The foil is
remarkably gentle and eafy to work, being for the
moft part computed of pulverized pumice ftone. There
are in the plains a number of pleafant country feats,
with orchards of orange trees, which are efteemed the
belt in Europe.
The fecond town is Ribeira Grande, fituated on the
north fide of the ifland, containing about as many inha¬
bitants as the city j a large convent of Francifcan friars,
and one of nuns. It gives title to a count, called the
Conde Ribeira Grande,, who firft inftituted linen and
woollen mamafadtories in the ifland.
The third town is Villa Franca, on the fouth fide
of the illand, about fix leagues eaft of Ponta del Guda.
It
M I G [ 87 ] MIG
Miguel- It lias a convent of Francifcan friars and one of nuns,
which contains about 300. Here, about half a mile
from the Ihore, lies a fmall illand (Ilhao), which is
hollow in the middle, and contains a fine bafon v/ith
only one entrance into it, fit to hold 50 fail of velTels
fecure from all weather ; at prefent it wants cleaning
out, as the winter rain waflies down great quantities
of earth into it, which has greatly diminilhed its depth.
But velfels frequently anchor between this illand and
the main.
Befides thefe towns are feveral fmaller, viz. Alagao,
Agoa de Pao, Brelanha, Fanaes de Ajuda, and a num¬
ber of hamlets, called lugars or places.
About four leagues horth-eaft from Villa Franca,
lies a place called the Furnas, being a round deep valley
in the middle of the eaft part of the ifland, furrounded
with high mountains, which, though fteep, may be
eafily afcended on horfeback by two roads. The
valley is about five or’fix leagues in circuit. The face
of the mountains, which are very fteep, is entirely co¬
vered with beautiful evergreens, viz. myrtles, laurels, a
large fpecies of bilberry called mia de ferra &c. and
numberlefs rivulets of the pureft water run down their
fides. The valley below is well cultivated, producing
wheat, Indian corn, flax, &c. The fields are planted
round with a beautiful fort of poplars, which grow into
pyramidal forms, and by their carelefs irregular difpofi-
tion, together with the multitude of rivulets, which run
in all direflions through the valley, a number of boil¬
ing fountains throwing up clouds of fleam, a fine lake
in the fouth-weft part about two leagues round, compofe
a profped the fineft that can be imagined. In the .bot¬
tom of the valley the roads are fmooth and eafy, there
being no rocks, a fine pulverized pumice ftone that
the earth is compofed of.
There are numerous hot fountains in different parts
of the valley, and alfo on the fides of the moun¬
tains : but the moft remarkable is that called the clml-
deira, fituated in the eaftern part of the valley, on a
fmall eminence by the fide of a river, on which is a
bafon about 30 feet diameter, where the water conti¬
nually boils with prodigious fury. A few yards di-
ftant from it is a cavern in the fide of the bank, in
which the water boils in a dreadful manner, throwing
out a thick, muddy, un&uous water, feveral yards from
its mouth with a hideous noife. In the middle of the
river are feveral places wdrere the water boils up fo hot,
that a perfon cannot dip his finger into it without being
fcalded ; alfo along its banks are f&veral apertures, out
of which the fleam rifes to a confiderable height, fo
hot that there is no approaching it with one’s hand : in
other places, a perfon would think that 100 fmiths
bellows were blowing altogether, and fulphureous
fleams iffuing out in thoufands of places ; fo that na¬
tive fulphur is found in every chink, and the ground
covered with it like hoar froft ; even the bullies that
happen to lie near thefe places are covered with pure
brimftone, condenfing from the fleam that iffues out
of the ground, which in many places is covered over
with a fubftance like burnt alum. In thefe fmall ca¬
verns, from which the fleam iffues, the people often boil
their yams.
Near thefe boiling fountains are feveral mineral
fprings j two in particular, whofe waters have a very
flrong quality, of an acid tafte, and bitter to the Miguel,
tongue. —y—*,
About half a mile to the weftward, and clofe by the
river fide, are feveral hot fprings, which are ufed by
fick people with great fuccefs. Alfo, on the fide of a
hill weft of St Anne’s church, are many others, with
three bathing houfes, which are moft commonly ufed.
Thefe waters are very warm, although not boiling hot;
but al the fame place iffue feveral ftreams of cold mine¬
ral water, by which they are tempered, according to
every one’s liking.
About a mile fouth of this place, and over a low
ridge of hills, lies a fine lake about two leagues in cir¬
cumference, and very deep, the wrnter thick, and of a
greenifh colour. At the north end is a plain piece of
ground, where the fulphureous fleams iffue out in many
places, attended with a furprifing blowing noife. Our
author could obferve ftrong fprings in the lake, but
could not determine whether they were hot or cold: this
lake feems to have no vifible evacuation. The other
fprings immediately form a confiderable river, called
Ribeira d^iiente, which runs a courfe about two or three
leagues, through a deep rent in the mountains, on each
fide of which are feveral places w'here the fmoke iffues
out. It difcharges itfelf into the fea on the fouth fide,
near which are fome places where the water boils up at
fome diftance in the fea.
This wonderful place had been taken little notice
of until very lately : fo little curiofity had the gentle¬
men of the ifland, that fcarcely any of them had feen
it, until of late fome perfons, afflifted with very viru¬
lent diforders, were perfuaded to try its waters, and
found immediate relief from them. Since that time it
has become more and more frequented ; feveral per¬
fons who had loft the ufe of their limbs by the dead
palfy have been cured $ and alfo others who were
troubled vvith eruptions on their bodies.
A clergyman, who w'as greatly afflifled with the
gout, tried the faid waters, and was in a fhort time per-
feflly cured, and has had no return of it fince. When
Mr Maffon was there, feveral old gentlemen, who w'ere
quite worn out with the faid diforder, were ufing the
waters, and had received incredible benefit from them;
in particular, an old gentleman about 60 years of age,
who had been tormented with that diforder more than
20 years, and often confined to his bed for fix months
together : he had ufed theie w’aters for about three
wTeeks, had quite recovered the ufe of his limbs, and
walked about in the greateft fpirits imaginable. A
friar alfo who had been troubled with the faid diforder
about 1 2 years, and reduced to a cripple, by ufing them
a fhort time was quite well, and went a-hunting every¬
day.
There are feveral other hot fprings in the ifland,
particularly at Ribeira Grande ; but they do not pof-
fefs the fame virtues, at leaft not in fo great a de-
gree.
The eaft and weft part of the ifland rifes into high
mountains ; but the middle is lorv, interfperfed with
round conic hills, all of which have very recent marks
of fire ; all the parts below7 the furface confifting of
melted lava lying very hollow.
Moft of the mountains to the weftwTard have their
tops hollowed out like a punch bowd, and contain wa¬
ter. '
MIG [ 88 ] MIG
ter. Near the weft end is an immenfe deep valley
like the Furnas, called the Sete Cidades. This valley
is furrounded with very abrupt mountains, about feven
or eight leagues round ; in the bottom is a deep lake
of water about three leagues in circuit, furnifhed
with great numbers of water fowls. This water has
no mineral quality ; neither are there any hot fprings
in the valley. AH thefe mountains are compofed ©f a
white crumbly pumice ftone, which is fo loofe, that
if a perfon thruft a flick into the banks, whole wag¬
gon loads of it wall tumble dowTn. The inhabitants
of the ifland relate a ftory, that he who firft difcovered
it obferved an extraordinary high peak near the weft
end 5 but the fecond time he vifited it, no fuch peak
was to be feen, which he fuppofed muft have certainly
funk ; but, however improbable this ftory may be, at
fome period or other it muft have certainly been the
cafe.
MILAN, or the duchy of the Milanefe, a coun¬
try of Italy, bounded on the weft by Savoy, Pied¬
mont, and Montferrat •, by Switzerland on the north ;
by the territories of Venice, the duchies of Mantua,
Parma, and Placentia, on the eaft ; and by the ter¬
ritories of Genoa on the fouth. It is 150 miles long,
and 78 broad.
Anciently this duchy, containing the north part
of the old Liguria, was called Infubria, from its
inhabitants the Infubres; who were conqeered by
the Romans, as thefe were by the Goths j who in
their turn were fubdued by the Lombards. Di-
dier, the laft king of the Lombards, was taken prifoner
by Charlemagne, who put an end to the Longobardic
empire, and appeinted governors of Milan. Thefe go¬
vernors, being at a diftance from their mafters, foon
began to a flu me an independency, which brought a
dreadful calamity on the country j for, in 1152, the
capital itfelf was levelled with the ground by the em¬
peror Frederic Barbaroffa, w'ho committed great de-
vaftations otherwife throughout the duchy. Under
this emperor lived one Galvian, a nobleman who was
defcended from Otho a Milanefe. Galvian, along
with William prince of Montferrat, ferved in the
crufade, when Godfrey of Boulogne took Jerufalem :
he killed in Angle combat the Saracen general, whom
he ftripped of his helmet, which was adorned with the
image of a ferpent fwallowing a youth 5 and this ever
afterwards was the badge of that family. His grand-
fon Galvian, having oppofed the emperor, was taken
prifoner, and carried in irons into Germany, from
whence he made his efcape, and returning to Milan,
died in the fervice of his country. From him defcend¬
ed another Otho, at the time that Otho IV. was em¬
peror of Germany, and who foon diftinguilhed him-
felf by the accompliftiments both of his mind and bo¬
dy. When he grew up, he was received into the
family of Cardinal Oclavian Ubaldini at Rome. This
prelate, who was himfelf afpiring at the popedom,
was in a fticrt time greatly taken with the addrefs and
acccmpliftiments of young Otho, and predided his
future greatnefs. In the mean time, one Torrefs, or
Torriano, a Milanefe nobleman of unbounded ambi¬
tion, was attempting to make himfelf mailer of Mi¬
lan. The popular fadlion had fome time before been
caballing again!! the nobility 5 and at laft, Torriano,
putting himfelf at their head, expelled the bifhop, and
3
put to death or baniftied all the nobility ; by whicb
means the popular government w'as fully eftablifhed j
and Torriano, under this pretence, ruled every thing
as he pleafed. He was, however, foon oppofed by
one Francifco Sepri, who formed a great party, pre¬
tending to deliver the city from Torriano’s haughti-
nefs and cruelty. But while the two parties were
collefling their forces again!! each other, Cardinal
Ubaldini was projecting the deftru&ion of both, by
means of his favourite Otho. This prelate had for
fome time borne an implacable hatred to Torriano,
becaufe he had been by him prevented from carrying
out of the treafury of St Ambrofe’s church at Mi¬
lan, a carbuncle or jewel of great value, which he pre¬
tended to referve for adorning the papal tiara; for which
reafon he now determined to oppofe his ambition.
Ubaldini began with naming Otho archbifhop of
Milan ; which, as the pope’s legate, he had a right to
do. This nomination was confirmed by Pope Ur-
ban IV. ; and the party of the nobility having now
got a head from the pope himfelf, began to gather
ftrength. Otho in the mean time employed himfelf in
collecting troops ; and had no fooner procured a fhow
of an army, than he advanced towards Lago Mag-
giore, and took pofiefiion of Arona, a ftrong poft
near that lake : but Torriano, marching immediately
again!! him with all his troops, obliged him to aban¬
don the place, and leave his party to make the beft
terms they could with the conqueror. This was fol¬
lowed by the deftru&ion of the caftles of Arona,
Anghiari, and Brebia : foon after which Torriano
died, and was fucceeded by his brother Philip, who
had fufficient intereft to get himfelf eleCled podefta, or
praetor of Milan, for ten years. During his lifetime,
however, the party of the nobility increafed confider-
ably under Otho, notwithftanding the check they had
received. Philip died in 1 265, having loft ground con-
fiderably in the affections of the people, though be ob¬
tained a great reputation for his courage and condu£f.
His fucceffor Napi rendered himfelf terrible to the
nobility, whom he profcribed, and put to death as of¬
ten as he could get them into his power. He pro¬
ceeded fuch lengths, and adled with fuch fury again!!
that unfortunate party, that Pope Clement IV. who
had fucceeded Urban, at laft inteidifted Milan, and
excommunicated Napi and all his party. By this
Napi began to lofe his popularity, and the public dif-
affe£lion towards him was much heightened by the
natural cruelty of his temper. But in the mean time,
the party of the nobility was in the utmoft diftrefs.
Otho himfelf and his friends, having fpent all their
flibftance, wandered about from place to place ; the
pope not being in a capacity of giving them any af-
fiftance. Otho, however, was not difcouraged by hiy
bad fuccefs, but found means ftill to keep up the fpirits
of his party, who now chofe for their general Squar-
cini Burii, a man of great eminence and courage, whofe
daughter was married to Matthew Vifconti, afterwards
called Matthew the Great. At the fame time they re¬
newed their confederacy with the marquis of Montferrat,
who was fon-in-law to the king of Spain. The marquis
agreed to this confederacy chiefly with a view to become
mafter of the Milanefe..
The nobility now again began to make head ; and
having colle&ed an army, which was joined by 600
Spaniib
Milan.
MIL [89
Milan. Spanilh cavalry and a body of foot, gained fome ad-
vantages. But in the mean time Napi, having gather¬
ed together a fuperior army, fuddenly attacked Otho
^and Burri, and defeated them. After this difafter
Otho applied to the pope $ from whom, however, he
did not obtain the affiftance he defired ; and in the
mean time Napi invited the emperor Rodolph into
Italy, with the promife of being crowned at Milan.
This invitation was accepted of with great readinefs
by Rodolph ; who conftituted Napi his governor and
vicar-general in Lombardy, lending to him at the fame
time a fine body of German horfe, the command of
which was given to Caffoni, Napi’s nephew. On this
Otho again applied to the pope (Gregory X.) 5 but he
was fo far from granting him any afliftance j that he
is faid to have entered into a fcheme of affaflinating him
privately •, but Otho efcaped the danger, and in 1 276
began to recover his affairs. The reafon of Pope Gre¬
gory’s enmity to him was, that he and his party were
thought to be Gibelines, and were oppofed by great
numbers of the nobility therafelves j but after that pope’s
death, the Milanefe exiles being united under one
head, foon became formidable. They now chofe for
their general Godfrey count of Langufio, a noble Pa-
vian, and an inveterate enemy of the Torriano family.
This nobleman being rich and powerful, enlifted many
German and other mercenaries, at whofe head he mar¬
ched towards the Lago Maggiore. All the towns in
that country opened their gates to him, through the in-
tereft of the Vifconti family, who refided in thefe parts.
But this fuccefs foon met with a fevere check in an un¬
fortunate engagement, wherein Godfrey was defeated
and taken prifoner ; after which he and 34 nobles had
their heads ftruck off, and fent from the field of battle
piled up in a common waggon.
This defeat greatly affefted Otho j but having in a
fhort time recovered himfelf, he again attacked his
enemies, and defeated them •, but, fuffering his troops
to grow remifs after their viftory, the fugitives rallied,
and entirely defeated him. The next year, however,
Otho had better fuccefs, and totally defeated and took
prifoner Napi himfelf. After this victory Caffoni was
obliged to abandon Milan to his competitor, who kept
poffeflion of it till his death, which happened in 1295,
in the 87th of year of his age.
Otho was fucceeded by Matthew Vifconti above
mentioned ; and Milan continued in fubje&ion to that
family without any very memorable occurrence till the
year 1378, when, by the death of Galeazzo II. his
brother Barnabo became fovereign of Milan. He was
of a brave and aftive difpofition $ but exceflively pro-
fufe in his expences, as his brother Galeazzo had alfo
been •, and to procure money to fupply his extra¬
vagancies, was obliged to opprefs his fubje£ls. Ga¬
leazzo had engaged in an enterprife againft Bologna,
and the fiege of it was continued by Barnabo. It
lafted for nine years ; and during this time is faid to
have coft 300 millions of gold, a prodigious fum in
thofe days, near 40 millions fterling, the lowed: gold
coin being in value fomewhat more than half a-crown
Englifti. Both the brothers rvere exceflively fond of
building. Barnabo eredfed a bridge over the Adda,
confifting of three ftories; the lovveft for chariots and
heavy carriages, the middle for horfes, and the up-
permoft for foot paffengers. He built aJfo another
Vol. XIV. Part I.
] MIL
bridge which was carried over houfes without touching Lilian,
them. To accomplifli thefe, and many other expenfive v
fchemes, he . became one of the greateft tyrants imagi¬
nable, and every day produced frefli inftances of his ra¬
pacity and cruelty. He inftituted a chamber of inquiry,
for punifhing all thofe who had for five years before
been guilty of killing boars, or even of eating them at
the table of another. They who could not redeem
themfelves by money wrere hanged, and above 100
wretches perilhed in that manner. Thofe who had any
thing to lofe were dripped of all their fubftance, and
obliged to labour at the fortifications and other pub¬
lic works. He obliged his fubje&s to maintain a great
many hunting dogs, and each diftridl was taxed a
certain number. The overfeers of his dogs were at
the fame time the inftruments of his rapacity. When
the dogs were poor and flender, the owners were al¬
ways fined ; but when the dogs were fat, the owners were
alfo fined for fuffering them to live without exercife.
The extravagant behaviour of Barnabo foon rendered
public affairs ready for a revolution, which was at lafl:
accomplifhed by bis nephew John Galeazzo. He af¬
fected a folitary life, void of ambition, and even inclin¬
ing to devotion } but at the fame time took care to have
his uncle’s court filled wdth fpies, who gave him infor¬
mation of all that paffed. Pie reduced his table and
manner of living, pretending that he took thefe fteps
as preparatives to a retirement from the world, which
was foon to take place, after he had paid a religious
vow. In fliort, he aCted his part fo well, that even
Barnabo, though abundantly cautious, had no fufpicion
of his having any defigns againft him •, and fo entirely
did he conceal his ambition, that he feveral times made
application to his uncle for his intereft to procure him a
quiet retreat as foon as his religious vows were perform¬
ed. One of thefe was to pay a vifit to the church of
the bleffed Virgin upon Mount Varezzio. This was to
be done with fo much fecrecy that all kinds of eye wit-
neffes were to be excluded ; and it was with difficulty
that Barnabo himfelf and two of his fons were allowed
to accompany our devotee. But, in the mean time,
the hypocritical Galeazzo had foldiers advancing from
all quarters •, fo that Barnabo and his fons were imme¬
diately feized, and the houfes of thofe who had fided
with them given up to be plundered. The booty in
plate, money, and all kinds of rich furniture, was im-
menfe. The minifters of the late government were
dragged from their hiding places, and put to death ;
and at lafl: the citadel itfelf fell into the hands of Ga¬
leazzo, who found in it an immenfe fum of money.
Barnabo was carried prifoner to Tritici, a caftle of
his own building, where he had the happinefs to find
one perfon ftill faithful to him. This was his miftrefs,
named Doninia Porra} who, when he was abandoned
by all the world, (hut herfelf up a voluntary prifoner
in his chamber, and remained with him as long as he
lived, which was only feven months after his degrada¬
tion.
John Galeazzo was the firft who took upon him the
title of the Duke of Milan, and was a prince of great
policy and no lefs ambition. He made war with the
Florentines, became mafter of Pifa and Bologna, and
entirely defeated the emperor in 1401, fo that he en¬
tertained hopes of becoming mafter of all Lombardy,
and cutting off all poflibility of invading it either from
M Franca
M I L [ 9° ] M 1 L
Mi5an. France or Germany ^ but bis defigns were frilftrated
—v—- -by death, which happened in 1402, in the 55th year
of his age. After his deceafe the Milanefe govern¬
ment fell into the moff violent diftraftions, fo that it
could not be fupported, even in time of peace, with¬
out an army of 20,000 foot and as many horfe. In the
year 1421, however, Philip duke of Milan became ma¬
iler of Genoa •, but though he gained great advantages
in all parts of Italy, the different Hates Hill found
means to counterbalance his fucceffes, and prevent him
from enllaving them : fo that Milan never became the
capital of any extenfive empire j and in 1437 f-*61108- re*
volted, and was never afterwards reduced.
Philip died in 1448, and by his death the male line
of the Vifconti family was at an end. The next law¬
ful heir was Valentina his lifter, who had manied the
duke of Orleans, fon to Charles V. of France. By the
contiaff of that marriage, the lawful progeny of it
was to fucceed to the duchy of MUlan in failure of the
heirs male of the Vi conti family j but this fucceffion
was difputed by Sforza, who had married Philip s na¬
tural daughter. It is certain, however, that the right¬
ful fucceftion was veiled in the houfe of Orleans and
the kings of France •, and therefore though the Sfor¬
za family got pofleffion of the duchy for the prefent,
Louis XII. afterwards put in his claim, being a grand-
fon to John Galeazzd. For fome time he was fucceis-
ful ; but the French behaved in fuch an infolent man¬
ner, that they were driven out of the Milanele by the
Swifs and Maximilian Slorza. ihe Swifs and Mila¬
nefe were in their turn expelled by Francis I. w’ho
obliged the Sforza family to relinquith the government
for a penfion of 30,000 ducats a-year. Francis Sforza,
the fon of Maximilian, however, being afiifted by tne
emperor and the pope, regained the poffelTion of the
Milanefe about the year 1 521 j and, eight years after,
the French king, by the treaty of Cambray, gave up
his claim on the duchy.
But, in fa£f, the emperors of Germany feem to have
had the faireft title to the Milanefe in right of their be¬
ing for a long time fovereigns of Italy. On the death
of Francis Sforza, therefore, in the year 1536, the em¬
peror Charles V. declared the Milanefe to be an impe¬
rial fief, and granted the inveftiture of it to his fon
Philip II. king of Spain. In his family it continued
till the year 1^06, when the French and Spaniards
were driven out by the Imperialifts, and the emperor
again took poffeflion of it as a fief. It was confirmed
to his |oufe by the treaty of Baden in 1714, by the
quadruple alliance in 1718, and by the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1748.
The duchy of Milan is one of the fineft provinces
in Italy. It is bounded on the foutb by the Apen-
nine mountains, and the territory of Genoa 5 on the
north by Switzerland ; on the eaft by the Venetian
territories, and the duchies of Mantua, Parma, and
Placentia •, and on the weft by Savoy, Piedmont, and
Montferrat ; extending from north to fouth about IOO
miles, and from eaft to weft about 108. It is well
watered by the Teflino, the Sefia, the Adda, the Po,
the Ogho, the Lombro, Serio, &c. and alfo by fe-
veral canals and lakes. Of the latter, the Lago Mag-
giore is between 30 and 40 miles in length, and in
fome places fix or feven miles broad. In it lie the
Bormean ijlandsi as they are called, viz, Ifola Bella
and Ifola Madre, the beauty of which almoft exceeds Mnan.
imagination : art and nature teem to have vied vsith ^
one another in embelliftfing them. In each of them
is a palace with delicious gardens, belonging to the
Boromean family. The water of the lake is clear
and of a greemth colour, and abounds with fifh. Ihe
hills with which it is furrounded prelent a molt charm¬
ing lantifcape, being planted with vines and chcinut
trees, interiperied with lummer houles. I here is a
canal running from it towards Switzerland, with which
the city of Milan has a communication. It was an¬
ciently called Lacus Verbanus. The Lago de Como,
which was called by the Latin poets Lacus Lariusy but
had its modern name from the city near which it lies,
extends itfelf about 30 miles northward from Como,
but its greattft breadth is not above five miles. From
the Lago Maggiore iffues the Teftino *, and from that
of Como the Adda. Of the other lakes, that of Lu¬
gano and Guarda are the chief: that of Guarda was
anciently called Benacus.
The trade and manufa&ures of this duchy confift prin¬
cipally in filk fluffs, dockings, gloves, and handkerchiefs,
linen and woollen cloth, hardware, curious works of cry-
ftal, agate, hyacinths, and other gems; but their exports
are uiually far ihovt of their imports.
As to the revenue of the duchy, it muft without
doubt be very confiderable. It is laid to have amount¬
ed to 2,000,000 of dollars while the duchy was in the
hands of the Spaniards.
In the year 1767, the Auftrian government of Milan-
publilhed a law, by which all the rights which the pope
or the bilhops had till then exercifed over ecclefialtics,
either with regard to their effeffs or perfons, was tranf-
ferred to a council eftablifhed for that purpofe at Mi¬
lan. By the fame edidf, all eccitnaftics were obliged
to fell the eftates which they had become poffeffed of
fince the year 1722 ; and no lubjeft, whether ecclefi-
aftic or fecular, was to go to Rome to folicit any fa¬
vour, except letters of indulgence, w ithout the confent
of the laid council.
This duchy was fubdued by the French in the year
1796, when it wTas regarded as a conftituent part of
the Cifalpine republic. When hoftiliues recommenced
in 1799, it was again taken by the allies, but after¬
wards reconquered by the army of Dijon under Bona¬
parte, who entered the metropolis on the 2d of
June 1800. It now forms part of the kingdom of
Italy.
Milan, the capital of the duchy of that name, in
Latin Mediolanum, is a very large city, and has a wall
and rampart round it, with a citadel ; yet is thought
to be incapable of making any great refiftance.
The gardens within the city take up a great deal of
ground. In the citadel is a foundery for cannon, and
an arfenal furnilhed with arms for 1 2,000 men. The
governor of it is quite independent of the governor
general of the Milanefe, who refides in the city, in a
large but old and ill contrived palace. The yearly
income of the governor of Milan is faid to be 200,000
guilders. The council belonging to the city is com- _
pofed of a prefident and 6o doctors of lawq who are
all nobles, and independent of the governor general.
Milan hath experienced a great variety of fortune,
having been fubjeft fometimes to the French, fome-
tiraes to the Spaniards, and fometimes to the Germans..
A
1
M I L
Milan. A great number of perfons of rank and fortune live
in it, efpecially during the winter. The ladies in
France are not allowed more liberty than thofe of this
city ; even the aufterities of the monaftic life are fo
far mitigated here, that gentlemen have not only the
liberty of talking with tire nuns, and of rallying and
laughing at the grate, but alfo of joining with them
in concerts of mufic, and of fpending whole afternoons
in their company. The place where the beau monde
take the air, either in their coaches or on foot, is the
rampart betwixt the Porta Orientale and the Porta
Tofa, where it is ftraight and broad, and extremely
pleafant, being planted with white mulberry trees, and
commanding a profpedt on one fide of the open country,
and on the other of the gardens and vineyards between
the ramparts and the city. Milan, which is faid to
have been built by the Gauls about 200 years after
the foundation of Rome, contains a great number of
ftately edifices, as churches, convents, palaces, and
hofpitals. The cathedral is a vaft pile, all of marble;
and though fomething has been doing for near 400
years towards the outward or inward ornament thereof,
it is not yet finifhed. Of the great number of ftatues
about it, that of St Bartholomew, juft flead alive,
with his (kin hanging over his {boulders ; and of Adam
and Eve, over the main portal, are the fineft. The
pillars fupporting the roof of the church are all of
marble, and the windows finely painted. This church
contains a treafiire of great value, particularly a ftirine
of rock cryftal, in which the body of St Charles Bo-
romaeo is depofited. The other churches moft worthy
a ftranger’s notice are thofe of St Alexander, St Je¬
rome, St Giovanni di Cafarotti della Paftione, that of
the Jefuits, and of St Ambrofe, in which lie the bo¬
dies of the faint and of the kings Pepin and Bernard.
In the Ambrofian college, founded by Frederic Bo-
lomeeo, 16 profeflbrs teach gratis. In the fame col¬
lege is alfo an academy of painting, with a mufeum,
and a library containing about 45,000 printed
books and manufcripts ; among the laft of which is a
tranflation of Jofephus’s Hiftory of the Jews, done by
Rufinus about 1200 years ago, and written on the
bark of a tree ; St Ambrofe’s works on vellum, finely
illuminated ; the oration's of Gregory Nazianzen, and
the works of Virgil, in folio, with Petrarch’s notes.
In the mufeum are Leonard! da Vinci’s mathematical
and mechanical drawings, in 12 large volumes. The
feminary for fciences, the college of the nobles, the
Helvetian college, and the mathematical academy, are
noble foundations, and {lately buildings. Of the hof¬
pitals, the moft remarkable are the Lazaretto, and
that called the great hofpital; the latter of which re¬
ceives fick perfons, foundlings, and lunatics, and has
fix j mailer hofpitals depending on it, with a revenue
of 100,000 rix dollars.
The number of the inhabitants of this city is faid
to be about 250,000. It has been 40 times bef.eged,
taken 20 times, and four times almotl entirely deino-
liftied ; yet it hath always recovered itfelf. It is faid
that gunpowder is fold here only by one perfon, and
in one place. The court of inquifition is held in the
Dominican convent, near the church of Madonna
della Gratia. I he houfes of entertainment, and the
ordinaries here, are reprefented as very indifferent.—
Mi Key Her fays, it is not unufual for youn^ travellers,
M I L
when they go to any of the taverns in Milan, to be Milan,
aflced, *“ whether they choofe a letto fornito, or female v—*
bedfellow,” who continues malked till Ihe enters the
bedchamber. Milan is defcnbed as inferior to Turin
both in beauty and conveniency, many of the ftreets
being crooked and narrow, and paper windows much
more frequent than in that city ; even in grand pa¬
laces, the windows are often compofed promifcuoufly
of glafs and paper. Two large canals extend from
hence, the one to the Teflino, and the other to the
Adda ; the Teffino having a communication with the
Lago Maggiore, and, by a canal, with the Sefia ;
and the Adda iffuing from the Lago di Como, and
having a communication by canals with the Lombro
and Serio. In a void {pace in one of the ftreets of
Milan, where flood the houfe of a barber who had
confpired with the commiffary of health to poifon his
fellow citizens, is ere&ed a pillar called Colonna In¬
fame, with an infeription to perpetuate the memory
of the execrable defign. The environs of this city
are very pleafant, being adorned with beautiful feats,
gardens, orchards, &c. About two Italian miles
from it, at the feat of the Simonetti family, is a build¬
ing, that would have been a malterpiece of its kind
had the architect defigned it for an artificial echo. It
will return or repeat the report of a piftol above 6a
times; and any fingle mufical inftrument well touched
will have the fame effetl as a great number of inftru-
ments, and produce a moft; furprifing and delightful
concert.
According to Dr Moore, “ there is no place in Italy,
perhaps in Europe, where ftrangers are received in
fiich an eafy hofpitable manner as at Milan. For¬
merly the Milancle nobility difplayed a degree of
fplendour and magnificence, not only in their enter¬
tainments, but in their ufual ftyle of living, unknown
in any other country of Europe. They are under a
neceflity at prefent of living at lefs expence, but they
ftill fhow the fame obliging and hofpitable difpofition.
This country having, not very long fince, been pof-
feffed by the French, from whom it devolved to the
Spaniards, and from them to the Germans, the
troops of thofe nations have, at different periods, had
their refidence here, and in the courfe of thefe vi-
cifiitudes, produced a ftyle of manners, and {tamped a
charadler on the inhabitants of this duchy, different
from what prevails in any other part of Italy ; and
nice obfervers imagine they perceive in Milanefe man¬
ners the politenefs, formality, and honefty imputed to
thofe three nations, blended with the ingenuity na¬
tural to Italians. The great theatre having been
burnt to the ground laft year, there are no dramatic
entertainments, except at a fmall temporary play-houfe,
which is little frequented ; but the company affemble
every evening in their carriages on the ramparts, and
drive about, in the fame manner as at Naples, till it is
pretty late. In Italy, the ladies have no notion of
quitting their carriages at the public walks, and ufing
their own legs, as in England and France. On fee¬
ing the number of fervants, and the fplendour of the
equipages which appear every evening at the Corfo on
the ram parts, one would not fufpe£t that degree of
depopulation, and diminution of wealth, which we
are affured has taken place within thefe few years all
over the Milanefe; and which proceeds from the bur-
M 2 denfome
[ 91 1
M I L
Milborn-
port
. !l
Miidew.
[ 92 3
M I L
denfome nature of fome late taxes, and tlie infolent
and oppreffive manner in which they are gathered.”—
E. Long. 9. 61. N. Lat. 45. 28.
MILBORN-fort, a town of Somerfetihire in
England, feated on a branch of the river Parret, 115
miles from London. Though reprefented in parlia¬
ment, it is no market town nor corporation ; but it
appears in Domefday-book to have had a market once,
and 56 burgefles. It is in a manner furrounded by
Dorfetihire. Here are nine capital burgelfes, who
yearly choofe two bailiffs, that have the government
of the borough under them, and jointly return the
members to parliament with the two flewards, who
are chofen yearly out of nine commonalty ftew'ards,
and have the cuftody of the corporation-feal. Thefe
two ftewards alfo diftributc the profits of the lands
given to the poor here, of which the faid coramonalty
Rewards are truftees. The inhabitants are about 1100,
the houfes not much above 200. There are two fairs,
June 6. and Oftober 28.
MILBROOK, a town of Cornwall, on the weft
fide of Plymouth haven. It has a good fifhing trade,
and has formerly furnifhed our fleet with many able
hands.
MILDENHALL, a town of Suffolk, feven miles
from Newmarket, 12 from Bury, and 70 from Lon¬
don. It it a large populous town on the river Lark,
a branch of the Oufe, with a harbour for boats. It
has a wrell frequented market on Fridays, efpecially
for fifh and wild-fowl. Its church has a towrer or
iteeple 1 20 feet high. E. Long. o. 26. N. Lat. 5 2. 29.
MILDEW, is faid to be a kind of thick, clammy,
fweet juice, exhaled from, or falling down upon, the
leaves and bloffoms of plants. By its thicknefs and
clamminefs it prevents perfpiration, and hinders the
growth of the plant. It fometimes refis on the leaves
of trees in form of a fatty juice, and fometimes on the
ears of corn. It is naturally very tough and vifcous,
and becomes ftill more fo by the fun’s heat exhaling
its more fluid parts ; by which means the young ears
of corn are fo daubed over, that they can never arrive
at their full growth. Bearded wheat is lefs fubjedf to
the mildew than the common fjrt 5 and it is obferved
that newly dunged lands are more liable to mildew
than others. The beft remedy is a fmart fhowTer of
rain, and immediately afterwards a brilk wind. If
the mildew is feen before the fun has much powrer,
it has been recommended to fend two men into the
field with a long cord, each holding one end ; and
drawing this along the field through the ears, the
dew will be diflodged from them, before the heat of
the fun is able to dry it to that vifcous ftate in which
it does the mifchief. Some alfo fay, that lands wfinch
have for many years been fubjeft to mildews, have
been cured of it by fowing foot along with the corn,
or immediately after it,
Mr J. S. Segar, the author of a treatife upon this
fubjedl, obferves, that the mildew is of fuch a fharp
corrofive nature, that it raifes blifiers on the feet of
the (hepherds who go barefoot, and even confumes the
hoofs of the cattle. He fufpedls that it poffelTes fome
arfenical qualities, though he does not pretend to
affirm this pofitively. Its pernicious influence, ac¬
cording to him, is rendered ftill more powerful by a
variety of circumftances j fuch as fending the cattle into
the fields too early in the fpriug •, their drinking water
mixed, with ice, or but lately thaw-ed ; their being
kept in ftables that are too dole and filthy, and which
are not fufficiently aired. The fame author confiders
the mildew as a principal caufe of epidemical diftem-
pers among the cattle. The mildew producing thefe
dileafes, he fays, is that which dries and burns the
grafs and leaves. It falls dually in the morning,
particularly after a thunder ftorm. Its poilonous
quality (which does not continue above 24 hours)
never operates but when it has been fwallowed imme¬
diately after its falling. The diforder attacks the
ftomach, is accompanied with pimples on the tongue,
lofs of appetite, a deficcation of the aliments in°the
ftomach, a cough, and difficulty of refpiration. As a
prefervative, the author preferibes purging in fpring
and in winter. The medicine he advifes is compofed
of 30 grains of fulphur of antimony, and 60 grains of
refin of jalap. He is againft vomiting, and every thing
that is of a heating nature.
MILE, a meafure of length or diftance, containing
eight furlongs. The. Englifh ftatute mile is 80 chains,
or 1760 yards ; that is, 5280 feet.
We ftiall here give a table of the miles in ufe among
the principal nations of Europe, in geometrical paces,
60,000 of whijeh make a degree of the equator.
Mile,
Miletus.
Mile of Ruffia
of Italy
of England
of Scotland and Ireland
Old league of France
The finall league,
The mean league,
The great league, ifoW.
Mile of Poland
of Spain
of Germany
of Sweden
of Denmark
of Hungary
Geometrical paces.
750
IOOO
I 200
1500
1500
2000
25OO
3000
3000
3428
4000
yOOO
5000
6000
MILETUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Crete
mentioned by Homer ; but where fituated does not ap¬
pear. It is faid to be the mother town of Miletus in
Caria, whither a colony was led by Sarpedon, Minos’s
brother, (Ephorus, quoted by Strabo). Mi/ejii, the
people, (Ovid).
Miletus, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated town
of Afia Minor, on the confines of Ionia and Caria. It
was the capital city of all Ionia, and famous both for
the . arts of war and peace. It was fituated about 10
ftadia fouth of the mouth of the river Mteander, near
the fea coaft. It was founded by a Cretan colony under
Miletus, the companion of Bacchus j or (according to
others) by Neleus the fon of Codrus; or by Sarpedon
a fon of Jupiter. It has fucceflively been called
Lelegeis, Pithyufa, and AnaBoria. The inhabitants,
called Mi leftwere very powerful, and long maintain¬
ed an obftinate war againft the kings of Lydia.
They early applied themfelves to navigation ; and
planted no lefs than 80 colonies, or (according t-o
Seneca) 380, in different parts of the world, ft was
the only town that made head againft Alexander, and
was with much difficulty taken. It gave birth to
Thales,.
MIL [ 93 ] MIL
Milfoil, Thales, one of the feven wife men, and the firft who
Milford, applied himfelf to the' ftudy of nature. It was alfo
the country of Anaximander, the fcholar and fuccef-
for of Thales, the inventor of fun dials and the gno¬
mon, and the hrft that publifhed a geographical map j
of Anaximenes, fcholar and fucceifor to the forego¬
ing; and of other great men. It was noted for its
excellent wool, according to Virgil ; and was alfo ce¬
lebrated for a temple and oracle of Apollo Didy-
maeus. This famous people, from being powerful,
becoming afterwards opulent and abandoned to plea-
fures, loft both their riches and their power.—At
prefent it is called by the Turks Melas, and not far
diftant from it runs the river Maeander. St Paul go¬
ing from Corinth to Jerufalem palled by Miletus, and
as he went by fea, and could not take Ephefus in his
way, he caufed the bilhops and priefts of the church
of Ephefus to come to Miletus (A£ls xx. 15. &c.),
which was about 1 2 leagues from them.
MILFOIL, or Yarrow. See Achillea, Botany
Index.
MILFORD, a town of Suffex county, in the De¬
laware ftate, is fituated at the fource of a fmall river,
15 miles from Delaware bay, and 150 fouthward of
Philadelphia. This town, which contains about 80
houfes, has been built, except one houfe, fince the re¬
volution. It is laid out with much tafte, and is by no
means difagreeable. The inhabitants are Epifcopalians,
Quakers, and Methodifts.
Miltord Haven, one of the fineft harbours in
Europe, and indifputably the belt in Britain, is fitu¬
ated in Pembrokelhire in South Wales, and lies on
the north fide of the Briftol channel. It is very large,
fafe, and deep ; there is no danger of going in or out
with the tide, or almoft with any wind. If a ftiip
comes in without a cable or anchor fhe may run
aihore on the ooze, and there lie fafe till Ihe is refitted ;
and in an hour’s time Ihe may get out of the harbour
into the open fea. It lies extremely convenient for
ftiips bound from the Englifti or Briftol channels
to Ireland, or farther weft, and from thence to the
channels. It is faid, that 1000 fail of any flze may
ride fecure in this haven. It has 16 deep and fafe
creeks, five bays, and 13 roads, all diftinguilhed by
their feveral names. The fpring tide rifes 36 feet,
fo that fhips may at any time be laid aihore. Dale
harbour is a ready outlet for fmall veflels, where they
may ride in two or three fathoms at low water.—In
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, before the Spanilh inva-
fion, two forts were begun at the entrance of Mil¬
ford Haven, one on each fide, called Nang/e and
Da/e blockhoufes ; but they were not then finilhed.—
The Stack-rock rifes here above water, lying near the
middle of the entrance between Nangle and Dale.
Penermouth is the opening of that branch of the ha¬
ven on which the town of Pembroke is feated, and
where the cuftomhoufe of Milford is kept. The
breadth of the entrance between rock and rock is
but 200 yards at high water, and 112 at low water.
There is a ridge of rocky ground that has the name
of Carrs, which runs almoft acrofs Milford Haven,
from Peter church towards Llandftadwrell, where it
renders the landing place difficult to ftrangers, from
its not appearing at low water. The great conveni¬
ence of this harbour isr that in a hour’s time a fbip
may be in or 'out of it, -and in the way between the Miliary-
Land’s End and Ireland. As it lies near the mouth H
of the Severn, a ftiip in eight or ten hours may be 1 1 lt'ar^‘
over on the coaft of Ireland, or off the Land’s End
in the Englifti Channel ; and a veffel may get out
hence to the weft much fooner than from either Ply¬
mouth or Falmouth. This harbour has been greatly
improved by new wrorks, at the expence of the go¬
vernment. The parliament on April 14. 1759 granted
io,oooL for fortifying the harbour of Milford, all of
which was expended on the fort at Neyland, which,
however, ftill remains unfinhhed.
MILIARY, in general, fomething refembling mil¬
let feed.
Miliary Fever. See Medicine Index.
MILITANT, or Church-militant, denotes the
body of Chriftians while here on earth.
MILITARY, fomething belonging to the foldiery
or militia.
Military Difcipline, the training of foldiers, and the
due enforcement of the laws and regulations inftituted
by authority for their conduff.
Next to the forming of troops, military dilcipline is
the firft objeff that prefents itfelf to our notice ; it is
the foul of all armies; and unlefs it be eftabliffied
amongft them with great prudence, and fupported with
unftiaken refolution, they are no better than fo many
contemptible heaps of rabble, which are more danger¬
ous to the very ftate that maintains them than even its
declared enemies.
Military Execution, the ravaging or deftroying of
a country, or town, that refufes to pay the contribution
inftifled upon them.
Military Exercife. See Exercise and WORDS of
Command.
Military State, in Britifti polity, one of the three
divilions of the laity- See Laity.
This ftate includes the whole of the foldiery, or
fuch perfons as are peculiarly appointed among the
reft of the people for the fafeguard and defence of the
realm.
In a land of liberty, it is extremely dangerous to
make a diftinft order of the profeffion of arms. In ab-
folute monarchies, this is neceffary for the fafety of the
prince ; and arifes from the main principle of their
conftitution, which is that of governing by fear ; but,
in free ftates, the profeffion of a foldier, taken fingly
and merely as a profeffion, is juftly an objeff of jea-
loufy. In thefe no man ffiould take up arms but with
a view to defend his country and its laws : he puts not
off the citizen when he enters the camp; but it is be-
caufe he is a citizen, and would wilh to continue fo,
that he makes himfelf for a while a foldier. The laws
therefore, and conftitution of thefe kingdoms, know no
fuch ftate as that of a perpetual Handing foldier, bred
up to no other profeffion than that of war ; and it
wTas not till the reign of Henry VII. that the kings
of England had fo much as a guard about their per¬
fons.
In the time of the Anglo-Saxons, as appears from
EdwTard the Confeffor’s laws, the military force of
England w7as in the hands of the dukes or heretochs,.
who were conftituted through every province and
county in the kingdom ; being taken out of the princi¬
pal nobility, and fuch as were moft remarkable for be¬
ing:
MIL/ [ 94 ] MIL
Military, ing fopienles, fidclex, et animoji. Their duty was to lead
and regulate the Englifh armies with a very unlimited
power ; prout eis vifum fuerit, ad iionorem coro/ix et uh-
litatem regni. And becaufe of this great power they
were ele6ted by the people in their lull affembly, or
folkmote, in the fame manner as fheriffs were elected :
following ftill that old fundamental maxim of the Saxon
conftitution, that where any officer was intruded with
fuch power, as, if abufed, might tend to the oppreflion
of the people, that power was delegated to him by the
Vote of the people themfelves. So too, among the an¬
cient Germans, the ancedors of our Saxon forefathers,
they had their dukes, as well as kings, with an inde¬
pendent power over the military, as the kings had over
the civil date. The dukes were elective, the kings he¬
reditary : for fo only can be confidently underdood that
pafiage of Tacitus, Reges ex Habilitate, duces ex virtute
fumunt. In condituting their kings, the family or blood
royal was regarded 5 in choofing their dukes or leaders,
warlike merit : jud as Caefar relates of their ancedors
in his time, that whenever they went to war, by way
either of attack or defence, they eledted leaders to com¬
mand them. This large diare of power, thus conferred
by the people, though intended to preferve the liberty
of the fubjedf, was perhaps unreafonably detrimental to
the prerogative of the crown : and accordingly we find
1 a very ill ufe made of it by Edric duke of Mercia, in
the reign of King Edmund Ironfide \ who, by his of¬
fice of duke or heretoch, was entitled to a large com¬
mand in the king’s army, and by his repeated trea¬
cheries at lad transferred the crown to Canute the
Dane.
It feems univerfally agreed by all hidorians, that
King Alfred fird fettled a national militia in this king¬
dom, and by his prudent difeipline made all the fub-
jefts of his dominions foldiers : but we are unfortu¬
nately left in the dark as to the particulars of this his
fo celebrated regulation 5 though, from what w7as lad
oblerved, the dukes feem to have been left in pofieflion
of too large and independent a power : which enabled
Duke Harold, on the death of Edward the Confeffor,
though a dranger to the royal blood, to mount for a
fhort fpace the throne of this kingdom, in prejudice of
Edgar Etheling the rightful heir.
Upon the Norman conqued, the feodal law was in¬
troduced here in ail its rigour, the whole of which is
built on a military plan. In confequence thereof, all
the lands in the kingdom were divided into what were
call knight's fees, in number above 60,000 j and for
every knight’s fee, a knight or foldier, miles, was
bound to attend the king in his wars, for 40 days in a
year j in which fpace of time, before war was reduced
to a Icience, the campaign was generally finiflied. and
a kingdom either conquered or vitlorious. By this
means the king had, without any expence, an army of
60,000 men always ready at his command. And ac¬
cordingly we find one, among the laws of William the
Conqueror, which in the king’s name commands and
firmly enjoins the peiional tttendance of all knights and
others ; quod haleant et tern ant fe femper in armis et
equis, ut decet et oportet: et quod femper Jint prornpti et
parati adfermtium fuum integrum nobis explendum et per-
agendum, cum opus adfuerit, fecundum quod debent de
feodis et tenementis fuis de jure nobis facere. This
perfonal fervicc in procefs of time degenerated into
2
pecuniary commutations or aids; and at iaft thev mi- Military.
litary part of the feodal fyftem was aboliihed at the  v’-—
Reiteration, by ftat. 12 Car. II. c. 24. See Feodal
System.
In the mean time, w7e are not to imagine that the
kingdom was left wholly without defence in cafe of
domeftic infurredions, or the profped of foreign in-
vafions. Befides thofe who by their military tenures
were bound to perform 40 days fervice in the field, firit
the affize of arms, enaded 27 Hen. II. and afterwards
the ftatute of Winchefter, under Edw’ard I. obliged
every man, according to his eftate and degree, to pro¬
vide a determinate quantity of fuch arms as were then
in ufe, in order to keep the peace ; and condables were
appointed in all hundreds by the latter ilatute, to fee
that fuch arms were provided. Thefe weapons were
changed, by the ftatute 4 and 5 Ph. and M. c. 2. into
others of more modem fervice •, but both this and the
former provifions were repealed in the reign of James I.
While thefe continued in force, it was ufual from time
to time for our princes to iffue commiliions of array,
and fend into every county officers in whom they could
confide, to mufter and array (or fet in military order)
the inhabitants of every diftrift *, and the form of the
commiffion of array was fettled in parliament in the
5 Hen. IV. But at the fame time it was provided, that
no man fhould be compelled to go out of the kingdom
at any rate, nor out of his (hire, but in cafes of urgent
neceffity 5 nor ftiould provide foldiers unlefs by confent
of parliament. About the reign of King Henry VIII.
and his children, lord-lieutenants began to be introdu¬
ced, as Handing reprefentatives of the crown, to keep
the counties in military order j for we find them men¬
tioned as known officers in the ftatute 4 and 5 Ph. and
M. c. 3. though they had not been then long in ufe ;
for Camden fpeaks of them in the time of Queen Eliza¬
beth as extraordinary magiftrates, conftituted only in
times of difficulty and danger.
In this ftate things continued till the repeal of the fta-
tutes of armour in the reign of King James 1.5 after
which, when King Charles I. had, during his northern
expeditions, iffued commiflions of lieutenancy, and ex¬
erted fome military powers which, having been long ex-
ercifed, were thought to belong to the crown, it be¬
came a queftion in the long parliament, how far the
power of the militia did inherently refide in the king $
being now unfupported by any ftatute, and founded
only upon immemorial ufage. This queftion, long agi¬
tated with great heat and refentment on both fides, be¬
came at length the immediate caufe of the fatal rupture
between the king and his parliament : the two houfes
not only denying this prerogative of the crown, the le¬
gality of which claim perhaps might be fomewhat doubt¬
ful •, but alfo feizing into their hands the entire power
of the militia, the illegality of which ftep could never
be any doubt at all.
Soon after the reftoration of King Charles II. when
the military tenures were aboliffied, it was thought pro¬
per to afeertain the power of the militia, to recognize
the foie right of the crown to govern and command
them, and to put the whole into a more regular method
of military fubordination : and the order in which the
militia now ftands by law, is principally built upon Tie
ftatutes which were then enafted. It is true, the two
laft of them are apparently repealed j but many of their
provilions
MIL [ (
Militarv. provifions are re-ena&ed, with the addition of fome new
regulations, by the prefent militia laws j the general
fcheme ot which is to difcipline a certain number of the
inhabitants of every county, chofen by let for three
years, and officered by the lord lieutenant, the deputy
lieutenants, and other principal landholders, under a
commiffion from the crown. They are not compellable
to march out of their counties, unlefs in cafe of invafion
or aflual rebellion, nor in any cafe compellable to
inarch out of the kingdom. They are to be exercifed
at dated times: and their difcipline in general is libe¬
ral and eafy ■, but, when drawn cut into actual fervice,
they are fubjeft to the rigours of martial law, as necef-
fary to keep them in order. This is the conftitutional
fecurity which our laws have provided for the public
peace, and for protefting the realm againft foreign or
domeftic violence 5 and which the ftatutes declare as ef-
fentially neceffary to the fafety and profperity of the
kingdom.
When the nation was engaged in wrar, more veteran
troops and more regular difcipline were efteemed to be
neceflary, than could be expeded from a mere militia j
and therefore at fuch times more rigorous methods were
put in ufe for the railing of armies and the due regula¬
tion and difcipline of the foldiery, which are to be
looked upon only as temporary excrelcences bred out of
the dillemper ot the ftate, and not as any part of the
permanent and perpetual laws of the kingdom. For
martial law, which is built upon no fettled principles,
but is entirely arbitrary in its decifions, is, as Sir Mat¬
thew Hale obferves, in truth and reality no law, but
fomething indulged rather than allowed as a law. The
neceffity of order and difcipline in an army is the only
thing whieh can give it countenance ; and therefore it
ought not to be permitted in time of peace, when the
king’s courts are open for all perfons to receive juftice
according to the laws of the land. Wherefore, Thomas
earl of Lancafter being convicted at Pontefraff, 15 Ed¬
ward II. by martial law, his attainder was reverfed
1 Edward III. becaufe it was done in time of peace.
And it is laid down, that if a lieutenant, or other, that
hath commiflion of martial authority, doth in time of
peace hang or otherwife execute any man by colour of
martial law, this is murder j for it is againft magna
charta. And the petition of right enafts, that no fol-
dier (hall be quartered on the fubjeft without his own
ponfent ; and that no commiflion (hall ifliie to proceed
within this land according to martial law. And where¬
as, after the Reftoration, King Charles II. kept up
about 5000 regular troops, by his own authority, for
guards and garrifons, which King James II. by degrees
increafed to no lefs than 30,000, all paid from his own
civil lift; it was made one of the articles of the bill of
rights, that the railing or keeping a Handing army with¬
in the kingdom in time of peace, unlefs it be with con-
fent of parliament, is againft law.
But as the fafhion of keeping (landing armies (which
was firft introduced by Charles VII. in France >445)
has of late years univerfally prevailed over Europe
(though fome of its potentates, being unable themfelves
to maintain them, are obliged to have recourfe to richer
powers, and receive fubftdiary penfions for that pur-
pofe), it has alfo for many years pad been annually
judged neceflary by our legiflature for the fafety of the
kingdom, the defence of the pofTeflions of the crown of
'5 1 MIL
Great Britain, and the prefervation of the balance of Mi'itarv.
power in Europe, to maintain even in time of peace a y
Handing body of troops, under the command of the
crown } who are however igfo faElo < ifbanded at the ex¬
piration of every year, unlefs continued by parliament.
And it was enabled by ftatute 10 William III. c. 1.
that not more than 1 2,000 regular forces ftiould be kept
on foot in Ireland, though paid at the charge of that
kingdom : which permiflion is extended by ftatute
3 Geo. III. c. 13. to 16,235 men ,n t’™6 °f peace.
To prevent the executive power from being able to
opprefs, (ays Baron Montefquieu, it is requifite that
the armies with which it is intruded fhould conlill of
the people, and have the fame fpirit with the people :
as was the cafe at Rome, till Marius new-modelled the
legions by enlifting the rabble of Italy, and laid the
foundation of all the military tyranny that enfued.-
Nothing then, according to thefe principles, ought to
be more guarded r^ainft in a free ftate, than making
the military power, when fuch a one is neceflary to be
kept on foot, a body too diftinbl from the people.
Like ours, therefore, it fttould wholly be compofed of
natural fubjebls ; it ought only to be enlifted for a (hurt
and limited time ; the foldiers alfo (hould live inter¬
mixed with the people ; no feparate camp, no barracks,
no inland fortrefles (hould be allowed. And perhaps it
might be (till better, if, by difmiffing a ftated number, ’
and enlifting others at every renewal of their term, a
circulation could be kept up between the army and the
people, and the citizen and the foldier be more inti¬
mately connefted together.
To keep this body of troops in order, an annual abl
of parliament likewife paflfes, “ to punifti munny and
defertion, and for the better payment of the army and
their quarters.” This regulates the manner in which
they are to be difperfed among the feveral inn-keepers
and vibfuallers throughout the kingdom *, and ellablilhes
a law-martial for their government. By this, among
other things, it is enabled, that if any officer or foldier
(hall excite, or join any mutiny, or, knowing of k,
(hall not give notice to the commanding otiicer, or (hall
defert, or lift in any other regiment, or deep upon his
poft, or leave it before he is relieved, or hold corre-
fpondence with a rebel or enemy, or ftrike or ufe vio¬
lence to his fuperior officer, or (hall difobey his lawful
commands j luch offender (hall (uffer fuch punilhment
as a court martial (hall inflibl, though it extend to death
itfelf.
However expedient the moft ftribl regulations may
be in time of abfual war, yet in times of profound
peace, a little relaxation of military rigour would not,
one (hould hope, be produblive of much inconvenience.
And, upon this principle, though by our Handing laws
(dill remaining in force, though not attended to) de¬
fertion in time of war is made felony without benefit
of clergy, and the offence is triable by a jury, and be¬
fore the judges of the common law ; yet, by our mi¬
litia laws before mentioned, a much lighter puniftunent
is inflicted for defertion in time of peace. So, bv the
Roman law' alfo, defertion in time of war w’as punifh-
ed with death, but more mildly in time of tranquil¬
lity. But our mutiny abt makes no fuch diftinbtion :
for any of the faults above mentioned are, equally at-
all all times, puniftiable with death itfelf, if a court mar-
lial (hall think proper. This diferetionary power of
MIL [ 96 T M I L
Military, tine court inartial is indeed to be guided by the direc-
l| v tions of the crown : which, with regard to military
offences, has almolt an abfolute legiflative power, “ His
Majefty (fays the a£t) may form articles of wTar, and
conftitute courts martial, wdth power to try any crime
by fuch articles, and inflift fuch penalties as the articles
direft.” A vaft and molt important truft ! an unlimit¬
ed power to create crimes, and annex to them any pu-
nifliments not extending to life or limb ! Thefe are in¬
deed forbidden to be inflidted, except for crimes decla¬
red to be fo punifhable by this adt j which crimes we
have juft enumerated, and among which, wTe may ob-
ferve, that any difobedience to lawful commands is one.
Perhaps in fome future revifion of this adt, which is
in many refpedts haftily penned, it may be thought
worthy the wifdom of parliament to afcertain the li¬
mits of military fubjedlion, and to enadt exprefs ar¬
ticles of war for the government of the army, as is
done for the government of the navy j efpecially as,
by our prefent conftitution, the nobility and gentry of
the kingdom, who ferve their country as militia officers,
are annually fubjedted to the fame arbitrary rule during
their time of exercife.
One of the greatefl advantages of our law is, that
not only the crimes themfelves which it punifhes, but
alfo the penalties which it inflidls, are afcertained and
notorious : nothing is left to arbitrary difcretion : the
king by his judges difpenfes what the law has previ-
oufly ordained, but is not himfelf the legiflator. How
much, therefore, is it to be regretted, that a fet of
men, whofe bravery has fo often preferved the liberties
of their country, fhould be reduced to a flate of fervi-
tude in the midft of a nation of freemen ; for Sir Ed¬
ward Coke will inform us, that it is one of the ge-
filackjl. nuine marks of fervitude, to have the lawr, which is
Comment, our rule of adfion, either concealed or precarious;
Mifera ejl fervitus, ubi jus eji vagum aut incognilum.
Nor is this date of fervitude quite confident with the
maxims of found policy obferved by other free na¬
tions. For the greater the general liberty is which
any date enjoys, the more cautious has it ufually been
in introducing davery in any particular order or pro-
fedion. Thefe men, as Baron Montefquieu obferves,
feeing the liberty which others poffefs, and which they
themfelves are excluded from, are apt (like eunuchs
in the eadern feraglios) to live in a date of perpetual
envy and -hatred towards the red of the community,
and indulge a malignant pleafure in contributing to de-
droy thofe privileges to which they can never be ad¬
mitted. Hence have many free dates, by departing
from this rule, been endangered by the revolt of their
flaves ; while, in abfolute and defpotic governments,
where no real liberty exids, and conlequently no invi¬
dious comparifons can be formed, fuch incidents are
extremely rare. Two precautions are therefore ad-
vifed to be. obferved in all prudent and free govern¬
ments: 1. To prevent the introduflion of davery at
all : or, 2. If it be already introduced, not to intrud
thofe daves with arms, who will then find themfelves
fin overmatch for the freemen. Much lefs ought the
foldiery to be an exception to the people in general,
and the only date of fervitude in the nation.
But as foldiers, by this annual aft, are thus put in
a worfe condition than !any other fubjefts ; fo, by the
humanity of our danding laws, they are in fome cafes
4
put in a much better. By datute 43 Eliz. c. 3. a Military
weekly allowance is to be raifed in every county for IJ
the relief of foldiers that are fick, hurt, and maimed: , f
not forgetting the royal hofpital at Chelfea for fuch as
are worn out in their duty. Officers and foldiers,
that have been in the king’s fervice, are by feveral da-
tutes, enafted at the clofe of feveral wars, at liberty
to ufe any trade or occupation they are fit for, in any
town in the kingdom (except the two univerfities),
notwithdanding any datute, cudom, or charter to the
contrary. And ioidiers in aftual military fervice may
make nuncupative wills, and difpofe of their goods,
wages, and other perfonal chattels, without thefe
forms, folemnities, and expences, which the law re¬
quires in other cafes. Our law does not indeed ex¬
tend this privilege fo far as the civil law, which car¬
ried it to an extreme that borders upon the ridiculous:
for if a foldier, in the article of death, wrote any¬
thing in bloody letters on his fhield, or in the dud of
the field with his fword, it was a very good military
tedament.
Military Court. See Chivalry, Court of.
Military Tenures. See Tenure, Feodal Sys¬
tem, and Knight.
Military Ways, (vice militaresj, are the large Ro¬
man roads which Agrippa procured to be made
through the empire in the time of Augudus, for the
more convenient marching of troops and conveyance
of carriages. N. Bergier has written the hidory of
the origin, progrefs, and amazing extent, of thefe
military roads, which were paved from the gates of
Rome to the extreme parts of the empire. See Way.
MILITIA, in general, denotes the body of foldiers,
or thofe who make profeffion of arms.
In a more redrained fenfe, militia denotes the train¬
ed bands of a to\ 1 or country, who arm themfelves,
upon a drort warning, for their own defence. So that,
in this fenfe, militia is oppofed to regular or dated
troops. See Military State, and Feodal System.
MILIUM, millet, a genus of plants, belonging to
the triandria clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking
under the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany Index.
MILK, a well known fiuid, prepared by nature in
the breads of women, and the udders of other ani¬
mals, for the nouridrment of their young.—According
to Dr Cullen *, milk is a connefting and intermediate * jeri on
fubdance between animals and vegetables. It feems Mat. Med.
immediately to be fecreted from the chyle, both being
a white liquor of the fame confidence : it is mod co-
pioudy fecreted after meals, and of an acefcent nature.
In mod animals who live on vegetables, the milk is
acefcent; and it is uncertain, though at the fame time
no obfervation proves the contrary, whether it is not
fo likewife in carnivorous animals. But, whatever be
in this, it is certain, that the milk of all animals who
live on vegetables is acefcent. Milk being derived
from the chyle, we thence conclude its vegetable na¬
ture *, for in thofe who live on both promifcuoufly,
more milk is got, and more quickly, from the vege¬
table {ban the animal food. Milk, however, is not
purely vegetable j though v»e have a vegetable liquor
that refembles its tade, confidence, colour, acefcency,
and the feparability of the oily part, viz. an emulfion
of the nuces oleofte and farinaceous fubdances. But
thefe want the poagulable part of milk, which feems
to
mil [ 97 J MI L
XLlik. to be of animal nature, approaching to that of the
coagulable lymph of the blood. Milk, then, feems
to be of an intermediate nature, between chyle taken
up from the intellines and the fully elaborated animal
fluid.
Its contents are of three kinds : i ft, An oily part,
which, whatever may be faid concerning the origin of
other oils in the body, is certainly immediately derived
from the oil of the vegetables taken in j as with thefe
it agrees very exa&ly in its nature, and would entirely,
if we could feparate it fully from the coagulable part.
Another mark of their agreement is the feparability,
which proves that the mixture has been lately attempt¬
ed, but not fully performed. 2dly, Befides this oily,
there is a proper coagulable part : And, 3diy, Much
water accompanies both, in which there is diffolved
a faline faccharine fubftance. Thefe three can be got
feparate in cheefe, butter, and whey ; but never per-
fedtly fo, a part of each being always blended with
every other part.
Nothing is more common, from what has been faid
of its immediate nature, than to fuppofe that it re¬
quires no aflimilation; and hence has been deduced the
reafon of its exhibition in the moft weakly ftate of the
human body. But wherever we can examine milk,
we always find that it coagulates, fuffers a decompo-
fition, and becomes acefcent. Again, Infants, who
feed entirely on milk, are always troubled with eruc¬
tations, which every body obferves are not of the fame
quality with the food taken $ and therefore it appears,
that, like all other food, milk turns naturally acefcent
in the llomach, and only enters the chyle and blood in
confequence of a new recompofition. It approaches then
to the nature of vegetable aliment, but is not capable
of its noxious vinous fermentation, and therefore has
an advantage over it; neither from this quality, like
animal food, is it heating in the ftomach, and produc¬
tive of fever ; though at the fame time, from its quan¬
tity of coagulable matter, it is more nourilhing than
vegetables.
Milk is the food moft univerfally fuited to all ages
end ftates of the body ; but it feems chiefly defigned by
nature as the food of infants. When animals are in
the feetus ftate, their folids are a perfeft jelly, inca¬
pable of an aflimilatory pow'er. In fuch ftate nature
has perfe&ly aftimilated food, as the albumen ovi in
the oviparous, and in the viviparous animals certainly
fomewhat of the fame kind, as it was neceffary the
veffels Ihould be filled with fuch a fluid as would make
w’ay for an after aflimilation. When the infant has
attained a confiderable degree of firmnefs, as when it
is feparated from the mother, yet fuch a degree of
Weaknefs ftill remains as makes fomewhat of the fame
indication neceffary ; it behoves the infant to have an
alkalefcent food ready prepared, and at the fame time
its noxious tendency to be avoided. Milk then is
given, which is alkalefcent, and, at the fame time,
has a fufficient quantity of acidity to corredft that alka-
lefcency. As the body advances in growth, and the
alkalefcent tendency is greater, the animal, to obviate
that tendency, is led to take vegetable food, as more
fuited to its ftrength of aflimilation.
Dr Cullen obferves, that milk is fluted to almoft all
temperame’Us ; and it is even fo to ftomachs difnofed
Vol. XIV. Part I.
to acefcency, more than thofe fubilances which have Milk,
undergone the vinous fermentation ; nay, it even cures v
the. heartburn, checks vinous fermentation, and pre¬
cipitates the lees, when, by renewal of fermentation,
the wine happens to be fouled. It therefore very pro¬
perly accompanies a great deal of vegetable aliment :
although fometimes its acefcency is troublefome, ei¬
ther from a large proportion taken in, or from the de¬
gree of it; for, according to certain unaccountable cir-
cumftances, different acids are formed in the ftomach
in different ftates of the body ; in a healthy body, e. g.
a mild one j in the hypochondriac difeafe fometimes,
one of a very acrid quality. When the acidity of
milk is carried to a great degree, it may prove re¬
markably refrigerant, and occafion cold crudities, and
the recurrence of intermittent fevers. To take the
common notion of its paffing unchanged into the
blood, it can fuffer no folution. But if we admit its
coagulum in the ftomach, then it may be reckoned
among foluble or infoluble foods, according as that
coagulum is more or lefs tenacious. Formerly rennet,
which is employed to coagulate milk, was thought an
acid ; but, from late obfervations, it appears, that, if
it be an acid, it is very different from other acids, and
that its coagulum is ftronger than that produced by acids.
It has been imagined, that a rennet is to be found in the
ftomachs of all animals, which caufes coagulation of
milk ; but according to Dr Cullen the coagulation of
milk feems to be owing to a weak acid in the ftomach,
the relicks of our vegetable food, inducing, in healthy
perfons, a weak and foluble coagulum : but in different
ftomachs this may be very different, in thefe becoming
heavy and lefs loluble food, and fometimes even eva¬
cuated in a coagulated undiffolved ftate both by fto*
mach and ftool.
As milk is acefcent, it may be rendered fometimes
purgative by mixing with the bile ; and fome examples
of this have been remarked. More commonly, how¬
ever, it is reckoned among thofe foods which occalion
coftivenefs.
Hoffman, in his experiments on milk, found that
all kinds of it contained much water ; and when this
was diflipated, found the refiduums very different in
their folubility. But we muft not thence conclude,
that the fame infolubjlky takes place in the ftomach •
for extrafts made from vegetables with water are often
very infoluble fubftances, and hardly diftulible through
water itfelf: therefore, in Hoffman’s extra&s, if we
may fo call them, of milk, fomewhat of the fame kind
might have appeared ; and thefe fubilances, which in
their natural ftate were not fo, might appear very in-
foluble. .However, we may allow that milk is always ‘
fomehow infoluble in the inteftines, as it is of a drying
nature, and as cheefe, &c. is very coftive. And this
effea {hows that milk is always coagulated in the fto¬
mach ; for if it remained fluid, no faeces would be
produced,,whereas fometimes very hard ones are ob-
ferved. In the blood veffels, from its animal nature,
it may be confidered as nutritious; but when we con-
fider its vegetable contents, and acefcency in the prim*
viae, we find that, like animal food, it does not excite
that degree of fever in the time of digeftion, and that
from its acefcency it will .refill putrefadion. Hence
its ufe in beclic fevers, which, whatever be their caufe,
^ appear
M I L r 93 ] M I L
Milk. appear only to be exacerbations of natural feverUb pa-
roxyfms, which occur tvvice.every day, commonly af¬
ter meals, and at night. To obviate thefe, therefore,
we give fuch an aliment as produces the leaf! exacer¬
bation of thefe fevers : and of this nature is milk, on
account of its acefcent vegetable nature.
There appears alfo fomevvhat peculiar to milk, which
requires only a fmall exertion of the animal powers in
order to its aflimilation 5 and befides, in hedtic com¬
plaints there is wanted an oily, bland food, approach¬
ing to the animal nature ; fo that on ail thefe accounts
piilk is a diet peculiarly adapted to them, and, in ge¬
neral, to mod convtilefcents, and to thofe of inflam¬
matory temperaments. So far of milk in general. We
fhall now 1'peak of the particular kinds which are in
common ufe.
The milks of women, mares, and afles, agree very
much in their qualities, being very dilute, having little
folid contents, and, when evaporated to drynefs, having
thefe very foluble, containing much faccharine matter,
of a very ready acefcency, and, when coagulated, their
coagulum being tender and eafily broke down. From
this view they have lefs oil, and feem to have lefs coa-
gulable matter than the reft.
The milks of cows, Iheep, and goats, agree in op-
poflte qualities to the three juft mentioned j but here
there is fomevvhat more of gradation. Cows milk
comes neareft to the former milk : goats milk is lefs
fluid, lefs fweet, lefs flatulent, has the largeft propor¬
tion of infoluble part after coagulation, and indeed the
largeft proportion of coagulable part *, its oily and co-
agulable parts are not fpontaneoufly feparable, never
throwing out a cream, or allowing butter to be rea¬
dily extradled from it. Hence the virtues of thefe
milks are obvious, being more nouriftiing, though at the
fame time lefs eaiily foluble in weak ftomachs, than the
three firft, lefs acefcent than thefe, and fo more rarely
laxative, and peculiarly fitted for the diet of conva-
lefcents without fever. The three firft again are lefs
nourifhing, more foluble, more laxative, as more acef¬
cent, and adapted to the convalefcents with fever.
Thefe qualities, in particular milks, are confiderably
diverfified by diffeient circumftances.' Firft, Different
animals, living on the fame diet, give a confiderably
different milk 3 for there feems to be fomething in the
conftitution, abftrafting from the aliment, which con-
ftitutes a cenfiderable diverfity of milk, not only in the
fame fpecies of animals, but alfo in the fame animal,
at different ages, and at different diftances after deli¬
very : this applies to the choice of nurfes. Secondly,
Milk follows the nature of the aliment more than any
other juice in the human body, being more or lefs fluid
and dilute, more or Itfs folid and nourifiling, in pro¬
portion as thefe qualities are more or lefs in the ali¬
ment. The nature of the aliment differs according to
its time of growth, e. g. old grafs being always found
more nourifhing than young. Aliment, too, is always
varied according to the feafon, as that is warm or dry,
moift or cloudy.
1 he milk of each particular kind of animal is fitter
for particular purpofes, when fed on proper food.—
Thus the cow delights in the fucculent herbage of the
vale : if the fheep be fed there he certainly rots, but
on the higher and more dry fide of the mountain he
feeds pleafantly and healthy; while the goat never Milk,
flops near the bottom, but afeends to the craggy fum- w‘—v
mit: and certainly the milks of thefe animals are al¬
ways bell on their proper foil, and that of goats is bell
on a mountainous country. From a differtation of
Linnaeus, we have many obfervations concerning the
diverfity of plants on which each animal choofes to
feed. All the Swedifli plants which could be colleft-
ed together, were prefented alternately to domeftic
animals, and then it appeared that the goat lived on
the greateft variety, and even on many which were poi-
fonous to the reft; that the cow chofe the firft fuccu¬
lent fhoots of the plant, and neglefted the fruftifica-
tion 5 which laft was preferred by . the goat. Hence
may be deduced rules concerning the paiiurage of dif¬
ferent animals ; e. g. Farmers find, that, in a paflure
which was only fit to feed a certain number of fheep,
an equal number ,of goats may be introduced, while
the fheep are no Itfs nourifhed than before.
It is not eafy to aflign the difference between milk
frefh drawn and that detained in the open air for fome
time : but certainly there is fome material one, other-
wife nature univerfally would not have direfted infants
to fucking j and indeed it feems, better than the other,
fitted for digeflion and nourifhment. Pbyficians have
fuppofed that this depended on the evaporation of fome
fpt. reSior: but our author cannot conceive any fuch,
except common water here j and befides, thefe volatile
parts can hardly be nutritious. A more plaufible ac¬
count feems deducible from mixture : milk new drawn
has been but lately mixed, and is expofed to fponta-
neous feparation, a circumllance hurtful to digeflion j
none of the parts being, by themfelves, fo eafily afli-
milated as when they are all taken together. Hence,
then, milk new drawn is more intimately blended, and
therefore then is moft proper to the weakly and in¬
fants.
Another difference in the ufe of milk expofed for
fome time to the air, is taking it boiled or unboiled.
Phyficians have generally recommended the former ;
but the reafon is not eafily afligned. Perhaps it is
this: Milk kept for fome time expofed to the air has
gone fo far to a fpontaneous feparation j whereas the
heat thoroughly blends the whole, and hence its refo-
lution is not fo eafy in the flomach \ and thus boiled
milk is more coftive than raw, and gives more faeces.
Again, When milk is boiled, a confiderable quantity of
air is detached, as appears from the froth on the fur-
face ; and air is the chief intlrument of fermentation
in bodies; fo that after this procefs it is not liable to
acefcency : for thefe reafons it is proper for the robuft.
and vigorous.
Another difference of milk is, according as it is fluid
or coagulated. The coagulated is of two kinds, as
induced by rennet, or the natural acefcency of the
milk. The former preparation makes the firmer and
lefs eafily foluble coagulum j though, when taken with
the whey unfeparated, it is lefs difficult of folution,
though more fo than any other coagulum in the fame
cafe. Many ^nations ufe the latter form, which is eafier
foluble, but very much acefcent, and therefore, in point
of folution, fhould be confined to the vigorous, in point
of acefcency, to thofe who like on a alefeent fcod ;
and in the laft cafe, the Laplanders ufe it as their chief
acefcent
MIL
acefcent condiment. From the fame confiderations it
; is more cooling, and in its other effe£ts like all other
acefcent vegetables.
Milk by evaporation yields 'a fweet faline matter,
of which Dr Lewis gives the following proportion :
From which water extracted
r 99 i
M I L
Twelve
ounces of
Cows milk
Goats milk
Human milk
Afles milk
Left of dry
matter
13 drachms.
a fweet faline fubftance a-
mounting to
14- drachms.
The faline fubftance extracted from affes milk was
white, and fweet as fugar j thofe of the others brown
or yellow, and confiderably lefs fweet that from cows
milk had the leaft fweetnefs of any.
On diftilling 12 quarts of milk in balneo marine, at
leaft nine quarts of pure phlegm were obtained ; the
liquor which afterwards arofe was acidulous, and by
degrees grew fenfibly more and more acid as the di-
ftillation was continued. After this came over a little
fpirit, and at laft, an empyreumatic oil. The remain¬
ing folid matter adhered to the bottom of the retort,
in the form of elegant fhining black flowers, which
being calcined and elixated yielded a portion of fixed
alkaline fait.
Milk fet in a warm place, throws up to the furface
an undluous cream, from which, by agitation, the but¬
ter is eafily feparated. The addition of alkaline falts
prevents this (eparation, not (as fome have fuppofed) by
abforbing an acid from the milk, but by virtue of their
property of intimately uniting oily bodies with watery
liquors. Sugar, another grand intermedium betwixt
oils and water, has this effedt in a gre'ater degree,
though that concrete is by no means alkaline, or an ab-
forbent of acids.
The fweet faccharine part of the milk remains dif-
folved in the whey after the feparation of the curd or
cheefy matter, and may be collefted from it in a white
cryftalline form, by boiling the whey till all remains
of the curdled fubftance have fallen to the bottom j
then filtering, evaporating it to a due confiftence, fet-
ting it to ftioot, and purifying the cryftals by folution in
water and a fecond cryftallization. Much has been
faid of the medicinal virtues of this fugar of milk, but
it does not feem to have any confiderable ones : It is
from cows milk that it has been generally prepared }
and the cryftals obtained from this kind of milk have
but little fweetnefs.
When milk is fuffered to coagulate fpontaneoufly,
the whey proves acid, and on Handing grows more
and more fo till the putrefa&ive ftate commences.
Sour whey is ufed as an acid, preferably to the direftly
vegetable or the mineral acids, in fome of the che¬
mical arts; as for diffolving iron in order to the ftain-
ing of linen and leather. This acid was commonly
made ufe of in the bleaching of linen, for diffolving
and extrading the earthy particles left in the cloth by
the alkaline falts and lime employed for cleanfing and
whitening it. Butter milk is preferred to plain four
milk or four whey : This laft is fuppofed to give the
cloth a yellow7 colour. Dr Home, in his ingenious
treatife on this fubjed, recommends wrater acidulated
with fulphuric acid (in the proportion of about half an
ounce, or at moft three quarters of an ounce, to a gal¬
lon), as preferable in many refpeds to the acid of milk,
or of the more diredly vegetable fubftances.
He obferves, that the latter are often difficultly pro¬
curable, abound with oleaginous particles, and haften
to corruption ; whilft the vitriolic acid is cheap, and
pure, and indifpofed to putrefy : That milk takes five
days to perform its office, whilft the vitriolic acid
does it in as many hours, perhaps in as many minutes:
That this acid contributes alfo to whiten the cloth,
and does not make it weaker though the cloth be kept
in it for months. He finds, that acids as well as al¬
kalies, extrad an oily matter from the cloth, and lofe
their acidity and alkalicity. Since this treatife ap¬
peared, the ufe of four milk is very generally fuper-
feded by oil of vitriol.
It is obfervable, that affes milk is greatly difpofed,
on (landing for a little time, to become thick and ropy.
In the Breflaw colledion for the year 17 20, there is a
remarkable account of milk (which probably was that
of the afs) grown fo thick and tenacious as to be drawn
out into long firings, which, when dried, were quite
brittle.
New cows milk, fuffered to ftand for fome days on
the leaves of butterwort or fun-dew, becomes uniformly
thick, flippery, and coherent, and of an agreeable fweet
tafte, without any feparation of its parts. Freftr milk,
added to this, is thickened in the fame manner, and
this fucceffively. In fome parts of Sweden, as we are
informed in the Swedifh Memoirs, milk is thus prepared
for food.
New milk has a degree of glutinous quality, fo as
to be ufed for joining broken ftone ware. There is a
far greater tenacity in cheefe properly prepared.
Milk, when examined by a microfcope, appears
compofed of numerous globules fwimming in a tranf-
parent fluid. It boils in nearly the fame degree of
heat with common water j fome forts rather fooner,
and fome a little later : after boiling, it is lefs dif¬
pofed to grow four than in its natural ftate. It is
coagulated by acids both mineral and vegetable, and by
alkalies both fixed and volatile. The coagulum made
by acids falls to the bottom of the ferum ; that made
by alkalies fwims on the furface, commonly forming
(efpecially with volatile alkalies) a thick coriaceous
Ikin. The ferum, wdth alkalies, proves green or fa¬
mous •, with acids, it differs little in appearance from
the whey that feparates fpontaneoufly. The coagulum
formed by acids is diffolved by alkalies, and that
formed by alkalies is rediffolved by acids ; but the
milk does not in either cafe refume its original pro¬
perties. It is coagulated by moft of the middle falts,
whofe bafis is an earth or a metallic body 5 as folution
of alum, fixed fal ammoniac, fugar of lead, green and
blue vitriol 5 but not by the chalybeate or purging
mineral waters, nor by the bitter fait extradled from
the purging waters. Among the neutral falts that
have been tried, there is not one that produces any
coagulation. They all dilute the milk, and make it
lefs difpofed to coagulate with acids or alkalies : Nitre
feems to have this effedt in a greater degree than the
clher neutral falts. It is inftantly coagulated by highly
N 2 redlified
MIL r 100 ] MIL
Milk, rectified fplrit of wine, but fcarcely by a phlegmatic
v fpirit. It does not mingle with exprefl'ed oils. All
the coagula are diffolved by gall.
It has generally been fuppofed by medical authors,
that the milk of animals is of the fame nature with
chyle, and that the human milk always coagulates in
the ftomach of infants ; but in a late differtation upon
the fubjeil by Mr Clarke, member of the Royal Irilh
Academy, we find both thefe pofitions controverted.
According to him, wTomen’s milk, in a healthy ftate, con¬
tains no coagulable, mucilaginous, or cheefy principle,
in its compofition ; or it contains fo little, that it can¬
not admit of any fenfible proof. Dr Rutty ftates, that
it does not afford even a fixth part of the curd which
is yielded by cows milk ; and Dr Young denies that
Irijb Tranf. h is at all coagulable either by rennets or acids. This
for 1788. is confirmed by Dr Ferris, who in 1782 gained the Har-
veian prize medal at Edinburgh by a differtation up¬
on milk. Mr Clarke informs us, that he has made a
vail number of experiments upon women’s milk with
a view to determine this point. He made ufe of ar¬
dent fpirits, all the different acids, infufions of infants
ftomachs, and procured the milk of a great many dif¬
ferent women} but in no inftance, excepting one or
two, did he perceive any thing like curd. This took,
place in confequence of a fpontaneous acefcency } and
only a fmall quantity of foft flaky matter was formed,
which floated in the ferum. This he looked upon to
be a morbid appearance.
The general opinion that women’s milk is coagu¬
lable has arifen from a Angle circumftance, viz. that
infants frequently vomit the milk they fuck in a ftate
of apparent coagulation. This greatly perplexed Dr
Young} who, after having tried in vain to coagulate
human milk artificially, concluded, that the procefs
took place fpontaneoufly in the ftomach} and that it
would always do fo if the milk were allowed to re¬
main in a degree of heat equal to about 96 degrees of
Fahrenheit. Mr Clarke took equal quantities of three
different kinds of milk, and put them into bottles
llightly corked, and thefe bottles into w'ater, the tem¬
perature of which was kept up by a fpirit of wine
lamp as near as poffible to 96® of Fahrenheit: but af¬
ter frequently examining each bottle during the courfe
of the experiment, at the expiration of feveral hours
there was not the fmalleft tendency towards coagula¬
tion to be perceived in any of them ; the cream was
only thrown to the furface in a thick and adhefive
form, and entirely feparated from the fluid below,
which had fomething of a gray and wheyifli appear¬
ance. As the matter vomited by infants is fometimes
more adhefive than we can fuppofe crearn to be, Mr
Clarke fuppofed that the curd might be fo entangled
, with the cream, as to be with difficulty feparated from
it } but having collefled a quantity of rich cream from
the milk of different women, he repeated the experi¬
ment with precifely the fame event,, not being able in
any one inftance to produce the fmalleft quantity of
curd. To determine, however, wffat effefls might be
produced upon milk by the ftomach of an infant, Mr
Clarke made the following experiment: Having taken
out the ftomach of a foetus which had been deprived
of life by the ufe of inftruments, he infufed it in a
fmall quantity of hot water, fo as to make a ftrong
hafufiQn, He added a tea-fpoonful of this infufion to
equal quantities of cows and human milk 5 the confe-
quence of which was, that the cow’s milk was firmly
coagulated in a ftiort time, but tbe-human milk was
not altered in the leaft } neither was the leaft coagula¬
tion produced by adding a fecond and third fpoonfuF
to the human milk. “ Upon the whole, then, (fays
Mr Clarke), I am perfuaded it will be found, that hu¬
man milk, in an healthy ftate, contains little or no curd,
and that the general opinion of its nature and proper¬
ties is founded upon fallacious analogy and fuperficial
obfervations made on the matter vomited by infants.
We may prefume, that the cream of women’s milk,
by its inferior fpecific gravity, will fwim on the furface
of the contents of the ftomach} and being of an oily
nature, that it will be of more difficult digeftion than
any other conftituent part of milk. When an infant
then fucks very plentifully, fo as to over-diftend the
ftomach, or labours under any weaknels in the powers-
of digeftion, it cannot appear unreafonable to fuppofe,
that the cream ftiall be firft reje£ted by vomiting.
Analogous to this, we know that adults affedled wdth
dyfpepfia often bring up greafy fluids from the fto¬
mach by eru&ation, and this efpecially after eating fat
meat. We have, in fome inftances, known this to blaze
when throwm into the fire like fpirit of wine or oil.”
Our author derives a confirmation of his opinion from
the following obfervation, viz. that curds vomited by
infants of a few days old are yellow, while they become-,
white in a fortnight or three weeks.. This he accounts
for from the yellow colour of the cream thrown up by-
the milk of fcvomen during the firft four or five days af¬
ter delivery.
Mr Clarke likewife controverts that common opi¬
nion of the human milk being fo prone to acidity, that
a great number of the difeafes of children are to be
accounted for from that principle. “ Whoever (fays
he) takes the trouble of attentively comparing human
milk with that of ruminant animals, will foon find it
to be much lefs prone to run into the acefcent or acid
procefs. I have very often expofed equal quancities-
of human and cows milk in degrees of temperature,
varying from the common fummer heat, or 65°, to ioo° }
and I have conftantly found that cows milk acquires a
greater degree of acidity in 36 hours than the human
did in-many days: cows milk becomes offenfively pu¬
trid in four or five days} a change which healthy hu¬
man milk, expofed in the fame manner, will not un¬
dergo in many wrecks, nay, fometimes in many months.
I once kept a few ounces of a nurfe’s milk, delivered
about fix or feven days, for more than two years in a
bottle moderately corked. It flood on the chimney-
piece, and was frequently opened to be examined. At
the end of this period it fliow’ed evident marks of mo¬
derate acidity, wffiether examined by the tafte, fmell,
or paper ftained with vegetable blues or purples} the
latter it changed to a florid red colour, whereas cows-
milk kept a few days changed the colour of the fame
paper to a green, thereby clearly {bowing its putrefcent
tendency.”
Our author next goes on to confider of the proba¬
bility there is of milk becoming fo frequently and
ftrongly acid as to occafion moft of the difeafes of in¬
fants. He begins with an attempt to ffiow that the
phenomena commonly looked upon to be indications-
of acrimony are by no means certain. Curdled milk.
^ has,.
MIL f 10
Mtlk. Kas already been fliown to be no fign of acidity j and
1 ' other appearance, which has commonly^ been
thought to be fo certain, viz. green faeces, is, in the
opinion of Mr Clarke, equally fallacious. In fupport
of this he quotes a letter from Dr Sydenham to_Dr
Cole ; in which he fays, that the green matter vomited
by hyfterical women is not any proof of acrid humours
being the caufe of that difeafe, for fea-fick people do
the fame. The opinion of green faeces being an.effedt
of acidity, proceeds upon the fuppolition that a mixture
of bile with an acid produces a green colour > but it is
found, that the vegetable acid, which only can exiftdn
the human body, is unable to produce this change or co¬
lour, though it can be effeded by .the ftrong mineral
acids. As nothing equivalent to any of thefe acids can
be fuppofed to exift in the bowels of infants, we mu ft
therefore take fome other method of accounting for the
green faeces frequently evacuated by them. \Vhy
ftrould four milk, granting its exiftence, give rife to
thtm in infants and not in adults ? Have butter milk,
fummer fruits of the moft acefcent kind, lemon or orange
juice, always this effed in adults by their admixture with
bile ? This is a queftion which, I believe, cannot be.
anfwered in the affirmative.”
On the whole, Dr Clarke confiders the difeafe of aci¬
dity in the bowels, though fo frequently^ mentioned, to
be by no means common. He owns indeed, that it
may fometimes occur in infancy as well as in adults,
from weaknefs of the ftomach, coftivenefs, or improper
food 5 and an indubitable evidence is afforded by faeces
which ftain the blue or purple colour of vegetables to a
red, though nothing can be inferred with certainty from
the colour or fmell.
The dodor next proceed* to ftate fereral reafons-
for his opinion, that the greater number of infantile
difeafes are. not owing to acidity j i. Women’s milk
in a healthy ftate' contains little or no coagulable
matter or curd. 2. It (hows lefs tendency out of the
body to become acefcent than many other kinds of
milk. 3. The appearances which have been generally
fuppofed to charaderize its acidity do not afford fatif-
fadory evidence of fuch a morbid caufe; 4. Granting
this to be the cafe, we have plenty of.mild abforbents,
capable of deftroying all the acid which can be fuppof¬
ed to be generated in the bowels of an infant j yet
many children are obferved to die in confequence of.
thefe difeafes fuppofed to arife from acidity. 5. Though
the milk of all ruminant animals is of a much more
acefcent nature than that of the human fpecies, yet
the young of thefe animals never fuffer any thing like
the difeafes attributed to acidity in infants. 6. Hif-
tory informs us that whole nations ufe four curdled
milk as a confiderable part of their food, without feel¬
ing any inconvenience^ which, however, muft have •
been the cafe, if acidity in the ftomach were pro-,
dudive of fuch deleterious effed as has been fup-
pofed.
The reafoning of Dr Clarke feems here to be very,
plaufible, and nothing has as yet been offered to con-
tradid it. The reviewers in taking notice of the trea-.
tife only obferve, that the dodor’s pofitions. are fup-
ported by great probability •, yet “ they have feen.
them, or think they have feen them, contradided by
the appearance of difeafes and the effeds of medi-
I» J; M I Lr
cines j” fo that they muft leave the fubjed to farther
examination.
In a memoir by Meffrs Parmentier and Deyeux,
members of the royal college of pharmacy, &c. in Pa¬
ris, we have a great number of experiments on the
milk of affes, cows, goats, fheep, and mares, as well
as women. The experiments on cows milk, were made
with a view to determine whether any change was
made in the milk by the different kinds of food eaten
by the animal. For this purpofe fome were fed with <
the leaves of mai'ze or Turkey wheat *, fome with cab¬
bage •, others with fmall potatoes j and others with
common grafs. The milk of thofe fed with the maize
or Turkey wheat was extremely fweet •, that from the
potatoes and common grafs much more ferous and in-
fipid j and that from the cabbages the moft difagreeable
of all. By diftillation only eight ounces of a colour-
lefs fluid were obtained from as many pounds of each
of thefe milks j which from thofe who fed upon grafs
had an aromatic flavour j a difagreeable one from cab¬
bage j and none at all from the potatoes and 1 urkey
wheat. This liquid became fetid in the fpace of a
month, whatever, fubftance the-animal had been fed
with,- acquiring at the fame time a vifcidity and be¬
coming turbid j that from cabbage generally, but not al¬
ways, becoming firft putrid. All of them feparated a
filamentous matter, and became clear on being expofed
to the heat of 250 of Reaumur’s thermometer. In the
refiduums of the diftillation no difference whatever
could be perceived. As the only difference therefore
exifting in cows milk lies in the volatile part, our au¬
thors conclude, that it is improper to boil milk either
for common or medicinal purpofes. Phey obferved al-
fo that any fudden change of food, even from a worfe -
to a better kind was attended by a very remarkable di¬
minution in the quantity of milk. All the refiduums
of the diftillations yielded, in a ftrong fire, a yellow oil.
and acid, a thick and black empyreumatic oil, a volatile
alkali, and towards the end a quantity of inflammable
air, and at laft a coal remained containing fome fixed
alkali with muriatic acid.
On agitating in long bottles the creams from the milk
of cows fed with different fubftanqes, all of them were
formed into a kind of half-made butter; of which that
formed from the milk from maize was white, firm,
and infipid ; that from potatoes was fofter and more
pinguedinous j but that from common grafs was the
beft of alh Cabbage, as in other cafes, gave a ftrong •
tafte.
In the courfe of their experiments, it was endeavour¬
ed to determine whether butter is adlually contained in
the cream, or whether it be a chemical produ&ion of
the operation of churning. They could not find any
reafon abfolutely fatisfaftory on either fide, but incline
to the latter opinion ; becaufe when cream is allowed to
remain among the milk, and the whole curdled promif-
cuoufly, only fat cheefe, without any butter, is produ¬
ced, The oily parts cannot be feparated into butter ei¬
ther by acids or any other means than churning : even
the artificial mixture of oil with the cream is infufficient
for the purpofe.
The ferum of milk was reduced by filtration to a
clear and pellucid liquor and, by mixture with fixed -
alkali, depofited a portion of cheefy matter which had
bees-.-- ,
Milk.
M
'k- been diilalved in the whey,
fo found in this liquor.
In their experiments upon the milk of various ani-
m?Js, it was found that the milk of affes yielded by
diftillation an infipid liquor, and depofited a liquor
iirnikr to the lymph of cows milk. It is coagulated
ky the acids, but not into an uniform mafs ; ex-
lubiting only the appearance of didindt ilocculi. It
affords but little cream, which is converted with dif¬
ficulty into a loft butter that foon becomes rancid. It
has but a fmal! quantity of faccharine particles, and
thefe are often mixed with muriatic felenite and com¬
mon fait. Goats milk has a thick cream, and agree¬
able to the date y and the milk itfelf may be preferved
longer in a found (late than any other fpecies, the
icum on its furface being naturally convertible into
palatable cheefe. It is ealily made into firm butter,
which does not loon become rancid, and has a good
flavour. 1 he butter milk contains a large quantity of
cheefy matter, which readily coagulates; but has ftjll
Id's faccharine matter than that of affes. Sheeps milk
can fcarce be difiinguilhed from that of a cow, and ea-
idy parts with its cream by Handing. It is of a yellow
colour, an agreeable flavour, and yields a great propor¬
tion of butter , but this is not fohd, and foon becomes
rancid. Mares milk is the molt infipid and lead nutri¬
tious of any 5 notwithftanding which it has been much
recommended for weak and confumptive patients : in
which cafes it is probable that it proves efficacious by
being more confonant than any other to the debilitated
powers of digeftioq. It boils with a fmaller fire than
nny other kind of milk, is eafily coagulated, and the
diftiiled water does not foon change its nature. It has
but a imall quantity of cheefy matter, and very few
oily particles : the cream cannot be made into butter ;
and the whey contains about as much fugar as cows or
goats milk.
In this memoir our authors remark, that in order to
augment the quantity, as well as to improve the qua¬
lity, of the milk of animals, they fliould be well fed,
their Halls kept clean, and their litter frequently renew¬
ed ; they fliould be milked at ftated hours, but not
drained : great attention fhould alfo be paid to the
breed ; becaufe inferior cattle are maintained at as
great expence as the moft valuable kinds. No change
ought to be made in the food 5 though if the milk
be employed fo^ medicinal purpofes, it may be improv¬
ed by a proper mixture of herbs, &c.
In their experiments on women’s milk, Meflrs Par-
mentier and Deyeux differ foraewhat from Dr Clarke.
They firft tried the milk of a woman who had been
delivered four months ; and obferved, that after the
cream had been feparated the other part appeared of
a more perfeft white, and .hat it could not be coa¬
gulated either by vinegar or mineral acids ; which
they attributed to a fuperabundance of ferum. But
they found that in proportion to .the age of the milk
k was found to be more eafily coaguiable ; and this
W’as confirmed by experiments made upon the milk of
2r3 nurles. Its coagulability was not increafed by
heat. 1 he cream, by agitation, formed a vifeid unc¬
tuous matter, but could not be changed into perfect
butter : but they found that it was extremely difficult
to determine the proportions of the various compo¬
nent parts in human milk, as it differs remarkably,
M I L
not only in different fubje&s, but in the fame fubjeft
at different times. In a nurfe aged about 32 years
who was extremely fubjeft to nervous affections, the
milk was one day found almoft quite colourlefs and
tranfparent. In two hours after, a fecond quantity
drawn from the hreaft was vifeid like the white of an
egg. It became whiter in a fliort time, but dia not
recover its natural colour before the evening. It was
afterwards found that thefe changes ivere oceationed
by her having fome violent hyfteric fits in the mean
time.
Sugar of Milk. Different methods have been pro-
poled for obtaining the fugar of milk. The following
is an account of a method ufed by fome of the Tartar
nations of prtferving their milk by means of froft; : in
which operation great quantities of the fugar of milk
are accidentally formed. The account was given by
Mr Fahrig of Peterfburgb, who undertook a journey,
by order of the academy of Peterffiurgh, among the
Mogul tribes who inhabit the country beyond the lake
Baikal, on the banks of the river Salenga. Thefe peo¬
ple allow their milk to freeze in large quantity in iron
kettles} and, when it is perfectly congealed, they
place them over a gentle fire to ("often the edges of
the cake, after which it may be taken out with a
wooden fpatula. They commence thefe operations
fit the beginning of the cold, when they have milk
in the greateft abundance y after which it-may be pre¬
ferved with great eafe throughout the whole winter.
Mr Fahrig having frequent opportunities of feeing
thefe cakes, foon obferved, that the furface of them
was covered to a confiderable depth with a farinaceous
powder y and having eftablhhed a dairy upon the fame
plan with thofe of_ the Moguls, he'found the fame
thing take piace with himfelf. I his powder was ex¬
tremely fweet, and he received platefuls of it from the
natives, who ufed it in their food, and fweetened their
other viftuals with it. Having caufed a number of
cakes of frozen milk to be conveyed to the top of his
houfe, where they were diredtly expofed to the violent
cold, he found that the feparation of the faccharine
powder was ' greatly promoted by this means. He
feraped the cakes every week to the depth of two
inches, and afterwards fpread out the powder upon an
earthen plate in order to deftroy the .remains of moif-
ture which might have prevented it from keeping for
any length of time. When expofed in this manner it had
a very agreeable and frrong faccharine tafte ; dfffolved
in warm water y and when flrongly ftirred by means of a
chocolate flick, would at all times produce an excel¬
lent and well tafted milk. Raw milk affords a much
larger quantity of this faccharine matter than fuch as
has been boiled, or which has had the cream taken off
it. Neither muff the milk be fuddenly expofed to the
cold before it has lofl its natural heat ; for the fudden
contaft or the cold drives all the cheefy and fat part
towards the middle, while the external parts confift of
little ehe than water. In order to allow7 the parts
of the milk to be all properly mixed together, Mr
Fahrig allowed the milk when newly taken from the
cows to cool, and then poured it out into (hallow
kettles.
Our author is of opinion that this method of making
milk w7ould be of great fervice to navigators to fup-
piy themielves with milk during long fea voyages: and
he
The fugar of milk was al-
M I L [ 103 ] MIL
f,e aflures us, from his own experience, that it will
always fucceed, if proper attention be paid to it. He
is of opinion, however, that all countries are not
equally proper for the preparation of this faccharine
matter : and indeed this feems very evidently to be
the cafe, as the procefs appears to be a crydaliization
of the faccharine parts of the milk, and a feparation
of them from the aqueous ones by means of extreme
cold. The country in which he made the experiments
is one of the moft elevated in all Alia ; and fo cold,
that, though it lies only in the 50th degree of north
latitude, its rivers are frozen up for fix months of the
year. A very dry cold wind alto prevails throughout
almofl: the whole year j and the dry winds generally
come from the north, being almoft always preceded
by a warm wind from the fouth, which bloivs for
fome time. The dry rarefied air increafes the eva¬
poration from the ice cakes, and leaves nothing but
the faccharine or pure conflituent parts of the milk,
which with the addition of tvater can always recom-
pofe the fluid.
Milk, in the wine trade. The coopers know very
well the ufe of Ikimmed milk, which makes an inno¬
cent and efficacious forcing for the fining down of all
white wines, arracks, and fmall fpirits ; but is by no
means to be ufed for red wines, becaufe it difcharges
their colour. Thus, if a few quarts of well fkimmed
milk be put into a hoglhead of red wine, it will foon
precipitate the greater part ot the colour, and leave
the whole nearly white : and this is of known' ufe
in the turning of red wines, when pricked, into white ;
in which a linall degree of acidity is not lb much per¬
ceived.
Milk is, from this quality of difcharging colour from
wines, of ufe alfo to the wine coopers, for the whiten¬
ing of wines that have acquired a browm colour from
the calk, or from having been haftily boiled before
fermenting • for the addition of a little Ikimmed milk,
in thele cafes, precipitates the brown colour, and leaves
the wines almoft: limpid, or of what they call a water
whitenefs, which is much coveted abroad in wines as
well as in brandies.
Milk of Lime; Milk of Sulphur. The name of milk
is given to fubftances very different from milk properly
fo called, and which referable milk only in colour.
Such is water in which quicklime has been flaked,
which acquires a whitenefs from the fmall particles of
the lime being fjfpended in it, and has hence been
called the milk of lime. Such alfo is the folution of
liver of fulphur, when an acid is mixed with it, by
which white particles of fuluhur are made to float in
the liquor.
Milk of Vegetables. For the fame reafon that milk
of animals may be confidered as a true animal eraul-
fion, the emulfive liquors of vegetables may be called
vegetable milks. Accordingly erauliicns made with al¬
monds are commonly called milk of almonds. But be-
fides this vegetable milk, which is in feme meafere ar¬
tificial^ many plants and trees contain naturally a large
quantity of emulfive or milky juices. Such are lettuce,
fpurge, fig tree, and the tree which furnifhes the elaf-
tic American refin. The milky juices obtained from
all thefe vegetables derive their whitenefs from an oily
matter, mixed and undiffolved in a watery or mucila¬
ginous liquor. Moft refinous gums were original!)?
fuch milky juices, which afterwards become folid
the evaporation of their more fluid and volatile parts.
MiLK-Fcver. See Medicine Index.
MiiKr-Hedge, the Englilh name of a fhrub growing
on the coaft of Coromandel, where it is ufed for hedg¬
ing. The whole fhrub grows very bufliy, wuth numer¬
ous eredt branches, which are compofed of cylindrical
joints as thick as a tobacco pipe, of a green colour,
and from three to fix inches long : the joints are thick¬
er than the other parts, but always give way firft on any
accidental violence offered to the plant. When broken
it yields a milk of an excefiively cauftic quality, which
blifters any part of the fkin it touches. When the
joints are broken off at each end, the tube then contains
but very little milk. In this ftate Mr Ives ventured to
touch it with his tongue, and found it a little fweet.
In the hedges it is feldom very woody ; but when it is,
the wood is very folid, and the bark gray and cracked.
This plant, he infoims us, has acquired great reputation
in curing the venereal dileafe, on the following account:
A poor Portuguefe woman, the eldcft female of her
family, had wrought furptifing cures in the moft inve¬
terate venereal diiorders, even fuch as the European
phyficians had pronounced incurable. Thefe fafts be¬
came fo notorious, that the fervants of the Company,
and efpecially their furgeons, were induced to offer her
a very conffderable premium for a difeovery of the me¬
dicine ; but (lie always refufed to comply, giving for a
rcafon, that while it remained a fecret, it was a cer¬
tain proviiion for the maintenance of the family in the
prefent as well as in future generations. On account
of this denial the Englhh furgeons were fometimes at
the pains to have her motions without doors carefully
watched ; and as they were not able to difeover that
fine ever gathered of any other plant or tree but this,
they conjedured that the milk of this tree was the fpe-
cilic employed. Mr Ives inquired at the black doc¬
tors concerning the virtues of this plant; who all a-
greed, that it will cure the lues venerea, but differed as
to the manner of adminiftering it ; fome faying that a
joint of it fliould be eaten every morning j others that
the milk only fhouM be dropped upon fugar j and then
put into milk, oil, &c. and given daily to the pa¬
tient.
Miiky IVay. See Astronomy Index.
MILL, a machine for grinding corn, &c. of which
there are various kinds, according to the different me¬
thods of applying the moving power j as water-mills,
wind-mills, mills woiked by holies, &c. See Mecha¬
nics Index.
The firft obvious method of reducing corn into flour
for bread would be by the Ample expedient of pound¬
ing. And that was for ages the only one which was
praclifed by the various defeendants of Adam, and ac¬
tually continued in uie among the Romans below the
reign of Vefpafian. But the procefs was very early
improved by the application of a grinding power, and
the introduction of millflones. This, like moft of
the common refinements in domeftic life, was pro¬
bably the invention of the antediluvian world, and cer¬
tainly praftifed in fome of the earlieft ages after it j and,
like moft of them, it was equally known in the eaft and
weft. Hence the Gauls and Britons appear familiarly
acquainted with the ufe of hand-mills before the time
of their fubmiukm to the Romans j the Britons particu-
by Milky-wav,
Mill.
MIL [ 104 ] MIL
Mill, larly difUnguiftiing them, as the Highlanders and we
IJ' ^ diftinguilh them at prefent, by the fimple appellations of
querns, comes, or Jlones. And to thefe the Romans
added the very ufelul invention of water mills. For
this difcovery the world is pretty certainly indebted to
the genius of Italy •, and the machine was noi uncom¬
mon in the country at the conquelt of Lancalhire.
This, therefore, the Romans would neceflariiy intro¬
duce, with their many other refinements among us.
And that they a&ually did, the JBritifh appellation of a
water-mill fully fuggefts of itfelf *, the mehn of the
Wellh and Comilh, the mull, meill, and mehn of the
Armoricans, and the Irilh mui'can and mililind, being
all evidently derived from the Roman tnola and molen-
dinum. The fubjeft Britons unxverlally adopted the
•Roman name, but applied it, as we their fuccefibrs do,
only to the Roman mill; and one of thefe was proba¬
bly ere£led at every ftadonaty city in the kingdom.
Whitaker's One plainly was at Manchefier, ferving equally the
Hift. of purpofes of the town and the accommodation of the
MancieJ- garr5pon—And one alone would be fufficient, as the
ufe of handmills remained very common in both, many
having been found about the fite of the flation particu¬
larly ; and the general practice having defcendeS a-
tnong us nearly to the prefent period. Such it would
be peculiarly neceflary to have in the camp, that the
garrifon might be provided againfi: a liege. And the
water-mill at Manchefter was fixed immediately below
the CafUefield and the town, and on the channel of the
Medlock. There, a little above the ancient ford, the
fluice of it was accidentallr difcovered about 30 years
ago. On the margin of Dyer’s croft, and oppolite to
feme new conftruitions, the current of the river, acci¬
dentally fwelled with the rains, and obftrudted by a
dam, broke down the northern bank, fwept away a
large oak upon the edge of it, and difclofed a long tun¬
nel in the rock below*. This has been fince laid open
in part with a fpade. It appeared entirely uncovered
at the top, w*as about a yard in width, and another in
depth, but gradually narrow*ed to the bottom. The
tides lhowred everywhere the marks of the tool on the
rock, and the courfe of it was parallel with the channel.
It was bared by the flood about 25 yards only in length,
but was evidently continued for feveral further ; hav¬
ing originally begun, as the nature of the ground evin¬
ces, juft above the large curve in the channel of the
Medlock.
For the firft five or fix centuries of the Roman ftate,
there were no public bread bakers in the city of Rome.
They were firft introduced into it from the eaft, at the
conclufion of the w7ar wfith Perfeus, and about the year
167 before Chrift. And, towards the clofe of the
firft century, the Roman families w7ere fupplied by
them every morning wuth frelh loaves for breakfaft.—
But the fame cuftom, which prevailed originally among
the Romans and many other nations, has continued
nearly to the prefent time among the Mancunians. The
providing of bread for every family was left entirely
to the atttention of the wmmen in it •, and it was
baked upon ftones, which the Wellh denominate grei-
diols and we gredles. It appears, however, from the
kiln-burnt pottery which has been difcovered in the
Britifh fepulchres, and from the Britilh appellation of
an odijn or oven remaining among us at prefent, that
furnaces for baking wTere generally known among the
1
original Britons. An odyn would, therefore, be ereft-
ed at the manfion of each Britifh baron, for the ufe Vl'lftonc.
of himfelf and his retainers. And, w hen he and they
removed into the vicinity of a Roman ftation, the oven
would be rebuilt wfith the manfion, and the public
bakehoufe'S of our towns commence at the firft foun¬
dation of them. One bakehoufe would be conftrudfed,
as w7e have prevkmfiy fhown one mill to have been fet
■up, for the public fervice of all the Mancunian families.
One oven and one mill appear to have been equally
eftablifhed in the town. And the inhabitants of it ap¬
pear immemori-ally accuftomed to bake at the one and
grind at the other. Both, therefore, were in all pro¬
bability conftru&td at the firft introdu&ion of water¬
mills and ovens into the country. The great fimilarity
of the appointments refers the confideration directly
to one and the fame origin for them. And the gene¬
ral nature of all fuch inftitutions points immediately to
the firft and aflual introduction of both. And, as the
fame eftablifhments prevailed equally in other parts of
the north, and pretty certainly obtained over all the ex¬
tent of Roman Britain, the fame erections were as
certainly mad* at every ftationary town in the king¬
dom.
MILL, John, a very learned divine, w*as born at
Shap in Weftmorland, about the year 1645 ; and be¬
came a fervitor of Queen’s college, Oxford. On his
entering into orders he became an eminent preacher,
and w7as made prebendary of Exeter. In 1681, hfc
was created doCtor of divinity \ about the fame time he
was made chaplain in ordinary to King Charles II. and
in 1685 he was eleCted principal of St Edmund’s hall
in Oxford. His edition of the Greek Teitament,
which will ever render his name memorable, was pub-
liihed about a fortnight before his death, which hap¬
pened in June 1707. Dr Mills was employed 30 years
in preparing this edition.
MILLSTONE, the ftone by which corn is ground.
—The millftones wfinch w7e find preferved from ancient
times are all fmall, and very different from thole in
ufe at prefent. Thoreihy mentions two or three fuch
found in England, among other Roman antiquities,
which w7ere but 20 inches broad *, and there is great
reafon to believe that the Romans, as w7ell as the
Egyptians of old, and the ancient Jews, did not em¬
ploy horfes, or wind, or water, as w7e do, to turn
their mills, but made their Haves and captives of war
do this laborious work : they were in this fervice
placed behind thefe millftones, and pulhed them on
with all their force. Sampfon, when a prifoner to
the Philiftines, was treated no better, but was con¬
demned to the millftone in his prifon. The runner or
leofe millftone, in this fort of grinding, was ufually
very heavy for its fize, being as thick as broad. This
is the millftone which is exprefsly prohibited in Scrip¬
ture to take in pledge, as lying loofe it w7as more
eafily rermwed. The Talmudifts have a ftory, that
the Chaldeans made the young men of the captivity
carry millftones with them to Babylon, wfiiere there
feems to have been a fcarcity at that time ; and hence,
probably, their paraphrafe renders the text “ have
borne the mills or millftones-,” which might thus be
true in a literal fenfe. They have alfo a proverbial
expreflion of a man with a millftone about his neck;
which they ufe to exprefs a man under the fevereft
■ weight
MIL [ jo? 1 . . MIL
Millftone weight of affliction. This alfo plainly refers to this
!! fmall fort of ftones.
Millennium R/lCmJh Millstone, a (tone which has beeft claf-
v fed among volcanic produ&s, on account of its appear¬
ance, which is a blackifh gray, porous, and very much
refembling a lava of Mount Vefuvius.
MILLENARIANS, or Chiliasts* a name given
to thofe in the primitive ages, who believed that the
faints will reign on earth with Chriit 1000 years. See
Millennium.
MILLENER, or Milliner, one who fells rib¬
bands and dreffes, particularly head dreffes for women j
and who makes up thole dreffes.
Of this word different etymologies have been given.
It is not derived from the French. The French can¬
not exprefs the notion of milliner, otherwife than by
the circumlocution marchand or marchande des modes.
Neither is it derived from the Low Dutch language,
the great, but negleded, magazine of the Anglo-Saxon.
For Sewell, in his Diffionary Englilh and Dutch, i 708,
defcribes rnillener to be “ en kraamer van lint en an-
dere optonifelon, Franfche kraamer j” that is, “ a ped¬
lar who fells ribbands and other trimmings or ornaments^
a French pedlar.”
Littleton, in his Englilh and Latin dictionary, pub-
lilhed 1677, defines millener, “ a jack of all trades
q. d. millenarins, or mille mercium venditor; that is,
“ one who fells a thoufand different forts of things.”
This etymology feems fanciful: But, if he rightly un-
derftood the vulgar meaning of the word millener in his
time, we muff hold that it then implied what is now
termed “ a haberdaffter of fmall wares,” one who dealt
in various articles of petty merchandife, and who did
not make up the goods which he fold.
Before Littleton’s time, however, a fomewhat nicer
charafteriftic than feems compatible with his notion,
appears to have belonged to them; for Shakefpeare, in
his Henry IV. makes Hotfpur, when complaining of
the daintinefs of a courtier, fay,
“ He was perfumed like a milliner.”
The faCl feems to be, that there were millen'ers of
feveral kinds: as, horfe milleners, (for fo thofe perfons
were called who make ornaments of coloured rvorffed
for horfes); haberdafflers of fmall wares, the milleners
of Littleton 5 and milleners fuch as thofe now pecu¬
liarly known by that name, whether male or female,
and to whom Shakefpeare’s allufion feems molt appro¬
priate.
Laflly, Dr Johnfon, in his dictionary, derives the
word front milaner, an inhabitant of Milan, from whence
people of this profeffion firft came, as a Lombard is a
banker.
MILLE passus, or Millia Pajfuum ; a very com¬
mon expreffion among the ancient Romans for a mea-
fure of^diftance, commonly called a mile. Milliarium,
rarely ufed. Which Hefychius made to confift of
feven ftadia ; Plutarch, little fflort of eight} but many
others, as Strabo and Polybius, make it juft eight
ftadia. The reafop of this difference feems to be, that
the former had a regard to the Grecian foot, which is
greater than the Roman or Italic. This diftance is
oftentimes called lapis, which fee. Each paffus con-
fifted of five feet (Columella).
MILLENNIUM, “ a thoufand years}” generally
Vol. XIV. Part I.
employed to denote the thoufand years, during which, Millennmfn
according to an ancient tradition in the church, ground-'' v
ed on fome doubtful texts in the Apocalypfe and other
Scriptures, our bleffed Saviour lhall reign with the
faithful upon earth after the firft relurreClion, before the
final completion of beatitude.
Though there has been no age of the church in
which the millennium was not admitted by individual
divines of the firft eminence, it is yet evident from the
writings of Eufebius, Irenaeus, Origen, and others
among the ancients, as well as from the hiftories of
Dupin, Mofiieim, and all the moderns, that it was
never adopted by the whole church, or made an article
of the eftabliftied creed in any nation.
About the middle of the fourth century the Millen¬
nial held the following tenets :
ift, That the city of Jerufalem (hould be rebuilt, and
that the land of Judea fhould be the habitation of thofe
who were to reign on earth 1000 years.
2dly, That the firft refurreftion was not to be confined
to the martyrs } but that after the fall of Antichrift all
the juft were to rife, and all that were on the earth
were to continue for that fpace of time.
3dly, That Chrift (hall then come down from heaven,
and Tae feen on earth, and reign there with his fer-
vants.
4thly, That the faints during this period fnall enjoy
all the delights of a terreftrial paradife.
Thefe opinions Were founded upon feveral paffa-
ges of Scripture, which the Millenarians among the
fathers underftood in no other than a literal fenfe,
but which the moderns, who hold that opinion, con-
fider as partly literal and partly metaphorical. Of
thefe paffages, that upon which the greateft itrefs has
been laid, we believe to be the following :—“ And
I faw an angel come down from heaven, having the
key of the bottomlefs pit, and a great chain in his
hand. And he laid hold on the dragon, that old fer-
pent, which is the devil and Satan, and bound him
a thoufand years, and call him intp the bottomlefs pit,
and fhut him up, and fet a feal upon him, that he
fhould deceive the nations no more till the thoufand years
Ihould be fulfilled } and after that he muft be looled
a little feafon. And I faw thrones, and they fat up¬
on them, and judgement w'as given unto them : and
I faw7 the fouls of them that were beheaded for the
witnefs of Jefus, and for the word of God, and which
had not worfhipped the beaft, neither his image, nei¬
ther had received his mark upon their foreheads, or in
their hands } and they -lived and reigned wdth Chrift
a thoufand years. But the reft of the dead lived not
again till the thoufand years were fnijhed. This is the
firft refurreftion This paffage all the ancient * Rnm
Millenarians took in a fenfe grofsly literal } and taught, x—5.
that during the millennium the faints on earth were
to enjoy every bodily delight. The moderns, on the
other hand, confider the pow?er and pleafure of this
kingdom as wholly fpiritual } and they reprefent them
as not to commence till after the conffagration of the
prefent earth. But that this laft fuppofition is a mif-
take, the very next verfe except one allures us : for
we are there told, that “ when the thoufand years are
expired, Satan fhall be loofed out of his prifon, and
fhall go out to deceive the nations which are in the
four quarters of the earth;'" ?.nd we have no reafon to ,
O believe
MIL [ i
Millennium believe that lie will Irave fuch power or fuch liberty in
'"’■“■"V"’"- “ the new heavens and the new earth wherein dwelleth
righteoufneh.”
For this and other reafons, which our limits will not
permit us to enumerate, the mold judicious critics con¬
tend, that the prophecies of the millennium point, not
to a refurredlion of martyrs and other juli men to reign
with Chrift a thoufand years in a vilible kingdom upon
earth, but to that Hate of the Chrillian church, which,
lor a thoufand years before the general judgement, will
be fo pure and fo widely extended, that, when compa¬
red with the Hate of the world in the ages preceding,
it may, in the language of Scripture, be called a refur-
reclion from the dead. In fupport ol this interpretation
they quote twm paflages Irom St Paul, in which a con-
verlion from Paganiim to ChriHianity, and a reforma¬
tion of life, is called a refurredlion irom the dead :—
“ Neither yield ye your members as inHruments of un-
righteoufnefs unto fin ; but yield yourfelves unto God
* Rom. vi. as thofe that are alive from the dead * i” And again,
13. “ Wherefore he faith, AwTake thou that fieepefi, and
f Eph. y. arfe from the dead, and Chrifi lhall give thee light f.”
M- It is likewife to be obferved, that in ail the defcriptions
of the relurredlion and future judgement which are
given us at fuch length in the gofpels and epifiles, there
is no mention made of a frjl zw& fecond refurredlion at
the diitance of a thoufand years from each other.
There is indeed an order in the re furred ion : for we
f 1 Cor. are told that “ every man finall rife in his own order j
xv. 23» Chrifi the firfi fruits, afterwards they that are ChriH’s
at his coming, Sec.” But w^ere the millennarian hypo-
thefis well founded, the words fiiould rather have run
thus : “ Chrifi the firfi fruits, then the martyrs at his
coining, and a thoufand years afterwards the refidue of
mankind. Then cometh the end, &c.”
Thefe arguments Hrongly incline us to believe, that
by the reign of Chrifi and the faints for a thoufand
years upon earh,. nothing more is meant, than that
before the general judgement the Jew-s fiiould be con¬
verted, genuine Chrifiianity he diffufed through all na-.
tions, and mankind enjoy that peace and happinefs
which the faith and precepts of the gofpel are calcu¬
lated to confer on all by whom they are lincerely em¬
braced.
Our Saviour’s own account of his religion is, that
from a fmall beginning it will increafe to the full
harveft. The millennium therefore is to be confidered
as the full effedt of the Chri tian principles in the hearts
of men, and over the whole wmrld ; and the divines
who have treated of this fubjeit endeavour to prove,
that this is to be expelled from the fa6ts which have
already exifted, and from the importance of the Chri-
fiian dodfrine.
x. The gradual progrefs of Chrifiianity is no objec¬
tion to this faft. This is fimilar to the progrefs and
advancement from lefs to greater perfedtion in every
thing which pofiefies vegetable or animal life. The
> Tame thing is obferved in the arts, in civilization, in
focieties, and in individuals—and why ihould it not be
admitted to have place in religion ? There is indeed
a general principle on which a gradual progreffion,
both in the natural and moral world, is founded. The
Almighty never employs fupernatural means where the
thing can be accomplifhed by thofe which are natural.
'This idea is of the moft general extent through the
16 ] MIL
whole of the prefent fyftem of nature. The poflibiiity Millanniwa
of another plan could eafily be admitted \ but in this cafe ^ J
there would be a total alteration of every part of the
works of God or of man that we are acquainted with.
In the lame manner, if the religion of Chrifi had been
irrefiftible, it would have totally altered its natural con-
lequences. It was necefl'ary, thereiore, from the pre¬
fent condition of man, as an a6tive, intelligent, and ac¬
countable being, that means Ihould be employed j and
wherever means are employed, the effects produced
muft be gradual, and not infiantaneous.
2. I hough the progrefs of a divine revelation be gra¬
dual, yet it is to be expefted, from the wiidom and -
compaffion of God, that it will Hill be advancing in the
hearts of men, and over the world. In the firfi age of
the church, the wmrd of God, fupported by miracles,
and by the animated zeal of men who fpake what
they faw and heard, grew and prevailed. In this cafe
fupernatural means were neceffary, becaufe the preju¬
dices of the wmrld could not be lubdued without them.
It was the firft watering of a plant which you after¬
wards leave to the dew'.of heaven. Miracles at the
fame time were employed only as the means of convic¬
tion 5 and they were not continued, becaufe in this
cafe they would have become a confiant and irrefifiibie
principle, incompatible with the condition of man as a
reafonable agent. After this power was withdrawn,
there were many ages of ignorance and fuperftition in
the Chrifiian church. But what is neceflary to be
efiablifhed on this fu jedITs, not that the progrefs of
Chrifiianity has never been inter;upted, but that on
the whole it has been advancing. The effebls of this
religion on mankind, in proportion as it was received, ^
were immediate and vifible : It dellroyed the grofs fu-
perflition of idol worfiiip : it abolifhed the practice,
which was general in the heathen world, of reducing
to the loweft Hate of fervitude the greateft part of our
brethren : it foftened the horrors of w ar, even w hen the
vices of mankind made defence neceflary : it entered
into focial and private life *, and taught men benevolence,
humanity and mercy. It is in thefe biefied effedfs that
we can obferve the progreis of Chriftianity even to this
day. Superftition and idolatry wmre foon engrafted on
the Hem w’hich our Saviour planted in the world ; but
the fimplicity o‘ the gofpel has been gradually under¬
mining the fabric of fuperfiition ; and the men who arc
moft nearly interefted in the deceit are now almoft
alhamed to fiiow their faces in the caufe. The praeiice
of flavery has, generally fpeaking, been extinguifhed in
the Chrifiian world 5 yet the remains of it have been a
difgrace to the Chrifiian name, and the profeffors of
that religion have now begun to fee the inconfiftency.
War is not only carried on with lefs animolity, and lefs
havock of the human fpecies ; but men begin to culti¬
vate more generally, and to delight in, the arts of
peace. The increafing fpirit of charity and benevo¬
lence, of w’hich it were eafy to give unexampled inftan-
ces in the prefent age, is a decided proof of the increa¬
fing influence of Chriftianity. At the fame time, if,
inftead of thefe general principles, we were to defeend
to private examples of infidelity or of wickednefs, It
would be eafy to bring proofs in fupport of an oppofite
opinion : but the reafening would by no means be
equally conclufive ; for if the general principles by
which fociety is regulated be more liberal and merciful,
it:
MIL [ i
Millennium it is evident that there is more goodnefs in a greater
v number of the human race. Society is nothing more
than a colleftion of individuals j and the general tone,
efpecially when it is on the fide of virtue, which almoft
in every inilance oppofes the defigns of leading and in-
terefted men, is a certain evidence of the private fpirit.
To fhow that this reformation is'connected with Cbri-
ftianity, it is unnecefiary to fiate any comparifon be¬
tween the influence of heathen, and the influence of
Chriflian principles : between civilization as depending
on the powers of the human underftanding, and on the
efficacy of the word of God. The whole- of this contro-
verfy may be appealed to an obvious fadt, viz. that as
any nation has come nearer to the fimplicity of the gof-
pel in the ftandard of its worfhip, it has been more
poflefled of thofe national virtues which we have
afcribed to the influence of Chriftianity. This fadt is
worth a thoufand volumes of fpeculation on this fub-
jedt.
3. A revelation fandtioned by God, for a benevolent
purpofe, will be expected to produce effedts correfpond-
ing to the wifdom which gave it, and to the purpofe
for which it is employed. It may be gradual ; but it
will be increafing, and it muft increafe, to the full har-
veft. He that has begun the good wmrk will alfo finith
it. It is reafonable to expedt this illuttrious fuccfefs of
the gofpel, both from the nature of the thing, and
from the prophecies contained in the facred fcriptures.
The precepts of the gofpel, in their genuine fenfe, are
admirably calculated for the peace and welfare both of
individuals and fociety. The greateil liberality of mind,
the greateil: generofity of temper, the moft unbounded
lore, and the greateft indifference to the accumulation
of thus world’s property, if they glowed from breaft
to breafl, and operated with equal force on all men,
would be produdlive of equal good and happinefs to all.
We are fcarcely able to perceive the force of this at
firft view, becaufe the deceit and impofition which yet
exifi. in the world, prevent the operation of the beft
principles even in the bed hearts. But in proportion
to the improvement of mankind, what is their real in-
tereft, and what are the real otjedls of happinefs, will
gradually unfold. The contempt of vice will be great¬
er in proportion to the fcarcity of it : for one villain
gives countenance and fupport to another, juft as iron
iharpeneth iron. This opens to our viewr another fadl
connedled with the practice of Chriftianity, namely,
that the hearer it arrives to its perfect ftate, it will be
the more rapid in its'progrefs. The beauty of holinefs
will be more vifible ; and, in the ftrong language of
the prophet, “ the earth ffiall bring forth in one day,
*If. IxvL.Si and a nation ffiall be born at once*.” This future
perfedtion of the gofpel is confiftent with its nature and
importance.—We can fcarcely believe that means fo
admirably adapted to the reformation of mankind
ffiould be without their effedt; and if the moft difficult
part be already acccmplilhed, we have no reafon to ap¬
prehend that the fcheme wull not be completed. This
fad! is alfo clearly the fubjedl of ancient prophecy. For
t Ver. 12. “ thus faith the Lord f, I will extend peace to her like
23- a river, and the glory of the Gentiles like a flowing
ftream. And it lliall come to pafs, from one fabbath
to another, and from one new moon to another, {hall
all fltflr come to worffiip before me, faith the Lord.”—
“ Violence fliall be no more heard in thy land, wafting
>7 ] MIL
nor deftrudlion within thy border ; but thou (halt call Millennium
thy walls falvation, and thy gates praife.” (If. lx. 18.).
Without entering more minutely on the prophecy
already quoted from chap. xx. of the book of the Re¬
velation, it is fufficient to obferve, that Dr Whitby, in
his treatife on the millennium at the end of his commen¬
tary, proves, in the cleared manner, from the fpirit of
the paffage and the fimilarity of the expreffions with
thofe of other prophets, that it refers to a ftate of the
church for a thoufand years, which ffiall be like life
from the dead. The commencement of this period is
connedled with two events : the fall of antichrift, and
the converfion of the Jews. The latter of thefe events
muft be confidered as a key to all the prophecies con¬
cerning the millennium. As the Jews were the ancient
people of God, and as their converfion is to be the pre¬
vious ftep to the general knowledge of Chriftianity, the
prophecies of the millennium have a chief relation to this
important event. We have already obferved, that God
never interpofes with miraculous power to produce what
can be effedled by natural means 5 and from what we
know of human nature, we cannot but perceive that the
converfion of the Jews will powerfully operate to the
general converfion of mankind. Freed from thofe pre¬
judices which now make them the objedls of hatred in
all nations, and fired with that zeal by which new con¬
verts are always adfuated, they will preach the gofpel
with a fervour of which we, who have long been blef-
fed with its rays, can hardly form a conception 5 and,
by their prefent difperfion over the whole earth, they
will be enabled to adapt their inftrudlions to every in¬
dividual of the human race in the language of his fa¬
thers. Indeed, if they are not at fome future period to
, be employed by Providence for this pivj pofe, it is. diffi¬
cult, if not impoffible, to give any reafon for their dif-
perfed ftate and political exiftence. Juft now it muft be
confeffed that they are the moft implacable enemies of
the Chriflian name •, but their converfion is not on that
account more unlikely or improbable than were events
which have taken place of nearly equal importance a
very few years ago. On the whole, the perfedion of
Chriftianity is a dodrine of reafonable expedation to
the church ", and it is impoffible for the advocates for
natural religion to deny, that unlimited obedience to
its precepts is confiftent with the pureft ftate of liberty
and of happinefs. ihis is the only millennium which
the prophets and apoftles, as we underftand them, pro-
mife to the faints ; but as men figuring in the very firft
ranks of learning have thought otherwife, we would not
be too confident that our interpretation is juft.—Such
of our readers as wiffi for further information, will find
it in the works of Mr Mede, Billiop Newton, Dr Whit¬
by and Dr Gill ; and to thofe mafterly writers we refer
them for that fatisfadion which in fuch an article as
this cannot be given.
MILLEPES, or WOOD louse ; a fpecies of Onis-
cus. See Entomology Index.
MILLEPORA, in Natural Hijlory, a name by
which Linnaeus diftinguiffies that genus of lithophytes,
of a hard ftrudure and full of holes, which are not ftel-
lated or radiated, and whole animal is the hydra, in
which it differs from the madrepora, and comprehend¬
ing 14 different fpecies.
In the millepora, the animal which forms and inha¬
bits it occupies the lubftance •, and it is obferved that
O 2 the
MIL [ 108 ] MI L
Millet the milleporfe grow upon one another; their little ani-
^ mals produce their fpawn ; wrhich attaching itfelf either
^ ° ' to the extremity of the body already formed, or un¬
derneath it, gives a different form to this produc¬
tion. Hence the various fliapes of the millepora,
which is compofed of an infinite number of the cells
of thofe little infe&s, which all together exhibit differ¬
ent figures, though every particular cellula has its effen-
tial form, and the fame dimenfions, according to its
own fpecies.
MILLET. See Milium, Botany Index.
MILLIARE, or Milliarium, a Roman mile,
which confifted of I ooo paces, milie pajjus, whence the
name.
MILLIARIUM AUREUM, was a gilded pillar in
the forum of Rome, at which all the highways of Italy
met, as one common centre. From this pillar the miles
were counted, and at the end of every mile a ftone was
put down. The milliary column was erefled by Au-
guftus Caefar, and, as we are informed by travellers, is
Hill to be feen.
MILLING of Cloth. See Fulling.
MILLION, in Arithmetic, the fum of ten hundred
thoufand, or a thoufand times a thoufand. See Arith¬
metic.
MILLO, a part of Mount Zion at its extremity ;
and therefore called Millo of the city of David
(2 Chron. xxxii ), taken in with the wall that encom-
paffed Mount Zion. Uncertain whether Beth Mitlo,
(Judges ix. 20.) denotes a place ; if it did, it lay near
$echem.
MI LLOT, Claude Francis Xavier, of the French
academy, was born at Befan^on, March 1726, and was
for fome time a Jefuit. He was confecrated for the
pulpit, and continued to preach after he left the fo-
ciety : But the weaknefs of his voice, his timidity, and
the awkwardnefs of his manner, not permitting him to
continue in this profeffion, he relinquifhed it, although
he had preached Advent fermons at Verfailles, and
Lent fermons at Luneville. The marquis de Felino,
minifter of Parma, inftituted an hiftorical clafs for the
benefit of the young nobility ; and, at the defire of
M. le Due de Nivernois, he gave the charge of it to
the abbe Millot. The minilfer having occafioned a
kind of rebellion among the people by fome innovations
which he had made in the ftate, the abbe continued at¬
tached to the interefls of his patron, and would net de-
fert him till the {form was blown over. When he was
told that he would lofe his place by this condufl, he re¬
plied, “ My place is with a virtuous perfecuted man
who has been my benefa&or; and that I (hall never
lofe.” At length, having filled the hiftorical chair
with great approbation, he returned to France, and was
appointed preceptor to M. le Due d’Enghien. In this
fituation he died, A. D. 1785, aged 59. The abbe
Millot did not Ihine in company ; he was cold and re¬
ferred in his manner ; but every thing he faid was ju¬
dicious, and exactly in point.—D’Alembert faid, that
of all his acquaintance the abbe Millot had the feweft
prejudices and the leaft pretenfion. He compofed feve-
ral works, which are digefted with great care, and
written in a pure, fimple, and natural ftyle. ihe prin¬
cipal are, I. Elemens de PHiJIoire de France, depuis
Clovis jufqid a Louis XIV. 3 vcls. in I 2mo. The au¬
thor, felecting the moft curious and important fafts, has
fuppreffed every thing foreign to the fubjecl; and has Millotr
not only arranged the materials in their proper order,, Mlio.
but chofen them with the greateft judgement. Querlon 'r^
thought this the beft abridgement which we have of the
hiftory of France, and preferred it to that of the prefi-
dent Henault. 2. Elemens de CHi/loire d\A?iglcterre,
depuis fon origine fous les Romains, jufqid a George II.
3 vols. 12mo. In this valuable abridgement, the au¬
thor fatisfies, without tiring, his readers. It is all that
is neceflary for thofe wrho wilh to gain a general know¬
ledge of the Engliflr hiftory, wdthout entering minute¬
ly into its particular parts.—3. Elemens de PHijloire
Univerfe/le, 9 vols. i2mo. A certain critic maintains,
that this work is merely a counterfeit of Voltaire’s ge¬
neral hiftory. But this cenfure is altogether unjuft.
The ancient hiftory in this work is wholly compofed by
the abbe Millot; and, no lefs than the modern part,
difeovers his abilities in the choice of fadts, in divefting
them of ufelefs circumilances, in relating them without
prejudice, and in adorning them with judicious reflec¬
tions. 4. L’HiJloire des Troubadours, 3 vols. i2mo,
compiled from the manuferipts of M. de Saint Palaie.
This work appears rather tedious, becaufe it treats of
men almoft unknown, and moft of them deferving to be
fo. What is there quoted from the Provencal poets is
not at all interefting ; and, according to the obfervation
of a man of wit, “ it ferves no purpofe to fearch curi-
oufly into a heap of old ruins while w7e have modern
palaces to engage our attention.” 5. Memoires Poli-
tiques et Militaires, pourfervir a P Hi ft 0 ire de Louis XIV.
et de Louis XV. compofed from original papers colleft-
ed by Adrian Maurice due de Noailles, marftial of
France, in 6 vols. 12mo. 6. The abbe Millot pub-
liftied alfo feveral Difcourfes, in wdiich he difeufles a
variety of philofophical queftions, with more ingenuity
of argument than fire of expreffion ; and a tranflation
of the moft feleft harangues in the Latin hiftorians ; of
wdiich it has been remarked, as well as of the orations
of the abbe d’Olivet, that they are coldly correft, and
elegantly infipid. The charafter of the author, more
prudent and circumfpeft than lively and animated, fel-
dom elevated his imagination above a noble fimplicity
without warmth, and a pure ftyle without oftentation.
Some of the critics, however, have accufed him of de¬
clamation in fome parts of his hiftories, particularly in
thofe parts wdnch concern the clergy. But, in our opi¬
nion, the word declamation is totally inapplicable to
the writings of the abbe Millot. He flatters, it is
true, neither priefts nor ftatefmen ; and he relates more
inftances of vicious than of virtuous aflions, becaufe the
one are infinitely more common than the other : But
he relates them coldly ; and he appears to be guided
more by fincerky and a love of truth, than by that par¬
tial philofophy which blames the Chriftian religion for
thofe evils-which it condemns.
MILO, a celebrated athlete of Crotona in Italy.
His father’s name was Diotimus. Fie early accuftomed
himfelf to carry the greateft; burdens, and by degrees
became a prodigy of ftrength. It is faid that he car¬
ried on his fhoulders a young bullock, four years old,
for above forty yards ; and afterwards killed it with one
blow of his lift, and eat it up in one day. He was fe-
ven times crowned at the Pythian games, and fix at the
Olympian. Fie prefented himfelf a feventh time ; but
no one had the courage or boidnefs to enter the lifts
v againfL.
MIL [
Milo. again ft him. He was one of the difciples of Pythago-
ras • and to his uncommon ftrength, it is faid, the
learned preceptor and his pupils owed their lile : The
pillar which fupported the roof of the fchool fuddenly
gave way 5 but Milo fupported the whole weight of the
building, and gave the philofopher and his auditors time
to efcape. In his old age, Milo attempted to pull up a
tree by the roots, and break it. He partly effected it;
but his ftrength being gradually exhaufted, the tree
when half cleft re united, and his hands remained pinch¬
ed in the body of the tree. He was then alone ; and,
being unable to difentangle himfelf, he was devoured
by the wild beafts of the place, about 500 years before
the Chriftian era.
Milo, T. Annins, a native of Lanuvium, wlm at¬
tempted to obtain the confulihip at Rome by intrigue
and feditious tumults. Clodius the tribune oppofed
his views; yet Milo would have fucceeded but for the
following event : As he was going into the country, at¬
tended by his wile and a numerous retinue of gladiators
and fervants, he met on the Appian road his enemy
Clodius, who was returning to Rome with three of his
friends and fome domeftics completely armed.—-A
quarrel arofe between the lervants. Milo fupported his
attendants, and the difpute became general.— Ctodius
received many fevere wounds, and was obliged to re¬
tire to a'neighbouring cottage. Milo purlued his ene¬
my in his retreat, and ordered his fervants to defpatch
him. The body of the murdered tribune was carried
to Rome, and expofed to public view. I he enemies
of Milo inveighed bitterly againft the violence and bar¬
barity with which the facred perfon of a tribune nad
been treated. Cicero undertook the defence ot Milo ;
but the continual clamours of the friends of Clodius,
and the fight of an armed foldiery, which furrounded
the feat of judgement, fo terrified the orator, that he
forgot the greateft part of his arguments, and the de¬
fence he made was weak and injudicious.—Milo was
condemned, and bamfhed to MalTilia. Lucero ioon af¬
ter fent his exiled friend a copy of the oration which
he had prepared for his defence, in the form in which
we have it now and Milo, after he had read it, ex¬
claimed, 0 Cicero, hadjl thou fpchen before mij accufers
in thefe terms, Milo would not be now eating Jigs at
Marfeilles. The friendihip and cordiality of Cicero and
Milo were the fruits of long intimacy and familiar in-
tercourfe. It was to the fuccefsful labours of Milo that
the orator was recalled from banilhment, and reftored
to his friends.
Milo, (anciently MelosJ an iftand in the Archipe¬
lago, about 50 miles in circumference, with a harbour,
which is one of the largeft in the Mediterranean. The
principal town is of the fame name as- the ifland, and
was prettily built, but abominably nafty : the houfes
are two ftories high, with flat roofs ; and are built with
a fort of purnice ftone, which is hard, blackilh, and yet
very light.
This ifland was formerly rich and populous. From
the earlieft times of antiquity it enjoyed pure liberty.
Milo.
09 ] MI L
The Athenians, not being able to perluade the Melians    ,
to declare in their favour in the Peloponnefian war,
made a defcent upon the ifland, and attacked them vi-
goroufly. In two different expeditions they failed of
their purpofe : but returning with more numerous
forces, they laid fiege to Melos; and obliging the
befieged to furrender at diferetion, put to the fword
all the men who were able to bear arms. They fpared
only the women and children, and thefe they earned
into captivity. This aft of cruelty puts humanity to
the blulh, and difgraces the Athenian name. But war
was then carried on with a degree of wild rage, unex¬
ampled in the prefent times. Republics know not
how to pardon, and always carry their vengeance to
an extravagant height. When Lyfander, the Lacede¬
monian general, came to give law to the Athenians,
he expelled the colony which they had fent to Melos,
and re-eftablifhed the unfortunate remains of its original
inhabitants.
This ifland loft its liberty when Rome, afpiring to
the empire of the world, conquered all the Hies of the
Archipelago. In the partition of the empire, it fell
to the ihare of the eaftern emperors, was governed by
particular dukes, and was at laft conquered by Soli-
man II. Since that period, it has groaned under the
yoke of Turkifh defpotifm, and has loft its opulence
and fplendour. At the commencement of the prefent
century, it boafted of 17 churches and 11 chapels, and
contained more than 20,000 inhabitants. It was very
fertile in corn, wine, and fruits ; and the whole fpace
from the town to the harbour, which is nearly two
miles, was laid out in beautiful gardens. M. Tourne-
fort, who viiited it in the year 1700, gives a fine de-
feription of it. “ The earth, being conftantly warmed
by fubterraneous fires, produced almolf without inter¬
ruption plenteous crops of corn, barley, cotton, ex-
quifite wanes, and delicious melons. St Elias, the fineft
monaftery in the ifland, and fituated on the moft ele¬
vated fpot, is encircled with orange, citron, cedar, and '
fig trees. Its gardens are watered by a copious fpring.
Olive trees, of which there are but few in the other
parts of the ifland, grow in great numbers around this
monaftery. The adjacent vineyards afford excellent
wine. In a word, all the produftions of the ifland are
the very heft of their kinds ; its partridges, quails, kids,
and lambs, are highly valued, and yet may be bought
at a very cheap price.”
Were M. Tournefort to return to Milo, M. Savary * * Letters an
aflures us; he would no longer fee the fine ifland which
he has deferibed. “ He might '{Till fee alum, in the
form of feathers, and fringed with iilver thread, hang¬
ing from the arches of the caverns ; pieces of pure
fulphur filling the cliffs of the rocks ; a variety of mi¬
neral fprings ; hot baths (though thefe are now only
a fet of fmall dirty caves) ; the fame lubterraneous
fires which in his days warmed the bofom of the
earth, and were the caufe of its extraordinary fertility :
but inftead of 5000 Greeks, all paying the capitation
tax (a), he would now find no more than about 700
(A) Grown up men are the only
5000 who paid the tax, the women,
at leaft 23,000 fouls.
perfons who pay the capitation tax. Therefore, by adding to the number of
boys, and girls, we find that Melds, in the days of foumefort, contained ..
Milo.
MIL [ii
inhabitants on an ifland 18 leagues in clioumferenre.
Pie would figh to behold the find! lands lying unculti¬
vated, and the molt fertile valleys converted into mo-
raiies ; of the gardens Icarcely a veftige left 5 three-
fourths of the town in ruins, and 'the inhabitants daily
decreafing. In fbort, during the laft 50 years, Melos
has aifumcd a quite different appearance. The plague,
which the Turks propagate everywhere, has cut off
one part of its inhabitants ; the injudicious admini-
ftration of the Porte, and the oppreflive extortions of
the captain pacha, have dellroyed the reft. At pre-
fent, for want of hands, they cannot cut out a free
channel for their waters, which ftagnate in the valleys,
corrupt, and infeft the air with their putrid exhala¬
tions. I he fait marftres, of which there are numbers
in the ifland, being equally negle&ed, produce the
fame effects. Add to thefe inconveniences, thofe ful-
phureous exhalations which arife all over the ifland,
and by which the inhabitants of Melos are aftli&ed
with dangerous fevers during three-fourths of the year.
Perhaps they may be obliged to forfake their coun¬
try. Every countenance is yellow, pale, and livid;
and none bears any marks of good health. The pru¬
dent traveller wall be careful to fpend but a very fhort
time in this unvvholefome country, unlefs he choofes
to expofe bimfelf to the danger of catching a fever.
To deep over night, or to fpend but one day in the
iiland, is often enough to occafion his being attacked
with that diftemper.
“ Yet (continues our author) a judicious and en¬
lightened government might expel thofe evils which,,
ravage Melos. Its frrft care would be to eftabliftr a la¬
zaret, and to prohibit veffels whole crewTs or cargoes
are infetfled with the plague from landing. Canals
might next be cut, to drain the marfhes, whofe exha¬
lations are fo pernicious. The iftand would then be
repeopled. The fulphureous vapours are not the moft
noxious. 1 hefe prevailed equally in ancient times, yet
the ifland was then very populous. M. Tournefort,
ivho travelled through it at a time lefs diftant from
the period when it w^as conquered by the Turks, and
when they had not yet had time to lay it wafte, rec¬
kons the number of its inhabitants (as we have faid)
at about 20,000. The depopulation of Melos is there¬
fore to be afcribed to the defpotifm of the Porte, and
is deteftable police.”
   I he women of Milo, once fo celebrated for their
land's Tourkzm'iy, are now fallow, unhealthy, and difguftingly
up the ugly ; and render themfelves ftiil more hideous by their
drefs, which is a kind of loofe jacket, with a white coat
and petticoat, that fcarccly covers two-thirds of their
thighs, barely meeting the flocking above the knee.
Their hind hair hangs down the back in a number of
.plaits ; that on the fore part of the head is combed
dovyn each 11 de of the face, and terminated by a fmall
itift curl, which' is even with the lower part of the
cheek. All the inhabitants are Greeks, for the Turks
are not fond ol truding themfelves in the fmall iflands ;
but every fummer the captain bafhaw goes round with
a fquadron to keep them in fubje6tion, and to collect
the revenue. When the Ruffians made themfelves ma¬
ilers of the Archipelago, many of the iflands declared
in their favour 5 but being abandoned by the peace,
they were fo feverely middled by the grand lignior, that
they have profeffed a determination to remain perfeclly
■2
Suthcr-
Straits,
p. 146.
o ] MI L
quiet in future. As the Turks, however, do not think
them worth a garrifon, and will not truft them with
arms and ammunition, all thofe which the Ruffians may
choofe to invade will be obliged to fubmit. The two
points which form the entrance of the harbour, crof-
ling each other, rend'^y it imperceptible until you are
clofe to it. Thus, while you are perfeclly fecure
within it, you find great difficulty in . getting out, par¬
ticularly in a northerly wind j and as no trade is car¬
ried on except a little in corn and fait, Milo would
fcarcely ever be vifited, were it not that, being the
firft ifland which one makes in the Archipelago, the
pilots have chofen it for their refidence. They live
in a little town on the top of a high rock, which, from
its fituation and appearance, is called the Cq/t/e.—
Partridges ftiil abound in this ifland.; and are fo cheap,
that you may buy one for a charge of potvder only.
The peafants get them by Handing behind a portable
fereen, with a fmall aperture in the centre,- in which
they place the muzzle of their piece, and then draw
the partridges by a call. When a fuiHcient number are
colledled, they fire among them, and generally kill
from four to feven at a ftiot ; but even this method of
getting them is fo expenfive, from the fcarcity of am¬
munition, that the people can never afford to flioot
them, except when there are gentlemen in the iflaPd,
from whom they can beg a little powder and ftiot.
Milo is 60 miles north of Candia ; and the town is
fituated in E. Long. 25. 15. N. Lat. 36. 27.
MILSTONE. See Millstone.
MILT, in Anatonnj, a popular name for the
Spleen.
Milftone
. I!
Miltiades.
Milt, or Melt, in Natural Hijlory, the foft roe in
fifties ; thus called from its yielding, by expreffion, a
whitifli juice refembling milk. See Roe.
The milt is properly the feed or fpermatic part of the
male fifh. The milt of a carp is reckoned a choice bit.
It confifts of two long whitifti irregular bodies, each in¬
cluded in a very thin fine membrane. M. Petit confi-
ders them as the tefticles of the fi(h wherein the feed is
preferved ; the lower part, next the anus, he fuppofes
to be the veficulce feminales.
MILTHORP, a port town of Weftmoreland, at
the mouth of the Can, five miles from Kendal. It is
the only fea port in the county ; and goods are
brought hither in fmall vefftls from Grange in Lan-
cafbire. Here are two paper mills. It has a market
on Friday, and a fair on Old May day ; and there is a
good ftone bridge over the river Betha, which runs
through the town.
MILTIADES, an Athenian captain, fori of Cyp-
felus. He obtained a viftory in a chariot race at the
Olympic games. He led a colony of Athenians to
the Cherfonefus. The caufes of this appointment are
ftriking and fingular. The Thracian Dolonci, ha-
raffed by a Tong war with the Abfynthians, were di¬
rected by the oracle of Delphi to take for their king
the firft man they met in their return home, who in¬
vited them to come under his roof and partake his
entertainments. This was Miltiades, whom the ap¬
pearance of the Dolonci, with their ftrange arms and
garments, had ftruck. He invited them to his houfe,
and was made acquainted with the commands of the
oracle. He obeyed ; and when the oracle of Delphi
had approved a fecond time the choice of the Do¬
lonci,
MIL [i
Tvlilthdes. lonci, he departed far the Cherfonefus, and was in
"v vefted by the inhabitants with fever: ign power. The
firlf meafures he took were to Jfop the further incur-
hons of the- Abfynthians, by building a ifrong wall
acrofs the iflhmus. When he had eftablilhed hirafelf
at home, and fortified his dominions againil foreign
invafion, be turned his arms againft Lampfacus. His
expedition was unfuccefsful •, he was taken in an am-
bufeade, and made prifoner. His friend Croefus king
of Lydia was informed of his captivity, and procured
his releafe. He lived few years after he had reco¬
vered his liberty. As he had no iflue, he left his
kingdom and pofleffions to Stefagoras the fon of Ci-
mon, who was his brother by the fame^ mother. The
memory of Miltiades was greatly honoured by the
Dolonci, and they regularly celebrated feflivals and
exhibited fhows in commemoration of a man to whom
they owed their greatnefs and prefervation.
Miltiades, the fon of Cimon, and brother of
Stefagoras mentioned in the preceding article, was fume
time after the death of the latter, who died without
iifue, fent by the Athenians with one flrip to take
poffeffion of the £herfonefus. At his arrival Mil-
tiades appeared mournful, as if lamenting the recent
death of his brother. The principal inhabitants of
the country vifited the new governor to condole with
'him ; but their confidence in his fincerity proved fa¬
tal to them. Miltiades feized their perfons, and made
himfelf abfolute in Cherfonefus. To ftrengthen him-
felf, he married Hegefipyla, the daughter of Olorus
the king of the Thracians. His triumph was fiiort.
In the third year of his government, his dominions
were threatened by an invafion of the Scythian No-
„ mades, w>hom Darius had fome time before irritated
by entering their country. He fled before them ;
but as their hoftilities were of fnort duration, he was
foon reflored to his kingdom. Three years after, he
left Cherfonefus •, and fet fail for Athens, where he
was received with great applaufe. He was prefent
at the celebrated battle of Marathon ; in which all
the chief officers ceded their power to him, and left
the event of the battle to depend upon his fuperior
abilities. He obtained an important victory over the
more numerous forces of his adverfaries. Some time
after, Miltiades was intrufted with a fleet of 70 fliips,
and ordered to punifli thofe iflands which had revolt¬
ed to the Ptrfians. He was fuccefsful at firft, but
a fudden report that the Perfian fleet was coming to
attack him, changed his operations as he was befieging
Paros. He raifed the fiege, and returned to Athens.
He was accufed of treafon, and particularly of hold¬
ing correfpondence with the enemy. The falfity of
thefe accufations might have appeared, if Miltiades
had been able to come into the afiembly. But a
wound which he had received before Paros detained
him at home ; and his enemies, taking advantage of
his abfence, became more eager in their accufations,
and louder in their clamours. He was condemned
to death ; but the rigour of his fentence was retrac¬
ed on the recolleCion of his great fervices to the A-
thenians, and he was put into prifon till he had paid a
fine of 50 talents to the ftate. His inability to dif-
charge, fo a great a fum detained him in confinement;
and his wounds becoming incurable, he died a pri-
fbner about 489 years before the Chriftian era. His
i ] MI L
body was ranfomed by his fon Cimon ; who was obli¬
ged to borrow and pay the 50 talents, to give his father
a decent burial.—The accufations againff Miltiades
were probably the more readily believed by his coun¬
trymen, when they remembered how he made him¬
felf abfolute in Cherfonefus} and in condemnino- the
barbarity of the Athenians towards a general,0 who
was the fource of their military profperity, we muft
remember the jealoufy which ever reigns among a
free and independent people, and how watchful they
are in defence of the natural rights which they fee
wrefted from others by violence. Cornelius Nepos
has written the life of Miltiades the'fon of Cimon;
but his hiflory is incongruous and unintelligible, from
his confounding the aCions of the fon of Cimou with
thofe of the fon of Cypfelus. Greater reliance is to
be placed on the narration of Plerodotus, whofe ve¬
racity is confirmed, and who was indifputably better
informed and more capable of giving an account of
the life and exploits of men who flourilhed in his age,
and of which he could fee the living monuments.
Herodotus was born about fix years after the famous
battle of Marathon : and C. Nepos, as a w-riter of the
Auguftan age, flourifhed about 450 years after the
age of the father of hiftory.
MILTON, John, the moft illuftrious of the Eng-
lifli poets, was defeended of a genteel family, featefl
at a place of their own name, viz. Mi/ton, in Oxford¬
shire. He was born December 9. 1608, and received
his firfl rudiments of education under the care of his
parents, aflifted by a private tutor. He afterwards
palled fome time at St Paul’s fchool, London ; in which
city his father had fettled, being engaged in the bufi-
nefs of a ferivener. At the ageof'17, he was fent to
Chrift’s college, Cambridge; where he made great
progrefs in all parts of academical learning ; but his
chief delight was in poetry. In 1628, he proceeded
bachelor of arts, having performed his excrcife for it
with great applaufe. His father defigned him lor the
church ; but the young gentleman’s attachment to the
Mules was fd ftrong, that it became impoflible to engage
him in any other purfuits. In 1632, he took the de¬
gree of mafter of arts; and. having now fpent as much
time in the univerfity as became a perfon who deter¬
mined not to engage in any of the three profeffions,
he left the college, greatly regretted by his acquain¬
tance, but highly difpleafed with the ufual method of
training up youth there for the ftudy of divinity ; and
being much out of humour with the public adminiflra-
tion of ecclefiaftical affairs, be grew diflatisfied with
the eflablilhed form of church government, and difliked
the whole plan of education pradifi-d in the univerfity.
His parents who now dwelt at Horton, near Coin-
brook, in Buckinghamfhire, received him with una¬
bated affeclion, notwithfianding he had thwarted their
- views of providing for him in the church, and they
amply indulged him in his love of retirement; wherein
he enriched his mind with the choiceft ftores of Gre¬
cian and Roman literature; and his poems of Comur,
l'Allegro, UPenferofo, and Lycidas, all wrote at thi’
time, would have been fufficient, had he never produ¬
ced any thing more confiderable, to have tranfmitted
his fame to the latefl pofierity. How’ever, he was not
fo abforbed in his lludies as not to make frequent ex-
curfions to London 3 neither did fo much excellence
pals.
Mill on,
MIL [ H2 ] MIL
pafs unnoticed among his neighbours in the country, well, and on the return of the long parliament, Milton Miko®
with the moft diftinguiihed of whom he fometimes being ftill continued fccretary, he appeared again in
chofe to relax his mind, and improve his acquaintance print ; pleading for a farther reformation of the laws
with the world as well as with books.—After five relating to religion ; and, during the anarchy that en-
years fpent in this manner, he obtained his father’s fued, he drew up feveral fchemes for re-ellablifhing the-
permifiion to travel for farther improvement. At Paris commonwealth, exerting all his faculties to prevent
he became acquainted with the celebrated Hugo Gro- the return of Charles II. England’s deftiny, however,
tius} and from thence travelling into Italy, he was and Charles’s good fortune, prevailing, our author
-everywhere careffcd by perfons of the moft eminent chofe to confult his fafety, and retired to a friend’s
quality and learning. houfe in Bartholomew-Clofe. A particular profecu-
Upon his return home, he fet up a genteel academy tiori wras intended agaipft him but the juft efteem to
in Alderfgate ftreet.—In 1641, he began to draw his which his admirable genius and extraordinary accom-
pen in defence of the Prefbyterian party ; and the next pliftiments entitled him, had raifed him fo many friends,
year he married the daughter of Richard Potvell, Efq. even among thofe of the oppofite party, that he was in-
of Foreft Hill in Oxfordfhire. This lady, however, eluded in the general amnefty.
whether from « difference on account of party, her This ilorm being over, he married a third wife, Eli-
father being a zealous royalift, or fome other caufe, zabeth, daughter of Mr Minftrall a Chelhire gentleman j
Icon thought proper to return to her relations j which fo and not long after he took a houfe in the Artillery
incenfed her hulhand, that he refolved never to take Walk, leading to Bunhill Fields. This was his laft ftage:
Ter again, and wrote and publifhed feveral trails in here he fat down for a longer continuance than he had
defence of the do£frine and difeipline of divorce. He been able to do anywTere ; and though he had loft
even made his addreffes to another lady ; but this in- his fortune (for every thing belonging to him went to
cident proved the means of a reconciliation with Mrs wreck at the Reftoration), he did net lofe his tafte for
Milton. literature, but continued his ftudies with almoft as much
In 16.14, he wrote his Tra£t upon Education j ardour as ever'; and applied himfelf particularly to the
.and the reftraint on the liberty of the prefs being finiftiing his grand work, the Paradife Lojl ,• one of the
.continued by aft of parliament, he wrote boldly and nobleft poems that ever was produced by human genius,
nobly again ft that reflraint. In 1645, he publiihed —It was publiftred in 1667, and hh Par adife Regained
his juvenile poems; and about two years after, on the came out in 1670.—This latter work fell fliort of the
death of his father, he took a fmaller houfe in High excellence of the former produftion ; although, wrere
.Holborn, the back of which opened into Lincoln’s- it not for the tranfeendent merit of Paradife Loft, the
Inn Fields.—Here he quietly profecuted his ftudies, fecond compcfition would doubtlefs have flood fore¬
till the fatal cataftrophe and death of Charles I.; on moft in the rank of Engliftr epic poems. After this he
which occafion he publiftied his Tenure of Kings and pubiiihed many pieces in profe ; for which wre refer our
.Magiftrates, in juftification of the faft. He was now readers to the edition of his Hiftorical, Poetical, and
taken into the fervice of the commonwealth, and made Mifcellaneous Works, printed by Millar, in 2 vols.
Latin femetary to the council of ftate, who refolved 410, in 1753.
-neither to write to others abroad, nor to receive any In 1674, this great man paid the laft debt to na-
anfwers, except in the Latin tongue, which was com- ture at his houfe in Bunhill Fields, in the 66th year
-mon to them all. The famous B«cr<A<xjj coming of his age ; and was interred on the izthofNovem-
out about the fame time, our author, by command, ber, in the chancel of St Giles’s, Cripplegate.—A de-
-wrote and publiftied his Iconoclajles the fame year, cent monument was erefted to his memory, in 1737,
It was alfo by order of his mafters, backed by the re- in Weftminfter Abbey, by Mr Benfon, one of the audi-
ward of 1000I. that in 1651 he publiftied his cele- tors of the impreft.—Milton was remarkably handfome
brated piece, entitled Pro Populo Anglicano Defen- in his perfon ; but his conftitution was tender, and
fo; “ A Defence of the People of England, in an- by no means equal to his inceffant application to his
fwer to Salmafius’s Defence of the King ; which per- ftudies.—Though greatly reduced in his circumftances,
formance fpread his fame overall Europe. He now yet he died worth 1500I. in money, befides his houfe-
dwelt in a pleafant houfe with a garden in Petty hold goods.—He had no fon : but left behind him three
France, Weftminfter, opening into St James’s Park, daughters, wTom he had by his firft wife.
In 1652 he buried his wife, who died not long after Milton, the name of feveral places in England;
the delivery of her fourth child ; and aboqt the fame particularly,
time he alfo loft his eye-fight, by a gutta ferena, which Milton, or Middleton, in Dorfetftiire, fouth-weft
had been growing upon him many years. of Blandford, near the road to Dorchefter, 114 miles
Cromwell took the reigns of government into his own from London. It is chiefly noted for its abbey, built
hand in the year 1653 ; but Milton .ftill held his of- by King Athelftan. The church ftands near the fouth
fice. His leifure hours he employed in profecuting his fide of the abbey. It is a large and magnificent pile
ftudies ; wherein he was fo far Trom being difeouraged of Gothic archite&ure, and contains feveral ancient
by the lofs of his' fight, that he even conceived hopes monuments. Here is an almhoufe for fix people, who
this misfortune w’ould add new vigour to his genius ; have 12s. a-week, and three yards of cloth for a gown,
which in faft feems to have been the cafe.—Thus one pair of Ihoes and ftockings, and 10s. eacn on St
animated, he again ventured upon matrimorty : his fe- Thomas’s day yearly. Here is a free fchool, and a
cond lady was the daughter of Captain Woodftock of market on Tuefdays.
Hackney": (he died in childbed about a year after. Milton, in Kent, near Sittingbourn and the ifle of
On the depofition of the proteftor, Richard Crom- Sheppey, 6 miles north-weft of Feverftiam, and 40
3 . from
M I M
[ 113 ] M I N
Milton from London. It is alfo called Middleton from its fi-
. !i tuation near the middle of the county, i. e. from Dept-
imis6^ to t^ie h)owns. The kings of Kent had a palace
   h' > here, which was caftellated, and flood below the church j
but was burnt down in Edward the Confelfur’s time
by Earl Goodwin, &c. Its church Hands near a mile
off. On approaching the town up the Thames, by
the Eall Swale, it feems hid among the creeks : yet it
is a large town ; and has a confiderable market on Sa¬
turdays, and a fair on July 24. The oyllers taken here
are the moft famous of any in Kent. This town is
governed by a portreeve, chofen yearly on St James’s
day, who fupervifes the weights and meafures all over
the hundred of Milton.
Milton, in Kent, a mile on the eaft fide of Gravef-
end, was incorporated with it in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, by the name of the portreeve, jurats, and
inhabitants of the towns of Gravefend and Milton,
King Henry VIII. raifed a platform or blockhoufe
here, for the defence both of this town and Gravef¬
end, and the command of the river. It has a fair
January 25
MILViUS, Molvius, or Mulvius, Pons; abridge
on the Tiber, built by TEmilius Scaurus the cenfor, in
the time of Sylla, at two miles difiance from the city,
on the Via Flaminia, and repaired by Augullus. From
this bridge the ambaffadors of the Allobroges were
brought back to Rome, by Cicero’s management, and
made a difcovery of Catiline’s confpiracy (Salluft).
Near it Maxentius was defeated by Conflantine (Eu-
tropius). Now called Ponte Mol/e.
Milvius, a fpecies of Falco. See Falco, Orni¬
thology Index.
MIMI, Mimes, in the ancient comedy, were buf¬
foons or mimics, who entertained the people by taking
off certain characters, ufing fucb geflures as fuited the
perfons or fubjefls they reprefented. There were on
the Roman nags female performers of this kind called
mini*. The word is derived from / imitate.
Some of the mimi a61ed their parts to the found of the
tibia ; thefe they called mimauli.
Mimi were alfo a kind of farces or ludicrous come¬
dies, generally performed by one perfon. They had
no adts, nor any exordium.—The mimi were introduced
upon the Roman ffage long after comedy and tragedy
had arrived at their full perfection. The adlor wore
no mafk, but fmeared his face with foot, was drefled in
lambfkin, wore garlands of ivy, and carried a bafket
of flowers and herbs, in honour of Bacchus, and di¬
verted the audience with apifh tricks and ridiculous
dances. This was the flate of the mimi foon after their
firfl; introdudlion j but they underwent many altera¬
tions, which it would take up too much room to relate,
and which are not of fufficient importance to juflify
a detailed account. See Pantomimes.
MIMESIS, in Rhetoric, the imitating the voice and
geftures of another perfon.
MIMNERMUS, an ancient pogt and mufician,
flouriflied about the beginning of the fixth century B.C.
He was of Smyrna, and cotemporary with Solon. A-
thenaeus gives him the invention of pentameter verfe.
His elegies, of which only a few fragments aie pre-
ferved, were fo much admired m antiquity, that Ho¬
race preferred them to thofe of Callimachus. He com-
pofed a poem of this kind, as we learn from Paufanias,
Vol. XIV. Part I. -
upon the battle fought between the people of Smyrna, Mimofa
and the Lydians under Gyges. He likewife was au- 1111 ,.
thor of a poem in elegiac verfe, quoted by Strabo, 1
which he entitled Nanno, and in which we may fuppofe y—»J
he chiefly celebrated a young and beautiful girl of that
name, who, according to Athenaeus, was a player on
the flute, with whom he was enamoured in his old age.
With refpeft to love matters, according to Propertius,
his verfes were more valuable than all the writings of
Flomer.
Plus in amore valet Mimnermi v erf us Homero.
Lib. I. Eleg. ix. v. 11.
Aqd Horace bears teftimony to his abilities in de-
fcribing that feducing paflion :
Si Mimnernus uti cenfet, fine amore jocifque
Nil efi jucundum, vivas in amore jocifrjue.
Lib. 1. Epift. vi. v. 65.
If, as wife Mimnermus faid,.
Life unbleft with love and joy
Ranks us with the fenielefs dead,
Let thefe gifts each hour employ.
Alluding to fome much admired lines of the Greek
poet, which have been preferved by Stobaeus.
/3<e?, T« Ti^TTVCy CiTT^ &C.
What is life and all its pride,
If love and pleafure be denied ?
Snatch, fnatch me hence, ye Fates, whene’er
The am’rous blifs I ceale to fhare.
Oh let us crop each fragrant flow’r
While youth and vigour give us pow’r:
For frozen age will foon deftroy
The force to give or take a joy }
And then, a prey to pain and care,
Deteffed by the young and fair,
The fun’s bleft beams will hateful grow,
And only fhine on fcenes of wo.
MIMOSA, the SENSITIVE PLANT, a genus of plants
belonging to the monoecia clafs; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 33d order, Lomentacece. See
Botany and Materia Medic a Index.
The name tnimofia, fignifying “ mimic,” is given to
this genus on account of the fenfibility of the leaves,
which, by their motion, mimic or imitate, as it were,
the motion of animals.
MINA, or Maneh, a fpecies of money which pro¬
perly flgnifies one part or ounce. It is obferved that
this word occurs only in the books of Kings, Chro¬
nicles, Ezra, and Ezekiel. This prophet (xlv. 12.)
tells us, that the minah or maneh was valued at 60
fhekels, which in gold make of our Englifh money
about 54^ pounds, and in filver almoft feven pounds.
Thus for the Hebrew maneh. But the Greek or
Attic mina, which is probably that mentioned in the
books of the Maccabees and in the New Teftament,
is valued at 100 drachmae, or about 2l. 17s. flerling.
There was alfo a leffer mina, which was valued at 75
drachmae.
MINAGNGHINIM, a pulfative infhument of
mafic, among the Hebrews, which was a fquare table
of wood, fitted with? a handle j over this table was
P ftretched
M I N
IWmcHa firetclied an iron chain, or hempen cord, palling through
. |j balls of wood or brafs, which Itruck againli the table,
Mindanao. t^e inftrument* was fliakeii, and occafioned a clear
found, which might be heard at a great diftance.
M1NCHA, in the Jewilh cuftoms, offerings of
meal, cakes, or bifcuits, made in the temple of the
Lord. The Seventy have fometimes prelerved this
word in their tranflation ; but inftead of nuncha they
read manaa, which doubtlefs was the received pronun¬
ciation in their time. We find manaa in the lame
fenfe, in Baruch i. 10. Levit, ii. 3. &c. See the
Greek of Jerem. xvii. 26. Dan. ii. 46. 2 Kings viii. 5,
9. xvii. 7. xx. 12. 2 Chron. vii. 7. Nehem. xiii. 5. 9.
&c.
MINCHING-hamptok, a town of Gloucefler-
fhire, 20 miles from Bath and Briftol, and near 90
from London, with a market on luefdays, and two
fairs. The parilh is pretty large, being bounded on
the north by the Stroud, and on the fouth by the
bT>ok Avening 5 and has 12 hamlets belonging to it,
with a common called Amberley. Here is a good
large redfory church, built in form of a crols, and
worth 200I. a-year. Near it are very large camps,
with deep trenches j and near Dunkirk in this parifli
are fulling mills.
MINCIUS, a river of the Tranfpadana in Italy •,
running from, or rather tranfmitted through, the i^acus
Benacus, from north to fouth, into the Padus 5 but ori¬
ginally rifing in the Rhetian Alps. Now Mincio or
Menzo, running through the duchy of Mantua into
the Po.
MIND, a thinking intelligent being, otherwufe call¬
ed fpirit, in oppofition to matter or body. See Me¬
taphysics, Part III.
MINDANAO, or Magindanao, a large ifland
of Afia in the Eaft Indies, and one of the Philippmes •,
160 miles in length, and 1 20 in breadth. The inte¬
rior parts contain feveral chains of lofty mountains,
between which are extenfive plains, where vaft herds
of cattle roam at large in the moft delicious pallures.
Several deep valleys alfo interfedf, as it were, certain
parts of the country, through which, during the rainy
feafons, vaft torrents pour from the mountains, and
force their impetuous way to the fea. The rains and
vapours which lodge in the plains diffufe themfelves into
meandering rivulets, and, colledling a variety of fmall
ftreams in their courfe, approach the fea in the form of
eonfiderable rivers.—The fovereign of Magindanao is
a powerful prince, and has feveral inferior chiefs, who
acknowledge him as tneir head. Neverthelcis, there
are others of them who refufe fubmifliori to him, and
are confequently in a continual ftate of wTar j fo that
peace, at leaft, does not appear to be one of the blef-
fings of this ifland. The Spaniards, indeed, affert
their right to the entire dominion of Magindanao 5
but it is mere affertion } for though they have forts,
&c. on the illand, it is by no means in a ftate of fub-
jeffion to their nation.
The air is efteemed falubrious, particularly in the
vicinity of the fea. The heat there is not, in any de¬
gree, fo intenfe as might be expected in a country
•which is fituated on the very verge of the torrid zone.
The prevalence of the eafterly winds, in that part of
the coafis which is walhed by the Pacific ocean, ren¬
ders the. air cool and pleafant, the trade wind.blowing
M T N
inceffantly on its (bores. It a£!s, indeed, with fo Mindel-
much power as to fweep the whole breadth of the h<''m
ifland j and though in its paflage it lofes much of its
(Length, it retains a fufficient degree of force to af- _
ford refreshing breezes to the inhabitants of the weftern
Shore. The interior parts are much colder, from a
very cloudy atmofphere, which frequently hangs over
the fummits of the mountains in thick and humid va¬
pours. The foil, which is very exuberant, is fuited
to the cultivation of the whole vegetable tribes. Rice
is produced in the greateft abundance ; a pecul, or 133
pounds, may be purchafed for a Spanifh dollar. Eve¬
ry part of the ifland abounds with buffaloes, cows,
hogs, goats, &.c. It affords alfo great variety of
fowls, and a fpecies of duck, whofe head is of a fine
fcarlet colour. Here is al(b a fmall breed of horfes,
remarkable for their fpirit. The natives, however,
principally employ buffaloes- in the various branches
of husbandry and agriculture.
The city of Magindanao is Situated on the fouth-
eafi fide of the ifland, has a river capable of admitting
fmall veffels, and carries on a considerable trade with
Manilla, Sooloo, Borneo and the Moluccas. Their
exports are rice, tobacco, bees wax, and fpices; ii>
return for which they receive coaife cloths of Coro¬
mandel, China ware, and opium. The village or town
of Samboingan is fituated on the banks of a fmall
rivulet, which empties itfelf immediately into the fea,
and is agreeably Shaded by groves of cocoa trees. The
number of its inhabitants is about 1000, among
which are included the officers, foldiers, and their re-
Spe&ive families. In its environs there are feveral
fmall look-out houfes, ereffed on pofts of twelve feet
high, in all of which a conftant guard is kept; fo
that it appears as if the Spaniards were in a continual
ftate of enmity with the natives. The houfes are built
of thofe Simple materials which are of very general ufe
in the eaftern feas. They are erefted on pofts, and
built of bamboo, covered with mats j the lower apart¬
ments ferve for their hogs, cattle, and poultry, and
the upper ones are occupied by the family.”
MINDELHEIM, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, and in Algow, with a caftle. It
is capital of a fmall territory between the rivers Iller
and Lech, fubjedl to the houfe of Bavaria. It was
taken by the Imperialifts after the battle of Hoch-
ftet, who erefted it into a principality in favour of
the duke of Marlborough ; but it returned back to
the houfe of Bavaria by the treaty of Raftadt. It is
33 miles fouth-eaft of Ulm. E. Long. 10. 40. N.
Lat. 48. 5.
MindELHF.im, a diftrift of Germany, in Suabia, ly¬
ing between the biShoprick of AugSburg and the ab¬
bacy of Kempten, which is 20 miles in length and 16
in breadth.
MINDEN, a considerable town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia ; and capital of a territory of the
fame name j feated on the river Wefer, which renders
it a trading place. It formerly belonged to the king of
Pruflia, who fecularized the bishopric. It is 27 miles
eaft by fouth of Ofnaburg, and 37 weft of Hanover. E.
Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 52 22.
MlNDEN (the principality of), in Germany, lies in
the circle of WeStphalia, to the north of the county
of Ravenfburg, and along each fide of the river Wefer,.
Ik
t 1*4-1
MIN
Mimlora, It is about 22 miles fquare, and Minden and Peter-
M;ne- fliagen are the principal places. It was formerly a
* bilhopric, but is now fecularized : and was ceded to
the ele&or of Brandenburg by the treaty of Weft-
phalia.
MINDORA, an ilknd of Alia, in the Eaft Indies,
and one of the Philippines, jo miles in circumference,
and feparated from Luconia by a narrow channel. It
is full of mountains, which abound in palm trees and
all forts of fruits. The inhabitants are idolaters,
and pay tribute to the Spaniards, to whom this ifland
belongs.
MINE, in NaturalHi/lory, a deep pit under ground,
from whence various kinds of minerals are dug out j
but the term is more particularly applied to thofe
which yield metals. Where ftones only ace procured,
the appellation of quarries is univerfally bellowed upon
the places from which they are dug out, however deep
they may be.
The internal parts of the earth, as far as they have
been yet inveftigated, do not conlilf of one uniform
fubllance, but of various Jlrata or beds of fubftances,
extremely different in their appearances, fpecific gra¬
vities, and chemical qualities, from one another. Nei¬
ther are thefe llrata fimilar to one another either in
their nature or appearance in different countries ; fo
that even in the ftiort extent of half a mile, the llrata
will be found quite different from what they are in
another place. As little are they the fame either in
depth or folidity. Innumerable cracks and filfures,
by the miners called lodes, are found in every one of
them ; but thefe are fo entirely different in fize and
lhape, that it is impollible to form any inference from
their fize in one place to that in another. In thefe
lodes or fiffures the metallic ore is met with ; and,
confidering the great uncertainty of the dimenfions
of the lodes, it is evident that the bufinefs of mining,
which depends on that fize, mull in like manner be
quite uncertain and precarious. Mr Price, in his
treatife on the Cornilh mines, obferves, that “ the
comparative fmallnefs of the large!! filfures to the bulk
of the whole earth is really wonderful. In the fineft
pottery we can make, by a microfcopic view, We may
difcover numerous cracks and filfures, fo fmall as to
be impenetrable by any fluid, and impervious to the
naked eye j as, by the laws of nature originally im-
pofed by. the Creator, it happens that matter cannot
contradl itlelf into folid large mafl'es, without leaving
fiffures between them, and yet the very filfures are as
necelfary and ufeful as the llrata through wThich they
•pafs. They are the drains that carry off the redun¬
dant moilture from the earth 5 which, but for them,
would be too full of fens and bogs for animals
to live or . plants to thrive on. In thefe filfures,
the feveral ingredients wbich form lodes, by the conti¬
nual palfing of waters, and the menllrua of metals, are
brought out of the adjacent llrata, colkaed and con¬
veniently lodged in a narrow channel, much to the
.advantage of thole who fearch for and purfue them ^
loi if metals and minerals were more difperfed, and
Scattered thinly in the body of the llrata, the trouble
of finding and getting at them would be endlefs; and
the expence of procuring them exceed the value of the
acquifition.
I he infides of the filTures are commonly coated
M I N
over with a hard, cryllalline, earthy fubllance or
rind, which very often, in the breaking of hard ore,
comes off along with it, and is commonly called the
cafyels or walls of the lode : but Mr Price is of opi¬
nion, that the proper walls of the lode are the fides
of the .filfure itfelf, and not the coat julf mentioned,
which is the natural plaller upon thole walls, furnilhed
perhaps by the contents of the filfures, or from oozings
of the furrounding llrata.
The breadth of a lode is eafily known by the di-
llance betwixt the two incrulted fides of the Hones of
ore 5 and if a lode yields any kind of ore, it is a bet¬
ter fign that the walls be regular and fmooth, or at
leall that one of them be fo, than otherwife y but
there are not many of thefe fiffures which have regu¬
lar walls until they have been funk down fome fa¬
thoms.
Thus the inner part of the fiffure in which the ore
lies., is all the way bounded by twm w^alls of Hone,
which are generally parallel to one another, and in¬
clude the breadth of the vein or lode. Whatever
angle ot inclination fome fiffures make in the folid
ftrata at their beginning, they generally continue to
do the fame all along. Some are very uncertain in
their breadth, as they may be fmall at their upper
part and wdde underneath, and vice verfa. Their re¬
gular breadth, as well as their depth, is fubjeft ta
great variation ; for though a fiffure may be many
fathoms wide in one particular place, yet a little fur¬
ther call or w’ell it may not perhaps be one inch
wide. This exceflive variation happens generally in
very compadl llrata, when the vein or fiffure is fqueez-
ed, as it were, through hard rocks which feem to
comprefs and llraiten it. A true vein or fiffure, how¬
ever, is never entirely obliterated, but always Ihows a
firing of metallic ore or of a veiny fubllance ; which
often ferves as a leader for the miners to follow until
it fometimes leads them to a large and richly im¬
pregnated part. Their length is in a great meafure
unlimited, though not the fpace bell fitted for yield-
ing meial. The richell Hate for copper, according
to Mr Price, is from 40 to 80 fathoms deep ; for tin,
from 20 to 60 : and though a great quantity of ei¬
ther may be raifed at 80 or 100 fathoms, yet, “ the
quality (fays our author) is often too much decaved
and dry for metal.”
Mr Price informs us, that the fiffures or veins of
the Cornilh mines extend from call to well; or, more
properly, one end of the fiffure points well and by
fouth, 01 well and by north ^ while the other tends
call and by fouth, or call and by north. Thus they
frequently pafs through a confiderable tra& of coun¬
try with very few variations in their dire&ions, un-
lefs they be interrupted by fome intervening caufe. 
But, befides this call and well direflion, w*e are to
confider what the miners call the underlying or hade
of the vein or lode j viz. the deflexion or deviation
of the fiffure from its perpendicular line, as it is follow¬
ed in depth like the Hope of the roof of a houfe, or
the defcent of the lleep fide of a hill. This Hope is
geneially to the north or fouth 5 but varies much la
different veins, or fometimes even in the fame vein ^
for it will frequently dope or underlie a fmall fpace
in different w?ays, as it may appear to be forced by
hard ilrata on either fide.—Some of the fiiliires da
B 3 Otft
[ ir5 ]
Mine.
MIN [ii
Mire, not vary much from a perpendicular, while feme devi-
*"~v"—' ate more than a fafhom j that is, for every fathom they
defeend in perpendicdlar height, they deviate likewife
as much to the fouth or north. Others differ fo much
from the perpendicular, that they affume a pofition
almod horizontal *, whence they are alfo called hon-
■%ontal or fiat lodes, and fometimes lode plots. Ano¬
ther kind of thefe has*an irregular pofition with re¬
gard to the reft ; widening horizontally for a little
way, and then defeending perpendicularly almoft like
itairs, with only a fmall firing or leader to follow af¬
ter j and thus they alternately vary and yield ore in
feveral flat or horizontal fiffures. This, by the Cor-
liifh tinners, is called (but in Mr Price’s opinion erro-
neoully) a floor or fquat ; which, properly fpeaking,
is a hole or chafm impregnated with metal, making
no continued line of direction or regular walls. Nei¬
ther does a floor of ore defeend to any confiderable
depth ; for underneath it there appears no lign of a
vein or fiffure, either leading diredlly down or any
other way. This kind of vein is very rare in Britain.
The fiffures moft common in Britain are the perpendicu¬
lar and inclined, whether their direftion be north or'
fouth, eaft or weft.
The perpendicular and horizontal fiffures (accord¬
ing to our author) probably remain little altered from
their firft pofition, when they were formed at the in¬
duration of the ft rata immediately after the waters
left the land. The perpendicular fiffures are found
more commonly fituated in level ground, at a diftance
from hills, and from the fea ftiore; but with regard
to the latter, we find that the uppec and under maffes
of ftrata differ in their folidity and other properties.
Hence, (fays our author) it is very plain, that- in¬
clined fiffures owe their defledlion or underlie to fome
fecondary caufe, violence, or fubfidence, of the earth :
for though perpendicular fiffures are feldom to be feen,
vet fuch as are inclined at very confiderable depths, be¬
come more and mere perpendicular, as the more central
ftrata, by reafon of the vaft fuperincumbent weight, do
not feem fo likely to be driven out of their pefition as
thofe which lie nearer the furface.”
The fiflures are often met with fraffured as well
as inclined ; the reafon of which, in Mr Price’s opi¬
nion, has been a fubfidence of the earth from fome
extraordinary caufe. “ The original pofiticn (fays
he) muft have been horizontal, or parallel to the fur-
face of the earth : but we often find thefe flrata very
fenfibly declined from that firft pofition 5 nay, fome¬
times quite reverfed, and changed into perpendicular.
When we fee a wall lean, we immediately conclude
that the foundation has given w’ay, according to the
angles which the walls make with the horizon ; and
when we find the like declination in ftrata, we may
conclude, by parity of reafon, that there has been a
like failure of what fupported them, in proportion to
A that declination ; or that ivhatever made the ftrata to
fall fo much awry, muft alfo caufe every thing includ¬
ed in thofe ftrata to fall proportionally. Wherever
the greateft fubfidence is to the north, the top of the
lode or fiffure will point to the north, and of confe-
quence underlie to the fouth, and vice verfla : the
ijide or heave of the lode manifefts the greater fubfi-
dence of the ftrata ; but the fame lode is frequently
fira&ured and heaved in feveral places, all of which,
6 ] MIN
by due obfervation, will ftrow us they were occafion- Mine,
ed by fo many feveral ftiocks or fub£dencies, and that v—"
the ftrata were net unfooted, lhaken, or. brought to fall
only once or twice, but feveral times.”
Mr Price in the ccurfe of his work, pbferves, that
though the metallic veins generally run from eaft to
weft, they are frequently interfered by veins or lodes,
as he calls them, of other matters, which run from
north to fouth. Some of thefe crofs veins contain lead
or antimony, but never tin or copper. Sometimes
one of thefe unmetallic veins interfedls the true one
at right angles, fometimes obliquely •, and fometimes
the mixture of both is fo intimate, that the moft ex¬
pert miners are at a lofs to difeever the feparated part
of the true vein. When this laft is intercepted at
right angles, it is moved either north or fouth, a
very little way, perhaps not more than one fathom ;
in which cafe, the miners having worked to a fmall
diftance in one of thefe direftions, if they find them-
felves difappointed, turn to the other hand, and feldom
fail of meeting with what they expefted. Sometimes
they are directed in their fearch by the pointing of a
rib or firing of the true vein-, but when the interruption
happens in an oblique dire£Hon, the difficulty of finding
the vein again is much greater.
When two metallic veins in the neighbourhood of
each other run in an oblique diredhon, and cf confe-
quence meet together, they commonly produce a body
of ore at the place where they interfedl ; and if both
are rich, the quantity will be confiderable ; but if one
be poor and the other rich, then both are either en¬
riched or impoverithed by the meeting. After fome
time they feparate again, and each will continue its for¬
mer direclion near to the other ; but fometimes, though
rarely, they continue united.
It is a fign cf a poor vein when it feparates or diver¬
ges into firings ; but on the contrary, when feveral of
them are found running into one, it is accounted a pro-
mifing fign. Sometimes there are branches without the
walls of the vein in the adjacent ftrata, which often
come either obliquely or tranfverfely into it. If thefe
branches are impregnated with ore, or if they underlie
fafter than the true vein, that is, if they dip deeper into
the ground, then they are faid to overtake or come into
the lode, and to enrich it ; or if they do not, then they
are faid to go off from it, and to impoverifh it. But
neither thefe nor any other marks either of the richnefs
or poverty of a mine are to be entirely depended upon \
for many mines, which have a very bad appearance at
firft, do neverthelefs turn out extremely well after¬
wards 5 while others, which in the beginning feemed
very rich, turn gradually worfe and worfe : but iri. ge¬
neral, where a vein has a bad appearance at firft, it
will be imprudent to be at much expence with it.
Veins of metal, as has been already obferved, are fre¬
quently, as it were, fo compreffed betwixt hard ftrata,
that they are not an inch wide ; neverthelefs, if they
have a firing of good ore, it will generally be worth
while to purfue them : and they frequently turn out
well at laft, after they have come into lofter ground.
In like manner, it is an encouragement to go on if
the branches or leaders of ore enlarge either in width
or depth as they are worked ; but it is a bad fign if
they continue horizontal w ithout inclining downwards*,
though it is not proper always to difeontinue the work-
/
M IN [i
ing of a vein which has an unfavourable afpe£l at firft.
Veins of tin are worth working when only three inches
wide, provided the ore be good } and copper ores when
fix inches wdde will pay very well for the working.
Some of the great mines, however, have very large
veins, with a number of other fmall ones very near each
ether. There are alfo veins, croffing one another fome-
times met with, which are called contras, vulgarly
counters. Ssmetimes tw'o veins run down into the
ground in fuch a manner that they meet in the direc¬
tion of their depth ; in which cafe, the fame obferva-
tions apply to them which are applicable to thofe that
meet in a horizontal direction. Sometimes a vein will
fuddenly dilappear without giving any warning, by be¬
coming narrower, or of worfe quality ; which by the
miners is called'a Jlart or leaf), and is very common in
the mines or Cornwall. In one day’s time they may
thus be difappointed in the working of a rich vein of
tin, and have no further lign of any thing to wmrk
upon. ,At the fractured extremity of their vein they
perceive a body of clay or other matter \ and the me¬
thod of recovering their vein is to drive on the work in
the diredlion of the former part, fo that their new wmrk
{hail make the fame angle with the clay that the other
part of the vein does. Sometimes they fink a (haft
down from the furface *, but it is generally a matter of
difficulty to recover a vein when thus loft.
The method of difeovering mines is a matter of fo
much difficulty, that it feems furpriling how thofe who
were totally unacquainted with the nature of metals
firft came to think of digging them out of the earth.
According to Lucretius, the difeevery was made by the
conflagration of certain woods, which melted the veins
of metal in the earth beneath them ; but this feems ra¬
ther to be improbable. Ariftotle, however, is of the
fame opinion with Lucretius, and tells us, that fome
(hepherds of Spain having fet fire to the w'oods, the
earth w7as thus heated to fuch a degree that the ffilver
near the furface of it melted and flowed into a mafs j
and that in a fhort time the metallic mafs was difeover-
ed by the rending of the earth in the time of an earth¬
quake : and the fame ftory is told by Strabo, who af-
cribes the difeovery of the mines of Andalufia 'to this
accident. Cadmus is Laid by fome to have been the
firft who difeovered gold : wffiile others aferibe this to
Thoas the Thracian, to Mercury the ion of Jupiter, or
to Pifus king of Italy 5 who having left his owm coun¬
try, went into Egypt, wffiere he was elecled king after
the death of Mizraim the fon of Ham ; and, on ac¬
count of his difeovery, wTas called the Golden God.
Others fay, that Eac/is or Cneacus the fon of Jupiter,
or Sol the fon of. Oceanus, was the firft. difeoverer ; but
LEfcbylus attributes the difeovery not only of gold, but
of all other metals, to Prometheus. The brafs and
copper mines in Cyprus were firft difeovered by Cinyra
the fon of Agryopa ; and Hefiod aferibes the difeovery
of the iron mines of Crete to the Cretan Dadftyli Idiei.
The extraftion of lead or tin from its ore in the ifland of
Cafliteris, according to feveral ancient authors, w’as
difeovered by Pvlidacritus.—The Scripture, however,
aferibes the invention of brafs and iron, or at leaft of
the methods of working them, to Tubal Cain before
the flood.
In more modern times, we knew that miries have
been frequently difeovered by accident 5 as in fez cliffis,
17] MIN
among broken craggy rocks, by the w'afhing of the Mine,
tide or floods, alfo by irruptions and torrents of wa- '“““■V"*'
ter iffuing out of hills and mountains, and fometimes
by the wearing of high roads. Mr Price mentions
another way by wffiich mines have been difeovered, viz.
by fiery corufcations j which, be fays, he has heard
from perfons whofe veracity he is unwilling to que-
ikbn. “ The tinners (fays he) generally compare
thefe effluvia to blazing ftars or other whim ical like-
neffes, as their fears or hopes fuggeft 5 and fearch with
uncommon eagernefs the ground over which thefe
jack-a-lanterns have appeared and pointed out. We
have heard but little of thefe phenomena for many
years; whether it be, that the pretent age is lefs cre¬
dulous than the foregoing, or that the ground, being
more perforated by innumerable new pits funk, every
year, fome of which, by the ftannary laws, are prevent¬
ed from being filled up, has given thefe vapours a more
gradual vent, it is not neceffary to inquire, as the fait
itfelf is not generally believed.”
Mines, however, are now7 moft commonly difeovered
by inveftigating the nature of fuch veins, ores, and
ftones as may feem moft likely to turn to account i
but there is a particular fagacity, or habit of judging
from particular figns, which can be acquired only by
long praftice. Mines, efpecially thofe of copper, may
alfo be difeovered by the harfh and dxfagreeable tafte
of the waters which iffue from them ; though it is pro¬
bable that this only happens when the ore lies above
the level of the water which breaks out; for it does
not feem lively that the tafte of the ore could afeend,
unlefs we were to fuppofe a pond or lake of water
(landing above it. The prefence of copper in any wa¬
ter is eaiily difeovered by immerging in it a bit of po-
lifhed iron, which will thus inftantly be turned of a
copper colour, by reafon of the precipitation of the
metal upon it. A candle, or piece of tallow put into
water of this kind, will in a (hort time be tinged of a
green colour.
Another and dill more remarkable method of dif¬
eovering mines is faid to be by the virgula divinatoria,
or “ divining rod j” which, however incredible the (lo¬
ries related concerning it may be, is Hill relied on
by fome, and among others by Mr Price. It is not
knoxvn who was the inventor of this method ; but A-
gricola fuppofes that it took its rife from the magi¬
cians, who pretended to difeover mines by enchantment.
No mention is made of it, however, before the nth
century, fince which time it has been in frequent ufe j
and the Corpufcular Philofophy has even been called
in to account for it. But before vve pretend to account
for phenomena fo very extraordinary as thofe reported
of the virgula divinatoria, it is neceffary, in the firft
place, to determine whether or not they exiit. Mr
Price, as has been already hinted, believes in it, though
he owns that by reafon of his conftitution of mind 7
and body, he is almoft incapable of co-operating with
its influence. 'The following account, however, he
gives from Mr William Cookworthy of Plymouth, a
gentleman of known veracity and great chemical a-
bilities.
Pie had the firft information concerning this rod
from one Captain Ribeira, who deferted from the
Spanifli fervice in (Pueen Anne’s reign, and became
captain-commandant in the garrifon of Plymouth 5 in.
whid\;
Mine.
M I N
which town he fatisfied feveral Intelligent perfons of
the virtues of the rod, by many experiments on pieces
of metal hid in the earth, and by an a6tual difcovery of
a copper mine near Oakhampton, which was wrought
for fome years. This captain very readily (bowed the
method of ufing the rod in general, but would not by
any means difcover the fecret of diftinguiftiing the dif¬
ferent metals by it: though, by a conftant attention
to his praflice, Mr Cookworthy difcovered it. Cap¬
tain Ribeira was of opinion, that the only proper rods
for this purpofe were thofe cut from the nut or fruit
trees j and that the virtue was confined to certain per¬
fons, and thofe, comparatively fpeaking, but few:
but Mr Price fays, that the virtue refides in all per¬
fons and in all rods under certain circumftances.
The rod (Tays he) is attracted by all the metals, by
coals, limeftone, and fprings of water, in the follow¬
ing order : I. Gold ; 2. Copper ; 3. Iron $ 4. Silver ;
5. Tin 5 6. Lead; 7. Coals j 8. Limeftone and fprings
of water. One method of determining the different
attraftions of the rod is this: Stand, holding the rod
with one foot advanced j put a guinea under that foot,
and an halfpenny under the other, and the rod will be
drawn down $ (hift the pieces of money, and the rod
will be drawn towards the face, or backwards to the
gold, which proves the gold to have the ftronger at-
traftion.
“ The rods formerly ufed were (hoots of one year’s
growth that grew forked $ but it is found, that two
i'eparate (hoots tied together with packthread or other
vegetable fubftance anfwer rather better than fuch as
are naturally forked, as the (hoots of the latter are
feldom of an equal fize. They are to be tied together
by the greater ends, the fmall ones being held in the
hands. Hazle rods cut in the winter, fuch as are ufed
for fiftiing rods, and kept till they are dry, do beft j
though, where thefe are not at hand, apple-tree fuck¬
ers, rods from peach trees, currants, or the oak, though
green, will anfwer tolerably well.”
Our author next proceeds to defcribe the manner of
holding the rod 5 of which he gives a figure, as he fays
it is difficult to be defcribed. The fmall ends being
crooked, are to be held in the hands in a pofition flat
or parallel to the horizon, and the upper part in an
elevation not perpendicular to it, but at an angle of
about 70 degrees. “ The rod (fays he) being pro¬
perly held by thofe with whom it will anfwer, when
the toe of the right foot is within the femidiameter of
the piece of metal or other fubjeiff of the rod, it will
be repelled towards the face, and continue to be fo
while the foot is kept from touching or being direftly
over the fubjeft ; in which cafe it will be fenfibly and
tlrongly attra&ed, and be drawn quite down. The
rod (hould be firmly and fteadily grafped; for if, when
it has begun to be attrafted, there be the lead ima¬
ginable jerk or oppofition to its attraftion, it will not
move any more till the hands are opened, and a frefh
grafp taken. The ftronger the grafp the livelier the
rod moves, provided the grafp be fteady and of an
equal (Length. This obfervation is very neceflary •,
as the operation of the rod in many hands is defeated
purely by a jerk or countera&ion : and it is from
thence concluded, that there is no real efficacy in the
rod, or that the perfon who holds it wants the virtue j
M I N
whereas, by a proper attention to this circumftance in Mme.
ufing it, five perfons in fix have the virtue, as it is v~“
called ; that is, the nut or fruit-bearing rod will an¬
fwer in their hands. If a rod, or the lead piece of
one of the nut-bearing or fruit kind, be put under the
arm, it will totally deftroy the operation of the virgula
divinatoria, in regard to all the fubje&s of it, except
water, in thofe hands in which the rod naturally ope¬
rates. If the lead animal thread, as filk, or worded,
or hair, be tied round or fixed on the top of the rod,
it will in like manner hinder its operation j but the
fame rod placed under the arm, or the (ame animal fub-
ftances tied round or fixed on the top of the rod, will
make it work in thofe hands, in which without thefe ad¬
ditions it is not attraffed.”
Such are the accounts of this extraordinary rod, to
which it is probable that few will affent; and we believe
the inftances of mines having been difcovered by it are
but very rare. Another and very ancient mode of dif-
covering mines, lefs uncertain than the divii^ng rod,
but extremely difficult and precarious, is that called
Jhoding; that is, tracing them by loofe ftones, frag¬
ments, or Jhodes, which may have been feparated or
carried off to a confiderable diftance from the vein, and
are found by chance in running waters, on the fuperficies
of the ground, or a little under.—“ When the tinners
(fays Mr Price) meet with a loofe fingle done of tin
ore, either in a valley or in ploughing or hedging,
though at 100 fathoms diftance from the vein it came
from, thofe who are accuftomed to this work will not
fail to find it out. They confider, that a metallic (lone
muft originally have appertained to fome vein, from
which it was fevered and caft at a diftance by fome vio¬
lent means. The deluge, they fuppofe, moved moft of
the loofe earthy coat of the globe, and in many places
wafhed it off from the upper towards the lower grounds,
with fuch a force, that moft of the backs or lodes of
veins which protruded themfelves above the faft ■were
hurried downwards with the common mafs : whence
the (kill in this part of their bufinefs lies much in direc¬
ting their meafures according to the fituation of the fur-
face.” Afterwards, however, our author complains that
this art of Jhodingy as he calls it, is in a great meafure
loft. •
The following account of a method of finding filver
mines by Alonzo Barba feems to be fimilar to that of
(boding juft now mentioned. “ The veins of metal
(fays he) are fometimes found by great ftones above
ground ; and if the veins be covered, they hunt them
cut after this manner j viz. taking in their hands a
fort of mattock, which has a fteel point at one end
to dig with, and a blunt head at the other wherewith to
break ftones, they go to the hollows of the mountains,
where the current of rain water defcends, or to fome
other part of the (kirts of the mountains, and there
obferve what ftones they meet wdth, breaking in pieces
thofe that feem to have any metal in them 5 whereof
they find many times both middling fort of ftones and
fmall ones alfo of metal. Then they confider the fitua¬
tion of that place, and wfience thefe ftones can tumble,
which of neceflity muft be from higher ground, and
follow the track of them up the hill as long as they can
find any of them,” &c.
“ Another way (fays Mr Price) of difcovering lodes
is
t ns 1
4
MIN [ i
Mine. Is by working drifts acrofs the country, as we call it,
that is, from north to fouth, and vice verfa. I tried
the experiment in an adventure under my management,
where I drove all open at grafs about two feet in the
fhelf, very much like a level to convey water upon a
mill wheel j by fo doing I was fure of cutting all lodes
in my way : and I did accordingly difcover five courfes,
one of which has produced above 180 tons of copper
ore, but the others were never wrought upon. This
method of difcovering lodes is equally cheap and cer¬
tain •, for i oo fathoms in {hallow ground may be driven
at 50s. expence.”
In that kind of ground called by our author fea-
fible> and which he explains by the phrafe tender-
Jianditig, he tells us, that “ a very effeflual, proving,
and confequential way is, by driving an adit from the
loweft ground, either north or fouth $ whereby there
is a certainty to cut all lodes at 20, 30, or 40 fathoms
deep, if the level admits of it. In driving adits or
levels acrofs, north or fouth, to unwater mines already
found, there are many frefh veins difcovered, which
frequently prove better than thofe they rvere driving to.”
After the mine is found, the next thing to be confi-
dered is, whether it may be dug to advantage. In or¬
der to determine this, we are duly to weigh the nature
of the place, and its fituation, as to wood, water, car¬
riage, healthinefs, and the like j and compare the re-
fult with the richnefs of the ore, the charge of digging,
damping, walhing, and fmelting.
Particularly the form and fituation of the fpot
Ihould be well confidered. A mine mud either hap¬
pen, i. In a mountain $ 2. In a hill; 3. In a valley j
or, 4. In a flat. But mountains and hills are dug with
much greater eafe and convenience, chiefly becaufe the
drains and burrows, that is, the adits or avenues, may
be here readily cut, both to drain the water and to
form gangways for bringing out the lead, &c. In
all the four cafes, we are to look out for the veins
which the rains or other accidental thing may have
laid bare j and if fuch a vein be found, it may often
be proper to open the mine at that place, efpecially if
the vein prove tolerably large and rich : otherwife the
mod commodious place for filuation is to be chofen for
the purpofe, viz. neither on a flat, nor on the tops of
mountains, but on the fides. The bed fituation for a
ipine, is a mountainous, woody, wholefome fpot j of
a fafe eafy afcent, and bordering on a navigable river.
The places abounding with mines are generally healthy j
as danding high, and everywhere expofed to the air •,
yet fome places where mines are found prove poifon-
ous, and can upon no account be dug, though ever fo
rich j the way of examining a fufpefted place of this
kind, is to make experiments upon brutes, by expof-
ing them to the effluvia or exhalations, to find the ef-
fefts.
Devonfhire and Cornwall, where there are a great
many mines of copper and tin, is a very mountainous
country, which gives an opportunity in many places
to make adits or fubterraneous drains to fome valley
at a didance, by which to carry off the water from
the mine, which otherwife would drown them out
from getting the ore. Thefe adits are fometimes car¬
ried a mile or two, and dug at a vafl expence, as from
2.ooq1. to 4p.ool. efpecially where the ground is rocky $
9 ] MIN
and yet they find this cheaper than to draw up the Mine.
water out of the mine quite to the top, when the
water runs in plenty, and the mine is deep. Some¬
times, indeed, they cannot find a level near enough to
which an adit may be carried from the very bottom of
the mine; yet they find it worth while to make an adit
at half the height to which the water is to be raifed,
thereby faving half the expence.
Mr Codar, confidering that fometimes from fmall
dreams, and fometimes from little fprings or colledlions
of rain water, one might have a good deal of water
above ground, though not a fuflicient quantity to turn
an overfhot wheel, thought that if a fuffleient fall might
be had, this colledlion of water might- be made ufeful
in railing the water in a mine to the adit, where it may
be carried off.
But now the mod general method of draining mines
is by the fleam engine. See SrEAM-Engine.
Mine, in the military art, denotes a fubterraneous
canal or paflage, dug under the wall or rampart
of a fortification, intended ta be blowm up by gun¬
powder.
The alley or paffage of a mine is commonly about
four feet fquare y at the end of this is the chamber of
the mine, which is a cavity of about five feet in width
and in length, and about fix feet in height; and here
the gunpowder is flowed. The fauciffe of the mine
is the train, for which there is always a little aperture
left.
Two ounces of powder have been found,, by experi¬
ment, capable of raifing two cubic feet of earth 5 con-
fequently 200 ounces, that is, 12 pounds 8'ounces, will
raife 200 cubic feet, which is only 16 feet Ihort of a
cubic toife, becaufe 200 ounces, joined together, have
proportionably a great force than two ounces, as being
an united force.
All the turnings a miner ufes to carry on his mines,
and through which he condu&s the fauciffe, fliould be
well filled with earth and dung j and the mafonry in
proportion to the earth to be blown up, as 3 to 2.
The entrance of the chamber of the mine ought to be
firmly fhut with thick planks, in the form of a St An¬
drew’s crofs, fo that the enclofure be fecure, and the
void fpaces {hut up with dung, or tempered earth. If
a gallery be made below or on the fide of the chamber,
it mud abfolutely be filled up with the flronged ma¬
fonry, half as long again as the height of the earth j.
for this gallery will not only burfl, but likewife ob-
flrutt the effeft of the mine. The powder fliould al¬
ways be kept in facks, which are opened when the
mine is charged, and fome of the powder flrewed
about: the greater the quantity of earth to be raifed
is, the greater is the effedt of the mine, fuppofing it
to have the due proportion of powder. Powder has
the fame effedl upon mafonry as upon earth, that is,-
it will proportionably raife either with the fame velo¬
city.
The branches which are carried into the folidity of
walls do not exceed three feet in depth, and two feet
fix inches in width nearly : this fort of mine is mod ex¬
cellent to blow up the ffrongeff walls.
The weight of a cubic foot of powder fliould be-
8olb.; 1 foot 1 inch cube will weigh loolb. and 1 foot
2 inches and 44 15plb. j and 200lb. of powder will
bee
MIN [ 120 ] MIN
be i foot 5 Inches cube; however there is a diverfity
In this, according to the quantity of faltpetre in the
gunpowder.
If, when the mines are made, water be found at the
bottom of the chamber, planks are laid there, on
which the powder is placed either in facks or barrels
of loolb. each. The fauciffe muft have a clear paffage
to the powder, and be laid in an auget or wooden
trough, through all the branches. When the powder
is placed in the chamber, the planks are laid to cover
it, and others again acrofs thefe ; then one is placed
over the top of the chamber, which is fhaped for that
purpofe; between that and thofe which cover the
powder, props are placed, which fiiore it up j fome
inclining towards the outfide j others to the infide of
the wall j all the void fpaces* being filled with earth,
dung, brick, and rough Hones. Afterwards planks
are placed at the entrance of the chamber, with one
acrofs the top, whereon they buttrefs three ftrong
props, whofe other ends are likewife propped againft
another plank fituated on the fide of the earth in the
branch j which props being well fixed between the
planks with wedges, the branch fliould then be filled
up to its entrance, with the forementioned materials.
The fauciffes which pafs through the fide branches
muft be exadily the fame length with that in the mid¬
dle, to which they join : the part which reaches beyond
the entrance of the mine is that which conveys the fire
to the other three ; the fauciffes being of equal length,
•will fpring together.
From a great number of experiments, it appears
l. That the force of a mine is always towards the
W’eakeft fide *, fo that the difpofition of the chamber
of a mine does not at all contribute to determine this
effedl. 2. That the quantity of powder muft be greater
or lefs, in proportion to the greater or lefs weight of
the bodies to be raifed, and to their greater or lefs
cohefion j fo that you are to allow for each cubic
fathom
Of loofe earth, - - 9 or lolb.
Firm earth and ftrong fand, n or 12
Flat clayey earth, - 15 or 16
New mafonry, not ftrongly bound, 15 or 20
Old mafonry, well bound, 25 or 30
3. That the aperture, entonnoir of a mine, if rightly
charged, is a cone, the diameter of whofe bafeis double
the height taken from the centre of the mine. 4. That
when the mine has been overcharged, its entonnoir is
nearly cylindrical, the diameter of the upper extreme
not much exceeding that of the chamber. 5. That be-
fides the (hock of the powder againft the bodies it takes
up, it likewife crulhes all the earth that borders upon
it, both underneath and fidewife.
To charge a mine fo as to have the moft advantage¬
ous effefl, the weight of the matter to be carried muft
be known 5 that is, the folidity of a right cone, whofe
bafe is double the height of the eaith over the centre
of the mine : thus, having found the folidity of the cone
in cubic fathoms, multiply the number of fathoms by the
number of pounds of powder neceffary for raifing the
matter it contains •, and if the cone contains matters
of different weights, take a mean weight between
them all, always having a regard to their degree of co- Minehead,
hefion. Mineral.
As to the difpofition of mines, there is but one gene- '
ral rule, which is, That the fide towards which one
would determine the efFeft be the weakeft •, but this
varies according to occafions and circumftances.
The calculation of mines is generally built upon this
hypothefis, That the ’entonnoir of a mine is the fruftum
of an inverted cone, whofe altitude is equal to the radius
of the excavation of the mine, and the diameter of the
whole leffer bafe is equal to the line of leaft refiftance j
and though thefe fuppofitions are not quite exadt, yet
the calculations of mines deduced from them Have
proved fuccefsful in praiftice} for which reafan this cal¬
culation (liould be followed till a better and more fimple
be found out.
M. de Valliere found that the entonnoir of a mine
was a paraboloid, which is a folid generated by the
rotation of a femiparabola about its axis ; but as
the difference between thefe two is very infignifi-
cant in pra6Hce, that of the fruftum of a cone may be
ufed.
MINEHEAD, a town of Somerfetfhire, 166 miles
from London. It is an ancient borough, with a har¬
bour in the Briftol channel, near Dunfter caftle, much
frequented by paffengers to and from Ireland. It was
incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, with great privileges,
on condition the corporation fhould keep the quay in re¬
pair ; but its trade falling off, the quay was neglected,
and they loft their privileges. A ftatute was obtained
in the reign of King William, for recovering the port,
and keeping it in repair, by which they were to have
the profits of the quay and pier for 36 years, which
have been computed at about 200I. a-year; and they
were at the expence of new-building the quay. In pur-
fuance of another aft, confirming the former ; a new
head has been built to the quay, the beach clear-
ed, &c. fo that the biggeft fhip may enter, and
ride fafe in the harbour. The town contains about 500
houfes, and 2000 fouls. It was formerly governed by
a portreve, and now by two conftables chofen yearly at
a court leet held by the lord of the manor. Its chief
trade is with Ireland, from whence about 40 veffels
ufed to come hither in a year with wool ; and about
400 chaldrons of poals are yearly imported at this place,
Watchet, and Poriock, from South Wales, which lies
direftly oppofite to it about feven leagues over, the
common breadth of this channel all the way from
Holmes to the Land’s End. Here are feveral rich
merchants, who have fome trade alfo to Virginia and
the Weft Indies 5 and they correfpond much rvith the
merchants of Barneftaple and Briftol in thier foreign
commerce. Three or four thoufand barrels of herrings,
which come up the Severn in great Ihoals about Michael¬
mas, are caught, cured, and (hipped off here every
year, for the Mediterranean, &$c. The market here is
on Wednefday, and fair on Whitfun-Wednefday.
MINERAL, in Natural Hijlory, is ufed in general
for all foffil bodies, whether fimple or compound, dug
out of a mine \ from whence it takes its denomination.
See Mineralogy.
Mineral Waters. All waters naturally impregnat¬
ed with any heterogeneous matter which they have dif-
folved within the earth may be called mineral waters,
iu
3
Mineral.
MIN [
In tlie moft general and '■xtenfive meaning of that name;
' in which are therefore comprehended almoil: all thofe that
flow within or upon the furface of the earth, for almoft
all thefe contain fome earthy or faline matter. But,
ftriflly fpeaking, thofe waters only which hold in folution
fuch a quantity of foreign ingredients as to give them
properties whfch are eafily recognized by the tafte or
121 ] M T N
'fmel: come under the denomination of mmeral waters. Mineral.
For the methods of analyzing mineral waters, fee
Chkmistry Index.
Here wre^ lhall give a tabular view of the more re-
markable mineral waters which have been dxfcovered
and examined.
An Alphabetical Table of the moft noted Mineral Waters in Europe, exhibiting their
Medicinal Properties and Contents.
Names of
Springs.
Abcourt,
Countries in which
they are found.
Near St Germains
in France.
Aberbrothick, County of Forfar in
Scotland.
Aft on,
Aghaloo,
Middlefex county,
England.
Tyrone, Ireland.
Aix-la-Cha- Juliers in Germany,
pelle,
Alford or Aw- Somerfetfliire, Eng-
ford
Alkeron
Antrim,
Baden,
Bagnigge,
Balimore,
land.
Yorklhire, in Eng¬
land.
Ireland.
Swabia in Germany.
Middlefex, near Lon¬
don.
Worceflerfhire in
England.
Ball, or Baud- Lincolnlhire in Eng-
well, land.
Balaruc, Languedoc in
France.
Ballycaftle, Antrim in Ireland.
Ballynahinch, Down in Ireland.
Ballyfpellan, Near Kilkenny in
Ireland.
l Vol. XIV. Part I.
Contents and Quality of the
Water,
A cold chalybeate water,
containing befides the iron
a fmall quantity of foflil
alkali faturated with fixed
air.
A cold chalybeate. Con¬
tains iron diffolved in fix¬
ed air.
Contains Epfom and fea fait.
Cold.
Sulphur, foflil alkali, and
* fome purging fait. Cojd.
Sulphureous and hot. Con¬
tain aerated calcareous
earth, fea fait, foflil al¬
kali, and fulphur.
A purging fait along with
fea fait. Cold.
Contains Epfom fait, aerated
calcareous earth, and ful-
phur. Cold.
Hot and fulphureous fprings
and baths, refembling
thofe of Aix-la Chapelle.
Epfom fait and muriated
magnefia. Cold. Ano¬
ther fpring contains iron
and fixed air.
A fine cold chalybeate, con¬
taining iron rendered fo-
luble by fixed air, along
with fome other fait fup-
pofed to be foflil alkali.
A cold petrifying water ;
contains aerated calcare¬
ous earth or magnefia.
Hot, and contain fome pur¬
ging falts.
Chalybeate and fulphureous.
Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and fulphur.
Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and proba¬
bly foflil alkali.
Medicinal Virtues.
Diuretic and purgative. Internally ufed
in dropfies, jaundice, and obftru&ions
of the vifcera ; externally in fcorbutic
eruptions, ulcers, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative. Ufed in
indigeftions, nervous diforders, &c.
Strongly purgative, and caufes a forenefs
in the fundament.
Alterative and corroborant. Ufeful in
fcrofulous diforders, worms, and cu¬
taneous difeafes.
Diaphoretic, purgative, and diuretic.
Uied as baths as well as taken in¬
ternally. Uleful in rheumatilms, and
all difeafes proceeding from a debility
of the fyftem.
Strongly purgative.
Diuretic. Ufeful when drunk in leprofy,
and other cutaneous difeafes.
Similar to Borrowdale water, but weak¬
er.
See Aix-la-Chapklle, and Baden, in
the order of the Alphabet.
Strongly purgative, three half pints be¬
ing a dofe. The chalybeate fpring
alfo proves purgative when the
bowels contain any vitiated matter.
Corroborative, and good in obrtru&ions
of the vifcera. Drank from two to
three pints in a morning.
Corroborative and aftringent. Drunk
to the quantity of two pints, or two
and a half.
Drank^as purgatives, and ufed as hot
baths. Ufeful in fcrofulous and cuta¬
neous diforders.
Refembles that of Balimore in virtue.
Ufeful in fcorbutic diforders and difeafes
of indigeftion.
Similar in virtue to that of Balimore.
&
Bagneres,
Names of
Springs.
Bagneres,
Bareges,
Barnet and
Norlh-hall,
Bath,
Eandola,
Borrowdale,
i
Brentwood,
Briftol,
Bromley,
Broughton,
Buxton,
Caroline baths,
Carlton,
Carrickfergus,
Carrickmore,
Cafhmore,
Caftle* Connel,
Caftle-Let>d,
M T N
Countries in which
theif are found.
Bigorre in France.
.[ 122 1
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Earth and fulphur. Hot.
Bigorre in France. Sea fait, foffil alkali, calca¬
reous earth, felenites, ful¬
phur, and a fine bitumi¬
nous oil. Hot.
Hertford (l^ire in
England.
Somerfetfhire in
England.
Italy.
Cumberland in Eng¬
land.
Epfom fait, and aerated cal¬
careous earth.
Iron, aerated calcareous
earth, felenite, Glauber’s
fait, and fea fait. Hot.
Iron, fixed air, foffil alkali,
and a little fulphur.—
Cold.
A great quantity of fea fait,
aerated calcareous earth,
and feme bittern. Cold..
Effex in England.
Somerfetlhire in
England.
Epbm fait, and aerated
calcareous earth.
Calcareous earth, fea fait,
Epfom fait, Glauber’s fait,
and felenites. Hot.
Kent in England. Iron and fixed air. Cold.
Yorkffiire in Eng- Sulphur, fea fait, Epfom
land. fait, and aerated earth.
Cold.
Derbylhire in Eng- A fmall quantity of fea
land. fait, foffil alkali, Epfom
fait, and aerated calcare¬
ous earth. Hot. Here
is alfo a fine cold chaly¬
beate fpring.
Bohemia. Iron, fixed air, aerated earth,
fea fait, foffil alkali, Ep¬
fom fait, and Glauber’s
fait. Hot.
Iron diffolved in fixed air,
along with a bituminous
oil, which gives it the
fmell of horfe dung.—
Cold.
Seems from its bluiffi colour
to contain a very fmall
quantity of copper. Cold.
Foffil alkali, fixed air, and
fome purging fait. Cold.
Green vitriol.
Iron dilfolved in fixed air,
&c. Cold.
Aerated earth, felenites,
Glauber’s fait, and ful-
phur. Cold.
Nottingham (hire in
England.
Antrim in Ireland.
)
Cavan in Ireland.
Waterford in Ire¬
land.
Limerick in Ireland.
Rofs-ffiire in Scot¬
land.
.MIN
Medicinal Virtues. „
The waters ufed in baths, like thofe of
Aix-la-Chapelle. Some of the fprings
purgative, others diuretic.
Diuretic and diaphoretic. Ufeful in
nervous as well as cutaneous difor-
ders, in old wounds and forne vene¬
real complaints. Ufed as baths, as
well as taken internally to the
quantity of a quart or three pints.
Purgative.
Powerfully corroborative, and very ufe¬
ful in all kinds of w’eakneffes. Ufed
as a bath, and taken internally.
Gently laxative, diuretic, and diaphore¬
tic.
Strongly emetic and cathartic. Some¬
times ufeful in the jaundice and
dropfy, feorbutre diforders, and chro¬
nic obftrudtions. Ufed likevvife as
a bath in cutaneous difeafes. Taken
in the dofe of a pint, containing
only about feven drachms and a half
of fea fait; fo that a great part of the
virtue muff refide in the aerated calca¬
reous earth.
Purgative.
Ufed as a bath j and drank from four to
eight ounces at a time, to two quarts
per day. Ufeful in confumptions, dia¬
betes, fluor albus, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Similar to Harrowgate.
Ufeful in gout, rheumatifm, and other
difoi'ders in which tepid baths are
ferviceable. Ufed as baths, and drank
to the quantity of five or fix" pints per
day.
Purgative, and ufed as baths. Of fer-
vice in diforders of the ftomach and
bowels, fcrofula, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Weakly purgative.
Purgative and diuretic.
Purgative, diuretic, and fometimes eme¬
tic.
Refembles the German Spaw, and is in
confiderable repute.
Diuretic, diaphoretic, and corroborant $
ufeful in cutaneous difeafes.
Caftlcmain,
Names of
Springs*
Caftlemain,
Cawley,
Cawthorp,
Chadlington,
Chaude Fon¬
taine,
Cheltenham,
Chippenham,
Cleves,
Clifton,
Cobham,
Codfalwood,
Colchefter,
Colurian,
Comner, or
Cumner,
Coolauran,
Corflorphine,
Coventry,
Crickle Spaw,
Croft,
Crofstown,
Cunley-houfe,
Das Wild Bad,
D’ ax en Foix,
Deddington,
Derby,
Derryinch,
Derrindaff,
MIN
Countries in which
they arc found.
Kerry in Ireland.
Derbylhire in Eng¬
land.
Lincolnlhire in Eng¬
land.
OxfordIhire in Eng¬
land.
Liege in Germany,
Gloucefterlhire in
England.
Wiltfhire in Eng¬
land.
Germany.
Oxfordfhire in Eng¬
land.
Surry in England.
Staffordlhire in Eng¬
land.
Eflex in England.
Cornwall in Eng¬
land.
Berkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Mid Lothian in
Scotland.
Warwicklhire in
England.
Lancalhire in Eng¬
land,.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Waterford in Ire¬
land.
Lancalhire in Eng¬
land.
Nuremberg in Ger¬
many.
15leagues fromThou-
loufe in France.
Oxford in England.
Near the capital of
Derby (hi re in Eng¬
land.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Cavan in Ireland.
[ 123 ]
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Iron, fulphur, and fixed air.
Cold.
Epfom fait, aerated calca¬
reous earth, and fulphur.
Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and proba¬
bly foflil alkali. Cold.
Foflil alkali, fea fait, and
fulphur. Cold.
Aerated earth, foffil alka¬
li, and fixed air. Hot.
Calcareous earth, iron, Ep¬
fom fait, and common
fait. Cold,
Iron diffolved in fixed air.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Corroborant and diuretic.
Gently purgative.
Purgative, and corre&s acidities.
Purgative.
Refembles thofe of Aix-la-Chapelle and
Buxton.
Purgative and corroborant $ taken in
the quantity of from one to three or
four pints. It is ufeful in cafes of in-
digeflion and fcorbutic diforders $ alfo
in the gravel.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Iron, fixed air, and other
ingredients of Pyrmont
water.
Foffil alkali, and aerated
calcareous earth or fele-
nite. Cold.
Iron, and fome purging
fait.
Sulphur, fixed air, and ae¬
rated earth.
Epfom fait, and aerated cal¬
careous earth. '
Iron, fixed air, and aerated
earth.
Some purging fait, and pro¬
bably aerated earth *, the
water is of a whitilh co¬
lour.
Iron, fixed air, and aerated
earth.
Sulphur, fea fait, clay, and
Epfom fait. Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and fome
purging fait.
Sulphur, fea fait, and aerated
earth.
Aerated 'earth, vitriolated
magnefia, and fea fait.
Martial vitriol.
Sulphur, aerated earth, and
fixed air.
Iron, fixed air, and fome fa-
line matter.
Similar to Aix-la Chapelle.
Hot.
Iron, fulphur, aerated earth,
fea fait, or foffil alkali.
Iron diflblved by fixed air.
Diuretic and corroborant.
Gently laxative, and ufed as a bath for
cutaneous diforders.
Purgative, diuretic, and corroborant.
Refembles the Alkeron water.
%
Strongly purgative.
Corroborative and diuretic.
Purgative, in the quantity of one, two,
or three quarts.
Diuretic.
Diuretic and laxative.
»
Purgative, diuretic, and corroborant.
Purgative, and refembling Harrowgatc
water.
Purgative, and refembling Afkeron wa¬
ter.
Diuretic, purgative, and fometimes eme¬
tic.
Purgative, and refembling the Alkeron
water.
Corroborant. Ufeful in obftruftions of
the vifcera, and female complaints.
Ufed as a bath, and alfo drank, like
the Aix-la-Chapelle waters.
Alterative, purgative in large quantity,
and ufeful in fcorbutic and cutaneous
diforders.
Corroborant.
Sulphur and foflil alkali. Diuretic and diaphoretic.
Sulphur and purging fait. Similar to the Afkeron water.
(,) 2 Derrylefter
Names of
Springs,
Derrylefter,
Dog and
Duck,
Dortftul],
DrigwelJ,
Dropping-
well,
Drumas-nave,
Drumgoon,
Dublin fait
fprings,
Dulwich,
Dunnard,
Dunfe,
Durham,
Egra,
Eplbm,
Fairburn,
Felflead,
Filab,
Frankfort,
Gainlborough,
Galway,
Glanmile,
Glaftonbury,
Glendy,
Granfhaw,
Haigh,
Hampftead,
Hanbridge,
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Cavan in Ireland.
St George’s Fields,
London.
[ J24 ]
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Similar to Swadlinghar wa¬
ter.
Aerated magnefia, Epfom
fait, and fea fait.
Stafforddiire in Eng¬
land.
Cumberland in Eng¬
land.
York (hi re in Eng¬
land.
Leitrim in Ireland.
Iron dilfolved in fixed air.
Similar to Deddington.
Aerated earth.
Sulphur, foffil alkali, with
fome purging fait.
Fermanagh in Ire- Similar to the former,
land.
Ireland. Sea fait and Epfom fait.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Cooling and purgative, but apt to bring
on or increafe the fiuor albus in wo¬
men.
Corroborant.
Aftringent and corroborant.
Powerfully diuretic and anthelmintic, and
of ufe in cutaneous and fcrofulous dif-
orders.
Purgative.
Kent in England. Sea fait and Epfom fait.
18 miles from Dub¬
lin.
Scotland.
England.
Bohemia.
Surry in England.
Rofs-fhire in Scot¬
land.
Elfex in England.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Germany.
Lincolnlhire in Eng¬
land.
Ireland.
Ireland.
Somerfetlhire in
England.
Merns county in
Scotland.
Down in Ireland.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
England.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land,
Iron diffolved in fixed air.
Iron diffolved in fixed air,
with a little fea fait and
bittern.
Sulphur, fea-falt, and a little
aerated earth. In the mid¬
dle of the river is a fait
fpring.
Similar to Cheltenham wa¬
ter.
Vitriolated and muriated
magnefia, with a fmall
quantity of aerated calca¬
reous earth.
Sulphur, aerated earth, and
Glauber’s falls.
Similar to Iflington.
Sea fait and aerated earth.
Sulphur and fea fait.
Sulphur, iron, aerated earth,
and Epfom fait.
Similar to Tunbridge wa¬
ter.
Similar to Peterhead water.
Similar to Clifton water.
Similar to Peterhead water.
I . •
Iron \ fimilar to the German
Spaw.
Green vitriol, iron diffolved
by fixed air, W'ith fome
aerated earth.
Green vitriol, iron diffol¬
ved by fixed air, and a
fmall quantity of aerated
earth.
Similar to Scarborough wa¬
ter.
Purgative and diuretic. Ufeful in Yier-
vous cafes and difeafes proceeding from
debility.
Diuretic and corroborant.
*
Similar to the former.
Similar to the HarrowTgate water.—.
That of the fait fpring ufed as a pur¬
gative.
Purgative, and of ufe in wafhing old
fores.
Alterative, and ufeful in cutaneous dif
eafes.
Powerfully diuretic and purgative.
Similar to Harrowgate.
Diuretic and laxative.
Emetic and cathartic.
Alterative and corroborant. The water
is taken from half a pint to feveral
pints 5 is better in the morning than
in the middle of the day, and in cold
than hot weather.
Lefs purgative than the Scarborough
water.
Hanlys,
Names of
Springs.
Hanlys,
Harrowgate,
Hartfell,
Hartlepool,
Holt,
Jofeph’s well,
Ilmington,
Inglewhite,
Iflington, •
Kanturk,
Kedleftone,
Kenfington,
Kilbrew,
Kilburn,
Killaflier,
Killingfhanval-
Kilroot,
Kinalton,
Kincardine,
Kingfcliff,
Kirby,
Knarefborough,
Knowfley,
Kuka,
Lancafter,
Latham,
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Shropihire in Eng¬
land.
Yorkflaire in Eng¬
land.
Annandale in Scot¬
land.
Durham in England.
Wiltlhire in Eng¬
land.
Stock Common near
Cobham in Surry.
[ 125 1
Contents and Qualities of the
• Water.
Epfom, or other purging
fait.
Sulphur, fea fait, and feme
purging fait. Some cha¬
lybeate fprings here alfo.
Green vitriol, alum, and
azotic gas.
Sulphur, iron diffblved by
fixed air, with fome pur¬
ging fait.
Purging fait, with a large
quantity of aerated earth.
A very large pro-portion of
Epfom fait, and poflibly a
little fea fait.
Warkwickfiiire in
England.
Lancalhire in Eng¬
land. *
Near London.
Aerated foffil alkali, with
fome ifcsn diffolved by fix¬
ed ah
Sulphuo, and iron diflblved
by fixed air.
Iron diffolved by fixed air.
Cork in Ireland.
Derbyfhire in Eng¬
land.
Near London.
Meath in Ireland.
Near London.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Fermanagh, Ireland.
Antrim in Ireland.
Nottinghamlhire in
England.
Merns in Scotland.
Northamptonlhire in
England.
Weftmorland in
England.
See Dropping-well.
Lancalhire in Eng¬
land.
Bohemia.
Similar to the water at Pe¬
terhead.
Sulphur, fea fait, and aera¬
ted earth.
Similar to Afton water.
A large quantity of green
vitriol.
Fixed air, hepatic air, Ep¬
fom fait, Glauber’s fait j
muriated magnefia, fea
fait, aerated earth, and
iron.
Sulphur and foflil alkali.
Similar to Hanlys chalybeate
water.
Nature of Barrowdale W7a-
ter, but weaker.
A purging fait.
Similar to the water of Pe¬
terhead.
Similar to Cheltenham wa¬
ters.
Iron, fixed air, and probably
fome foflil alkali.
Similar to Scarborough wa¬
ter.
Aerated fixed alkali.
England.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land,
Similar to Tunbridge water.
Similar to the former.
MIN
Medicinal Virtues.
Purgative,
Alterative, purgative, and anthelmintic j
ufeful in feurvy, fcrophula, and cuta¬
neous difeafes. Ufed externally for
ftrains and paralytic weakneffes.
Aftringent and corroborant. Ufeful
in all kinds of inward difeharges o£
blood.
Diuretic and laxative.
Mildly purgative. Ufeful in old ulcers
and cutaneous diforders.
Alterative, purgative, and diuretic.
Drank to about a quart, it paffes
brilkly without griping : taken in -
lefs dofes as an alterative, it is a
good antifcorbutic.
Diuretic and laxative.
Alterative. Ufeful in fcorbutic and cu-f
taneous difeafes.
Corroborant. Ufeful in lownefs of fpi-
rits and nervous difeafes. Operates
by urine, and may be drank in large
quantity.
Similar to Harrowgate j but intolerably ~
fetid.
Emetic and cathartic, in the dofe of half
a pint.
Similar to Swadlingbar water.
Purgative.
Laxative, and ufeful in corre£Hng aci
dities. . '
Operates by infenfible perfpiration, lome-
times by fpitting, fweat or urine.
Llandrindod^
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Names oj
Springs.
Llandrindod,
Llangybi,
Leamington,
Leez,
Lincom b
Lifbeak,
Lis done-
Vurna,
Loanfbury,
Maccroomp,
Mahereberge,
Mallow,
Malton,
Malvern,
Marklhall,
Matlock,
Maudfley,
Meehan,
Miller’s Spaw,
Moffat,
Mofs-houfe,
Moreton,
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Radnor in South
Wales.
Caernarvonrtiire in
North Wales.
Warkwicklhire in
■ England.
Effex in England.
Somerfetfliire in
Englajad.
Fermanagh in Ireland
Clare in Ireland.
Yorklhire in Eng¬
land.
Cork in Ireland.
Kerry in Ireland.
Cork in Ireland.
York (hire in Eng¬
land.
Gloucefterfhire in
England.
Effex in England.
Derbylhire in Eng¬
land.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Lancalhire in Eng¬
land.
Annandale in Scot¬
land.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Shropfhire in Eng¬
land.
[ 126 ]
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Three fprings $ a purgative,
a fulphureous, and chaly¬
beate.
Sea-falt and aei -i :ed calcare¬
ous earth.
Similar to Iflington water.
Aerated iron, foffil alkali,
and a little Epfom fait.
Sulphur, &c.
Foltil alkali, with much
iron.
Sulphur, and fome purging
fait.
Similar to Ilmington water.
Similar to Borrowdale wa¬
ter.
A hot water, fimilar to that
of Briflol.
Iron and fixed air inco?Ifider-
able quantity.
Iron. Two fprings.
Similar to Iflington.
Warm fprings, of the na¬
ture of the Briflol water,
except that they are very
flightly impregnated with
iron, but contain a great
quantity of aerated earth.
They are colder than the
Buxton; but their vir¬
tues fimilar to thofe of
the two places mentioned.
Sulphur and fea fait.
Sulphur and foffil alkali.
Similar to Tunbridge.
Sulphurated hydrogen, car¬
bonic acid and azotic ga-
fes, with common fait.
Similar to Iflington water.
Similar to Holt water.
Ufeful in the feurvy, leprofy, cutaneous
diforders, &c.
Ufeful in diforders of the eyes, fcrofula,
&c.
Emetic and cathartic. Ufeful in old
fores, and cures mangy dogs.
Similar to Swadlingbar water.
Emetic, cathartic, and diuretic.
Ufed only for wafhing mangy dogs and
fcabby horfes.
Similar to Scarborough water, but is
fometimes apt to vomit.
Diuretic and cathartic ; ufed alfo ex¬
ternally. Recommended as excel¬
lent in difeafes of the fkin ; in lepro-
fies, fcorbutic complaints, fcrofula,
old fores, &c. Alfo ferviceable in in¬
flammations and other difeafes of the
eyes j in the gout and ftone, in bi¬
lious and paralytic cafes, and in fe¬
male obfiruftions. The external ufe
is by wafhing the part at the fpout
feveral times a-day, and afterwards
covering it with cloths dipt in the
water and kept conllantly moift j al¬
fo by general bathing.
Similar to Harrowgate.
Similar to the waters of Drumgoon.
Alterant, diuretic, and fometimes pur¬
gative. Is ufed as a bath, and the
{team of the hot water has been found
ferviceable in relaxing hard tumors and
ftiff joints.
Purges ftrongly.
Mount
Names of
Springs.
Mount d’Or,
Nevil Holt,
New Cartmall
Newnham Re-
gls»
Newtondale,
Newton-Stew¬
art,
Nezdenice,
Nobber,
Normanby,
Nottington,
Orfton,
Oulton,
Given Breun,
Pancras,
Pafiy,
Peterhead,
Pettigoe,
Pitkeathly,
Plombiers,
Pontgibault,
Pougues,
Pyrmcnt,
Q^ueen Carael,
Richmond,
Rippon,.
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
France.
Leicefterfiiire in
England.
[ 127]
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Warm, and fimilar to the
waters of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle.
Selenite or aerated earth,
and Epfom fait.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Warwick (hire in
England.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Tyrone in Ireland.
Sea fait and aerated earth.
Similar to Scarborough wa¬
ter.
Aerated calcareous earth or
magnefia.
Similar to Tunbridge.
Germany.
Meath In Ireland.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Dcrfetfhire, Eng¬
land.
Nottingham, Eng¬
land.
Norfolk, England.
Cavan, Ireland.
Near London.
Near Paiis.
Aberdeen county,
Scotland.
Donnegal, Ireland.
Perthlhire, Scotland.
Lorraine, France.
Auvergne, France.
Nivernois, France.
Wedphalia, Germa¬
ny.
Fixed air, foflil alkali, iron,
and earth.
Martial vitriol.
Sulphur, much fixed air,
fome fea fait, and Epfom
fait.
Sulphur, foflil alkali, and
earth.
Much fixed air, Epfom fait,
and a little fea fait, with
fome iron.
Similar to Iflington.
Sulphur, Epfom fait, and
foflil alkali.
Epfom fait, and aerated
earth.
Similar to Pyrmont water.
A firong chalybeate, but of
which no analyfis has been
publifhed.
Sulphur and purging fait.
Sea fait, a fmall quantity of
muriated and likevvife of
aerated earth.
Saline matter, probably fof-
fil alkali, with a fmall por¬
tion of oil.—Warm.
Foflil alkali and calcareous
earth.
Calcareous earth, magnefia,
foflil alkali, fea lalt, earth
of alum, and filiceous
earth.
Aerated iron, calcareous
earth, magnefia, Epfom
fait, and common fait..
Somerfetlhire, Eng- Sulphur, fea fait, foflil al-
land. kali, calcareous earth, and
bituminous oil.
Surry in England. Similar to Atton water.
Yorkihire, England. Sulphur, fea fait, and aerat¬
ed earth.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Diuretic, purgative, and diaphoretic.
Purgative, diuretic, and diaphoretic.-—
Powerfully antifeptic in putrid dif-
eafes, and excellent in diarrhoea, dy»
fenteries, &c.
Purgative.
Aftringent or tonic.
Diuretic, diaphoretic, and tonic.
Similar to Hartfell.
Similar to Aikeron water.
Ufeful in cutaneous difeafes.
Purgative.—-It intoxicates by reafon of
the great quantity of air contained
in it.
Similar to Aikeron water-
Diuretic and purgative.
Similar to Iflington, but more powe#
ful.
Similar to Aikeron water.
Gently purgative. Very ufeful in fcro-
fulous and fcorbutic habits.
Ufed as a bath, and for walhing ulcers.
Inwardly taken it cures complaints
from acidity, hemorrhagies, &c.
Diuretic and laxative.
Diuretic and laxative. .
Diuretic, diaphoretic, and laxative. Re¬
commended in cafes where the con-
llitution is relaxed; in female com¬
plaints, in cutaneous difeafes, in ner¬
vous diforders, in the gravel and uri¬
nary obllrudlions ; and conlidered as
among the belt reftoratives in decayed
and broken conftitutions.
Ufed in fcrofulous and cutaneous difor¬
ders.
Diaphoretic and alterant.
Road,
Names of
Springs.
Road,
St Bartholo¬
mew’s well,
St Bernard’s
well,
St Erafmus’s
well,
Scarborough,
Scollienfis,
Seidlitz,
Seltzer,
Sene, or Send,
Seydfchutz,
Shad well,
Shapmoor,
Shettled’ood,
Shipton,
Somerfham,
Spaw,
Stanger,
Stenfield,
S reatham,
Suchaloza,
Sutton bog,
Swadlingbar,
Swanfey,
-Sydenham,
Tarleton,
Tewkfbury,
Thetford,
Thoroton,
Thurlk,
Tibfhelf,
MIN [ 128 ]
Countries is which Contents and Quality of the
they are found. Water.
Wiltlhire, England. Sulphur, iron, fofiil alkali,
and fixed air.
Cork in Ireland. Foffil alkali, iron, and fixed
air.
Near Edinburgh. Similar to the waters of
Moffat.
Staffordfhire, Eng¬
land.
Yorklhire, England.
Switzerland.
Bohemia.
Germany.
Wiltfhire, England.
Germany.
Near London.
Weftmorland, Eng¬
land.
Derbylhire, Eng¬
land.
Yorkfhire, England.
Huntingdonfhire,
England.
Liege in Germany.
Gumberland, Eng¬
land.
Lincolnlhire, Eng¬
land.
Surry, England.
Hungary.
Oxfordlhire, Eng-
. land.
Cavan in Ireland.
Glamorganihire in
North Wales.
Kent in England.
Lancalhire in Eng¬
land.
Gloucefterfhire in
England.
Norfolk in England.
Nottinghamihire in
England.
Yorkihire in Eng¬
land.
Derbyihire in Eng¬
land.
3
Aerated calcareous earth,
Epfom fait, fea fait, and
iron.
Iron, foffil alkali, and a
great quantity of fixed
air.
Epfom fait.
Calcareous earth, magnefia,
foffil alkali, and fixed air.
Similar to Iflington.
Similar to'Seidlitz.
Green vitriol.
Sulphur and purging fait.
Sulphur, fea fait, and pur¬
ging fait.
Green vitriol, alum, and fix¬
ed air.
Foffil alkali, iron, aerated
earth, Epfom fait, and fea
fait.
Green vitriol.
Similar to Orflon.
Aerated earth, Epfom fait,
fea fait, and muriated mag¬
nefia.
Sulphur, foffil alkali, and fea
fait.
Sulphur, earth, fea fait, and
foffil alkali.
Green vitriol.
Similar to Epfom, but weak¬
er.
Similar to Scarborough wa¬
ter.
Similar to Adton.
Foflil alkali, fixed air, and
iron.
Similar to Orfton.
Similar to Scarborough.
Iron diffolved in fixed air.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Ufeful in fcrofula, fcurvy, and cutaneous
diforders.—Adis as a laxative.
Similar to Tilbury water.
Somewhat congenial with Moffat and
Harrovvgate. In nervous and fto-
machic cafes, analeptic and reftora-
tive *, in fcorbutic, fcrofulous, and
molt dropfical cafes, reckoned a fpe-
cific.
Similar to Borrowdale water.
Diuretic and purgative.
Excellent in colic pains, both as a cure
and preventive*
Strongly purgative.
Diuretic. Ufeful in the gravel, rheuma-
tifm, fcurvy, fcrofula, &c.
Emetic and cathartic.
Similar to Afkeron w'ater.
Similar to Harrowgate water.
Similar to Harrowgate.
Corroborant and alterative. Ufeful for
walking foul ulcers and cancers.
Diuretic and purgative. Serviceable in
many diforders. See the article
Spaw.
Emetic and cathartic.
Purgative.
Similar to Nezdenice.
Alterative and laxative.
Alterative and diaphoretic.
Similar to Shadwell.
Purgative and diuretic.
Similar to Spaw water.
Tilbury
Names of
Springs.
Tilbury,
Tober Bony,
Tonftein,
Tralee,
Tunbridge,
Upminfter,
Vahls,
Wardrew,
Weatherilack,
Wallenfrow,
Weft Afhton,
Weftwood,
Wexford,
Whiteacre,
Wigglefworth,
Wildungan,
Windgate
Spaw,
Witham,
Wirkfworth,
Zahorovice,
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Effex in England.
Near Dublin in Ire¬
land.
Cologne in Germany.
Kerry in Ireland.
Kent in England.
EAex in England.
Daupbiny in France.
Northumberland.
Weftmorland in Eng¬
land.
Northamptonftiire in
England.
WiltAiire in Eng¬
land.
Derbyftiire in Eng¬
land.
Ireland.
Lancalhire in Eng¬
land.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Waldech in Germa¬
ny.
Northumberland,
Eflex in England.
DerbyAiire in Eng¬
land.
Germany.
[ 129 1
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Foftil alkali.
Foflil'alkali, earth, and bi¬
tuminous oil.
Foftil alkali.
Similar to Caftle Connel.
Iron, fome fea fait, with a
little felenites and calca¬
reous earth.
Sulphur, foflil alkali, and
purging fait.
Foflil alkali.
Sulphur, earth, and fea fait.
Iron, fea fait, and a fmall
quantity of hepatic gas.
Similar to Iflington water.
Similar to Iflington.
Green vitriol.
Similar to Iflington.
Aerated iron, and probably
calcareous earth.
Sulphur, earth, and common
fait.
Similar to the waters of
Bath.
Carbonate of iron, green vi¬
triol, alum, common fait,
calcareous earth.
Aerated iron, and common
fait.
Sulphur, purging fait, and
aerated iron.
Similar to Nezdenice water.
M I N -
Medicinal Virtues.
Diuretic and diaphoretic.
Similar to Tilbury.
Similar to Seltzer, but mare purgative.
An excellent chalybeate, ufeful in all
difeafes for which the Spaw is recom¬
mended.
Purgative and diuretic.
Diuretic and laxative.
Similar to Harrowgate water.
Purgative.
Similar to Shadwell. Ufed for walhing
ulcers of the legs.
Somewhat aftringent.
Emetic in the quantity of two quarts, and
faid to be cathartic in the quantity of
three ; a Angular circumftance if true.
Ufeful in fcorbutic and gouty difeafes.
Corroborant and diuretic \ and ufeful in
ftoimch complaints and fcrofula.
Diuretic, alterative, and corroborant.
Ufeful in fcrofulous and cutaneous difeafes.
Much eftecmed in fcrofuluus cafes.
t
MINERALOGY.
*
Definition.
2
Hiftory.
TV/TINERALOGY is that branch of natural hiftory
which has for its object the defcription and difrri-
mination of inorganized or mineral fubftances, as they
are found in the earth or on its furface.
The knowledge of fome mineral bodies may be con-
fidered as coeval with the earlieft ages of the world.
The rudeft and moft barbarous nations could not be
ignorant of fome of the properties of the fubftances
which w'ere moft familiar to their obfervation ; and man¬
kind have made little progrefs in civilization, when
they are entirely unacquainted W'ith the nature of
thofe matters from which fome of the metals are extrac¬
ted.
Precious ftones, it feems not at all improbable, firft
attracled the notice of mankind. The richnefs of
colour, brilliancy, luftre, and durability of thefe bodies,
could not fail to excite admiration, and make them be
fought after as ornaments, even by the leaft civilized
people, and in countries where they are moft abundant.
1 hey were well known, it would appear from the facred
Vol. XIV. Part I.
writings, among the Jew's and Egyptians in the time of
Mofes. At this period, however, both the Jews and
Egyptians had advanced far in refinement.
But this knowledge w7as too limited to be dignified
with the name of Mineralogy. It wanted that compre-
henfive, connedled, and fcientific view which could
entitle it to that denomination. And indeed it may be
faid to be only of modern date that the knowdedge of
minerals rofe to the rank of fcience, and aflumed any
thing like a regular and conneifted form.
Diofcorides and Theophraftus among the Greeks, and Writers on
Pliny among the Romans, have, it is true, defcribed a minerals,
few mineral bodies; and Avicenna, an Arabian philo-
fopher and phyfician, who flonrifhed in the end of the
10th and beginning of the 1 ith century, arranged thofe
objefts into four great claffes, viz. 1. Stony bodies. 2.
Saline bodies. 3. Inflammable bodies j and 4. Metals
—an arrangement, which, it is curious to remark, muft
be well-founded j for it has been adopted, femetimes in¬
deed wfith flight deviatiotis, by almoft all mineralogical
R writers
1
0
MINERALOGY.
150
Hiftoty. writers fince that period. But ft ill the knowledge of
minerals was bounded by very narrow limits.
The variety and value of mineral productions in Ger¬
many have excited more attention to thefe iludies, and
have thus rendered this knowledge of more intereli and
importance than in any other country. To Germany
indeed it mult be acknowledged that mineralogy is in¬
debted in a great meafure for its origin, and for a very
ample (hare of its progreffive improvement. George
j. A Agricola, a native oi Mifnia, in Tvhich country he fet¬
tled as a phyfician, lived during the firft half of the
36th century. Being ftrongly attached by inclination
to the Itudy of minerals, he removed- to Chemnitz in
Hungary, where he might have an opportunity of pro-
lecuting his favourite Hudies ; and there, by the molt un¬
wearied application to mineralogy, and particularly to
the various operations on the metals, he became the molt,
celebrated metallurgilt of his time. He is fuppofed to be
the firft German author who profeffedly wrote on mineral
fubftances. The following titlps chielly comprehend
the various heads into which his works on metallurgy
and mineralogy are divided, De Ortu et Caufis Subter-
raneorum ; De Natura eorum quce affluunt ex Terra ;
De Natura Tojfilium; de Medicatis Fontibus : De Sub-
terraneis Anwwntibus ; De Vetenbus et Navis Metalhs ;
and De Re Metallica. His arrangement of minerals is
into two great divifions. 1. Simple or Homogeneous
Minerals •, and 2. Heterogeneous Minerals. The firft,
or fimple minerals, includes four fubdivilions, viz. I. Ter¬
ra j 2. Succus Concretus *, 3. Lapis; 4. Metallum.
The fecond great divifion, the heterogeneous minerals,
comprehends two fubdivilions, viz. 1. Compound mine¬
rals ; 2. Mixed minerals.
Beecher. Several writers on mineralogy appeared in the courfe
of the 17th century ; and about the beginning of the
18th Beecher propofed an arrangement of bodies on
g chemical principles, or according to their conllituent
Linaams. parts. In the year 1736, Linnaeus publiihed a fyftem
of mineralogy, in which mineral bodies are divided into
three clafies, viz. 1. Petra; 2. Mitiera; 3. FoJJilia.
Thefe are fubdivided into orders : the firft containing
three, Vitrefcentes, Calcarca, Apyrce; the fecond con¬
taining three, Salta, Sulphurea, Mercurialia; and the
third alfo containing three, Concreta, PetrifaDa, Terror.
Three years afterwards the fyftem of Cramer appeared,
according to wThich all mineral fubftances are arranged
into feven claffes, of which the following are the titles.
I. Metals; 2. Semimetals; 3. Salts; 4. Inflammable
fubftances; 5. Stones; 6. Earths; and 7. Waters.
About xo years after the firft publication of the mineral
Walkri-us tyhem °f Lmnteuc, Wallerius profeffor of mineralogy
at (Jpfal, and his cotemporary, communicated to the
wo: id a more enlarged and improved arrangement of
mineral bodies than any which had hitherto appeared.
According to the fyftem of Wallerius, all minerals are
diftributed into four clafies, each of which is fubdivided
into four orders. The firft clafs, Terror, includes the
orders Macrce, Pingues, Minerales, and Arenaceoe;
to the fecond clats, Lapides, belong the orders Calcarei,
Vi refeentes, Apyri, Saxa ; the third clafs, Minercr,
comprehends the orders Sa/ia, Sulphurca, Semimetal/a
and Metalla ; and the fourth, Concreta, is compofed of
the orders Port, PetrifaBa, Figurata, and Calculi.
Of 'he fyftematic writers on mineralogy from the
time of Linnapus, which have now been mentioned, and
of others which the limits of this hiftorical Iketch do Hiftory.
not permit us to nonce, it is to be ouierved, that by all •*—v——J
of them, although the general arrangement oi Avi¬
cenna was not followed, yet in the luboidinate divifions
his clafles were adopted, a mb conftituted fume of their g
orders. The clafies ol Avicenna were not reilored till Cronftedt.
the time or Cronftedt, a Swedilh mineralogilt, in whole
fyttem, which w;as publithed in the year 1758, they re¬
lumed the place which they formerly held. The lyllem
ol Cronftedt is divided into four claifes, Terra, Salta,
Phlogi/hca, and Metaila. The firft clafs, Terror, includes
9 orders, Calcareoe, Stltcea, Granatinoe, Argillaceoe,
Micaccoe, Fluores, Ajbpjhrue, 'Leoltticcr, and Magnejioe.
To the lecond clais, Salia, belong two orders, Acida
and Alkalina. The third clais, Phlogtjlica, coufiits
only of one order; and the fourth clais, Metalla, is
compoled of two orders, Metalla perfect a and Semirne-
talla. The fyftem of Cronftedt, the ;'.oft complete
which had yet been eft'ered to the world, and which, by
comparing it W’ith the fyftems accounted by feme the
molt perfect of the prefent day, will be found not
much different in its arrangement, continued to be read
and ftudied for more than tw-enty years, and was tranf-
lated into different languages. This arrangement is
founded on chemical principles. The firft clafs, for
mitance, is divided into nine orders already enumerated,
and correfponding, as he fuppofed, to nine earths, of one
of which the itones included in each order are chiefly
compoied. But as the improvements in chemical analyiis
led to greater accuracy of inveftigation, the earths
which Cronftedt fuppofed to be fimple were found to be
compound. The number of fimple or primitive earths
was then diminifhed to five ; and thus the number of 6
genera, as they appeared in the Sciagraphia Regni Mi-
neralis of Bergman, publilhed in 1782, was alio five,'
At that period five earths only were known. The fame
method of conftrudllng the genera is ftill followed, fo
that the number of genera has increafed in proportion to
the number of earths which have been fince dilcovered.
In the year 1780, a tranflat'on of Cronftedt’s mineral
fyftem appeared in Geimany, accompanied with notes
by Werner, the celebrated profeffor of mineralogy at
Freyberg in Saxony. Six years before this time Werner
had publilhed a feparate treatife on the claflification of
minerals, in which he exhibited his method of deferibing
them by means of external characters. The notes on
Cronftedt’s lyflem are to be cunlidered as a farther illufi•
tration of this method, as well as a catalogue of minerals
belonging to Pabft Von Chain, wfliich was drawn up by
the fame naturalift and publilhed in 1791. In Germany
the method of Werner, we believe, is almoft exclufively
adopted ; and it is chiefly followed in moil other coun¬
tries, France excepted, where mineralogical knowledge
is alfo greatly cultivated.
Mr Kirwan firft introduced the knowledge of thisKirwan.
fyftem into Britain, in his treatife on mineralogy pub¬
lilhed in 1784; and about ten years afterwards it was
ftill farther elucidated by the fame author in an impro¬
ved and enlarged edition of that work. In preparing
the latter edition, Mr Kirwan enjoyed the peculiar ad¬
vantage of confulting one of the complete!! and belt
arranged coile&ions of minerals which had yet been
made in any country. This is the Lelkean colledtion fcean
of foflils, which Mr Kirwan pronounces to be the moft caiieClion
perfect monument of mineralogical ability now extant, of minerals.
“ That
v\
MINER
Hiftory. (i Tliat tlie poflefTion of this cabinet, Mr Kirwan proceeds
^ r—J to (late, fliould efcape the vigilance of the moft learned
nations, and fall to the lot of Ireland, hitherto fo inat¬
tentive to matters of this nature, was little to be expec¬
ted. Through the aclive zeal however of two of its moft
enlightened patriots (a), and the influence fecured to
them by former fervices of the moft effential nature, the
funis requifite for its purchafe, and for building a re-
# Preface politory to receive it, were obtained Tims fplen-
to Mine- did and extenfive collection, we are farther inform-
ralogy, ^ was made by Leike whofe name it now bears, and
p'1Xl who was one of the earlieft and moft eminent of the
difciples of Werner. It was arranged between the
years 178 2 and 1787, according to the principles of
Werner, and with his afliftance. After the death of
Mr Leike, a catalogue was drawn up by Karften ano¬
ther of Werner’s difciples. This catalogue in its arrange¬
ment correfponds to the arrangement of the cabinet,
which is divided into five parts.
The firft part, which is denominated the charaEleriJHc
part, confifts of 5S0 fpecimens. Thefe are intended for
the illuftration of the external charafters or the princi¬
ples of the claffification.
The fecond, which is the fuftematic or oryClognoftic
part, comprehends all fimple minerals diftnbuted accor¬
ding to their genera and fpecies agreeable to the method
then followed by Werner. This part contains 3268
Ipecimens.
' The third part, which is Called geognojlic ox geo¬
logical, includes the fubftances found in the different
kinds of rocks, as they are divided into primitive, tran-
fuion, Jlratiform, alluvial, and volcanic mountains.
This part of the colle&ion is peculiarly rich in petrifac¬
tions; and the whole number of fpecimens which it con¬
tains extends to 1100.
The fourth part is intended to illuftrate the minera-
logy of every country on the globe, by exhibiting its
mineral produttions. The order of arrangement of this
part is from America to Afia, Europe, and Africa.
As there are many countries yet unexplored, it is
the moft imperfeft divifion of the whole colleftion ;
and indeed, as Mr Kirwan obferves, it can only be com¬
pleted by national opulence.
The "fifth part is called the economical collodion.
It is formed of 474 fpecimens of minerals which are
employed in arts and manufa&ures, as in architefture,
f’cuipture, agriculture, jewellery, colouring, dyeing,
cloathing, pottery, glazing, enamelling, poliihing of
metals, furnace building, medicine, metallurgy, &c.
The whole cabinet confifts of 7331 fpecimens.
Such is the valuable fource from which Mr Kirwan
derived the information detailed in his fyftem of minera¬
logy. And here vre are led to throw out a hint that
the friends of this fcience could not more effedually
promote its knowledge, and encourage its progrels, than
by eftablllhing frtnilar colledions wherever it is taught
and ftudied. But patriotifm and power are unfortu¬
nately oftener dire&ed to deeds of fplendour and magni¬
ficence, than they are occupied in forming and accom-
A L O G Y. i3f
piilhing the humbler and mbre permanent plans of na- Hiftory.
tionai utility. "~"Y
But to refume our narrative of the hiftory of minera¬
logy, we cannot help expreffing our regret that Mr Kir¬
wan has never found it convenient to revife and improve
his fyftem as he might have done, aided by the immenfe
flock of mineralogical knowledge which has been ac¬
cumulated iince its firft publication. This is the more
to be regretted, becaufe, noiwuhftanding the rapid pro-
grefs of the fcience, and the great improvements which
the fyftem of Werner has received, no good or even
tolerable account of it has yet appeared in the Engliftv
language.
France, where many branches of natural hiftory have
long fiouriihed, has contributed largely to the fcience
of mineralogy. Even the period of war, which at firfb
fight would appear to be extremely adverfe to the tran¬
quil purfuits of knowledge, has in this cafe proved pe¬
culiarly favourable to the ftudy of mineralogy in that
kingdom. The knowledge of minerals has not only
been encouraged and promoted in France, by being for¬
ced to diredl her attention to her own refources, while
her intercourfe with other countries from which Ihe
derived various commodities indifpenfibly neceffary for
economical purpofes was interrupted ; but alfo by the
fubjugation to her overgrown power, of thofe parts of
Europe where mineralogy has been moft cultivated
and improved, thus affording every facility of corre-
fpondence, and rendering acceflible thofe mineral trea-
fures which exhibit the beft and fulleft illuftration of
the fcience. The French government, indeed, what¬
ever form it may have affirmed, has invariably been im-
preffed with the importance of mineralogy ; and even
during the horrors of revolution, has never failed to
promote its progrels, by forming and fupporting
extenfive colledtions, and eftabliihing able and enlight¬
ened teachers at the expence of the nation.
Of the works on mineralogy which have appeared in
France, we {hall only mention the treatifes of Brochant,
Hauy, and Brongniart. They are the fources from
which the information in the following treatife is chiefly
derived, and they may be recommended as the beft
guides to the ftudy of this department of natural hiftory.
The fyftem of Brochant is formed entirely on the prin- Brochaat.
ciples of Werner’s claftification, and is undoubtedly the
moft perfpicuous account of the fyftem of the German
mincralogift which has yet been publiihed. The prin¬
ciples on winch the elaborate and ingenious method of
arrangement propofed by the celebrated Hauy have
been already detailed. (See Crystallization.)
Here we (hall only remark that the ftudy of the regular
forms of minerals with a view to methodical arrange¬
ment was fuccefsfully profecuted by Bergman and
Rome de Lille ; but has been extended and carried to
the higheft degree of perfeftion by the fagacity, pro¬
found phyfical knowledge, and mathematical addrefs of
the Abbe Hauy. But although the mineral fyftem ofHau*/v
this diftinguilhed philofopher be founded on chara&ers
the moft certain and the moft uniformly permanent, yet
R 2 it
(a) The Right Honourable John Forfter late Speaker of the Irifti Houfe of Commons, and the Right Honour¬
able W. B. Cunningham.
T ^ 2,
MINERALOGY.
Hii'tory. it may be doubted whether tlie previous knowledge
neceffary to undtrftand it, and in Tome cafes the diffi¬
culty of applying its principles in afcertaining fome o£
the mod effential characters, may not preclude this
work from being to generally and praCtically ufeful as
other fyitems. The fcientific mineralogift however will
always regard it as a monument of indefatigable induf-
try and patient refearch which has rarely been equalled,
and wall derive from it the molt material aid in his
ftudies.
The fyftem of Hauy confifts of four claffes. I. The
firft clafs coniifts of fubftances which are compofed of
an acid united to an earth or an alkali, and fometimes
to both ; and it contains three orders ; i. Earths com¬
bined with an acid \ i. Alkalies combined with an
acid ; and, 3. Earths and alkalies combined with an
acid. II. This clafs includes only earthy fubftances,
but fbmetimes combined with an alkali. It conftitutes
the liliceons genus of other fyftems. III. The third
clafs comprehends combuftible fubftances which are not
metals. It is divided into two orders j the firft con¬
taining Ample, and the fecond compound combuftibles.
IV. The metals form the fourth clafs. It is divided in-
.to ffiree orders, wffiich are characterized by different
degrees of oxidation. Befides thefe claffes there are
three appendices. The firft contains thofe fubftances
whofe nature is not fufficiently known to have their
places accurately affigned in the fyftem. The fecond
appendix includes aggregates of different mineral fub¬
ftances. It is divided into three orders. The firfl:
treats of primitive rocks j the fecond of fecondary
and tertiary rocks 5 and the third of breccias. The
third appendix is devoted to the confideration of volca¬
nic products. This is divided into fix claffes j but it is
to be obferved, that the volcanic products of this mipe-
ralogift comprehend, not only fuch fubftances as are Hiftory.
univerfally allowed to have a volcanic origin, but alfo —v— ■-*
bafalts, traps, and other minerals, the origin of which
is Hill queftioned.
The fyftem of Brongniart takes a wider range thaitBrongniart*
other iyftems, including iubftances which are not treat¬
ed of by writers on mineralogy. It is divided into five
clafles. The firft contains thofe iubftances, excluding
the metals, which are combined with oxygen. T con¬
tains two orders j the firft including air and water,
and the fecond the acids. The fecond clais, wffiich
treats of faline bodies, is divided into two orders : the
firft comprehends the alkaline tails, and the fecond the
earthy falts. The third clafs, containing the ftones, is
divided into three orders : the firft, hard ftones 5 the
fecond magnefian ; and the third argillaceous. The
fourth clais contains the combuftible fubftances, wffiich
are divided into twro orders \ firft compound, and fecond,
fimple combuftibles. The fifth clafs includes the me¬
tals, which are divided into two orders; firfl:, the brit¬
tle, and fecond the duflile metals. The treatife of
Brongniart, notwdtli(landing fome peculiarities in the
claffification which are not quite familiar to us, will be
found one of the mod ufeful that has hitherto appeared,
not «nly on account of the accuracy of the defcriptions,
which are divefted of every kind of redundancy, but
alfo on account of the interefting geological difcuffions
which are introduced, as well as numerous and import¬
ant pradiical details in metallurgy and other ufeful arts.
The following treat;ife will be divided into two parts.
The firft part will contain the claflification and defcrip-
tion of minerals j and the fecond part wdll be deftined
to the analyfis of minerals and to metallurgy, or the
method of extradling metals from their ores.
PART I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS.
THE method to be followTed in this treatife is near¬
ly that of Werner, all the material parts of which we
fhall freely borrow from the work of Brochant already
noticed, as the bed on the fubjedl which we have had
an opportunity of confulting. We (hall however oc-
cafionally avail ourfelves of any ufeful information
which may be derived from the mineralogy of Kiwan,
Brongniart, and Hauy ; and in particular we (hall in-
fert the effential charadters of the fpecies given by the
latter.
The univerfal charadlers employed by Werner in
the defcription of minerals are feven in number;
I. Colour; 2. Cohefion ; 3. Undluofity ; 4. Coldnefs;
5. Weight; 6. Smell; 7. Tafte. The table and the
illuftrations which follow are chiefly taken from
Weaver’s tranflation of Werner’s treatife on that fub-
In the following table is exhibited the arrangement
of the generic external charadlers of foffils.
Common
%
mineralogy.
Part I.
Claflinoa-
| tio*.
Common Generic External Char offers.
I. The Colour. . . .
II The Cohefion of the particles, in relation to which Foflils are dillinguilned
into
Solid
and
Fluid.
Solid
md Friable.
Charafters
for the <
Sight.
Particular generic charac¬
ters of folid Foffils.
TThe external Form.
External Appearance. < The external Surface.
(.The external Luftre.
. . CThe internal Luftre.
Appearance of the \ The Fraaure>
b radlure. L The form of the Fragments.
Particular generic
characters of fri¬
able Foflils.
The external Form.
Particular generic
characters of fluid
foflils.
The external Form.
The Luftre.
The appearance of
the particles.
Appearance of the
' ftinCt Concretions
• fT
he di-J
ions. | T
[T
The Form of the diftinCt
Concretions.
The Surface of Separation.
The Luftre of Separation.
TThe Tranfparency.
General appearance. 4 Fhe Streak.
(.The Stain.
Characters for the Touch.
'The Hardnefs.
The Solidity.
The Frangibility.
The Flexibility.
The Adhefion to the
Tongue.
Characters
Hearing
-j r The Ringing,
.ers for the I The gound> \ The Creaking,
mg. J (.The Ruftling.
The Luftre.
The Stain.
The Friability.
The Tranfparency.
The Fluidity.
Wetting of the
fingers.
Remaining Common Generic External Charaffers.
r
Characters for the <|
III. The UnCtuofity.
Touch. \ IV. The Coldnefs.
r11
i.4 i^v
(.v.
Smell.
Tafte.
The Weight.
VI. The Smell.
VII. The Tafte.
133
Claflifiea-
tion.
' v ’
External Characters of Minerals arranged according to their refpeaive generic charac¬
ters, and illuftrated by appropriate examples.
Common Generic External Charaffers.
I. THE COLOUR.
The moft obvious of the external characters of mine¬
rals, is colour j it is alfo one of the moft certain charac¬
ters, and often ferves as the principal diftinguiftiing
mark of many mineral fubftances. In deriving the
characters of minerals from colour, three things are ocn-
fidered : 1. The feveral principal colours, with their
varieties. 2. The ftiade of colour. 3’ The tarniftied
colours.
I. Principal Colours*
The feveral principal colours are not derived from
the divifion of the folar ray by means of the prifm, but
are fuch as are confidered Ample in common life. The
principal colours are the eight following j viz. white,
gray, black, blue, green, yellow, red, and brown.
A. White is the firft principal colour, and it includes
the following eight varieties.
I. Snovo white, as fnovv white quartz, white lead
ore, Carrara marble.
’ 2. Reddifb
MINER.
2. Reddtfh white, as porcelain earth, reddifh white
quartz.
3. Yellowijh white, as white amber, zeolite, chalk.
4. Silver white, as native lilver, native bifmuth, and
arfenical pyrites.
5. Grayifh white, as feveral kinds of gypliim, quartz,
and foliated granular limeftone.
6. Greenijh white, as white amianthus, talc, and cal¬
careous fpar.
7. Milk white, as calcedony, opal, and milk white
quartz.
8. Tin white, as native quickfilver, native antimony,
and white cobalt ore.
B. Gray is the fecond principal colour, and its varie¬
ties are the following'.
1. Lead gray, as in common galena, compadt galena,
gray antimonial ore, and vitreous copper ore.
2. Bluijh gray, as in bluilh gray clay, bluifh gray
jtiarble, and bluilh gray limeftone.
3. Pearl gray, as in quartz, calcedony, and porcelain
jafper.
4. Reddifh gray, as in granular limeftone and feld-
Tpar.
5. Smoke gray, as in gray hornftone, and in dark
gray flint.
6. Greenijh gray, as in cats eye, prehnite, and fome
varieties of argillaceous fchiftus.
7. YellowJh gray, as in yellowilh gray calcedony,
yellowifh gray tripoli.
8. Steel gray, as in fpecular iron ore, gray copper
ore, ftriated gray ore of manganefe.
9. AJh gray, as in quartz, wacken, and fomfe varie¬
ties of argillaceous fchiftus.
C. Black, which is the third principal colour, is di
vided into the fix following varieties.
1. Grayijh black, as in bafalt, black limeftone, and
black flint.
2. Brownifh black, as in black blende, tin-ftone
cryftals, black cobalt ore, and bituminous ftiale.
3. Dark black, or velvet black, as in Iceland agate
or obfidian, fchorl, and jet.
4. Iron black, as in micaceous iron ore, magnetic
iron ftone, and fometimes in antimoniated filver ore.
5. Greenijh black, as in pitchftone, hornblende, and
ferpentine.
6. Bluijh black, as in aluminous fliale, black cobalt
ore, dull black lead ore.
D. Blue is the fourth principal colour, including
feven varieties.
1. Indigo blue, as in blue martial earth.
2. Prufiian blue, as in the fapphire and blue rock
fait.
Azure blue, as in lapis lazuli, and azure copper
ore.
4. Violet blue, as in fluor fpar, amethyft, and in rock
fait.
5. Lavender blue, as in a variety of porcelain, jafper,
and lithomarga.
6. Smalt blue, as in light azure copper ore, and blue
martial earth.
7. Sky blue, as in light azure copper ore, blue native
vitriol, and Iky blue fluor fpar.
E. Green is the fifth principal colour, of which
there are the following varieties.
V L O C Y. Part T.
1. Verdigreafe green, as in green copper ore, green Ckffifica-
■fluor fpar. tion.
2. Celadon green, as in the Brafilian beryl, and in
pure green earth.
3. Mountain green, as in a&ynolite, hornftone, and
in moft beryls.
4. Emerald green, as in fibrous malachite and fluor
fpar.
5. Leek green, as in a£lynolite, jade, and prafium.
6. Apple green, as in chryfolite, prehnite, and nickel
ore. 
7- Grafs gre 'v, as in fome varieties of chryfoprafe and
fome green lean ores.
8. Piflachio green, as in chryfolite, iron (hot green
copper ore.
9. Afparagus green, as in chryfo beryl, and fome va¬
rieties of green lead ore.
1 o. Olive green, as in green lead ore, ferpentine, pitch¬
ftone and garnet.
11. Blackifh green, as in dark green ferpentine.
12. Canary green, as in green lead ore, micaceous
uranitic ore, and green fteatites.
F. YellovV is the fixth of the principal colours. It
includes 12 varieties, which are the following.
1. Sulphur yellow, as in native fulphur and fome va¬
rieties of ferpentine.
2. Lemon yellow, as in yellow orpiment, and fomc
yellow lead ores.
3. Gold yellow, as in native gold.
4. Bell metal yellow, as in iron pyrites.
5. Straw yellow, as in calamine and bifmuth ochre.
6. Wine yellow, as in Saxon topaz and yellow calca¬
reous fpar.
7. Ifabella yellow, as in calamine and fparry iron ore.
8. Ochre yellow, as in iron ochre, yellow jafper, and
calamine.
9. Orange yellow, as in red orpiment and red lead ore.
10. Honey yellow, as in amber fluor fpar and calce¬
dony.
11. Wax yellow, as in yellow lead ore, common
opal, and calcedony.
12. Brafs yellow, as in copper pyrites, and native
g°ld-
G. Red is the feventh principal colour, and it in¬
cludes the following 15 varieties.
1. Morning or aurora red, as in red lead ore, red or¬
piment.
2. Hyacinth red, as in the hyacinth, and a variety of
brown blende.
3. Brick red, as in porcelain jafper.
4. Scarlet red, in light red cinnabar.
5. Copper red, as in native copper.
6. Blood red, as in Bohemian garnet, and red car-
nelian.
7. Carmine red, as in red copper ore, and clear red
cinnabar.
8. Cochineal red, as in cinnabar, fometimes jafper,
and red quartz.
9. Critnfon red, as in ruby, oriental garnet, and red
cobalt ore.
10. Columbine red, as in precious garnet, and red
cobalt ore.
11. Flejh red, as in feldfpar, red gypfum, red quartz,
and flefti red barytes.
12. Rofe
2*
Part I.
ClaffifLa-
Sion.
MINERALOGY.
I 2. Rofe red, as in red zeolite, rofe red quartz, and
ruby.
Peach blojfom red, as in Aviated and earthy red
cobalt ores.
14 Cherry red, as in red antimony ore and ruby.
15, Broivnijh red, as in red argillaceous iron done,
and red earthy iron ftone.
H. Brown is the eighth and laft of the principal
colours. It is divided into the eight following varie-
ties.
I. Reddifh brown, as in brown tin ftone, and brown
blende.
2. Cfove brown, as in rock cryftal, brown iron ore,
and thumerftone.
3. Hair brown, as in wood tin ore from Cornwall.
4. Tellowifh brown, as in brown iron ochre and
jafper.
5. Tombac brown, or pinchbeck brown, as in brown
mica.
6. Wood brown, as in bituminous wood, a variety of
afbeftus.
7. Liver brown, as in brown cobalt ore, and brown
jafper.
8. Blachijh brown, as in lowland argillaceous iron
ore, mineral pitch, and bituminous wood.
II. Shade or Intenjity of Colour.
Colours may be determined by the relation in which
they ft and to each other wdth regard to intenfity or
{hade. Thus among the principal colours, there are
force which are light, as white and yellow 5 and fome
which are dark, as blue and black and belides, the
varieties of the principal colours differ from each other in
refpecl to {hade. Ihus among the blue colours, indigo
blue is dark, azure blue clear, and Iky blue lignt 5 and
even the varieties may afiord a diverfity of thade, as,
for inftance, clear canary green, light canary green.
Here it ought to be remarked, that the peculiar (hade
of colour in a mineral is frequently owing to its greater
or lefs tranfparency, the palenefs being in proportion to
the degree of tranfparency, and the dancneis to the de*
gree of opacity. The degree of luftre alfo in minerals
produces great variety in the (hade of colour.
In difcriminating the {hade or intenfity of colour,
four degrees have only in general been adopted, fhefe
are the following. 1. Dark. 1. Clear. 7,. Light. 4,
Pale.
x. Dark, as in Bohemian garnet, which is dark
blood red.
2. Clear, as in green hornftone, which is clear moun¬
tain green.
3. Light, as in red carnelian, which is light blood
red.
4. Pale, as in aquamarine, which is pale mountain
green.
III. Tarnifhed Colours.
Tarniftied colours afford peculiar chara&eriftic marks
of many minerals. By tarnilhing, is meant a difference
in the colour of the furface after expofure to the air
from what the frelh frafture of the mineral exhibits.
Some minerals are always found tarniftied in their
natural polition in the earth, as in common galena,
gray ore of antimony and blende: fome tarnilh on every
frelh fradure being made, as in native arfenic and cop¬
per pyrites 5 while others are tarnlihed in both cafes, a
in native arfenic, and purple copper ore.
The colours of tarniihed minerals are divided into,
1. Simple, and 2. Variegated.
1. Simple Tarnished colours afford five varieties.
a. Gray is the tarniihed colour of white cobalt ore,
and fteel gray of brown hematites.
b. Black is the tarniftied colour of native arfenic,
brown hematites, and gray cobalt ore.
c. Brown is the tarniftied colour of native filver,
wdiich is white.
d. Reddiflj, of native bifmuth, the frefh fracture o.f
which is lilver white.
e. Tellowifh, of white cobalt ore, and argentiferous
arfenical pyrites.
2. Variegated tarnished colours include four
varieties.
a. Pavonine tarnifhed, as in copper pyrites, purple
copper ore and common pyrites.
b. Iridefcent tarnijhed, as in gray antimonial ore, ga¬
lena, fpecular iron ore.
c. Columbine tarnifhed, as in copper pyrites.
d. Steel coloured tarnijhed, as in gray cobalt ere.
IV. The Play of Colour.
The play of colour in a mineral can only be obferv-
ed in funfhine or in a ftrong light. By this is under-
ftood that property which fome minerals pofftfs of re-
frading from particular fpots the different rays of light.
This effed is produced by the peculiar affociation of the
molecules of the mineral, and the various degrees of
its tranfparency. Accidental caufes, however, pro iuce
a fimilar effed, fuch as flight rifts, cracks, &c.
The play of colour is remarkable in the diamona and
in the opal, and fometimes in rock cryftal.
V. The Mutable Reflection of Colour.
This is diftinguiihed from the play of colour by the
mineral exhibiting in the fame fpot a change of colour
according to the pofition of its furface being varied,
producing a different angle with the incident rays of
light. This change takes place, 1. On the furface;
2. Internally.
1. The fuperfeial mutable refledion is finely exem¬
plified in Labrador ftone, and in a variety of marble
which contains petrified {hells.
2. The internal mutable refledion of colour appears -
in cat’s eye, precious opal, and moonftone.
VI. The Mutation of Colour.
This is diftinguiftied from the tarniftr ; in which lat¬
ter the furface only undergoes a change of colour, but
in the mutation of colour, the effed penetrates the mi¬
neral, and fometimes pervades the whole. This affords
two varieties.
1. The fading of colour.—By this is meant that the
colour of a mineral becomes paler when it is expofed to
the light, heat, or is undergoing decompofition. Ex¬
amples of thefe changes may be obferved in ftriated
red cobalt ore, which expofed to the air becomes pale
brownifti; blue fluor fpar becomes green ; chryfoprafe
becomes light green ; pearl gray filver ore becomes ■
clear brown.
2. The per fed change of colour \% often the confe-
quence of fading, when one colour is loft, .and a new
1 35
Claffifica-
fO
6 M I N E-R
Cla^ficn- one appears, ar. in light coloured fparry iron or - •. ear-
tl°n' thy gray ore of manganefe, and argillaceous iron Hone.
VII. Delineations of Colours.
The delineations of colours are obferved on fimple
minerals, the fame fpecimen containing feversl colours,
which pafs through its interior, according to certain de¬
lineations. Of thefe delineations the following nine va¬
rieties are defcribed.
1. Dotted, when fine points of another colour are dif-
perfed over the furface, as in ferpentine, and feme va¬
rieties of jafper.
2. Spotted, when the points or fpots are of the fize of
a lentil to that of a fixpence, or from one-fourth to one
inch in diameter. The f’pets are round and regular,
or irregular.
a. Regular, as in fome varieties of ferpentine, and in
argillaceous fchiftus.
b. Irregular, as in a variety of marble from Bayr¬
euth.
3. Nebulous or cloudy, when the fpots are large and
irregular, forming with the ground colour the appear¬
ance of clouds, as in calcedony and jafper.
4. Flamy, w’hen the fpots are large, and drawn in
one diredfion to a fharp point, as in ftriped jafper and
fome marbles.
5. Striped, when large fpots are drawn in the fame
diredtion, and run parallel through the wdiole fpecimen.
There are two varieties.
a. Straight or curved ftirped, as in flraight ftriped jaf¬
per.
b. Broad or linear, as in linear ftriped agate, cal¬
cedony, &c.
y 6. Annular, when the ftripes form concentric circles,
as in jafper, carnelian, and flints.
7. Dendritic, when the delineation refembles the
trunk of a tree feparating into ramifications, as in ftea-
tites, fome limeftones, Egyptian marble, and calce¬
dony.
8. Ruinous, when the delineation prefents the ap¬
pearance of ruins, as in Florentine or landfcape mar¬
ble.
9. Veined, when the delineation confifts of varioufly
coloured narrow ftripes, croffing each other in differ-
, ent diredtions, forming fometimes the appearance of a
net, as in marble, ferpentine, and jafper.
II. THE COHESION OF THE PARTICLES.
The cohefion of the ^particles in minerals is the fe-
cond common generic charadter, which is obferved by
the fight, and alfo by the touch. According to this
property, minerals are divided into folid, friable, and
fluid ; but thefe properties alfo belong to the particular
generic charadters of minerals, to be afterwards de¬
fcribed.
R articular Generic External Char aiders of Solid Mi¬
nerals.
1. The External Appearance.
In the external appearance of a mineral, three things
are to be obferved, the external form, the external fur-
face, and the external,luftre.
1. The external form of a mineral is that figure or
1
A L O G Y. Part I.
fhape ot the natural furface, which its primitive indivi- Clxffifica-
duals ’are found to poffefs. The external forms of folid ti°n-
minerals are diflinguifhed into common, particular, re- v "~~i
gular or cryftallized, and extraneous.
1. Common External Shape.
When a mineral exhibits no refemblance to any
known fubftances in common lite, it is faid to be of a
common form. Ot common foims there are fix kinds.
A. MaJJive, when a mineral is of an indeterminate
form, or amorphous, and of nearly equal dimenfions,
from the fize of a haze’ nut to the greateft magnitude,
and when it is incorporated with another folid mineral,
it is faid to be mnfiive. Solid minerals are molt fre¬
quently found of thi* external form, and fome are never
found otherwife, as infleatites, common pit-coal, galena,
and copper pyrites.
B. Diffeminated, or interfperfed, when a mineral,
without any particular form, is in fmall pieces not ex¬
ceeding the fize of a hazel nut, incorporated with ano¬
ther folid mineral. This affords three varieties.
a. Coarfely interfperfed, in fize of a hazel nut to that
of a pea, as in copper pyrites.
b. Finely interfperfed, from the fize of a pea to
that of a grain of millet, as in tinitone, in granular
quartz.
c. Minutely interfperfed, from the fize of a grain of
millet till it is fcarcely perceptible to the eye, as in in-
terperfed native gold.
C. In angular pieces, of which there are two vari¬
eties.
a. Sharp-cornered, as in calcedony and in quartz.
b. Blunt-cornered, as in common opal. v
D. In grains. Detached minerals, from the fize of a
hazel nut to that which may be diftinguifhed by the
eye, are faid to be in grains. Thefe are diftinguifiied,
a. According to fize, into
«. In grofs grains from the fize of a hazel nut to
that of a pea, as in lowland argillaceous iron ore.
/3. Large grains, from the fize of a pea to that of
a hemp feed, as in precious garnet, magnetic iron fand.
y. Small grains, from the fize of hemp/eed to that ef
millet, as in the above minerals.
In minute or fine grains, fuch as are fmaller than
millet feeds, as platina, native gold, tinftone.
b. According to the form, which is in
a.. Angular grains, as in magnetic iron fand.
Rounded grains, as in platina and native gold. '
c. According as they inhere in other minerals. In
this refpedt they are, *. Loofe, /3. Partially, or
y. Wholly.
E. In plates, diflinguilhed into
a. Thick plates, as in red fiiver ore.
b. Thin plates, as in vitreous filver ore.
F. In membranes or flakes, when the thicknefs
does not much exceed that of p^per, divided into,
a. Thick, as in native filver.
b. Thin, as in iron pyrites.
c. Very thin, as in vitreous filver ore.
2. Earticular External Forms.
The forms which come under this denomination ex¬
hibit a greater or lefs refemblance, both to natural
and artificial objedds. They are called particular, be-
caufe, like the former, they are not ufual or common.
There
Fart I. MINER
Clr.ffifica- There are five kinds of particular external forms, viz.
rion. elongated, rounded, flattened, impreffed, and confufed.
1' r A. Elongated. Of this there are i i varieties.
ci. Dentiform, as in native filver, and dentiform vi¬
treous filver ore.
b. Filiform, as in native filver, and vitreous filver
ore.
c. Cafeillary, refembling hairs, as in native gold and
native filver.
d. Reticulated, as in native filver, native copper, and
a variety of galena.
e. Dendritic, which is either regular or irregular, as
in native filver and native copper. v
f. Coral/iform, as in calcareous ftala£lites, commonly
known by the name of Jlos ferri, and brown haematites.
g. StalaBitiform, as in calcareous finter, brown iron
ftone, and calcedony.
h. Tubuliform, as in compact brown iron flone, and
galena.
i. Fifluliform, as in martial pyrites.
h. Ft'utefcent, or arbujliform, as in black iron ftone,
and compact gray ore of manganefe.
/. Matrajiform, having the figure of a chemical ma-
trafs, as in black hiematites, and gray ore of manganefe.
E. Rounded, of which there are five varieties.
a. Botryform, refembling a bunch ©f grapes, as in
black cobalt ore, malachite, and copper pyrites.
b. Globular, of which there are five varieties.
a, PerfeBly gldbular, as in pifolite, and white cobalt
ore.
fl. Elliptical, as in quartz and flint,
y. Amygdaloid, as in zeolite and green earth,
th Spheroidal, as in Egyptian jafper and calcedony.
c. ImperfeBly globular, as in carnelian and calcedony.
c. Kidneyform, as in red haematites, native arfenic,
and malachite.
d. Bulbous or nodular, as in nodular flint and martial
pyrites.
e. Liquiform, as in a Angular variety of galena, from
Frey berg.
C. Flattened. Of the particular forms of this
denomination there are three kinds.
a. Specular, as in compaft galena, and compa£t red
ironftone.
b. In lamince or leaves, which form is peculiar to me¬
tals, as in native gold and filver.
c. PeBinated, as in quartz from Schemnitz.
D. Impressed. Particular forms of thefe afford fix
varieties.
a. Cellular, of which there are feveral kinds, as,
a.. Straight cellular, which prefents two varieties.
I. Hexahedral, as in quartz ; 2. Polyhedral, as in cel¬
lular quartz and calcareous fpar.
Round cellular, as, i. Parallel round, as in
quartz; 2. Spongiform, as aifo in quartz; 3. Indeter¬
minate, as in brown iron ftone ; 4. Double, as in
quartz and hepatic pyrites; 5. Veiny, as in white co¬
balt ore.
b With impreffons, which are,
« Cubical, as in quartz and fluor fpar.
g. Pyramidal, as in quartz, fluor fpar, and vitreous
filver ore.
y. Conical, as in native arfenic and quartz.
Tabular or prifmatic, as in quartz,
t. Globular, as in vitreous filver ore.
\ OL. XIV. Part I.
A L O G Y. 137
c. Perforated, as in lowland argillaceous iron ore. Chffifica-
d. Corroded, as in quartz, galena, and vitreous filver .
ore.
e. Heteromorphous, as in native iron, fwampy iron
ore, and native arfenic.
f. Vejicular, as in lavas, pumice ftones, bafalt and
wacken.
E. Confused, of which there is only one variety.
a. Ramofe, as in native iron, fometimes native copper,
and vitreous filver ore.
3. Regular External Forms or Cry/lallixalions.
In deferibing cryftallizations or regular forms of mi¬
nerals, four things are to be confidered ; the effential
quality of the cryftals; the form, aggregation, and
magnitude.
A. The essential quality of crystals, which
IS EITHEPv GENUINE OR SPURIOUS. '
a. Genuine or true cryjlals, which are the moft com¬
mon, as in calcareous and fluor fpars.
b. Spurious or after crystals, which are diftinguifhed
from true cryftals by being hollow, having a rough or
drufy furface, and the folid angles or edges never fharp
or wrell defined. Examples are found in quartz of the
fpurious cryftals of the cube, and of the odlahedron of
fluor fpar.
B. Form of crystals. This is the moft confpicu-
ous property of cryftals, and commonly ferves as a di-
ftindtive character of thofe minerals which have regular
forms. The form of cryftals is compofed of planes ; of
edges formed by the junftion of twTo planes ; of deter¬
minate angles, and of folid angles formed by the union
of three or more planes in one point.
a. In the form of cryftals, the primary or fundamen¬
tal forms are firft to be confidered, and then the varia¬
tions or modifications of thefe forms.
I. The parts of the primary form are,
1. Planes, which are either
a. Lateral planes, forming the confines of the body
towards its fmalleft extent ; or, b. Extreme or terminal
planes, which form the confines of the body towards its
greateft extent.
2. Edges, which are,
a. Lateral edges, or, b. Extreme edges.
3. Solid angles, which have been defined above.
II. Kinds of primary forms, which are the fevea
follow'ing. *
1. 1'he Icofahedron, which is compofed of 20 equi¬
lateral triangular planes, united under equal angles, as
in iron pyrites.
2. The Dodecahedron, which is compofed of twelve
regular, pentangular planes, united under equal ob-
tufe angles, as in iron pyrites, and white cobalt ore.
3. The Hexahedron, including the cube and the
rhomb, is compofed of fix quadrilateral planes, as in
calcareous fpar, fluor fpar, iron pyrites, galena, &c.
4. The Prifm, which is one of the molt common
cryftallizations among minerals, is compofed of an in¬
determinate number of quadrangular lateral planes, ha¬
ving the fame direclion, and all terminating in two ex¬
treme planes, each of which has as many fides as the
cryftallization poffeffes lateral planes; as in various
lead ores, rock cryftal, topaz, and Ihorl.
5. The Pyramid is compofed of an indeterminate
number of triangular, lateral planes, converging to a
S point,
*
M I N E R A L O G Y.
point, and of a bafe having as many fides as the cry-
Part I.
ftallization lias lateral pianes j as in quartz, calcareous
fpar, and amethyfl.
6. The Tab/e, which is compofed of two parallel la¬
teral planes, much larger in comparifon than the other
planes ; the extreme planes being indeterminate in
number, fmall, and narrow 5 as in tabular cryilallized
fpecular iron ore, calcareous fpar, and heavy fpar.
7. 7/h? Zew, confifts of two lateral planes only, dif¬
fering according as the lateral planes are differently
curved. Of this there are two kinds: 1. The common
lens, compofed of two convex lateral planes and
2. The felliform, confiding of one convex and one la¬
teral plane, fomewhat refembling a faddle. Cryftals of
both kinds are obferved in fparry iron ore and calcareous
fpar.
III. Differences in each kind of primary
forms.
Thefe primary forms differ from each other accord¬
ing to fimplicity, polition, number of planes, fize of the
planes, angles under wdiich they meet, direction of the
planes, and fulnefs of the cryftal.
1. Simplicity. This diftin&ion is confined to the
pyramid, which is either,
A. Simple, as in 'light red filver ore, gray copper
ore, quartz, amethyft •, and
B. Double, in which thofe of the one pyramid are
either.
a. Set on the lateral planes of the other, and this
diredtly, or ft obliquely; or b. on the lateral edges of
the other. Examples of this are obferred in double py¬
ramidal vitreous filver ore, galena, rock cryftal, ruby,
and diamond.
2. Pojition, which is either
A. EreB, which is very common •, or B. Inverted,
which has only been obferved in fimple hexahedral py¬
ramidal cryftals of calcareous fpar.
3. Number of planes, in the primary form, is in
fome determinate, and in the others variable. Here
are to be confidered,
A. The kind of planes, as
a. In the prifm and pyramid, in which the lateral
planes vary ; and, b. In the table, in which the ex¬
treme planes vary.
B. The number of planes, which in the prifm and
pyramid ar« found,
a. Trihedral, having three planes, as in the trihe¬
dral prifm of fhorl, and the trihedral pyramid of gray
copper ore.
b. Tetrahedral, having four planes, as in the tetra¬
hedral prifm of arfenieal pyrites, and in the double te¬
trahedral pyramid of ruby and galena.
c. Hexahedral, as in the hexahedral prifm and pyra¬
mid of calcareous fpar.
d. OElahedral, as in the o£lahedral prifm of topaz j
and in the double oftahedral pyramid of garnet and
zeolite.
The table occurs,
a. ^uadragonal, having four extreme planes, as in
heavy fpar, yellow lead ore, and calamine.
b. Hexagonal, having fix extreme planes, as in mica
and heavy fpar.
c. OBagonal, or with eight extreme planes, as in
yellow lead ore and heavy fpar.
4. The fi%e of the planes in relation to each other,
which are laid to be
A. Equal, or
B. Unequal j and this latter is either indeterminate,
or determinate.
a. Indeterminate, which is obferved in the lateral
planes of the hexahedral prifm of rock cryftal.
b. Determmate/y unequal, as in prifmatic white lead
ore, and hexahedral priimatic calcareous fpar. In this
latter the following varieties are obferved.
ае. Alternately broad and narrow. /3. The two op-
pofite broader •, and, y. The two oppofite narrower.
5. Angles under which the planes are affociated.
Thefe are angles of the lateral edges, of the extreme
edges, and of the fummit.
A. Angles of the lateral edges. Thefe are,
a. Equiangular, as in the icofahedral cryftals of iron
pyrites.
b. ReBangu/ar, as in cubical fluor fpar.
с. Oblique angular, as in rhomboidal calcareous fpar.
d. Unequiangular, as in the hexahedral prifm of rock
cryftal, and in the oflahedral prifm of topaz.
B. Angles of the extreme edges are,
a. Equiangular, as in the hexagonal table of mica.
b. ReBangular, as in the quadragonal table of heavy
fpar.
c. Oblique angular, which is either, «. Parallel, as
in the tetrahedral prifm of feldfpar •, or, /3. Alternate
oblique angular, as in copper pyrites.
d. Unequiangular, as in the hexagonal table of preh-
nite.
C. Angles of the fummit, which are confined to the
pyramid, and prefent the following varieties.
a. Very obtufe, when the angle is from 150° to 130°,
as in tourmalin.
b. Obtufe, when the angle is from 130° to 110°, as
in calcareous fpar.
c. Rather obtufe, from no0 to 90°, as in honey
ftone.
d. ReBangular, as in zircon
e. Rather acute, from 90° to 70°, as in quartz.
f. Acute, from 70° to 50°, as in calcareous fpar.
g. Very acute, from 50° to 30°, as in fapphire.
6. The direBion of the lateral planes. Thefe are ei¬
ther ftraight or curvated.
A. Straight planes are even furfaces, and are the moft
common.
B. Curvated planes are diftinguilhed according to
pofition and form.
a. Poftion, which is, Inwardly curvated or con¬
cave ; or, /3. Outwardly curvated or convex 5 and, y.
Inwardly and outwardly curvated, or concave and con¬
vex. The firft is obferved in fluor fpar, the fecond in
diamond, and the third in fparry iron ftone.
b. The form is either, «. Spherical, as in brown
fpar *, Cylindrical, in which the curvature runs,
1. Parallel to the fides, as in iron pyrites, or, 2. Pa¬
rallel to the diagonal, as in fluor fpar j and, y. Conical,
as in gypfum.
7. The fulnefs of the crystal. Cryftals are either full
and perfeft, or hollowed at the extremity, or through¬
out.
A. Full or perfeft cryftals, which is moft commonly
the cafe.
B. Hollowed
Part I. MINERALOGY. , r^o
Clafffica- B. Hollowed at tlie extremity, as in calcareous fpar,
tlon’ green lead ore, &c.
v" C. Hollow through the whole cryftal, as in prifma-
tic beryl.
/3. Modifications of the primary form.
The changes or alterations which take place on the
principal or fundamental form, are three j truncation,
bevelling, and acumination.
I. Truncation. In the truncation are to be confi-
dered the parts and the determination.
1. The parts of the truncation are the planes, the
edges, and the angles.
2. The determination of the truncation relates to,
a. TheJituation as it occurs at the angles or edges of
the primary form.
b. Its magnitude, which, in relation to the planes of
the primary form, is fmall or large : in the one caie
the angles or edges are faid to be {lightly, in the other
deeply truncated.
c. The application of the truncation, which is either
direct or oblique. The edges of cubical iron pyrites
afford an example of oblique truncation.
d. The dir eel ion of the truncation, which prefents ei¬
ther an even or a curvated furface.
Cubical galena, with truncated angles •, tetrahedral
prifmatic tin ftone cryftals, with truncated edges •,
double tetrahedral pyramidal tin ftone cryftals, with
truncated edges, are inftances of truncation.
II. Bevelling, in which the parts and determina¬
tion are alfo to be confidered.
1. The parts of the bevelling are, the planes, the
edges, and the angles. The bevelling edges are di-
ftinguiftied into the proper bevelling edge, which is
formed by the conjunction of the bevelling planes, and
the bevelling edges formed by the jundfion of the bevel¬
ling planes with the lateral planes of the primary form.
2. The determination of the bevelling, in which is
to be obferved.
A. Its fituation as it takes place, a. At the extreme
planes, which is confined to the prifm and table 3 b. At
the edges, which is met with in the hexahedron, prifm,
pyramid, and table 3 and, c. At the angles, wThich is a
very rare occurrence.
B. Its magnitude, which is faid to be flight or deep.
C. The angle under which the bevelling planes con¬
join, which is faid to be, a. Acutely, b. Rectangular¬
ly, or, c. Obtufely bevelled.
D. The continuation of the bevelling, which is ei¬
ther uninterrupted, or interrupted. Of the latter cafe
there are two varieties, when it is once or twice inter¬
rupted. The lateral edges of double trihedral pyrami¬
dal calcareous fpar are once interruptedly bevelled 5 and
the obtufe extreme edges of quadrangular tabular heavy
fpar, are twice interruptedly bevelled.
E. The application, a. Of ihe bevelling itfelf, wdiich
is either direCt or oblique (the former is the moft com¬
mon, and the latter occurs in prifrnatic bafaltic horn¬
blende) ; and, b. Of the bevelling plaiTes, which are fet,
either ©n the lateral planes, or on the lateral edges.
III. The ACUMINATION, in which are alfo to be
confidered the parts of the acummation and the deter- ;
mination.
1. The parts of the acumination confift of,
A. The acuminating planes. B. The acuminating
edges: which are diltinguiftied into, a. Proper edges of
acumination, formed by the “.action of the acuminat- Claffifica-
ing planes 3' b. The extreme edges of acumination 3 , tlQr1, ,
c. The edges between the acuminating and lateral
planes. C. 7'he angles of acumination.
2. The determination of the acumination relating to,
K. Its fituation, as it occurs at, a. 7'he folid angles 3
or, b. At the extreme planes of the primary form.
7'he acumination of the prifm i« always at the extreme
planes; of the cube ufually at the angles, and of the
pyramid generally at the fummit.
B. The planes thernfelves, in which are to be ob¬
ferved.
a. Their number, which is either equal to, or
fewrer than thofe of the primary form. In the hexahe-
dral prifm of calcareous fpar and garnet, and in the tri¬
hedral prifm of tourmaline, the acumination is by three'
planes 3 in the tetrahedral prifm of jargon and hyacinth,
by four planes 3 in the hexahedral prifm of calcareous
fpar and rock cryftal, by fix planes 3 and in tetrahedral
prifmatic topaz, by eight planes.
b. Their relative Jis&e, which is either equal or un¬
equal. In quartz and rock cryftal, the planes of acu¬
mination are generally indeterminately unequal 3 and in
heavy fpar they are determinately equal.
c. Their form, which is determinate, as in hyacinth
and calcareous fpar 3 or indeterminate, as in jargon and
wolfram.
d. Their application, which is either on the lateral
planes of the primary form, as in jargon and hyacinth,
or on the lateral edges, as in calcareous fpar and
garnet.
C. The fummit t>f the acumination, which is, a. Ob¬
tufe, as in hexahedral prifmatic garnet; b. Redtangu-
lar, as in tetrahedral prifmatic jargon 3 or, c. Acute,
as in hexahedral priunatic calcareous fpar.
D. 1'he magnitude of the acumination, which is faid
to be, a. Slightly acuminated, as in gray copper ore
and copper pyrites 3 or, b. Deeply, as in fluor fpar,
with the angles acuminated by 6 planes.
E. Determination of the acumination.; xvhich is ei¬
ther a point or a line. The firft is the moft common 3
and the laft is met with in prifmatic white lead ore and
heavy fpar.
y. Manifold modifications of the primary form.
In thefe modifications cryftals are either, 1. Situated
befide each other 3 or, 2. Placed the one above the
other.
But in deferibing a cryftallization, the number of its
planes in general, and of each kind in particular, and
their figure, if determinate, may be noticed, to render
the defeription more accurate. As, for inftance, cubi¬
cal galena, with truncated angles, confilts of 6 octan¬
gular and 4 triangular planes.
And flill further, in explaining the form of cryftal-
lizations, by way of addition may be mentioned,
1. 7'he different modes of determination of which
they are capable. Two different modes may in fome
cafes be adopted.
a. The reprefentative, by xvhich is underftood the
defeription of a cryftallization according to its apparent
form 3 or,
b. The derivative, xvhich is founded on the confide-
ration of its derivation, and its relation to the other
cryftals of the fame mineral. The prifmatic cryftalli¬
zation of the tourmaline is reprefentatively an enneahe-
S 2 dral
140
C'^iTlfica-
tion
MINERALOGY.
Part T.
dral prlfm, and derivative*/ a trihedral prifm, with the
throe lateral fides bevelled.
But, in general, the chief or effential form of a cry-
ftallization is determined by, a. The largeft planes j
b. The greateft regularity ; c. The molt frequent oc¬
currence of the cryftallizations; d. The affinity to the
other primary forms ; e. The fuitablenefs and peculia¬
rity of its modifications •, and, f. The greateft fimplici-
ty in the mode of determination.
2. The tranfitions from one primary form into an¬
other. Thefe arife,
a. From the gradually increafed extent of the mo-
ditying planes, and the decreafed extent of the primary
planes •, or, '
b. From a change in the relative ftze of the planes j
or,
c. From a change in the angles under which the
planes are afifociated ; or,
d. From the convexity of the planes ; or,
e. From the aggregation of cryftals.
3. The difficulties which are oppofed to the exaft de¬
termination of cryftals. Thefe proceed, a. From their
compreffion, fome planes being uncommonly large or
fmali j <•#, b. From their penetrating each other, as in
tin-ftone cryftals ; or, c. From their partial conceal¬
ment, as in feldfpar, hornblende, and garnet \ or,
d. From their being broken, as often happens in the
crvftallization of precious ftones j or, e. From their
extreme minutenefs.
C. The aggregation of cryftals. According to this,
eryftals are either,
a. Single, in which cafe they are, a. Loofe or de¬
tached, as in precious ftones, cubical iron pyrites, &c. j
Inhering or inlaying in another mineral, as feld¬
fpar in porphyry ; or, y. Adhering, as in quartz cry¬
ftals ; or,
b. Aggregated, which are either regular or irregu¬
lar.
«. Regular or determinate ; fuch are, 1. Twin cry¬
ftals, as in ftaurolite or crofs ftone; and, 2. Triple
cryftals, as in calcareous fpar and ruby : but this is very
rare.
/3. Many fingly aggregated cryftals, are fuch cryftals
as are, 1. Heaped upon one another, as in calcareous
and fiuor fpars; 2. Adhering laterally, as in amethyft
cryftals j and, 3. Implicated one in the other, as in
gray antimonial ore, and in the hexahedral prifms of
calcareous fpar.
y. Many doubly aggregated cryftals are diftributed
according to the form they affume $ fuch as the follow¬
ing, are enumerated.
1. Scopiform, when aggregated, needle-like, and ca-
pilliform crvftals diverge from a common centre, as in
zeolite, ftriated red cobalt ore, and capilliform py¬
rites.
2. Fafciform, which is compofed of double fcopiform,
with a common centre, as in calcareous fpar, zeolite,
and prehnite.
3. Acicular or columnar. Elongated, equally thick
prilfns adhering laterally together, are of this deferip-
tion, as in acicular heavy fpar,. and a variety of white
lead ore.
4 In a rozV) like a firing of pearls, as in pyramidal
cryftals of quartz.
5. Bud Jibe, in fimnle pyramids whofe bafes are con-
nedted, and whole joints are direifled towards each a-
other, as in bud-like drufen of quartz. ‘
6. Globular, a cafual aggregation, confiding rooftly v J
of tables or cubes, arranged in a globular form, as in
odtahedral iron pyrites.
7. Annjgdaloid, when the tables are externally ac¬
cumulated, Imaller upon fmaller, as in heavy fpar.
8. Pyramidal, which takes place chiefty in prifms
nearly parallel, the fummits inclining to each other ;
the central prifm being the higheft, as in calcareous
fpar.
9. RofeJihe, compofed of thin tables, on whofe late¬
ral planes others are affembled, and arranged in a rofe»
like appearance.
D. The magnitude of cryftals, wdiich is deter¬
mined,
a. According to the greateft: dimenfion, as «. Of an
uncommon lize, in cryftals which exceed two feet, as
in quartz and rock cryftal(&. Very large, from two
feet to fix inches, as in rock cryftal and calcareous
fpar j y. Large, from fix to turn inches, as in iron py¬
rites, fiuor fpar, and garnet j Of a middling iize,
from twro inches to half an inch, which are very com¬
mon 5 s. Small, from half an inch to one-eighth of an
inch, alfo very common j Very (mall, from one-eighth
of an inch to fuch as may be diftinguilhed by the na¬
ked eye, as in corneous filver ore, and very fmali tin
Itone cryftals j jj. Minute, whofe form cannot be di-
ftmguiffied by the naked eye, as in native gold and
green lead ore.
b. According to relative dimenfions, when compared
with others; and this is diftinguiftied into a. Short or
lowq and long or high; /3. Broad and narrow7, or lon-
gated j y. Thick and thin, or {lender ; Needle-like
and capilliform ; e. Spicular, and £. Globular or teffular.
4. Extraneous external forms, or petrifaefions, which
are divided into petrifadlions of animals, and petrifac¬
tions of vegetables.
A. Petrifaftions of animals, or zeolites, as
a. Of the clafs mammalia, the parts of which com¬
monly found are the bones, the teeth, horns, and ike-
letons. Such are the bones of the elephant and the
rhinoceros, which are found in Siberia, and the bones
of the mammoth from North America.
b. Of birds, petrifactions of which are very rare.
Some ikeletons of aquatic birds have been met with in
limeftone near Oening.
c. Of amphibious animals, fuch as thofe of the tor-
toife, found in the fame vicinity as the bones of the ele¬
phant ; of frogs and toads, in the fwine ftone of Oen¬
ing $ and of an animal refembling a crocodile in alumi¬
nous (hale near Whitby in Yorkffiire.
d. Of fifties, of which whole fifties, fkeletons, and im-
preffions, have been found in different places.
e. Of infeCts, petrifaftions of which are not very
common, excepting infeCts, fuch as crabs, which have
been frequently obferved.
f. Of vermes, of which numerous petrifaClions are
found belonging to the orders tejlacea, crujlacea, and
corallina or corals.
B. Petrifactions of vegetables, which are lefs nume¬
rous in the mineral kingdom than thofe of animals.,
Thefe are diftinguilhed into
a. Petrified wood, the moft ufual of which are pe¬
trifactions of the trunk, branches, or roots of trees, and,
commonly
rt I. MINER
ffifica- commonly cotnifting of filiceous fubftanccs, as wood-
ton. ftone, jafper, horn ilont*.
■V b' Impreflions of leaves and plants, which are not
uncommon in the ftrata of coal countries, particularly
in the lhale, hand Hone, the argillaceous iron ftone, and
the coal itfelf.
II. The external surface, which is the fecond
particular generic chara&er of folid minerals j and
this is,
1. Uneven, having irregular elevations and depreflions,
as in calcedony.
2. Granular, when the elevations are fmall, round,
and nearly equal, as in ftalaftitical brown haematites.
3. Drufy, having minute, prominent, equal cry-
ftals on the furface, as in iron pyrites and quartz
cryllals.
4. Rough, when the elevations are minute and almoft
imperceptible, as in cellular quartz.
5. Sca/y, when the furface is compofed of {lender
fplinters like fcales, as in chryfolite.
6. Smooth, as in haematites and tluor fpar.
7. Streaketf, which is either fingly or doubly
{freaked.
A. Singly {freaked furfaces are,
a. Tranfverfely, as in rock crylfals; b. Longitudinal¬
ly, as in topaz and prifmatic fhorl ; c. Diagonally, as
in fpecular iron ore j and d. Alternately, as in ron
pyrites.
B. Doubly {freaked, which is,
a. Rlumiformly, or like a feather, as in native filver
and native bifmuth ; and
b. Relifortnly, as in gray cobalt ore.
8. Rugofe. Of flight linear elevations, as in calce¬
dony.
III. The external LUSTRE, in which are to be de¬
termined,
1. The intenfity of the luftre, which is diftinguilhed
into different degrees, as
A. Refplendent, which is the flrongeft kind of luftre,
as in native quickftlver, galena, and rock cryftal.
B. Shining, as in gray copper ore, heavy fpar, and
pitch-ftone.
G. Weakly finning, as in iron pyrites, fibrous gypfum,
and garnet.
D. Glimmering, as in earthy talc, in the fra£ture of
flint, and of fteatites.
E. Dull, as in moft friable minerals, as in earthy
lead ore, mountain-cork, chalk, &c.
2. The kind of luftre, which is either common or
metallic.
A. The common luftre belongs chiefly to earthy ftones
and falts. It is diftinguifhed into
a. Glaffy, as in quartz and rock cryftal.
b. Waxy or greafy, as in opal, and in yellow and
green lead ores.
c. Pearly, as in zeolite.
d. Diamond, as in white lead ore and diamond.
e. Scminietallic, as in mica and haematites.
B. Metallic luftre, which is peculiar to metals and
moft of their ores, as native gold and native filver, cop¬
per pyrites, and galena.
appearance of the frafture.
Here, as in the external appearance, tkree kinds of
A L O G Y.
characters prefent themfelves •, I. The internal luftre j
II. The fraCture; III. The form of the fragment.
I. The internal lujlre, the characters of which are
to be determined in the fame manner as the external
luftre.
II. The Frallure, which is either compact or jointed.
1. The compaCt fraCture, which is diftinguiflied into
fplintery, conchoidal, uneven, earthy, and hackly.
A. Splintery, which is either
a, Coarfe fplintery, as in quartz, prafe, and jade; or
b. Fine fplintery, as in hornftone and fine fplintery
limeftone.
B. Even, which happens in minerals that are ufual-
ly opake, and have only a glimmering lultre, as in com-
paCt galena, calcedony, and yellow carnelian.
C. Conchoidal, which is diftinguiihed,
a. According to the fize, into large and fmall.
b. According to the appearance, into perfeCt and
imperfeCt; and
c. According to the depth, into deep and flat.
Flint, opal, jafper, and obfidian, afford examples of
the conchoidal fraCture.
D. Uneven, wftiich is either,
a. Of a coarfe grain, as in copper pyrites.
b. Of a fmall grain, as in gray copper ore, and
c. Of a fine grain, as in arfenical pyrites.
E. Earthy, which is the common fraCture in earths
and ftones, as in marl, chalk, limeftone.
F. Hackly, in which the fraCture exhibits {harp points,
which is peculiar to the metals, as in native, gold and
native copper.
2. The jointed fraCture. This is divided into the
fibrous, ftriated, foliated, and flaty.
A. The fibrous fraCture, in which are to be ob-
ferved,
a. The thicknefs of the fibres, as they are coarfe, fine,
or delicate, as gypfum, fine fibrous malachite, and in
wood-tin-ore..
b. The direction of the fibres, which are ftraight, as
in red haematites, and gray antimonial ore ; or curved,
as in black haematites, and fibrous rock fait.
c. The pofition of the fibres, which is «. Parallel, as
in rock fait and amianthus : /3. Diverging, which is, 1^
Stelliform, as in black haematites, and fibrous zeolite ;
or 2. Scopiform, as in fibrous malachite : or y. Promif-
cuous, as in gray antimonial ore.
d. The length of the fibres, which is a. Long, as in
gypfum and amianthus; or /3. Short, as in red haema¬
tites.
B. Striated^ in which are to be confidered,
a. The breadth of the ftriae, which are, a. Narrow,
as in azure copper ore; /3. Broad, as in aCtynolite and
hornblende ; or y. Very broad, as in fapphire and zeo¬
lite.
b. The direction of the ftriae, w'hich is either,«. Straight,
as in gray ore of manganefe ; or /3. Curved, as in zeolite
and aCtynolite,
c. The pofition of the ftriae, which is Parallel, as
in afbeftus and hornblende ; /3. Diverging, which is dif-
tinguiftied into ftelliform, as in iron pyrites and zeo¬
lite, or fcopiform, as in aCtynolite and limeftone ; or y.
Promifcuous, as in gray antimonial ore and aCtynolite.
d. Length of the jirice, as being <*. Long ftriated, as in
afbeftus and gray antimonial ore ; or /S. Short ftriated,
as in aCtynolite,
^ C. m
I 41
Claffifica-
tion.
 , /
\
142 MINER
ClaffiSca- C. T/ie foliated fraclure, in which are to be deter-
tkin- ; mined,
a. The magnitude of the folia, as being «. Large fo¬
liated, as in mica and fpecular gypfum, /3. Scaly foli¬
ated, which is diiiinguifhed into 1. Coarfe, 2. Small,
and 3. Fine fcaly foliated, as in micaceous iron ore
and gypfum, y. Granularly foliated, which is diftin-
guifhed into 1. Grofs, 2. Coarfe, 3. Small, and 4. Fine
granularly foliated, as in fparry iron ore, blende, and
calcareous fpar.
b. The perfe61nefs of the folia, as being «. Perfectly
foliated, as in feldfpar ; /3. Imperfeflly foliated, as in
topaz ; or y. Concealed foliated, as in emerald-
c. The direftion of the folia, which is a. Straight, as
in large foliated blende •, or /3. Curved foliated. The
latter is diftinguilhed into 1. Spherically curved, as in
heavy fpar $ 2. Undularly curved, as in talc ; 3. Peta-
loidally curved, as in galena ; or, 4. Indeterminately
curved, as in mica and fpecular gypfum.
d. The paffage or cleavage of the folia, which is,
According to the angle which one paffage forms
with another •, and this is either, 1. Re&angular, or 2.
oblique angular j or,
/S. According to the number of the cleavages, and is
cither,
1. A fingle cleavage, as in mica and talc ; 2. A
double cleavage, as in feldfpar and hornblende ; 3. A
-triple cleavage, as in calcareous fpar and fparry iron
ore ; 4. A quadruple cleavage, as in fluor fpar; 5.
A fextuple cleavage, as in yellow, brown, and black
blende.
I). The flaty fraflure, in which are to be deter¬
mined the thicknefs and direflion of the lamellae.
/j. The thicknefs of the lamellae, which is either,
«. Thick, or /3. Thin flaty.
b. The direction of the lamellae, as being either,
«. Straight, or /3. Curved flaty ; the latter being dif-
tinguiflied into, 1. Undularly, or 2. Indeterminately
curved.
In fome minerals which poffefs difliinfl parts, two
kinds of fracture may be obferved. Thus, in fibrous
gypfum, and in red and brown haematites, both the
fibrous and foliated fracture appear j the fibres are then
interfedied by the folia under a certain angle. In to¬
paz, the tranfverfe fradture is foliated, and the longi¬
tudinal fradture is conchoidal.
III. The form of the fragments, which is either re¬
gular or irregular.
1. Regular fragments, as when they are,
A. Cubical, as in galena and rock fait.
B. Rhomboidal, in which cafe the fragments are
a. Specular on all the planes, as in heavy fpar $
b. On four planes, as in feldfpar and hornblende j
and,
c. On two planes, as in fpecular gypfum.
C. Trapezoidal fragments, &c.
D. Trihedral pyramidal fragments are rarely to be
feen diftindtly, excepting in fluor fpar. '
D. Dodecahedral fragments, as in blende.
2. Irregular fragments, as when they are,
a. Cuneiform, as in wood-tin-ore, and malachite.
B. Specular, as in amianthus.
C. Tabular, as in mica and talc.
D. Indeterminate, which are the moft common a-
mong folid minerals, and are difticiguiflied into
3
A L O C Y. Part I.
a. Very (harp edged, as in obfidian, common opal, Claffifica-
and rock cryftal. '
b. Sharp edged, as in hornftone and quartz. ' v
c. Moderately fliarp edged, as in limeftone.
d. Rather blunt edged, as in lleatites; and
e. Blunt edged, as in chalk and fuller’s earth.
3. The appearance of the diftinft concretions.
In determining this chara&er, the form of the dif-
tinft concretions, the furface of feparation, and the
luftre of feparation, are to be confidcred.
I. The form of the difiinft concretions, which is
either granular, lamellar, columnar, or pyramidal.
1. Granular, diftin& concretions are diftinguiflhed,
A. With refpedi to the form, into
a. Round granular, which is either a. Spherically
round, as in roe ftone and pifolite •, or /3. Lenticularly
granular, as in argillaceous iron flone j or y. Elongated
round granular, as in quartz : and,
b. Angularly granular, which is either a. Common,
as in galena and calcareous fpar ; or fi. Elongated an-
nularly granular, as in hornblende and granular lime¬
ftone.
B. With regard to the fize of the concretions. Thefe
are,
a. Grofs granular, as in zeolite and blende.
b. Coarfe granular, as in mica, galena, and pifo¬
lite.
c. Small granular, as in roe ftone and garnet j and
d. Fine granular diftinct concretions, as in granular
limeftone and galena.
2. Lamellar diftindf concretions. The differences to
be obferved here are, with relpedt to the diredfion or
form, and the thicknefs.
A. With refpedt to the diredlion or form, they are
either,
a. Straight lamellar: and again either quite ftraight,
as in fome galena and heavy fpar j or fortification-like,
as in fome amnhyft and calcedony.
b. Curved lamellar, which is either indeterminate, as
in galena and fpecular iron ore; reniform, as in fibrous
malachite and native arfenic j or concentric, which is
either fpherical concentric, as in calcedony ai\d pifo¬
lite, or conically concentric, as in fome ftaladlites and
haematites.
B. With regard to the thicknefs, as being
a. Very thick, the concretions exceeding one-half
inch, as in amethyft and heavy fpar.
b. Thick, the concretions being between one-half
and one-fourth inch, as in heavy fpar and native ar¬
fenic.
c. Thin, between one-fourth and one-half inch, as in
calcedony.
d. Very thin, from a line to a thicknefs juft percep¬
tible to the naked eye, as in fpecular iron.
3. Columnar diftindt concretions, which are diftin-
guifhed with regard to the diredtion, thicknefs, form,
and pofition.
A. The diredtion, which is either,
a. Straight columnar, as in fchorl and calcareous fpar,
and,
b. Curved columnar, as in argillaceous iron ftone, and
fpecular iron ore.
B. The thicknefs is diftinguiflied into,
a. Very thick, when the diameter exceeds two in¬
ches, as in bafalt and quartz.
b. Thick
Part!. MINER
Clafilficar b. Thick columnar, from two inches to one-fourth
tlon- inch, as in amethyit and calcareous fpar.
c Xhin, from one-fourth to one-half inch, as in cal¬
careous fpar and argillaceous iron fione.
d* Very thin, the thicknefs being lefs than a line,
as in fchorl and columnar argillaceous iron ftone.
C. The form of the concretions being either
a. Per^edtly columnar, as in argillaceous iron ftone.
b. Imperfe&ly, as in amethyft.
r. Cuneiform columnar, as in calcareous fpar and ar-
fenxal pyrites.
D. The pofition of the concretions, which is either
a. Parallel columnar, as in fchorlite, or
b. Diverging or promifcuous columnar, as in fchorl
and arfenical pyrites.
4. Pyramidal diftinft concretions. This form of
concretion i# very rare, and has been obferved only in
the bafalt of Iceland, Faro, and Bohemia.
II. The furface of reparation, which is diftinguilhed
into
1. Smooth, as in wood tin ore.
2. Rough, as in native arfenic.
3. Uneven, as in galena and blende 5 and
4. Streaked, which is either,
A. Longitudinally ftreaked, as in fchorl and fchorlite.
B. Tranfverfely and fortification-like, as in amethyft
and fpecular iron ore.
III. The luftre of feparation. This charadder is to
be determined in the fame manner as the external
luftre.
4. The General appearance.
This comprehends three particular generic charac-
■» ters, the tranfparency, the ftreak, and the ftain.
I. The tranfparency, which is diftinguilhed into the
following five degrees.
1. Tranfparent, which is either,
A. Common, as when obje&s appear fingle through
a tranfparent mineral; or,
B. Doubling, when objefts appear double, as in cal¬
careous fpar, or double refracting fpar, jargon, and
chryfolite.
2. Semitranfparent, as in opal and calcedony.
3. Tranflucent, as in flint, cats eye, and fluor fpar.
4. Tranflucent at the edges, as in hornftone and fo¬
liated gypfum.
5. Cpake, which is peculiar to minerals of a metallic
luftre, as in malachite and jafper.
II. The ftreak, which is either,
1. Of the fame colour, or,
2. Different from that of the mineral, and whofe luf¬
tre is the fame *, or,
B. more or lefs different.
In red filver ore the ftreak is a dark crimfon red ; in
cinnabar, fcarlet red ; in green lead ore, greeniih-white j
in red lead ore, clear lemon yellow.
III. The ftain. With refpeft to this charaCter, mi¬
nerals are diftinguifhed into fuch as,
1. Simply ftain, and this either ftrongly or weak¬
ly, as gray ore of manganefe, and red fcaly iron
ore ; and into fuch as
2. Both ftain and mark, as chalk and plumbago j and,
3. Such as do not ftain.
CharaBers for the Touch.
Characters of this defcription are, hardnefs, foli-
L O G Y. 143
dity, frangibility, flexibility, and adhefion to the Claffifica-
t0ngUe. . , . ■ y .‘—J
I. The hardnefii which is determined by the follow¬
ing degrees.
1. Hard, as when a mineral gives fire with fteel,
but cannot be feraped with the knife. This character
is diftinguiftied into,
A. Hard, when the file makes a confiderable impref-
fion, as in feldfpar and fchorl.
B. Very hard, on which it makes a weak impreflion,
as in rock cryftal and topaz.
C. Extremely hard, on which the file makes no im¬
preflion, as diamond and emery.
2. Semihard may be (lightly feraped with a knife,
but gives no fire with fteel, as red copper ore, blende,
limeftone.
3. Soft, eafily feraped with the knife, as in galena,
mica, albeftus.
4. Very foft, which receives an impreflion from the
nail, as in gypfum, chalk, talc.
II. T\\efolidity, according to which folid minerals
are diftinguiftied into,
r. Brittle, when the particles are in the higheft de¬
gree coherent and immoveable, as in quartz, gray cop¬
per ore, and copper pyrites.
2. SeClile, when the particles are coherent but not
perfeftly immoveable among one another, as in plumba¬
go and galena.
3. Malleable, when the integrant particles are cohe¬
rent and alfo more or lefs moveable among one another,
as in molt of the native metals.
III. The frangibility, with regard to which folid
minerals are either,
1. Very difficultly frangible, as native metals, and
maflive common hornblende.
2. Difficultly frangible, as in prafe, maflive quartz,
and afbeftus.
3. Rather eafily frangible, as iron pyrites, vitreous
copper ore.
4. Eafily frangible, as in galena, opal, and heavy (par.
5. Very eafily frangible, as in amber and pitcoal.
IV. The flexibility,, according to which folid mine¬
rals are,
1. Flexible, which is diftinguiftied into,
A. Common, as in malleable minerals, amianthus,
gold ore.
B. Elaftic, as in mica, elaftic mineral pitch from
Derbyfliire.
2. Inflexible, fuch minerals as break when the direc¬
tion of the fibres is changed.
V. The adhefion to the tongue, according to which -
fome minerals poffefs this property
1. Strongly, as in hydrophane.
2. Rather itrongly, as in bole and lithomarga.
3. Weakly, as talc.
4. Very weakly, as in clay.
5. No adhefion at all,, as is the cafe with moft mi¬
nerals.
CharaBers for the Hearing.
I. The found, which is diftinguiftied into
1. Ringing or founding, as in native arfenic and com¬
mon (late.
2. Creaking, as in native amalgam when preffed with
the finger.
- 3- Ruffling,;,
144
Claffifica- 3. RuftHng, as in pafling the finger over mountain
tion. cork anti farinaceous zeolite.
v' 2. Particular geneiic charafters of friable minerals.
The characters included under this title are the ex¬
ternal form, the luftre, the appearance of the particles,
the (lain and the friability.
I. The external form, which is either majjive, as in
porcelain earth ; imerfperfcd, as in black filver ore •, as
a thick or thin cmji, as in black copper ore •, fpumi-
form, as in red apd brown fcaly iron ores; dendritic,
as gray ore of manganefe } or reniform, as pure clay and
earthy talc.
II. The luftre, which is determined as in folid mine¬
rals $ but here it is diftinguifhed,
1. With regard to intenfity, as
A. Glimmering, asin earthy talc and fcaly iron orej and,
£. Dull, as in earthy lead ore and lithomarga.
2. With regard to the kind, as it is common or me¬
tallic.
III. The appearance of the particles, w’hich is either,
1. Duffy, as in black copper ore, iron ochres.
2. Scaly, as in earthy talc.
IV. The ftain is diftinguifhed in friable minerals as
being either
1. Strong, as in fcaly iron ore.
2. Weak, as in earthy lead ores.
V. The friability, with regard to which friable mi¬
nerals are either
1. Pulverulent, as earthy lead ores, and blue martial
earth.
2. Loofely coherent, as fcaly iron ore and clays.
3. Particular generic charadters of fluid minerals.
Thefe charadlers relate to the external form, the luftre,
the tranfparency, the fluidity, and the wetting of the
fingers.
I. The external form, which is either,
I. In globules j and, 2. Liquiform j both which
charadters belong to native mercury.
II. The luftre, which is determined as formerly ex¬
plained, and is either I. Common } or 2. Metallic, as
in native mercury.
III. The tranfparency, of which three degrees are
diftinguifhed in fluid minerals : 1. Tranfparent, as in
naphtha-, 2. Turbid, as in petroleum 5 3. Op'ake, as in na¬
tive mercury.
IV. The fluidity, wTich is charadterifed by being,
I. Perfedtly fluid, as mercury, and, 2. Cohefive, as in
mineral tar.
V. ;The wrettingof the fingers. 1. Some fluid minerals
wet the fingers, as mineral tar j and, 2. Some do not, as
native mercury.
Remaining Common Generic External Chara&ers.
The remaining common generic charadters are the
undtuofity j the coldnefs j the weight $ the fmell $ and
the tafte.
III. The undtuofity, of which there are four degrees.
1. Meagre, as is the cafe wdth molt minerals.
2. Rather greafy, as pipe clay.
3. Greafy, as fullers earth and fteatites.
4. Very greaiy, as talc and plumbago.
IV. The coldnefs, which includes three degrees.
1. Cold, having the coldnefs of quartz, as hornflone,
jafper, marble.
2. Rather cold, as Terpentine, gypfutn.
2
Part T.
3. Slightly cold, as amber, pitcoal, and chalk. ClatSfica-
By this character cut and polifhed {tones may be di- tlon- ,
ftinguifhed, where fotne of the other charadters are loft j
and by it alfo natural gems may be diftinguiftied from
thofe rvhich are artificial.
V. The weight.—This charadter is moft accurately
difeovered by taking the fpecific gravity of a mineral
by means of a hydroftatic balance. See Hydrodyna¬
mics. But when this cannot be had recourfe to, a mi¬
neral is examined by lifting it in the hand and compar¬
ing its weight, thus eftimated by the feeling, with its
volume, by wdrich means an approximation may be
made to its fpecific gravity. Five degrees of this
mode of eftimating the weight of minerals have been
aflumed.
1. Supernatant, fucb minerals as fwim in wrater, as
naphtha, mountain cork.
2. Light, fuch minerals as have a fpecific gravity be¬
tween 1.000 and 2.000, (taking water at l.oco) as am¬
ber, mineral pitch, and pitcoal.
3. Rather heavy, are fuch minerals as have a fpecific
gravity between 2.000 and 4.000, which is the cafe
with moft kinds of ftones, as amianthus, rock cryftal,
niica, fluor fpar, diamond.
4. Heavy, wdien the fpecific gravity is from 4.00c to
6.000, as in moft metallic ores, fuch as gray copper ore,
red haematites, white lead ore, and in fome others as
heavy fpar.
5. Extremely heavy, when the fpecific gravity ex¬
ceeds 6.000, which includes the native metals, as native
gold, native copper, and native filver, and fome others,
as galena, tinftone cryftals, fulphurated bifmuth, and vi¬
treous filver ore.
VI. The fmell is chara6feriftic of only a fmall num¬
ber of minerals. It is obferved either,
1. Of itfelf without addition, and is,
A. Bituminous, as mineral pitch and naphtha.
B. Slightly fulphureous, as in native fulphur and gray
antimonial ore.
C. Bitterifh, as in ochre kept clofe fhut up for fome
time.
D. Clayey, as in yellow chalk.
2. After breathing on a mineral, which fhould be cold
and breathed upon ftrongly and quickly, when the fmell
perceived is,
A. Clayey bitter, as in hornblende and fome fie-
nites.
3. After rubbing or ftriking, when the fmell emit¬
ted is,
A. Urinous, as in fwineftone after rubbing.
B. Sulphureous, as in pyrites.
C. Garlic, as in arfenical pyrites and white cobalt ore.
D. Empyreumatic, as in quartz and pitcoal.
VII. The tafte, which is charadleriftic of one clafs
of minerals, only, viz. the falls j and it is either,
1. Sweetifh faline, as rock fait.
2. Sweetifh aftringent, as native alum.
3. Sourifh aftringent, as native vitriol.
4. Bitter faline, as native epfom fait.
5. Cooling faline, as native nitre.
6. Lixivious, as native alkali.
7. Urinous, as native fal ammoniac.
Befide the characters which we have now illuftrated,
fome others are occafionally and fuccefsfully employed
in the delcription of minerals. Thefe have been brought
under
MINERALOGY.
Part 1. M I N E R
Claffifica- under tdie denomination of phyQcal, chemical, and era¬
tion- pirical characters.
L v  i, Phtjjical. The moft common of the phyfical cha>
raCters is the property which fome minerals poiTefs of
exhibiting figns of electricity and liiagnetifm. Some
minerals become eleCtric by being heated, and others
by friction ; and the eleCtricity thus excited is in fome
vitreous or pofitive, and in others refinous or negative.
Some minerals, too, and particularly fome varieties of
iron ore, are diftinguifhed by being attracted by the
magnet. Such are magnetic pyrites, and magnetic iron
fand. By filing a mineral fo fine that the particles (hall
fwim on water, and then applying a magnet, the
flighted: degree of magnetic eft'eCt may be obferved.
Among the phyfical properties of minerals alfo, may be
reckoned the phofphorefcence, which is produced by
friCtion, as in fome varieties of blende ^ or by expolure
to heat, as fluor fpar, and fome calcareous fpars. To
thefe characters alfo belongs the peculiar property of
Lemnian earth and fome other boles, which being
thrown into water fplit into pieces with a crackling
noife ; and the property of fome opals and other ftones,
of acquiring a higher degree of tranfparency when they
are immerfed in water, hence called hydrophanes.
2. Chemical characters.—By fome fimple experi¬
ments, the nature of many mineral fubftances may be
eafily and quickly afeertained, and particularly by
means of acids. Thus, the nitrous acid is employed to
difeover whether a mineral effervefees, from which cha¬
racter the nature of the mineral can be more certainly
known than by any other. Ammonia, or the volatile
alkali, diffolves copper, and affumes a blue colour. A-
cetic acid is fuccefsfully employed as a teft of lead,
which communicates to the acid a fweetifh tafte. By
means of heat, and particularly by the ufe of the blow¬
pipe, much knowledge may be obtained of the nature
of minerals. Some are volatilized •, in others the co¬
lour is changed ; and while fome are nearly fufed at
different temperatures, others burn with a flame of pe¬
culiar colours.
3. Empirical characters.-**-Among thefe characters,
the molt common is the peculiar efflorefcence which
takes place in fome ores. In copper ores the effloref¬
cence is green or blue; in iron ores, brown, yel¬
low, or red ; in cobalt, peach bloffom red j and in ar-
fenic, white.
Characters for the diftinCtion of minerals may be ob¬
tained from the circumftance of certain minerals being
found generally accompanying others j as native arfenic
with orpiment j gray copper ore with copper pyrites,
A L O G y.
and gray filver ore ; red copper ore with native cop¬
per : white cobalt ore is rarely found without nickel ;
and by attending to this circumftance, it will not be
miftaken for arfenical pyrites.
for the lake of brevity, Mr Kirwan, and others after
him, have adopted a method of expreffing fome of the
characters by means of numbers. The following table
exhibits fome of thefe characters and correfponding
numbers.
Refplendent, denoted by the number 4.
Shining 3.
Weakly fhining _ 2.
Glimmering j.
Dull . o.
Fragments, when the form is indeterminate.
Very fharp-edged 4
Sharp-edged 3
Rather lharp-edged 2
Rather blunt 1
Perfectly blunt o
Tranfparency.
Tranfparent 4
Semitranfparent 3
Tranflucent 2
Tranflucent at the edges 1
Opake o
Hardnefs.
Of chalk, denoted by 3
Yielding to the nail 4
May be feraped with a knife j
Yields more difficultly to the knife 6
Scarcely yields to the knife 7
Does not give fire wTith fteel 8
Gives feeble fparks with iteel 9
Gives lively fparks 10
But it is obvious that this abridged mode of expref¬
fing thefe characters, by means of numbers, can only be
advan ageoufly employed by thofe who have made
themfelves quite familiar with the different numbers
correfponding to the different (hades of charaCter, and
who can thus recolleCt them with facility and precifion.
lo others this method of d leription, by requiring con-
ftant reference to the explanation, may prove rather em-
barrafling, fo that what is gained in brevity may be loft in
perfpicuity. We propofe therefore, ftill to retain the ver¬
bal mode of expreflion in preference to the numerical.
Tabi e of Minerals arranged in the order of their Genera and Species, each Genus being
divided into Families or Groupes, the chara&ers of which latter are derived from their ex¬
ternal properties according to the method of Werner.
First Class.
EARTHS & STONES.
I. Diamond Genus.
Diamond.
II. Zircon Genus.
Zhcon.
Hyacinth.
^ ol. XIV. Part I.
III. Siliceous Genus.
Chrysolite Family.
Chryfoberyl.
Ckryfoiite.
Olivine.
Coccolite.
Augite.
Vefuvian.
Garnet Family.
Leucite.
Melanite.
Garnet.
a. Precious.
b. Common.
c. Bohemian or Pyrope.
Grenatite or Staurolite,
T
Ruby Family.
Ceylanite.
Spindle.
Sapphire.
Corundum.
Adamantine fpar.
Emery.
Schorl
J4-6
Claffiffca- . Schorl Family.
. Topaz.
v Pyrophyfalite.
Euclafe.
Emerald.
Beryl.
Schorlite.
Schorl.
a. Common.
b. Electric or Tourma¬
line.
Piflazite.
Zoilite.
Axinite or Thumerftone.
Quart% Family.
Quartz.
a. Amethyft.
Common.
Fibrous.
b. Rock cryftal.
c. Rofe-coloured or milk
quartz.
d. Common quartz.
e. Prafe.
f. Ferruginous quartz,
or iron flint.
Hornftone.
a. Splintery.
b. Conchoidal.
c. Ligniform.
Flinty flate.
a. Common.
b. Lydian Hone.
Flint.
Calcedony.
a. Common.
b. Carnelian.
Opal.
a. Precious.
b. Common.
d. Ligniform.
Menilite.
Jafper.
a. Egyptian,
b. Ribband-
c. Porcelain.
d. Common.
e. Agate.
/. Opal.
Heliotrope or Rloodftone.
Chryfoprafe.
Plafma.
Cats eye.
Pitchjlone Family.
Obfldian.
Pitchifone.
Pearlftone.
Pumice.
Zeolite Family.
Prehnite.
a. Fibrous.
b. Foliated.
Zeolite.
t. Fibrous }Mcfotypev
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
a!. Common. Claffifica*
b'. Calcareous llnter. t‘on-
d. Pifolite or pea-ftone. l—■—v—
Calcareous tufa.
Foam earth.
Slaty fpar.
Arragonite.
Brown fpar.
Dolomite.
Rhomb or bitter fpar.
Swineftone.
Marl.
a. Earthy.
b. Indurated.
Bituminous marl flate.
Family of Phofphates.
Apatite. •
Afparagus ftone.
Phofphorite.
Family of Fluates.
Fluor.
a. Earthy.
b. Compact.
c. Fluor fpar.
Family of Sulphates,
Gypfum.
a. Earthy.
b. Compadh
r. Foliated.
d. Fibrous.
Selenite.
Anhydrite.
Cube fpar.
VII. Barytic Genus,
Family of Carbonates.
Wither! te.
Family of Sulphates,
Heavy fpar.
a. Earthy.
b. Compact.
c. Granular.
d. Foliated.
e. Common.
f. Columnar.
g. Fibrous.
h. Bolognian.
VIII. Strontian Genus.
Family of Carbonates. .
Strontites.
Family of Sulphates.
Celeftine.
a. Fibrous.
b. Foliated.
Cubizite, Chabafie or A-
nalcime.
Crofs-ftone, Staurolite.
Laumonite.
Dipyre.
Natrolite.
Azurite.
Lazulite.
Hydrargillite.
Fcldfpar Family.
Andaluflte.
Feldfpar.
a. Adularia.
b. Labradore ftone.
c. Common feldfpar.
d. Compaft.
e. Hollow fpar, chiafto-
lite.
Scapolite.
Ardlizite or Wernerite.
Diafpore.
Spodumene.
Meionite.
Sommite.
Ichthyophthalmite.
IV.ARGiLi.ACEOusGenus.
Clay Family.
Native alumina.
Porcelain earth.
Common clay.
a. Loam.
b. Pipe clay.
„ c. Potters clay.
d. Variegated clay.
e. Slaty clay.
Clayftone.
Adhefive flate.
Poliftiing flate.
Tripoli.
Floatftone.
Alum ftone.
Clay Slate Family.
Aluminous fchiftus.
a. Common.
b. Shining.
Bituminous fchiftus.
Drawing flate.
Whet flate.
Clay flate.
Mica Family.
Lepidolite.
Mica.
Finite.
Potftone.
Chlorite.
a. Earthy.
b. CJommon.
c. Foliated.
d. Schiftofe.’
Trap Family.
Hornblende.
a. Common.
b. Bafaltic.
c. Labradore.
d. Schiflofe.
Bafalt.
Wacken.
Phonolite or Clinkftone.
Lava.
Lithomarga Family.
Green earth.
Lithomarga.
a. Friable.
b. Indurated.
Rock foap.
Umber.
Yellow earth.
kV. Magnesian Genus.
Soap Stone Family.
Native magnefla.
Bole.
Sea froth.
Fullers earth.
Steatites.
Figure ftone.
Talc Family.
Nephrite.
a. Common.
b. Axe-ftone.
Serpentine.
a. Common.
b. Precious.
Schillerftone.
Talc.
a. Earthy.
b. Common.
c. Indurated.
Afbeftus.
a. Mountain cork.
b. Anrianthus.
c. Common afbeftus.
d. Ligniform afbeftus.
ABynolite Family.
Cyanite.
Aclynolite.
a. Afbeftous.
b. Common.
c. Glafly.
Tremolite.
a. Afbeftous.
b. Common;
c. GlaiTy.
Smaragdite.
Sahlite.
Sc halftone.
VI. Calcareous Genus.
-
Family of Carbonates.
Agaric mineral.
Chalk.
Limeftone.
a. Compa£L
a'. Common.
b'. Oolite or roe-ftone.
b. Foliated.
a!. Granular.
b'. Calcareous fpar.
c. Fibrous.
Second Class.
SALTS.
I. Genus Sulphates.
Native vitriol.
Native alum.
Mountain butter.
Capillary fait.
Native Epfom fait.
Native Glauber fait.
DL
Part I.
Ciaffifica- II. Genus NITRATES.
, u°r1. Native nitre.
' ' III. Genus Muriates.
Rock fait.
a. Foliated.
b. Fibrous.
Sea fait.
Native fal ammoniac.
IV. Genus CARBONATES.
Native foda.
Native raagnefia.
V. Genus Borates.
Boracite.
VI. Genus Fluates.
Cryolite.
Third Class.
COMBUSTIBLES.
I. Genus Sulphur.
Native fulphur.
a. Common.
b. Volcanic.
II. Bituminous Genus.
Petroleum, or mineral oil.
Mineral pitch.
a. Elaftic.
b. Earthy.
c. Slaggy.
Amber.
a. ’A7hite.
b. Yellow.
Broon coal.
a. Common.
b. Bituminous wood.
c. Earth coal.
d. Alum earth.
e. Moor coal.
Black coal.
a. Pitch coal.
b. Columnar coal.
c. Slaty coal.
d. Cannel coal.
e. Foliated coal.
f. Coarfe coal.
Coal blende.
a. ConchoidaL
b. Slaty.
III. Graphite Genus.
Graphite.
a. Scaly.
b. Compaft.
Mineral charcoal.
Fourth Class.
METALLIC ORES.
I. PLATINA Genus.
Native platina.
II. Gold Genus.
Native gold.
a. Golden yellow.
b. Brafs yellow.
c. Grayilh yellow.
III. Mercury Genus.
Native mercury.
Native amalgam.
Corneous ore of mercury.
MINERALOGY.
Liver ore of mercury.
a. Compadl.
b. Slaty.
Cinnabar.
a. Common.
b. Fibrous.
IV. Silver Genus.
Native filver.
a. Common.
b. Auriferous.
Antimonial filver ore.
Arfenical filver ore.
Corneous filver ore.
Sooty filver ore.
Vitreous filver ore.
Brittle vitreous filver ore.
Red filver ore.
a. Dark red.
b. Bright red.
White filver ore.
Black filver ore.
V. Copper Genus.
Native copper.
Vitreous copper ore.
a. Compaft.
b. Foliated.
Variegated copper ore.
Copper pyrites.
White copper ore.
Gray copper ore.
Black copper ore.
Red copper ore.
a. Compafl.
b. Foliated.
c. Capillary.
Brick-red copper ore.
a. Earthy.
b. Indurated.
Emerald copper ore.
Azure copper ore.
a. Earthy.
b. Indurated.
Malachite.
a. Fibrous.
b. Compact.
Green copper ore.
Ferruginous green copper
ore.
a. Earthy.
b. Slaggy.
Micaceous copper ore.
a. Foliated.
b. Lenticular.
Muriate of copper.
VI. Iron Genus.
Native iron.
Iron pyrites.
a. Common*
b. Radiated.
c. Capillary.
d. Hepatic.
Magnetic pyrites.
Magnetic iron ore.
a. Common.
b. Arenaceous.
Specular iron ore.
a. Common.
a'. Compact.
b'. Foliated.
b. Micaceous iron ore.
Red iron ore.
a. Red iron froth.
b. Compact.
c. Red haematites.
d. Red ochre.
Brown iron ore.
a. Brown iron froth.
b* Compaft.
c. Brown haematites.
d. Brown ochre.
Sparry iron ore.
Black iron ore.
a. Compadh
b. Black haematites.
Argillaceous iron ftone.
a. Red chalk.
b. Columnar argillace¬
ous iron ftone.
c. Granular.
d. Common.
e. Reniform.
f. Filiform.
Bog iron ftone.
a. Mora fly.
b. Swampy.
c. Meadow.
Blue earthy iron ftone.
Green earthy iron ftone.
VII. Lead Genus.
Galena.
a. Common.
b. Com pa ft.
Blue lead ore.
Brown lead ore.
Black lead ore.
White lead ore.
Green lead ore.
Red lead ore.
Yellow lead ore.
Native fulphate of lead.
Earthy lead ore.
a. Friable.
b. Indurated.
VIII. Tin Genus.
Tin pyrites.
Common tinftone.
Grained tin ore.
IX. Bismuth Genus.
Native bifmuth.
Vitreous bifmuth.
Ochre of bifmuth.
X. Zinc Genus,
Blende.
a. Yellow.
b. Brown*
c. Black.
Calamine.
tf. Compadh
b. Foliated.
XI. Antimony.
Native antimony.
Gray ore of antimony.
T i
a. CompadL
b. Foliated.
c. Radiated.
d. Plumofe.
Red ore of antimony.
White ore of antimony.
Ochre of antimony.
XII. Cobalt Genus.
White cobalt ore.
Gray cobalt ore.
Shining cobalt ore.
Black cobalt ochre.
a. Friable.
b. Indurated.
Brown cobalt ochre.
Yellow cobalt ochre.
Red cobalt ochre.
a. Earthy.
b. Radiated.
XIII. Nickel Genus.
Copper coloured nickel.
Nickel ochre.
XIV. Manganese Genus.
Gray ore of raanganefe.
a. Radiated.
b. Foliated.
c. Compact.
d. Earthy.
Black ore of manganefe.
Red ore of manganefe.
XV. Molybdena Genus4
Sulphuret of molybdena.
XVI. Arsenic Genus.
Native arfenic.
Arfenical pyrites.
a. Common.
b. Argentiferous.
Orpiment.
a. Yellow.
b. Red.
Native oxide of arfenic.
XVIL Tungsten Genus.
Wolfram.
Tungftate of lime.
XVIII. Titanium Genus.
Menachanite.
Odtahedrite.
Titanite.
Nigrine.
Brown ore.
Iferine.
XIX. Uranium Genus.
Pitchy ore.
Micaceous uranite..
Uranite ochre.
XX. Tellurium Genus.
Native tellurium.
Graphic ore.
Yellow ore.
Black or foliated ore.
XXL Chromium Genus,
Needle ore.
Ochre ©f chromium.
XXII.CoLUMBiUMGenus.
XXIII. TANTALiuMGen.
XXIV. Cerium Genus.
I. Genus.
MINER
I. Genus. DIAMOND.
One Species. Diamond.
Id. Kirwan, I. 393. Le Diamant, Brochant, II. 153.
Haiiy, III. 287.
EJJential charaBer.—Scratches all other minerals.
External charaBers.—Its molt common colours are
grayilh white and yellowHh white; fmoke gray and
yellowiiti gray ; clove brown ; fometimes afparagus
green, palling1 to piltachio green and apple green ;
fometimes a wine yellow and citron yellow, and aifo blue
and rofe red.
When the diamond is cut, it prefents a fplendid and
varied play of colours, which is one of its molt ftriking
charadters.
. It is found fometimes in rounded grains, which are
fuppofed to have been cryftals with the edges worn ;
but it is molt frequently met with cryitallized.
The primitive form is a regular oftahedron, the in-
tegrant molecule a regular tetrahedron ; but the form
which it commonly alfumes is the fpheroidal, with 48
curvilineal faces, fix of which correfpond to the fame
face of the primitive odahedron. Befides this form
there are various others, as the double three-fided py¬
ramid, the dodecahedron, &c. All the modifications
of the cry Hals of the diamond, Hatiy obferves, feem to
be the effeds of its tendency to cryftallize in a regular
figure of 48 plane faces, which, if it ever has exifted,
has not yet been difcovered ; and it is eafy to conceive
that this form would be produced by intermediate decre¬
ments on all the angles of the nucleus; but the devia¬
tions from this form feem to have been occafioned by
its precipitate formation.
The external luftre is from four to one ; internal
four. The fradure is ftraight foliated, with a fourfold
cleavage, parallel to the faces of theodahedrou ; tranf-
parency four to three ; hardnefs ten ; brittle ; fpecific
gravity 3.518 to 3.600. Becomes pofitively eledric by
fridion, even before it is polifhed.
Chemical charaBer.—When expofed to a fufficient
temperature, it is entirely confumed. This has been
fully afcertained by the experiments of modern che-
mifts, from which it is concluded, that the diamond is
entirely compofed of pure carbone. See Chemistry.
Mr Boyle was the firft, according to Henckel, who
fubjeded the diamond to the adion of heat, and in his
experiments he found that it exhaled very copious and
acrid vapours, d his was about the- year 16735 hut
in the year 1694 the experiment was repeated by the
order of Cofmo III. grand duke of Tufcany. Diamonds
were expofed to the heat of the powerful burning glafs
of Tfchirnhaufen, the adion of which was even aided
by means of another burning glafs ; and about the end
of 30 feconds a diamond of 20 grains loft its tranf-
parency, feparated into fmall pieces, and was at laft
entirely diflipated. The fame experiment was repeated
on other diamonds, always with the fame refult, and
without exhibiting the lead fign of fufion. Newton,
in his treatife on Optics, has placed the diamond among
combuftibles, fuppofing that it is a coagulated undu-
ous fubftance. He had been led to this by obferving
its extraordinary refradive power, which in combufti-
ble bodies he found to be in a ratio confiderably higher
A L O G Y. Part L
than their denfity. According to this general lawT he
concluded, that the diamond as well as rater contained
an indam '.able principle, both of which have fince
been verified. Newton’s treatife w’as not publifhed
till 1704; but it appears that part of it was com¬
pofed and read to the Royal Society in the year 1675,
nearly 20 years before the Florentine experiments w'ere
made.
But nearly 70 years before this latter period, Boetius
de Boodt, in his Hiftory of Stones, appears to have
been perfedly fatisiied, from an experiment which he
deferibes, that the diamond was of an inflammable na¬
ture. This document, which vre prefume will gratify
the curiofity of many of our readers, is too Angular to
be omitted. “ Maltix deinde calefieri parum, quemad-
modum et adamas debet, idque, ut impofitus ac fupra
pofitus maftici ftatim ill! unione vera uniatur, ac vivos
undique radios a fe jaceat. Hane unionem refpuunt
alise omnes gemmae diaphanse—cur vero legitimus ada¬
mas folus tinfturam illam recipiat, aliae gemmae non,
difficile eft feire. Exiflimo mutuum ilium et amicum
amplexum propter Jimilitudinem aliquam quam habent
in materia et qualitatibus ; hoc eft, tota utriuique na-
tura fieri, quod itaque maftix qua ignece naturce eji ada-
manti facile jungi poffit, fignum eft ; id propter ma-
teriae fimilitudinem fieri, ac adamantis matenam igneam,
et fulphuream ejje, atque ipfius humidum intrinlicum et
primogenium cujus beneficio coagulatus eft; plane fuijfe
oleofum et igneum, aliarum vero gemmarum aqueum.—
Non mirum itaque fi pinguis, oleofa, et ignea mafticis
fubftantia illi abfque vifu.s termino adpingi et applicari,
aliis vero gemmis non poflit.” Boetius de Boodt, Gem*
et Lapid. Hijl. Hanoviae, 1609. 4to, lib. ii. cap. 1.
For the fake of the Englifh reader we ftiall tranflate
this curious document. “ If maftich and the diamond
be expofed to heat, and brought into contaft, they
enter into perfedl union, and emit a very lively flame*
which does not take place in any other gem. But w’hat is
the reafon that the diamond alone poffeffes this pro¬
perty ? I am of opinion that this mutual combination
arifes from a certain refemblance which each of the
fubftances poffeffes in its nature and properties : on this
account, therefore, the maftich, which is of a combufti-
ble nature, may be united to the diamond from a fimi-
larity in their nature, which (hows that the diamond is
compofed of combuJHble and fulphureous matter; and
that the humid and original particles of its compofition,
by means of which it was coagulated, or affumed a fo-
lid form, have been decidedly of an oily and inflamma¬
ble nature, while thofe of other gems have been of an
aqueous nature. It is not, therefore, furprifing that the
fat, oily, and combuftible fubftance of maftich may enter
into intimate union with the diamond, but cannot be
combined with other gems.”
Localities, &c.—The diamond is found in various
places of the Eaft Indies, as in the provinces of Gol-
conda and Viiapour, in the peninfula of Hither India ;
and in the kingdoms of Pegu and Siam, in the penin¬
fula of Farther India, and nearly, it is obferved, in the
fame degree of latitude. In 1728 the diamond was
difcovered in Brafil, in the diftrift of Setro-do-Frio,
w'hich is fituated in the fame. fouthern latitude as the
countries which produce the diamond on the north fide
of the equator. The native repofitory of the diamond,
fo far as is known, is a ferruginous foil, but whether it
be
/
Part I. MINER
CUTfi a- be produced on the fpot where it is difcovered, or have'
tlQn- been tranfported from the place of its origin, has not
v been afcertained. It is found alfo in veins filled with
foil of a fimilar nature. We ftiall here add a fhort
hiftpry of the diamond mines.
Biamond The diamond mines are found only in the kingdoms
mines Qf Golconda, Vifapour, Bengal, the ifland of Borneo, and
Brafil. There are four or five mines, or rather three mines
and two rivers, whence diamonds are obtained. The
mines are, I. That of Raolconda, in the province of Car-
natica, five days journey from Golconda, and eight from
VHapour. It has been difcovered about 200 years.
2. That of G'ani, or Coulour, feven days journey from
Golconda call ward. It was difcovered 150 years ago
by a peafant, who digging in the ground found a na¬
tural fragment of 25 carats. 3. That of Soumelpour,
a large towm in the kingdom of Bengal, near the Dia¬
mond-mine. This is the moft ancient of ail : it fliould
rather be called that of Goual, which is the name
of,the river, in the fand whereof thefe ftones are found.
4. The fourth mine, or rather the fecond river, is
that of Succudan, in the ifiand of Borneo ; and 5. That;
of Serro do-Frio in Brafil.
Diamond-mine of Raolconda.—In the neighbour¬
hood of this mine the earth is landy, and full of rocks
and copfe-wood. In thefe rocks are found feveral lit¬
tle veins of half and fometimes a whole inch broad, out
of which the miners, with a kind of hooked irons,
draw the fand or earth wherein the diamonds are j
breaking the rocks when the vein terminates, that the
track may be found again, and continued. When a
fufficient quantity of earth or fand is drawn forth, they
wafh it twm or three times, to feparate the ftones. The
miners work quite naked, except a thin linen cloth
before them j and befides ■ this precaution, have like-;
wife infpeftors, to prevent their concealing diamonds,
which, however, they frequently find means to do, by
watching opportunities when they are not obferyed,
and fw'allOwing them.
Diamond-mine of Gani or Coulour.—In this mine are
found a great number of diamonds from 10 to 40 ca¬
rats, and even-more. It was here that the famous dia¬
mond of the Great Mogul, which before it was cut
weighed 793 carats, was found. The diamonds of this
mine are not.very clear : their w'ater is ufually tinged
with the quality of the foil; being black where that is
marlhy, red where it partakes of red, fometimes green
and yellow, if the ground .happen to be of thofe co¬
lours. Another defeft of fome confequence is a kind of
greafinefs appearing on the diamond, when cut, which
takes off part of its luftre.—There are ufually no lefs
than 60,000 perfons employed in this mine.
When the miners have found a place where they in¬
tend to dig, they level another fomewhat bigger in the
neighbourhood thereof, and inclofe it with walls about
two feet high, only leaving apertures from fpace to
fpace, to give paffage to the water. After a few fu-
perftitious ceremonies, and a kind of feaft which the
mafier of the mine makes for the workmen, to encou¬
rage them, every one goes to liis fc%finefs, the men
d’gg'ng the earth in the place firft difcovered, and the
women and children carrying it off into the other
walled round. They dig a few feet deep, and till
fuch time as they find water. Then they ceafe dig¬
ging j and the water thus found ferves to wafh the
A L O G Y. 149
earth two or three times, after which it is let out at Diamond
an aperture referved for that end. This earth being , feet-us-
well waihed, and well dried, they fift it in a kind of v
open fieve, and laftly, fearch it well with the hands to
find the diamonds. This mine is in a plain of about
one league and a half in extent, bounded on one fide
by a river, and on the other by a range of lofty moun¬
tains, which form a femicircle. It is faid that the near¬
er the digging is carried to the mountains, the diamonds
are the larger.
Diamond-mine of Soumelpour, or river Goual.—
Soumelpour is a confiderable town near the river Goual,
which runs into the Ganges. It is from this river that
all our fine diamond points, or fparks, called natural
/parks, are brought. They never begin to feek for
diamonds in this river till after the great rains are over,
that is, after the month of December j and they ufually
even wait till the water is grown clear, which is not be¬
fore January. The feafon at hand, eight or ten thou-
fand perfons, of all ages and fexes, cpme out of Soumel¬
pour and the neighbouring villages. The moft expe¬
rienced among them fearch and examine the fand of
the river, and particularly where it is mixed with py¬
rites, going from Soumelpour to the very mountain
W'hence it fprings. When all the fand of the river,
which at that time is very low, has been well examin¬
ed, they proceed to take up that wherein they judge
diamonds likely to be found j which is done after the
following manner: They dam the place round with
ftones, earth, and fafcines, and throwing out the water,
dig about two feet deep : the fand thus got is carried
into a place walled round on the bank of the river.
The reft is performed after the fame manner as at other
mines.
Diamond mine in the illand of Borneo, or river of
Succudan.—We are but little acquainted with this
mine ; ftrangers being prohibited from having accefs to
it: though very fine diamonds have been brought to Ba¬
tavia by ftealth. They were formerly imagined to be
fofter than thofe of the other mines j but experience
fnows they are in no refpeft inferior.
Diamond mine of Serro-do-Frio.—A defcription of
this mine was given by D’Andrada in 1792, to the Na¬
tural Hiftory Society of Paris. The 'mine is fituated
to the north of Villa Rica, in the 18th degree of fouth
latitude. The wdiole country in which the diamonds
are found abounds with ores of iron j and the ftratum
of foil, immediately under the vegetable foil, contains
diamonds diffeminated in it, and attached to a gaugue
or matrix wrhich is more or lefs ferruginous 5 but they
are never found in veins.
When this mine was firft difcovered, the fearching for
diamonds was fo fuccefsful, that the Portuguefe fleet
which arrived from Rio’de Janeiro in 1730 brought no
lefs than 1146 ounces of diamonds. This unufual
quantity introduced into -the market immediately re¬
duced the price; and to prevent this circumftance re¬
curring, the Portuguefe government determined to limit
the number of men employed in the mines. jg
As the diamond is the hardeft of all fubftances, it Method of
can only be cut and poliftied by itfelf. To bring itcutt‘ng
to that perfe&ion which augments its price fo confi-^^^
derably, the lapidaries begin by rubbing feveral againft n^,^'
each other, while rough ; after having firft glued them
to the ends of two wooden blocks, thick enough t© be
held .
*5°
MINERALOGY. Part I.
Diamond
Of eftima-
ting.
IS
Celebrated
diamonds.
held in the hand. It is this powder thus rubbed off
the ftones, and received in a little box for the purpofe,
that ferves to grind and polilh them.
Diamonds are cut and polilhed by means of a mill,
which turns a wheel of foft iron fprinkled over with
diamond-duft mixed with oil of olives. The fame
dull, wrell ground, and diluted with water and vine¬
gar, is ufed in the fawing of diamonds 5 which is
performed with an iron or brafs wire, as fine as a hair.
Sometimes, in lieu of fawing the diamonds, they cleave
them, efpecially if there be any large Ihivers in them.
The method of cutting and polifhing the diamond
was not dilcovered till the 15th century. The dia¬
monds which were employed as ornaments before that
period, were in their rough and natural Hate. The
invention is afcribed to Louis Berguen, a native of
Bruges, who in the year 1476, cut the fine diamond of
Charles the Bald, duke of Burgundy, which he loft the
fame year at the battle of Morat. This diamond was
then fold for a crown, but afterwards came into the
poffeffion of the duke of Florence.
The JirJi water in diamonds means the greateft pu¬
rity and perfeftion of their complexion, which ought
to be that of the pureft water. When diamonds fall
fhort of this perfedtion, they are faid to be of the fe-
cond or third water, &c. till the ftone may be proper¬
ly called a coloured one.
The value of diamonds is eftimated by Mr Jefferies
by the following rule. He firft fupppfes the value of
a rough diamond to be fettled at 2I. per carat, at a
a medium; then to find the value of diamonds of
greater weights, multiply the fquare of their weight
by 2, and the produdt is the value required. JL. g. to
find the value of a rough diamond of two carats :
2 X 2~4, the fquare of the weight $ which, multiplied
by two, gives 81. the true value of a rough diamond
of two carats. For finding the value of manufadlured
diamonds, he fuppofes half their weight to be loft in
manufadhiring them ; and therefore, to find their value,
we muft multiply the fquare of double their weight
by 2, which will give their true value in pounds. Thus,
to find the value of a wrought diamond weighing two
carats; we firft find the fquare of double the weight,
viz. 4X4 = 16 ; then 16x2=32. So that the true
value of a wrought diamond of two carats is 32I. On
thefe principles Mr Jefferies has conftrufted tables of
the price of diamonds from 1 to 100 carats.
The greateft diamond ever known in the world is
one belonging to the king of Portugal, which was
found in Brafil. It is ftill uncut: and Mr Magellan
informs us, that it was of a larger fize } but a piece
was cleaved or broken off by the ignorant countryman,
who chanced to find this great gem, and tried its hard-
nefs by the ftroke of a large hammer upon the anvil.
This prodigious diamond weighs 1680 carats: and
although it is uncut, Mr Rome de 1’Ifle fays, that it is
valued at 224 millions fterling ; which gives the efti-
mation of 79,36 or about 80 pounds fterling for each
xarat: viz. for the multiplicand of the fquare of its
whole weight. But even in cafe of any error of the
prefs in this valuation, if we employ the general rale
above mentioned, this great gem muft be worth at leaft
5,644,800 pounds fterling, which are the produft of
z68o by two pounds, viz. much above five millions
and a half fterling. But this gem is fuppofed by feme Clalfifica-
to be a white topaz. , tlon- .
The famous diamond which adorns the feeptre of v
the emprefs of Ruffia under the eagle at the top of it
weighs 779 carats, and is worth at leaft 4,854,728
pounds fterling, although it hardly coft 135,417 gui¬
neas. This diamond was one of the eyes of a Mala-
barian idol, named Scharingham. A French grenadier,
who had deferred from the Indian fervice, contrived
fo well as to become one of the priefts of that idol,
from which he had the opportunity to fteal its eye : he
run away to the Englilh at Trichinopoly, and thence
to Madras. A {hip-captain bought it for twenty
thoufand rupees: afterwards a Jew gave feventeen or
eighteen thoufand pounds fterling for it : at laft a
Greek merchant named Gregory Sujfras, offered it to
fale at Amfterdam in the year 1766 : and Prince Or-
loff made this acquifition for his fovereign the emprefs
of Ruffia. This diamond is of a flattened oval form and
of the fize of a pigeon’s egg.
The diamond of the great Mogul is cut in rofe ;
weighs 279x3- carats, and it is worth 380,000 guineas.
This diamond has a fmall flaw underneath near the
bottom : and Tavernier, page 389, who examined it,
valued the carat at 150 French livres. Before this
diamond was cut, it -weighed 793-f carats, according to
Rome de 1’Ifle : but Tavernier, page 339, of his fe-
cond volume, fays, that it weighed 900 carats before
it was cut. If this be the very fame diamond, its lofs
by being cut was very extraordinary.
Another diamond of the king of Portugal, which
weighs 215 carats, is extremely fine, and is worth at
leaft 369,800 guineas.
The diamond of the grand duke of Tufcany, now
of the emperor of Germany, weighs 1394 carats j and
is worth at leaft 109,520 guineas. Tavernier fays,
that this diamond has a little hue of a citron colour j
and he valued it at 135 livres tournoifes the carat.
Robert de Berquen fays, that this diamond was cut
into two: that the grand Turk had another of the
fame fize: and that there were at Bifnagar two large
diamonds, one of 250 and another of 140 carats.
The diamond of the late king of France, called the
Pitt or Regent, weighs 1364 carats : this gem is worth
at leaft 208,333 guineas, although it did not coft above
the half of this fum. Patrin fays, that it is believed to
be at Berlin, (I. 226.) and we may add, that it has pro¬
bably been carried back to France among other fpoils.
The other diamond of the fame monarch, call¬
ed the Sancy, weighs 55 carats; it coft 25,000 gui¬
neas : and Mr Dutens fays, that it is worth much above
that price.
Brilliant Diamond, is that cut in faces both at top
and bottom *, and whofe table, or principal face at top,
is flat. To make a complete fquare brilliant, if the
rough diamond be not found of a fquare figure, it muft
be made fo ; and if the work is perfe£lly executed, the
length of the axis will be equal to the fide of the fquare
bafe of the pyramid.—Jewellers then form the table
and collet by dividing the block, or length of the axis,
into 18 parts. They take T-g- from the upper part, and
from the lower. This gives a plane at diftance
from the girdle for the table j and a fmaller plane at
diftance for the collet j the breadth of which will
be
4
Part I. ■ MINERALOGY.
151
C!afll5xa-
tion.
be | of the breadth of the table. In this ftate the ftone
is faid to be a complete fquare table diamond.—The bril¬
liant is an improvement on the table-diamond, and
was introduced within the 17th century, according to
Mr Jefferies.
II. Genus. ZIRCON.
1. Species. Zircon.
Jargon, Kirw. I. 257. Zircon, Haiiy, II. 465. Id.
Brochant, I. 159.
EJfcn. Char.—Its fpecific gravity about 4.4 *, the
joints natural, fome of which are parallel, and others are
oblique to the axis of the cryftals.
Exter. Char.—Colours reddiih and yellowifli, green-
i(h, greenifh yellow, and whitilh. The colour in gene¬
ral varies from green to gray, and is moft commonly
pale ; and the poliihed ftone exhibits in fome degree the
play of colours of the diamond.
It is found in rounded, angular, or flattened grains,
or in fmall angular fragments with notched edges, and
alfo cryftallized. The primitive form is an odlahedron
Hvith ifofceles triangles, and the integrant molecule is an
irregular tetrahedron. The following are the moft com¬
mon forms of its cryftals.
1. A prifm with four re£langular faces, each bafe of
which has a pyramid with four faces placed on the four
lateral faces, which terminates fometimes in a line, hut
moft frequently in a point.
2. The preceding cryftal, in "hwh the oppofite late¬
ral edges of the prifm ar® truncated.
3. The cryftal (O in which the edges of the faces
of the pyran"^ are bevelled.
a ihe cryftid (1.) having the lateral edges of
the prifm, and the fummit of the pyramid trun¬
cated.
5. The cryftal (1.) in which the angles between the
prifm and the pyramid are bevelled.
6. A prifm with four faces, having the two oppofite
narrow, and the two others broad.
7. A double pyramid with four faces, with the edges
of the common bafe truncated.
8. The perfeft octahedron w-ith obtufe angles.
The cryftals are commonly fmall 5 the furface fmooth,
but that of the angular fragments is rough. Luftre, 3
and 4 ; internal luftre, 4 and 3 ; fomewhat vitreous, or
approaching to that of the diamond. FraCture imper-
feCt or flat conchoidal fragments, 3. Tranfparency, 4,
3. Caufes double refraftion. Hardnefs, 9; brittle. Spec,
grav. 4.416 to 4.4700.
Chem. Char.—Infufible by the blow-pipe without ad¬
dition, but with borax it forms a tranfparent colourlefs
glafs. The following are its cenftituent parts.
Zirconia 70
Silica 26
Iron I
Lofs 3
100
has been found in Norway, in a^rock compofed of feld- Zircon
fpar and hornblende. , genus-
Vfes.—The zircon is employed as a precious ftone, and
particularly as an ornament in mourning.
2. Species. Hyacinth.
Id. Kirw. I. 257. Zircon, Haiiy, II. 467. L'Hijacinthe,
Brochant, 1. 163.
EJfen. Char.—The fame as the firft fpecies.
Exter. Char.—The moft common colour is what
is called hyacinth red, blood red, and yellowifh
brown.
It is found in rounded grains, and frequently in cry¬
ftals, the primitive form of which is the lame as the firft
fpecies. The cryftals are,
1. A prifm with four faces.
2. The fame flightly truncated on its edges.
3. The double pyramid with four faces, or a very ob¬
tufe oClahedron, which is a rare variety.
4. A prifm with fix faces, each bale of which is ter¬
minated by an acumination with three faces, placed al¬
ternately on the three lateral edges, forming the rhom-
bcidal dodecahedron.
The cryftals are commonly fmall, the furface fmooth j
external luftre, 3, 4; internal, 4; greafy : fratture
ftraight foliated ; cleavage double, rectangular ; frag¬
ments, 3 ; tranfparency, 4, 2 ; caufes double refraction j
hard and brittle} unCtuous to the touch when cut j
fpec. grav. 4.385 to 4.620.
Chem. Char.—By the aCtion of the blow-pipe the
hyacinth Iqfes its colour, but retains its tranfparency. It
is infufible without borax, which converts it into a tranf¬
parent colourlefs glafs.
ConJUtuent Parts.
From Ceylon. From Expailly.
Zirconia 70 64.5 66
Silica 25 32 31
Oxide of iron 0.5 2 2
Lofs 4.5 1.5 I
100. IJJap. 100.0 Vauq. 100 Vauq.
Localities.—It is found in Ceylon in fimilar fituations
with the former; in Brazil, Bohemia, and in the rivulet
Expailly, in Velay in France; and allb in the neighbour¬
hood of Pifa in Italy.
Ufes.~—As it is fufceptible of a fine polifh, the hya¬
cinth has been ranked among precious ftones.
Remarks.—The analogy between the cryftalline
forms of the zircon and hyacinth; their double refrac¬
tion the fimilarity of their other charafters, and parti¬
cularly the refults of chemical analyfis, have led Haiiy
to form them into one fpecies.
A variety, under the name of cinnamon Jlone, has been
confidered as a diftinCt fpecies ; but the differences are fo
very flight, that it may be included in the defcription of
the preceding.
III. Genus. SILICEOUS.
1. Species. Chrysoberyl.
Localities.—The zircon was firft found in Ceylon, ac¬
companied with cryftals of fpinelle and tourmaline, in a
river, near the middle of the ifland 3 and more lately it
Id. Emm. Wid. Lenz. Kirw. Chryfopa/e, Lam. Cy
mophane, Haiiy.
Exter. The colour is an afparagus green;
, Raffing;
152
M I N E R A L O G Y.
Part I *
Siliceous pafTing- fnmetimes to a greenifli white, and fometimes to
Sen’'ls' an olive green ; fometimes bright brown and yellowiih
' -brown, paiTtng to yellowiih gray ; ahoids a feeble
| change of colour from bluish to milky white. ^
It is found in angular or rounded grains, which ap¬
pear to have been water worn ; and in cryltals, exhibit¬
ing, i. A table with fix faces, elongated, of various
thicknefs, truncated on the terminal edges. 2. A priftn
with four rectangular faces. 3. A prifm with fix faces,
of which four are broader and two are narrower oppo-
fite to each other.
The grains are fliuhtlv rough, and have a confider-
able external luflre. The cryflals are ftriated length-
wife on their lateral faces j the other faces are fmooth j
luflre external very fhining-—internal the fame, inter¬
mediate between that of the diamond and the vitreous
luftre.
The fraCture is in all directions perfectly conchoida! •,
the fragments are indeterminate with fharp edges. It
has little tranfparency, but a confiderable degree of
hardnefs. Spec. grav. 3.698 to 3.719 Wern. 3.71O
Klap. 3.796 Hnuy.
Chem. Char.—It is infufible without addition by the
a&ion of the blow-pipe. By Klaproth’s analyfis, the
following are its conftituent parts.
3. In another variety the fummit of the pyramid is ClalTifica-
truneated bv a convex cylindrical plane, the convexity t’°il
of which paflTes from one of the fmall oppofite lateral v
planes towards the other.
4. In fome inflances the cryflals are fo fmall, that
the irnall lateral faces almolt entirely difappear, while
the two larger affume a curved form, giving fuch cry-
ftals a tabular appearance.
f he external furface of the angular fragments and
of the rounded crytlals is fcaly, which affords an efihn-
' tia) character to this mineral. The fmall lateral glares
are imooth, the broad ones arediflinClly tlriated length-
wife, 'Externally the furface is Ihinnig j internally
fhining and vitreous.
The fraCture in>all direCHons is perfeCHy conchoidal j
the form of the fragments is indeterminate, with very
fharp edges. It is alnaolt always tianfparent, and re-
fraCts double ; it is not fo hard as quartz. Brittle.
Spec. grav. 3. 340 to 3.420 Wern. 3.428 Hairy.
Chem. Char.—By the aClion of the blow-pipe it is fufed
with borax without effervefcence, and affords a greeniih,
tranfparent glafs.
Conjlituent parts.
Cryftallifed. Cut. Cryftallifed.
Alumina
Silica
Lime
Oxide of iron.
-Lofs
7oJ
l8 ’
6
15
3
Silica 38
Magnefia 39-5
Oxide of iron 19.
Lofs
39
43-5
*9
3-5
38
50-5
9-5
2.
100
Localities.—Brazil, Ceylon, Siberia.
XJfes.—The hardnefs of the chryfoberyl, and change
of colour which it exhibits, have procured it a place a-
mong precious ftones of inferior value. It is known in
commerce under the name of changeable opal or oriental
chryfolite.
2. Species. Chrysolite.
hi. Emm. Wid. Lenz. Muf. Lelk. Kirw. Peridot,
Daub. Hairy.
Exter. Char.—The moft common colour is a bright
pifiachio green, paffing to an olive green j fometimes
of a bright afparagus or clear meadow green ; rare¬
ly the green approaches tp brown and almoft to a cher-
100 Klap. 100.5 Vauq. looVauq.
Localities, &c.—This mineral ;s brought from the
Levant, but it is not known whether L. ;s found in Alia
or Africa. It has been difcovered in Boheir.t, . an(f
cryltallized fpecimens included in a kind of lava,
been brought from the ifle of Bourbon. As it is
ufually found in rounded fragments, in the midft
of earthy fubftances, its relative fituation is fcarcely
known.
Cfes —The chryfolite has been often employed for
various purpofes as a precious ftone, but as it poffeffes
no great degree of hardnefs, it is not much efteemed.
Subftances of a very different nature have been, at
different times, defcribed under the name of Chrysolite.
It appears that the yellow chryfolite of the ancients is
the fame with our topaz, and that their green topaz is
our chryfolite. Plin. lib. xxxvii. cap. 8.
ry red.
It is found in angular fragments ■with the edges a
little notched, or in rounded grains, or in cryftals hav¬
ing the angles and edges a little notched. The forms
of its cryftals are, 1. A large re&angular prifm having
its lateral edges truncated and lometimes bevelled, and
terminated by a fix-ftded prifm, of which two oppofite
fides are placed on the fmall lateral faces of the prifm.
The four others on the lateral truncated faces, the
latter forming a more acute angle than the two for¬
mer.
2. The next form varies from the preceding, in having
two additional terminating faces, placed on the broad
faces of the prifm, each of which is confequently fituat-
ed between two of the planes correfponding to the trun¬
cated planes.
3. Species. Olivine.
Ld. Emm. Wid. Lenz. K’rw. Lameth. Chrysolite
en grains irreguliers, De Born. Peridot Granu/i-
forme. Hairy. Chrysohth des Volcans, of many mi-
neralogifts.
Exter. Char.—The moft common colour is a bright
olive green, fometimes of an apple green, piftachio, or
mountain green j a wine, honey, or orange yelloxv,
and fometimes alfo a reddilh brown, and browniftr
black 5 but thefe latter varieties are rare. It is found
in rounded pieces, from the fize of the head to that
of a grain of millet, moft commonly included, and
diffeminated in bafalt. It has been found cryftal-
lized.
Internally,
1
A
Fart T.
Claffifica-
tion.
MINERALOGY. ' 153
Internally, this mineral varies in its luftre between
aiming and weakly Oiining-, in the yellow varieties the
luftre is between vitreous and refinous..
The fra&ure is more or lefs conchoidal ; fometimes
uneven $ the drape of the fragments is indeterminate,
with Oiarp edges. The rounded pieces of a certain fize
ore compofed of diftindt granular concretions, with fmall
grains.
It is fometimes tranfparent, and varies to femitranf-
parent and tranilucent. It is brittle and not fo hard as
quartz. Spec. grav. 3.225 to 3.265.
Chem. t’/wr.—Olivine is infufible by the aftion of the
blow-pipe •, in nitric acid it lofes its colour, giving to
the liquid a pale yellow colour.
Conjlituent parts. Klaproth.
Silica 48 to 52.0 \ 52
Magnefia 37 38.5 37-75
Lime CO.25 00.25 0.25
Oxide of iron 12.5 12. i°-75
Lofs 2.25 •— 
   100.75
100.00—'"102.75
Localities, &c.—Olivine is found in different coun¬
tries, as in Bohemia and Saxony, and in Vivarais in
France, and moft commonly in rounded pieces in the
cavities of bafalt. Brochant fays that it has not been
difcovered in the bafalts of Ireland, England, Sweden,
Norway, and Italy. We have, however, collected fpe-
cimens of olivine among the bafaltic rocks of the Giant’s
Caufeway in. Ireland.
Olivine and chryfolite are confidered by Haiiy as one
fpecies, and defcribed under the name peridote.
4. Species. Coccolite.
Coccolithe, Brochant, ii. 504. Haiiy, iv. 355. D’A,n-
drada. Nich. 4to. Jour. v. 495.
Exter. Char.—Colour, meadow green, olive, or
blackifh green. It is found in maffes which are com¬
pofed of feparate pieces, granular, in fmall grains,
which may be ealily feparated thefe grains are angu¬
lar, and difcover fome appearance of tendency to cryftal-
lization.
Luftre, refplendent, vitreous; fra&ure foliated; clea¬
vage double, as examined by Haiiy, but Angle accord¬
ing to D’Andrada : it is hard, fcratcbes glafs j the
grains are often tranflucent. Spec. grav. 3.316 to
3*373- /
Chem. Char.—Coccolite is infufible without addition
before the blow-pipe. With borax it melts into a pale
yellow tranfparent glafs, and with carbonate of potafir
into an olive green veficular glafs.
Conjlituent parts.
Silica $0.0
Lime 24.0
Mawnefia 10.0
Oxide of iron 7.0
Oxide of manganefe 3.0
Alumina 1.5
Lofs 4.5
100
Vol. XIV. Part I.
• Localities.—It is found in the iron mines of Hellefta Siliceous
and Affebo in Sudermania, at Nerica in Sweden, and SerilH-
near Arendal in Norway.'
5. Species. Augite.
OElahedral Bafaltine, Kirw. i. 2x9. Id Augite, Bro¬
chant, i. 179. Pyroxene, Hatty, hi. 80.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible, parallel to the fides of an
oblique rhomboidal prifm, of about 920 and 88®, which
is fubdivided in the diredion of the great diagonals of
the bafes.
Exter. Char.—Colour, olive green, black, white, and
gray. It is found fometimes in rounded pieces, and in
grains, but molt frequently cryftallized. The primitive
form is an oblique-angled prifm, the bafes of which are
rhombs ; the integrant molecule is an oblique triangu¬
lar prifm. The form of the cryllals is generally a fix
and eight fided prifm, which is terminated by a two
fided fummit. The cryftals are commonly fmall, fmooth,
and brilliant, fometimes a little Oiining. Internal luftre
lluning, and almoft refplendent, refinous. Fradure
perfedly foliated j cleavage double ; tranflucent at the
edges; harder than olivine ; gives lively iparks with
ft eel, and fcratches glafs } rather brittle j fpec. grav.
3.226 to 3.777.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe with dif¬
ficulty, and only in fmall fragments, which melt into a
black enamel.
Conjlituent parts.
From JEtna, Vauquelin.
Silica 52
Lime *3-20
Alumina 3.33
Magnefia 10
Oxide of iron 14.66
Oxide of manganefe 2
Lofs 4.81
IG0.00
From Arendal, Roux.
45
3®-5
3
16
J
•5
100.
Localities, &c.—Augite is found in bafalt along with
olivine and hornblende, in Bohemia, Hungary, and
Tranfylvania j in the bafalt of Arthur’s-feat near Edin¬
burgh.
6. Species. Vesuvian.
La Vefuvienne, Brochant, i. 184. Idocrnfe, Haiiy,
ii- 574-
EJfen. Char.—Divifible, parallel to the faces and
diagonals of a redangular prifm, with fquare bafes $
melts into a yellow glafs.
Exter. Char.-—Colour brown, orange, dark green,
and yellowifh green.
This mineral is found maflive, difleminated, or cry¬
ftallized. Primitive form^ a redangular prifm, little
different from a cube ; integrant molecule a triangular
priim. The forms of its cryftals are, a redangular
prifm, with four fides, truncated on all its edges, or
truncated on its lateral edges or a fix-fided prifm
truncated on all its edges. The cryftals are ufually
fmall, fingle fometirnes, and fometimes in groups.
Lateral planes longitudinally ftreaked. Some are
U fmooth j
15+ MINER
SUicecus frnooth; luflre rerplendcnt, vitreous 5 internal luftre
, . fliining, refmous.. Fracture imperfeclly conchoidal, fome-
times uneven, often alfo foliated. Fragments indeter¬
minate, with rather tharp edges. Tranflucent, and al-
moft femitranfparent j hard, brittle ; fpecific gravity
3>365 t0 3-42°-
C/iem. Chat\—Fuiible without addition into a yellow
glafs.
Conflituent Parts. Klaproth.
From Vefuvius. From Siberia.
Silica, 35.50 42
Lime, 33. 34
Alumina, 22.25
Oxide of iron, 7.5 5-5°
Oxide of manganefe, .25 an atom.
Localities, &c.—It is found in the neighbourhood of
Vefuvius, accompanied by limeftone in fmall grains,
feldfpar, mica, hornblende, and calcareous fpar ; and it
is fuppofed to have been thrown out of the volcano un¬
changed. In Siberia it is found in fteatites, fometimes
mixed with cryftals of magnetic iron.
Ufes.—At Naples it is employed as a precious ftone.
7. Species. Leucite.
A L O G Y. Part I,
rocks of Bohemia, and alfo, it is faid, in a granitic Claffifisa-
rock in the Pyrenees. bon.
8. Species. Melanite, or Black Garnet.
La Melanite, Brochant, i. 191.
Exter. Char.—Colour velvet black, or brownifli or
grayilh black. It is moll commonly found cryftal-
lized, in fix-nded prifms, teiminatedi at each extremity
by an obtufe acumination, with three planes placed al¬
ternately on three of the lateral edges j the prifms are
fometimes truncated on all the edges, and fometimes
only the lateral edges. The furface is fmooth and
fhining. Internal luftre Ihining. Frafture imperfefl,
flat, conchoidal. Fragments indeterminate, fharp-
edged, opaque, hard, and rather brittle. Spec, grav,
3.691 to 3.800.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron and of manganefe,
Lofs,
35
6
32
2 5
2
La Leucite, Brochant, i. 188. Vefuvian, Kirwan, i.
285. jlmphigene, Haiiy, ii. 559.
EJJen. Char.—Divifible, parallel to the faces of a
cube, ana at the fame time to thofe of a rhomboidal
dodecahedron.
Exter. Char.—Colour grayifh or yellow white.
It is rarely found maflive or in grains, but moll fre¬
quently cryftallized. The primitive from of its cryftals is
the cube ; the integrant molecule an irregular tetrahe¬
dron ; the moft common form of the cryftals is a ftiort
double pyramid with eight faces oppofed bafe to bafe,
each fummit of which is furmounted by an obtufe ac-
cumination with four faces, correfponding alternately to
the four lateral edges of the pyramid, and thus producing
a figure of twenty-four trapezoidal faces; the cryftals
are commonly fmali, the furface rough and dull, or at
moft feebly Ihining. Internal luftre Ihining, vitreous.
Fraflure foliated, fometimes conchoidal. Fragments
indeterminate with ftiarp edges. Semitranfparent or
tranftucent. Scarcely fcratches glafs. Brittle. Spec,
grav. 2.455 to 2-49°*
Chem. Char,— Infulible before the blow-pipe, but with
borax gives a tranfparent glafs.
Conjlituent Parts.
Klaproth. Vauquelin.
Silica, 54 56
Alumina, 24 20
Potafti, 21 20
Lime, — 2
Lofs, 1 * 2
too 100
L.oca/ilies, &c.—Leucite is found in the lavas of Ve-
fiivlus, and in the bafalts of Italy j in bafalts and other
100
Localities.—It has been found only at Frefcatiand St
Albano near Rome.
9. Species. Garnet.
Le Grenat, Brochant, i. 193. Garnet, Kirwan, i. 238.
Grenat, Haiiy, ii. 540.
EJfen. Char.—Specific gravity at leaft 3.5. The
forms derived from the rhomboidal dodecahedron.
The primitive form is a rhomboidal dodecahedron.
The inclination of each rhomb to the two adjacent is
J 20°, the plain angles 109° 28' 16" and 70° 31' 44".
The integrant molecule is the tetrahedron, whofe faces
are ifofceles triangles equal and fimilar.
The garnet is divided into three fubfpecies, the pre¬
cious, common, and Bohemian garnet.
Subfpecies 1. Precious Garnet.
Exter. Char.—Colour red, of which there are fever-
al varieties, as blood red, cherry red, hyacinth red,
fometimes brown and even black.
The garnet is rarely found maflive or diffeminated,
but fometimes in rounded grains, and moft frequently
cryttallized, of which the following are the forms.
1. A prifm with fix fides terminated by a double
obtufe fummit with three faces, correfponding alternate¬
ly to the three lateral edges at each end of the prifm,
and thus forming a rhomboid of twelve faces.
2. The fame cryftnl truncated on all its edges, form¬
ing a figure of 36 faces. The faces of the truncations
are elongated hexagons.
3. A fhort double pyramid, with eight faces oppo¬
fed bafe to bafe, the fummits of each of which are fur-
mounted by ati obtufe acumination, correfponding al¬
ternately to the four lateral edges of one of the pyra¬
mids,_
Fart I. M I N E R A L O G Y. 155
Claffifica- tnids, forming a cryflal of 24 fides, which are pretty
t^on‘ equal trapezoids.
“—r'' The preceding form with twelve truncations ;
eight on the eight acute alternating angles of the two
lummits, and four on the obtufe angles of the common
bafe of the two pyramids, making in all 36 faces.
The furface is a little unequal in the grains, fmooth
in the cryftals, and almoft always llreaked diagonally.
The luftre varies from fhining to refplendent, and is vitre¬
ous. Fradture more or lefs perfectly conchoidal,fomctimes
uneven or fplintery, and fometimes foliated. Frag¬
ments indeterminate with fharp edges. Tranfparent
or tranflucent. Scratches quartz. Refradlion Ample.
Brittle. Spec. grav. 4.085 to 4.352.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is fufible into
a dark enamel.
Conjiituent Paris.
Klapioth. Vauquelin.
Silica,_ 35.75 36
Alumina, 27'25 22
Lime, — 3
Oxide of iron, 36 41
Oxide of mangantfe, .25 —
Lofs, .75
100.00 102
caceous fchillus, gneis, ferpentine, and other primitive Siliceous
rocks, in Saxony, Bohemia, France, Sweden. . ge-ius‘
U/es.—It is rarely employed as a precious Hone, but
frequently as a flux for iron ores.
Subfpecies 3. Pyrope, or Bohemian Garnet.
Pyrope, Brochant, ii. 498.
F.ffen. Char.— The fame as the garnet.
Exier. Char.—This mineral is found in fmall, round
angular fragments : it is never cryftaliized.
Colour dark blood red, which, by holding it between
the eye and the light, becomes yellow7. LuILe re¬
fplendent,. vitreous. Fraflure conchoidal. Fragments
indeterminate and Iharp-edged. Perfe&ly tranfparent.
Scratches quartz. Spec. grav. 3.7 i 8 to 3.941.
Conjiituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica, 40
Alumina, 28.5
Lime, 3.5
Magndia, 10
Oxide of iron, 16.5
Oxide of manganefe, ,25
Lofs, 1.25
100
Localities, &c.—The garnet is not uncommon in
moft countries of the world, and it is fuually found in
primitive rocks.
Ufes.—It is employed as a precious ftone.
The precious garnet is fuppofed to be the carbuncle
of the ancients.
Subfpecies 2. Common Garnet.
Effen. Char.—The fame as the precious garnet.
Exter. Char.—It is found maffive and diffeminated,
and alfo fometimes cryftallized. The forms of the
cryftals are the fame as thofe of precious garnet. The
furface of the cryftals is diagonally ftreaked.
Colour brown, green, greenilh black, brownifti red,
and orange yellow. Luftre fhining, refinous, or vi¬
treous. Fra&ure uneven, fometimes fplintery. Frag¬
ments fharp-edged. Rarely tranfparent, fometimes
tranflucent, and commonly at the edges j not fo hard
as the precious garnet. Brittle. Spec. grav. from 3.668
t0 3*757-
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a
dark enamel, and eafier than the former.
Conjiituent Parts.
Black Garnet.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Water,
Lofs,
43
16
20
16
4
1
Vauquelin.
Yellowift Garnet.
33
20
31
10
100
xoo
Localities, &c.—The common garnet is found in mi-
Localities,&.c.—This mineral is found in ferpentine in
Saxony ; the moft beautiful are from Bohemia, where
it is found in alluvial land.
Ufes.—It is employed in jewellery. The fmall
grains are ufed as a fubftitute for emery in polilhing.
This mineral is formed into a feparate fpecies by
fome, and is diftinguilhed from the garnet by its colour,
want of cryflallization, and tranfparency; but thefe
differences in the external charafters Haiiy confiders as
infufhcient to conflitute a different fpecies of two mi¬
nerals w7hich agree in a greater number of other cha-
radters. Magnefia indeed has been detedled in the lat¬
ter as one of its conftituents, no trace of which has
been yet difcovered in the former.
10. Species. Grenatite.
Grenatite, Brochant, ii. 496. Id. Sauffure, § 1900.
Staurotide, Hairy, iii. 93. Pierre de Croix, De Lifle,
i;- 434*
s
EJfen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the fides of a
rhomboidal prifm, whofe angles are equal to 1290 30',
and 50° 30', which may be fubdivided in the direction
of the ftiort diagonals of the bafes.
Exter. Char.—Grenatite is always found cryftall’zed.
The piimitive form is a rectangular prifm with rhom¬
boidal bafes, having the angles inclined, as mentioned
in the effential character. The integrant molecule is a
triangular prifm. It is frequently met with in double
cryftals, crofting each other in the form of a crofs, from
which the name is derived, fometimes at right angles,
and fometimes obliquely 5 fometimes alfo there are ob¬
lique triple croflings. The furface is fmooth and ftiin-
ing, or uneven and dull.
The colour is reddifti or blackhh brown ; internal
luftre fhining, between vitreous and reftnous. Fradture
U 2 imperfedtly
156 MINERALOGY.
Siliceous imperfeftly foliated, in tlie direfHon of the axis ; in
. other dhe6tions uneven, fraall grained, or fometimes a
little conchoidal; often opaque, fometimes tranflucent.
Scratches quartz feebly : fpecitic gravity 3.2861.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it becomes brown
without fufion, ajid is then converted into a fritty lub-
ftance.
Part I.
Exier. Char.—Spindle is found in rounded grains, or Clailitisa-
ConJHtuetit Parts.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Oxide of iron
Oxide of manganefe
Lofs
Vauquelin.
33-
44.
3-84
T3*
_Li
100.
Localities, See.—It is found in fmall cryftals in mi¬
caceous fchiftus, at St Gothard in Switzerland, in Brit¬
tany in France, and in Spain, in primitive rocks.
11. Species. Ceylanite.
Pleonqfte, Hairy, iii. 17. Spinelle Pleonajle, Brong-
niart, i. 438.
EJfen. Char.—Scratches glafs flightly, and is divifible
into a regular offahedron.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in rounded maf-
fes, and alfo cryftallized. Primitive form of the cryf¬
tals, a regular o&ahedron. The integrant molecule a
regular tetrahedron. The edges of the o&ahedron are
fometimes truncated, and form a regular 12 fided rhom¬
boid. The cryllals are fmall ; the fradlure is conchoi¬
dal ; the luftre fhining and vitreous.
The colour is fometimes perfe&ly black, brown,
bright blue, purplifh red, or dark green. It is hard,
but rot very brittle. Spec. gray. 3.76 to 3.79.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Conjlltuent Parts. Defcotils.
Alumina 68
Magnefia 12 ~
Silica 2
Oxide of iron 16
Lofs 2
100
Localities, &c.—This mineral is met with in the ifland
of Ceylon, along with tourmaline and other cryftallized
fubftances, which have been carried from their native
repofitories by means of water. It has been found alfo in
difleminated cryftals in the cavities of the lava of Vefu-
vius; and very "fmall blue cryftals of ceylanite have been
obferved in the volcanic (bafaltic) rocks at Clofterlach
on the banks of the Rhine.
12. Species.. Spinelle.
Spinel and Balafs Ruby, Kirw. i. 253. Le Spinel, Bro-
chant, i.,202. Spinelle, Hairy, ii. 496.
EJJen. Char.—Scratches quartz ftrongly ; the primi¬
tive and common foim, a regular octahedron.
cryftallized : the primitive form of the cryftals is a re¬
gular oftahedron ; the integrant molecule the regular
tetrahedron. Its utual forms are a double pyramid with
four faces applied bafe to bafe, conftjtuting a perfect
o&ahedron •, or it is truncated on all its edges, or only
on thole of the common bafe of the two pyramids. It
is met with alfo in the form of a double cryftal, com-
pofed of two oftahedrons, which are often flattened.
Colour ulually red, of various (hades, from carmine
red to rofe red ; fometimes reddifh white, and orange
yellow. Faces of the oddahedron fmooth, thofe of the
truncations longitudinally ftreaked. Luftre refpiendent,
vitreous; frahlure conchoidal; the longitudinal fraddure
is foliated ; fragments indeterminate, fharp-edged ; fe-
mitranfparent, and fometimes tranfparent. Scratches
quartz ; is fcratched by fapphire. Spec. grav. 3.570 to
3-645.
Chem. Char.—Before the blorv-pipe it is infufible ;
but with borax it melts, and without frothing up.
tiun.
"V
Alumina
Silica
Magnefia
Oxide of iron
Lime
Chromic acid
Lofs
Cenjlituent Parts.
Klaproth.
74-50
^■SO
8.25
1.50
•IS
100.5
Vauquelin.
82.47
8.78
J£_
6.l8
2-57
'100
Localities, &c.—Cryftals of fpinelle are found in Cey¬
lon, in a river which comes from the high mountains in
the middle of that iiland : they are accompanied with zir¬
con, tourmaline, and different other ftones. It is found
alfo in Pegu.
Ufes.—Spinelle is ranked among precious ftones, and
is greatly efteemed when it is of a certain fize. It is
faid that a fine fpinelle ruby, whofe weight exceeds four
carats, is worth half the price of a diamond of the lame
weight.
13. Species. Sapphire.
Oriental Ruby, Sapphire, and Topasa, Kirwan, i. 250.
Le Saphir, Brochant, i. 207. Telejie, Haiiy, ii. 480.
Ejfen. Char.—Specific gravity about 4; natural
joints very diftindl, and perpendicular to the axis of the
cryftals.
Exter. Char.—Sapphire is found in fragments, in
rounded pieces, and alfo cryftallized. The primitive
form of the cryftal, according to Hairy, is a regular
fix-fided prifm, and the integrant molecule is a triangu¬
lar, equilateral prifm ; but, according to Bournon, the
primitive form is a rhomboid, whofe angles are 96® and
84°. The ufual forms of the cryftals are, 1. A fmall
fix-fided prifm. 2. A pyramid with fix faces, very (harp,
double, the two pyramids applied bafe to bafe. 3. I he
fame cryftal with the lummit truncated. 4. A pyramid
with fix faces, double ; the two pyramids applied bafe
to bafe, but lefs iharp than the Tecond form. The fur-
face of the cryftals is fmooth, and often ftreaked tranf-
verfely.
The
Part I. MINER
Claffifka- TKe principal colour is blue, varying between Pruf-
tion fian and indigo blue ; other varieties are of a deep vio-
'“■—'"v  let blue. Sapphires are alfo found red, yellowifh, and
greenifh. Two or three colours appear in the fame
cryital, fometimes in bands and fometimesin concentric
circles. Externally, the luftre of the fapphire is Ihin-
ing -, internally, refplendent and vitreous. Fra&ure
perfeftly conchoidal. Fragments (harp edged •, tranfpa-
rent or femitranfparent, fometimes only tranflucent.
Scratches all other earthy fubftances. Brittle. Spec,
grav. 3.991 to 4.283.
Chan. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe. Melts
with borax without intumefcence. The blue variety,
expofed to a ftrong heat, lofes its colour, Hahy.
Conjlituent Parts.
Alumina
Silica
Lime
Oxide of iron,
Klaproth.
98-5
00.y
1.
100
Alumina
Silica
Oxide of iron
Lofs
Sapphire.
92
5.25
I.
i-75
Bergman.
58.
35-
5-
2.
100
Oriental Ruby.
90
7
1.2
1.8
100 100
Localities, &c.—The fineft fapphires are brought from
Pegu and the illand of Ceylon. The fapphire is alfo
found in Bohemia, accompanied with zircon, Bohe¬
mian garnet, and magnetic iron 5 and in the river Expail-
ly in France.
\Jfes The fapphire, next to the diamond, is the
moft highly valued of precious ftones.
14. Species. Corundum.
Corindon, Hairy, iii. 1. Adamantine Spar, Kirw.i. 335.
Le Spath Adamantin, Broch. i. 356.
EJfen. Char.—Scratches quartz j divifible into a
rhomboid fomewhat acute.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, difie-
minated, and cryftallized j 1. In fix-lided prilms, ha¬
ving the extremities broken, and the faces fometimes
unequal. 2. A fix-fided prifm, terminated by a fix*
fided pyramid. 3. A pyramid with fix ihort faces,
whole fummit is ftrongly truncated ; and, 4. The pre¬
ceding cryftal terminated by a three-fided pyramid.
From the inveftigations of Count de Bournon and Mr
Greville, it appears that the cryftallization of corundum
* Thil. is fimilar to that of the fapphire *. Luftre, which is
Jz-AM/hypS. jnterme4iate between refinous and vitreous, Ihining or
weakly Ihining ; crofs fra&ure uneven, or fplintery, fome¬
times foliated } fragments rhomboidal, fometimes ftiarp-
cdged.
The colour is greenilh white, greenilh gray, and alpa-
ragus green, tranflucent at the edges; refraction dou¬
ble. Extremely hard. Spec. grav. 3.710 to
Chem. Char.— Entirely infufible before the blow-pipe.
A L O G Y.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaprath.
From China.
Silica
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Lofs
6.5
84.
7*3
2.
From Bengal.
5-5°
89.50
1.25
3-75
100
100
According to Chenevix.
From the Carnatic. From Malabar.
Silica 5
Alumina 91
Oxide of iron 1.5
Lofs 2.5
7
86.5
4
2-5
ICO
IOO
*57
Siliceous
genus.
Localities.—Corundum is found in a hard rock near
the river Cavery, fouth of Madras j on the Malabar
coaft ; in the ifland of Ceylon j in the kingdom of Ava >
and in China.
iy. Species. Adamantine Spar.
Exter. Char.—This mineral, which ought undoubt¬
edly to be confidered as a variety of corundum, is found
maffive, in rolled pieces, and cryftallized in fix fided
prifms, and fix-fided acute pyramids with truncated ex¬
tremities. Internal luftre fplendent j frafture foliated $
fragments rhomboidal.
Colour dark hair brown 5 very hard. Spec, grav,-
3.98!.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
From China.
Silica, 6.5
Alumina, 84^
Oxide of iron, 7.5
Lofs 2
TOO
Localities.—This mineral has been only met with in
China.
16. Species. Emery.
Fer Oxyde ^nartxdjere, Haiiy, iv. 112. Emery, Kirw.
ii. 193. VEmeril, Broch. ii. 292.
EJfen. Char.—The powder fcratches all bodies except
the diamond.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive and dif-
feminated. The luftre is glimmering or weak ftrining, and
adamantine. Fradlure fine-grained, uneven 5 fragments
a little blunt edged.
Colour grayifti black, bluilh, fmoke or fteel gray ;
generally opafjue, but fometimes tranflucent at the
edges : extremely hard. Spec. gr. about 4.
Chem. Char.—Becomes black under the blow-pipe,
but is infufible. Colours borax of a dirty yellow.
ConJlitutnU.
*58 MINE R
g: nus.
ConJHtuent Parts*
Tennant.
Alumina, 86
Oxide of iron, 4
Loft, 7
* P&iJ.
Trent/.
rSoz.p.^oo.
ICO *
_ Localities*, &c.—1'his mineral is found in Saxony,
dhTeminated in a bed of indurated fteatites, mixed with
common talc ; alio in the ifland of Naxos in the Ar¬
chipelago ; and in Italy, Spain, and Peru.
Vfes Emery, as well as the two former fpecies, is
employed, when reduced to powder, in cutting and po-
liihing hard ifones, glafs, and metals.
Not only the external charadlers, but alfo the near
approach in the proportion of their confiituent parts, of
the three fpecies laft deferibed, would lead to confider
them as the lame fpecies, or at leaft as varieties. Eme¬
ry is by forne mineralogilts arranged among the ores of
iron.
17. Species. Topaz.
Occidental Topa%, Kirw. i. 254. La Topa%ey Broch.
i. 212. Topatae, Haiiy, ii. 504.
Eflen. Ortr.—Refra&ion double 5 joints very diflindl j
perpendicular only to the axis of the cryftals.
hxter. ihe topaz is fometimes found maffive,
femetimes dilTeminated, and fometimes in rounded frag¬
ments^ but it is moft commonly cryftallized. The
primitive form of its cryilals is a right angled prifm,
whofe bafes are rhombs, and having the large angle
I245’ 22'; the integrant molecule is the fame. The
moil common forms of the topaz are,
1. A prifm with eight fides, terminated at the one
end by a four-fided fummit, and at the other (which
but rarely happens), by one of a different form. In a
variety or the Brazilian topaz, the one fummit prefents
hx fides, ana the other ten £ and the eleclricity exhi¬
bited by the latter by means of heat, is negative, while
liiat oi the former is pofitive. This difference in the
two oppofite fummits of a cryftal, as has been obferved
by Hauy, is a peculiarity in all cry Hals which acquire
by means of heat two kinds of eleblricity.
2. The next common form of the topaz Is an eight-
lided prifm, whofe bafe is horizontal, and bordered
with a row of fix oblique faces. This variety, which
is found m the mines of Saxony, becomes readily elec¬
tric by frifiion, but not by heat.
. Tlle prevailing colour of the topaz is yellow of va¬
rious fiiades. The cryftals are of middling fize; their
lateral faces are fometimes convex and cylindrical; the
fur face of the fame faces is longitudinally ftriated, while
that of the other faces is fmooth. Luftre vitreous;
crofs fradlure perfe&ly foliated; longitudinal fra&ure
concn01 dal ; fragments indeterminate ; tranfparent,;
lometimes lemitranfparent or tranflucent ; refradlion
double ; fcratches rock-cryftal. Spec. grav. 3.464 to
them. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
melts with borax without intumefcence, The Brazilian
A L O G Y. Part I.
topaz heated in a crucible affumes a rofe red colour, Ciaffifka-
when it is called by the jewellers rtthy of Brazil. The tion-
Saxon topaz becomes white when expofed to heat; and v™""
thus deprived of colour, is fold for the diamond. Ac¬
cording to Vauquelin, all the varieties of topaz reduced
to powder, and added to fyrup of violets, at the end of
two or three hours communicate a green colour.
Conjlituent parts.
According to Klaproth and Vauquelin.
Alumina
Silica
Fluoric acid
Iron
Localities, &c.—The topaz is found in different parts
of Saxony, particularly in the mountain Schneecken-
ftein, which is denominated topaz rock, and is arranged
with the primitive mountains. In this rock the topaz
,s mixed with quartz, fchorl, mica, and lithomarga.
Near Zinnwald it is found in granite. It is alfo found
mixed with ores of tin. In Siberia the topaz is found
in graphic granite, accompanied with beryl, quartz,
and garnet. Topaz is alfo met with in Brazil and Alia
Minor.
Ufes—The topaz is employed for the purpofes of
jewellery as a precious ftone, but it is not confidered of
very great value.
18. Species. Pyrofhysalite.
This mineral which was deferibed and analyfed by
Hiienger and Berzelius, is of a greeniih white colour.
When thrown on hot coals it becomes phofphorefcent,
and gives out a greeniih tlame. When it is ftrongly
heated by the action of the blow-pipe, the furface is
covered with fmall veficles which explode. Thefe phe¬
nomena are aferibed to the fluate of lime which forms
one of its conftituent parts, and which fometimes ap¬
pears furrounding it with a cruft.
Localities, &c.—Oahn found this ftone at Fmbo near
Fah4un in Sweden, in nodules imbedded in a granite,
compofed of white quartz, feldfpar, and filvery mica.
The nodules are feparated from the rock by a greenifh
yellow talc f. \Brongni-
19. Species. Euclase. anf, 11.401.
Id. Haiiy, ii. 531. Id. Brochant, ii. 508.
LJJen. Char.—Divifible by two longitudinal lines per¬
pendicular to each other.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has only been found cry¬
ftallized.- The primitive form of the cryftals is a redt-
angular prifm vvith fquare bafes, and that of the inte¬
grant molecule is the fame. The moft common form
under which it appears is an oblique four-fided prifm
with the edges truncated in various ways. The cry¬
ftals are ftreaked longitudinally. The luftre is refplen-
dent and vitreous. Longitudinal fradlure foliated ; crofs
fradlure conchoidal.
Colour, bright fea green. Tranfparent, and refradls
double. Scratches quartz. Very frangible, hence its
name fignifying eaftly broken. Spec. grav. 3.062.
Chem. Char.—Lofes its tranfparency before the blow¬
pipe, and melts into a white enamel.
ConJUtuent
47 to 50
28 to 30
17 to 20
o to 4
Fan T. MINERALOGY.
Clarifica¬
tion.
Cotijlituent parts. Vauquelin.
Silica 35 to 36
Alumina 18 19
Glucina 14 15
Iron 2 3
Lofs 31 27
21. Species. Beryl.
ulqua Marina et Samaragdus, Beryllus, Wallerius, i.
254. Aigue Marine de Siberia, Rome de Lille, ii.
252. Id. De Born, i. 71. Beryl, Kirvv. i. 248.
Le Beril Noble, Brochant, i. 220. Emeraude Lim¬
pid e, vert-bleuatre,jaune-verdatre, &c. Haiiy, ii. 521.
IOO 100
Localities.—This mineral was brought from Peru,
and has never been found any where elfe. It was in
Angle cryftals, fo that its repofitory is unknown. It is
by fome mineralogifts arranged among the ores of iron.
20. Species. Emerald.
Id. Kirw. i. 247. VEmeraude, Brochant, i. 217.
Emeraude, Haiiy, ii. 516.
/
EJJen. Char.—Scratches glafs eafily ; divifible, paral¬
lel to the faces, and to the bafes of a regular hexahedral
prifm.
Exter. Char.—The emerald is only found cryllal-
lized, and the primitive form of its cryftals is a regular
Ax-fided prifm j the integrant molecule is a triangular
prifm, the Ades fquare, and the bafes equilateral tri¬
angles. The ufual forms are, 1. A perfeft Ax-Aded
prifm j 2. Truncated on its lateral edges j 3. Trun¬
cated on its terminal edges; 4. Truncated on its ter¬
minal angles; and, 5. Having the terminal edges be¬
velled. The cryflals are feldom large. Their lurface
is fmooth and Alining ; internal luAre Alining and re-
fplendent; vitreous ; frafture conchoidal or unequal,
fometimes tranfverfely foliated ; fragments indetermi¬
nate, Aiarp edged.
Colour emerald green of all Aiades; mo A commonly
tranlparent, fometimes only trar.Aucent; refraflion dou¬
ble ; with diAiculty fcratches quartz. Spec. grav. 2.600
to 2.775.
Chem. Char.—FuAble before the blow-pipe, but with
diAiculty ; melts readily with borax.
Conjlituent Parts.
Vauquelin. Klaproth.
Silica. 64.50 68.50
Alumina 16. 1 i-75
Glucina 13. 12.50
Oxide of chromium 3*25 .30
Lime ^ 1.60 .25
Oxide of iron
Water 2.
100-35 98.3
Localities, &c.—The AneA emeralds are brought from
Peru, where they are found in veins or cavities of the
granite mountains. They are alfo found in Upper
Egypt, Ethiopia, and in the iAand of Ceylon. The
emerald is accompanied by calcareous fubAances, as
carbonate of lime and gypfum.
Vfes.—The rich green of the emerald has obtained
for it a high rank among precious Aones, and it is em¬
ployed for Amilar purpofes.
Effen. Char.—The fame as the emerald.
Exter. Char.—The beryl is fometimes found in round¬
ed fragments, but moA commonly cryAallized, and the
forms of its cryAals are the fame as the emerald. The
lateral faces of the cryAals are deeply Ariated.
The colours of the beryl are ulually a pale or yel-
lowiAi green ; external luAre Arming ; internal refplen-
dent, vitreous ; longitudinal fra&ure conchoidal, or fo¬
liated. Cleavage fourfold. Fragments indeterminate
and Aiarp-edged ; often tranfparent, fometimes femi-
tranfparent, and tranflucent. The latter variety is di-
Ainguilhed by tranfverfe rents. Refraction in a Aight
degree double ; nearly as hard as topaz ; brittle ; fpec.
grav. 2.65 to 2.75. Becomes eleftric by friCHon.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is fuAble, but
with diAiculty, and yields a white, fcarcely tranAucent
glafs.
Conjlituent parts.
Vauquelin. Rofe.
Silica 68 69
Alumina 15 14
Glucina 14 14
Lime 2
Oxide of iron 1 1
100 98
Localities, &c. The beryl is brought from the EaA
Indies, and from Brazil ; but the AneA and pureA are
found in Daouria, on the frontiers of China, in the
neighbourhood of Nertfchink ; and the matrix of thefe
beryls is faid to be an indurated clay, refembling jaf-
P^r- The beryl is alfo found in Siberia, where it is
ulually accompanied with quartz, feldfpar, garnets, tour¬
maline, mica, and Auor fpar, in the veins of primitive
mountains. The beryls from Siberia are almoA all
found in graphic granite. Beryl is alfo found in Saxony,
and lately in France, in a large vein of quartz traverfmg
graphic granite. Dolomieu found the beryl perfeflly
tranfparent and colourlefs, in the granite of the iAand
of Elba.
Vfes.—The beryl is employed as a precious Aone, but
is not greatly eAeemed.
Remarks.—The emerald and the precious beryl ap¬
proach fo nearly to each other, not only in the forms
of their cryAals, which are almoA the fame, and in
their conAituent parts, which aAbrd but Aight varia¬
tions, but alfo in their other characters, that they ought
to be conAdered, as has been doire by Haiiy, as varieties
of the fame fpecies. The only differences which exiA
between them feem to be accidental. Thefe are chieAy
in the colour, and in the cryAallization ; the former of
which is a Aner green, and the latter is more perfedt in
the emerald than in the beryl. The colouring matter of
the emerald is oxide of chromium, while that of the be-
ryl i
159
Siliceous
genus.
'i6o
MINERALOGY.
Part T.
S iceous ryl is oxide of iron. In all tlie other charadlers they
genus. are nearly the iame.
22. Species. Schorlite, or Schorlous Beryl.
Schorlitc, Kirw. i. 286. Le Beril Schorliforme, Bro-
chant, i. 224. Leucohte and Pycmte, Hauy, iii.
236.
PJfen. Char.—Infufible. Original form of the cryftals
a regular hexahedral prilm.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is ufually found cryftal-
lized, in longiih maffes, mixed with osher fubftances,
< and generally imbedded in granite ; the form of the
cryftals when they are regular, is a fix-fided prilm,
which is fometimes truncated on its terminal edges, and
fometimes the form difappears from its being deeply and
longitudinally ftriated. The cryftals are generally
large. »
Colour white, ftraw yellow, or reddifti. Tranflucent
or'nearly opaque. External luftre fhining, between vi¬
treous and relinous. Crofs fra<fture imperfetfly foliated,
longitudinal, imperfedlly conchoidal. Scratches quartz
llightly. Brittle. Spec. grav. 3.514 to 3.530.
Chem. Char.—Infufible with the blow-pipe j with
borax yields a tranfparent glafs.
Conjlituent Part?.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Water,
Fluoric acid,
Lofs,
Klaproth.
5°
50
Vatiquelin.
36.8
52 6
3-3
M
51
Vauquelin,
another analyfis.
3°
60
-2
I
6
1
100
100
100
Localities, &c.—This mineral is generally found im¬
bedded in granite •, fometimes it is met with in gneis,
accompanied with lepidolite. It enters into the com-
pofition of a rock formed of quartz and gray mica at
Altenberg in Saxony. A red variety of this mineral
W’as formerly confidered by mineralogifls as a cryftal-
lized lepidolite. Shorlous beryl has been arranged as a
fubfpecies of beryl j but its fpecific gravity, different de¬
gree of hardnefs, and efpecially its compofition, are
channfters fufficiently diftinft to conftitute a feparate
fpecies.
23. Species. Schorl.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies j I. Black
or common fchorl, and 2. Tourmaline.
Subfpecies 1. Black Schorl.
Schorl, Kirw. i. 265. Le SchorlNoir, Brochant, i.226.
Tourmaline, Hauy, iii. 31.
Ejjen. Char.—Ele£hic by heat in the two oppofite
extremities j forms of the cryftals derived from a rhom¬
boid.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes, and
difthminated, but moft frequently cryftallized. The
primitive form of its cryftals is an obtule rhomboid j
2
the integrant molecule is a tetrahedron. Its ufual forms Claffifka-
are, x. A three-fided prifm, with the bteral edges tl°n-
either truncated or bevelled •, 2. The fame prifm having
a three fided obtufe fummit, the fides correfponding to
the lateral edges. The truncations, and bevelments of
the lateral edges vary in the fize of the faces, thus pro¬
ducing prifms of fix and nine fides. The lateral faces
of the three-fided prifm are often convex. The lateral
fur faces are longitudinally and deeply ftnated. The
luftre, both external and internal, w’hich is vitreous,
varies between ftnning and weakly fhining. The frac¬
ture is imperfeftly conchoidal or uneven j crofs frac¬
ture is fometimes convex on the one fide and concave
on the other. When black fchorl is maflive, it is found
in feparate pieces, thin, and apparently fibrous, parallel,
or interwoven and divergent. rI he faces of thefe fe¬
parate pieces are ftriated lengthwife. The fragments
are indeterminate.
Colour velvet black of various ftiades. Commonly
opaque, rarely tranflucent, except in fmall cryftals.
Streak gray. Inferior to quartz in hardnefs. Specific
gravity 3.092 to 3.212.
Chem. Char.—Under the blow pipe it froths up, and
melts into a grayifh white enamel.
Conjlituent Parts. Wiegleb.
Alumina, 4°*83
Silica, 33.33
Iron, 20.41
Manganefe, 3.33
Physical Char.—Black fchorl becomes eleflric by
heat j and the eledlricity of one extremity of the cryftal
is pofitive, wEile that of the other is negative ; but
when it cools, it is faid, that the nature of the eledfrici-
ty isreverfed ; the pofitive extremity becomes negative,
and the negative becomes pofitive.
Localities, &c.—Black fchorl is ufually found ia
granite, gneis, and other primitive rocks ; in veins of
tin and ores of iron $ in the topaz rock of Schneecken-
ftein in Saxony, of which it conftitutes a part. It is
alfo met w'ith in Switzerland, Spain, Hungary, and
Britain.
Subfpecies 2. Tourmaline.
Id. Kirw. i. 271. Le Schorl EleBrique, Brochant, 1.
229. Tourmaline Verte, Hauy, iii. 41.
EJJen. Char.—The fame as black fchorl.
Exter. Char.—The tourmaline is found fometimes in
mafles and grains, but moft commonly cryftallized.
The form of its cryftals is a regular three-fided prifm,
with the edges, 1. Either truncated or bevelled. 2. A
regular three fided prifm with the lateral faces convex,
and terminating in an obtufe, three-fided prifm, the
fides of which correfpond to the lateral faces at one
extremity, and to the lateral edges at the other. 3.
An obtufe, double, three-fided pyramid, the faces of
the one correfponding to the edges of the other. 4. A
fix-fided prifm with equal angles. 5. A fix-fided
prifm, the fides meeting turn and two alternately under
th.ee obtufe angles. 6. A nine fided prifm, having
three lateral angles acute, and fix obtufe alternately.
7. The fame cryftal having the three acute lateral
edges truncated, and thus forming a twelve-fided prifm.
The iurface of the cryftals is fometimes fmooth, but
moft
*
Fart I.
MINERALOGY.
161
Claffifica- mod frequently driated longitudinally. Ludre diming
non. ancj vitreous. Longitudinal fracture conchoidal; crofs
fradlure foliated. The direflion of the plates is inclin¬
ed to the axis of the prifm. Fragments indeterminate 5
the crydals are ufually opaque, when feen laterally.
The colour of the tourmaline is greenifh, of various
(hades, yellowidi brown, and very rarely indigo blue.
The colours are ufually very deep, and at fird fight ap¬
pear black. It is ufually tranflucent, and fometimes
approaching to tranfparent, particularly when it is feen
in a dire&ion perpendicular to the axis of the prifm j
but it appears opaque when it is feen in a direflion per¬
pendicular to the bafis of the prifm, even when the
height of the prifm is lefs than its thicknefs. It is
harder than quartz. Brittle. Spec. grav. 3.086 to
3'3^3-
'' Chcm. Char.—With the blow-pipe the tourmaline
melts into .a grayifii white, porous enamel.
Conftituent Parts.
Bergman.
Silica 37
Alumina, 39
Lime, 15
Oxide of iron, 9
 manganefe,
Vauquelin.
40.
39-
3-84
12.50
2.
97-34
Bergman’s analyfis is of the tourmaline of Ceylon.
Vauquelin’s is that of the green tourmaline of Brazil.
Phyjical Char.—The property of the tourmaline, of
becoming eledhic by heat, has been already noticed as
one of its didin£Hve charadders. This phyfical proper¬
ty has occupied the attention of philofophers for a long
time. It was obferved by Lemery in 1719, and exa¬
mined by Epinus in 1770. Pliny indeed mentions a
reddifh or purple coloured done, which being heated or
rubbed, attracts light bodies. This is fuppofed to
have been the tourmaline. This property is fufceptible
of various modifications. The eledlricity of the tour¬
maline may be conveniently exhibited by heating two
crydals, fufpending the one by a thread, and prefent-
ing fuccefiively to its extremities the extremities of the
other crydal. The extremities which poflefs the fame
kind of eledlricity will be repelled, while thofe which
poffefs a different kind will be attratded. If a crydal
of tourmaline be broken while it is eleddrified, the
fragments immediately prefent electrical poles, fituated
in the fame direedion as thofe of the entire crydal.
The extremity of the crydals of tourmaline which has
the greated number of faces, exhibits pofitive ele&rici-
ty, while the extremity having the fmaller number of
faces exhibits negative ele<dricity. The proper degree
of heat for exciting the elecdricity of tourmaline is from
ioo° to the boiling point of Fahrenheit. When heat¬
ed beyond this point, it is deprived of its eleddricity,
and recovers it only in cooling ; but if the temperature
be increafed dill more, the crydal becomes again elec¬
tric, but the poles are reverfed. The ele'ddric poles
may be allb reverfed, by heating a crydal of tourma¬
line unequally, by means of a burning glafs.
Localities, &c—The tourmaline is found in almod all
primitive mountains ; the fined c.ydals are brought
from Ceylon, Madagafcar, Saxony, the Tyrol, Spain.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
and Brazil. The tourmaline of the Tyrol is found in Siliceous
a talcky.rock mixed with chlorite, mica, and horn- genus.
1 blende. Thofe of Saxony and Spain are found imbed¬
ded in gneis, but thofe of Brazil and Ceylon are in fe-
parate crydals. In Bohemia they are found in mines.
The tourmaline is alfo a native of France, Sweden,
Norway, and Britain.
24. Species. Pistazite.
Gla/fy aciynolite, Kirwan i. 168. Delphiniie, Sauffure
Voyages, N° 1918. slcanticone, Arendalite D’An-
drada,Nich.Jour.410.v. 193. LaRayonnanteVitreufe,
Brochant, i. 510. Epidote, Hauy iii. 102.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a
rhomboidal prifm of i^i0, and
Extern. Char.—Pidazite is found maffive or crydal-
lized in flattened four fided prifms, terminated by
four-fided pyramids, and alfo fometimes in regular lix-
fided prifms j the fummit of the pyramid almod always
truncated, as well as the lateral edges. The crydals
are fometimes acicular and dreaked longitudinally. In¬
ternal ludre fliining. Fradture foliated or radiated.
Fragments wedge draped and fplintery.
Colour deep green, olive green, or greeniflr yellow.
Tranflucent, fometimes tranfparent. Hard, eafily fcratch-
es glafs, and is brittle. Spec. gr. 3.45. Powder green-
ifli yellow or whitifh.
Chem. Char.—Fufible by the blow-pipe, and is con¬
verted into a brown flag, which blackens by continuing
the heat.
Conjlituent Parts.
Vauquelin.
Silica, 37
Alumina, 21
Lime, 15
Oxide of iron, 24
  manganefe, 1.5
Lofs, 1.5
Defcotib.
37
27
J4
J7
3-3
100.0
100.0
Localities, &c. Pidazite is found in Dauphiny, oi>
the furface and in the fiflures of an argillaceous rock,
accompanied by quartz, amianthus, and feldfpar, and
in the Pyrenees in linieflone ; near Arendal in Nor¬
way ; and in argillaceous fchidus, north end of the ifland
of Arran in Scotland.
25. Species. Zoysite.
This mineral which was difeovered by Baron de
Zoys, and therefore bears his name, is confidered by
Hauy as a variety of Epidote.
It appears in prifms wrhich are deeply furrowed or
rhomboidal, and very much flattened. They are of a
gray colour, or grayilh yellow, with a pearly luflre.
Localities. Zoyfite is found particularly in Carin-
thia, and alfo in the Tyrol and in the Valais *.
26. Species. Axinite, or Thumerstone.
* Brongni-
art, ii. 40c.
Id. Kirwx i. 273. La Pierre de Thum, Brochant, i.
236. Axinite, Hauy, iii. 22.
Effen. Char.— Divifible parallel to the faces of a
rhomboidal prifm of ioi^8, and 78!®.
X
Enter.
3 62
M INERALOG Y.
Part I.
Siliceous Exler. Char.—Thumcrftone is found in maffes, dif-
genus. femjnate(J ancJ cryftalllzed. 1'he primitive form of its
cryftals is a right-angled prifm, vvhofe bafes are ob¬
lique-angled parallelograms, having their angles of ioi®
32', and 78° 28'. The integrant molecule is an ob¬
lique triangular prifm. The moll common form of its
cryftals is a quadrangular prifm, fo oblique and flatten¬
ed, that its angles become as {harp as the cutting part
of a hatchet. The faces of the cryflals are longitudi¬
nally filiated, but the truncated faces are fmooth. Ex¬
ternal luflre fplendent j internal finning and vitreous.
Erasure vitreous, fometimes rough and fplintery. Frag¬
ments indeterminate, fliarp edged. Maflive thumer-
ilone is compofed of feparate teflaceous, thin, and
flightly curved concretions, with a fmooth furface,
which is fomevvhat irregularly flriated.
The colour is clove brown, varying to violet blue, yel-
lowifh, and greenifh gray. Maffive thumerflone is only
tranflucent. The cryftals are femitranfparent, and fome¬
times tranfparent. It is harder than feldfpar, but lefs
fo than quartz; gives fire with fteel, and diffufes an
odour fimilar to what is produced by flint. Brittle.
Spec. grav. 3.213 to 3.300.
Client. Char.—Thumerflone froths up under the
blow-pipe, and is converted into a grayifh enamel, and
with borax into a fine olive green enamel.
Conjiituent Parts.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
  manganefe
Lofs
Klaproth.
52.70
25-79
9-39
8.63
1.
2.49
Vauquelin.
44
18
J9
*4
4
1
100.00
100
Localities, See. Thumerflone, which is hitherto a
rare mineral, has been only found in veins and fiflures
of primitive rocks, and chiefly in rocks with a bafe of
ferpentine. It is ufually accompanied with afbeflus,
rock cryftal, and fometimes calcareous fpar. It was
firil difeovered at T1 um in Saxony, from which it de¬
rives its name ; but has been fince found in the Pyre¬
nees, in France, at Mount Atlas in Africa, and in
Norway.
27. Species. Quartz.
E(Ten. Char.—Divifible into a rhomboid, which is
Hightly obtufe.
Quartz, which is found, either maffive, cryflallized,
or in rounded pieces, is one of the roofl abundant mi¬
neral fubftances. The primitive form of its cryflals is
a flightly^obtufe rhomboid, of 940 4', and 85° 56k
The integrant molecule is a regular tetrahedron.
On account of the variety of forms and appearances,
quartz has been divided into fubfpecies; into fiveby Wer-
nCr ; by others only into two, viz. rock-cryilal and
common quartz. We fhall nearly follow- the former fub
divifions, which are, amethyfl, rock-cryftal, milk-quartz,
common quartz, and prafe, including alfo ferruginous
quartz.
Subfpecies r. Amethyst.
Id. Kirw. i. 264. VAmethyste, ^uart%-hyalin Violet,
Hauy, ii. 417.
Exter. Char.—The amethyft is found frequently cry- Claffifka-
flallized, but it is alfo found maffive and in rounded .
pieces. 1. The form of its cryflals is a regular fix-fided
prifm, terminated by a fix-fided pyramid, the Tides of
which correfpond to thofe of the prifin. 2. A double
fix fided pyramid. Fradlure conchoidal, rarely fplin¬
tery or fibrous. Fragments indeterminate, fometimes
wedge-fhaped. Maffive amethyfl is compofed of fepa¬
rate pieces, wdiich are fometimes granulated, fometimes
fcopiform when the cryflals are combined together.
The colour is commonly violet blue of various (hades,
blackifh brown and greenifh white. External luflre
refplendent ; internal refplendent and fhining, vitreous.
It varies between tranfparent and tranflucent. Scratches
glafs. Brittle. Spec. grav. 2.653 t0 2-750-
Chern. Char.—Entirely infufible under the action of
the blow-pipe.
Conjiituent Parts. Rofe.
Silica, 97-5°
Alumina, .25
Oxide of iron and manganefe, .50
98.25
Localities, £kc.—Amethyfl is found in Bohemia, Saxo¬
ny, Siberia, very abundant in the Uralian mountains,
Hungary, and Auvergne in France. It is ufually met
with in the veins of metalliferous mountains, very rarely
in granitic mountains. It is frequently met with cryflal¬
lized, uining the cavities of balls of agate ; in amygda¬
loid and porphyry rocks.
Ufes. When the amethyfl is cut and polifhed, it af-
fumes an agreeable colour and luflre, fo that it is employ¬
ed in jewellery.
Werner has divided the amethyfl into twro varieties,
the common and fibrous ; the latter being chiefly.cha*
rafterized by its fibrous fra£lure and refinous luflre.
This latter variety too, is only found maffive.
Subfpecies 2. Rock Crystal.
Mountain Cryjlal, Kirw. i. 241. Le Crijlal dc roche,
Brochant, i. 243. Quartz-hyalin Limpide, Hauy,
ii. 417.
Exter. Char.—Rock cryftal is ufually found cryftal-
lized, fometimes in rounded pieces, but rarely maffive.
The form of its cryftals is, 1. A fix-fided prifm, having
one of its bafes cr both furmounted by a tharp pointed
pyramid ; the Tides of the pyramid and prifm corref-
ponding. This is its moft ufual form ; but it exhibits
many apparent varieties, arifing from modifications in
the magnitude of one or feveral of the faces at the ex¬
pence of the others., 2. A double fix-fided pyramid,
which is fometimes perfedl, and fometimes truncated
on the edges of the common bafe ; and fometimes too,
three alternating faces on each pyramid are larger than
the others, giving to the cryftal the appearance of a
cube. 3. A fimple, very acute pyramid with fix fides,
having its fummit, and often alfo its bafe, acuminated
with fix faces; but this is rather an irregularity in the
cryftallization than a new form.
The cryflals of this mineral are fometimes very large,
and they are alfo found very fmall. In the rounded
pieces the external furface is rough, but in the perfedl
- cryftals
Parti. MINER
C'.affifica- cryftals the faces of the prifm are ftriated tranfverfely •,
tion. tJ10fe of the pyramids and acuminations are ftnooth.
^ " v The luftre is refplendent and vitreous ; fra^lure perfeft-
ly conchotdal, fometimes, however, foliated) fragments
indeterminate, very lharp edged.
Colours of rock-cryflals are grayilh white, yellowifh
white, pearl gray, yellowiih and biackilh brown. In¬
ternally it is fometimes iridefeent. It is tranfparent,
fometimes feinitraniparent. By looking acrofs one of
the faces of the pyramid, and the oppofite face of the
prifm, double refra&ian is produced. Scratches glafs,
and gives fparks with Heel. Somewhat frangible } fpec.
grav. 2.650 to 2.888.
Chem. Char.—Entirely infufible before the blow-
pipe.
Conjlituent Paris. Bergman,
Silica 93
Alumina 6
Lime 1
A L O G Y. 163
ture perfectly conchoidal, and fragments indeterminate. Siliceous
It varies between femitranlparent and tranflucent. , t
The colour is fometimes milk white j but its principal
colour, it is faid, is pale rofe red. In its other charac¬
ters it agrees with rock cryftal.
It is fufpe&ed that this mineral is compofed of filica
and oxide of manganefe, to the latter of which the co¬
lour is owing.
Localities, &c.—Milk quartz forms beds in primitive
mountains j at Rabenftein in Bavaria it is met with in
a large grained granite. It is alfo found in Finland,
Greenland, Saxony, Siberia, and the weftern part of
Invernefsfhire in Scotland.
XJfes.—The femitranfparence, the fine colour, and the
poliih of which it is fufceptible, have introduced this
mineral to be employed in jewellery.
Subfpecies 4. Common Quartz.
Quart-z, Kirw. i. 242. Le -Quartz commune, Broi
chant, i. 248. Quartz hyalin amorphe, Haiiy, ii.4251.
100
Physical C/w.—It is fometimes phofphorefcent *, two
cryftals, by being rubbed together, exhibit a little light
in the dark, and give out a peculiar odour, which is
fomewhat empyreumatic.
Localities, &c.—Rock-cryftal is moft commonly found
in veins of primitive rocks, and particularly in granite ;
in drufes lining the cavities of thefe rocks. The fineft
cryftals are now brought from Madagafcar, but it is a
very ♦frequent mineral in moft countries, as in the
mountains of Switzerland, where it w^as formerly dug
out of the faces of lofty precipices by the inhabitants.
It is alfo found in Bohemia, Saxony, Hungary, and in
Cornwall in England, and different parts of Scotland,
as in the ifland of Arran, in the cavities of the granite
mountains, and in Cairngorm in Aberdeenfhire, the
two latter, which are w-ell known by the name of Ar¬
ran ftones and Cairngorms, are ufually of a fmoky co¬
lour, owing, it is fuppofed, to iron or manganefe ; pro¬
bably to the latter, for from fome experiments W’hich
we have made, the colour entirely difappears by expo-
fing the cryftal to a ftrong heat, and from other obfer-
vations it appears that the colouring matter is alfo de-
ftroyed by the action of light.
Rock cryftal fometimes contains fchorl, amianthus,
aftynolite,mica, and titanium. Cryftals are alfo fometimes
met with in cavities containing a drop of water, and a
Imall quantity of air.
Ufes.—Rock cryftal, on account of its luftre and
tranlparency, is employed in jewellery, and particularly
when it is coloured, as thofe from Cairngorm in the
north of Scotland, many of which are held in high efti-
mation.
Subfpecies 3. Rosy Red or Milky Quartz.
Rofy Red Quartz, Kirw.-i. 245. Quartz laiteux, Bro-
chant, i. 246. Quartz hyalin laiteux, Haiiy, ii. 4 20.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always found mafiive.
It is indeed faid by Emmerling, that it has been found
cryftalhzed, in fmall fix-fided prifms, terminated by a
fix-fided pyramed, at Rabenftein in Bavaria. Internally,
its luftre is fhining, rarely refplendent j refinous } frac-
Exter. Char.—Common quartz is found in various
forms, maftive, difleminated, in grains, and rounded
pieces. It is fometimes ftala&itical, globular, kidney-
form, tuberculated, cellular, perforated, and corroded ;
fometimes alfo it is cryftallized, and the cryltals are ei¬
ther true, or fuppofititious. The true cryftals are
grouped together in reniform, rounded, or radiated
maffesj the form is the fame as that of rock crylta!.
The pfeudo cryftals derive their figure from the fubftan-
ces on which they are formed, as the cube from fluor
fpar, the octahedron from the fame, the fix-fided table
from barytes, the acute fix-fided pyramid from calca¬
reous fpar. The lurface of the true cryrtals is fimilar to
that of rock cryftal, but that of the pfeudo cryftals is
rough, and the luftre is dull. Frafture of common
quartz is Imall, conchoidal -, fometimes large, fplintery,
and fometimes imperfeCtly foliated, or fibrous, with
large parallel fibres. Fragments indeterminate, with
lharp edges, very rarely rhomboidal. It is commonly
tranllucent, rarely femitranfparent. The colour is milk
white, fnow white, reddilh white, and blood and flefh
red, with many lliades of thefe colours. Scratches
glafs. Spec, grav 2.640 to 2.654.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe. Silica
forms the principal conilituent part •, but among the
numerous varieties of common quartz, there are no
doubt flight differences in the nature and quantity of the
materials which enter into its compofition. The dif¬
ferent (hades of colour are owing to different portions
and different dates of metallic fubftances.
Localities, &c.—Common quartz is one of the fub¬
ftances of moft frequent occurrence in all kinds of rocks,
forming one of the chief component parts of primitive
mountains, fometimes in entire beds, or whole mountains,
as in the iflands of Ilia and Jura in Scotland. It is alfo
frequent in veins, very common, in ftratiform rocks,
where it conftitutes the bafe of fandftone : in alluvial
rocks it is met with in rounded pieces, or in the form,
of fand.
Efes.—Common quartz is employed in the manufac¬
ture of glafs inftead of fand ; in the fabrication of fmalt,
and as a flux for calcareous ores of iron.
A variety of this, called aventurine, is fometimes held
in confiderable eftirnation. It is the quartz hyalin
X 2 aventurin6
164
Silicfous aventurlne of Haliy, and the natural aventurine of
genus. j)e Llfle. It is of a deep red, gray, green, or black-
^ iili colour, marked with fpots fometimes of a yellowifh,
and fometimes of a filvery appearance, which proceed
from very thin pieces of pure quartz diffeminated in the
mafs. It ought not to be confounded with quartz mix¬
ed with mica, or micaceous quartz, which is a com¬
pound rock. On the contrary, the diverfity of colours
feems to be owing to numerous fiffures which are arran¬
ged nearly in the fame direftion.
Aventurine in found near Vafles, in the department
of Deux Sevres in France, in the form of rounded Hones,
which are reddifh •, at Cape de Gates in Spain, of a
whitifh colour, with filvery fpots; in Arragon, which
affords feveral varieties 5 near Madrid, among rounded
fragments of granite*, at Facebay in Tranfylvania, where
it is of a black colour, w-ith very finall golden fpots;
and in the neighbourhood of Catharineburg in Siberia.
The name aventurine is derived from the following
circumfiance. A workman having dropped by chance
par aventure, fome brafs filings into a vitreous matter in
the ftate of fufion, gave the mixture this name, of which
was afterwards made vafes and other ornamental objects.
Mineralogifts gave the fame name to natural fubftances
which have a firiking refemblance to this artificial
production. Hairy, ii. 422.
Subfpecies 5. Prase.
Pra/iism, Kirwn i. 249. La Prafe, Brochant, i. 252.
Quartz Hyalin Vert obfeure, ii. 419. ^udrt% Prafe,
Brongniart, i. 280.
Exter. Char.—This mineral poffeffes all the charac¬
ters of quartz in general. It is moft commonly found
maffive, and very rarely cryftallized. The cryfials,
which are ufually fmall, have the form of rock cryftal.
The colour is ufually leek green ; the external furface
is rough and gliftening •, the internal fliining and vitreous j
it is tranflucent $ the fracture imperfectly conchoidal,
and fometimes coarfe fplintery ; fragments (harpe-edged.
When it is mafiive, it is compofed of diftinCt concre¬
tions, which are granulated prifmatic, or cuneiform,
the furface of which is rough and tranfverfely ftriated.
Localities, &c.—Prafe is found at Brietenbrunn near
Schwartzenberg in Saxony, in a metallic vein, accom¬
panied with magnetic pyrites, galena, blende, calca¬
reous fpar, and aftynolite. It is alfo found in Bohemia,
in Finland, near lake Onega, and in Siberia*
TJfes.—As it is fufceptible of a fine polifh, prafe is
employed in jewellery.
This mineral ought not to be confounded with quartz
coloured by means of chlorite, which latter is of a
brighter green, but opaque.
Subfpecies 6. Ferruginous Quartz, or Iron Flint.
Le Caillou Ferrugineux, Brochant, i. 248. ^uart'Z
Rubigineux, Brongniart, i. 281. ^uart'Z Hyalin hema-
toide, Hairy, ii. 420. Ei/enkiefelof the Germans.
Exter. Char.—The peculiar character of this mineral
feems to be owing to a large proportion of oxide of
iron, W'hich renders it opaque. It is ufually found
maffive, but it fometimes alfo affumes a cryftalline form,
which is a prifm with fix equal fides, acuminated at
each extremity with three planes. The colour is of a
Part I.
yellowifh browm, fometimes of a brownifh red, and of Claffifica-
a bright blood red. It is ufually opaque, or only tranf- tl0n-
parent at the edges. External luflre refplendent ; inter- r~''
nal finning and vitreous. Fradlure imperfedlly conchoi¬
dal •, fragments angular, but not very fliarp-edged.
Concretions {mall-grained and diftindl. It is harder
than common jafper. Not very brittle.
Localities.—This mineral is found in veins of ironflone
in Saxony, and in England, where it is accompanied
with fulphate of barytes.
Ferruginous quartz is difiinguifhed from jafper, to
the red variety of winch it has a ftriking refemblance,
by its {Inning fracture, which is alfo vitreous and con¬
choidal 5 its property of cryftallizing 5 and according
to Brongniart, by having no alumina in its compo-
fition, which he properly confiders as an effential charac-
teriffic.
28. Species. Hornstone.
Ilornjlone, Kirw. i. 303. La Pierre de Come, Bre~
chant, i. 254. Petrojilex, Haiiy, iv. 385.
This mineral is met with in maffes and alfo in rounded
balls. The colour is ufually gray •, it is tranflucent at
the edges, the frafture fplintery or conchoidal •, it has
little luffre ; is fc hard as to fcratch glafs, and give fire
with fieel; and its {pec. grav. is from 2.699 to 2.708.
The diverfity of fradlure which has been obferved in
hornfione, has led to the fubdivifion of this fpecies into
three fubfpecies, viz. fplintery hornfione, conchoidal
hernftone, and wmodftone.
Subfpecies 1. Splintery Hornstone.
Hornfione Ecailleux, Brochant, ,i. 255. Retroflex
Syuamofus, Wallerius, i. 280.
Exter. CZar.—This mineral is found mafiive, or in
rounded pieces. It has fcarcely any lufire ; the frac¬
ture is fine, fplintery j fragments fharp-edged j tranf¬
lucent at the edges. It is fcarcely io hard as quartz *,
it is brittle.
The colour is bluifir gray, fmoke and pearl gray,
fometimes greenifh and yellowifh gray, more rarely
olive and mountain green. Sometimes there is a mix¬
ture of thefe colours, arranged in fpots and ftripes.
Spec. grav. 2.654. Kirwn
Chem. Char.—According to fome mineralogifts, this
variety of hornftone is fufible before the blow-pipe, but
according to others it is infufible without the addition of
borax.
The following are the conftituent parts of a horn-
flone analyzed by Kirw’an.
Silica 7 2
Alumina 22
Carbonate of Lime 6
100
Localities, &c.—This variety of hornftone is chiefly "
found in veins in primitive mountains. It is alfo found in
rounded pieces in alluvial rocks, and it conftitutes the
chief bafis of hornftone porphyry, as at Dannemora and
Garpenberg in Sweden. It is met with in veins at
Freyberg, Schneeberg, Johann-Georgenftadt, and Gerf-
dorf in Saxony.
MINERALOG Y.
Subfpecies
Part T. MINER
Claffiflca- Sahfpecies 2. CoNCHOfBAL HORNSTONE.
‘ t‘>on-
  Petr oft/ex Eouabilis, Wallerius i. 281. Le Hornjleln
Conchoide, Brochant, i. 258.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always found maflive,
and feems to approach in its characters very nearly to
the preceding variety or fubfpecies, excepting in the
fradture. which is perfectly conchoidal.
Localities, &c.—-This fubfpecies is found in beds and
veins, when it is fometimes accompanied with agate.
. It has been found accompanying gneis at Goldberg in
Saxony, and fine fpecimens of both fubfpecies ar^ met
with in the ifland of Rona near Sky in Scotland, where
it feems to forru a confiderab’e vein, traverfing a gneis
rock.
Subfpecies 3. W00DSTONE, or Petrified Wood.
Woodfione, Kirw. i. 215. Le Hol%Jlt-in, Brochant i.
259. ^uartes, Agathe Hy/oide, Hauy, ii. 43.9.
This fubfpecies poffeiTes more diilinCtive characters
than the former ; and as it feems to be wood, retaining
its original texture, converted into hornftone by fome
petrifying procefs, it is ufually found in infulated malTes,
or in rounded pieces. It has the external appearance
of wood, for the furface is rough and uneven, or lon¬
gitudinally flriated-, internally it is gliftening, but fome¬
times dull, having a vitreous luftre. The fraCture molt
frequently exhibits the fibrous texture of the wood.
The crofs fraCture is fometimes fplintery or imperfeCtly
conchoidal. The fragments are indeterminate, and {light¬
ly fharp-edged. The moft common colour is dark gray,
afh gray, grayifh, white, and fometiraes cochineal and
blood red. Different colours appear in the fame
mineral, forming fpots, clouds, or ftripes. It is com¬
monly tranflucent at the edges, fometimes entirely tranf-
lucent, and fometimes opaque. It is hard and brittle.
Localities.—Woodftone is met with in Bohemia,
Saxony, and Siberia, and on the banks of Loch Neagh
in the north of Ireland, particularly, as we have been
informed, near places where fome of the rivers difeharge
their waters into the lake.
Ufes.—This mineral is generally fufceptible~of a fine
polifli, and is therefore employed in jewellery.
29. Species. Flinty Slate, or Siliceous Schijlut.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies or varieties,
viz. common filiceous fchiilus, and Lydian ftone.
Subfpecies 1. Common Siliceous Schistus.
*»
Siliceous fchijhis, Kirw. i. 306. Schijle Jilicisux commun,
Brochant, i. 283.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes or
rounded pieces, and it is frequently tranfverfed by veins
of quartz of a grayifh white, or coloured red by means
of iron. This, it is faid, is a diftinguifhing charac-
terilfic of filiceous fchiflus rvhich it rarely wants (Bro¬
chant). Internally it is dull, very rarely a little glim¬
mering. The fraClnre in the fmall is compaft, fome¬
times fplintery, and fometimes imperfedly conchoidal ;
but in the great or large maffes it is flaty, a charader
which almoft always difappears in the fmall fragments.
The fragments are fliarp edged. The colour is blackifli,
greenifh, or fmoke gray. It is commonly opaque,
rarely tranflucent at the edges. It is hard and brittle.
A L O G Y. 165'
Chetn. Char.—Before the blow-pipe, gray filiceotw Siliceous
fchiflus becomes white and friable ; the black affumes a %er‘uc' ,
darker colour, and is a little vitrified at the edges,
Conjlituent Parts. Wiegleb.
Silica 75
Magnefia 4.58
Lime 10.
Iron 3.54
Inflammable matters 5.02
Lofs 1.86
100.00
Localities, &c.—Siliceous fchiflus is met with in Bo-
henna, Saxony, Switzerland, and Siberia ; at Leadhills
in Scotland, and alfo at Carlops, near the termination of
the great coal field to the fouth of Edinburgh-
The geological pofition of this flone is not pre-
cifely determined. In Scotland it is conneded with
thofe rocks u'hich come under the denomination of tran-
fition rocks; but according to different deferiptions it
feems to have been confounded with argillaceous fchif-
tus, with which indeed it poffeffes fome common pro¬
perties ; and fome mineralogifls regard it as an argil¬
laceous fchiflus, having a larger proportion of filiceous
earth. In fupport of this opinion, filiceous fchiftus has
been found in iituations where it is fubordinate to argil¬
laceous fchiflus.
Subfpecies 2. Lydian stone.
Bafanite, Kirw. i. 307. La Pierrede Lydie, Brochant,
i. 286. Roche Corneenne, Hauy, iv. 434.
This flone, which is of a grayifh, bluifh, or velvet
black, is found in maffes, and in rounded pieces of a
trapezoidal form, which are alfo traverfed with veins of
whitifn quartz. The external furface is fmooth and
weakly fhining ; the internal is glimmering. The frac¬
ture is even, fometimes flightly conchoidal or uneven,
rarely fplintery j in large maffes it is flaty. The frag¬
ments are fharp-edged, and fometimes affume a cubical
form. It is commonly opaque, and rarely tranflucent
at the edges. It is fcratched by quartz 5 brittle. Spec,
grav. 2.415 to 2.880.
Localities.—Lydian flone is found in fimilar places
with the former variety.
LJfes.—This ftone has been long known under the
name of Louchjlore, becaufe it is employed to afeertain
the purity of gold. From this ufe it obtained the name of
/Sckmvos or the trier, and it was called Lydian ftone,.
becaufe it was found in Lydia. When it is employed
as a touchftone, the gold to be tried is rubbed on its
polifhed furface j on the metallic trace which remains
nitric acid is poured, and the quantity of alloy is judged
of by the degree of change which takes place, this
being compared with traces made and treated in the
fame way with needles differently alloyed and prepared
for the purpofe. This teft, it is to be obferved, is not
perfeflly accurate, but is fufficiently fo for thofe who
are much employed in the ufe of it. The property
which renders this mineral fit for the above purpofe de¬
pends on its degree of hardnefs, while it prefents at the
fame time a fmooth and even fradlure without being per-
feflly fmooth. Other Hones poffefling fimilar proper¬
ties,..
165 MINE R
♦
Siliceous fuch as fcveral varieties of bafalt, are conveniently
, S^IH- employed for the fame purpofe.
30. Species. Flint.
Flint, Kirw. i. 3c T. Pierre a fujil, Brochant, i. 263.
^uart%-Agathe Pyromaque, Hauy, ii. 427.
Exter, Char,—Flint is found maflive, difleminated,
in angular fragments, in globular rnaffes, tuberculated,
and perforated. The furface is fometimes rough,
fometimes uneven, and fometimas fmooth. The white
cruft with which it is often covered, is confidered by
fome mineralogies as an incipient decompolition. The
external luftre is dull or a little glimmering $ the inter¬
nal is weakly Alining ; the fra&ure is perfectly conchoi-
dal, the fragments (harp edged. The colour is ufually
gray, fraoke gray, fometimes perfectly black. Various
colours appear in the fame mineral, prefenting fpots,
Itripes, and clouds. Commonly tranflucent at the edges j
fcratches quartz : fpec. grav. 2.to 2.99.
Chem, Cvfor.—-Entirely infulible before the blow¬
pipe.
Silica
Lime
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Conjiituent Parts.
KJaproth.
98.
.50
'251
.253
99.00
Vauquelin.
97
98
Phi/Jical Char.—Two pieces of flint nibbed together
in the dark, give out, like quartz, a phofphoric light.
Localities, &c.—Flint is never found in primitive
mountains, excepting in very fmail quantity, and very
rarely, in fome veins 5 in alluvial rocks it is fometimes
met with in rounded pieces; but it is moft abundant in
Gratified mountains, particularly in beds of limeftone,
marl and chalk, in which it is difpofed in parallel layers.
It is met with in Saxony, Denmark, Sweden, Poland,
and Spain, and is very abundant in chalk beds in the
north of France, and alfo in different parts of England.
It is alfo met with diftributed in layers in the white
lirneftone rocks, on the north coaft of Ireland. In the
department of Jura in France, globular maffes of flint
have been found with cavities containing fulphur.
The Angular geological relations of this mineral have
greatly puzzled nRturalifts, who are fond of fuch fpe-
culations, and are never fatisfied till they have accounted
for every thing, however fcanty and defeftive the data
Formation may be on which their hypothefes are formed. It is
•f flints, on this account that the theories which have been pro-
jpofed, to explain the formation of flint, offer nothing
more than the fillieft and mofl: groundlefs conjedfures ;
and indeed the fame remark is equally applicable to
theories of the earth in general. It has been already
obferved that flint is regularly difpofed in layers, in the
beds of chalk or limeftone in which it is found. In
an infulated mafs of white limeftone near Port Ruffi on
the north coaft of Ireland, which we had an opportunity
of examining, the balls of flint were difpofed in this
way with great regularity. When the* bed of lime¬
ftone is of no great thicknefs, it contains only one layer
of flints, but in thicker beds there are two layers of
A L O G y. Parti,
flints, the one near the top, and the other near the bot- Claflifica-
tom of the bed. Thofe layers of flint, too, it is to be tl0i,<
obferved, have exactly the fame inclination as the ftrata
of lirneftone. According to one fet of theorifts, the^yfae,
flint being in a ftate of fuflon, was ejected from the
bowels of the earth, and depofited in the places where
it is now found. ’Pais opinion carries along with it its
own abfurdiry •, for admitting that the flinty matter has
been in a ftate of fuflon, it is impoflible to fuppofe that
it could be depoflted with fo much uniformity and re-
gularity, by being projected according to the conjee-,
ture ot the philofophers who maintain this opinion.
Had th;s been the mode of its formation, maides of flint
would have been found throughout etvery part of the
chalk or limeftone beds, and not in regular layers, as is
really the cafe. 2l
According to another opinion, by which the forma-by water,
tion of flint is propofed to be accounted for, cavities
were produced, while the chalk and limeftone were
yet in a foft ftate, in confequence of the air extricated
during the evaporation of the water^and the flinty mat¬
ter in folutipn was introduced into thefe cavities by in¬
filtration from above. But the fame argument is equally
forcible againft this opinion. It is impoflible to con¬
ceive that the cavities could be fo regularly and uni¬
formly produced by the extrication of the air. They /
would have been found through every part of the beds
of chalk and limeftone where flint is met with. And
befides, even allowing that this flinty matter was held
in folution by water, it might naturally be afked, why
the greateft proportion of it was not depofited near the
furface, when it firft came in contact with the chalk
or limeftone', rather than to have continued to pafs
through the different beds, and form maffes of folid
flints at the greateft depths, in as great quantity as near
the furface. ^
A third opinion, which fome imagine to be lefs im-by marine
probable than either of the former, fuppofes that flints animals,
have been entirely produced by marine animals depofited
during the formation of the ftrata in which they are
contained. This opinion feems to derive fome fupport
from the remains of marine animals, which are not un-
frequently found included in nodules of flint. It is no
rare occurrence to meet with {hells thus attached to
thefe nodules, and converted into flinty matter, but at
the fame time retaining their original form and appear¬
ance in the moft perfeeft manner.
Efes.—The extenfive ufe of this mineral, in confe¬
quence of its property of ftriking fire with fteel, as
gun flints, is well known. Flints are employed alfo
as a fubftitute for quartz in the manufadfture of glafs
and porcelain, and in the fabrication of fmalt. The
coarfer kinds, or fuch as are perforated and ca¬
rious, are applied to the purpofes of building and
milftones. Sometime: the colours and the polfth of flint
are fo fine as to have brought it into ufe in jewellery.
As flints are found in greateft abundance in France Manufac-
ar»d England, the principal manufadfures of gun flintsture olfgrm
are carried on in thefe countries. A particular account
of this manufacture in France has been given by Do-
lomieu and Salivet, °jour. des Mines, N* 33, pp. 693
and 713. The whole procefs, which according to
the defeription of Dolomieu is divided into four ftages,
is very fimple.
I. After having fixed upon a mafs of ftone fit
for
Part I. M I N E U
Claflifica- for tlic purpofe, tlic lirft part of the operation is to break
tion. t}ie ftone into pieces of convenient fize. With this
' v view the workman, feated on the ground, places the
{tone on his left thigh, and ftrikes it with finall ftrokes,
to divide it into pieces of a pound or a pound and a half
weight, having large furfaces and fmooth'fraftures, and
at the fame time he avoids fplitting or {baking the ilone
by too feeble or too violent flrokes.
2. In the next part of the operation the niceft
management and dexterity of hand are required *, for
by repeated ftrokes fplinters of the proper fize to form
gun flints are detached*, one is feparated at every ftroke.
During this operation he holds the mafs of {tone in his
left hand. The fplinters are about l^- inch broad,
l\ long, and two lines thick in the middle. They are
{lightly convex above, and concave below j thick at
one edge, and thin at the oppofite edge.
3. The flint is brought to a regular ftiape during this
part of the operation j and,
4. The edge of the gun flint which ftrikes fire, is
brought to a ftraight line by placing it on a (harp iron
inftrument, and giving it five or fix fmall ftrokes with
a circular hammer (roulette). This finilhes the opera¬
tion, and the whole time of making a flint is not equal
to a minute. With maffes of ftone that work eafily, an
expert workman will prepare 1000 good fplinters in a
day. It requires another day to bring to the proper
fhape 500 ; fo that in three days he can fplit off from
the mafs and completely finifti loco gun flints.
31. Species. Calcedony.
This fpecies has been divided into two fubfpecies or
varieties; common calcedony and carnelian.
Subfpecies 1. Common Calcedony.
Id. Kirw. i. 298. La Calcedoine Commune, Brochant,
i. 268. Quartz Agathe Ca/cedoine, Hairy, ii. 425.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, in
rounded pieces, which are globular, reniform, botryoi-
dal, ftalaclitical, cellular 5 and fometimes alfo it is cry-
ftallized in the form of a cube, rhomboid, a Ample py¬
ramid with three and fix faces •, but thefe are fuppofed
to be p{eudo cryftals, or merely a cruft of calcedony on
the cryftals of other fubftances. The external furface
is moft commonly uneven, fometimes rough, and rarely
fmooth. External luftre is accidental: internal p-fim-
mering, rarely a little ftnnmg j fradfure even, fome¬
times imperfedlly conchoidal or fplintery *, fragments
{harp-edged.
Colour white, grayilh or bluifh white, yellowifti or
blackith : various colours appear in foots, clouds, ftripes,
and veins. Sometimes when it is cut it is iridefeent *,
commonly tranflucent, rarely femitranfparent. Harder
than flint. Brittle. Spec. grav. 2.600 to 2.700.
Chem. Char—Before the blow-pipe it is infufible.
Conjiituent Parts.
Bergman.
Silica 84
Alumina 16
A trace of iron —
A. L O G Y. 167
Localities, &c.——Calcedony is moft ufually met ft'ith Siliceous
in globular maffes in amygdaloid, as at Oberftein, in genus*
the duchy of Deux Fonts. It is found alfo in Saxony, 'w,"~v "" I'
Silefia, and Siberia, in Iceland and the Faro iflands j
in the north of Ireland 5 and in feveral of the weftern
iflands of Scotland. The cavities of the balls of calce¬
dony are often lined with cryftals of quartz and ame-
thyft.
f^j-.-yCalcedony takes a fine polifti, and is therefore
employed in jewellery.
2. Subfpecies. Carnelian.
Ld. Kirw. i. 300. La Cornaline, Brochant, i. 272.
^uart%-Agathe Cornaline, Haiiy, ii. 425.
This mineral is found in maffes, or diffeminated, but
moft frequently in rounded pieces of a globular, kidney
form, or ftalaftitical ftiape. External furface rough and
uneven ; internal luftre glimmering, or {lightly {Inning p
fra&ure perfe&ly conchoidal j fragments very {harp-
edged ; moft common colour blood red of various ftiades,
and fometimes reddifh brown or wax and honey yel¬
low ; femitranfparent, hard, and brittle. Spec. grav.
2*59 to 2.73.
Chem. Char.—Carnelian is jnfufible before the blow¬
pipe, but lofes its colour, and becomes white.
Localities, &c.—Carnelian is found in fimilar cir-
cumftances, and in fimilar places with common calce¬
dony, but is of lefs frequent occurrence. The fineft
earnelians are brought from the eaft, and thence they
are denominated oriental.
IJfes.—The carnelian is employed for the fame pur-
poles as common calcedony.
Obfervattons on Agate.—As common calcedony and
carneiian, along with jafper, conftitute the bafe of the
greater number of agates, it may be here proper to in¬
troduce a few remarks on the mineral fubftances which
are included under this name, and on the theories of
their formation.
The term agate is of very general application, com-Varieties
prehending numerous varieties, which are chiefly diftin-of aSatei
guifhed by the arrangement and difpofition of the co¬
lours with which they are marked, and from which
they have derived particular names. The following are
fome of the principal varieties of agate. 1. Fortification
agate, in which the different coloured ftripes aie ar¬
ranged in a zigzag manner, prefenting fomething of
the appearance of a fortified town. 2. Lavdfcape agate,
in which the colours and ftiades are fo arranged as to
exhibit the appearance of a landfcape. 3. Band or
ribbon agate, in which the various colours are difpofed
in ftripes or zones, which are ufually in ftraight lines,,
but fometimes concentric. To this variety of agate,
when the zones or ftripes are arranged parallel to each
other, and diftin&ly marked, the name of onyx was gi¬
ven by the ancients. The name onyx, which fignifies
the nail of the finger, is derived from the whitifti co¬
lour refembling that part of the body. They alfo gave
the name offarde to a variety of the fame ftone, of a
flefti colour, and afterwards the compound mmt fardo-
nyx was given to another variety, in which a whitiih
layer of the onyx, having fome degree of transparency,
covered another layer tof a fle fti red, the colour of which
latter appeared through the former in the fame manner
as the colour of the flefti appears through the nail. But
IOO
i68 MINE R
Siliceous in tne end, the name of onyx feems to have been ap-
, , plied to all {tones formed of layers of different colours.
4. MqfS' agate. In home varieties of agate filaments of
a greenilh or other colour, having the appearance of
fome fpecies o{ confervae or mufci, are obferved, and
thefe have been denominated mofs agates. Some have
fuppofed that thefe filaments have been real moffes or
confervae, enveloped by the liliceous matter. In fome
alio delineations of a brown or black colour^ exhibit
the appearance of trees or ftnubs. This dendritical ap¬
pearance is afcribed by fome to the infiltration of iron
or manganefe into the natural fiffures of the ftone. The
fined: agates of this variety, it is faid, are brought from
Arabia, by the way of Mocha, on the coaft of the Red
fea ; and hence they are known by the name of Mocha
Jlones. Befide thefe varieties, there are feveral others,
as tubular agate, when it is compofed of calcedony,
which feems to have been in the form of ftalaftites, and
afterwards filled up with a different mineral fubliance,
or at leaf! of a different colour •, clouded agate, pre-
fenting the appearance of clouds *, radiated ox Jle/lated,
when the different colours are arranged in rays ; breccia
agate, compofed of fragments of different kinds of agate,
and cemented together by filiceous matter, and confti-
tuting a real breccia ; fpolted agate, when the colours
are difpofed in points or fpots; petrified agate, w'hich
feems to have been wood penetrated with the matter of
agate j coral agate, having the appearance of coralloid j
jafper agate, in which the predominant part of its com-
pofition is jafper.
Formation The formation of agate has been the fubjeft of much
,©f agate, controverfy among contending theorifts ; for while one
party conceives that it affords the ftrongeft proofs of
being produced by means of heat, or from a ifate of fu-
fion, another party feems to be equally convinced that
it fupplies them with the moft certain evidence of hav-
25 ing been formed from an aqueous folution.
by fulion, Befide other ftrong obje&ions that might be urged a-
gainft the opinion of agate being formed from a date of
fufion, the uniformity and regularity in the arrangement
of the different kinds of matter of which it is compofed,
feem quite hoftile to it, and, excepting to thofe who are
previoufly prepoffeffed with fuch an opinion, will, we
prefume, appear altogether infurmountable ; for it is in¬
conceivable, that in a mafs of melted matter, whether
it have been in a ftate of fufion in the place where it is
now found, or projefted from the bowels of the earth
into the ftrata which are now its repofitory, while in a
foft ftate, could arrange itfelf into layers, fome of them
often extremely thin, and difpofed in ftripes, concentric
circles, fpots, while thefe various kinds of matter exhi¬
bit very flight {hades of difference in their conftituent
parts. It cannot even be imagined that all this could
have been effe&ed, even by the floweft and moft gra-
dual procefs of cooling.
by aqueous In accounting for the formation of agate by folution
infiltration, in water, it is faid that the cavities in the rocks which
contain agate, were formed in confequence of the evo¬
lution and extrication of air, while thofe rocks wrere in
a ftate of foftnefs $ and that the matter of which agate
is compofed, was introduced in the ftate of an aqueous
folution by means of infiltration. But obje&ions, equal¬
ly infurmountable, might eafily be adduced againft this
theory 5 and one of the firft that prefents itfelf is de¬
rived from the diverfity of matter depofited in xnaffes of
2
A L O G Y. Part I.
agate. This objedHon, indeed, is attempted to be ob- Claffiffca-
viated by fuppofing that the agate compofed of different ,;‘on• ,
kinds of matter was derived from different kinds of fuc- v
ceflive folutions : but this is only removing the diffi¬
culty a ftep fartlier ; for, can it eafily be conceived, that
a very thin layer of one kind of matter being depofited,
and this, let it be fuppofed, of a white colour, the folu¬
tion was changed, from which proceeded another thin
layer ; that the folution was again changed, and depo¬
fited a third kind of matter •, and after another change,
a fourth kind, or perhaps that the depofition of the firft
kind of matter again commenced^ But if infiltration
from an aqueous folution have really been the mode of
formation of this mineral, how comes it, it may be fairly
afked, that the depofitions from the different kinds of
folution have not been arranged, at leaft in the larger
cavities, in ftrata or zones parallel to the horizon j be*
caufe it feems natural to fuppofe that the depofition of
ftony matter, from a ftate of folution in water, would
be influenced by gravitation, and thus be horizontally
arranged ? We are awTare, indeed, of an objection
which may be made to this obfervation. It will be
faid, that the influence of gravity has in this cafe been
counteracted by the aClion of affinity between the ftony
matter in folution, and the fides of the cavity in which
the agate is formed ; but whatever effeCt this might
have in the fmaller cavities, its influence would be di-
minilhed in thofe of larger capacity.
To what wre have now faid on this fubjeCf, which, it
muft be acknowledged, is more curious than ufeful, we
fl .’l only add a circumftance which, fo far as we know,
has not been noticed by geologifts; but it feems to be
of confiderable importance in the eftabliihment or fub-
verlion of the theory of the formation of agate by means
of infiltration in the ftate of aqueous folution. It wall
be allowed, we prefume, that all agates found in the
fame horizontal pofition, or at the fame depth from
the furface, from which the aqueous folution is under-
ftood to have proceeded, were formed from the fame fo¬
lutions ; at leaft thofe agates which are contiguous to
each other, that is, within the fpace of a few yards, or
even of a Angle yard. Now, if this be admitted, all
the agates which have derived their materials from the
fame folutions, ought to be exaClly of the fame kind,
becaufe their origin is cotemporaneous, and it is derived
from the fame folutions. To afcertain this point with
precifion, it will be neceflary to examine agates in their
native repofitories ; and although we fhall not pretend
confidently to decide the queftion, becaufe our obferva-
tions with this view have not been fufficiently varied
and extenfive, yet w^e ftrongly fufpeft, that it will ap¬
pear, from future inveftigations, that agates, and even
fuch as are almoft contiguous to each other, have been
formed of very different materials, or of fimilar mate¬
rials arranged in a very different manner. To thofe
wTho are fond of fuch fpeculations we recommend this
as a fubieft of inveftigation.
Localities—'Agates are found in great abundance in
different parts of the world. They are fometimes di-
ftributed indiferiminately with the rocks which contain
them, fometimes in beds or layers, in interrupted maffes,
and fometimes in thin beds, where there is fcarcely any
interruption of continuity. This laft mode of arrange¬
ment, however, is rare. Aga’-es are fometimes found
in metallic veins, or are mixed with metallic fubftances,
as
Part T.
MINERALOGY.
169
Ciaffifica-
tlon>
#• An. du
Mufeum
b'Hijl.
Nat. ill-
53-
a5) the fulphurets of lead and filver. It would appear,
too, that agates alfo exift in primitive rocks. Sauf-
fure has obferved them in granite, containing no¬
dules of the fame granite, and penetrated with iron py¬
rites. He has obferved alfo at the fame place, near
Vienne, in the department of Ifere, thin layers of cal-
cedony alternating with gneis ; but porphyries and
fimilar rocks are the ufual repofitories of agate. Thefe
Hones are found in great variety and abundance at
Oberflein, in the department of Mont-Tonerre, in
France, in a rock of amygdaloid of a peculiar nature,
and full of cavities of all lizes. This rock is confidered
by Dolomieu as a volcanic tufa ; but according toother
mineralogifts, and particularly Faujas de St Fond, who
has given a minute defcription of it *, it is conlidered
as a porphyry or amygdaloid, with a balls of trap,
which is very fubiedl to decompolition. The globular
maffes of agate are difpofed in this rock without any or¬
der, and are ufualjy enveloped with a peculiar greenilh
earth, but which contains no copper. In the geodes of
agate found at Oberllein, jafper, amethyfl, carbonate of
lime in cryllals, chabafie, a fpecies of zeolite, and fome por¬
tion of titanium, have been obferved ; but not the lead
trace of any organized body. Digging, polifhing, and
forming into a great variety of ornamental pbjedds, con-
iiitute the chief employment of the inhabitants of Ober-
itein.
Agates are found in abundance in different parts of
Scotland : but the larged and fined are met with in the
neighbourhood of Montrofe and Stonehaven ; in the
rocks near Dunbar on the ead coal!, and in the rocks
about Dunure, on the (bore of Carrick in Ayrlhire.
32. Species. Hyalite.
Id. Kirw. i, 296. Muller’1 s glafs of the Germans. La¬
va glafs of many.
Eider. Char.—This fubdance is found in grains or
maffes, or in thin layers on other minerals. It has
much the appearance of gum, and is ufually cracked.
The ludre is finning and vitreous; fracture conchoidal,
fometimes foliated ; fragments diarp edged.
Colour grayilh white or yellowifh \ and, according
to Kirwan, pure white. Tranflucent, fometimes femi-
tranfparent- •, has confiderable hardnefs, and is brittle.
Spec. grav. 2.11 o.
Chem. Char. Infufible at x 50° Wedgwood, but melts
with foda.
Corjlituent Parts.
Silica 57
Alumina 18
Lime 15
With fome traces of iron
Localities, &c. Hyalite is found in rocks of amyg¬
daloid, or vvacken, near Franckfort on the Maine.
33. Species. Opal.
This fpecies is divided into four fubfpecies or varie¬
ties.
Subfpecies 1. Precfri'as Opal.
Opal, Kirw. i. 289. Il’Ohale Noble, Brochant, i.
341. ^uarrz-refinite Opalin, Hauy, ii. 434.
VOL. XIV. Part I. ■ '
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive or diffe- Siliceous
minated, and fometimes in veins; internal ludre fplen- Senns*
dent and vitreous ; fiabture perfectly conchoidal } frag- d" ' -‘
ments {harp-edged.
Colour milk-white, clear or pale, and fometimes bluifii
gray 5 and by holding it in different lights, a very bright
and varied play of colours, the principal of which are
golden yellow, fcarlet red, bright blue, green and gray,
is feen. It is commonly tranflucent, rarely femitranf-
parent ; pretty hard and brittle. Spec, grav, 2. 114.
Chem. Char.—The precious opal treated with the
blow-pipe fplits and cracks, and lofes its tranfparency,
but is not melted.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica, 90
Water, 10
IOO
Localities. The fined opals are found at Czerwenitza
not far from Cafchau in Upper Hungary, in an argilla¬
ceous decompofed porphyry, which according to fome
mineralogids is a gray done (graudein of the Germans),
and are difpofed in veins, neds, and grains. When
the opal adheres in frnall particles clofely together
in the done, it forms what is called mother of opal. It
is found in the fame manner in a kind of breccia of
this decompofed porphyry. (Townfon’s Travels in Hun¬
gary, p. 307.) It is found alfo at Eeibendock, Johann-
Georgendadt, and Frcyberg in Saxony. At this latter
place the repoiitory of the opal is porphyry. The opal
alfo is met wbth in Iceland.
The opal mines defcribed by Dr Townfon are fituat-
ed in a hill of fome miles in extent not far fr®m the
village of Czerwenitza. This hill has been opened in
feveral places, but in three with the greated fuccefs.
Guards are placed upon it to prevent any perfon from
digging this precious done; for as it is fituated in part
of the royal domain, the peafants who were formerlv
permitted to fearch for it on their own account are now
prohibited by the emperor. But even at the time Dr
Townfon vifited the mines the work had been difconti-
nued for three or four years as unprofitable. The ufual
mode of condu&ing the operations in fearching for the
opal is by quarrying to the depth of three or four yards,
rarely deeper. The rock is thus thrown out, broken
to pieces, and afterwards examined. In one place the
fearch had been made by mining •, but the gallery was
only a few yards in length. From this account it ap¬
pears that the rock containing the opal lies near the
furface, and feldom, it is faid, extends deeper than a
few fathoms. The opals denominated oriental by the
lapidaries, a term expreffive of their value rather than
of their origin, are fuppofed to be from thefe mines, in
which, according to records ftill in exiftence, 300 men
were employed not lefs than 400 years ago.
Ufes. On account of the fine play of colours, the
opal is held in great eftimation for the purpofes of
jewellery, and the opals which reflect green colours in
moft abundance are moff highly valued. The fineft
opals are called oriental; but this epithet is given by
the lapidaries to the more perfect precious Hones, and
is not to be underftood as denoting that they have been
brought from eaftern countries.
Y
The
i 7^
Siliceous
genus.
MINE R
The ancients, it would appear from the account of
Pliny, attached an immenfe value to this Pone 5 for he
informs us that a fenator called Nonius rather fubmit-
ted to banifliment than give up an opal which he had
in his pcffefTion to Mark Anthony. This opal was ef-
timated at 20,000 fefterces. Lib. xxxvii. cap. 6.
Subfpecies 2. Common Opal.
Semi opal, Kirwan i. 290. DOpale Commune, Bro
chant i. 344. Quartz rejinite Hydrophone et Quartz
rejinite Girafol, Hauy ii. 433.
Extcr. Char.—Common opal is found'in mafles, or
diffeminated, fometimes in rounded or angular pieces,
and fometimes kidney-lhaped or botryoidal. Internal
ludre fplendent, and intermediate between vitreous and
refinous. Frafture conchoidal, but fometimes uneven.
Fragments fliarp edged.
Colour milk white, and varieties of this colour held
in certain directions appear of a wine yellow'. The other
lhades of colour are yellowiih or reddifh white, and wTax
or honey yellow'. Semitranfparent and fometimes tranf-
parent. Specific gravity from 1.958 to 2.015. In other
characters the fame as the precious opal.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
melts with borax, and without fwelling up.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
From Kozemutz.
Silica 98.75
Alumina 0.10
Oxide of iron 0.10
Lofs 1.05
100.00
From Telkobanya.
Silica 93-5°
Oxide of iron 1.00
Water 5.00
Lofs *.
100.00
Localities, &c. The common opal is found in veins,
chiefly in amygdaloid rocks, and fometimes alfo, it is
faid, in granites and porphyries. It is of molt frequent
occurrence in Bohemiaj in Saxony, as at Freyberg, Ei-
benflock, &.c.; in Hungary, in Poland, in Scotland, and
the Faroe ifl inds. The amygdaloid rocks in the vici¬
nity of the Giants Caufeway in the north of Ireland al¬
fo afford a repofitory for this mineral.
JJfes.—It is employed as well as the former for
the purpofes of jewellery, but is efteemed of inferior
value.
It has been obferved of fome varieties of common
ppal that they are hydrophanous, that is, they poffefs
the property of becoming tranfpavent when immerfed
in water, a property which it is fuppofed depends on
the abforption of the water in the pores of the opal.
When fimilar varieties of opal are dipped in melted
wax, they are impregnated with it, and become in like
manner tranfparent, but on cooling resume tb:Ir opaci¬
ty. To fuch varieties De Born has given the name of
Pyrophane.
Subfpecies 3. Semi-opal.
Id. Kirwan i. 290. La Demi-opa/e, Brochant 5.
3 47- Quartz Rejinite Commune, et Menilite, Hauy
»• 433-
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes or
diffeminated, in angular fragments, ftalaClitical, botry-
A L O G Y. Part I.
oidal, or in fuperficial layers. Luflre glimmering or Claffifka-
fhining, and intermediate between vitreous and refi- bon.
nous. FraCfure conchoidal, and frequently even. Frag- ’—v——
ments fharp edged.
Colours extremely various, but in general duller and
lefs vivid than common opal. The moft predominant
are yellowifh, grayifh and reddifh white, more rarely
milk w'hite. Various colours are fometimes difpofed in
fpots, ftripes, and clouds. Tranflucent at the edges,
and fometimes, but rarely, femitranfparent. Pretty
hard and brittle. Spec. grav. 2.540.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
melts w'ith borax and without frothing up.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica 43.50
Oxide of iron 47.00
Water 7*5°
Lofs 2.00
100.op
Localities, &c. The femi-opal is found in the fame
places and in fimilar rocks with the common opal, as
in bafalt and amygdaloid, but chiefly in granite and
porphyry, and particularly in the veins of fuch rocks
containing filver.
Some varieties of pitch ftone have been ranked with
femi-opal by mineralogifls and menilite, a mineral to
be afterwards defcribed, has been alfo confidered mere¬
ly as a variety of it.
Subfpecies 4. Wood Opal.
Ligniform Opal, Kirwan i. 295. Opale Ligniformet
Brochant i. 350. Quartz rejinite Xyloide, Hauy ii.
439‘
Exter. Char.—This variety of opal is found in maffes
of different fizes, retaining the form and texture of the
wood which is fuppofed to be penetrated with the ftony
opaline matter, Luftre internally weakly mining,
between vitreous and refinous. Tranfverfe frafture
conchoidal, longitudinal frafture fhows the woody tex¬
ture. Fragments fharp-edged.
Colours grayifh and yellowifh white, yellowifh brown
and ochre yellow. Different colours are fometimes ar¬
ranged in concentric circles, in fpots, atjd ilripes. Often
opake, but rarely tranflucent except at the edges. In¬
termediate between hard and femi-hard. Brittle. Spec,
grav. 2.600.
Localities, &c. The wood opal is found at Pornick
near Schemnitz in Hungary, and at Telkobanya in the
fame country.
34. Species. Menilite.
Pitchjlone, Kirwan i. 292. Variety of flint of fbme,
and Semi opal of Klaproth.
Exter. Char.-fYhis mineral is found in tuberofe maf¬
fes, which have a fmooth ribbed furface, and are fome¬
times covered with a w'hitifh cruft. Internal luflre
weakly ihining. Tranfverfe fra£lure flat, conchoidal •, lon¬
gitudinal, coarfe, fplintery. Fragments fharp edged.
Chefnut brown colour, and marked with alternating
ftripes of pearl gray and reddifli brown. Tranflucent.
Pretty hard and brittle. Spec.gr. 2.185.
Confituent
M I N E H
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica ^ 85.50
Alumina 1 •
Oxide of-iron .50
Lime -5°
Water and carbonaceous matter 11.50
Lofs 1 •
100.00
Localities, &C. This mineral is found at Menil-
Montant, from which it derives its name, near Paris,
in nodules difpofed in interrupted {trata, in the middle
of a foliated, argillaceous fchiltus, which is interpofed
between the beds of gypfum.
35. Species. Jasper.
Jafper has been divided into fix fubfpecies, 1. Egyp¬
tian ; 2. Striped 5 3. Porcelain ; 4. Common j 5. Agate,
and 6. Opal.
Subfpecies 1. Egyptian Jasper.
Egyptian Pebble, Kirwan i. 312. Le Jafpe Egyptian,
Brochant i. 332.
Exter. Char.—This variety of jafper is found in
rounded pieces, which are generally fpherical, and
have a rough furface. External luftre glimmering or
weakly ihining ; internal weakly fhining. Fra&ure per¬
fect conchoidal; fragments lharp-edged.
The colours of this variety are difpofed in zones or
irregular ftripes, which are nearly concentric. Thefe
colours are yellowifh brown on a ground of chefnut
brown 5 ufually opaque, or fligbtly tranllucent at the
edges. Spec. grav. 2.56 to 2.6.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow pipe.
Localities, 6cc.—This mineral, as its name imports, is
brought from Egypt, where, as was obferved by Cor-
dier, it conftitutes part of a breccia which is entirely
compofed of fragments of liliceous ftones, immenfe ftra-
ta of which are found in that country, and the deferts
of Africa in the vicinity. The maiTes of jafper are
found among the fand which has been derived from the
decompofition of this breccia, and particularly near
Suez.
XJfes.—This variety, on account of its hardnefs and
beautiful colours, is in conliderable ellimation for orna¬
mental purpofes.
Subfpecies 2. Striped Jasper.
Id. Kirw. i. 312. Le Jafpe Rubane, Broch. i. 334.
^uartx-Jafpe Onyx, Haiiy, ii. 430.
Exter. Char.—This variety of jafper is found madive,
and fometimes forms entire beds. It has no luftre, ex¬
cept from the mixture of extraneous Jubilances. Frac¬
ture conchoidal, fometimes fplintery or earthy. Frag¬
ments Sharp-edged.
To the variety of colours of this mineral it owes its
name. Thefe are pearl gray, yellow-ifti and greenifh
gray, with (hades of red and blue, and thefe different
colours are arranged in ftraight or curved lines y gene¬
rally opaque, tranflucent only at the edges.
A L O G Y. 171
Localities, &c.—This variety of jafper abounds in Si- Siliceous
beria: it is found alfo in Saxony, in the Hartz, where , Se”us- t
it repofes on gray wncken 5 in Sicily ; and in the hills
in the vicinity of Edinburgh.
Subfpecies 3. Porcelain Jasper.
Pwcellanite, Kirw. i. 313. Le Jafpe Porcelaine, Broch.
i. 336. Thermantide Porcellamte, Hairy, iv. 510.
Exter. Char.—Ufually found in maffes or angular
pieces, in which rents or fiffures are often obferved, and
alfo in whole beds. Internal luftre glimmering or
weakly (hining ; refinous. Fra&ure imperfe£t conchoidal
or uneven. Fragments fharp-edged.
The colour exhibits great variety 5 pearl, a(h, yel-
low iftr and bluifh gray, wuth {hades of yellow', red, and
rarely green. The colour is generally uniformly the
fame, but fometimes it is ftriped and dotted, llamed and
clouded *, impreflions of vegetables of a red colour are
obferved qn the blue varieties, and the rents or fiffures
are of a red colour in the grayifti fpecimens j is entire¬
ly opaque ; pretty hard, and ealily frangible.
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a
black flag.
Confituent Parts. Rofe.
Silica, 60.75
Alumina, 27.27
Magnefia, 3.
Potaih, 3-66
Oxide of iron, 2.50
97.18
Lofs, 2.82
,5 100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is abundant in different
parts of Bohemia ; it is met xvith alfo in Saxony, in the
rocks in the vicinity of Edinburgh, and on the coaft of
Fife near Dyfart in Scotland.
This jafper derives its name from its fracture, which
refembles that of porcelain ; and as it is frequently
found in places where fubterraneous fires have exifted,
fuch as beds of coal which have been kindled by ac¬
cident, it is aferibed to their aclion j and according to
Werner, it is nothing more than a flaty clay altered by
fire.
Subfpecies 4. Common Jasper.
Id. Kirw. i. 310. Jafpe Commun, Broch. i. 338.
Exter. Char.—This variety is ufually found maflive,
fometimes diffeminated, or alternating in thin layers with
o*her ftones. Luftre glimmering or Ihining, between
vitreous and refinous. Fracture more or lefs perfedfly
conchoidal, fometimes fplintery or earthy; Fragments
fharp-edged.
Colours extremely various, exhibiting different (hades
of red, yellow, and black j and feveral of thefe are
united together, prefenting clouds, fpots, and ftripes.
Ufually opaque, or (lightly tranflucent at the edges.
Is fcratched by quartz. Eafily frangible. Spec. grav.
2.3 to 2.7.
Chem. Char.—Entirely infufible before the blow'-
Y 2 pipe.
Part 1.
I
172 MINERALOGY
Siliceous pipe. Its conflituent parts are extremely variable. The
ge”us~ , following were obtained by the analyfis of Kirwan.
Silica, 75
Alumina, 20
Oxide of iron, ^
100
Localities, &c.—This jafper is Very common in diffe¬
rent parts of the world j in Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary,
l1 ranee, Spain, Italy, Siberia, and alfo in Scotland, as
among the bafaltic rocks at Dunbar. It is dually
found in veins, efpecially inch as contain ores of iron.
It is often traverfed with veins of quartz, or mixed
with pyrites, lithomarga, femiopal, brown fpar, native
and vitreous iilver. It has been taken for the balis of
feme porphyries, but thefe turn out to be indurated
clay, pitch done, and horn done.
Subfpecies 5. Jasper Agate.
Extcr. Char.—This variety feems to be the fame as
that already mentioned under the name of agate jafper,
in fpeaking of agates at the end of the defeription of
calcedony. It is found maflive, and poilefles no ludre.
Fra (dure conchoidal, generally opaque, pretty hard,
and fometimes adheres to tiie tongue. The colours are
yellow'idr or reddifh white, which are difpofed in dripes
and circles.
Localities, &c.—It is met with in many places in
agate balls, in amygdaloid rocks.
Subfpecies 6. Opal Jasper.
Exter. Char.—This variety of jafper feems to poffefs
many common chara&ers with fome varieties of opal.
It is found madive. Internal ludre between vitreous
and reiinous, is diining or refplendent. Fra&ure con-
g choidal. Fragments very diarp edged.
Colours fcarlet red, blood red, brownidi red, more
rarely yellow. Colours difpofed in veins, fpots, and
clouds. Opaque, or tranflucent at the edges. Brittle,
and eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Hungary, in
Siberia, and other places, and is ufually in neds in por-
phyry.
Befide the localities of the different varieties of jafper
already mentioned, w'e may notice that it is met with
in Siberia of a white and bluilh colour. The hill on
which the fortrefs of Orikaia dands on the left bank of
the river Jaik, in the government of Orembourg, is en¬
tirely compofed of a pale green and deep red jafper,
difpofed in inclined beds ; and on the mod elevated
parts of the Altaian mountains, near the fource of the
river Korgou, a jafper has been difeovered of an ivory
white colour, which is remarkable for being penetrated
with black dendrites.
Efcs of jafper. — It is valued according to its hard-
nefs, the degree of polifh of which it is fufceptible, and
the beauty and variety of its colours; and it is employ¬
ed in forming vafes, handles for fwords and knives, and
other fmaller ornamental purpofes.
36. Species. Heliotrope, or Bloodfone.
Lleliotropium, Kirw. i. 314. VHeliotrope, Broch. i.
^uart%-jafpe Sanguiti, Haiiy, ii. 436..
Exter. Char —Heliotrope is found madive or in an¬
gular pieces j external ludre glimmering or ihining,
and refinous; fratlure conchoidal, fometimes uneven.
Fragments very diarp-edged.
Colour chiefly deep green, but of various fliades, with
fpots of olive and yellow, but mod frequently fcailet or
blood red : tranflucent at the edges : hard, ealily fran¬
gible. Spec. grav. 2.62 to 2.7.
Chem. Char.— Itntirely infudble before the blow pipe.
Localities, &c.— I his mineral was originally brought
fiom the eaft, -but it has flnee been found in Siberia,
in Bohemia, where it is met with in a vein, and in Ice¬
land.
Ifes.—It is employed for fimilar purpofes with jafper
or agate.
By many mineralogids this mineral is confidered as a
variety of jafper j hence it has been called oriental
jafper-, and it is fuppofed by fome to be a calcedony pene¬
trated with green earth.
37. Species. Chrysoprase.
Chryfoprafium, Kirw. i. 284. La Chryfoprafe, Broch.
i. 280. ^uartz-Hgathe Prafe, Hairy ii. 426.
Exier. Char.— This mineral is found maflive, or in
angular fragments : internal ludre rarely glimmering j
fraefure even, fometimes fplintery j fragments fliarp-
edged.
Cofeur apple-green, greenifli gray, or leek-green;
tranflucent, fometimes femitranfparent ; lefs hard than
calcedony and flint. Spec. grav. 2.25.
Chem. Char.—Infulible before the blow'-pipe, but
lofes its tranfparency, and becomes white.
Conf ituent Parts. Klaproth#
Silica, 96.16
Alumina, ,08
Lime, .82
O-ide of iron, .08
Oxide of nickel, 1.00
Lofs, 1.86
100.00
Localities, &c.—Chryfoprafe is found at Kofevnutz, in
Upper Silelia, in a mountain compoled of Terpentine,
afbedus, indurated talc, and lithomarga.
Efes.—It is employed for flmilar purpofes as jafper,
and it is greatly edeemed when it is of a fine apple-
green colour. It is faid that fome varieties of this mi¬
neral lofe their colour by being expofed to moidure, fo
that the jewellers, before ufing them, put them to the
ted, by keeping them for fome time in a mold place.
38. Species. Plasma.
Id. Broch. i. 278. Silex Plafrne, Brongniart, ii. 398.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found difleminated, in
rounded pieces, and alfo in angular pieces. Internal
ludre glimmering or w^ealtly fhining ; refinous. Fradiure
conchoidal, even, and fometimes fplintery. Tranflu¬
cent, and. fometimes even tranfparent in thin pieces.
Colour, various fhades of green j and fometimes differ¬
ent colours are difpofed in 'fpots, dripes, and points.
Nearly
Part I.
1.
Part I. MINER
Clairifica- Nearly equally hard with calcedony. brittle, and eafily
tkm. frangible.
V*^>  Chem. Char.—It is infufible before the blow-pipe,
but becomes white.
Localities, &c.—Itisfaidby fome,that this mineral has
only been found among the ruins of Rome, but accord¬
ing to Brongniart and others, it has been found in the
Levant, in Upper Hungary, and in Moravia, in a
mountain of ferpentine, where it is accompanied with
dint.
\Jfes.—It appears that this mineral was much em¬
ployed by the ancients for ornamental purpofes.
39. Species. Cat’s Eye.
. Id. Kirw. i. 301. VOeil de Chat, Rrochant, i. 292.
QnartK-Agathe Chatoyant, Haiiy, ii. 427.
Exter. Char.—This mineral, as it is brought from
its native country, is ufually cut and polifhed, fo that
its natural form is unknown 5 but it is fuppofed
that it is met with in grains or rounded pieces. A
mafs defcribed by Klaproth, which feemed to be in
its natural date, had a quadrangular form, a rough fur-
face, and confiderable brilliancy. The luftre is re-
fplendent and refinous. The crofs frafture is uneven,
the longitudinal frafture imperfedfly foliated. Frag¬
ments more or lefs fharp-edged.
The colour is greenilh yellowifh and fmoke gray, of
various (hades, and fometimes, but rarely, grayilh or
filvery white. It is tranflucent, rarely femitran(parent.
When it is cut, it refledls different rays of light by
changing its pofition, a chara&er, by which it is eafily
known. This is afcribed to fmall parallel fibres which
appear in the interior of the (lone. It is hard, eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 2.625 to 2.660.
Chew. Char.—It melts with great difficulty by the
adfion of the blow-pipe. Klaproth fubjedled it to the
heat of a porcelain furnace, but it was not melted ; it
only loft its hardnefs, luftre, and tranfparency, and the
colour became of a pale gray.
CsnJHtuent Parts* Klaproth.
Silica 95-oo 94-5°
Alumina t-75 2,0°
Lime 1.50 I*5°
Oxide of iron 0.25 0.25
Lofs 1.50 1.75
100.00 100.00
Localities.— Cats eye is brought from Ceylon and
the Malabar coaft, and alfo, it is laid, from Egypt and
Arabia •, but always in the poliftied ftate. The only
one known in its natural ftate was that above mentioned,
which was prefented to Klaproth by Mr Greville of
London.
XJfes.—This mineral is in great eftimation as a pre¬
cious ftone, and it is ufually cut for ring-ftones.
The name is derived from its pofleffmg the property
of refieding the light fimilar to the eye of the cat, and
hence the term chatoyant among jewellers, which is
expreffive of this effeif.
49. Species. Obsidian.
Id. Kirwan, i. 265. Iceland agate vulgo. DObJidienne,
A L O G Y.
Brochant, i. 288. Lave viireuje Objidienne, Hauy,
iv. 594. ,
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes, and
fometimes in rounded pieces. Luftre refplendent, vi¬
treous ; fradure perfedly conchoidal ; fragments very
fharp-edged.
The moft common colour of obfidian is perfedly
black, fometimes greeniftr and grayifh, black, blueifli,
greenifti and fmoke gray, and yellow7 and red, ac¬
cording to Humboldt \ moft commonly opaque, but
fometimes tranflucent on the edges. It is hard and
eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.348.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow pipe obfidian melts
into an opaque porous glafs, of a grayiih white co*-
lour.
Bergman
Silica 69
Alumina 22
Oxide of iron 9
Conjlituent Parts.
Abilgaard.
74
12
14
100
100
Defcotils.
Silica 72.O
Alumina I2.J
Lime
Oxide of iron 1 ^ 0
and manganefej
Potafti and foda 10.0
Lofs 3.5
Drappier.
74. 71.O
H- 13-4
1.2 1.6
3-°
3- 3
4- 5
4.0
4.0
6.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Iceland,-
in Siberia, in the Lipari iflands, in Hungary, in
Madagafcar, the ifland of Teneriffe, in Mexico, Peru,
and fome of the South fea iflands. Humboldt difcover-
ed a variety of obfidian in New Spain, which was
chatoyant in a confiderable degree. The obfidian from
Hungary is found in infulated pieces among detatched
maffes of granite, gneifs and decompofed porphyry.
Obfidian was long fuppofed to have a volcanic origin j
but it appears from the accounts of thofe who have
vifited Iceland, that it is not only found in the vicinity
of Hecla, but everywhere, diftributed like quartz and
flint j and befides it is not unfrequent in countries where
volcanoes were never known to exift.
XJfes.—The fine colour and bardnefc of this ftone
have brought it into ufe for ornamental purpofes.
Among the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians it was em¬
ployed as mirrors, fome of which,, it is faid, are fome¬
times (till found in the tombs of their ancient fovereigns
{Eaujas Miner, des Volcans, p. 308) \ and alfo for cut¬
ting inftruments as knives and even razors. Hernan¬
dez faw the Mexican cutlers make a hundred knives of
obfidian in the courfe of an hour. Obfidian, it is faid,
has alfo been ufed as mirrors for telefcopes.
41. Species. Pitchstone.
Id. Kirwan, i. 292. La pierre de poi», Brochant, h
3 ^3. Petroflex refniforme, Hauy, iv. 386.
Exter Char.—Pitchftone, which has received its
name
..I73
Siliceous
genus.
J 74
Siliceous
*• genus.
MINER
name from its refemblance to pitch, is found maffive ;
, fometimes in extenfive beds and veins, and alfo forming
entire mountains. Internal luftre Ihining and refinous.
Fragments fharp-edged. In coarfe and frequently fmall
granular difl:ifi6l concretions which have a fmooth fur-
face,
I he colours arc various fhades of black, green, brown,
red, and gray. Tranflucent, but commonly at the
edges only. Brittle, and rather eafily frangible. Spec,
grav. of pitchftone from Saxony, 3.314 ; of black pitch-
ifone from Arran 2.338 ; of pitchilone from Meiflen,
I.645, Klaproth.
Chem, C/z^r.—Fufible by the blow-pipe, and is con-
verted into a white porous enamel.
Conjlituent Parts of pilchjlone from Meijfen of an olive
green colour, Klaproth, Tranfl. ii. 207.
tion.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Oxide of iron
Oxide of manganefe
Soda
Water
Lofs
73
14.50
1
1
0.10
*•75
8.50
*•5
100.00
Localities. Sic.—Pitchftone is found in great abun¬
dance in Saxony, in Hungary, and alfo in Siberia. It
abounds alfo in Scotland, particularly in the ifland of
Arran, where it is met with in beds, but chiefly in veins
traverfing the ftrata in the lefs elevated parts of the
ifland. Pitchftoue alfo forms the bafis of a porphyry.
42. Species. Pearlstone.
Obfdienne Perlee, Brongniart, ii. 340. Lave Vitreufe
Per/c'e, Haiiy, iv. 495. Volcanic Zeolite, Fichtel.
Zeolitic Pitchftone of others. See Klaproth, Tranfl.
ii. 263.
Exter. Char.—Pearlftone almoft always forms the
ground or bafis of a fpecies of porphyry which contains
roundiflv or longifh veficuiar cavities. Luflre pearly.
Fra&ure feems imperfe£Uy conchoidal j but^ is not very
perceptible. Fragments blunt-edged.
Colour bluifh, afh, greenifli gray. Tranflucent at
the edges. When breathed upon gives out the argilla¬
ceous odour. Not brittle, but eafily frangible. Soft.
Spec. grav. 2.340 to 2.548.
Chem. Cliar.—Before the blow-pipe froths up like
zeolite, but is not fufed.
Confituent Parts. Klaproth, ii. 267.
Silica 75.25
Alumina 12.
Oxide of iron 1.60
Lime .50
Potaflr 4. r0
Water 4.50
Lofs 1,65
A L O G Y. Part 1.'
Localities, &c.—Pearlftone is found near Tokay in Claffifka*
Hungary, in ftrata alternating with thofe of argillaceous
porphyry, and containing in its veficles nodules of
oblidian j it is alfo met with in the north of Ire¬
land.
43. Species, Pumice.
Id. Kirw'an, i. 415. La Pierre ponce, Brochant, i. 443;
Ponce, Brongniart, i. 332. Lave vitreufepumicee,
Haiiy, iv. 495.
Exter. Char.—-This mineral is found maflive or dif-
feminated, and it is always of a porous or veficuiar
texture.
Luflre glimmering, or a little fhining and filky.
Fra61ure fibrous; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour grayifh whife, bluilh, or yellowifli gray. O-
paque, rarely tranflucent at the edges, fometimes femi-
hard, but generally foft, very brittle, and very eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 0.914.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe, and is
converted into a white glafs.
Confituent Parts. Klaproth, ii. 208.
Silica
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Soda of potafti
Lofs
77-5°
I7'J°
*•75
3*
•25
100.00
100.00
Localities, &c.—Pumiceftone has been fuppofed to
be a volcanic produdlion, becaufe it is found in the vi¬
cinity of volcanoes; the Lipaii iflands are almoft entire¬
ly compofed of it, and there it is accompanied with
oblidian. It is alfo found in Iceland and Teneriffe ; in
Hungary ; and on the banks of the Rhine between An-
dernach and Coblentz.
Wes‘—Pumice is very much employed in polithing
ft ones, metals, glafs, ivory, and in the preparation ef
parchment.
A rare variety of pumice is deferibed by Brongniart
in the form of vitreous filaments as fine as hair; the co¬
lour is a deep bottle green, and it melts by heat into a
white enamel. This pumice is fuppofed to be projected
from the volcano in the iile of Bourbon.
44. Species, Prehnite.
/</. Kirwan, i. 274. Brochant, i. 295. Preh¬
nite, Haiiy, iii. 67.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible byonediftinft line only, and
pretty clean ; electric by heat.
Exter, Char.— Prehnite is found either maflive or cry-
ftallizcd. The principal form of its cryftals is a four-fided
rhomboidal table, which is either perfedl or truncated
on all its edges, or a table with fix faces, and an equal
angle, or a large rectangular prifm terminated by a be-
velment which is fomewhat obtufe. The cryftals are ufu-
ally grouped together, and united by their lateral faces j
face of the cryftals fmooth ; external luftre (Lining;
internal weakly ftiining and pearly 5 principal frac¬
ture foliated, crofs frafture fine-grained uneven 5 frag¬
ments but little fharp-edged.
Colour
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
J75
Colour green, olive green, mountain green, and
greenifh white; femitranfparent, and fometimes tranf-
parent. Scratches glafs (lightly. Brittle, and eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 2.609 to 2.696.
Chem. t/iar.—Fufible before the blow-pipe, into a
white porous enamel.
Conjliiuent Parts.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Oxide of xrcn
Water
Magneha
Lofs
Haffenfratz.
5°.
20.4
23-3
4.9
•9
•5
100.0
Klaproth.
43-83
3°-33
l8-33
5.66
1.83
0.02
100.00
Localities.—Prehnite was brought firft from the Cape
of Good Hope, by Colonel Prehn, whofe name it now
bears. It is alfo found in France, as in Dauphiny,
where it exifts in veins. It is not unfrequent in dif¬
ferent parts of Scotland, as among the porphyry rocks
fix miles to the fouth of Paifley ; in the neighbourhood
of Dunbarton ; and in the rocks round Edinburgh.
45. Species. Zeolite.
This fpecies has been divided into four fubfpecies.
Subfpecies 1. Mealy Zeolite.
’Zeolite, Kir wan, i. 278. Im Zeolite Farineufe, Bro-
chant, i. 298. Mefotype, Haiiy, iii. 151.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive or difle-
minated, and fometimes it is branched or coralloidal,
and fometimes alfo it envelopes other zeolites with a
thin cruft. It is dull j fra£ture earthy j fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour ufually reddifh or yellowiih white, or flefti
red, opaque, very brittle \ does not adhere to the
tongue. When fcratched with the finger nail it gives
out a dull found.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Water
Pelletier.
50
20
8
22
'Localities, Sac.—This variety of zeolite is found in
Ireland, the Faro iflands, and Sweden. It is frequent
in different parts of Scotland, as at Dunbar, and feve-
ral of the Weftern iftands.
Subfpecies 2. Fibrous Zeolite.
Zeolithe Fibreufe, Brochant, i. 299. Mefotype, Hauy,
i. 151.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive, and
fometimes in rounded pieces, compofed of capillary cry-
ftals, divergent and radiating ; internal luftre glimmer¬
ing, or weakly (hining, pearly or (ilky $ fradlure fi- Siliceous
brous ; fibres divergent j fragments wedge-ftiaped. . gcmis'
Colour yellowiftr white, yellowffh brown, fnow white,
and fometimes honey yellow, tranflucent j. femihard,
brittle, and eafily frangible. Light.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Water
Lofs
Meye
4r
31
11
15
2
100
Subfpecies 3. Radiated Zeolite.
Zeolithe Rayonnee, Brochant, i. 301. Mefotype, Hauy,
iii. 151.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a
rectangular prifm; electric by heat in two oppofite
points.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive, but
moft frequently cryftallized : the primitive form is a
redtangular prifm with fquare bafes ; its common forms
are a reftangular prifm, truncated at each extremity by
a four-fided pyramid, correfponding to the lateral faces j
a four-fided reftangular prifm with two broad and two
narrow (ides, and alfo terminated by four-fided pyra¬
mids, or a four-fided prifm, nearly rhomboidal, the
two (harp lateral edges of which, as well as the two ob-
tufe terminal angles, are truncated. The cryftals are
united together in bundles j fo that the acuminations
only can be (een ; the cryftals are commonly fmooth
and fhining j the internal luftre is wreakly (hining and
pearly ; fradture radiated : the rays broad or narrow 5
fragments w7edge-(haped.
Colour yellowifti, grayilh, reddilh, and fnow-white j
tranflucent, fometimes tranfparent j femihard j fcratches
calcareous fpar j brittle, and ealily frangible. Spec,
grav. 2.0833.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it froths up,
gives out a phofphorefcent light, and is converted into
a porous enamel. With acids it forms a gelatinous fub»
(lance.
Confituent Parts. Vauquelin, *
Silica, 50<24
Alumina, 29.30
Lime, 9.46
Water, 10.
Lofs, I.
IOO.O®
Subfpecies 4. Foliated Zeolite.
Zeolithe Lamelleufe, Brochant, i. 302. Stilbite, Hauy,
iii. 161.
Fltfen. Char.—Fufible into a fpongy enamel, but not
eleftric by heat.
Exter. Char.—This variety of zeolite is ufually found
in amygdaloidal or globular pieces, and alfo cryftalliz¬
ed j primitive form of its cryftals is a rectangular prifm
with reClangular bafes } the ufual forms of its cryftals
arev
MINERALOG
are, a fl\ort equiangular fix-fided prifm with twro broad,
two narrower, and two very narrow faces ; a table with
fix equal faces, and a rhomboidal prifm. Surface of the
cryllals fmooth and ihining; internal luftre (hining
and pearly ; fradlure foliated j the plates mod frequent¬
ly curved with a fimple cleavage.
Colour fimilar to the former ; it is tranfiucent or
femitranfparent j femihard, and eafily frangible. Spec,
grav. 2.5.
Chem. Char.—Froths up and phofphorefces, under the
blow-pipe j placed on hot coals, it becomes white and
is eafily reduced to powder. It is not converted into a
jelly by acids.
Conjlitueni Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 52.
Alumina, 17.5
Lime, 9.
Water, 18.5
Lofs, 3.
100.0
Localities, &c.—The different varieties of zeolite are
ufually found in amygdaloid rocks, bafalts, porphyry,
Hate, wacken, and green ftone. They often line the
fides of fiffures palling through thefe rocks, and are
accompanied with calcareous fpar, calcedony, fome-
times with native copper and native filver, as in Ice¬
land. The finefi: zeolites are brought from the iflands
of Faroe, Iceland, Aodelfors in Sweden. The differ¬
ent varieties are not unfrequent in Scotland. The
fibrous and radiated kinds are met with extremely
beautiful in the iflands of Cannay and Skye •, the foli¬
ated or ftilbite in the ifland of Staffa, in Skye, and in
the lead veins at Strontian.
46. Species. CuBlZITE,
La Zeolithe Cuhique, Brochant, i. 304. Analcime, &
Chabajie, Hauy, iii. 180.
EJfeh. Char.—Original forms of the cube, fufible into
a glafs.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive or cry-
ftallized 5 the form of the cryftals is a perfedl cube,
which is its primitive form. This is lometimes truncat¬
ed on all its angles by three fmall triangular faces, or
with twenty-four equal and fimilar trapezoids like the
garnet. The external luftre is refplendent, vitreous, or
pearly. Internal Ihining or weakly {hining. Fracture
imperfectly foliated, almolt uneven. Fragments im-
perfeCt cubes.
Colour white, yellowilh, grayilh, or reddilh white.
It is tranflucent or opaque. Semihard. Spec. grav.
about 2 (Hauy'). Difficult to produce any figns of elec¬
tricity ; hence the name analcime, fignifying want of
powder, given to it by Hauy.
Chem. Char.—Froths up before the blow-pipe, and
melts into a porous glafs.
Localities, &c.—Cubizite is found in Skye, in Staffa,
and in the Salilbury rocks near Edinburgh. Fine fpe-
cimens of cubizite are abundant at the Giants caufe-
way in the north of Ireland. Chabafie is found
alfo at Oberftein in Germany.
By many mineralogifts chabafie and analcime are
confidered as one fpecies 5 but more nearly invefligated,
as has been done by Hauy and others, they mull ap¬
pear very different. The preceding defcription refers
chiefly to analcime. We lhall Ihortly ftate the princi¬
pal characters of chabafie from Hauy, iii. 176.
Ejjcn. Char.—Divifible into a rhomboid llightly ob-
tufe, and eafily fufible hy heat.
Exter. Char.—Chabafie is commonly cryftallized.
Primitive form of the cryffals is a {lightly obtufe rhom¬
boid, whofe plane angle at the fummit is about 03 i°,
fo that it approaches nearly to the cube ; integrant "mo ¬
lecule the fame. Six of the edges are truncated, the
truncations uniting three and three at the two oppofite
angles, and the remaining fix angles are alfo truncated.
It appears alfo in the form of double fix-fided pyramids
applied bafe to bafe, having tire fix angles at the bale, and
the three acute edges of each pyramid truncated.
Colour wdiitilh, fometimes reddiih, but this feems to
be owing to a fuperficial cruft. Luftre lliining.or re¬
fplendent and vitreous. Tranfparent or tranllucent.
Chem. Char.—Is eafily fufible before the blow-pipe,
and melts into a whitiffi fpongy mafs,
47. Species. Cross stone.
Staurolite, Kirwan, i. 282. Pierre Crucifonne, Bro¬
chant i. 311. Harmotome, Hauy iii. 191.
Ejjen. Char—Divifible into a reCtangular oCfahe-
dron, which may be/ubdivided on the angles contiguous
to the fummits.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always cryftallized.
Its ufual forms are, a double cryftal compofed of t.wo
broad prifms, with four red angular faces, and terminated
at each extremity by a four-ftded obtufe pyramid placed
on the lateral edges. Thefe two prilms crofs each
other by their broader faces, fo that the faces of the
acuminatum meet together, and the double cryftal thus
formed having four right-angled re-entering angles, re-
fembles a crofs. The cryftals are obliquely ftieaked.
External luftre Ihining and refplendent, vitreous. In¬
ternal weakly Ihining. Fradfure foliated.
Colour grayilh or milky white, tranllucent, fome¬
times femi tranfparent. Semi-hard, fcratches glafs {light¬
ly. Spec. grav. 2.333 to 3.61.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is fufible, and
froths up. The powder thrown on hot coals is phof-
phorefeent, giving out a greenilh yellowr light.
Conjliiuent Parts.
Klaproth. Taffaert.
Silica 49 47.3
Barytes 18 j6.
Alumina 16 19.5
Water 1 c 1-3. r
Lofs 2 3.5
100 100.0
Localities. This mineral has been found in veins at
Andreafberg in the Hartz, accompanied by carbonate
of lime, from which it is fometimes called andreolite.
It is alfo found in the lead veins at Strontian in Scot¬
land, and in balls of agate at Oberftein. In the latter
place, cryftals are fingle.
48. Species.
Part I,
Claffftica-
tion.
MINERALOGY.
Fart I.
Claffifica-
tion. 48. Species. LaumonitE.
Zeolithe Effiorefcente, Hauy, iv. 410. Id. Erochant, ii.
53°-
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes which
are compofed of irregular groups of cryftals eroding
each other in all directions. Form of the cryltals is a
four-fided prifm, nearly reClangular, and terminated by
a bafe inclined to one of the lateral edges under an
angle of 1330 ; frequently the acute angle is truncated,
and thus terminating in a bevelment placed on the a-
cute lateral edges. The lateral faces are longitudinal¬
ly ftreaked, and the luftre is {tuning. The faces of
the fummit are alfo (hining, but fmooth. FraCture fo¬
liated, and parallel to the lateral faces.
Colour grayilh white, fomewhat pearly. Is tranflu-
cent, rather foft ; feftile, and ealily frangible.
But all thefe characters are confiderably different by
the aCtion of the air. The whole mafs is gradually fe-
parated, and the cryftals become opaque, falling into
friable folia, which are in a fhort time reduced to a
fnow-white powder, from which it derives the name
given to it by Flauy.
Chem. Char—Fufible before the blow-pipe, without
frothing up, into a white enamel, and forms a jelly
with acids.
Localities.—This mineral was found in 1788 by
Gillet Laumont, in the lead mines of Huelgoet in
Brittany in France, and from him it derives its name.
It forms a fmall vein contiguous to the vein of galena.
We have collected fpecimens of a mineral, whole cha¬
racters in general correfpond with laumonite, in a vein
traverfing a bafaltic rock in the ifland of Skye. It feems,
however, to be lefs liable to difmtegration by expofure
to the air.
49. Species. Difyre.
Id. Brochant, ii. 508. Id. Hauy, iii. 242.
E/Jen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a re¬
gular 6-ftded prifm. Fufible with intumefcence.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in fmall fafcicu-
lar maffes or cryftals. Luftre (hining, vitreous. Longi¬
tudinal fraCture foliated.
Colour grayifti or reddifti white, and fometimes pale
role red. Semi-hard j fcratches glafs, and is eaftly
frangible. Spec. grav. 2.630.
Chem. Char.—Fufible. The powder thrown on hot
coals produces phofphorefcence.
Conjiituent Parts. Yauquelin.
Silica
; - Alumina
Lime
Water
Lofs
Localities, &c.—This mineral has only been found
at Maul eon, in the Pyrenees, in a rock of fteatites. It
was dilcovered by Lelievre and Gillet Laumont, in
1786.
Y01. XIV. Part I.
60
24
10
2
4
100
50. Species. Natrolite.
Id. Klaproth. Id. Brongniart, i. 370.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes, in a
rock of amygdaloid. External furtace fomewhat rough j
internal luftre glimmering j fraClure fibrous and radia¬
ted.
Colour brownifh yellow, inclining to olive, and dif¬
ferent colours appear in parallel and waved zones j is
tranflucent at the edges 5 fcarcely fcratches glafs 5 is
eafily frangible. Sp. grav. 2.16.
Chem. Char.—Is reduced by the blow-pipe to a
white glafs. Nitric acid produces no effervefcence,
but converts it in a few hours to a thick jelly.
Conjiituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica 48
Alumina 24
Soda 16
W ater 9
Oxide of iron 1.75
Lofs 1.75
100.00
Localities^ &c.—Natrolite has been found only at
Roegau, near the lake of Conftance in Switzerland, in
the cavities of an amygdaloid rock. The name is deri¬
ved from natron or foda, of w hich it contains fo large a
proportion.. 4
51. Species. Azurite.
Lazulite, Klaproth, Analyt. Effays, i. 170. Le Lazu-
lithe, Broch. i. 315.
Exter C/mr.—-This mineral has been found diffemina-
ted, maflive, and cryftallized in redlangular four-
fided prifms. Luftre glimmering and {hining. Frac¬
ture imperfeftly conchoidal.
Colour indigo, Pruflian, or deep fmalt blue; ftreak
lighter blue; nearly opaque, or tranflucent at the
edges ; hardnefs, nearly that of quartz. Brittle and
eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.— Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
lofes its colour, becomes earthy, and of a clear
gray. With borax it produces a bright yellow glafs.
Acids have a very feeble aclion upon it. Klaproth af-
certained that it is compofed of filica, alumina, and
oxide of iron ; but the quantity which he operated on
was too fmall to afeertain the proportions.
Localities, &c.-—This mineral has been found at
Vorau in Styria, in a rock of micaceous fchiftus, w^here
it forms, along with grayifti quartz and filvery white
mica, a vein of about half an inch thick.
52. Species. Lazulite.
Lapis Lazuli, Kirw. i. 283. La Pierre d'slzure
Broch. i. 313. Lazulite, Hauy, iii. 143.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, diflemi-
nated, and in rounded fragments; internally dull, and.
rarely glimmering. Fra&ure earthy, or fine grained
uneven; fragments {harp-edged.
Z Colour
f
P
A L G G Y.
178 MINE R
Siliceous Colour azure blue j opaque, or tranflucent on the
genus' edges ; hard, or femihard ; brittle and eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 2.76, to 2.94.
Chem. Char.—It retains its colour at the ternperature
of ioo° Wedgwood ; but with a ftronger heat froths
up into a yellowifh hard coloured mafs. By increaung
the heat, it changes to a white enamel ; with acids
after calcination, forms a jelly.
Conjiituent Parts.
Klaproth. Analyt. EJJ. i. 169.
Silica 46
Alumina 14.5
Carbonate of lime 28
Sulphate of lime 6.5
Oxide of iron 3
Water 2
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Perfia,
Natolia, and China, and it is fuppofed that its
repontory is among granite. It has been found alfo
in Siberia, near the lake Baikal, where it forms a vein
along with garnets, feldfpar, and pyrites. It is fre¬
quently mixed with pyrites, and a grayilh white feld-
Jpar.
U/es.—This ftone, when it is of a fine blue colour,
and free from white fpot<, is held in great eftimation
foy various ornamental purpofes; but it derives its
greateft value from its ufe in painting. The colour
which it furnifhes is called ultramarine. To prepare
it, the ftone is firft calcined, and then reduced to an
impalpable powder, which is mixed with a pafte com-
pofed of refinous matters, of wax and linfeed oil.
From this mixture a powder is obtained by walking,
which being dried affords the colouring matter. This
colour, when ufed in painting, is not fufceptible of
change.
53. Species. Hydrargillite.
Wavelitte of Dr Babington and others.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found cryflallized.
The cryftals are very minute, and are attached to
quartz, in tufts or bundles, which diverge from a com¬
mon centre. It is alfo found clofely compared to¬
gether, in the form of mammillary protuberances of the
lize of fmall peas, and adhering to each other. The
cryftals, when magnified, appear to be four-fided, and,
when broken, the fe&ion feems to be rhomboidal.
'J he cryftals have fometimes the appearance of fine
down, and fometimes are of the fize of a Bair. Luftre
filky.
The colour is white, with a lhade of gray or
green; ufually opaque, and fometimes femitranfpa-
rent. The texture is loofe ; but the fmall fragments
are fo hard as to fcratch agate. Spec. grav. 2.25 to
12.70.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe ; but
the cryftals, expofed fuddenly to ftrong heat, decrepi¬
tate.
97.6
96.13
Part I
Conjliiuent Parts.
Davy, Xicli. Jour. xi. 153.
Alumina, 70.
Silica, _
Lime
Oxide of iron,
Water,. 26.2
A portion of fluoric acid,
1.4
Gregor, ibid. xiii. 247.
58.70
6.x 2
•37
.19
3°-75
Localities, &c.—'This mineral was firft difcovered by
Dr Waved, in a quarry near Barnftaple. Mr Hatch¬
ett found it, in I79^> filling the cavities and veins of
a foft argillaceous ichiftus. It has fince been found in
Stenna-Gwyn mine, in the parifti of St Stephen’s, Corn¬
wall, where it is accompanied with fuljahuret of tin,
copper, and iron.
54. Species. Andalusite.
Adamantine Spar, Kirwan, i. 337. Spath Adamantin,
Bournon, Jour, de Phyf. 1789. Feldfpath Apijre,
Haiiy, iv. 362.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, and
cryftallized in redlangular four-fided prifms, the fum-
mits of which are obliterated. Luftre weakly Ihining
and refinous. Longitudinal fraflure foliated. Crols
fradlure a little fplintery. Colour reddilh brown or
violet 5 tranflucent at the edges. Very hard j fcratches
quartz, and fometimes even fpinelle. Difficultly frangi¬
ble. Spec. grav. 3.165.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Localities, &.C.—lifts mineral was firft difcovered by
Bournon in the granitic rocks of Forez, where it occu¬
pies a vein of common feldfpar. It has been found al¬
io in Spain, wioere it enters into the compofition of a
granite, and frequently contains fcales of mica. When
firft difcovered, it was fuppofed to be a variety of ada¬
mantine fpar or corundum ; but its inferior fpec. grav.
and the difference in the ftruflure of its ciyftals, afford
fufficient charafteriftic differences.
55. Species. Feldspar.
This fpecies is divided into the five following fubfpe-
cies : 1. Adularia. 2. Labradore ftone. 3. Common
feldfpar. 4. Compact feldfpar. 5. Hollow fpar.
Subfpecies 1. Adularia.
%
Moonjlone, Kirwan, i. 322. VAdulaire, Brochant,
i. 371. Feldfpath Nacre, Haiiy, ii. 606.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive or cry¬
ftallized. The forms of its cryftals are, 1. A four-fided
rhomboidal prifm. 2. A perfeft rhomb, more or lefs
oblique. 3. A reft angular four-fided table, with ob¬
lique terminal faces. 4. A fix-fided prifm. 5. A fix-
fided table. Surface of the cryftals fmooth or longitu¬
dinally ftreaked. Luftre ftiining or refplendcnt. Inter¬
nal luftre refplendent, vitreous, or pearly. Frafture
foliated. Cleavage double. Fragments rhomboidal.
Colour yellowiffi, greenifti, or milk-white : is fome¬
times.,
>
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
Claffifica- times chatoyant. Is always tranflucent; fometimes fe-
tl0n* mitranfparent. Hard j fcratches common feldfpar.
y “ Brittle, and eafily frangible. Spec. gray. 2.500 to
Chew, Adularia before the blow-pipe cracks
and fplits, and then melts into a white glafs.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Potafh
Magnelia
Oxide of iron
Sulphate of barytes
Water
Lofs
Csnjlituent Paris.
Vauquelin.
64
20
14
Weftrumb.
62.50
6.50
6.
1.40
2.
•25
3-85
100.00
Localities,&LC.—This mineral was firfl found by Pi-
ni in one of the fummits of St Gothard in Switzerland j
this fummit is called Adula, and from this it takes its
name. It is faid that it forms particular beds, inter-
pofed between micaceous fchiltus and gneis. It is ac¬
companied with quartz, mica, and common feldfpar.
Subfpecies 2. Labradore Stone.
Id. Kirwan, i. 324. La Pierre de Labrador, Bro-
chant, i. 369. Feldfpath Opalin, Haiiy, ii. 607.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, and in
rounded pieces. Internal luftre (hining, fometimes re-
fplendent ; pearly, or vitreous. Fradlure perfectly fo¬
liated, with a double cleavage.
Colour, molt commonly dark or deep alh gray ;
but by varying its pofition it reflects difterent colours,
as blue, green, yellow, brown, and red *, and thefe
colours exhibit ftripes, fpots, and dots. It is itrongly
tranflucent. Spec. grav. 2.6 to 2.7.
Chetn. Char.—Before the blow-pipe fufible into a
white enamel.
Conjlituent Parts. Bindheim.
Si lie ecu*
Subfpecies 3. Common Feldspar. genus-
Id. Kirwan, i. 316. Le Feldfpath Cotntnun, Brochant,
i. 362. Feldfpath, Hairy, ii. 590.
Exter. Char.—Feldfpar is . found maflive, difleminat-
ed, in rounded pieces, or cryllallized. Its forms are,
I. A broad fix-fided prifm with unequal angles, termi¬
nated at each extremity by an obtufe bevelment, whofe
faces are placed on the twro lateral edges. 2. A four-
fmed rhomboidal prifm. 3. A four-fided redtangular
prifm, having the lateral edges fometimes truncated j
and 4. A flx-fided table. Double cryftals are fome-
tiraes met wdth. Luftre (hining ; internal luftre alfo
Alining, fometimes reiplendent, vitreous or pearly.
Fra&ure perfectly foliated •, fragments rhomboidal.
Colours milk-white, yellowilh, grayiflr, reddifh, and
greeniflr. Tranflucentj fcratches glafs; brittle, and
ealily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.437 to 2.704*
Chem. Char.—Before the blowT-pipe melts into a
white glafs.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Potaih,
Barytes,
Magnefia,
Lofs,
Confituent Parts.
Vauquelin-
62.83
17.2
3*
1.
I3-
Kirwan.
67
14
3* *5
100.00
11
8
100
Chenevix.
64.
24.
6.25
3*75
100.00
Localities, &c.—Feldfpar is one of the mod common
fubftances, and the moft univerfally diftributed in na¬
ture. It does not exift, howrever, in large maffes. It
forms one of the component parts of granite, gneis, fye-
nite, and porphyry.
When expofed to the aftion of the air, it is very li¬
able to decompofition, and then it is converted into a
white earthy mafs, which is employed in the manu-
fadlure of porcelain. This is the kaolin of the Chi-
nefe.
Silica, 69.5
Alumina,
Sulphate of lime, I 2.
Oxide of copper, .7
Oxide of iron, .3
Lofs, 3.99
100.00
Localities, &c.—This done was firft brought from the
ifland of St Paul, near the coaft of Labradore, whence
its name. It has been fmee found in Bohemia, and
near the lake Baikal in Siberia. It is rarely found in
its native repofitory, but it is fuppofed to belong to pri¬
mitive rocks ; for it is accompanied with fchorl, mica,
and hornblende.
Vfes.—The brilliancy of its colours, and particularly
its chatoyant properly, have brought it into ufe in jewel-
lery.
Subfpecies 4. Compact Feldspar.
Continuous Feldfpar, Kirw. i. 323. Le Feldfpalh Com-
paFle, Broch, i. 367. Feldfpath Compacie Bleu, Haiiy,
ii. 605.
Exter Char.—This variety is found maflive, and al¬
fo in rounded pieces. Luftre weakly (hining, or only
glimmering. Fraftiwe imperfeftly foliated, fometimes
fplintery. Fragments not very (harp edged.
Colour bluifli white, greenifti or yellowifti ; tranflu¬
cent, but fometimes only at the edges. Streak white ;
is fcratched by quartz.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe.
Localities, &c.—Compaft feldfpar is found in Sax¬
ony, and in the Tyrol. It is not uncommon in Scot¬
land. as in the Grampian mountains, on the Pentland
hills, and Saliibury. rocks in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh. The cryftals of feldfpar obferved in an-
Z 2 tique
18o
Siliceous tique green porphyry, are fuppofed to belono- to this
SenU3, variety.
M I N E R A L O G Y.
57. Species. Arctizite.
Part T.
Species 5. Hollow Spar, or Chiajlolite.
Mac/e, Broch. ii. 514. Id. Hauy, iii. 267.
FJfen. Char.— Divifions parallel to the faces of a
prifna, llightly rhomboidal. A black fubftance fur-
rounded by aiiother of a whitifh colour.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been found only cry-
flallized in four-fided, nearly reftangular prifms. The
fummit is always broken, by which the arrangement of
the two fubftances is obferved. The white part is the
outermoft ; the black matter forms in the centre a fmall
prifm, whofe fides correfpond wuth tliofe of the outer
cryflal. From the angles of the central prifm proceed
four narrow lines, which extend to each of the angles
of the outer prifm 5 and fometimes this black fubffance
forms at the extremity of thefe lines, or in the angles
of the large prifm, a fimilar fmall prifm of black mat¬
ter. The black matter is an argillaceous fchiftus, fimi¬
lar to the repofitory of the cryltals. The white part
is fometimes weakly fhining ; internal luftre glimmer¬
ing, refinous. The black part is nearly dull. Frasflure
foliated ; the black part earthy.
The colour of the white part, yellowifh, or grayifh
white •, that of the black part, grayiih, or bluifh black.
Opaque, or tranfiucent. Semihard, fcratching glafs
when foliated. Streak white. Brittle ; not very fran¬
gible. Spec. grav. 2.944. Communicates to fealing
wax, negative eleftricity by friftion.
Chem. Char.— Before the blow-pipe, the white part
melts into a whiter glafs $ the black part into a black
glafs.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in Brit¬
tany in France, imbedded in argillaceous fchiftus; in the
Pyrenees, in a fimilar rock, lying immediately on gra¬
nite, near St Jacques de Compoftella in Spain ; and in
the mountains of Cumberland, alfo imbedded in argil¬
laceous fchiftus.
The name chiajlolite is derived from the appearance
of the feftion of the cryftal, which is fuppofed to have
fome refemblance to the Greek letter
56. Species. Scapolite.
Scapolithe, Brochant, ii. 526. Id. Haiiy, iv. 292. Rapi-
do lithe, Abilgaard.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been found maffive,
but moft frequently cryftallized in reftangular, four-
fided prifms, having the lateral edges truncated. The
cryftals are fmall, fometimes acicular, commonly elon¬
gated and aggregated. Their furface is longitudinally
ftreaked and glimmering. Internal luftre w’eakly thining,
vitreous or refinous. Frafture foliated.
Colour grayifti white ; tranfiucent, or rarely tranfpa-
rent. Scratches glafs, and is brittle. Spec. grav. 3.68
to 3.70.
Chem. Char.—Froths up before the blow-pipe, and
melts into a white enamel.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in the
mines of iron ore near Arendal in Norway. The cryftals
are mixed with mica and calcareous fpar.
Wernerite, Hairy, iii. 119. Id. Brochant, ii. 529.
EJfen. Char.—Spec. grav. 3.6. Phofphorefcent by
heat, but not by percufiron.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maftive, or cry¬
ftallized in four-fided re&angular prifms, termina¬
ted by an obtufe four-fided pyramid. The lateral
edges are truncated, fo that the prifm appears to be
eigbt-fided. Cryftals fmall ; luftre refplendent, fome¬
times weakly ftrining, and pearly or refinous. Fradlure
foliated. Folia curved in two direflions.
Colour between piftachio green and ifabella yellow.
Tranflucent. Scratches glafs, and ftnkes fire with fteel.
The powder thrown on hot coals phofphoreices in the
dark.
(‘hem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it froths up, and
eafily melts into an imperfect, white, and opaque ena¬
mel. Infoluble in nitric acftd.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in the iron
mines of Northo and Ulrica in Sweden, Bouoen
near Arendal in Norway, and at Campo Longo in
Switzerland.
58. Species. Diaspore.
Id. Brochant, ii. 507. Id. Hairy, iv. 358.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is of a gray colour.
Luftre ftiining, pearly. Fra&ure foliated, with the
folia a little curved ; feparates into rhomboids, with
angles about 130® and 50°; fcratches glafs. Spec. grav.
3-43 2.
Chem. Char.—A fragment of this ftone heated for
a little in the flame of a candle decrepitates and dif-
perfes in all diredfions ; from this property it obtained
its name, which fignifies to dijperfe. Heated in a clofe
crucible to prevent the fragments from flying off, they
were reduced to white ihining particles, fomewhat re^-
fe.mbling boracic acid.
Conjiituent parts.
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Water
Vauquelin.
80
3
17
100
Localities, &c.—The repofitory of this mineral is
unknown. It was connected with an argillaceous
ochrey rock.
This mineral approaches nearly to hydrargillite or
waveliite, deferioed above, in its conftituent parts;
but the proportions and fome of the external cha-
ra&ers are different.
59. Species. Spodumene.
Id. D’Andrada, Jour, de Phyf. an 8. p. 240. Triphane,
Hairy, iv. 407. Id. Brochant, ii. 528.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in fmall maffes,
which prefent fome appearances of cryftallization. Luf¬
tre fhining, pearly. Fradure in the* mais radiated, of
Angle
Part T.
Giafilfica-
tion.
MINERALOGY.
{ingle cryflals foliatecl and diviable in three dire&ions,
which fotnetimes aff rd an oblique angled prifm of
about too0 and 8o°. Oofs fra&ure dull, rough, and
fplintery. In larger maifes the fracture is radiated.
Luftre ihining pearly. Scratches glafs.
Colour greenifli white or leek green. Tranfluccnt
at the edges. Brittle. Spec. grav. 3.192 to 3.218.
Chem. Char.— Before the blow-pipe it feparates at firft
into fmall yellowilh plates, and then melts into a gray-
ifh white tranfparent glafs.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.'
Silica 56.5
Alumina 24
Lime 5
Oxide of iron 5
Lofs 9.5
IOO.o
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in the
mines of Utoe near Dalero in Sweden. Its repofitory
feems to be a vein, w'here it is accompanied with quartz
and black mica.
The name triphane has been given to this mineral
by Hauy from its peculiar three-fold natural divifions.
It received the name fpodumene, which lignifies cover¬
ed with ajises from D’Andrada.
60. Species. Meionite.
Id. Hauy ii. 586. Id. Brochant ii. 519.
Effen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a
prifm with fquare bafes. Eafily fufible into a fpongy
white glafs.
Exter. Char.— It is found cryfhillized in four-fided
re&angular prifms whofe lateral edges are always trun¬
cated. It is terminated by an obtufe four-fided pyramid
fet on the lateral edges. Sometimes the lateral edges
are doubly truncated, thus forming a fixteen-fided
prifm. The cryftals are fmall, adhering laterally and
arranged in rows to the matrix. Luftre ftiining, vitreous.
Longitudinal fradlure foliated, and parallel to the four
faces of the prifm. Crofs fra&ure {lightly conchoidal.
Colour grayifti white. Semi-tranfparent. Scratches
glafs.
Chem. Char.—Melts very eafily before the blow-pipe
with confiderable intumefcence accompanied with a bif¬
fing noife.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has only been found
on Vefuvius near Mount Somma. The cryftals are
ufually attached to fragments of foliated limeftone.
rent. The lharp points fcratch glafs, the others leave
only a white trace. Eafily frangible. Specific gravi- .  k
ty 3.2441.
Chem. Char.—Funble into a glafs by long continued
heat. Becomes opake in nitric acid, hence the name
nepheline, fignifying cloudij, given to it by Hauy.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica 46
Alumina 49
Lime 2
Oxide of iron 1
Lofs 2
100
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found lining the
cavities of rocks on Mount Somma, from whence its
name fommite. It is accompanied with vefuvian and
black fchorl, all which are fuppofed by fome to be ejec¬
ted matters from Vefuvius.
62. Species. Ichthyophthalmite.
Id. D’Andrada. Ichthijophthalme, Brochant, ii. 552.
Slpoplujllite, Hauy. Id. Brongniart, i. 385.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, and
cryftallized in rhomboids which approach nearly to
the cube ; in thick fix-fided tables, and in rectangular
four-fided tables, with truncated edges. Luftre ftiin-
ing, pearly. Frafture foliated 5 cleavage fingle ; crofs
fra6ture fine grained uneven, and weakly ihining.
Colour yellowifh or greenifh w hite ; tranflucent or
femitranfparent. Scratches glafs j not eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 2.46.
Chem. Char.—Expofed to the blow-pipe, is with
difficulty reduced to a white enamel. In nitric and
muriatie acids it forms a jelly.
Conjlituent Parts. Fourcroy and Vauquelin-
Silica, 51
Lime, 28
Potafti, 4
Water, 17
100
Localities, &c This mineral is found in the iron
mine of Utoe in Sweden, imbedded in a violet-colour¬
ed limeftone, and accompanied with greenilh hornblende
and oxide of iron.
IV. ARGILLACEOUS Genus.
61. Species. SOMMITE.
Nepheline, Hauy iii. 186. Id. Brochant, ii. 522.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the fides and bafes
of a regular fix-fided prifm. With difficulty fcratches
glafs.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found diffeminated in
grains or in fmall cryftals, which are commonly perfect
fix-fided prifms. The lateral faces are fmooth and
fiiining, with a vitreous luftre. Longitudinal fraflure
foliated. Crofs frafture conchoidal and Alining. Co¬
lour grayifti white. Tranflucent, rarely femitranfpa-
1. Species. Native Alumina.
Native Argil, Kirw. i. 175. DAlumine Pure, Bro- •
chant, i. 318.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in kidney-form'
mafles j it has no luftre j fradlure earthy j fragments
blunt edged.
Colours fnow or yellowiffi white; opaque j ftains a
little ; tender or friable j adheres a little to the tongue,
feels meagre j gives out an earthy fmell when breathed
on.- Spec. grav. 1.30540 i.6<5»
Chem,.
M I N E R A
182
ous’lcnu'" c 9,ns'n‘ Char.*—Before tiie blow-pipe is abfolutely in-
V—fufible, but difiblves almoft entirely in acids.
LOGY.
SubfpecieS I. Loam.
Conjlituent parts. Fourcroy.
Alumina
Sulphate of lime 24
Water 27
Lime and filica 4
100
Eut according to the analylis of others, it is compofed
almoft entirely of pure alumina, mixed only with a
hnall proportion of lime and lilica.
Localities, &c.—It is found at Halle in Saxony, in
part of tne garden belonging to the college, immediate¬
ly under the foil5 but being only in fmall quantity, and
in the neighbourhood of a large laboratory, has led to
the luppofition that it is an artificial prodmfHon. It
is faid that it has been alfo found at Magdeburg
in Lower Saxony, in Silefia, near Verona, and in
England.
2. Species. Porcelain Earth,
Exter. Char.— This mineral is found rnailive and in
great abundance ; ha? no luftre ; fradlure uneven or
fine earthy ; fragments very blunt-edged 5 has little
coherence ; Rains.
Colour yellowilh-gray, or fpotted with yellow and
brown, feels fomewhat greafy, and adheres Rrongly to
the tongue.
Localities, &c.—Loam is found in great abundance
every where, and perhaps it ought to be confidered as
a mixture of different fubftances, rather than as a Am¬
ple mineral.
Subfpecies 2. Pipe Clay.
Exter. Char.— Phis variety is found in great maffes j
has fcarcely any lull re ; fra&ure fine earthy, or fine
grained uneven ; fragments fharp-edged ; has fome co¬
herence.
Colour grayifh or yellowilh white ; ftreak fliining ;
feels greafy, adheres itrongly to the tongue, and is eafily
frangible.
Localities, &cc.—It is very abundant in moft countries,
and is ufually found in alluvial land.
Porcelain clay, Kirw. i. 178. La Terre Porcelaine, e ur •
Brochant, i. 320. 4rgile Kaolin, et Felclfpath Ar- Subfpecies 3. Potters Clay."
gill forme, Haiiy, ii. 616. LI. Kirw. i. 180. Argile a Potier, Brochant, i. 322,
Exter. Char.—T his mineral is found maffive, or dif-
jemmated •, has no luftre ; Rains Rrongly 5 has little co-
iierence j adheres a little to the tongue.
Colour reddifli, yellowifli, or grayiRi white.
Cnem. Char.—Infufible in the flrongefl heat of a
furnace.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelirt.
55- 71.1?
27. 15.86
2. 1.92
•5
,4* 6.73
I-5 4-34
100.0 100.00
Localities, &c.— Phis mineral is found in confider-
aole abundance in beds and veins, in granite and gneis,
efpecially when the proportion of feldfpar is confider-
able. It abounds in China and Japan, where it is
known by the name of kaolin j in Bohemia, Saxony,
Denmark, and particularly in many places of France,
as at Limoges and Bayonne, and in Cornwall in Eng’-
land. In many cafes it feems to be owing to the decom-
pofition of granite.
-Porcelain earth, as its name imports, is em¬
ployed either as it is found native, or mixed in certain
proportions with other earths, in the manufadlure of por¬
celain. Ihat from Limoges in France is employed
without any addition.
3. Species. Common Clay.
Phis fpecies is divided into five fubfpecies : 1. loam*
2. pipe clay ; 3. potters clay ; 4. variegated clav j and
5. Aaty clay.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Oxide of iron
Water
Lofs
Exter. Char.— Ihis variety is alfo found maflive, and
in great abundance. It is intermediate between folid
and friable ; has no luflre } fra£lure fine grained ear-
tny, fometinaes coarfe grained uneven j fragments blunt-
edged.
. Colour yellowifli, greeniRi, or grayiRi white ; feme-
times reddiRi or ochrey yellow of various Riades. It
is opaque, Rains a little ; Rreak a little fliining 5 very
brittle, and eafily frangible j is fomewhat du&ile ; ad¬
heres a little to the tongue, and feels greafy.
. Chem. Char.—Is differently affedted by the blow¬
pipe, according to the proportion of the different fub-
flances of which it is compofed ; but in general is diffi¬
cult of fufion. Effervefces with acids when the pro¬
portion of lime is confiderable.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Oxide of iron
Water
Lofs
Vauquelin.
43-5
33-2
3-r
I.
18.
.8
100.0
The proportions of filica and lime vary confider-
ably j the filica is very often the predominant ingredi¬
ent. Kirwan examined a potters clay, in which he
found 63 parts of filica.
Localities, &c.—Potters clay is found in great abun¬
dance in mofl countiier, and in fimilar fituations with
the former. It often forms thick beds in alluvial land,
alternating with beds of fand.
Subfpecies 4. Variegated Clay.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive. Has
an
Part I.
CJaflifica-
tion.
3
Part I. ' MINERALOGY.
18
Clafflfica- an earthy fra&ure, a fhining ftreak, and is foft or fri-
able.
~ The colour is white, red, or yellow’, and thefe dif¬
ferent colours are fometimes in ftripes, veins and fpots.
Adheres a little to the tongue, and feels fomewhat
greafy. It is fedlile and light.
As this variety of clay forms with water a lefs tena¬
cious mafs than feme of the other varieties, it probably
contains a greater proportion of lilicecus earth.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Upper Lu-
fatia.
Subfpecies 5. Slaty Clay.
Slate Clay, Shale, Kirwan, i. 182. I?Argtle Schifleufe,
Brochant, i. 327. Argile Schi/ieufe ImpreJJionee,
Hauy iv. 448.
Exter. Char.—This fubfpecies is found maflive j in¬
ternally dull, when free from mica j frafture flaty or
earthy j fragments in tables.
Colour grayifh, yellowifh, or blackifh, fometimes
reddilh or brownilh ; opaque : foft, fedlile, and eafily
frangible. Adheres to the tongue 5 feels meagre. Sp.
grav. 2.6 to 2.68.
Localities, &c.—Ufually accompanies coal, fo that
it abounds in all coal countries. It is fometimes mix¬
ed with fand, mica, and iron pyrites. It is known in
, this country under the name of ftale, and in Scotland
particularly by that of till, or deicribed under the more
general denomination of one of the coal metals. Slaty
clay is ftill farther diftinguilhed by impreffions of ferns,
reeds, or grades. When it is of a black colour, it feems
to be owing to a greater proportion of coaly matter.
4, Species. Clay Stonev or Indurated Clay.
Indurated Clay, Kirwan, i. 181. UArgile Endurcie,
Brocbant, i. 325.
Exter. Char.—Indurated clay is always found maf-
five •, it is dull •, fraflure compa£l, or fine earthy ; but
fometimes fplintery or even, and alfo fometimes ilaty.
Fragments more or lefs fharp edged, and fometimes in
tables.
Colour ufually bluilb, yellowdlh, or greenifh gray,
and fometimes pearl gray, grayifh red, whitiih, and
brownifh. Thefe colours are often mixed, and are ar¬
ranged in fpots and ftripes. Opaque, foft, rather brittle ;
eafily frangible ; adheres {lightly to the tongue ; feels
grea'fy. Spec. grav. inconfiderable. Gradually falls
to pieces in water, or crumbles into powder. Has but
little ductility.
Localities, &c.—Indurated clay is very common. It
is found in veins, and fometimes in very extenfive beds.
It conftitutes the bafis of many porphyries, efpecially in
Saxony, where it is abundant. It is found in many
parts of Scotland, as on the Pentland hills in the neigh¬
bourhood of Edinburgh.
Stourbridge clay, according to Mr Kirwan, may be
included under this variety. It is of a gray colour •,
does not adhere to the tongue •, part is foon diffufed in
water, and another part falls into powder. Mr Kir¬
wan found it to contain 12.5 of moifture, 12 of a
.coarfe white fand. 30 of a fine brownilh fand, and even
the remaining or argillaceous part wTas not entirely
freed from fand but by boiling in acids.
5. Species. ADHESIVE SLATE,
Le Schi/le a Polir, Brochant i. 376. Schijie a Polir,
Hauy, iv. 449. Polifhing Slate, Klaproth, i. 455.
Analyt, Eff. Tranfl.
Argillace¬
ous genus.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive j is al¬
ways internally dull; has a flaty or fine earthy fracturej
fragments flaty or in tables.
Colour clear gray, whitiih or reddilh 5 opaque or
{lightly tranflucent at the edges ; gives a ftiining ftreak;
is feftile, foft, and very eafily frangible j adheres
ftrongly to the tongue 3 feels meagre. Specific gra¬
vity 2.08.
Chem. Char.—Immerfed in water, adhefive flate ab-
forbs it greedily, air bubbles being rapidly difengaged
and with noifej but does not become tenacious. When
reduced to powder and calcined, it lofes about one-fifth
of its weight. Expofed to ftrong heat, it is converted into
a dark gray or yellowilh and porous flag. (Brochant.^
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica
Alumina
Magnefia
Lime
Oxide of iron
Carbone
Water and air
Lofs
66.5
I.
1.25
25
22.
19.
2.25
62.5
•7'
8.
•3
4-
•7
22.
1.8
100.00
100.0
Localities, &c.— Adhefive flate forms confiderable
beds at Menil-Montant near Paris. In thefe beds ms-
niiite already defcribed is found.
6. Species. Polishing Slate.
Le Polierfchiefer, Brochant, i. 376.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found raaflive ; inter¬
nally it is dull. Fra&ure flaty, but in lome diredlions
earthy. Fragments flaty or in tables.
Colour yeliowifli gray or white ; and different colours
appear difpofed in flripes 3 is foft 3 adheres to the tongue 3
feels meagre, and is rather light.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found only, it
is faid, in Bohemia, near pfeudo volcanoes, and it is lirp-
pofcd, that it is nothing more than indurated coal allies.
It approaches fo near in the characters that are given
of it to the following, that it might be included undo*
the fame fpecies, or confidered as a variety of it.
7. Species. Tripoli.
Id. Kirw. ii. 202. Le Tripoli, BroCh. i. 379. ^uart%
Aluminijere Tripoleeti, Hauy, iv. 467.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflave 3 is dull
internally 3 has a coarfe earthy fraCture, fometimes flaty ;
fragments blunt-edged.
Colour yellowifh gray, and fometimes browifli red.
Is foft and fomewhat friable 3 meagre to the feel, but
does not adhere to the tongue.
Chem. Char.—It is almofl infufible before the blow-
pipev.
MINE R
pipe. It melts with borax without frothing up. It
does not form a pafte with water.
Conjlituent Parts. Haafle.
Silica, 90
Alumina,
Oxide of iron, 3
100
Localities, &c.—This fubftance was formerly brought
to Europe from Tripoli; hence the name; but it lias
fince been found in many other places, as in Bararia,
Saxony, and Bohemia; in Ruffia and in England. It
is found in the neighbourhoud of bafalts, fometimes
forming veins; at Potfchappel it is difpofed in beds
among the ftrata of coal, and near thofe places where
ft rata of coal have been on fire.
Ufes.—Tripoli is employed in poliftiing metals, pre¬
cious ftones, and glafles for optical inflruments.
8. Species. Fuoatsone.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been found in tu-
berofe porous maffes; it is dull, has an earthy fra&ure,
and blunt-edged fragments.
The colour is yellowith gray or grayilh white. It is
foft and brittle ; rough to the feel, and gives out a
creaking found. It is very light, from which it has its
name.
Localities, &c.—Has been only found at St Omers
near Paris.
9. Species. Alum Stone.
La Pierre Alumineufe, Broch. i, 381.
Exter. Char.—This ftone is found maffive ; is ge¬
nerally dull, rarely a little glimmering; frafture un¬
even, fometimes. fplintery ; fragments not very {harp
edged.
Colour grayifn or yellowifh white : it is foft, and
fometimes fereihard ; ftains a little, and adheres to the
tongue.
Chem. Char.—This mineral does not effervefce with
acids; but after being heated and diffolved in water, it
affords alum. According to Bergman it contains 43
of fulphur, 35 of alumina, and 22 of filica ; but the fol¬
lowing is the refult of Vauquelin’s analyfis.
Conjlituent Parts.
Alumina, 43-92
Silica, 24.
Sulphurous acid, 25.
Sulphate of potalh, 3.08
Water, 4.
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been long known
under the name of the Jlone of Tolfa, from the name of
the place wrhere it is found near Rome, and where it forms
a mountain which is traverfed by veins of whitifli gray
rjuartz. It is from this ftone that the Roman alum, fo
celebrated in commerce, is mahufaftured ; and it has
2
A L O G Y.
been fuppofed that the excellence of the alum may be
owing to the mineral containing within itfelf all the in¬
gredients neceifary in the formation of that triple fait.
10. Species. Aluminous Schistus.
Tliis is divided into two varieties or fubfpecics; 1.
common ; and 2. finning.
Subfpecies 1. Common Aluminous Schistus.
Zf Schijle Alumineux, Brocb. i. 386.
Exter. Char.—1 his mineral is found in mafies, w hich
often contain pieces of a globular form. It is fome¬
times glimmering, and fometimes dull; fracture com¬
monly fiaty, and fometimes a little earthy ; fragments
in tables; ftreak the fame as the colour of the mineral,
a little fiiining.
Colour grayifii black or brownifh ; is foft; meagre
to the feel, and eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.—When expofed to the air for fome time
it feparates, and yields alum by lixiviation.
Localities, &cc.—Aluminous fchiftus is abundant in
Saxony, Bohemia, France, England, and fome parts of
Scotland. It is difpofed in beds among ftratiform rocks,
and in tranfition rocks, and it is often traverfed bv
veins of quartz. Being mixed vrith pyrites, the decom-
pofition is thus promoted when expofed to the air.
Wes-—This mineral is dug out for the purpofe of ex-
tra&ing alum, firft by expofing it to the air or heat,
and then by lixiviation.
Subfpecies 2. Shining Aluminous Schistus.
Le Schijie Alumineux Eclatant, Broch. i. 388.
Exter. Char.—This mineral approaches very nearly
to the former in molt of its chara&ers, but in the di¬
rection of its principal fracture the external furface is
Imooth ; luftre Ihining, or refplendent, refinous, and
even fomewhat metallic ; in the oppofite directions it is
dull. Fracture commonly flaty, and fomewhat curved;
fragments in tables.
Colour intermediate between bluifii and grayilh
black, and fometimes iron black. Colours in the rents
iridefcent.
In other characters and circumltances it refembles the
former.
11. Species. Bituminous Schistus.
Le Schijie Bitumineux, Broch. i. 289. Bituminous Shale,
Kirw. i. 183.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive; lufire
glimmering ; fraCture molt commonly thin, rarely
thick ; fragments in the form of tables, fometimes tra¬
pezoidal.
Colour brownilh black, fometimes gray, or blackifir
brown ; foft, and eafily frangible ; adheres fiightly to
the tongue ; Itreak finning ; feels greafy.
Chem. Char.—When placed on burning coals it gives
out a pale flame with a fulphureous odour, becomes
white, and lofes a good deal of its weight.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is peculiar to coal
countries, which it always accompanies, and alternates
with
Part I.
Claffifica- with flaty clay and coal. It is not unfrequent in Bohe-
tion. m;a> Poland, England, and Scotland.
i2. Species. Drawing Slate.
Black Chalk, Kir wan, i. 195. Le Schifte a Dejfiner,
Broch. i. 391. Argile Schijleufe Graphique, Haiiy,
iv. 447.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, ufually
dull; but in the direftion of the principal fracture a
little glimmering •, fracture in certain directions curved
flaty ; in others fine grained earthy j fragments fplin-
tery or tabular.
Colour grayilh or bluifh black •, opaque j ftains black-,
foft ; meagre to the feel.
Chetn. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it becomes co¬
vered with a kind of varnilh.
Conjlltuent Parts. Wiegleb.
Silica 64.50
Alumina 11 *25
Carbone II.
Oxide of iron 2.75
Water 7.50
Lofs 3.
IC0.00
Localities, Sic.—-Drawing flate frequently accompa¬
nies aluminous fchitlus. It forms along with it beds
which are fubordinate to clay flate. It is found in Ita¬
ly, where it is an obje6t of commerce. It is alfo found
in Spain, France, and fome parts of Scotland.
Cf/es.—As its name indicates, it is employed like
black chalk in drawing.
13. Species. Whet Slate.
•iLovacitlite, Kirw. i. 238. Le Schi/le a Aiguifer, Bro¬
ch ant, i. 3 91 • Argile Schifleufe Novaculaire, Hairy,
iv. 448.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive 5 is
Icarcely glimmering 5 fradture in large maflfes fiaty, in
fmali pieces fplintery ; fragments tabular.
Colour commonly greenifli gray, or fmoke grav,
Tometimes mountain green : tranflucent at the edges $
femihard, but varying between hard and foft ; rather
eaiily frangible ; ftreak grayifli white ; feels greafy ;
does not adhere to the tongue. Specific gravity
2.722.
Chetn. Char.—Does not effervefce with acids, and is
infulible before the blow-pipe.
localities, &c.—Whet flate is found in primitive
mountains, wrhere it forms beds which are fubordinate
to clay flate. It was originally brought from the Le¬
vant 5 but has fince been difcovered in Bohemia, Saxo¬
ny, in Bayreuth, wdiere it is wrought, and in Siberia.
An efflorefcence has been obferved on the furface,
which is found to be fuluhate of magnefia -, from which
it is naturally fuppofed that the bafe of that fait forms
one of its conflituent parts.
Pfes.—Whet flate, as its name imports, is cut and
polilhed for the purpofe of fliarpening knives and other
Vol. XIV. Part I.
185
reduced to powder, is employed in Arg:llace-
cus i.enus.
14. Species. Clay Slate.
Argillite, or Argillaceous Sc hi/1 us, or Slate, Kirwan, i.
234. Le Schifle Argilleux, Brochant, i. 395. Ar¬
gile Schijleufe Tegulaire, Haiiy, iv. 447.
Exter. Char.— Clay flate is found maflive, or difle-
minated, or in rounded pieces ; internally it is a little
fliining or glimmering j rarely dull ', the more the flruc-
ture is foliated, the greater is its luftre. Lullre fome-
times filky, pearly, or femimetallic. Fra&ure more or
leis flaty, fometimes curved and w-aved, fometimes
earthy or fplintery ; fragments tabular, rarely fplintery $
fometimes cubic or rhomboidal.
Colour chiefly gray of various fhadesj but fometimes
it is reddiflt, brownilh, or yellowifh, or reddifli brown.
Different colours are fo difpofed as to appear ftriped,
waved, fpotted, or dendiitic. It is in general foft ;
fometimes femihard, le£Hle, and eafily frangible. Gives
a grayifli white ftreak $ feels greafy. Spec. grav. 2.67
to 2.88.
According to Kirwan, clay flate is compofed of filica,
alumina, lime, magnefia, and iron, with fome bitumi¬
nous particles.
localities, &c.—Clay flate belongs equally to the
primitive, tranfition, and ftratiform rocks, and frequently
forms entire mountains. Primitive clay flate is fome¬
times mixed with quartz, mica, hornblende, garnets,
limeftone, pyrites, cinnabar as at Idria ; in general
it abounds with metallic ores, either in veins or in
beds.
Clay flate is very abundant in mod countries j
it is not unfrequent in many parts of Scotland*
but the flate of Eafdale, and the contiguous iflands
on the welt coaft, has long maintained a decided
fuperiority and preference to all others in this coun¬
try.
LJfes.—Clay flate^ is in extenfive ufe for covering
houfes, and then it is known in this country by the
Angle word fate. It is alfo employed in large plates
for writing on, or tracing chara£lers that are aftenvards
to be effaced.
15. Species. Lefidolite.
Id. Kirwan, i. 208. Id. Hairy, iv. 375. Lo Lcpido-
lithe, Brochant, i. 399. '
Exter. Char.—Lepidolite is found maflive, and diffe-
minated in fmali plates, which might be taken for mi¬
ca. It is ufually glimmering, rarely ftiining. Luftre
femimetallic. Frafture fine grained uneven, rarely fo¬
liated. Fragments blunt edged.
Colour lilac blue, grayifti and reddiftt browm j tranf¬
lucent. Semihard j fometimes foft 4 eafily frangible ;
and feels meagre. Is eafily fcraped wfith the knife j
but is with difficulty reduced to powder by trituration.
The powder rubbed between the fingers has a greafy
feel. Spec. grav. 2.816 to 2.854.
Chem. Char.—Froths up under the blow-pipe,
and melts into a tranfparent colourlefs globule j but
with the addition of a little nitre it becomes vio¬
let.
A a / Con/lituent
mineralogy.
inftrumentsj and,
polilhing fteel.
|
186
Argillace¬
ous genus.
MINE R
Silica
Alumina
Potafh
Fluate of lime
Oxide of iron and manganefe
Water and lofs
Conftitucnt Farts.
Klaproth.
54-5
58.25
4*
•75
2.5
Vauqr.elin.
54
20
18
4
1
100.00
100
Localities, &c.—This mineral was firft difcovered in
the mountain Gradilko near Rofena in Moravia, where
it is found in confiderable maffes included in blocks of
granite. It is found alfo in Sweden. Sometimes it is
dilfeminated in quartz rock.
The name, from “ a fcale,” is derived from its
fcaly ftrudlure. Lepidolite was at firft taken for fluate
of lime or zeolite. A red coloured variety ol fchorlite
was alfo fuppofed to be cryftallized lepidolite.
16. Species. Mica.
Id. Kirw. i. 21. Id. Broch. i. 402. Id. Hauy, iii.
208.
Exter. Char.—Mica is moft commonly difleminated
in thin tables, rarely maflive or cryftallized. The pri¬
mitive form of its cryftals is a rectangular prifm,
whofe bafes are rhombs with angles of 120° and 6o° j
the integrant molecule is the fame. The ufual forms
of its cryftals are, a fix-fided table with equal angles,
fometimes very thick, which produces a fix-fided prifm,
and the want of two of the faces produces the table
with four rhomboidal faces; but the moft common
form of mica is in thin plates or fcales of no determi¬
nate figure. The lateral faces of the bafes of the ta¬
bles are fmooth and refplendent j luftre metallic j frac¬
ture foliated, fometimes curved or waved, and fometimes
radiated •, fragments in the form of plates.
Colour ufually gray, afh, yellowilh, greenifh, and
blackilh gray ; in thin plates femitranfparent, or even
tranfparent ; otherwife, only tranflucent on the edges j
femihard, very eafily frangible j flexible and elaftic. Sp.
grav. 2.79 to 2.93.
Fhyfical Char.—Mica rubbed on Spanilh wax com¬
municates to it negative eleftricity.
Chicm. -Before the blow-pipe it is with dif¬
ficulty fufible into a whitifh gray or green enamel.
Black mica yields a black enamel, which is attraded
by the magnet.
ConJUtucnt Parts.
Vauquelin.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Magnefia
Oxide of iron
Lofs
'•33
*•35
7-
5-32
Bergman.
IVlufcovy glafs.
40
45
5
9
Kirwan.
Colourlefs Mica.
38
28
20
H
100.00
too
100
A L O G Y. Part I.
Localities, Sic.—Mica is one of the moft common Clafiiiica-
minerals, forming one of the conftituent parts of gra- tion-
nite, gneis, micaceous fchiftus, and other primitive rocks, v ^
and in feme of them fometimes forms particular fmall
veins. Mica alfo enters into the compofition of ftrati-
lorm rocks, as green ftone, balalt, wacken.
Cat gold and cat filver are varieties of mica of a gold
or filver colour, which have a confiderable luftre, but
inferior to that of thefe metals. It may be eafily di-
ftinguiflied by the ftreak, which in the mica affords a
whitifh powder without any luftre.
U/es—When mica is obtained in large and thin
plates, it is employed as a fubftitute for glafs, and for.
this purpofe it has been ufed for windows of men of
war, as on account of its elafticity it is lei's fubjedt
to be broken from the concuflion produced by the firing
of cannon.
17. Species. Finite.
Micarelle, Kirw. i. 212. La Finite, Broch. i. 456.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been ufually found
cryftailized in fix-fided prifms, having all the lateral
edges truncated, or only three alternating edges, or in
four-fided rhomboidal prifms. The furfaces of the cry¬
ftals fmooth and a little glimmering j internally it is
dull* fometimes a little Ibining in the crofs fradlure ;
the fraclure is fine grained, uneven, or fmall conchoidalj
fragments blunt-edged.
Colour reddifh or blackilh brown; opaque 5 the
brown variety is llightly tranfparent; fo loft as to be
cut with a knjfe, when it becomes of a bluifli black;
powder bright gray ; adheres a little to the tongue 5
feels greafy ; fp. grav. 2.98.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Alumina 63.75
Silica 29.50
Oxide of iron 6.75
100.00
localities, Sic.—Finite is found only near Schneeberg
in Saxony, in the mine called Pini; hence its name. It
is accompanied by quartz, feldfpar and mica, which
conftitute a fmall grained granite.
18. Species. Potstone.
Id. Kirw. i. 155. La Pierre Ollaire, Broch. i. 405.
Talc Ollaire, Hauy, iii. 257.
Exter. Char.—Potftone is found maflive ; internally
it is dull, fometimes glimmering or a little ftiining,
pearly ; fra&ure curved flaty, rarely foliated or wa¬
ved ; fragments blunt edged, in the form of tables or
fcales.
Colour greenilh gray, fometimes reddifh or yellow-
ifh ; opaque, rarely tranflucent on the edges ; foft, fec-
tile, and mild ; feels greafy ; by being breathed upon
it emits the argillaceous fmell. Spec. grav. 2,76 to
2.86.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe; fome
varieties abforb a little water.
Conjlituent.
Part I.
Glaflificft- _
tion. Coajiituent Paris.
^L'' Y Silica
Magnefia
Alumina
Lime 41
Oxide of iron 15.02
Fluoric acid ? .41
Lofs .84
100.CO
Localities^ &c.—Potftone is found at Chiavenna, in
the Vaiteline, from which the fpecimen above analyzed
was obtained ; at Como, in Switzerland, hence called
Como Jlone. It is alfo found in Saxony, Hungary, and
on the banks of Loch Fine oppofite to Inverary in Scot¬
land. Potftone forms entire beds, and is ufually ac¬
companied by ferpentine, or it is in nefts 5 it is rarely
pure, but mixed v/ith chlorite, talc, afbeftus, &c.
XJfes.—On account of the refra&ory nature of this
ftone, it is employed in the conftruftion of furnaces
where gifeat heat is required ; and as it may be cut or
turned on the lathe, it has been formed into uteniils for
the kitchen, and hence the name potjlone.
19. Species. Chlorite.
Id. Kirw. i. 147. La Chlorite, Broch. i. 408. laic
Chlorite, Hauy, iii. 257.
Chlorite is divided into four fubfpecies : 1. earthy j
2. common ; 3. foliated 5 4. fchiftofe or flaty.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Chlorite.
Extcr. Char.—This mineral is compofed of fmall,
fcaly, thin, and (lightly glimmering particles, cohering
together, rarely in the form of pow'der.
Colour intermediate between mountain green and
dark leek green •, fometimes brownilh •, does not ftain ;
feels greafy, but does not adhere to the tongue •, gives
an earthy frnell by breathing on it.
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a gray
or black enamel.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica 26.
Alumina 18.50
Magnefia 8.
Muriate of foda 2.
Oxide of iron 43.
Water 2.
Lofs .50
100.00
Localities, &c.—Earthy chlorite is always found in
primitive mountains, forming beds which are fubordi-
nate to clay Hate. It is found in Saxony, Switzerland,
Savoy, and in Scotland.
Subfpecies 2. Common Chlorite.
Exter. Char.—This is found maflive and difleminated,
or in thin fuperficial layers on other ftones; internal
luftre (lightly glimmering, refinous j fra&ure earthy, or
187
foliated ; fragments blunt-edged ; foft, fometimes feral- Argillace-
j ^ ' D o'' ous genus.
Colour fimilar to the former, and fometimes grayifli v
white ; is opaque, eafily frangible 5 gives a light green
ftreak without luftre.
Conjlituent Parts. Hoepfner.
Silica 41
Magnefia 39
Alumina 6
Lime 1
Oxide of iron 10
Lofs 3
100
Localities, &c.—Common chlorite is found in the
fame places with the former, and indeed it is fuppofed
to be earthy chlorite indurated. At Altenberg in
Saxony, it is mixed with pyrites of copper and arienic,
and common hornblende.
Subfpecies 3. Foliated Chlorite.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive, diffemi-
nated, and cryftallized in the form of a fix-fided table
fomewhat elongated ; feveral of thefe tables being uni¬
ted together, frequently form globular, kidney-form,
or botryoidal groups. External luttre glimmering or
weakly ftiining •, internal ihining, refinous, or ptaily j
fra&ure foliated 5 folia curved ; cleavage ample 5 frag¬
ments in tables.
Colour intermediate berween leek and dark green ;
opaque, or tranflucent at the edges 5 ftreak light green;
is foft, feftile, eafily frangible, and feels a little greafy.
Conjlituent Parts. Lampadius.
Silica 35.
Magnefia 29.9
Alumina • 18.
Oxide of iron 9.7
Water 2.7
Lofs 4.7
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been only found
on St Gothard in Switzerland ; it lines the fides of a
vein which traverfes micaceous fchiftus. It is accom¬
panied by cryftals of green mica, adularia, and qussru.
Brochant fiiggefts that foliated chlorite may perhaps
be nothing elfe than a cryftallized mica.
Subfpecies 4. Schistose Chlorite.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive ; inter¬
nal luftre weakly Ihining, fometimes Ihining, refinous}
fradure curved flaty, fometimes waved, or a little
fplintery ; fragments tabular.
Colour green ; is foft, fertile, and eafily frangible ;
ftreak light green; feels a little greafy ; gives the earthy
fmell by breathing.
Localities, &c.-—Slaty chlorite is found in Norway,
Sweden, Switzerland, in different parts of Scotland, as
on the banks of Loch Lomond, and in the iflands of
A a 2 Bute
mineralogy.
Wiegleb.
38.12
38-54
6.66
188
A roil] ace- Bute and Arran. Sometimes it forms very extenfive
.ou., ^m.s ^ ^ecjs jn mountains of clay Hate, to which it is fubordi-
nate; and it is frequently accompanied by garnets and
magnetic iron, cryltallized in oftahedrons. The name
is derived irorrv the Greek word which lignities green.
20. Species. Hornblende.
This is divided into four fubfpecies; i. common j
2. bafaltic ", 3. labradore j and 4. fchiftofe.
Subfpecies 1. Common Hornblende.
Hornblende, Kirvv. i. 163* Hornblende Commune, Broch.
i. 415- Hmphibole, Hauy, iii. 58.
Exter. Char.—Hornblende is found mafiive or diffe-
.irsinated, and fometimes cryftallized. The forms are a
four-fided prifm, of which the acute oppofite lateral
edges are ftrongly truncated •, a fix-fided prifm with
four broad and two narrow faces, llightly truncated on
the lateral edges; a fimilar fix-fided prifm, fhort, and
having the extremities bevelled ; an eight-fided prifm,
having at its extremities, a convex bevelment. Some¬
times the cryftals are acicular and in groups ; internal
luftre. fhining,. vitreous, or pearly ; frafture foliated,
iometimes radiated, and fometimes fibrous; furface of
the frafture longitudinally ftreaked ; fragments (harp-
edged, lometimes rhomboidal.
Colour deep black, greenifir black, or greenifh gray ;
ufualiy opaque. The green varieties tranflucent at the
edges. Soft or femihard ; not eafily frangible ; ftreak
greenifli gray ; gives an earthy fmell by breathing on
it : fp. grav. 3.6 to 3.88.
Chem. Char Before the blow-pipe it melts eafi’y
into a grayifh black glafs.
Conjlituent Parts.
Kirwan. Hermann.
Silica. 37 37
Alumina 22 27
Magnefia 16 q
Lime 2 5
Oxide of iron 2q 2 C
Lofs 3
100 100
Localities, &c.—Hornblende is one of the confiituent
parts of primitive rocks, as in fienite; and it feems alfo
to be an accidental fubftance, as in gneis, primitive
limeftorie, porphyries, and micaceous fchiftus. It is
found alfo in maffes or entire beds, as in Saxony ; and is
very common in mod: countries, as in Norway, Hun¬
gary, and Britain.
Ufes.—Sometimes employed as a flux for ores of iron.
Subfpecies 2. Basaltic Hornblende.
Bafahirre, Kirw. i. 219. Hornblende Bafallique, Roch.
i. 424.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is mod frequently found
cryftallized in equal fix-fided prifms, varioufly modified
»r with equal fides ; having two narrow and four broad ;
or four narrow and two broad; or three broad and
three narrow alternately. The cryftals are imbedded,
infulated, or grouped. Surface fmooth, (Inning; in¬
ternal luftre ^refplendent, in the crofs fracture weakly
Part I.
(hinmg, vitreous ; fra&ure foliated ; crofs fiaaure fmall Claftifica-
grained, uneven, or conchoidal. Fragments nearly tion-
rhomboidal.  v ‘
Colour velvet black, and fometimes with a (hade of
green; opaque; ftreak grayifti white; femihard; fearthy
imell by expiration. Spec. grav. 3.22 to 3.33.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe melts lefs eafily
than the preceding, into a black glafs.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica 38
Alumina 27
Lime 4
Magnefia i
Oxide of iron 9
Lofs 1
- 100
Localities, See.—This mineral, as its name imports,
is uluaily found in bafalt. It is alfo met with in
wacken, and in the lava of Vefuvius. It it not un¬
common in the baialtic rocks of Silefia, Saxony, and
Bohemia, as well as in thole of this country. As it is
lefs liable to decompofition than the rocks which con¬
tain it, detached cryftals are frequently found among
decayed bafalt. a
Subfpecies 3, Labrador^ Hornblende.
La Hornblende du Labrador, Broch. i. 419.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maftive, difle-
minated, in rounded pieces, and very rarely cryftallized
in four-fided redlangular prifms. Internal luftre (bill¬
ing, fomewhat metallic; frafture foliated, fometimes
curved.
Colour blackifli green, or greenifh black ; fome¬
times bronze yellow ; fcarcely tranflucent at the edges;
femihard; not difficultly frangible;, 'ftreak greenifli.
Spec. grav. 3.38.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in the ifland
of St Paul on the Labradore coaft, but nothing is known
of the nature of its repofitory.
Subfpecies 4. Schistose Hornblende.
Id. Kirw. i. 222. La Hornblende Schijleufe, Broch. i.
428.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive ; internal
luftre weakly fliining; fra£lure in mafl'es flaty ; in
fmall pieces radiated, femetimes fibrous ; fragments in
plates.
Colour greenifli, or grayifli black ; opaque ; femihard;
ftreak greenifli gray; rather difficultly frangible; breath¬
ed on, gives the earthy fmell.
Localities, &c.—Schiftofe hornblende forms exten¬
five beds in primitive mountains, to which it is fuhordi-
nate. It feems to be common hornblende more or lefs
mixed with quartz. It is found in Bohemia, Norway,
Sweden, in the rile of Skye, and other places of Scot¬
land.
21. Species. Basalt.
Figurate Trap, Trap,WhinJlone, &c. Kirw. 1.225.—2q3.
Le Bafalte, Broch. i. 430. La Liihoide Prijmatique,
Hauy, iv. 474.
MINERALOGY.
Exier.
MINERALOGY.
Fart I.
Claffifica- Exter>. Char.—Bafalt forms entire mountains, in the
ticn. neighbourhood of which it is found in rounded pieces,
' v or in large globular maffes ; internally it is dull} fome-
times glimmering from a mixture of hornblende •, frac¬
ture uneven, fometimes fine fplintery or conchoidal ;
fragments not very (harp-edged. It is mod frequently
in diftinft concretions, which are prifmatic or columnar,
more or lefs regular ; fometimes alfo in globular diftindt
concretions.
Colour grayilh or bluifh black, fometimes brownifh
on the furface •, opaque •, femihard 5 brittle, and very
difficultly frangible \ ftreak light a(h gray i gives a
ringing found under the hammer. Spec. gray. 2.86
to 3.
Chem. Char Melts very eafily before the blow¬
pipe into an opaque black glafs which a£ls on the
magnet.
PhyfiCal Char.—Many bafalts affedt the magnetic
needle, reverfing the poles when it is brought near
them. This is afcribed to the great proportion of iron
which enters into their compofition.
Localities, &c.—Bafalt is not uncommon in every
part of the globe, and in many places it is very abun¬
dant. It is found in regular columns in feveral of the
Hebrides on the weft coaft of Scotland, as in Cannay,
Eigg, the Schant ifles, but particularly beautiful in Staf-
fa. Pretty regular columns are obferved alfo at Dunbar,
and on the fouth-weft fide of Arthur’s-feat near Edin¬
burgh ) but the Giant’s caufeway and the rocks about
Fairhead oil the north coaft of Ireland, exhibit the
fineft and moft extenftve ranges of columnar bafalt in
the world.
Bafalt, befides being in the columnar form, is of¬
ten difpofed in beds and veins } both of w-hich are very
common in different places in Scotland, particularly on
the weflern coaft, and in the weftern iflands. See Wil~
Harris's Mineral Kingdom.
No fubjedt, in geological fpeculation, has produced
more controverfial difcuftion than the origin of bafalt j
one party afferting that it is the effedt of fufton, while
another contends that it rnuft have been depofited from
an aqueous folution. Our limits preclude us even from
barely ftating the arguments which have been propofed
by naturalifts in fupport of the theories which different
parties have embraced. For an account of home of
them, fee Geology Index; and for the conftituent
parts of bafalt, and fome other fadls connedted with its
natural hiftory, fee Basalt.
Ufes Bafalt is fometimes employed as a touchftone,
as a flux for ores of iron, and in the nianufadture of
common bottles. It is alfo employed for millftones.
The ancients employed it in fculpture, for it would ap¬
pear that fome of their vafes and ftatues were formed
of it.
22. Species. WACKEN.
Id. Kirw. i. 223. La Wakke, Broch. i. 434.
Exter. Char.—Wacken is found maflive ; it is fre¬
quently veficular, and the cavities are often filled with
other minerals ; internal appearance dull •, fradture even
or earthy ; fragments rather blunt edged.
Colour grsyith green, grayifh black, reddifh, or
brownifh j opaque '} ftreak a little (hining } foft or fe¬
mihard ; eafily frangible ; feels a little greafy. Spec,
grav. 2.53 to 2.89.
Chem. Char.—Fufible like bafalt.
Localities, &c.—Wacken belongs to the ftratiform
rocks. It contains fometimes petrified wood, and the
bones of animals. It conftitutes beds fometimes in the
middle of bafalt, but is oftener in the form of veins,
and is the bafts of amygdaloid, the cavities of wdiich
are filled with green earth, calcareous fpar, &c. Wack¬
en is met with in Saxony, Bohemia, Sweden, and ma¬
ny places of Scotland.
23. Species. PhoNOLITE, or Clinhjlone.
Id. Daubuiffon, Jour, de Phyf. lx. 74. Pierre Son-
nan te, Broch. i. 437. Klingstein and Porphyrfchie-
fer of the Germans^
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always found maflive-;
internal lultre glimmering j fradture ftaty, fometimes
uneven conchoidal j fragments (harp-edged ; compo-
fed of diftindt concretions, which are either in the form,
of tables, or are columnar, and fome what regularly
grouped together.
Colour gray, a(h, greenifh, or bluiih gray ; the co¬
lours fometimes have a dendritical appearance ; opaque,
or tranflucent at the edges j femihard, or hard 5 not
difficultly frangible j in thin plates it emits a found
when ft ruck with a hammer, and hence its name.
Spec. grav. 2.575.
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a co«
lourlefs glafs.
Conjlituent Parts.
Klaproth. Bergman.
Silica 57*25 58*
Alumina 23-5 24-5
Lime _ 2.75 3.5
Oxide of iron 3.25 4.5'
— — manganefe .25  
Soda 8.1 6.
Water 3. 2.
Lofs 1.9 1.5
100.00 100.0
The ftone analyzed above by Bergman, was from
Puy in Velay, in France, and is confidered by Dolo-
mieu as volcanic. The other by Klaproth, is from
Bohemia. Excepting the fmall proportion of manga¬
nefe detedfed in the latter, the coincidence of the two
analyfes is very ftriking.
Localities, &c.— Phonolite is not uncommon in many
parts of the world. It is met with in Scotland, in the
ifland of Lamlaffi near Arran j and it conftitutes the
greater part of Traprene Law in Eaft Lothian 5 in
both places it is columnar.
24. Species. Lava.
Id. Kirw. i. 400. La Lave, Broch. i. 440. La Scori-
fee, Haiiy, iv. 497.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is generally of a porous
textuje, with cavities of different fizes.j luftre glimmer¬
ing.
xqo MINER
Argiilace- Ing or ^ a little fliining, vitreous; frafture imperfeftly
ouh gcims.^ cQ^choidal • fragments not very Qiarp-edged.
Colour tilackilli gray, perfeft black, or brownifli
black, iometimes greenilli, and rarely white; opaque j
femihard ; brittle ; not difficultly frangible •, light.
Chem. Char.—Lava is very fulible, and yields a corn-
paid black glafs.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica 49
Alumina q e
Lime 4
Oxide of iron 12
100
Localities^ &c.—Lava being a volcanic produft, is
only found in the vicinity of volcanoes.
Vfcs.—Lavas are employed for the purpofes of build-
ing ; their lightnefs, arifing from the numerous cavities,
renders them proper for the conftruilion of vaults.
25. Species. Greek Earth.
Id.' Rirw. i. 196. La Terre Verte, Brochant, i. 445.
1 ale Chlorite Hographiquey Haiiy, iii. 2 $7.
Exter. Char .—Green earth is found mnffive, or dif-
feminated, or in fuperficial crufts on balls of agate ;
internally it is dull; fraiture earthy j fragments biunt-
edged..
\ L O G T.
# Colour yellowifh wliite, fnovv white, fometimes red-
difh j the particles have very little cohelion.
Subfpecics. 2. Indurated Lithomarga.
Exter. Char —This is alio found maftive or diftemi-
natea^ is dull ) has a fine grained earthy fracture,
fometimes concho'dal ; blunt-edged.
Colour white, yeilowilh, or reddifn white ; brownifti
red, and feveral (hades of yellow. Different colours
are diipofed in ipots, veins, dots, ftripes. or clouds j
opaque •, very loft; ftreak ftiining j adheres to the
tongue j feels greafy.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe ; falls
to pieces in water without forming a pafte. According
to feme analyfes, it contains a large proportion of mag-
nefia.
Phii/ical Char.—Some varieties when rubbed with a
feather in the dark, give a little light.
Localities, &c.—Lithomarga or itone marrow, de¬
rives its name from its being found in nodules in amyg.
daioid rocks 5 it occupies veins or fmall fiftures in por-
Ptyiy, gueis, and ferpentine. It is found in Bohemia,
barony, I ranee, England, and at the Giant’s caufeway
in Ireland. A variety of lithomarga, which exhibits
many fine colours, particularly violet or lavender blue
is found in beds repofing on coal at Planitz, near
Zwickau in Saxony. It has been called, from its beau¬
tiful appearance, wonder earth of Saxony (Terra mira-
culofa.)
Colour celadon green, or bJackifti green; opaque ;
fort ; feels llightly greafy j adheres a littie to the tongue j
ftreak weakly fhining.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it becomes black,
but is infufible. It is not a&ed on by acids, and ab-
forbs water.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica
Alumina j 2.
Lime 2.e
Magnefia or
Oxide of iron j
Water
Lofs .
27. Species. Mountain or Rock Soap.
Le Savon de Montague, Brochant, i. 453.
Enter. Char.— This mineral is found maftive j is dull
internally j has an earthy, and foiretimes an imper-
fetfiy conchoidal fra&ure ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour brownifti black, fpotted ochrey yellow. O-
paque ^ very foft; eafily frangible 5 ftreak ftiining, and
refinous 5 ftains and ivrites on paper j feels greafy, and
adheres ftrongly to the tongue.
Localities, &c,—This mineral is rare 5 has been
found at Olkutfch in Poland, and alfo, it is faid in
England.
28. Species. Umber.
100.00
Localities, &c—Green earth is found at Verona,
where it is wrought, and conftitutes an article of com¬
merce ; and it is met with in all amygdaloid rocks.
Green earth is employed as a colouring mat¬
ter in painting.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maftive j frac¬
ture conchoidal ; fragments blunt-edged,
Colour brownifti, of various (hades j fbft $ adheres a
little to the tongue, and has a meagre feel.
Localities, &c.—Umber is found difpofed in beds,
in the ifland of Cyprus j and it is employed as a pig¬
ment.
26. Species. Lithomarga.
Id. Kirw. i. 187. La Moelle de Pierre, Brochant, i.
447. Slrgile Lithomarge, Haiiy, iv. 444.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, chiefly diftin-
guiftied by their cohelion. Thefe are, 1. friable : 2.
indurated.
Subfpecies 1. Friable Lithomarga.
. Exter. Char.— l his is found maflive or difleminated •
is flightly glimmering ; adheres ftrongly to the tongue;
feels grealy. 0
29. Species. Yellow Earth.
Id. Kirw. i. 194. La Terre Jaune, Broch. i. 433.
Exter. Char.—Yellow earth is found maflive $ it is
dull, or in the principal frabture, which is flaty, glim¬
mering j crofs frablure earthy j fragments very blutit-
edged. ,
Colour ochrey yellow j very foft j ftreak ftiining:
feels greafy, and adheres a little to the tongue.
Localities, &.c.—-It has only been found in fmall
beds in ftratified mountains, at Wehraw in Upper Lu-
fatia,
Part I.
Claffifica-
tion.
3
Part 1. MINER
Claffifica- fatia, snd it is faid, in the cavities of gray wacken, and
non. jn t^e figures of a fandftone rock.
  XJfcs. It is employed in the arts as a pigment.
V. MAGNESIAN G ENUS.
i. Species. Native Magnesia.
Magnefie Native, Brochant, ii. 449.
Ex ter. Char Native magnefia is found maffive, tu¬
berous or carious. Surface uneven and dull. Fradture
flat, conchoidal, fplintery or earthy. Fragments lharp
Colour yellowilh gray, with fpots and dendritic deli¬
neations of black or blackilh brown. Opaque, foft and
eafily frangible. Feels greafy ; adheres to the tongue,
and is rather light.
Conjlituent Parts.
Carbonic acid 51*
Magnefia 47'4
A trace of iron
Lofs
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral was difeovered by Dr
Mitchell in a ferpentine rock at Roubfchitz in Mora-
Viat
A mineral in many refpefts fimilar to this has
* Jour, de been analyzed by Giobert *. It was long known un-
Phyf. lx. derthe name of porcelain earth, and was luccelslully
345’ employed in that manufadlure. Giobert fuppoies that
the external characlers, and particularly the colours, ot
the mineral found in Moravia, feem to indicate the exit-
tence of other fubftances befide thofe detefted by Dr
Mitchell’s analyfis. _ # ,
£xter. Char.—The mineral defenbed by Giobert is
found maflive or in mammillary fragments, feme of
which are tuberculated. Surface dull. Fradlure con¬
choidal or uneven. .
Colour pure white. Opaque. Spec. grav. variable.
Hard, fometimes foft. Feels greafy ; adheres (lightly
to the tongue. The fofter varieties abforb water gree¬
dily and with a hifiing noife.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Conjlituent Parts.
Magnefia 68.
Carbonic acid 12.
Silica 15-6
Sulphate of lime 1.6
Water 3*
100.2
Localities, &c —This mineral is found at Baudiffero,
in a vein which traverfes a fteatitic rock of which the
mountain is compofed.
2. Species. Bole.
Id. Kirw. i. 190. Le Bol, Broch. i. 459. Argile
Ochreufe, Hauy, 445*
Exter. Char. Found maflive and diffeminated ; fur-
face dull, fometimes a little glimmering ; fradure con¬
choidal j fragments (harp-edged.
A L O G Y. 191
Colour yellovvifli brown or reddiih, with fpots and Magnefian
dendritical figures of black j opaque, rarely tranflucent ._ gen"5, .
at the edges} very foft j eafily frangible j adheres to
the tongue ; feels greafy j ftreak (hining : fp. grav.
I.4 to 2.
Chem. Gfor.--Before the blow-pipe it becomes black
or gray, and melts into a greenifh gray flag. Falls to
pieces in water with a crackling noife, and without
forming a pafte.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica 47-
Alumina 19-
Magnefia 6-2
Lime 5-4
Oxide of iron 5*4
Water i?-
IOO.O.
Localities, &c.—The chief places which yield bole'
are the ifland of Lemnos, hence called Lemnian earth;
Sienna in Italy, and Strigau in Silefia, in which latter
place it is depofited on indurated clay , in Upper Lu-
fatia it forms nefts in bafalt.
Ufes.—Bole and fimilar earths were formerly employ¬
ed in medicine j it is now' only ufed in the preparation
of colours.
ClMOLITE.
This is a mineral which in many of its chara&ers is
clofely connected with the preceding.
Exter. Char.—It is found maflive *, fraflure earthy
uneven, or flaty ; colour grayilh white, pearl gray, and
expofed for fome time to the air, reddifli j opaque ;
does not itain j adheres ftrongly to the tongue ; is foft,
and difficultly frangible : fp. grav. 2.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it becomes at
firlt of a deep gray colour, but afterwards white.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica 63.
Alumina 23.
Oxide of iron 1.25
Water 12.
Lofs -75
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral was brought by Mr
Hawkins from the ifland of Argentiers, formerly
Cimolo, from whence it has its name. Olivier found a
fimilar fubftance in the ifland of Milo, but which
was very friable.
JJfes.—This fubftance is employed in whitening wool¬
len fluffs. It is deferibed by Pliny under the name
Cimolia, as being applied to the fame purpofe, and alfo
as a medicine in his time.
It is to be obferved that cimolite contains, according
to the above analyixs, no magnefia.
3. Species. Sea froth.
KeJfehilL Kirw. i. 144. L'Ecume de Mer, Broch. i.
462. Argile glaife, Hauy, iv. 443. Meerfchaum
pf the Germans,
Exter,
192 MINER
^genusT11 Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, diffe-
■ » minated, or in fuperficial layers. Surface dull. Frafture
fine earthy, fometimes flaty. Fragments (harp-edged.
Colour yellowilh white. Opaque. Very foft. Eafily
frangible. Streak (hining. Feels greafy j and adheres
to the tongue. Sp. gr. 1.6
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Conflituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica
Magnefia
Lime
Water
Carbonic acid
Lofs
50.5
17.Z5
41'
18.25
•5
39-
u75
ConjHtuent Parts.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Magnefia
Oxide of iron
Water
Bergman.
5t.8
25-
3-3
•7
3-7
JSS
IOO.CO
A L O G Y. Part I.
Ex ter. Char.—Steatites is found maflive, diffemina- Claflifica-
ted, and cryftallized. Forms of the cryftals, a lix-fided tion
prifm terminated by a fix fided pyramid 5 a re&angular
and rhomboidal four-fided priim; and a double fix-fided
pyramid. The cryftals are fmall, generally imbedded
in the maffive variety j but they are very rare ; and it
is iuppofed, with fome probability, that they are pfeudo-
cryftals. Surface of the cryftals fmooth and (hining.
Internally dull j fra&ure coarle fplintery, rarely earthy
ordaty. Fragments blunt-edged.
Colour greenilh, yellowifh, reddiffi or grayiffi. Co¬
lours fometimes mixed, and fpotted or dendritical.
Tranflucent at the edges. Soft, fometimes friable.
Streak (hining. Feels greafy. Sp. gr. 2.614.
Chem. Otar.—-Iniufible before the blow-pipe j but
becomes white and very hard.
Localities, Sue.—Sea froth is found in Natolia, in the
Crimea, in Spain and fome other places. It appears to
be diftributed in low grounds in thin beds ‘7 and it is
faid to be in the date of foft pafte which hardens in the
air.
U/es.—It is employed in Turkey, in the manufacture
of the heads of tobacco pipes j and as a deterfive Tub-
fiance, like fullers earth, by the Tartars.
. Species. Fullers Earth.
Id. Kirw. i. 184. La Terre a Foulon, Broch. i. 464.
yirgile SmeBique, Haiiy, iv. 443.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive. Surface dull. Frac¬
ture fine-grained earthy, conchoidal or (laty. Frag¬
ments blunt-edg'ed.
Colour olive green, yellowiffi or reddiffi. Colours
fometimes mixed and difpofed in fpots or ftripes ; opake j
foft ©r friable. Streak fomewhat ffiining. Sometimes
adheres to the tongue $ feels greafy.
Chem. Char.—Does not effervefee with acids j melts
into a brown fpongy clay j falls to pieces In water with-
ouLforming a pafte, and does not froth up like foap.
Conftituent Parts. Klaproth.
From Bayreuth,.
Silica
Magnefia
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Water
Lofs
From Cornwall.
48.
20.5
14.
J.
I5-5
59-5
3°-5
2.3
5-5
Localities, &c.—Steatites is found in primitive moun¬
tains, forming beds and veins in ferpentine rocks j fome¬
times in metallic veins, as in the tin mines near Frey-
berg. It is alfo imbedded in wacken, as in the ifland
of Skye, and in veins of ferpentine at Portfoy in Scot¬
land. Steatites is alfo found in Cornwall in England,
and in Sweden, Norway, Saxony, and France.
XJfes.—Steatites is fometimes employed in the manu¬
facture of porcelain, and fome varieties of it anfwer for
the fame purpofe as fullers earth.
6. Species. Figure stone.
La Pierre a Sculpture, Broch. i. 451. Le Bildjlein of
the Germans.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive. Inter¬
nal luftre fometimes glimmering, fometimes dull, greafy.
TraCture flaty $ crofs fraCture fplintery.
Colour, olive green, greeniffi gray, yellowiffi brown,
fometimes reddiffi, and veined. Semitranfparent, or
tranflucent at the edges, and fometimes opake. Soft j
feCtile j feels greafy. Sp. gr. 2.78 to 2.81.
Localities, ^.c.—Fullers earth is found in Sweden,
“Saxony, and France, forming beds j but the beft fullers
earth is found between ftrata of fandftone in Hampffiire
and fome other places of England.
Vfes.—Fullers earth is of great importance in woollen
manufactures, on account of its deterfive properties. It
is extenfively employed in the procefs of fulling or clean¬
ing woollen fluffs from greafy matters.
5. Species. Steatites.
La Pierre de Lard, ou Steatite, Broch. i. 474. Semi-
indurated and Foliated Steatites, Kirw. i. 151, and
154. Talc Steatite, Hauy, iii. 256.
2
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Oxide of iron
W ater
Lofs
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Tranflucent. Opaque Figure ftsne.
54. 62.
36. 24.
•75
5-5
3-75
25
Localities, &c.—This mineral is broupht from China,
and is always . ur into various, often lingular, figures j
and hence the name UUiJtein, or jculpture jione.
7. Species.
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
i93
7. Species. Nephrite, or JrJe.
Jade, Kirvr. i. 171. Le Nephrite, Broch. i.467.
Haiiy, iv. 368.
This fpecies is divided into two lubfpecies.
Subfpecies 1. Common Nephrite.
cutting inftruments by the natives of thofe countries Magnc-fua
where iron is little known. gemib.
Jai?ei g. Species. SERPENTINE.
Id. Kirw. i. 156. La Serpentine, Brochant, i. 481.
Roche Serpentineufe, Hatty, iv. 436.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maffive, diffemi-
nated, or in rounded pieces. The lurface is fmooth,
glimmering, and un&uous; internally it is dull; frac¬
ture llaty or coarfe fplintery, rarely fibrous ; fragments
(harp-edged.
Colour leek green, fometimes inclining to blue, green-
i(h or yellowifli white 5 tranllucent, fometimes only at the
edges 5 hard •, very difficultly frangible ; feels greafy.
Sp. grav. 2.97 to 4.38.
Chem. Char.—Fulible before the blow-pipe, and melts
into a femitranfparent white glafs.
ConJUtuent Parts. Hoepfner.
Subfpecies 1. Common Serpentine.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, very
rarely difleminated; internal lufire (lightly glimmer¬
ing, or only dull; frafture fplintery, or fine grained un¬
even, rarely conchoidal 5 fragments (harp-edged.
Colour blackiffi green, leek green, grayiffi, greeniffi,
or bluiffi gray ; in fome varieties, red ot various
ffiades. Thefe colours are mixed and difpofed in fpots,
ftripes, veins, and dots. Tranflucent at the edges, or
opaque ; femihard; not difficultly frangible; feels
greafy. Spec. grav. 2.57 to 2.7.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Silica 47
Magnelia 38
Alumina 4
Lime 2
Oxide of iron 9
100
Localities, Szc.—The repofitory of nephrite is un¬
known. It was originally brought from the Levant,
Eaft Indies, and China. It is found alfo in the Alps,
in Switzerland, and in Piedmont. The water-worn
pebbles which are collefted on the banks of the lake
of Geneva, often contain this mineral. It is found
alfo in a fimilar form at a particular place on the
(liores of Iona, one of the Hebrides, in Scotland.
Ufes.—Oriental nephrite, long known under the
name of Jade, is held in confiderable eftimation on ac¬
count of its hardnefs and tenacity. It is employed
by the Turks for the handles of knives and fabres,
and frequently by others for various ornamental pur-
pofes.
The property of curing difeafes of the kidneys is
aferibed to this mineral by ancient authors, and hence
the name nephritic Jlone, or nephrite.
Subfpecies 2. Axe Stone.
La Pierre de hache, Brochant, i. 470. Beiljlein of the
Germans.
Exter. Char.—This is alfo found maffive, but mod
frequently in rounded pieces ; luftre glimmering, or
weakly (hining; fradure in large mafles, flaty ; in
fmall, fplintery ; fragments in the form of plates.
Colour deep meadow-green, fometimes olive green 5
tranflucent •, femihard, and fometimes hard ; not very
brittle ; more difficultly frangible than the preceding-
variety.
Localities, Szc.—This mineral is found in China,
the Eaft Indies, and South America, on the banks of
the river Amazons. It is found alfo in fome of the
i(lands in the South fea, as well as in Corfica, Switzer¬
land and Saxony.
li/es.—Axe (lone is employed as hatchets and other
^ VOli. XIV. Part I.
Conjl intent Parts. Kir wan.
Silica 45
Alumina 18
Magnefia 22
Oxide of iron 3
Water 12
100
Localities, &c.—Serpentine belongs to the clafs of
primitive rocks, and it conftitutes entire mountains.
It is found in Saxony, Bohemia, Italy, Corfica, and
Siberia 5 in Cornwall in England, wffiere it contains
native copper, and at Poitfoy in the north of Scotland,
where it is knowm by the name of Portfoy marble.
Common ferpentine is frequently mixed with fteatites,
talc, afbeftus, garnets, and magnetic iron, but never
contains limeftone. This variety, in the language of
Werner, is of a newer formation than the following
fubfpecies.
Vfes.—Serpentine is fufceptible of a fine poliffi 5 on
account of which, and its beautiful colours, it is em¬
ployed for various ornamental purpofes.
Subfpecies 2. Precious Serpentine.
Exter. Char.—This alfo is' found maffive or difle¬
minated ; internal luftre glimmering, rarely weakly,
(hining, refinous; fra&ure conchoidal, even or fplintery j
fragments (harp edged.
Colour dark leek green of various (hades j tranf¬
lucent •, femi-hard j eafily frangible; feels (lightly
greafy.
Localities, &c.—This fubfpecies is found in fimilar
places with the preceding. It is diftinguiffied from it
by being always connedled with limeftone. The (tones
known in Italy by the name of verde di Prato, verde
Antico, verde di Su%a, which are very often accompa¬
nied by limeftone, may be included under precious
ferpentine.
9. Species. Schiller Stone.
Schillerfpath, or Spath Chatoyant, Brochant, i. 421.
Schiller Spar, Kirw. 221.
B b Exter.
194
JViagnefian
genus.
M I N E K A L O G Y. Part T
Exief. Char.—This ftiineral is found diffemmated in
thin plates, which affume a cryftallized form, as in that
of a table with fix fides, or a Ihort fix-fided prifm j lufire
fhining, fometimes refplendent, and femi-metallic 5 frac¬
ture foliated.
Colour olive green, bronze yellow, or filvery white $
foft •, eafily frangible •, fomewhat elaftic •, feels greafy.
Chent. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts with
borax* into a glafs which becomes opaque on cooling.
Localities, See.—Common talc is always found in Claffifica-
ferpentlne rocks, where it accompanies aftynolite, flea-. tl°n- ,
tites, and indurated talc. What is called Venetian talc
is brought from the mountains of Saitzburg and the
Tyrol.
XJfes.—Taic is fometimes employed as a fubftitute for
chalk, enters into the compolition of crayons, and is
mixed with fome kinds of paint.
Subfpecies 3. 'Indurated Talc.
ConJHtuent Parts. Heyer.
Silica 52.
Alumina 23-33
Magnefia 6.
- Lime 7.
Oxide of iron 11.67
100.00
Localities, Stc.—Schiller ftone is found at Bafta in the
Hartz, in Moravia, the Tyrol, in Corfica, and in Corn¬
wall. It is ufually imbedded in Terpentine, and is ac¬
companied by quartz, mica, and copper pyrites. It is
fuppofed by fome to be cryftallized ferpentine.
10. Species. Talc.
This fpecies is divided into three fubfpecies 5 1. earthy,
2. common, and 3. indurated talc.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Talc.
Talcite, Kirw. i. 149. Le Talc Terreux, Brocb. i. 486.
Talc Granuleux, Hairy, iii. 255.
Exter. Char.—Earthy talc is found difleminated in
kidney-form mafies, or in fuperficial layers 5 luftre glim¬
mering, pearly \ friable j the particles fcaly, pulveru¬
lent, or flightly cohering.
Colour greenifti, reddilh, or filvery white $ ftains ;
feels greafy, and is light.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Piedmont,
Saxony, Bohemia, and in the weftern parts of Invernefs-
flrire in Scotland, where it exifts in veins or cavities of
primitive rocks.
Subfpecies 2. Common Talc.
Id, or Venetian Talc, Kirw. i. 150. Le Talc Comtnun,
Broch. i. 487. Talc Laminaire, Hairy, iii. 255.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, dif-
feminated, and rarely cryftallized in very fmall fix-fld-
ed tables j luftre ftrining or refplendent, pearly or me¬
tallic ; fra&ure ftraight or curved foliated ; fragments
wedge-fhaped.
Colour greenilh white, pale apple green, reddifh or
yellowifh white •, tranflucent or femitranfparent, in thin
plates tranfparent j foft, flexible, but not elaftic j feels
greafy. Spec. grav. 2.7 to 2.8.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, which
diftinguilhes it from chlorite ; does not effervefee with,
acids.
Conjlituent Parts. Hoepfner.
Silica, 50
Magnefia, 44
Alumina, 6
100
Le Talc Endurci, Broch. i. 489.
Exter. Char.—This is found maflive, and fometimes,
it is faid, cryftallized 5 luftre ftiining and refplendent,
refinous or pearly ; fraflure curved foliated, or flaty j
fragments blunt-edged, tabular.
Colour greenifh white, fnow white, or apple green 5
tranflucent j in thin plates femitranfparent j very foft j
fmooth, and greafy to the feel.
Localities, &c.—Indurated talc forms beds in moun¬
tains of argillaceous fchiftus, gneis, and ferpentine, in
the Tyrol, Italy, and Switzerland, and alfo in the
weftern parts of Scotland.
Ufes.-T-lt is applied to the fame purpofes as the pre¬
ceding.
11 Species. Asbestus.
This is divided into four fubfpecies: 1. mountain cork 5
2. amianthusj 3. common afbeftus 5 and, 4. ligniform
afbeftus.
Subfpecies 1. Mountain Cork. _
Suher Montanum, Kirw. i. 163. Le Liege de Mon-
tagne, JJroch. i. 492. sljbejle Treje, Hauy, iii. 247.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, often
in fmall plates, which are fometimes thin, and are then
denominated mineral paper ; fometimes thick, and then
called mineral leather ; more rarely in porous or cellular
pieces, when they are denominated ; Ibme-
times it is marked with impreflions ; the lultre is weak¬
ly glimmering or dull ■, frafture to appearance compaft
and uneven, but it is fibrous, and the fibres are fometimes
parallel, and fometimes interwoven j fragments very
blunt edged.
Colour yellowifh or grayifh white 5 opaque ; very
foft, extremely difficult to break ; in thin plates flexi¬
ble and elaftic •, creaks when handled feels meagre.
Spec. grav. 0.68 to 0.993.
them. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe with dif¬
ficulty.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica, 56.2
Magnefia, 26.1
Alumina, 2.
Lime, 12.7
Oxide of iron, 3.
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in thin veins
in ferpentine rocks : it is often mixed with quartz, talc,
and filver ores, as in Saxony. It is alfo found in Svye-
den, Norway, Siberia, Hungary, and in the lead veins
at Leadhills in Scotland.
Subfpecies
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
195
l' Subfpecies 2. AMIANTHUS. Localities.—It is found in fimilar lit nations with the Magnefian
^ Id. Kirw. i. i6r. DAmianthe, Broch. i. 404. Afbejle Preceding, in Saxony, Ruffia, Sweden, and in the weftern
Flexible, Haiiy, iii. 247. Parls of Scotland.
Exter. Char.—This variety is alfo found maflive,
more rarely diffeminated, and in fmall detached bundles $
luftre glimmering, or a little Ihining and lilky j fradore
fibrous ftraight or parallel.
Colour greenifh or filvery white, yello.wilh white, or
greenilh gray j opaque j rarely tranllpcent at the
edges •, very flexible, and even elaftic in thin fibres j
feels greafy.
Chem. Char.—Melts with difficulty before the blow¬
pipe, into a white, gray, yellow, and fometimes black
enamel.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman. Chenevix.
Silica
Magnefia
Alumina
Lime
.Barytes
Oxide of iron
Lofs
64 64 59.
17.2 18.6 2 c.
2.7 3.3 3.
13.9 6.9 9.25
6.
2.2 J.2 2.25
1.50'
100.0 100.0 100.00
Localities, &c.— Amianthus is ufually found in primi¬
tive rocks, but particularly thofe of ferpentine. It is
found in Saxony, Bohemia, Italy, Spain, France, Swe¬
den, and in the weftern parts of Scotland ; but the fineft:
fpecimens of amianthus are brought from the ifland of
Corfica.
JJfes.—On account of the flexibility of this fubftance
it is fpun into threads ; for this purpofe it is mixed with
lint, to render the threads lefs brittle in working them
into cloth, which is afterwards paffed through the fire
that the vegetable matter may be confumed, and the
amianthus, which is infufible, remains j and thus an
incorabuftible cloth is obtained. The ancients manu-
fadured this cloth for the purpofe of wrapping round
their dead bodies, that their alhes might be preferved
unmixed with the wood employed in burning them.
Subfpecies 3. Common Asbestos.
Ajbejlus, Kirw. i. 159. L'Aficfle Commune, Brochant,
i. 497. AJbeJle Dur, Haiiy, iii. 247.
Exter. Char.—This alfo is found maflive; luftre
(hining and weakly ftiining, filky or refinous ; furface
fibrous, the fibres being parallel, ftraight or curved j
the fibres are more ftrongly united than in amianthus,
and hence fometimes a fplintery fra&ure.
Colour leek green, greenifh, or yellowifli gray j tranf-
lucent at the edges j foft, or lemihard 5 rather eafily
frangible ; little flexible ; feels greafy j fpec. grav. 2.54
to 2.99.
Chem. Char.—Melts with difficulty before the blow¬
pipe, into a dark gray flag.
Conjlituent Parts. Wiegleb.
Silica 46.66
Magnefia 48.45
Oxide of iron 4.70
Lofs .1
100.00
Subfpecies 4. Ligniform Asbestos.
Id. Kirw. i. t6i. Le Buis de Montague, Brochant, i.
499. AJbeJle Ligniforme, Haiiy, iii. 248.
Exter. Char—This alfo is found maflive ; luffre
glimmering, filky ^ fradure in large maffes, curved
llaty ; in fmall pieces fibrous, and having the ap¬
pearance of a woody texture j fragments in elongated
plates.
Colour yellowifti brown of different (hades j opaque j
foft; not difficultly frangible ; in thin fragments a little
flexible, but not elaftic ; feels meagre j adheres to the
tongue j ftreak ftiining.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow pipe is only fufible at
the edges.
Localities, Sac.—T his variety is found in the Tyrol,
where it is accompanied by galena, black blende, and
a grayilh white quartz.
12. Species. Cyanite.
Id. Kirw. i. 209. La Cyanite, Brochant, i. 501. Sappare,
Saujf. §. 1900. DJlhene, Haiiy, iii. 220.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, diffe¬
minated, or cryftallized, in four-fided prifms, of which
two are broad and tw-o narrowq and having the four la¬
teral edges, or only the two oppofite edges, truncated.
This prifm is often lo flattened, as to have the appear¬
ance of a table. The broad faces of the cryftals are
fmooth and ftiining, the narrow faces ftreaked and only
glimmering, almoft dull. Internal luftre ftiining and
pearly ; fra&ure curved radiated j that of the cryftals
foliated j fragments tabular, fometimes fplintery, or im-
perfeflly rhomboidal.
Colour blue of various (hades, fometimes bluifli and
pearl grayj and different colours are arranged in (tripes,
fpots, or clouds j tranflucent, or when cryftallized
femitranfparent, or tranfparent; femihard, and fome¬
times foft; eafily frangible j feels greafy. Spec. grav.
3.51 to 3.62.
_ Chem. Char.—Entirely infufible before the blow¬
pipe, on which account this mineral was employed by
Sauffure as a fupport for other fubftances in experiments
with that inftrument.
Conjlituent Parts. Sauffure.
Silica 29.2
Alumina 35.
Lime 2.25
Magnefia 2.
Oxide of iron 6.65
Water and lofs 4.9
100.00
Localities, &c.—Cyanite is found on St Gothard in
Switzerland, in cryftals mixed with quartz, garnets, and
granite, and imbedded in indurated talc. It is alfo.
found in Spain, France, Carinthia, Bavaria, Siberia, and
in the north of Scotland, and always in primitive moun¬
tains.
13. Species,
Bb 2
ipS MINER
Magnefian
, ge'1U5- 13. Species. Actynolite.
This is divided intx) three fubfpecies; t. afbeftous,
2. common, and 3. glafly.
Subfpecies 1. Asbestous Actynolite.
Amianthinite, Kirw. 3. 164. and Metalliform AJbeJloid,
ibid. 167. LaRayonnante Afbejl'tforme^ Broch. i. 504.
Aciinote Aciculaire, Hauy, iii. 75.
Exler. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, and
rarely cryftallized in rhomboidal fix-fided prifms, two
of which are about 1240 30', and four about
luftre glimmering j internal luftre weakly fhining, fome-
times ihining, pearly j fradture radiated j fragments
wedge-draped.
Colour white, or greenidi, reddilh, or yellowilh
grayj commonly opaque; fometimes tranflucent at the
edges; ftreak greenilh white; foft, rarely femi-hard ;
rather difficultly frangible. Specific gravity 2.58 to
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe into a
black flag, or grayiffi white enamel.
Localities, &c.—Found in the neighbourhood of
Bayreuth and the Bannat, in beds of ferpentine and
fteatites.
Subfpecies 2. Common Actynolite.
AJhcJlinite, Common, AJbeJloid, and Schorlaceous AByno-
lite, Kirw. i. 165—-168. La Rayonnante Commune,
Broch. i. 507. Aciinote Hexa'edre, Hairy, iii. 74.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, diffeminated, cryftallized in
elongated, very oblique, fix-fided prifms, having the
acute lateral edges truncated. The cryftals are acicular,
and longitudinally ftreaked ; luftre fhining and vitreous;
fraffure radiated, parallel or divergent, ftellated ; frag¬
ments rather blunt-edged.
Colour olive green, piiiachio green, reddifh brown ;
cryftals tranflucent or femitranfparent; femihard ; dif¬
ficultly frangible ; rarely feels greafy. Spec. grav. 3
.to 3-3r- '
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe into a
black flag, a white tranfparent glafs, or a grayifti white
enamel.
ConJUtuent Parts. Bergman.
Silica 64.
Magnefia- 20.
Alumina 2.7
Lime 9.3
Oxide of iron 4.
100.0
Localities, &.c.—It is found in Saxony, Switzerland,
Norway, and weft fide of Invernefs-ftiire in Scotland.
Its repofitory is in primitive mountains, where it is ac¬
companied with ores of lead and iron, as well as with
quartz and brown blende.
Subfpecies 3. Glassy Actynolite.
Id. Kirw. i. 168. La Rayonnante Vitreufe, Broch. i.
A L O G Y/ Part I.
510. Thallitc, Lametherie, ii. 319. Epidote, Hauy, Claffifka-
iii. 102. ' ' tion.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or cryftallized in thin
fix-fided priims, whofe furface is fmooth and re-
fplendent ; internal luftre fhining, vitreous ; fracture
radiated or wedge-fhaped, fibrous ; fragments fplin-
tery.
Colour olive green, leek green, and afparagus green;
tranflucent, or femitranfparent; femihard, or hard ; very
brittle, and very eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.95 to
349*
Localities, &c.—This variety is found in fimilar re-
pofitories, and in fimilar places with the preceding.
14. Species. Tremolite.
This is alfo divided into three fubfpecies; 1. afbeftous,
2. common, and 3. glafiy.
Subfpecies 1. Asbestous Tremolite.
La Eremolithc AJheJiiJorme, Broch. i. 514. Gramnmtite,
Flauy. iii. 227.
Exter Char.—Found maffive, difleminated, and
cryftallized ; and the cryftals are capillary or acicu¬
lar ; luftre weakly finning, filky or pearly ; frac¬
ture radiated or fibrous; fragments fplintery and wedge-
fhaped.
Colour yellowiffi white, reddiffi, greeniffi, or grayifli;
opaque; tranflucent at the edges; very foft; eafily
frangible.
Subfpecies 2. Common Tremolite.
La Tremolithe Commune, Broch. i. 515.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, or cryftallized in rhomboidal
prifms, with angles of 1 26° $2' 12", and 530 7' 48,/.
The cryftals are deeply ftriated longitudinally; exter¬
nal luftre refplendent; internal fhining, pearly; frac¬
ture radiated, either parallel, divergent, or promifcu-
ous: furfaces of the frafture longitudinally ftreaked ;
fragments fplintery.
Colour greenifh white, reddifh, or yellowiffi; rarely
pearl gray ; always tranflucent ; in cryftals femitranf¬
parent ; femihard ; brittle; eafily frangible ; meagre
to the feel.
Subfpecies 3. Glossy Tremolite.
La Tremolithe Vitreufe, Broch. i. 516.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, or cryftallized in long needle
or awl-fhaped prifms ; internal luftre fhining, and
fometimes refplendent ; vitreous or pearly; fradlure
radiated; crofs fra&ure even, and a little oblique;
fragments fplintery.
Colour greenilh or yellowiffi white; tranflucent ;
cryftals fometimes tranfparent; femihard ; brittle;
eafily frangible; feels meagre. Spec. grav. 2.92 to
3.2, Hauy.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts into a
porous white flag.
Confitucnt-
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
ConJHtuent Parts.
Klaproth.
Laugier.
Silica
Lime
Magnefia
Oxide of iron
Carbonic acid 7
and water J
Lofs
65.
18.
io-33
.16
6.5
White.
35-5
26.5
16.5
23-
Gray tremolite.
5°
18
25
.01  
100.00 101.5
100
Physical Char.—By percuffion or fri&ion in the
dark, a reddilh phofphorefcent light appears j and the
powder thrown on burning coals yields a greenilh
light.
Localities, See.—Tremolite is found imbedded in
limeftone, in primitive mountains. It was firft difeover-
ed in the valley of Tremola by Pini, and hence its
name. It is alfo found in Hungary, Bohemia, and Ca-
rinthia, and in the mountains fix miles fouth of Pail-
ley in Scotland, where it is accompanied with preh-
nite.
15. Species. Smaragdite.
Id. Sauffure Voy. $. 1313* Diallage, Hauy, iii. 125*
Id. Brochant, i. 423. and ii. 506.
Exter. Char.—Smaragdite has been found maflive
and diffeminated. Internal luftre fhining. Fracture
foliated. Cleavage fingle. Fragments rather fitarp
edged.
Colour, grafs or emerald green. Slightly tranllu-
cent. Semi-hard or foft. Brittle. Spec. grav. 3.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe melts into a gray
or greenilh enamel.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Magnefia
Oxide of iron
   chromium
5°
11
J3
6
Lofs
— copper
100.0
197
ed. Luftre (lightly glimmering, refinous. Fradlure fo-.Calcaiecus
liated. Cleavage threefold. Fragments fometimes t
rhomboidal.
Colour grayilh green or bluifti gray. In thin plates
tranllucent. Scarcely fcratches glafs. Very foft to the
touch, from which it has the name malacolite. Spec,
grav. 3.2307 to 3.2368.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe into a
porous glafs.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica
Lime
Magnefia
Alumina
Iron and manganefe
Lofs
53
20
19
3
4
1
100
Localities, Sec.—This mineral was difeovered by
D’Andrada in the filver mines of Sahla in Sweden, and
hence it derived its name. It was found by the fame
naturalift at Bufen in Norway.—It appears from the
obfervations of Hauy that fahlite and augite are very
clofely allied, not only in ftru&ure and external cha-
radlers in general, but alfo in their conftituent princi¬
ples 5 the only difference in their compofition is in the
proportions of the lime and magnefia, which are fmall-
er in augite than in fahlite ; but the proportion of iron
in the former is confiderably greater than in the lat¬
ter.
17. Species. Schalstone, or Tabular Spar.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive ; luftre
fhining and pearly ; fra&ure foliated or fplintery, and
coarfe fibrous 5 confifts of feparate large-grained pieces
implicated in each other ; and according to Karften,
are very regular.
Colour milk white, yellowilh or reddilh white ,
tranflucent 5 femi-hard , brittle.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica
Lime
Water
50
45
5
Localities, Sec.—This mineral was found by Sauf-
fure in the vicinity of Turin, imbedded in nephrite
clouded white and blue. It has alfo been found near
the lake of Geneva among the rounded pebbles, and in
Corfica in primitive rocks. In Italy, tables and orna¬
mental pieces of furniture are made of fmaragdite ; and
the Italian marble-cutters call it verde di Corjica.
16. Species. Sahlite.
Id. D’Andrada, Jour, de Phyf. An 8. p. 241. Mala-
colithe, Hauy,- iv. 379. Id. Brochant, ii. 518.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or cryftallized in fix-
fyled prifms, having two oppofile lateral edges Cuncat-
Localities, Sec.—This mineral was firft noticed by
Stutz. It is found in the bannat of Temefwar, and
is accompanied by cryftallized garnets and calcareous
fpar.
VI. CALCAREOUS Genus.
1. Species. Agaric Mineral, or Mountain Mille.
Id. Kirwan i. 76. Id. Brochant i. 519. Chaux Car¬
bonate Spongieufe, Hauy, ii. 167.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is compofed of fine pul¬
verulent particles, flightly united together, and nearly
filable.
Colour yellowilh white, or fnow white} flains ftrong-
\
19S MINERALOGY.
Calcareous }y ; feels meagre ; does not adhere to the tongue 5 near-
. g«- ly floats on water.
" v Chem. Char.—Effervefces with acids, and is entirely
dilfolved, fo that it is chiefly compofed of lime and car¬
bonic acid.
Localities, See.—This mineral is found in the fif-
fures and cavities of calcareous mountains, and it is
fuppofed that it originates from the deftruftion of the
rocks, the particles of which are carried down to the
fiffures and cavities by rain water. Abundant in Swit¬
zerland.
Part 1.
Conjiituent Parts. Tennant.
Lime 29.5
Magnefia 20.3
Carbonic acid 47.2
Alumina and oxide of iron .8
Lofs 2.2
2. Species. Chalk.
Id. Kirwan i. 71. La Crate, Brochant, j. 521. Chaux
Carbonate Cray cafe, Hauy, ii. 166.
Exler. Char.—Found maflive } has a dull appear¬
ance j fradure earthy, and fragments blunt edged.
Colour ufually fnow or yellowilh white, fometimes
gray or brown ; opaque *, flams and writes \ very foft,
•and ealily frangible 5 feels meagre ; adheres a little to
the tongue. Spec. grav. 2.31 to 2.65.
Chem. Cfor.—Eflfervefces with acids; before the
blow-pipe is calcined, and converted to quicklime. It
is almoft entirely compofed of lime and carbonic acid,
vt’itli a mixture of a little oxide of iron and fome other
fubftances.
Localities, &c.—Chalk forms peculiar ftratiform
mountains which contain many petrifadions, the matter
of which is almoft ahvays filiceous. They contain alfo
flints arranged in regular ftrata. No metallic fubftances
are found in chalk. A great body of chalk traverfes
France from fouth to north, extending from Champag-
ny to Calais, and continued to England, in the fouth
of which it forms extenftve beds. Chalk is alfo found
in the ifland of Zealand, in the Baltic, in Poland and
many other places.
3. Species. Limestone.
This is divided into four fubfpecies, which are, 1. corn-
pad, 2. foliated, 3. fibrous, and 4. pea ftone.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Limestone.
This fubfpecies is again divided into two fedions $
the firft including common compad limeftone, and the
fecond roe-ftone.
A. Common Compact Limestone.
Localities, &c.—Forms very extenfive ftratiform
mountains, and is ufually met with along with coal and
fandftone. It is very abundant in Saxony, Bohemia,
Sweden, France, Switzerland, and Britain.
LJfes.—The ufes of limeftone for the purpofes of
building, and when reduced to the ftate of quicklime,
to form the bails of mortar, as well as in various arts,
are well known.
This variety of limeftone, when fufceptible of a po-
lilh, furnilhes many of thofe ftonfis which are known by
the name of marbles ; which name, although it be ap¬
plied to very different ftones which are fufceptible of a
polifli, and are fit for fculpture, or ornamental archi-
tedure, is frequently applied to limeftone of this de-
feription.
B. Oolite, or Roe Stone.
Id. Brochant, i. 529. Oviform Limefone, Kirw. i. 91.
Chaux Carbonate Globuliforme, Hauy, ii. 171.
Exter. Char.—This is found maflive 5 internally dullj
fradure compad \ fragments blunt-edged.
Colour yellowilh, fmoke gray, hair, or reddifti brown j
opaque \ rarely tranflucent at the edges $ femihard j
confifts of fmall, globular, diftind concretions : the
fize of the concretions very various. Spec. grav. 2.4
to 2.5.
Localities, &c.—Roe ftone is found in Sweden, Swit¬
zerland, Saxony, and in the fouth of England.
The ketton ftone of England, and the celebrated
Portland ftone, belong to this variety. Of the latter
fome of the principal public buildings in, England and
Ireland are conftruded.
Ufes.*—It is employed as a building ftone 5 and »dien
of a fine grain, it is poliflied and employed as marble.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Limestone.
Of this there are two varieties, granularly foliated,
and calcareous fpar.
Id. Kirw. i. 82. Id. Broch. i. 523. Chaux Carbonate
CompaBe, &c. Hauy, ii. 264.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; external form fre¬
quently figured from the numerous petrifadions wdnch
it contains; internally dull j rarely glimmering •, frac¬
ture compad, fplintery, uneven or earthy j fragments
not very (harp edged.
_ Colour ufually gray, fometimes reddifh or yellowilh j
different colours exhibit fpots, ftripes, veins, and den-
dritical figures •, tranflucent at the edges $ femihard j
brittle } eafily frangible •, feels meagre ; gives a grayilh
white ftreak. Spec. grav. 2.6 to 2.7.
Chen\- Char.—DiiTolres in acids with effervefoence.
A. Gkanolaely Foliated Limestone.
Pierre Calcaire Grenue, Broch. i. 531. Chaux Carbo-
natd Saccharbide, Hauy, ii. 164.
Exter. Char.—Yo\M\& only maflive j hiftre Ihining,
or ftrongly glimmering •, between pearly and vitreous ,
fradure ftraight foliated j fragments rather blunt-
edged j in granular, diftind concretions, fmall or fine
grained.
Colour ufually fnow white, grayilh, yellowilh, green-
ilh, and rarely reddilh white, and fometimes it is fpot-
ted, veined, or ftriped $ ufually tranflucent; femihard j
feels meagre ; brittle, and eafily frangible. Spec. grav.
2.7 to 2.8.
*
3
Chem.
Part T. MINE R
Claflifica- CJietn. Char.—EServefces with acids, and is almoft
tion. entirely diflolved. Some varieties, however, from an
admixture of other fubltances, are very {lowly a&ed on
by acids.
Localities, See.—Granularly foliated limeflone be¬
longs almoft excluftvely to the primitive and tranfition
mountains, repofing on gneis, micaceous fchiftus, and
clay flate, containing, beftde other mineral fubftances,
various metallic ores.
It is found in Italy, Saxony, Bohemia, Sweden, Nor¬
way, Fiance, and Britain.
Ufes.—This variety of limeftone is applied to the fame
purpofes as the former.
Of Marbles.— In the language of the architeff and
ftatunry, all ftones come under the name of marble
which are harder than gypfum, are found in large maftes.
and are fufceptible of a good polilh.
On this principle many varieties of limeftone, granite
alfo and porphyry, ferpentine, and even fine-grained
bafalt', are denominated marbles. But the word among
mineralogifts is taken in a more reftrifted fenfe, and
confined to fuch varieties of dolomite, fwineftone, and
compaft and granularly foliated limeftone, as are capable
of receiving a good polilh. The moil valuable of the
calcareous marbles, for hardnefs, durability and colour,
are brought from Italy, the Greek iilands, and from
Syria. When the ancient Romans were at the height
of their civilized luxury, they obtained fome varieties of
marble from Numidia and other countries, which were
Very much efleemed.
The fculptors of ancient Greece and modern Europe
have always held the white granularly foliated limeftone
in the higheft eftimation, both on account of its pure
colour, delicate tranflucence, and granular texture,
which make it much caller to work than cornpacf
limeftone. The fpecies called dolomite is fofter, and
of a finer grain, fo that it is even more manageable
tinder the chiflel, and therefore many of the fmaller
works of the Greek fculptors are of this ftone •, but
Paros and Carrara furnifh Europe with the greateft
quantity of ftatuary marble. The Parian marble, which
confifts almoft entirely of carbonate of lime, is the
pureft, fofteft, and has fome degree of tranfparency ;
that of Carrara is often mixed with granular quartz in
confiderable proportion. The following are the archi¬
tectural marbles which are held in greateft eftimation.
1. The marble called hardiglio, from Carrara, is of a
deep blue colour, and leems to be the lame with the
white ftatuary marble of that place, with the addition
of fome colouring matter.
2. That variety of marble called cipoiin, is ftatuary
marble traverfed by veins of mica.
3. Lumachella marble. This is a compadt limeftone of
a brownifti gray colour, containing theils which often
retain the original pearly luftre. To this variety belongs
the fire marble of B1eyberg in Carinthia, in which the
imbedded {hells are beautifully iridefeent.
4. Florentine marble. This is a grayifti, compact,
argillaceous limeftone, exhibiting deligns of a yellowilh
brown colour, and refembling the ruins of houfes: hence
it is called ruin marble.
• 5. The marbles of Syria, Sienna, and Arragon, are
of a yellow colour, and are in csnfiderable eftimation.
6. Brocjteilo mrrb/e. This is a breccia limeftone,
cempofed of fragments of a yellowilh red and purple
A L O G Y. 199
colour, which are cemented by femitranfparent, white Calcareous
calcareous fpar. Senus-
7. The marbles known by the names of verde antiche,' v
verde di Corjica, are compofed of limeftone, calcareous
fpar, ferpentine, and aibeftus.
8. The Britiftr ifiands ciTord many fine marbles, of
which that of Tiree is the fineft and moft beautiful. It
has often a delicate flelh coloured ground, fpotted with
green ; but its colours, it is faid, are apt to fade.
Marbles have alfo been found in the ifiand of Skye,
and in the counties of Rofs and Sutherland. For a
particular account of thefe, fee William's Mineral
Kingdom. Marble is not uncommon in different parts
of England ; and in particular Devonftiire and Derby-
fhire afford varieties which are held in confiderable efti¬
mation on account of their beauty.
E/aftic marble. Some varieties of granular limeftone,
when cut into thin plates, poffefs a certain degree of
elafticity. The marble in which this property was
obferved, was in the B mghefe palace at Rome. It was
got from an ancient building. Dolomieu fuppofed that
marble acquired this property by being deprived of
moifture, and Fleuriau de Bellevue confirmed this
opinion, by fubjefting certain maibles to heat. He
found alfo a natural elaftic marble in Mount St Got-
hard.
B. Calcareous Spar.
Common Spar, Kirvv. i. 86. Le Sgath Calcaire, Broch.
i. 536. Cliaux Carbonate'e, Hauy, ii. 127.
Ej]en. Char.—Divifible into a rhomboid of
and 78^° ; foluble with effervefcence in nitric acid.
Exter. Char.—Calcareous fpar is found maffive, or
diffeminated in various forms, as globular, kidneyform,..
cellular, and ftaladHtical; but it is moft frequently cry-
ftaliized. The primitive form of its cryftals is an ob-
tufe rhomboid, whofe angles are 101° 32' 13'' and, 78°
27' 47" ; integrant molecule the fame. The variety of
forms ot calcareous fpar is very great. Werner reduces
them to three principal or prevailing forms, and from
thefe he deduces the variations and modifications which
take place. His principal forms are, 1. The fix Tided
pyramid ; 2. The fix-fided priftn ; and 3. The three-
fided pyramid. But according to others following the
fame method, the principal forms are the five follow¬
ing : 1. The fix-fided pyramid; 2. The fix-fided prifm ;
3. The fix-fided table ; 4. The fix-fided pyramid, and
5. The hexahedron, including the rhomboid and cube.
1. The fix fided pyramid is either fimple or double.
A. Simple. Simple pyramids are the furnmits of
other pyramids, or of prifms, and they are varioufly
modified in being equal fided, acute, or obtufe, having
the angles at the bafe truncated, or having an obtufe
three-fided fummit {lightly convex.
B. Double ; in which two pyramids are obliquely
united, and varioufly modified, by having the angles at
the bafe truncated, or the faces of the fummit a little
convex.
2. The fix-fided prifm, is alfo varioufty modified, by
having at each extremity a fix-fided acute fummit, or a
fecond obtufe fummit of three fides, placed alternately
on three edges of the fit ft.
3- fix-fided tabie, which is either perfeft witJi
equal or unequal fides, or rounded, or lenticular.
4. Thau
200
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Calcareous 4. The three fided pyramid, which is either Ample
genus- or double, and is alfo varioufly modified.
* ' ' 5. The hexahedron, which includes the rhomboid,
and this is either perfefl, or has convex faces, or has fix
obtufe edges truncated , and the cube, which is fome-
what rhomboidal. But for a full account of all the
varieties and modifications in the cryftallization of cal¬
careous fpar, the reader is referred to the treatifes of
Hauy and Brochant.
The cryftals of calcareous fpar exhibit alfo a fimi-
larity of arrangement. The Ample fix-fided pyramids
are frequently difpofed in a globular, fafcicular, or
llellated form. The fix-fided pyramids are difpofed in
rows ; the fix-fided prifms are often difpofed like fleps
of flairs, or are fafcicular, or kidney-form •, fome acute
three-fided pyramids of calcareous fpar have been found
hollow, and in fome prifms the centre has been obferv-
ed of another colour. The furface of the cryftals com¬
monly fmooth •, luftre (hining or refplendent ; internal
luftre refplendent or fhining, vitreous, and fometimes
pearly ; fracture foliated ; cleavage threefold j fragments
always rhomboidal.
Colour ufually white, grayifh, reddifti, greenilh, or
yellowifti white, rarely violet blue, or yellowifh brown.
Various degrees of tranfparency j wThen perfectly tranf-
\ parent, refraflion is double. It was in this fubftance
that the property of double refra&ion was firft obferved,
and hence it wras called double /par. This Angular
property engaged the attention and mathematical fkill
of Newton, Huygens, Buffon, and more lately the
celebrated Hauy. Calcareous fpar is femihard, brittle,
and eafily frangible. Sp. grav. about 2.7.
Chem. Char.—Soluble with effervefcence in nitric
acid, and reduced by calcination to quicklime.
* Phil.
Mag. xiv.
290.
Conjlituent Paris.
Bergman. Phillips. *
Lime _ . 55 55-5
Carbonic acid 33 44.
Water n *5
100 100.0
Physical Char.—Some varieties of calcareous fpar,
and particularly thofe from Derbylhire, give out when
heated, a phofphorefcent light.
Localities, &c.—Calcareous fpar is very common in
all kinds of rocks, in veins and cavities, and particularly
in mineral veins, accompanied with quartz, lluor Ipar,
heavy fpar, and metallic ore. The fineft fpecimens of
rhomboidal fpar are brought from Iceland, Derbyfliire,
the Hartz, as well as Saxony, France, and Spain.
The cryftallized fandftones of Fontainebleau are
real rhomboidal cryftals of calcareous fpar, which, during
the procefs of cryftallization, have been penetrated with
particles of fand.
Subfpecies 3. Fibrous Limestone.
Id. Kirw. i. 88. La Pierre Calcaire Fibreufe, ou la
Stalactite Calcaire, Broch. i. 549. Chaux Carbonates
Concretionnce, Hauy, ii. 168.
Of this fubfpecies tw7o varieties have been formed,
common fibrous, and calcareous finter.
4
A. Common Fibrous Limestone.
Claflifica-
tion.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; luftre w'eakly ftiining
and pearly 5 fraclure fibrous, fometimes coarfe and deli¬
cate, ftraight or parallel, and fometimes radiated ; frag¬
ments fplintery.
Colour ufually grayilh, reddifh, and yellowifti white ;
generally tranflucent 5 rarely femitranfparent.
Localities, &c—This variety is found in veins ; and
fome of it is fufceptible of a fine polifti, and was known
to the ancients under the name of calcareous alabajlcr,
to diftinguifti it from gypfeous alabafter.
Sattin fpar, a beautiful mineral, which is alfo fuf¬
ceptible of a fine polifti, and has a filky luftre, from
W'hich it derives its name, belongs to this variety. It
was firft discovered in Cumberland, and has fince been
found in other places in Britain.
B. Calcareous Sinter.
This variety is ufually found llaladtitical or tuberofe,
and alfo fometimes kidney-ftiaped, botryoidal, tubular,
and coralloidal. Surface ufually rough, or drufy,
rarely fmooth 5 internal luftre glimmering, fometimes
w7eakly Ihining, filky, or pearly 5 fra&ure fibrous, which
is either ftraight, fcopiform, or llellular; fragments
wredge-fiiaped and fplintery.
Colour fnow white, grayifti green, or yellotvifti
white, and thefe are fometimes arranged in ftripes or
veins j tranftucent, fometimes only at the edges j rarely
femitranfparent ; between femihard and foft j brittle
and eafily frangible. Sp. grav. 2.728.
Localities, &c.—This mineral leems to be a depo-
fition of calcareous particles, formed by the gradual in¬
filtration of water into the cavities and fiffures of lime-
ftone mountains. They are either depofited in layers
on the floor, or fufpended from the roof of thofe grottoes,
and in this latter cafe they aflume a great variety of
imitative forms. It is found therefore, in the celebrated
grottoes of Auxelles, Arcy, and Antiparos, and in the
cavities of mineral veins at Leadhills.
The Angular mineral fubftance, known by the name
offlos ferri, belongs to this variety. This is found in
the cavities of veins of fpathofe iron ore, from which it
has derived its name. It is of a branched or coralloidal
form.
Subfpecies 4. Pisolite or Pea-Jlone.
Oviform Limejlone, var. Kirwr. i. 91. La Pierre de Pois,
Broch. i. 555. Chaux Carbonates Global forme,
Hauy, ii. 171.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, and in
the cavities in which it is formed, the furface is kidney-
ftiaped j internally dull ; frafture difficult to determine
but appears even •, fragments rather ffiarp-edged.
Colour white, fnow white, grayiffi, reddiflr or yel¬
lowifti white •, opaque ; jrarely tranflucent at the edges j
foft, and brittle.
Localities, &c.—Pifolite is found at Carlfbad in
Bohemia, where it has been long known, and wnere
an entire bed w'as difeovered in digging the foundations
for a church. Each of the grains of pifolite contains
for a nucleus a particle of fand. Thefe have been in¬
cruft ed with the carbonate of lime held in folution by
water,
V
Part T.
MINERALOGY.
2cr
Claffifica- water, and particularly by tbe warm fprings of Carlf-
tl0r1, bad. New concentric layers being depollted, they at
’ v laft fall to the bottom, and are there united into larger
mafles by new depolitions of the fame calcareous matter.
Pifolites are alfo found in Hungary and in Silefia.
4. Species. Calcareous Tufa.
TLxter. Char.—This mineral has ufually the form of
the fubftance on which the calcareous matter has
been depofited, as that of mofs-which is molt com¬
mon, grafs or leaves ; internally dull, or weakly glim¬
mering ; fracfure uneven or earthy 3 fragments blunt-
edged.
Colour yellowifh gray of various (hades 5 opaque, or
translucent at the edges 3 foft, fe£Hle, and eaiily fran¬
gible 3 light 3 almoft fwims on water.
Localities^ &c.—This fubftance is found in all lime-
done countries, through the drata of which water paffes,
. thus forming fprings impregnated with carbonate of
lime, which is afterwards depofited on plants or other
fubfiances. This mineral, therefore, is found in alluvial
land, and the procefs of its formation is conftantly go¬
ing on.
5. Species. Foam Earth.
Silvery Chaih, Kirw. i. 78. L'Ecume de Terre, Broch.
i- 5'57-
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, dif-
feminated, or in fcaly particles, which are fomewhat
friable 5 internal luftre fhining or femimetallic 3 the
iolid varieties have a curved foliated fra&ure j frag¬
ments blunt edged.
Colour yellowifh or greenifh wdiite, fometimes filvery
white 3 opaque 3 (tains 3 very foft or friable 3 feels a
little greafy or filky.
diem. Char.—Effervefces.and difiblves in acids,
Conjlituent Paris.
Lime, _ 51.5
Carbonic acid, 39.
Silica, 5.7
Oxide of iron, 3.2
Water, 1.
100.5
Localities, &.e.—This mineral has been found in
mountains of (tratified limeftone at Jena in Mifnia, and
at Eifleben in Thuringia.
This is confidered by fome as belonging to the fol¬
lowing fpecies, and by others as merely a variety of a-
garic mineral.
'6. Species. Slaty Spar.
Argentine, Kirw. i. 105. Le Spa the Schi/leux, Brcch.
i. 558. Schiefer Spath of the Germans. Id. Phillips,
Phil. Mag. xiv. 289, and 293.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or diffeminated ; in¬
ternal luftre (hining, pearly 3 fracture curved foliated 3
fragments wedge-ffiaped, or blunt-edged.
Colour grayiffi. reddiffi, or yellowiih white 3 tranfiu-
cent 3 foft; brittle 3 feels greafy. Spec. gray. 2.723.
Vcl. XIV. Part I.
Chem. Char.—EfFervefces brifkly with acids. Calcar eon"
genus.
ConJHtuent Parts.
Carbonate of lime, 98. II
Silica, .05
Oxide of iron, .8
Lofs, 1.04
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Saxony, in-
a bed of limeftone, where it is accompanied with ga¬
lena; in Norway 3 and in Cornwall in England.
7. Species. Arragonite.
Arragon Spar. Kirw. i. 87. L'Arragonite, Broch. i.
576. Id. Hauy, iv. 337.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always found cryftat-
lized in fix-fided equiangular prifms, or with two op-
pofite faces broader, to which correfpond the two faces
of an acute bevelment, which terminates the prifm.
The edges of the bevelment are alfo truncated. The
cryftals are varioufly grouped, and commonly in the
form of a crofs 3 cryftals (freaked longitudinally 3 luftre
(hining or refplendent, vitreous ; fradture foliated.
Colour grayiih or greeniih wffiite 3 tranflucent and
femitranfparent 3 refradfion double 3 hard, fcratches
calcareous fpar ; brittle, and eafily frangible. Specific
gravity 2.946.
Chem. Char.—Effervefces with acids, and is entire¬
ly diffolved. The conftituent parts, according to nu¬
merous and accurate analyfes, are the lame as thofe
of calcareous fpar 3 but its fuperior hardnefs, diver-
fity of form, and other external charadfers, have long
puzzled chemical philofophers 3 and it (fill remains un¬
determined to what that diverfity is owing in this mi¬
neral.
Localities, &c.—Arragonite was firft found imbed¬
ded in foliated and fibrous gypfum, in the province of
Arragon in Spain, from which it derives its name.
It has been alfo found in France, the Pyrenees, in
Saltzburg, fometimes in an argillaceous fchiftus, and
(ometimes in quartz, accompanied by calcareous fpar and
pyrites.
8. Species. Brown Spar.
Sidero Calcite, Kirw. i. 105. Ze Spath Brunifant,
Broch. i. 563. Chaux Carbonatee Fcrrifere PerlSe,
Hauy, ii. 179.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or diflenainated, or in
kidney (haped, globular, or carious pieces 3 very often
cryftallized. The forms are lenfes or rhomboids, which
latter have either convex or concave faces 3 double
pyramids compofed of two pyramids with three obtufe
faces : fimple three-fided pyramids, and oblique fix-fided
pyramids. The furface of the cryftals drufy, rarely
imooth 3 luftre weakly (hining or (hining 3 internal
luftre ftiining, pearly, or vitreous; fra&ure foliated 3
fragments rhomboidal.
Colour milk-white, grayiffi, yellowiffi, or reddiffi
white ; bright ^ or browniffi red 3 tranllucent at the
C c edges;
202 MINER
Calcareous edges; femihard ; brittle, eafily frangible} ftreak
, Senus- grayilb white. Spec. grav. 2.83.
Chem. Char.—Becomes black and hard before the
blow-pipe, and unlefs reduced to powder, effervefces
{lowly with acids.
ConJHtuent Parts. Bergman.
Carbonate of lime, 50
Oxide of iron, 22
Oxide of manganefe, 28
Localities, &c.—Brown fpar is found in Bohemia,
Saxony, France, Sweden, and Britain. It is ufually
found in metallic veins.
9. Species. Dolomite.
Id. Kirw\ i. in. Dolomie, Brochant, i. 534. Chaux
Carbonatee Aluminifere, Haiiy, ii. 173.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive j fraflure appears to be
foliated 5 fragments blunt-edged.
Colour graybh or yellow ilk white 5 tranducent on the
edges } femihard 5 rather difficultly frangible ; feels
meagre. Spec. grav. 2.85.
Confliiuent Parts. Sauffure.
Lime
Alumina
Magnefia
Oxide of iron
Carbonic acid
Lofs
44.29
5.86
1.4
•74
46.
1.71
100.00
C'hem. Char.—Effervefces flowly in nitric acid.
Phys. Char.—Phofphorefces in the dark by the per-
cuffion of a hard body.
Localities, &c.—This done was firft obferved by
Dolomieu, amongjthe ancient monuments of Rome; and
afterwards he difcovered iimilar ftones in the mountains
of the Tyrol, and the Alps. It is found abundantly
on St Gothard and other primitive mountains. Dolo-
mieu’s attention was firft attrafted to it by its fupe-
rior hardnefs and flow effervefcence in acids, and ana-
lyfis ffiews that it is different from limeftone in its com-
pofltion.
10. Species. Rhomb or Bitter Spar.
Crystallised Muricalcite, Kirw. i. 92. Le Spath Mag-
nejien, Brochant, i. 560. Chaux Carbonatee Mag-
nefifere, Hairy, ii. 187.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or diffeminated in
rhomboidal pieces, which have a cryflallized appear¬
ance •, luftre ihining or refplendent, and vitreous or
pearly; fraflure foliated ; cleavage threefold ; fragments
rhomboidal.
Colour grayiffi white, yellowith or reddifli brown ;
tranflucent at the edges; femihard ; brittle ; ftreak
fnow-white. Spec. grav. 2.48.
Chem. Char.—Becomes gray or brown before the
A L O G Y.
blow-pipe without fplitting or fufion.
tie with acids.
Part I.
Effervefces a lit- Claffifica-
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Carbonate of lime
    magnefia
Oxides of iron and manganefe
52
45
3
100
73
25
2
100
Localities, &c.—Found in the Tyrol and Saltzburg,
and in Sweden. It is always accompanied with afbeftus,
talc, and tremolite, and imbedded in chlorite fchiftus,
ferpentine, and indurated talc.
11. Species. Swine Stone.
Id. Kirwan, i. 89. La Pierre Puante, Brochant, i. 567.
Chaux Carbonatee Fcetide, Haiiy, ii. 288.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive ; internal luftre glim¬
mering or dull; frafture fplintery, fometimes earthy
or foliated ; fragments fplintery.
Colour grayiffi black, or blackifli brown ; opaque,
rarely tranflucent at the edges; ftreak grayiffi white ;
femihard, fometimes foft; eafily frangible. Spec. grav.
2.71.
Phys. Char.—When rubbed with a hard body, it
gives out a very foetid odour of rotten eggs.
Chem. Char.—Soluble with effervefcence in nitric
acid ; before the blow-pipe is deprived of its odour,
which is fuppofed to be owing to fulphurated hy¬
drogen.
Localities, &c.—Forms entire beds in ftratiform lime¬
ftone rocks, as in France, Saxony, and Sweden.
12. Species. Marl.
This is divided into two fubfpecies ;
2^ indurated.
earthy; and.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Marl.
Id. Kirw. i. 74. La Marne Terreufe, Brochant, i. 569,
Argile Calcar if ere, Haiiy, iv. 455.
Exter. Char.—This variety is compofed of loofe or
flightly coherent particles ; ftains a little ; feels meagre
and rough ; is light ; almoft fwims on water.
Colour yellowiffi gray, or grayiffi white.
Localities, &c.—Found in many places of France
and Germany, as well as in different places of England
and Scotland, forming beds in limeftone countries, and
often immediately under the foil.
Cfes.—It is fometimes employed in the manufacture
of pottery, but its principal ufe is for the purpofes of
agriculture.
Subfpecies 2. Indurated Marl.
Id. Kirw’. i. 95. La Marne Endurcie, Brochant, i. 571.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive ; dull, or flightly glim¬
mering ; frafture earthy, fplintery, or flaty ; fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour yellowiffi, or fmoke gray; opaque ; ftreak
grayiffi white ; foft; not very brittle ; eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 1.6 to 2.8.
Chem.
I
M I N E R A L O G Y.
Part I.
Claffifica- &hetn. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a
tion. grayith black Hag •, elfervefces brilkly with acids.
  Marl is confidered as a mixture of carbonate of lime
and alumina j and according to the different proportions
of thefe ingredients, it is denominated calcareous marl
'or clay marl, and fometimes it is known in agriculture
by the names of foft and hard marl.
Localities, &c.—Found in Bohemia, Saxony, Swe¬
den, Italy, France, and Britain, in ftratiform moun¬
tains, fometimes in extenfive beds, frequently accom¬
panying limeftone, coal, and bafalt.
TJfes.—It is employed in agriculture for improving
the foil, fometimes for building, and fometimes as a
limeftone. It ferves alfo as a flux for fome ores of iron.
13. Species. Bituminous Marl Slate.
Marno-bitumineux, Brochant, i. 574* Chaux Carbonatee
Bituminifere, Haiiy, ii. 189. *
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; furface rough, dull,
rarely glimmering j or when divided into curved plates,
fmooth and fhining •, fra&ure flaty j ftraight or waved j
fragments tabular.
Colour grayifh or brownifh black ; opaque j ftreak
{hining ; foft 5 eafily frangible ; feels rather meagre.
Chem. Char.—Effervefces with acids j inflames be¬
fore the blow-pipe ; gives out a bituminous odour, and
then melts into a black flag.
Localities, &c.—Found in different places of Thu¬
ringia, in mountains of ftratiform limeftone, forming
particular beds, which repofe frequently on a fpecies of
fandftone. It is frequently mixed with different ores of
copper, fo that it is fometimes wrought as a copper ore.
In this bituminous fchiftus, petrified fifties and marine
plants are frequently found, difpofed in regular order,
from which fome have conjedtured that they muft have
died a violent death •, or, according to others, that
they have been poifoned by the copper with which it
abounds.
Chem, Char.—Thrown on hot coals it gives out a Calcareous
greenifh phofphorefcent light*, infufible before the blow- , geiJ-1-* i
pipe, but lofes its colour. It is almoft entirely foluble
in nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Lime, _ 55
Phofphoric acid, 45
100 *
Pkyf. Char.—Becomes eledlric by fridtion, but not
by heat.
Localities, &c.—Apatite is found in different place*
of Germany, chiefly in tin mines, where it is accom¬
panied by fluor fpar, quartz, and metallic ores. It is
alfo found in Cornwall in limilar circumftances.
15, Species. Asparagus Stone.
La Pierre d'Afperge, Broch. i. 586. Chaux Plmfphatcc,
Hairy, ii. 234.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been only found
cryftallized in equiangular fix-fided prifms, terminated
by a (lightly obtufe fix-fided pyramid j lateral edges
fometimes truncated j lateral faces longitudinally (freak¬
ed, the others fmooth ; external luftre (hining or re-
fplendent 3 internal, refplendent and refinous 3 fradfure
foliated, crofs fradlure imperfedfly conchoidal 3 frag¬
ments n@t very (harp-edged.
Colour afparagus green, greenilh white 3 commonly*
tranfparent, often only femitranfparent, or even tranf-
lucent 3 femihard. Spec. grav. 3.09.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe 3 folu¬
ble with effervefcence in nitric acid, but thrown on hot.
coals does not phofphorefce.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
14. Species. Apatite.
Phofpholite, Kirw. i. 128. DApatite Commune, Bro¬
chant, i. 580. Chaux Phofphatee, Hauy, ii. 234.
Lime, . _ 53-32
Phofphoric acid, 45*7 2
Lofs, .^6
Exter Char.—Found almoft always cryftallized, rare¬
ly diileminated. The forms of its cryitals are, 1. A regu¬
lar fix-fided prifm 3 2. The fame prifm truncated on its
lateral edges 3 3. AFo on its angles and terminal edges 3
4. Bevelled on each of the lateral edges ; 5. With an
obtufe and regular fix-fided pyramid, and one or both
extremities, the fummit being (lightly truncated 3 6. A
three-fided prifm with the lateral edges bevelled, and
the terminal edges truncated 3 7. A fix fided table, ha¬
ving its terminal edges ftrongly, and the lateral edges
(lightly truncated. Lateral faces of the prifms longitudi¬
nally (freaked 3 faces of the pyramid fmooth 3 luftre
(hining and refplendent ; internal luftre (hining, be¬
tween refinous and vitreous. Crofs fra£lure foliated 3 in
other dire6fions fine grained, uneven, or conchoidal.
Fragments rather (harp-edged.
Colour green of various (hades, blue, fometimes
pearl gray, and greenith gray 3 femitranfparent, fome¬
times tranfparent, or only tranflucent 3 femihard 3 is
fcratched by fluor fpar 3 brittle, and eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 2.8 to 3.2.
/
100.00
Localities, &c.—This (lone has been found at Ca-
prera, near Cape de Gates in Spain, and alfo, it is faid,
near Arendal in Norway.
16. Species. PHOSPHORITE.
L'Apatite Terreufe, Broch. i. 584. Chaux Phofphatee
Terreufe, Hairy, ii. 239.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, and having little co¬
herence 3 dull 3 frafture earthy, or fine grained uneven 5
fragments blunt-edged, fometimes wedge-ftiaped.
Colour yellowifh or grayiftr white 3 opaque ; femi¬
hard 3 often friable 3 eafily frangible 3 feels meagre.
Spec. grav. 2.82.
Chetn. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it phofphorefces,
and according to fome, melts into a white glafs, but
according to others, infufible. Soluble in acids, and
with fulphuric acid gives out white vapours.
C c 2 Confituent
204-
Calcareous
genus.
Con/jituetit Paris.
Lime
Silica
Phofphoric acid
Fluoric acid
Carbonic acid
Muriatic acid
Oxide of iron
M I N E R A L O G Y.
its angles a three-fided pyramid, correfponding to tlie
faces of tire cube. 2. The octahedron, vyhich is either
Part I.
Pelletier.
59
2
34
2
I
100.0
Localities, &c.-— This mineral is found in the pro¬
vince of Efhemadura in Spain, where it forms an en¬
tire mountain. It is mixed with quartz ; has been long
hnorvn by the inhabitants of the country for its pro¬
perty of phofphorefcing when thrown on hot coals.
17. Species. Fluor.
i his has been divided in to three fubfpecies: I. earthy;
2. compaft j and, 3. fluor fpar.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Fluor.
Sandy or Earthy Fluor, Kirw. i. 126. Le Fluor Ter-
rcux, Broch. i. 593. Chaux Fluatee Amorphe, Haity,
n. 260.
Exter. Cnar.—Is compofed of particles which are
nightly cohering ; dull, or fcarcely glimmering.
^Colour greemlh white, fometimes bluifh green 5 flains
a little ; feels rough.
Chem. Char.— I brown on hot coals, it gives out a
bluifh green light.
Localities, &c.— Idas been found in Hungary, in a
vein accompanied with quartz.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Fluor.
Id. Kirw. i. 127. Id. Broch. i. 594.
. Extcr- Char.—\s found maffive j dull, luftre fome¬
times glimmering, vitreous; frafture even, conchoidal,
and rarely fphntery ; fragments fliarp-edgcd.
Colour greenifh gray, or greenilh white; fometimes
ditterent colours are difpofed in fpots; tranflucent ;
Break Ihinmg ; hard, and brittle.
Chem. Phofphorefces on hot coals.
. Localities, &c.— I his mineral is found in the Hartz,
m Sweden, and Siberia, always accompanying fluor
Subfpecics 3. Fluor Spar.
Foliated or Sparry Fluor, Kirw. i. 127. Le Spaih Fluor,
Broch. i. 595* Chaux F/uatee, Hauy? ii, 247.
FJfen. Char.—Infoluble in water, and divifible into a
iTgular oftahedron.
Exter' Char.—FEor fpar is found maflive or diflemi-
nated, but moft frequently cryftallized. Primitive form
a regular octahedron, which is eafily obtained by me¬
chanical divifion ; integrant molecule a regular tetra-
hedron. The ufual forms are, j. The cube, which is
eitner perfeC, or with truncated edges or truncated
angles, or with the edges bevelled, having on each of
peritci, or has it angles or its td es, or b*th, trunca¬
te! Surface of the cryilals imooth, fhining or re-
fplendent, fometimes drufy ; internal luitre fhining, re-
fplendent, and vitreous or pearly ; fracture foliated
ftraight or curved ; cleavage fourfold, in the diieftion
of the faces of the regular oCfahedrOn ; fragments tetra¬
hedral, or rhomboidal.
Colours of riuor fpar extremely various and beautiful.
The principal are, greenifh white, grayiik, or yellow-
1,11 ’ o^ie, green, brown, and red, of various ihades ;•
and different colours are fometimes arranged in flripes
and fpots. Moft commonly tranflucent, fometimes
tranfparent, or only tranflucent at the edges. Semi-
hard ; brittle ; eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 3.09 to
3 • * 9*
them. Char.—Fufible before the blowr-pipe into a
tran fparent glafs; decrepitates when heated. The pow¬
der thrown on hot coals gives out a bluifh or greenifh
phofphoreicent light; and two pieces rubbed againif
eacn other, (bine in the dark.
Coujiituent Parts.
Lime
Fluoric acid
Water
Scheele,
57
16
27
100
Localities, &c.—Fluor fpar is fometimes found in
beds, but moft frequently in mineral veins. It is very
common in many places of the world, particularly in
Cornwall and Derbyfhire, and alfo in the counties of
Durham and Cumberland in England ; at Chamouni in
Savoy, the octahedral variety of a rofe red colour is
found. Fluor fpar is found alfo in the interior part of
Aberdeenfhire in Scotland.
—This mineral is fuccefsfully employed as a flux
for different metallic ores. As it is fufceptible of a fine
polifh, it is cut and formed into a great variety of or¬
namental obje&s, as pyramids, vales, &c. which, on
account of the beauty of the colours, are greatly
efteemed.
18. Species. Gypsum.
I his fpeciesis divided into four fubfpecies : 1. earthy*
2. compact ; 3. foliated ; and, 4. fibrous.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Gypsum.
Farinaceous Gypfum,^ Kirw. i. 120. Lc Gypfe Terreux,
Bioch. i. 601. Chaux Sulphatee Terreuje, Hauy, ii.
278.
Exter. Char.—This is compofed of particles which
are more or lefs cohering ; dull, in fome places weakly
glimmering ; feels meagre and rough.
Colour white, gray, or yellowifb.
Localities, &c.—This fubftance is rare; it is only
found in the fiffures and cavities of gypfum rocks, and
is fuppofed to be a depofition of loofe particles of gvp-
fum, carried along by water. Found in Saxony, °and
Mont Martre near Paris.
Subfpecies
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
Id. Kirvt'. I. I 21
278.
Id. Broch. i. 602. Id. Hauy, ii.
Broad Foliated Gypfum, Kirw. i. 123. la Selenite,
Broch. i. 609. Chaux Sulfatce, Hauy, ii. 266.
Exter. Char.—Found mafftve ; luflre weakly glim¬
mering, almoft dull ; frafture compadt, even, or fplin-
tery j fragments blunt-edged.
Colour yellowifh and grayidi wdiite, fometimes red-
dilh ; and different colours exhibit ftripes 5 tranflucent
at the edges 5 loft, and eafily frangible. Spec. grav.
about 2.3.
Localities, &c.—Found in Italy, Germany, France,
Spain, and England.
Subfpecies 3. Foliated Gypsum.
Granularly Foliated Gypfum, Kirw. i. 123. Id. Brcch.
i. 606.
Exter. Char.—Found mafiive or diffeminated, and
fometimes, it is faid, cryffallized in fix-lided prifms,
obtufely bevelled at each extremity 5 luftre glimmering
or fhining, between vitreous and pearly j frafture fo¬
liated, foraetimes radiated j fragments blunt edged.
Colour ufually fnowr white, grayifh, yellowifh, or
reddilh white ; and feveral colours are arranged in
fpots, flripes, and veins. Tranflucent, rarely feraitranf-
parent 5 refraction 'double j very foft j eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 2.27 to 2.31.
Foliated gypfum has fome refemblance to granular
limeftone, but may be readily diftinguifhed from it by
its foftnefs.
Subfpecies 4. Fibrous Gypsum.
Id. Kirw. 3. 122. Id. Broch. i. 604. Id. Hauy, ii.
278.
Exter. Char.—This is found maflive, but in thin
layers ; lulfre Ihining, or weakly fhining, pearly ; frac¬
ture fibrous 5 in fome varieties the longitudinal fradfure
is foliated j crofs fradlute fibrous 5 fragments long,
fplintery.
Colour fhow white, grayifh, yellowifh, or reddifh
white •, tranflucent; very foft •, ealily frangible.
Chem. Char.—The different varieties of gypfum pof-
fefs nearly the fame chemical chara&ers. When purb,
there is no effervefcence with acids. Before the blow-
pipe gypfum immediately becomes white, is converted
into a white enamel, which, at the end of 24 hours,
falls into powder.
Localities, See.—Gypfum, in general, conftitutes
mountains or beds, which are fubordinate to fandflone,
or limeftone. It is found in all kinds of rocks. Gyp-
iurn is found in great abundance in the neighbour¬
hood of Paris, in feveral parts of England, but Sparing¬
ly in Scotland.
Efes.—Gypfum is employed along with lime as a ce¬
ment. It is alfo very extenfively employed under the
name of plafter of Paris, for making cafts and models.
With this view it is expofed to a ftrong heat, to drive
off the water of cryftallization. It is then in the ftate
of powder, which being again mixed with water, is put
into the mould in the form of pafte ; and, from its
firong affinity for water, it foon becomes folid.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible into fmooth plates, which
break under angles of 1130 and 67°.
Exter. Char.—Selenite is found maflive 5 and frequent¬
ly alfo cryftallized. The primitive form of its cryftals
is a four-fided prifm, whofe bafes are oblique parallelo¬
grams 5 the integrant molecule is the fame. The ufual
forms are, a fix-fided prifm, having two broad and two
narrow faces, and terminated by an oblique bevelment,
whofe fidcs correfpond to the broad fides of the prifm ;
a fimilar prifm terminated by a four-fided pyramid ;
double cryftals compofed of two of the former united
by their fmaller lateral faces, fo that the fummits united
form on one fide a falient angle, and on the other a re¬
entering angle j another form is a Spheroidal or conic
lens. Thefe cryftals are often grouped, divergent, faf-
cicular, or ftellated ; and of the fix Tides of the prifm,
the two oppofite are fmooth, and the four others longi¬
tudinally ftreaked 5 luftre refplendent or fhining, be
tween vitreous and pearly ; fraclure foliated, ftraight or
curved ; cleavage threefold ; fragments rhomboidal,
with two faces fmooth and ftiining, and two others
ftreaked.
Colour ufually white, grayifh, yellowifli, or fnovc
white, fometimes iridefcent j tranfparent, fometimes on¬
ly tranflucent *, very foft ; in thin plates, flexible, but
not elaftic ; eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.32,
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe more eafily full—
ble than gypfutn, and fplits into thin platss.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Lime 32
Sulphuric acid 46
Water 22
100
Localities, Sec.—Selenite is found among beds of
gypfum, and particularly among thofe which alternate
with clay and fand ftone. It is alfo found in nefts in
clay. It is not uncommon in many places, as among
the gypfum rocks near Paris, in different parts of Eng¬
land, and at Lord Glafgow’s coal works in Scotland,
whete it is found among clay, and in the cavities or
on the furface of the limeftone which repofes on the
ftrata of coal.
Ufes.—Selenite alfo, after calcination, is employed
in modelling ; but it is faid that it poffeffes lefs folidity
than what is obtained from gypfum.
20. Species. Anhydrite.
Chaux Sulfatee Anhydre, Hauy, iv. 348.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive ; luftfe
fhining or weakly finning, and pearly •, fra£ture curved
foliated, fometimes radiated, and fine fplintery : frag¬
ments fharp-edged j tranflucent •, femihard-5 not very
brittle, rather eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.964.
Chem. Char.—Before^the blow-pipe it neither exfoli¬
ates nor becomes white, like felenit#.
/
ConJHtuent
MINER
ConjUtuent Parts.
Vauquelim Klaproth.
Lime, 40 42.
Sulphuric acid, 60 57.
Otide ol iron, — .1
Silica, — .25
Lofs, — .65
100 100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in
Switzerland, in the fait pits in the canton of Berne.
21. Species. Cube Spar.
Chaux Su/fatce Anhjdre, Hauy, iv. 348. Sonde Muri-
atee Gypjifere, Id. ii. 365- Muriacite, Klaproth.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, and al-
fo cryflallized, in four-fided prifms, which are nearly
cubical ; two of the oppofite lateral faces are broader
than the other two. The lateral edges are fometimes
truncated, and hence arifes an eightdided prifm : fome¬
times alfo the truncations are fo great as to deltroy the
narrow7 lateral faces, and form again a fix-fided prifm.
External lultre of the broad faces refplendent and pear¬
ly ; of the narrow', fhining. Internal luftre (hining and
pearly; fraflure foliated j cleavage threefold; frag¬
ments cubical.
Colour milk-white, grayifh, yellowifh, and reddifh
white ; fometimes pearl gray 5 tranflucent $ femihard.
Spec. grav. 2.92 to 2.96.
Conftituent Parts.
Sulphate of lime,
Carbonate of lime,
Muriate of foda,
Klaproth.
57-8
11.
31.2
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in the fait pits at Halle in
the Tyrol, where it is called fplintery gypfum.
22. Species. Datholite.
Chaux Datholite, Brongniart, ii. 397. Chaux Borate'e Si-
liceufe, Hauy.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has only been found
cryilallized ; the primitive form is a rectangular prifm,
with rhomboidal bafes, whofe angles are 109° iS7 and
70° 42' 5 luftre fttining, vitreous j fragments conchoi-
dal.
Colour grayilh or greenifti white j tranflucent j
fcratches fluor fpar. Spec. grav. 2.98.
Chem. Char.—In the flame of a candle it becomes
dull white, and is eafily reduced to pow'der. Before
the blow pipe it melts into a glafs of a pale rofe-red
colour.
Conjliluent Parts.
Lime,
Silica,
Boracic acid,
Water,
1
Klaproth.
35- 5
36- 5
24.
4-
100.00
A L O G Y. Part I.
Localities, &c.—Found near Arendal in Norway, Claffifica-
and fame fpecimens are accompanied by greenifti co-
loured, foliated talc. '
VII. BARYTIC Genus.
1. Species. Witherite, or Carbonate of Barytes.
Barolite, or Aerated Barytes, Iflrw. i. 134. La Wi.
therite, Brochant, i. 613. Baryte Carbonatee, Hairy,
ii. 308.
. Lffen. Char.—Forming a white precipitate in weak
nitric acid before folution.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, or diffeminated, rarely
cryftallized j forms of its cryftals are, a fix-fided prifm,
with a fix-fided pyramid fet on the lateral faces; the
fame prifm having all the angles truncated ; a double
fix-fided pyramid. The cryftals, which are fmall, are
ufually imbedded in the mineral itfelf; fometimes group¬
ed in bundles, or crofting each other. Surface fmoothj
luftre of the principal fratlure fhining, or weakly ftiining,
refinous ; fraClure between radiated and fol/ated ; crofs
frafture finegrained uneven 5 fragments wedge-fhaped.
Colour yellowifti gray, grayilh, or yellowifh white ;
tranflucent, or femitranfparent j femihard, or foft j
brittle 5 eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 4.3 104.33.
Chem. Char.—Infufible according to Hauy, before
the blow'-pipe; but according to Brochant, melts before
the blow-pipe to a white enamel.
Conjlituent Parts.
Pelletier.
Barytes, 62
Carbonic acid, 22
Water, 16
IOO
Vauquelin.
74-5
*S-S
100.0
Conflituent Parts according to Klaproth,
Carbonate of barytes, 98.246
Carbonate of ftrontites, I*7C3
Alumina iron, .043
Carbonate of copper, .008
100.000
Localities, &c.—This mineral was difcovered by Dr
Withering at Anglefark in Lancafhire, in lead veins,
which traverfe the coal ftrata, and it is accompanied
with heavy fpar and blende.
Barytes adfs as a ftrong poifon on the
animal economy. It has been long employed at
Anglefark for the purpofe of deftroying rats. It has
alfo been tried as a medicine in fcrofula, but feemingly
with little efteft j and it ought to be had recourfe to
with extreme caution.
2. Species. Heavy Spar, or Sulphate of Barytes.
This fpecies has been divided in eight fubfpecies $
earthy, compadt, granular, foliated, common, columnar
prifmatic, and bolognian.
' Subfpecies 1. Earthy Heavy Spar.
Earthy Barofelenite, Kirw. i. 138. Le Spath Pefant
Terreux, Brochant, i, 617.
Exter.
\
Part T.
MINER
Exter. Char,—Found maflive ; luftre fcarcely glim¬
mering, or dull, confifts of earthy particles, which are
(lightly cohering ; ftains a little j feels meagre.
Colour fnow white, grayifh, yellowith, or reddifh
white.
Localities. &.C.—This a rare mineral. It has been
found in Saxony, covering maffes of heavy fpar, and al-
fo in Derbyfhire and Stafforddiire in England.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Heavy Spar.
CornpaB Barofelenite, Kirw. i. 138. Baryte Sulfatee
CompaBe, Hauy, ii. 303. Id. Broch. i. 618.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, fometimes in kidney-
form or globular pieces, with cubical impreffions ; luftre
glimmering, fometimes dull, and fometimes wTeakly (hin-
ing •, fraflure coarfe earthy, fometimes uneven 5 frag¬
ments not very (harp-edged.
Colour yellowhh, grayirti wThite, fometimes pale fle(h
red 5 opaque, or tranflucent at the edges j foft ; not
very brittle $ ealily frangible ; feels meagre.
Localities, &c.—Found in mineral veins in Saxony,
and in England 5 in clay (late, in Savoy ; and we have
found it in fand (lone in Northumberland,
Subfpecies 3. Granular Heavy Spar.
Exter. Char.—This alfo is found maffive $ luftre
glimmering, nearly (Inning, and pearly ; frafture foli¬
ated, or fplintery •, fragments blunt-edged.
Colour fnow-white, milk-white, yellowiffi, or red-
diffi 5 tranftucent j foft ; not very brittle j eafily fran¬
gible. Spec. grav. 3.8.
Conftituent Parts. Klaproth.
Barytes, 60
Sulphuric acid, 30
Silica, 16
. K 100
A L O G i. 207
four-fided prifm, re&angular or oblique ; 3. A four- Barytic
fided table, rectangular or oblique •, 4. A fix-fided ^e^us~ .
prifm j 5. A fix-fided table ; and 6. A long eight-
(ided table. d'hefe forms are varioufty modified by
truncations and bevelments, and they are differently
grouped together ; the prifms crofs one another 5 the
tables are attached by their lateral faces, and form glo¬
bular or kidney-fhaped groups ; furfaces fmooth, fome¬
times rough and drufy. Luftre refplendent, (hining,
glimmering, or only dull: internal luftre (Inning or re¬
fplendent, between pearly and refinous : fraCture
ftraight foliated j cleavage threefold $ fragments fome-
what rhomboidal.
Colour commonly white, fnow-white, milk-white,
grayiffi, yellowiih, or reddiih *, in malfes tranflucent ;
in cryftals tranfparent or femitranfparent *, refra&ion
double ; foft j brittle. Spec. grav. 4.29 to 4.47, and
4-5- . .
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe into a
folid white enamel, which being moiftened, gives out
the odour of fulphurated hydrogen. Does not effer-
vefce with acids.
Conjlituent Parts.
Withering. Bergman.
Barytes, 67.2 84
Sulphuric acid, 32 8 13
Water, - 3
100.0 IOO
Localities, &c.—This is a very common mineral,
and particularly in metallic veins that traverfe primi¬
tive mountains. It accompanies ores of filver, copper,
lead, and cobalt, as well as fluor fpar, calcareous fpar,
and quartz.
Subfpecies 6. Columnar Heavy Spar.
Le Spath Pejant en Barres, Broch. i. 631. Baryte
Sulphatee Bacillaire, Hauy, ii. 302,
Localities, &c.—Found in mineral veins in Saxony,
along with galena, and in Siberia, accompanied by cop¬
per and filver ores.
Subfpecies 4. Foliated Heavy Spar.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, and in kidney-ffiaped,
globular and cellular pieces, compofed of four-fided
tables, or lenfes, with a drufy furface ; luftre glimmer¬
ing or (hining, between pearly and vitreous; fradure
curved foliated, fometimes fplintery ; fragments not
•v^ery (harp-edged, fometimes wedge-ffiaped.
Colour yellowiffi, reddiffi, or grayiffi white, fome¬
times fleffi or browniffi red ; tranflucent *, foft ; not
very brittle ; eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—Is not uncommon in mineral veins ;
fometimes alfo in beds, in many countries. It is alfo
found in Britain.
Subfpecies 5. Common Heavy Spar.
Foliated Barofelenite, Kirw. i. 140. Broch. i. 624.
Exter. Char.-—This mineral is found in mafles, or
diffeminated, and very often cryftallized. Its princi¬
pal forms are } 1. A double four-fided pyramid 5 2. A
Exter. Char.—Found always cryftallized : 1. In o-
blique four-fided prifms 5 2. The fame prifm terminated
by an acute bevelment ; 3. The fame prifm terminated
by a four fided pyramid placed on the lateral edges j
and 4. A fix-fided prifm bevelled at the extremity. The
cryftals are acicular, and are grouped together in bun¬
dles 5 furface (hining, or weakly (hiningj internal luftre
ffiining ; longitudinal fra&ure radiated } crofs fradlure
even. Fragments rhomboidal.
Colour filvery, grayiflx, or greeniffi white 5 tranflu¬
cent ; foft, and brittle.
localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, and Derbyffiire
in England, accompanied by other varieties of heavy
fpar, quartz, and fluor fpar.
Subfpecies 7. Prismatic Heavy Spar.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, and frequently cry-,
(lallized. TJie ufual forms are, 1. An oblique four-fid¬
ed prifm, bevelled at the extremities ; 2. An oblique
four-fided prifm, terminated by a four-fided pyramid
placed on the lateral edges ; 3. An elongated octahe¬
dron and 4. A fix-fided prifm. Luftre ffiining or re¬
fplendent, between refinous and pearly , fraClure foliate
ed j cleavage threefold.
Colour
208
MINER
Strontian Colour yellow)(li, greenifli, or pearl gray, fometimes
, £enus- pale blue, and rarely tlefh red 5 tranflucent ; when cry-
flallized, tranfparent 5 foft, and not very brittle 5 very
eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.-»Sometimes found in mineral veins,
as in Saxony.
Subfpecies 8. Bolognian Heavy Spar.
Le Spath de Bolo^ne, Brochant, i. 633. Striated or
Jibrous heavy fpar, Kirwan, i. 141. Barytefulfatee
radie'e, Hauy ii. 302.
Exter. Char.—This is found in rounded pieces; ex¬
ternal furface uneven, dull, or glimmering $ internal
lullre (hining, or weakly finning, between adamantine
and pearly 5 fradlure radiated, parallel, diverging, or
fibrous, fometimes foliated j fragments fplintery, fome¬
times rhomboidal.
Colour, fmoke or yellowifh gray ; tranfiucent, foft,
very brittle, and eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.—This mineral has been long known
by its property of fhining in the dark, after being
heated. Other heavy fpars^ indeed, have a fimilar pro¬
perty.
Conjlituent Parts. Arvidfon.
Sulphate of barytes 62.
Silica 13.
Alumina I4-75
Gypfum 6.
Oxide of iron .25
Water 2.
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found at Monte
Paterno near Bologna in Italy, in rounded maffes,
which have an uneven furface : they are imbedded in
an argillaceous or marly rock, wTich is a kind of amyg¬
daloid, and from wdiich they are detached by the ac¬
tion of the waters.
VIII. STRONTIAN Genus.
1. Species. Strontites, Carbonate.
La SIrontianite, Brochant, i. 637. Id. Kirwr. i. 332.
Strontiane Carbonatee, Hauy, ii. 327.
EJfen. Char.—Soluble in nitric acid w'ith effervef-
cence \ paper dipped in the folution, and dried, burns
with a purple flame.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, and fometimes cry-
flallized in needles, which are grouped together j
form of the cryftals a regular fix-fided prifm ; luftre
weakly fhining, or'only glimmerings internal luftre
fhining, and weakly fhining, between refinous and pear¬
ly ; frafture radiated, ftraight, diverging, or fibrous;
crofs fra&ure fine grained, uneven, or fplintery j frag¬
ments wedge-fliaped, or fharp edged.
Colour afparagus green, greenifh, whitifh, or yel¬
lowifh gray •, tranflucent ; femihard, brittle and eafily
frangible; feels a little greafy. Spec. grav. 3.4
to 3.67.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe whitens without
fufion, and afterwards expofed to the air, falls to pow¬
der.
A L o G Y.
ConJHtuent Parts.
. Klaproth. Pelletier.
Strontites 69.5 62
Carbonic acid 30. 30
Water .5 8
100.0 100
Localities, &c.-—This mineral has been hitherto
found only at Strontian in Scotland, in a lead vein
which traverfes a gneifs rock. It is faid alfo to have
been found at Leadhills.
2. Species. Celestine, Sulphate of Strontites.
La Celejline, Brochant, i. 640. Strontiane fulfaice,
Hauy, ii. 313.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible into a rhomboidal prifm,
with angles of about 105° and 730 ; gives a light red
colour to the blue part of the flame produced by the
blow-pipe.
Exter. Char.—Primitive form of its cryftals a iCft-
angular prifm, whofe bafessre rhombs } integrant mole¬
cule a triangular prifm with fquare bales. The forms
under which it generally appears are four or fix-fided
prifms, which are terminated by a two ficled bevelment,
a four-fided, or an eight-fided pyramid.
This fpecies has been divided into two fubfpecies :
I. fibrous j and, 2. foliated.
Subfpecies 1. Fibrous Celestine.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or cryftallized ; luftre
of the longitudinal frafture fhining 5 that of the crofs
fra£lure, weakly fhining between pearly and refinous.
Longitudinal fradlure foliated j crofs frafture fibrous,
curved 5 fragments fplintery ; rather blunt-edged.
Colour indigo blue, bluifh gray, and fometimes with
whitifh bands, or with yellovvifh brown fpots ; tranflu¬
cent j foft, and eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 3.83.
Confiluent Parts. Klaproth.
Strontites 58
Sulphuric acid and oxide of iron 42
ICO
L.ocalilies, &c.—Has been found in Pennfylvania in
America, and near Toul in France.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Celestine.
Exter. Char.—This is alfo found maflive and cryftal¬
lized 5 luftre weakly fliining, or fhining j that of th#
cryftals refplendent j fra&ure foliated, ftraight, or radi¬
ated •, cleavage three-fold.
Colour milk-white, grayifh, and bluifh-white j femi-
tranfparent, or tranflucent} femi-hard 5 very eafily fran¬
gible.
The following are the conftituent parts of a variety
of fulphate of flrontites, which is found at Mont Mar-
tre near Paris.
Sulphate of ftrontites
Carbonate of lime
Oxide of iron
91.42
8-3 3
•25
100.00 *
Locahties, ^
2
Part I.
M I N E R A
Localities, &c.—This variety is found in great abun¬
dance near Briftol in England, where the fulphate of
ftrontites was firrt difcovered by Mr Clayfield. It has
been fince found in Sicily, where it is accompanied
with fibrous'gypfum and native fulphur.
SECOND CLASS. SALTS.
1. Genus. SULPHATES.
i. Species. Native Vitriol.
Mixed vitriol, or fulphate of iron, copper and •zinc.
Kirwan, ii. 24. Vitrcol Natif, Brochant, ii. 2.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive or dif-
feminated, and alfo in a flalaftitical, cylindrical, and
capillary form : internal luftre thining, or weakly fhin-
ing, betvveen filky and vitreous j external furface rough
and uneven j fradture ulually fibrous, fometimes foliat¬
ed.
Colour grayifii, or yellowifh white, fometimes differ¬
ent (hades of fey blue ; the colour varies by expofure to
the air. Soft ; femi-tranfparent or tranflucent j tafle
four and aftringent.
Chem. Char.—Thefe are different, according to the
proportions of the conftituent parts. Before the blow¬
pipe, fulphurated hydrogen gas is given out j the Iron
is detected by giving a black colour to the folution of
nut galls j the copper, by immerfing a plate of iron 5 and
the zinc, by a white efflorefcence, which appears wrhen
the native fait is expofed to the air.
This fubitance is a mixed fait, compofed of the ful-
phates of iron, zinc and copper, in variable propor¬
tions, fo that its appearance and charafters muff alfo be
variable.
Localities, &c.—Native vitriol is not uncommon in
mountains of clay date which contain metallic ores, and
particularly thofe of copper and iron pyrites, and
blende j by the decompofition of which it is formed. It
is found in Bohemia, Saxony, and Hungary, as well as
in the mines of Britain, where fuch metallic ores a-
bound.
The native fulphate of iron is common in coal mines
which contain iron pyrites, as in many of the coal
mines of Britain. This fubftance is very abundant
in the earl of Glafgow’s coal mines near Paifley,
where the manufa£ture of copperas, by purifying
and cryftallizing the native fait, has been long car¬
ried on.
Vfes.—The mixed fubftance, native vitriol, can only
be employed to any ufeful purpofe, by obtaining the
different falts in a feparate form. The ufes of thefe
falts are well known in various arts, but particularly in
dyeing, and fume of them in medicine.
2. Species. Native Alum.
Alum, Kirw^an ii. 13. VAlun Natf Brochant, ii. 6.
Alumine Sulfatee alkaline, Hauy, ii. 387, 388.
Exter. Char.—Native alum is ufually found in fmall
capillary cryftals, fometimes adhering to other minerals,
and very rarely in ftaladlitical maffes. The form of
the cryilal of alum is the regular octahedron, which is
ufually obtained artificially. Externally it is dull, or
{lightly glimmering, but internally fhining, with a
Vol. XLV. Part I.
LOGY.
filky or vitreous luftre j fraCture fibrous; very foft j
tafte aftringent.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe melts eafily in
its water of cryftallization, then froths up, and becomes
a white fpongy mafs.
Alum is a triple fait, a fulphate of alumina and
potafti. It rarely happens that all the three ingredi¬
ents exift together in nature. The potafh is ufually
added during the preparation of artificial alum.
According to the examination of native alum by
Klaproth, from the alum cavern at Cape Mifeno near
Naples, it appears that from 1000 lbs. of the material
furnifhed by nature, 470 lbs. may be obtained, having
the requifite quantity of potafh ; and by an addition of
potafh to promote the cryftallization, 290 lbs. more
may be obtained. Analyt. EJf. i. 268. I he following
is the analyfis of the aluminous fchiftus from Freyen-
tvalde by the fame chemift.
Alumina I5-25
Oxide of iron 7.50
Potafh .25
Sulphuric acid and w’ater of cryftallization 77.
IOO.OO* * Analyt.
Localities, &c.—Native alum is found in thofe pi a- A" ' ’
ces w'here the aluminous {tones, already deferibed, a-
bound, as in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, and in
coal mines. An extenfive alum manufactory has been
carried on for feveral years with great (kill and fuccefs,
at Lord Glafgow’s coal work near Paifley, mentioned
above. The materials are obtained from the rubbifh in
the old waftes, which confifts of the aluminous fchiftus
from the roof and pavement of the coal. Thefe mines
alfo abound with iron pyrites •, and from the decompo¬
fition of all thefe fubtlances the native vitriol and na¬
tive alum are obtained.
Ufes.—The ufes of alum in various arts are too well
known to require any enumeration.
3. Species. Mountain Butter.
La Beurre de Montague, Broch. ii. 10.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive ; internal luftre ftrong-
ly glimmering, waxy j fraCture foliated j fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour grayifli white, fulphur yellow, or yellowifli
browm ) tranflucent at the edges; feels greafy 5 tafte
aftringent.
localities, &c.—This fpecies is found in fimilar fitu-
ations w^fch the former. In its native repofitory it is
nearly as foft as butter, and has fomething of the ap¬
pearance, from which it has its name. Perhaps it ought
to be confidered merely as a variety of the former. The
fame remark may be applied to another variety called
phamofe alum.
4. Species. Capillary Salt. Sulphate of Magnefa.
Le Sel Capillaire, Broch. ii. 8. Haar Salz, or Hair
Salt, of the Germans.
Exter. Char.—This fait is always found in fine capil¬
lary cryftals, fo clofely united together as to form a
compaCt mafs; luftre {hining, or weakly fhining, filky $
raCture fibrous.
D d
Colour
2io MINE R
SaIts- Colour white, forr.etrmes greenilh, grayifh, or yellovv-
iH) j tranflucent, friable j talle aftringent.
Conflituent Parts.—This fait was fuppofed to be a
plutnofe or native alum j but it appears from the analyfis
of Klaproth, to be a fulphate of magnefia, with a Imall
proportion of iron. We have examined a fimilar ca¬
pillary fait from the coal mines near Paifley, which alfo
appeared to be a fulphate of magnefia, but with a
greater proportion of fulphate of iron.
Localities, &c.—This native fait is found in fimilar
fituations with the former fpecies.
5. Species. Native Epsom Salt, or Sulphate of
Magnejia.
Le Sel amer Natif Broch. ii. 11. Epfom Salt, Kir. ii. 12.
Exter. Char.—"The. charafters already given of the
former fpecies are equally applicable to this, except¬
ing that it is faid to exift fometimes in an earthy form,
when it has a dull appearance.
Localities, &c.—Found in a date of efflorefcence on
limelfone, porphyry, fandftones j and it exifls in folu-
tion in many mineral waters, as in that of Epfom in
England, from which it has its name. This fait alfo
conftitutes part of the efflorefcence which is obferved on
walls built with lime.
A L O G Y.
lucent j foft} eafily frangible
cooling.
Conjlituent Parts.
Nitrate of potafh
Muriate of potafh
Sulphate of lime
Carbonate of lime
Lofs
Part I.
or friable j tafle fpline Claffifica-
tion.
Klaproth.
42-55
.20
25-45
30-4°
1.40
IOO.QO f
Exter. Char, 8tc,—Native nitre is found in Italy
near Molfetta, in Naples, from which that analyzed
by Klaproth was obtained, and which is dilpofed in
fmall beds, or more rarely in veins, on limeflone. Na¬
tive nitre is alfo not uncommon in Hungary, Spain,
France, and Peru, in which latter country, and in the
Eafl Indies, where it is very abundant, it is found ef-
florefcent on the furface of the ground at certain feafons
of the year.
Ufes.— 1 he ufes of nitre for fome economical pur-
pofes, in various arts, in medicine, but particularly in the
manufafture of gun-powder, are well known.
f Analyt.
EJ. i. 27®.
III. Genus. MURIATES.
6. Species. Native Glauber Salt, or Sulphate
of Soda.
Glauber Salt, Kirw. ii. 9. Le Sel de Glauber Natf
Broch. ii. 14.
Exier. Char.—This fait is fometimes found maffive
or earthy, rarely ftalaftitical or cryflallized. The cryftals
are often acicular, or in irregular, fix-fided prifms, ter¬
minated by a three-fided pyramid, placed on the lateral
edges or Tides. Luflre finning, vitreous; but expofed
to the air becomes dull. Frafture uneven j that of the
cryftals conchoidal. Fragments blunt-edged.
Colour yellowifh or grayifh white ; opaque or tranf-
parentj brittle 5 tafte cooling or bitter.
Localities, &c.—This fait is ufually found in the
neighbourhood of mineral fprings which hold common
fait in folution, from the decompofttion of rvhich, and
the combination of its bafe with fulphuric acid, it is ob¬
tained. It is not unfrequent on the banks of fait lakes,
and in a ftate of efflorefcence on fandftone, marl, fome¬
times on the furface of the ground, and fometimes
on ivills built with lime and mortar. It is found in
moft countries in the w-orld.
II. Genus. NITRATES.
j. Species. Rock Salt.
Common Salt, Sal Gem, Kirw. ii. 31. Le Sel de Cui-
fne, Broch. ii. 20. Soude Munatee, Flauy, ii 356.
Efjen. Char.—Soluble in water, and divifible into
cubes.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies; 1. folia¬
ted, and 2. fibrous rock fait.
Subfpecies 1. Foliated Rock Salt.
Le Sel Gemme Lamelleux, Broch. ii. 21. Lamellar Sal
Gem, Kirw. ii 32. Soude Muriatee Amorphe, Hauy,
359-
Exter, Char.—Uiually found maflive in confiderable
beds, fometimes diflemimated in large maffes, or kidney-
form, ftalaftitical, or cryitallized in perfeft cubes; fur¬
face of the cryftals fmooth j luflre fhining, vitreous j frac¬
ture foliated 5 cleavage threefold and reftangular j frag¬
ments cubic.
Colour grayifh, yellowilh, or reddiffl white, flefh or
brownifh red ; tranfparent or tranflucent 5 foft j ftreak
grayiih wdiite ; taile faline,
Chem. Char.— Ihis fait decrepitates violently w’hen
thrown on burning coals.
1. Species. Native Nitre, or Nitrate of Potafj.
Nitre. Kirw. ii. 25. Le Nitre Natif, Broch. ii. 17. Po-
tajfe Nitratee, Hauy, ii. 346. Saltpetre.
Efjen. Char. Does not deliquefee, and detonates with
a combufiible body.
Exter. Char.— 1 his fait is commonly found fuperficial,
in acicular cryftals, rarely maflive, and more rarely cry-
ftallized in fix-fided prifms 5 luftre fhining, vitreous j
frafture co'nchoidal; fragments fharp-edged.
Colour fnow white, grayiih or yellowifh whitey tramf-
Confituent Parts.
Kirwan. Bergman.
Soda . 35 42
Muriatic acid 40 52
Water 25 6
100 100
The above are the analyfes of pure fait j for as it is
found in nature, it contains feveral other ingredients.
Localities, &c.—Foliated rock fait conftitutes a pe¬
culiar kind of ftratiform mountain, in which it ufu¬
ally
Part T.
MINERALOGY.
2 f r
Claffifiea- ally alternates with beds of clay, which are more or
tlon‘ lefs penetrated with fait. It is alfo accompanied with
gypfum, fandftone, limeftone. It is fometimes alfo
found in veins.
Rock fait is found in mofi: countries of the world ;
the mofl; celebrated mines are thofe of Wiliczka, which
have been wrought for 500 years. There are mines of
this mineral in Poland, Silefia, and in Bavaria and Sibe¬
ria ; at Cordova in Spain it conftitutes an entire moun¬
tain. Rock fait is alfo found in abundance in Che-
fliire in England. It is found alfo in Africa, Alia, as
well as in North and South America.
Subfpecies 2. Fibrous Rock Salt.
Fibrous Sal Gem, Kirw. ii. 32. Le Sel Gemme Fi-
brcux, Broch. ii. 25. Soude Muriatee Fibreufe,
Hauy, ii. 359.
Fxter. Char.—This variety is found maflive, in fmall
wedge lhaped veins ; luftre glimmering, rarely w’eakly
fhining j fra&ure fibrous, curved parallel or divergent
fragments wTedge-lhaped, with (harp edges.
Colour grayiih white, yellowith or pearl gray, la¬
vender blue, violet blue, or flelh red; varies between
tranllucent and femitranfparent. The other characters
of fibrous rock fait correfpond with thofe of the pre¬
ceding fubfpecies, and it is found in fimilar fituations
accompanying it.
2. Species. Sea Salt.
This fait can perhaps fcarcely be confidered as a fe-
parate fpecies. It is found on the (hores of the ocean,
or of fait lakes during the dry feafons of the year, in
confequence of the evaporation and diminution of the
water which holds it in folution.
Ffes—The various ufes of fait in domeftic economy
and many of the arts are wTell known.
Species 3. Native Sal Ammoniac.
Sal Ammoniac, Kirw. ii. 33. Le Sel Ammoniac Na-
tif, Eroch. ii. 27. Ammoniaque Muriatee, Hauy,
ii. 380.
Ejjeu. Char.—Entirely volatile by the application of
heat.
Exter. Char.—Moft commonly found in fuperficial
layers, or efflorefcent; fometimes alfo maflive or llalac-
tical, and rarely cryflallized. Primitive form of its
cryftals a regular o£ahedron ; integrant molecule a re¬
gular tetrahedron. The cryftals are defcribed to be in
the form of cubes, fix-iided pyramids, and dodecahedral *,
luftre (tuning, often only glimmering or dull and vitre¬
ous. Erasure even ; fragments (harp-edged.
Colour white, grayiih, or yellowifli; foft, and often
friable j tafte fahne, pungent, and bitter.
Chew. Char.—Very ftfluble in water, producing a con-
fiderable degree of cold 5 rubbed with lime, gives out a
pungent odour of ammonia.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Muriate ammonia 77.5
Sulphate of ammonia 2.5
100.0
Localities, Szc.—This fait is 3 volcanic production,
and found depolited in the cavities of lava, as on. Vcv
fuvius and ./Etna, and in the Lipari iflands. It is alfo
met with in Iceland, in Perfia, and different places of
Alia. The fubftance analyzed by Klaproth was from
Tartary. I his fait has alfo been difcovered in the
neighbourhood of coal mines in Britain, which have
been accidentally on fire. Sal ammoniac from Egypt
may be confidered rather as an artificial produ&ion.
IV. Genus. CARBONATES.
1. Species. Native Soda, or Carbonate of Soda.
Natron, Kirw. ii. 6. L'Alkali Mineral, Broch, ii. 30.
Soude Carbonaiee, Hauy, ii. 373.
Effen. Char.—Soluble in water, and effervefees with
nitiic acid.
Exter. Char.—Found in final! particles, wdiich are
ufually in the ftate of powder 5 is dull and meagre to
the toueh.
Colour grayifti white, or yellowifli gray j tafte (harp
alkaline.
Chem. Char.—Very fufible before the blow-pipe j the
folution renders vegetable blues green.
The following are the conftituent parts of Egyptian
natron or foda, analyfed by Klaproth.
Carbonate of foda 32.6
Sulphate of foda 20.8
Muriate of foda 13.
Water 3 1 -6
100.0
Localities, &c.—Native foda is found on the furface
of the foil, or on the borders of lakes which evaporate
during the fummer, in Egypt, where it has been long
colleCIed, and known under the name of natron. In
the neighbourhood of Debreczin in Hungary, it is found
efflorefcent on a heathy foil , in Bohemia, on a decora-
pofed gnelfs rock, where it is annually collefted in con-
fiderable quantity in the fpring of the year. Natron
is alfo found near Naples, in Perfia, Bengal, and
China. It exifts alio in folution in many mineral
waters.
Ufes.—This fait is very extenfively employed in many
arts.
Another variety of native foda has been deferibed.
This is in the form of radiated maffes, which are com-
pofed of afcicular cryftals. It feems to be a purer car¬
bonate of foda. The following are the conftituent parts
according to the analyfis of Klaproth.
Soda
Carbonic acid
Water
Sulphate of foda
2. Species. Native Magnesia, or Carbonate of
Magnefa.
A pretty pure carbonate of magnefia, difcovered by
Hr Mitchell; and another which contains an admixture
D d 2 of
22.5
2-S
100.0
2 12
Salts.
MINERALOGY
of filica dlfcovered by Gtobert, has been already de-
fcribed under the magnefian genus, fpecies I. which
Part T.
fee.
V. Genus. BORATES,
i. Species. Borax.
Id. Kirw. ii. 37. Borax Nafif^ Broch. ii. 33. Soude
Borattfe, Haiiy, ii. 366.
EJJen. Char.—Tafte fweetifh ; fufible with confider-
able intumefcence into a vitreous globule.
Exter. Char.—This fait is found maflive and diffemi-
nated, but moll; frequently cryftallized ; the forms are
a fix-fided prifm with the two oppofite faces broader ;
the fame prifm having its lateral edges truncated, or
having its two narrow terminal edges truncated •, the
crvftals are ufually imbedded in an earthy mafs ; fur-
face a little rough, fometimes fmooth, and ufually co¬
vered with a white earthy cruft ; luftre ftrining, waxy ;
fra&ure foliated.
Colour grayilh white, yellowifh or greenifh; femi-
tranfparent, or only tranftucent •, refraftion double j foftj
brittle; greafy to the feel. Spec. grav. 1.740.
Conjlituent Parts.—When borax is purified, it is a
compound of foda and boracic acid ; but in its na¬
tive ftate it is always contaminated with earthy mat¬
ters.
Localities, &c.— Borax is brought from Perfia and
Thibet. According to fome travellers, it is got from
the waters of a lake by evaporation in the open air ;
but according to others it is ready formed on the
borders of the lake, where common fait is alfo col-
ledfted.
Ufes.—Borax is ftill farther purified after it is brought
to Europe, for the purpofes of employing it in
the arts, particularly as a flux in metallurgical ope¬
rations.
2. Species. Boracite, or Borate of Magnejia.
Boracite, Kirw. i. 172. Id, Brochant, i. 389.
Exter. Char.—Always found cryftallized : 1. In cubes,
having the edges and four of the angles truncated ;
2. The cube, having all the edges and angles trunca¬
ted. When thefe truncations are increafed on the
edges, a dodecahedron is nearly formed, or when they
increafe on the angles, the refulting form is an o&ahe-
dron. Surface of the cryftals fmooth, fometimes rough ;
luftre ftiining or refplendent ; internal luftre film¬
ing, refinous; fradlure conchoidal; fragments ftrarp-
edged.
Colour afli or yellowifh gray, grayifh or greenifh
white ; femitranfparent or tranflucent, oftener opaque ;
femihard ; rather eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2 56.
Client. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe, froths up,
and yields a yellowifh enamel, on which fmall rough
points appear, and are thrown off like fparks by conti¬
nuing the heat.
Conjlituent Parts,
Magnefia
Lime
Silica
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Boracic acid
Lofs
Weftrumb.
J3-5
11.
2.
1.
•7
68.
3*8
100.0
Eht/f Char.—Boracite has the property of becoming
cledlric by heat, and exhibiting both kinds of ele&ri-
city by oppofite points. Thefe eleclric poles are the
extremities of the axes of the cube, each axis giving
out at one extremity pofitive, and at the other negative
eleiftricity.
Localities, See.—This mineral has been only found at
Lunebourg in Lower Saxony, in a mountain compo-
fed almoft entirely of foliated gypfum, in which the de¬
tached cryftals are imbedded.
VI. Genus. FLUATES.
x. Species. Cryolite, or Eluate of Soda and Alumina,
Id. Brochant, ii. 505. Alumine Fluatee Alkaline, Haiiy,
ii. 398.
Exter. Char Found maflive ; luftre ftiining, vitre¬
ous ; fradfure foliated ; fragments cubical.
Colour grayifti white ; tranflucent ; immerfed in tva-
ter, tranfparent; femihard ; ftreak fnow-white. Spec,
grav. 2.94.
Chem. Char.—Melts in.the flame of a candle, and
from its eafy fufibility it derives its name. It then be¬
comes hard, and is changed into a flag, which is fome-
what cauftic. Soluble with effervefcence in fulphuric
acid, and gives out white vapours that corrode glafs.
Confitucnt Parts.
Klaproth.
Soda 36.
Alumina 23.5
Fluoric acid and water 40.5
Vauqnelin.
32
21
47
100.0
Localities, &c.—Cryolite was brought to Copenha¬
gen from Greenland, but nothing is known of its repo-
fitory (B).
THIRD CLASS. COMBUSTIBLES,
I. Genus. SULPHUR.
1. Species. Native Sulphur.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 69. Le Soufre Natf Brochant, ii. 37.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies ; 1, Com¬
mon ; 2. Volcanic native fulphur.
Subfpecies
(b) Boracite and cryolite do not certainly poffefs all the charadlers that entitle them to a place among the falts ;
but as magnefia is the predominant bafe of the one and foda of the other, it tvas thought better to introduce them
here than to multiply divifions.
MINERALOGY.
Part 1.
ClafT-fica-
tion.
Subfpecies i. Common Native Sulphur.
EJJ'en. Char.—The fulphurous odour when heated ;
colour yellow.
Exter. Char.—Sulphur is found maffive, diffeminated
in fuperficial layers, or cryltallized. Primitive form of
its cryftals is an odlahedron, whofe fides are fcalene tri¬
angles •, the integrant molecule is an irregular tetrahe¬
dron. The ufual forms of the cryftals are, I. That of
the primitive form, in which two four-fided oblique-
angled pyramids are joined bafe to bafe, of which the
common bafe is a rhomb, whofe two diagonals are as
5 to 4 ; 2. The fame form having its fummits truncat¬
ed ; 3. The ftrft form having its fummit furmounted by
an obtufe four-fided acumination, fet on the lateral
faces •, 4. Or, having the common bafe truncated ; or,
Having its obtufe lateral edges truncated 3 or, 6.
Having the obtufe angles of the common bafe truncat¬
ed. The cryftals are of various fizes, moft frequently
grouped ; furface fmooth 3 luftre refplendent 3 internal
luftre ftiining, or weakly fhining, between refinous and
adamantine 3 fradfture fine grained, uneven, fometimes
conchoidal or fplintery 3 fragments (harp-edged.
Colour yellow, greenifh, or grayilh yellow 3 tranflu-
cent or femitranfparent 3 -tefraftion double 3 foft 3 brit¬
tle, and very eafily frangible 3 gives out by rubbing a
fulphureous fmell. Spec. grav. 1.99 to 2.03.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a peculiar blue fiame, and
gives out a pungent odour, which is well known.
Native fulphur is not always pure 3 it is often conta¬
minated with earthy matters.
Ehijs. Sulphur becomes ele£fric by friction,
and its eledlricity is negative.
Localities, &c.—Native fulphur is moft commonly
found in ftratiform mountains, chiefly in thofe of gyp-
fum, marl, and compaft limeftone, and there it exifts
in the form of nodules. Found alfo, but rarely, and
ia fmall quantity, in the veins of primitive moun¬
tains. Sulphur is found in many countries of the
world, as in Poland, Plungary, Switzerland, Spain,
and Sicily, where the fineft cryftals yet known are
found.
Subfpecies 2. Native Volcanic Sulphur.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, in rounded pieces, fta-
laftitical, cellular, or in thin fublimed layers, fometimes
alfo eryftallized in confufed groups 3 internal luftre
weakly (hining or ftiining j fraflure uneven } fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour the fame as the former, but inclining fome¬
times a little towards gray ; tranflucent 3 in other cha¬
racters it refembles the preceding.
Localities, &c.— As its name Imports, this variety is
found near volcanoes, where it is fublimed among the
lava. The fulphur of iEtna and Vefuvius chiefly, and
alfo that of Iceland, and of feme of the iftands in the
Weft Indies, is collected, and forms a very important
article in commerce.
Ufes. Sulphur is one of the moft valuable fubftanceS
in various arts. It is employed in the bleaching of
woollen fluffs and filks 3 it forms an effential ingredient
in gunpowder, and it is the bafe of fulphurous and ful-
phuric acid, which are fo extenfively employed in tan¬
ning, hat-making, dyeing, .and other arts and mar.u-
faClures.
Combuf-
tibles.
II. BITUMINOUS Genus. ‘ 
1. Species. Petroleum, or Mineral Oil.
Le Naphle, and L ‘‘Haile Minerale Commune, Broch.
ii. 59. and 60. Naphtha and Petrole, Kirwan, ii,
42.and 43. BitumeLiquide Brune, ou Noiratre, Hairy,
iii. 312.
Exter. Char.—Found fluid and fomewdiat vifeid.
Colour biackiftv or reddiih brown 3 almoft opaque 3
feels very greafy 3 exhales a ftrong bituminous odour 3
tafte pungent, acid. Spec. grav. 0.708. to 0.854.
Chem. Char.—Bums eafily with a denfe fmoke, and
leaves fome earthy refidue. When expofed to the air
it becomes thicker and lefs fluid.
Its conftituent parts are carbone, hydrogen, and a
fmall portion of oxygen.
Localities, &c.—Petroleum is generally found in the
vicinity of coal, rifing to the furface of the rvater which
flows from coal ftrata. It is not uncommon in different
parts of the world. It is found in Lancafliire in Eng¬
land, and at St Catharine’s well near Libberton, in the
vicinity of Edinburgh.
Naphtha, which is confidered merely as a purer kind
of mineral oil, is found in confiderable abundance in
different parts of Perfia, on the fhores of the Cafpian
fea, in Calabria, Sicily, and America. Iru 1802, a
fpring of naphtha of a topaz yellow colour, burning
eafily, and leaving little refidue, w’ith a fpecific gravity
of 0.83, was difeovered in the ftate of Parma in Italy,
and afforded fuch a quantity as to be fufficient to illu¬
minate the ftreets of Genoa.
Efes.-—Naphtha has been fometimes employed in the
compofition of varniih, in that of fire-works, for the
purpofe of heating rooms, when it is mixed with a fmall
quantity of earth ; and in Perfia and other countries ft
is burnt in lamps as a fubftitute for oil. Formerly it
was employed in medicine as a vermifuge.
2. Species. Mineral Pitch.
This is divided into three fubfpecies 3 1. elaftic 3
2. earthy 3 and 3. flaggy.
Subfpecies 1. Elastic Mineral Pitch.
Mineral Caoutchouc, Kirw. ii. 48. La Poix Minerale
Elajlique, Broch. ii. 64. Bitume Elajlique, Haiiy,
“i- 3l3-
Exter. Char.—Found in mafies of different fizes, dif¬
feminated, fometimes fuperficial, or ftalaflitical; luftre
dull, rarely glimmering 3 internal luftre fhining, refin¬
ous.
Colour brownifti black, hair-browm, often veined yel¬
low 3 tranflucent at. the edges 3 foft confiftence like
elaftic gum, and alfo elaftic. It gives out the fmell of
leather. Spec. grav. 0.902 to 1.23.
Localities, &c.—This mineral was difeovered in
1785 in the mine of Odin in Derbylhire in England,
where it is accompanied with galena, calcareous fpar,
heavy fpar, fluor fpar, and blende.
This fubftance effaces the marks of black lead on
paper, like elaftic gum 3 but ftains the paper.
Subfpecies
MINER
Subfpecies 2. IEarthy Mineral Pitch.
Setnicompacl Mineral Pitch, or Maltha, Kirw. ii. 46.
La Poix Minerale 1'erretife, Eroch. ii. 65.
Exter. Char.—Foand maflive ; internally dull 5 frac*
ture earthy, fometimes uneven ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour blackifh brown, fometimes clove brown ;
flreak lliining, and darker coloured 5 very foft; feels
greafy ; fmell bituminous.
Chem. Char.—Burns with much flame, and fmoke ;
exhales a flrong odour, and leaves carbonaceous and
earthy matter.
T^oca/ities, &c.—Found in the principality of Neuf-
chatel in Switzerland.
Subfpecies 3. Slaggy Mineral Pitch.
Compact Mineral Pitch, Kirw. ii. 46. I^a Poix Mineral?
Scoriacee, Broch. ii. 66. Bitume Sohdc, Hauy, iii-
313. Slfphaluim, or Jews Pitch, of others.
* Lin.
Tranf. viii.
?5I-
Exter. Char .—Pound maflive and difleminated, fu-
pcrficial or ftalaftitical 5 luftre refplendent, refinousj
fravSlure conchoidal •, fragments fliarp-edged.
Colour perfect black, fometimes brownifli*black;
opaque, rarely tranflucent at the edges j luftre remains
in the ftreak j foft j feels greafy j by rubbing gives out
a bituminous odour. Spec. grav. i.oy to 1.6.
Localities, &c.— Phis variety frequently accom¬
panies the preceding. It is found at Morsfeld in the
Palatinate, at Neufchatel in Switzerland. It is found
floating on the furface of the lake Afpl^altum in Judea,
from which it derives its name of jews pitch. It is
there collefted by the inhabitants of the country as an
objedfl of commerce, and at the fame time, it is faid to
diminilh the quantity of noxious vapours which it ex¬
hale?—fo noxious that birds flying over it drop down
dead, whence it has the name oiDeadfea. This va¬
riety of mineral pitch is found in other places, fome¬
times connected with coal and limeftone ftrata, and
fometimes with mineral veins. But the ifland of Tri¬
nidad furnifhes the greateft quantity of this fubftance.
In that ifland there is a pitch lake of about four miles
in circumference } but it appears from the information
of Mr Spon, in a letter to Mr Tobin of Briftol, by
whom this information w’as communicated, along writh
a number of fpecimens to Mr Hatchett, that the fub¬
ftance formerly fuppofed to be mineral pitch, is nothing
more than a porous ftone impregnated with that fub¬
ftance •, fo that what was fuppofed to be an immenfe
lake of mineral pitch or afphaltum, is only the ftone of
the country impregnated with bitumen. Mr Hatchett
thinks this ftone may be arranged in the argillaceous
genus *.
3. Species. Amber.
Id. Kirwx ii. 65. Le Succin, Broch. ii. 69. Id. Hauy,
ii.327.
This is divided into two fubfpecies.
Subfpecies 1. White Ameer.
Exter. Char.—Pound maflive, and in rounded pieces;
luftre ftiining or weakly ftiining; fraflure conchoid*! 5
fragments Iharp-edged.
A E O G Y.
Colour yellowiih white, or flraw-yellow; flightly
tranflucent 5 loft ; eafily frangible ; by fri&ion, or re¬
ducing to powder, it gives out an agreeable odour.
Spec. grav. 1.07 to 1.08.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a yellow' flame, without
melting, giving out at the fame time a peculiar odour j
leaves very little refldue.
Subfpecies 2. Yellow Amber.
Exter. Char.—Alfo found in rounded pieces of vari¬
ous fizes 5 Surface rough and uneven 5 dull, fometimes
glimmering 5 internal luftre refplendent, reftnous; fome¬
times tranfparent. In its other external and chemical
cbara&ers, it refembles the preceding.
_ Lhyf. Char.—Amber becomes ftrongly eledfric by
fridfion, a property known to the ancients. From the
Greek and Latin word elecirum, the term eledlricity is
derived.
ConJUtuent Parts Amber is compofed of a large
proportion of oil, and of a peculiar acid, the fuccinic,
which is obtained by diftillation.
_ Localities, &tc.— Amber is found in the vicinity of
bituminous wood, but moft commonly in the fand on
the flrores of the ocean, and chiefly on the ihores of the
Baltic. It is found alio in Sw’eden, France, Italy, and
on the eaft coaft of England. Amber frequently con¬
tains fmall parts of vegetables, and entire infedls. Of
the origin of this fubftance nothing certain is yet known.
IJes.—The ufes of amber for ornamental purpofes,
are well known. In this country it w’as formerly in
higher eftimation than at prefent. It ftill forms an im¬
portant article of commerce in eallern countries.
4. Species. Mellite, or Honey Stone.
Id. Hauy, ii!. 335. La Pierre de Miel, Broch. ii. 73.
Mellilite, Kirw. ii. 68.
Exter. Char*—Found ufually cryftallized, in double
four ftded pyramids ; the furface fmooth and Ihining j
internal luftre refplendent, betw'een refinous and vitre¬
ous ; fradlure conchoidal; fragments rather Iharp-
edged.
Colour honey yellow, fometimes hyacinth red ; tranf¬
parent or tranflucent refradion double j foft j brittle.
Spec. grav. 1.58 to 1.66.
Chem. Char.—Becomes white before the blow-pipe,
and is reduced to allies, without flame.
Gonjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Alumina, 16
Mellitic acid, 46
Water, 38
> 100
Phyf. Char.—Becomes flightly eledric by fridion.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is hitherto rare. It
has been found only in Switzerland, accompanied
with mineral pitch, and at Artern in Thuringia, attach¬
ed to bituminous w7cod.
5. Species. Brown Coal.
This is divided into five fubfpecies 5 1. common %
2. bituminous wood} 3. earth coal} 4. alum earth}
5. moor coal.
Part I.
CUUlfica-
tion.
3
Subfpecies
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
* Phil.
TranJ.
1804.
P- 39P-
Subfpecies 1. Common Brown Coal.
La Houille Brune, Broch. ii. 47.
Exter. Char.— Found maffive ; luftre {Fining, r«-
finous 3 fracture conchoidai 3 longitudinal fradure flaty 3
fragr.ients rather fliarp edged.
Colour browniili blank, or blackifli brown 3 ftreak
fliining 3 fofi 3 not very brittle.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a blue-coloured flame, and
gives out an odour like that of bituminous wood.
Conjlituent Parts. Hatchett *.
Water which foon came over acid, and afterwards
turbid by the mixture of bitumen,
Thick brown, oily bitumen,
Charcoal,
Hydrogen, carbonated hydrogen, and carbonic
acid gafes,
Grains.
60
21
90
29
200
The above is the analyfis of 200 grains of Bovey
coal by diftillation.
Localities, &c.— This variety is not uncommon in
many places of Germany. It is found alfo at Bovey
near Exeter in England, from which it is called Bovey
coal.
Subfpecies 2. Bituminous Wood.
Carbonated Wood, Kirw. ii. 60. Lc Bois Bitumineux,
Broch. ii. 44.
Exter. Char.—Has a ligneous form, and even fome-
times the appearance of branches and roots of trees 3
glimmering in the principal fra&ure, in the crofs frac¬
ture, conchoidai 3 fragments fplintery, wedge-fhaped,
or tabular.
Colour commonly light blackifh brown, fometimes
wood brown 3 opaque 3 Break (hining 3 foft, and eafily
frangible.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a bright flame, and gives
out a fweetifh, bituminous fmell.
Localities, &c.—This variety is found in the fame
places with the other varieties of coal, and alfo in places
where the more common kinds of coal are rare, or in
fmall quantity, as in the ifland of Iceland, where it is
known by the name of futurbrand; and in the ifland
of Skye in Scotland. It is found alfo in the coal fields
round Edinburgh, and alfo at Bovey near Exeter, and
in various places on the continent.
Subfpecies 3. Earthy Coal.
Bois Bilumineux Terreux, Brochant, ii. 45.
Exter. Char.-—The confiffence of this variety is in¬
termediate between folid and friable 3 dull, rarely
glimmering ; fracture earthy.
Colour blackilh brown, or liver browm 5 ftreak fhln-
ing 3 Bains 3 very foft.
Localities, &c.—This is found in Saxony, Bohemia,
France, and particularly in the vicinity of Cologne,
where it is known by the name of umber or Cologne
earth, which is employed in the fabrication of colours 3
21 ;
and from certain varieties which contain pyrites, alum Combuf-
is extracted. tibles.
Subfpecies 4. Alum Earth.
This has been already defcribed under the name of
ahtmiaous fchijlus, in the argillaceous genus.
Subfpecies 5. Moor Coal.
La Houille Limoneufe, Brochant, ii. 48.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive, and i»
extenfive beds 3 internally glimmering 3 crofs fracture
even, fometimes flat conchoidai 3 longitudinal frabture
flaty ; fragments trapezoidal or rhomboidal.
Colour blackifli brown, and brownifli black 3 Break
fliining 3 foft, very eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—Moor coal is abundant in Bohe¬
mia ; it is found alfo in Tranfylvania, and chiefly-
among fandflone, limeflone, and trap rocks. It feems -
to approach nearly to earth coal.
6. Species. Black Coal.
This fpecies is divided into fix fubfpecies 3 pitch, -
columnar, flaty, cannel, foliated, and coarfe coal.
Subfpecies 1. Pitch Coal.
La Houille Picifcrme, Brochant, ii. 49.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated 3 and
fometimes parts of vegetables, fuch as the branches of
trees, are obferved. Luflre fhining, refplendent, refi-
nous 3 frablure oenchoidal 3 fragments lharp-edged.
Colour perfebf black, and the longitudinal frabture
fometimes brownifli 5 foft 3 eafily frangible. Specific
gravity 1.3.
Localities, &c.—This is one of the mofl common
varieties of coal, and therefore is found in all coal
countries.
llfes.—As it is fufceptible of a fine polifh, it is em¬
ployed for various ornamental purpofes. The fub-
Bance known by the name of jet, belongs to this va¬
riety.
Subfpecies 2. Columnar Coal.
La Houille Scapiforme, Brochant, ii. 15.
Exter. Char—Found maflive 3
ing, or weakly fhining, refinous
in its frablure fliin-
... „ ; frablure more or
lefs perfectly conchoidai 3 fragments indeterminate.
Colour perfeft black, or brownifli black. It is com-
pofed of diflinbl concretions, which are columnar, pa¬
rallel, {lightly curved, wvhofe furfaces are fmooth and
fliining 3 is foft, and eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—This is a very rare variety of coal.
It is found in the Meifner, near Almerode, in Htflia,
in a bafaltic mountain.
Subfpecies 3. Slaty Coal.
La Houille Schifleufe, Brochant, ii. 32.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive in entire beds; luflre
fliining, fometimes only weakly fhining or glimmering,
refinous 3 principal frablure flaty 3 crofs fraflure imper-
feff conchoidai 3 fragments in the form of tables 3 not
very lharp-edged.
Colour -
MINER
Colour perfedl^black, often alfo grayifh, rarely brown-
Ifli black *, ftreak (Inning-, foft, or femi-hard; eafily fran¬
gible. Specific gravity 1.25 to 1.37.
Localities^ &c.—This is the prevailing coal in Bri¬
tain, as at NewcafUe and Whitehaven in England, and
in the coal country both in the eaft and weft of Scot¬
land.
Subfpecies 4. Cannel Coal.
La Houi/le de Kilkenny, Brochant, ii. 55. Id. Kirwan,
ii. 52.
A L O G Y.
Exter. Char.—Found maftive, rarely dilTeminated j
luftre ftiining or refplendent, approaching to metallic ;
fratfture perfe£Uy conchoidal j fragments not very
(harp edged.
Colour iron black, inclining to brown, or exhibiting
the fuperficial colours like tempered fteel j foft; eafily
frangible.
Chem. Char.—Burns without any flame, leaving a
white a(h.
Localities, &c.——This variety of coal is very rare.
It is found at Newcaftle, and at Meiffner in Heflia,
along with the other varieties of coal.
Part I.
Claffi'fica-
tion.
Exter. Char.—Found mafiive ; luftre weakly (liining,
refinous ; frafture commonly conchoidal, fometimes
even and foliated j fragments fometimes rhomboidal or
cubical.
Colour grayidr black ; ftreak (liining j foft j eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 1.23 to 1.27.
Localities, &c.—This coal accompanies the former
in many places of England and Scotland, as at White¬
haven and Wigan in Lancalhire in England ; in the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh j and at Muirkirk, and
other places in Ayrfhire in Scotland. The coal at
Kilkenny in Ireland belongs alfo to this variety ; and
from the places where it is found, is called Wigan or
Kilkenny coal.
Ufes.—Befide being employed as fuel with other
kinds of coal, this variety, being fufceptible of a fine
polifti, is cut and formed into various ufeful and orna¬
mental purpofes. It is faid that the choir of the ca¬
thedral church of Litchfield is covered with plates of
this coal alternating with black marble.
Subfpecies 5. Foliated Coal.
I^e Charbon I^amclieux, Brochant, ii. 54.
Subfpecies 2. Slaty Coal Blende.
Native Mineral Carbone, Kirw. ii. 49. La Blende
Charbonneufe, Brochant, ii. 57. Anthracite, Haiiy,
n. 307.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, and difleminated j in¬
ternal luftre (hining, or refplendent, and between me¬
tallic and vitreous ; fraflure more or lefs perfe&ly fla-
ty •, crofs fraflure flat conchoidal} fragments fometimes
cubic, and fometimes in tables.
Colour perfed black, approaching more or lefs to
iron black, or grayilh or bluith black ; opaque j (tains,
but does not write ; foft ; rather brittle ; very eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 1.3 to 1.8.
Chem. Char.—Reduced to powder, and heated in a
crucible, this coal gives neither a fulphureous nor bitu¬
minous fmell, and neither fulphur nor bitumen can be
obtained from it. After being long expofed to heat, it
confumes (lowly without flame, and lofes during the
procefs about two-thirds of its weight. The refidue is
of a blackifh gray colour, which (hows that the com-
buftion has not been complete.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; principal fra&ure re¬
fplendent ; crofs frafture (hining ; principal ffadlure
more or lefs foliated ; crofs fraflure fomewhat uneven j
fragments rhomboidal.
Colour perfeift black, and on the (ides of the fif-
fures fuperficial colours appear, like the colours of
tempered fteel, or thofe of the peacock’s tail; eafily
frangible.
Localities, &c.—This coal is found at Liege, in
Saxony, near Drefden, and in fome parts of France.
Subfpecies. 6. Coarse Coal.
La Houille GroJJiere, Brochant, ii. 33.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive ; is weakly (hining,
-refinous ; frafture uneven, or more or lefs flaty 5 frag¬
ments blunt edged.
Colour grayilh black, fometimes browniih black ;
Itreak (hining j foft; eafily frangible.
Localities, &c—Accompanies the other kinds of
coal, whofe localities have been already mentioned.
7. Species. Coal Blende.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, conchoidal and
flaty.
Subfpecies t. Conchoidal Coal Blende. '
La Grille Edatante, Brochant, ii. 50. Gianx-hohile of
t: Termans.
2
ConJHtuent Parts.
Pure carbone
Silica
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Lofs
Panzenberg.
90
2
5
3
Dolomien.
72.05
I3-I9
3-29
347
8.
100.00
Localities, &c.—This variety has been found in a
vein at Schemnitz in Hungary, in Pais de Vaud, in a
tranfported rock, which feems to be intermediate be¬
tween granite and breccia j at Konigfberg in Norway,
where it is accompanied with native filver ; in Saxony
i? forms an entire bed in a mountain of clay flate 5 alfo
found in the ifland of Arran in Scotland.
III. GRAPHITE Genus.
1. Species. Graphite, or Black Lead.
Plumbago, Kirw. ii. 58. Ze Graphite, Broch. ii. 76.
Fer Carbure, Hauy, iv. 98.
Ibis fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, fcaly and
compadL
Subfpecies 1. Scaly Graphite.
Exter. Char.— Found maflive and diffeminated j luftre
glimmering or (hining, metallic 5 fratfure foliated, con¬
choidal,
Part T.
MINERALOG Y.
Claffifica- choidal, fometitries uneven or ilaty ; fragments blunt-
ition. edged, fometimes trapezoidal 5 commonly appears in
v diilindl granular concretions, which are fmall or fine
grained, with a fplintery afpefl.
Colour intermediate between bluifh black and light
iron black j fometimes fleel gray, or brovvniih black j
opaque ; ftreak fhining j flains and writes} foft j eafily
frangible 5 feels greafy.
FOURTH CLASS. METALLIC ORES.
I. PLATINA Genus.
Species. Native Platina.
Id. Kinv. ii. 103. Le Platine Natf Broch. ii. 86.
P/atine Natif Ferrifeve, Hauy, Hi. 368.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Graphite.
Chem. Char.—This fubfpecies approaches fo near
to the former in its characters, that it feems diffi¬
cult to diltinguilh it. The following characters and
circumftances connected with the natural hi ft or y of
graphite, refer to both. Specific gravity 1.987 to
2.456.
Chem. Char.—When expofed to heat in a furnace,
it gives out, during combuftion, a great proportion of
carbonic acid, leaving a refiduum of red oxide of
iron.
# Jour, des Carbone
Mines, N° Iron
tU-P-lS- Silica ^
Alumina
Conjlituent Parts.
Berthollet.
9°‘9
9.1
100.0
100
100
Of the above analyfis it muft be obferved, that the
twm fiift by Berthollet and Scheele muft have been
very pure fpecimens of graphite j and, on the contrary,
the fpecimens analyzed by Vauquelin muft have been
very impure, containing fo large a proportion of earthy
matters, and fo fmall a proportion of the proper ingre¬
dients of that mineral.
Localities, &c.—This mineral, which is not very
common, is found chiefly in primitive mountains. It
is met with in Spain, France, Bavaria, and Hungary.
In England at Borrowdale near Kefwick in Cum¬
berland $ and at Craigman, near New Cumnock, in
Ayrffiire in Scotland, where it is found in detached
mafles among rocks nearly fimilar to thofe which ac¬
company coal.
Vfes.—Graphite or black lead is employed for ma¬
king pencils. The coarfer parts are employed in ma¬
king crucibles. It is alfo employed for covering caft
iron, fuch as grates, to defend them from ruft; and on
account of its undluous property, it is applied to thofe
parts of machines which are fubje& to fri&ion, for the
purpofe of diminiflnng it.
2. Species. Mineral Charcoal.
This fubftance, which accompanies the other varie¬
ties of coal already defcribed, is of a woody texture,
and has therefore a fibrous fracture, with fomewhat of
a {hining and filky luftre. It is ufually found in thin
layers with the other varieties of coal, and perhaps it
might be confidered as coal lefs perfeflly formed *,
but in its characters it agrees fo much with the va¬
rieties of coal blende, that it feeras quite unneceflary
to make it a feparate fpecies.
VOL. XIV. Part L
Ejfen. Char.—Of a filver white colour, and'infufible.
Exter. Platina is found in the form of fmall
flat or rounded grains; furface fmooth, with {hining me¬
tallic luftre $ ftreak refplendent.
Colour light fteel gray, or filver white ; femi-hard j
dudlile j flexible in thin plates. Spec. grav. 15.601
to 17.75 but when purified, and hammered, 23, and ac¬
cording to fome, 24.
Chem. Char.—Is almoft infufible without addition,
in the focus of a burning glafs, or expofed to the adtion
of oxygen gas. It does not amalgamate with mercury,
and is only foluble in nitro-muriatic acid.
Localities, &c.—Platina was firft brought to Europe
by Don Ulloa in 1748. The repofitory of this metal
is not known, and it has been found only in South Ame¬
rica, till lately that it was difcovered in gray filver ore
from the mine of Guadalcanal in Spain. In the ana¬
lyfis of this ore, Vauquelin found the platina to be in
the proportion of
V/'es.—Platina is one of the moft valuable mineral
fubftances, as, on account of its hardnefs and infufibi-
lity, it may be applied to many of the purpoles of
gold and iron; and from its properties of being lefs li¬
able to change when expofed to the air, or to the ac¬
tion of other chemical agents, it anfwers thofe purpofes
in a fuperior degree.
Platina in its crude ftate is alloyed with other me¬
tallic iubftances. It has been long known that it is
accompanied with particles of iron, gold, and fome
other fubftances. It contains alfo an ore of one of the
new metals. This is iridium, which is alloyed with
ofmium, another new metal,-both which were difcover¬
ed by Mr Tennant. This ore is compofed of plates j it
is not malleable 5 its fpecific gravity is 19-5, and it is
not a6fed on by nitro-muriatic acid, which difl'olves pla¬
tina. Rhodium and palladium, two other new metals,
are alloyed with platina.
II. GOLD Genus.
Species. Native Gold.
This fpecies is divided into three fubfpecies; 1. gol¬
den yellow ; 2. brafs yellow ; and, 3. grayiffi yellow.
Subfpecies 1. Golden-yellow Gold.
L’Or Natif, Jaune d'Or, Broch. ii, 89. Native Gold,
Kirw. i. 93.
Exter. Char.—Gold is found moft frequently diffe-
minated, fuperficial, or in grains reticulated, dendri-
tical, capillary, or cellular, often in fmall plates, more
rarely cryftallized. The forms of its cryftals which
have been obferved, are fmall perfeft cubes, regular
oftahedrons, dodecahedrons, double eight-fided pyra¬
mids, terminated by four-fided fummits, placed on the
E e four
2i8 • MINER
Metallic four lateral edges of the pyramids alternately ; but
, 0res‘ the cryftals ate fmall and ill defined * the furface is
fmooth and refplendent; that of the fmall plates drufy
and (hining; that of the grains only ftrongly glimmer¬
ing 5 internal luftre weakly Alining, metallic ; fradlure
hackly.
This variety prefents the perfeft colour of gold. It
is foft; perPeclly dudlile, flexible, but not elaftic ;
ftreak refplendent. Spec. grav. of pure gold 19.2 ^ to
J9.64.
Subfpecies 2. Brass-yellow Gold.
L'Or d^un jaune de laiton, Broch. ii. 91.
Exler. Char.—This variety is almoft always found
difleminated in fmall particles, or fuperficial; fome-
times alfo capillary, in fmali plates, or cryftallized in
thin fix-fided tables.
The colour is that of brafs of various (hades, ac¬
cording to the proportion of alloy. In other charafters
it refembles the former, excepting in the fpecific gravi¬
ty, which is inferior, owing to the greater proportion
of other metals with which it is alloyed.
Subfpecies 3. Grayish-yellow Gold.
L'Or Nat if d'un jaune gr ifatre^ Broch. ii. 92.
Exter. Char.—This variety is alfo found dilTeminated
in fnall flattened grains •, furface is not very fmooth j
almofl uneven, and weakly ihining.
Colour fteel gray, approaching to that of brafs:
fpec. grav. of this variety is greater than the laft, but
inferior to the firft. In other external characters they
are the fame.
Chem. Char.—Native gold is only foluble in nitro-
muriatic acid 5 platina is alfo foluble in the fame acid,
but it is not like gold, precipitated from its folution
by fulphate of iron.
Conjlituent Parts.—Native gold is not always found
pure. It is frequently alloyed with filver or copper, or
with both, and fometimes alio, it is faid, with platina.
To thefe alloys the difference of colour, which is the
foundation of the divifion into three varieties, is owing.
The firft variety is the pureft, containing only a fmall
proportion of filver or copper; the fecond has a greater
proportion of thefe metals *, and the third, it is fuppofed,
is alloyed with a fmall portion of platina.
Ufes.—Gold (on account of its indeftruftible nature,
and its remarkable malleability and diuffility), is one
of the moft important and valuable of the metals for
many purpofes ; but its ufes, whether as money, or ar¬
ticles of luxury, are too well known to require enu¬
meration. As pure gold has no great degree of hard-
nefs, it is neceffary to alloy it with a portion of copper.
This is not lefs than and never more than -J.
Loca/ttiesy &c.—Gold is chiefly found in primitive
mountains, and there it is ufually in veins, fometimes
diffemmated in the rock itfelf. Tne accompanying
fubltances are quartz, feldfpar, limeftone, heavy (par,
pyrites, red filyer, vitreous^ filver, and galena. Gold
js alfo mixed with manganefe, gray cobalt, nickel, and
malachite. Gold has alio been found, it is faid, in
foffil iubftances, as in petrified wood, penetrated with
filiceous earth, a mafs of which was dug out at the
depth of 50 fathoms, in an argillaceous breccia, or, as
A LOGY. partI.
is fuppofed by fome, a porphyry with an argillaceous Claffifica-
bafis, in Tranfylvania. This is confidered as a proof of tion-
the more recent formation of gold, as well as the difco- y~ ' '
very of Patrin, who found native gold furrounded by
muriate of filver, in the mine of Zmeof in Siberia.
Muriate of filver is fuppofed to be comparatively a late
produftion.
But. gold is perhaps more common to alluvial foil j
there it is diffeminated in grains, along with filiceous,
argillaceous, and ferruginous fand, of which certain
foils are compofed j and alfo in the fand of many rivers:
and it is obferved that the gold is moft; abundant when
the waters are at the loweft, and efpecially foon after
floods, which (hews that the gold is carried down along
with the earthy matters which are fvvept away by the
violence of the current. It has been fuppofed too, that
the gold found in the bed of rivers, has been detached,
by the force of the waters, from the veins and primitive
rocks traverfed by thefe currents ; and according to this
opinion, attempts have been made to trace the fource
of thefe auriferous fands, in the hope of difcovering the
native repofitory of this precious metal ; but thefe at¬
tempts have ufually failed, for it has been found that
the gold is peculiar to the alluvial foil through which
the.ftream is carried, and in which the gold is collefted.
This point feems to be eftabliflied by the obfervations
of naturalifts. 1. The foil of thofe plains freqnently
contains, to a certain depth, and in particular places,
particles of gold, which may be feparated by waihing.
2. 1 he bed of the rivers and auriferous dreams yields a
greater proportion of gold, after the plains which are
traverfed by thofe rivers have been flooded, than in
any other circumftances. 3. It has always been obfer-
yed., that gold is found in the fand of rivers in a very
limited fpace. By examining the fand of thefe rivers
higher up, and nearer to their fource, no gold is found j
fo that if this metal were derived from the rocks, w’hich
are fwept by the currents, the quantity would be great-
eft neareft to their fources j but obfervation has proved
the contrary. Ihus the river Oreo contains no gold,
but from Pont to the place where it joins the Po. The
Tefin affords no gold till it has traverfed lake Major,
where its courfe mull have been retarded, and where
all the heavy particles of matter which it carried along
with it from the primitive mountains, mull have been
depoftted. The quantity of the gold collefted on the
Rhine near Stralbnrg, is greater, than what is found
near Bade, which is more in the vicinity of the moun¬
tains. No gold has been difeovered in the fands of the
Danube during the firft part of its courfe. Thofe fands
become only auriferous below Efferding. The fame
remark may be applied to the Ems. The fands of the
upper part of this river, which traverfes the mountains
of Stiria, contain no gold j but from the place where
it enters the plain at Steyer, till it joins the Danube,
its fands are auriferous, and iufficiently rich to be waffl¬
ed with advantage.
1 he moft of the auriferous fands in all parts of the
world, are of a black or reddifh colour, and confequently
ferruginous. From this circumftance, conne&ed with
the gold of alluvial land, fome naturalifts have inferred,
that it is owing to the deconipofition of auriferous
pyrites. It 'WTas obferved by Reaumur, that the fand
which accompanies gold in moft of the rivers, and par¬
ticularly in the Rhone and the Rhine, is like that of
Ceylon
Part T.
MINERALOGY.
23
C.oM mines
of Spain.
„29
Of France.
3°
Of Pied¬
mont.
31
Hungary.
Ceylon and Expailly, compofed of Iron and fmall grain
of rubies, corundum, hyacinth. Titaniumjalfo has been
difcovered. It has been obferved befides, that the gold
of alluvial foil is purer than that which is immediately
obtained from rocks, from which it Is fuppofed that
it has a different origin. It does not appear to be
certainly afcertained, that gold is found in volcanic
foil.
Such are the general fafts relative to the repofitories
of gold. We (hall now biiefly mention the more re¬
markable places where gold has been found and collect¬
ed, beginning with thofe of Europe.
Spain formerly had mines of gold 5 the richeft wTas
in the province of Afturias, where it w’as dug out from
regular veins. Thefe mines, according to ancient hido-
rians, where wrought by the Phoenicians, and afterwards
by the Romans ; but they have been totally abandoned
fince the difcovery of America, and the mineral riches
of that country. The rivers of Spain, as wTell as the
Tagus in Portugal, contain auriferous fand.
The only mine of gold which in modern times has
been wrought in France, was difcovered in 1781, at
Gardette, in the valley of Oyfans, department of Ifere.
This was a regular vein of quartz, traverfing a moun¬
tain of gneifs, and containing auriferous fulphuret of
iron, and feme fine fpecimens of native gold-, but it was
not fudiciently rich to defray the expence of the opera¬
tions. Many of the rivers of that country contain au¬
riferous fand, as the Rhone, the Rhine, the Garonne,
and others of fmaller note \ and it is faid that gold is
alio found among the black fand, and particles of mo-
vail'y iron ore, in the neighbourhood of Paris.
In Piedmont there are fome mines of gold. At the
foot of Mount Rofa, veins of auriferous fulphuret of
iron have been difcovered, traverfing gneifs 5 and al¬
though thefe pyrites do not yield more than 10 or 11
grains of gold in the quintal, it has been found worth
while to continue the operations. On the fouth fide of
the Apennine mountains, there are feveral auriferous
rivers and foils.
Some of the rivers of Switzerland alfo contain auri¬
ferous fands. Such are thofe of the Reufs and the
Aar.
In Germany the only gold mine which is wrought is
in Saltfburg, in the chain of mountains which traverfes
that country from eaft to weft, and which feparates it
from the Tyrol and Carinthia.
But Schemnitz and Cremnitz are the moft remark¬
able places in Europe for mines of gold and auriferous
fands. The gold of Schemnitz is accompanied by fil-
ver, lead, and iron pyrites, and the matrix is quartz.
Auriferous fand is found not only in the bed of the
river Neva, but this fand is ftill richer in the plain
through which the river flows. According to De Born,
this is a ferruginous land, lying below a bed of chalk.
In Tranfylvania the celebrated gold mine of Nagyag
is remarkable for having the gold combined with na¬
tive tellurium. There is alfo another mine at Felfo-
banya, the ore of which is an auriferous fulphuret of
filver, in a vein of a kind of jafper. The rivers of this
country alfo contain gold. The plain on the banks of
the river Moros contains an auriferous fand, which is
depofited between two beds, neither of which yields a
particle of gold. The upper ftratum is vegetable foil,
and the lower is compofed of fchiftus.
The mines of Hungary are the only gold mines in
Europe which are of any importance.
In Sweden gold is obtained from the mine of Edel-
fors in the province of Smoland. This mine yields na- Sweden,
live gold, and auriferous iron pyrites. The veins are
compofed of brown quartz, traverfing a mountain of
fchiftofe hornftone. The gold is fometimes difleminated
in the rock itfelf. 33
In Greece, the ifiand of Thafos in the Archipelago Greece,
was celebrated in antiquity for its rich mines of gold.
The ancients alfo, it is faid, found abundance of gold in
Thrace and Macedonia.
The alluvial foil in feveral places of the BritiftiIreland,
illands, has alfo furnilhed gold. Not many years ago,
a confiderable quantity of gold was colle&ed in a Tandy
foil, on the mountains of Wicklow in Ireland. Several
maffes of native gold, exceeding an ounce in weight,
were found in that foil ; one weighing 22 ounces was
found, which is faid to be the largeft fpecimen of na¬
tive gold found in Europe. 35
It would appear that gold was collected at a very Scotland
early period, in Scotland, and particularly in the mine
field of Lendhills ; but the moft extenuve operations
w-eve carried on by Bulmer, an Engliftiman, in the
time of Queen Elizabeth. The trenches, heaps of foil
that had been turned up, and other marks of thefe ope¬
rations, yet vifible between Leadhills and Elvanfoot,
ftill retain the name of Buhner's IVorkings, and the place
where the gold was waftied, is ftill called-the ^0/^fcour.
At that time, it is faid, an immenfe quantity of gold
was colledied. Not many years ago, fimilar operations
were relumed, by the advice of a German -, but fo far
as we underftand, the quantity of gold colledted was
fcarcely equal to the expence. The operations during
the laft attempt were carried on under the fuperin-
tendance of the late Mr John Taylor, manager of the
mines at Wanlockhead ; a man of no common fagacity,
by which he was enabled to colleft many curious fadts
with regard to the natural hiftory of gold. The gold
was found in that country immediately under the vege¬
table foil and the method of conducing the operation
w-as, to diredl a fmall ftream of water fo as to carry this *
foil along with it, to bafons or hollow places, where
the water might depofit the matters which had been
carried along by its current. The matter depolited
was repeatedly walhed, till the whole of the earthy
fubftances were carried off. The gold being heavieft,
funk to the bottom, and remained behind. Among
other fafts which Mr Taylor communicated to us, and
which he obferved during the progrefs of thefe opera¬
tions he found, that the gold was always moft abundant
near the top of the lead veins which traverfe that coun¬
try. He was fo fatisfied of this faff, that he could tell,
merely by the quantity of gold increafing, when they
approached to a vein ; and on the other hand the quan¬
tity diminilhing as they receded from the vein. This
faff fliews that there is fome conneffion betw-een me¬
tallic veins and the formation or depofition of gold.
Gold is ftill found in the foil of that country ; but
whether the quantity be lefs than formerly, or the ex¬
pence of collefting it, from the difference in tfie price
of labour, greater, the produce is by no means equal
to the expences, and therefore fearching for gold is
now only the employment of the leifure hours of fome
of the miners.
E e 2
The
2 20
Metallic
Oies.
MINERALOGY.
Afia.
36
37
Africa.
3?
America.
T he whole extent of the continent of Afia furnifhes
gold, in greater or fmaller quantity. Gold is found in
leveral ot the mines of Siberia, and particularly in that
of Bereloi, which yields auriferous pyrites partially de-
compofed, and diiTeminated in a vein of quartz. In
the fouthern parts of Afia, many mines, and particu¬
larly the fands of the rivers, contain gold. The Pac-
tolus, a fmall river of Lydia, was celebrated in anti-
.quity for the quantity of gold which it yielded, and it
was fuppofed to be the fource of the riches of Croefus.
Japan, Formofa, Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, Borneo,
the Philippines, and other iflands of the Indian Archi¬
pelago, are fuppofed to be rich in gold at this day.
The greateft quantity of gold which the ancients
pofielfed, befide what was obtained from Spain, was
brought from Africa. The gold of Africa, which ftill
forms an important article of commerce, is always in the
ftate of gold duft ; a circumftance which {hews that it
is chiefly extratted from alluvial foil by wafhing. Lit¬
tle gold is found in the northern parts of Africa ; three
or four places are remarkable for the quantity of gold
which they yield. The firft is that part of the country
between Darfour and Abyfiinia. The gold colle£ted
there is brought by the Negroes for fale in quills of the
oflrich and of the vulture. It would appear that this
country was known to the ancients, who regarded
Ethiopia as a country rich in gold j and Herodotus
mentions that the king of that country exhibited to the
ambaifadors of Cambyfes, all the prifoners bound with
chains of gold.
The fecond great fource of gold duft in Africa is to
the fouth of the great defert Zara, in the weftem part
of that country. The gold is colle&ed in that exten-
five flat which ftretches along the foot of the lofty
mountains, among which the rivers Senegal, Gambia,
and Niger, have their origin. Gold is found in the
fands of all thefe rivers. Bambouk, which lies to the
north-weft of thele mountains, fupplies the greateft
part of the gold which is fold on the weftern coaft
of Africa; at Morocco, Fez, and Algiers, as well
as that which is brought to Cairo and Alexandria in
Egypt. _
third region of Africa where gold is abundant, is
on the fouth-eaft coaft, oppofite to IVIadagafcar; and it
is faid that the gold brought from Opbir, in the time of
Solomon, was from that part of Africa.
America is the richeft country of the world, in mo¬
dern times, in this precious metal. Ihere it is colleifl-
ed in the alluvial foil, and in the beds of rivers, and
fometimes, but more rarely, in veins. In Mexico
gold is chiefly found in the numerous filver veins of that
country. All the rivers in the province of the Carac-
cas, about io° north of the equator, furnifti gold. In
the Spanifh part of America, Chili furnilhes gold from
the alluvial foil, as well as the province of Choco,
where it is more abundant ; while that of Peru is ob¬
tained from veins of quartz, marked with ferruginous
But tae greateft quantity of gold of commerce comes
trom. Brazil, where it is colle&ed in the alluvial foil
and in the fand of rivers, and extrafted by wafhing!
Gold is found almofl everywhere in that country, at
tile foot of the immenfe chain ot mountains which is
nearly parallel with the coaft, and which ftretekes from
die 50 to the 30* of S. Lat,
Part I.
III. Genus. MERCURY.
1. Species. Native Mercury.
Mercury, Kirw. ii. 223. Mercure Nat if, Broch. ii.
241, Id. Hauy, iii. 423.
Ffen. Char.—Remains liquid till the temperature be
reduced to 40* below o Fahrenheit.
Exter. Char.—Native mercury exifts diffeminated, in.
globules of different fizes, in fmall cavities of other ores
of mercury ; luftre refplendent, metallic.
Colour ftiining white, or tin white ; opaque ; perfect¬
ly fluid ; does not w-et the finger : feels very cold So
gr. 13.568 to 13.581. ' P
. Fhem. C/k?/-.——Volatile before the blow-pipe, without
diffufing any perceptible odour.
Native mercury is underftood to be pure, and having
all the properties of that metal; but it is fometimes
amalgamated with a little filver, which deftroys its flui¬
dity in a flight degree, and renders it fomewhat vif-
cous.
Localities, &c—Native mercury is ufually found
along with the other ores of that metal, as at Idria, in
Friouli, and at Almaden in Spain; but the great pro¬
portion of the mercury of commerce is obtained by dif-
tillation from native^cinnabar. There is alfo, it is faid,
a rich mine of native mercury near Guanca Velica in
Peru.
. Ufes—For many purpofes mercury is one of the moft
important of metallic fubftances. It is extenfively em¬
ployed in metallurgy, in extrafting gold and filver
rom their ores, by the procefs to be afterwards deferib-
ed, called amalgamation. I he ufes of mercury in gild-
ing, in filvering the backs of mirrors, and in medicine,
are well known.
2. Species. Native Amalgam.
Natural Amalgam, Kirw. ii. 223. DAmalgam Nat f
Broch. ii. 99. Mercure Argental, Hauy, iii. 432.
EJ/en. Char.—Communicating to copper a filvery
colour by friftion. 3
Exter. Char.— This fpecies is rarely found maflive,
but ufually diffeminated, or fuperficial, fometimes im-
perfeCUy cryftallized. . I he form of its cryftals is the
oClahedron, dodecahedron, but it is ufually found in
thin plates or leaves; luftre refplendent, or ftiining 1
fraCture conchoidal. °
Colour between ftiining or tin white, and filvery
white, according to the predominance of the mercury
or filver ; loft, and partially fluid ; brittle, and eafily
frangible.
Chem. Char—Expofed to heat the mercury is driven
off, and the filver remains behind.
Mercury
Silver
Conjlituent Parts.
Heyer.
75
25
Klaproth.
64
IOO
_ Localities,' &c.—This mineral is rare, and is met
with, according to De Born, in the mines of mercury
whofe
100
100
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
221
Claflifica- whofe veins are croffed by veins of filver ores. It is
bon- found chiefly at Rofenau in Hungary, in Moersfeld,
U’“~v ' and Mofchellandfberg, in the duchy of Deux Fonts,
and at Sahlberg in Sweden. It is ufually found in a
yelknvhh or reddifh ferruginous clay, and accompanied
by other ores of mercury.
3. Species. Corneous Ore of Mercury.
Mercury mineralised by the vitriolic and marine acids,
Kirw. ii. 229. La Mine de Mercure corne'e, Broch.
ii. 101, Mercure muriate, Hauy, iii. 447.
EJfen. Char.—Colour pearl gray, volatilized by the
blow-pipe.
Exter. Char.—Rarely found maflive or diffeminated,
but ufually in thin crufts, or in fmall globules, com-
pofed of an aflemblage of fmall cryftals, which are
either perfect cubes, or fix-fided prifms, terminated by a
four-fided pyramid ; a fix-fided prifm bevelled at the
extremity j or an eight-fided prim with four broad and
four narrow alternating faces. Cryftals fhining, fome-
times refplendent •, internal luftre Aiming and adam¬
antine •, fradlure foliated.
Colour fmoke gray, afti gray, or grayifti white 5
tranftucent; tender, and eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.—Entirely volatilized before the blow¬
pipe, without leaving any refiduum, and without decom?
pofition.
The conftituent parts are about 70 of mercury, 29
of muriatic acid, and a fmall portion of fulphuric acid.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has only been knowm
about 13 years, f .d it is hitherto but rare. It was dif-
eovered in the mercury mines of the duchy of Deux
Fonts by Woulfe, and has been fince found at Almaden
in Spain, and at Horfowitz in Bohemia. The repo-
fitory is in the cavities of a ferruginous clay, which is
mixed with malachite and gray copper ore.
4. Species. Liver or Hepatic Ore of Mercury.
Mine de Mercure hepatique, Broch. ii. 104. Hepatic
mercurial ore, Kirw. ii. 224. Mercure fulfuri bitumi-
nifere, Hauy, iii. 446.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, 1. compaft and
2. flaty.
mercury ih Idria, where it forms confiderable beds, Metallic
and yields about 60 per cent, of mercury. It is found , ies'
alfo, along with other ores of mercury, in Spain and
Siberia.
Liver ore of mercury confifts of cinnabar, or the
fulphuret of mercury, mixed with a portion of indura¬
ted bituminous clay. At Idria it is called branders,
or coaly earth, on account of the predominance of the
bitumen.
5. Species. Cinnabar.
This fpecies is alfo divided into two fubfpecies, com¬
mon and fibrous.
Subfpecies 1. Common Cinnabar.
Le Cinnabre Commun, Broch. ii. 107. Dark Red Cin~
nabar, Kirw. ii. 223. Mercure Sulfure compaBe,
Hauy, iii. 440.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated, or in
fuperficial layers, or cellular and kidney-form, and alfo
cryftallized. Forms of the cryftals are, a double four-
fided pyramid with truncated fummits 5 a cube having
its oppofite diagonal angles truncated ; a rhomboidal
prifm j a three-fided prifm terminated by a three-fided
pyramid, which alfo is truncated. The cryftals which
are ufually fmall, are confufedly grouped together j
furface of the rhomboidal prifm tranfverfely ftreaked,
of the others fmooth ; external luftre fhining or refplen¬
dent ; internal the fame, or only glimmering, vitreous,
or adamantine *, frafture foliated, uneven, or rarely
fplintery ; fragments fharp-edged.
Colour cochineal red, carmine red, and in fome va¬
rieties lead-gray; opaque, rarely tranflucent at the
edges } cryftals tranflucent, or femitranfparent j ftreak
fliining, fcarlet red ; tender, and eafily frangible. Spec,
grav. 6.902 to 7*86.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe common cinna¬
bar is entirely volatilized with a blue flame, and a ful-
phureous odour.
Conjlituent Parts.
Mercury
Sulphur
Iron
Lampadius.
81
15
4
Subfpecies 1. Compact Liver Ore of Mercury.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated ; luftre
glimmering, metallic; fradlure even, fometimes fine¬
grained uneven ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour between lead gray, and cochineal red ; colour
of the ftreak deep cochineal red, and fhining ; tender,
and eafily frangible. Sp. gr. 7.18 to 7.93.
Subfpecies 2. Slaty Liver Ore of Mercury.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; luftre fliining and
refplendent ; in the crofs fradlure glimmering ; luftre
in general metallic, but fometimes vitreous ; principal
frafture flaty, in curved thick leaves ; crofs fradlure
compad and even ; fragments in plates.
Colour of the preceding, but fomeivhat darker, and
approaching to that of iron ; opaque ; ftreak (hining ;
pow’der between cochineal and fcarlet red ; tender, and
very eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—This is the naoft common ore of
100 „
Localities, &c. This is the moft common ore of
mercury, and may be confidered as the gangue or ma¬
trix of the other ores. Found not only in primitive
mountains, wdrere it forms beds in clay and chlorite
flate, but alfo in ftratiform mountains, and even in al¬
luvial rocks. The mines of Almaden in Spain, of Idria
in Friouli, and thofe of the duchy of Deux Fonts, have
furniftied the greateft quantity of common cinnabar. It
is alfo found in Bohemia, Saxony, and Hungary, and in
fmall quantity in France.
Subfpecies 2. Fibrous Cinnabar.
Le Cinnabre d'un Rouge vif, Brochant, ii. iii. Bright
red Cinnabar, Kirwan, ii. 229. Mercure fulfure Ji-
breux, Hauy, iii. 440.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difleminated, or fuper¬
ficial
222
Mcialhc iicial ; luftre glimmeririg, filky, often alfo entirely dull;
. <;i2 fra&ure fine grained earthy, or fibrous: fragments blunt-
edged.
Colour bright fcarlet red, fometimes crimfon or au¬
rora red *, opaque ; ftreak fliining fcarlet red ; ftains j
very tender or friable, and very eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.“—This variety is very rare in a flate
of purity. According to Haiiy, moft of the fpecimens
owe their texture to an admixture of radiated fulphuret
of iron. It has been found chiefly at Wolflfein in the
Palatinate, where it is accompanied by brown iron
ore and hematites.
Cinnabar is dug out chiefly for the purpofe of
extrafling the metallic mercury. It is employed alfo
as a colouring matter in painting 5 but the cinnabar ufed
for this purpofe is chiefly artificial.
Some other varieties of cinnabar, or fulphuret of mer-
cury, have been noticed by mineralogifls, as a native
ethiops mineral. This is of a black colour, a loofe
confidence, £nd it ftains the fingers. It appears to be
fome bituminous fubftance penetrated with cinnabar. It
is found at Idria.
Alkaline cinnabar of De Born is found at the fame
place ; is of a bright red colour, foliated fradlure, with
rhomboidal fragments ; and fuppofed to be cinnabar
penetrated with an alkaline fulphuret, the odour of
which it gives out by friftion. Another variety of
cinnabar, ufually called native vermilion, is in the
form of powder. This fubftance is very rare, but is
«lfo fometimes found at Idria.
IV. SILVER Genus.
MINERALOGY.
# «
per in the folution of nitrate of filver, the filver is re¬
duced, and appears in the metallic ftate.
Localities, &c.—Native filver is not uncommon in
moft of the mines which furnith the other ores of that
metal. The accompanying fubftances are ufually heavy
fpar, quartz, calcareous fpar, fluor fpar, pyrites, blende,
cobalt, and galena. Native filver is very abundant in
Mexico and Peru, and it is alfo not uncommon in Si¬
beria, in Germany, France, and was lately difcovered
in the Herland mine in Cornwall.
Subfpecies 2. Auriferous Silver.
F.xter. Char.—Ihis variety is rarely found maftive,
but is ufually difleminated in fmall particles, or fuperfi-
cial, or reticulated, or in thin plates; luftre ftiining or
refplendent ; fradfure hackly.
Colour between filver white and brafs yellow, fome¬
times approaching to gold yellow ; it is loft, perfectly
dudfile ; flexible without being elaftic, and its fpecific
gravity is greater than common native filver in pro¬
portion to the quantity of gold with which it is al¬
loyed.
Conjhtuent Parts.—Auriferous filver is a compound
of filver alloyed with gold, the latter fometimes in very
confiderable proportion.
Localities, &.c.—This mineral (is very rare. It is
found at Konigfberg in Norway, diffeminated in maflive
calcareous fpar, fiuor fpar, and rock cryftal, accompa¬
nied by blende, galena, and pyrites, in a vein which
traverfes a rock of flaty hornblende. It is alfo found in
Siberia, in granular heavy fpar accompanied by vitreous
filver ore, vitreous copper ore, and pyrites.
1. Species. Native Silver.
Id. Kirvvan, ii. 108. Id. Brochant, ii. 114. Id. Haiiy,
iii. 384.
I his is divided into two fubfpecies, common and
auriferous.
Subfpecies 1. Common Native Silver.
_ Exter. Char.— Common native filver is ufually found
diffeminated or fuperficial, under different imitative
forms, as dentiform, filiform, capillary, dendritic, reti¬
culated, veined, or in thin plates $ and fometimes cryf-
tallized, in cubes, o&ahedrons, redlangular four-fided
prifms, double fix-fided pyramids with truncated extre¬
mities, double three-fided pyramids with truncated
angles, and hollow fcur-fided pyramids. The cryftals
are fmall and grouped together in rows, or dendritical,
Or reticulated ; furface fmooth ; that of the plates drufy,
that of dentiform, filiform, and capillary filver j longi¬
tudinally ftreaked; external luftre glimmering or re¬
fplendent j'internal always glimmering, metallic ; frac¬
ture hackly •, fragments rather (harp-edged.
Colour filvery wdiite, but fometiraes on the furface
yellowifti-brown, or grayifti black j opaque 5 foft •, per-
fe&Jy duiftile ; flexible, but not elaftic; ftreak (hining,
metallic. Spec. grav. 10 to 10.47.
Cherr. Char.-—Native filver is foluble in nitric acid, and
may be precipitated by muriatic acid, the muriate of
iilver being infoluble; or by immerfing 3 plate of cop-
2. Species. Antimonial Silver Ore.
Argent Antimonial, Brochant, ii. 119. Id. Hatiy, iii.
391* Antimoniated Native Silver, Kirw'an, ii. no.
EJfen. Char.—Colour filvery white ; brittle.
Exter. Char—Found maflive or difleminated, kidney-
form, or cryftallized in four-fided oblique prifms, in
fix-fided prifms, fometimes with the lateral edges trun¬
cated, in fix-fided tables, and in cubes, having fome
of the angles truncated. Surface of the cryftals longi¬
tudinally ftreaked ; luftre weakly fhining, or only glim¬
mering ; internal luftre (Lining or refplendent; frafture
foliated.
Colour filvery white, fometimes a fuperficial colour
between yellow, black, and gray, or the colour of tem¬
pered fteel ; ftreak ftiining ; femihard. Spec. grav.
9.44.
Chem. Char .—Before the bIowT-pipe it is eafily re¬
duced ; the antimony is driven off and gives out its pe¬
culiar odour, while the pure filver remains behind in-
crufted wfith a brown flag, which communicates to bo¬
rax a green colour.
When antimonial filver is diffolved in nitric acid, a
whitifli cruft, w’hich is the oxide of antimony, foon ap¬
pears on the furface.
1 his mineral, as its name imports, is an alloy of fil¬
ver and antimony, in which fometimes a fmall portion
of iron is obferved. The proportions of the two metals
feem to be very variable.
2
Conjlituent
I
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
Chem. Char.—Corneous filver ore melts very eafily
Conjlituent Parts. before the blow pipe, giving out a difagreeable fmell,
KKproth. Vauquelin. and the globule of filver remains.
223
Metallic
Ores.
t   1
Silver 76 ^4
Antimony 24 16
IOO ICO
Localities, &c.—This ore of filver is accompanied by
calcareous fpar, heavy fpar, native filver, galena, and
quartz, in a vein near the duchy of Furftenberg in
Swabia. It has alfo been found in carbonate of lime
and heavy fpar near Guadalcanal in Spain.
78
22
100
ConJHtuent Parts. Klaproth.
Silver 67.75
Muriatic acid 21.
Sulphuric acid .25
Oxide of iron 6.
Alumina 1.75
Lime .25
Lofs 3.
100.00
3. Species. Arsenical Silver Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. in. Argent Antimonial Arfenifere, et
ferrifere, Haiiy, iii. 398.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or diffeminated, kid¬
ney-form or globular, and alfo cryftallized in perfeft
fix-fided prifms 5 in fimilar prifms a little flattened, and
having the lateral edges rounded ; and in acute fix-fided
pyramids with truncated fummits. Luftre weakly finn¬
ing, fometimes fhining ; internal luifre fhining or re-
fplendent •, fra&ure foliated ; fragments fliarp-e^,ed.
Colour tin-wdiite, or lead gray, but expofed ta the
air yellowiih, or fteel gray j fireak fhining j foft;
brittle.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe the arfenic is
driven off in fumes, diffufing the fmell of garlic j there
remains behind an impure globule of filver.
Conjt’ituent Parts.
Silver
Arfenic
Iron
Antimony
Lofi
Klaproth.
12-75
35*
44.25
4-
4*
. 100.00
Localities, Sec.—This is a rare mineral, which has
been found at Andreafberg in the Hartz, accompanied
by native arfenic, red filver ore, galena, brown blende,
and calcareous fpar.
4. Species. Corneous Silver Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 113. La Mine Corne, Broch. ii. 127.
Argent Muriate, Hauy, iii. 418.
Localities, &cc.—Muriate of filver is always found at
the upper part of thevein, and it is faid that it fome¬
times accompanies organized fubflances. Leaves of na¬
tive filver have been found attached to petrifactions, at
Frankenberg in Heflja 5 it is fuppofed that this metallic
filver is the refult of the decompofition of the muriate
of filver. Corneous filver ore is almoft always accom¬
panied by vitreous filver, footy filver, brown iron ore j.
more rarely by native filver, red filver, galena, quartz,
and heavy fpar. It is found in Peru and Mexico, in
the mines of Freyberg in Saxony, at Allemont in France,
and in Siberia.
Another variety of muriate of filver has been de-
feribed by fome mineralogifts under the name of earthy
corneous filver ore j or, according to the fanciful Ger¬
man name, butter-milk earth. This variety has an
earthy fraCIure, owing to a portion of alumina which is
combined with it. It is almoft friable $ the luftre of
the ftreak is refinous, and it feels fomewhat greafy.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is ftightly ag¬
glutinated without melting, and fmall globules of filver
exude from the mafs.
ConJHtuent Parts. Klaproth.
Silver
Muriatic acid
Alumina
With a trace of copper
25
8
67
This variety is found at Andrealberg in the Hartz;
Another variety has been deferibed under the name of
alkaline filver ore, wdiich is nothing more than the mu¬
riate of filver combined with carbonate of lime.
E/Jen. Char.—The colour ©f horn ; fufible like wTax.
Exter. Char.—Rarely found maflive 5 fometimes dif¬
feminated in globular pieces, often in fuperficial layers,
and very often cryftallized. The forms are, the per-
feft cube, capillary or needle-formed cryftals' the cry-
ftals are always fmall, and commonly grouped together.
Surface fmooth, fhining or weakly Alining j internal
luftre the fame ; refinous; fracture uneven, or flat con-
choidal ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour light pearl gray, violet blue, ©r lead gray *,
becomes brown or blackifli in the air j tranflucent 5
fometimes only at the edges; very foft; receives the
impreflion of the nail; ductile, and in thin plates, flexi¬
ble. Spec. gray. 4.748 to 4.804,
5. Species. Sooty Silver Ore..
Id. Kim. ii. 117. DArgent Noir, Broch. ii. 132.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or diffeminated, perfo¬
rated or corroded ; in fuperficial layers upon other mi¬
nerals, or in rounded pieces, covered by muriate of fil¬
ver ; confiftence intermediate between folid and friable 5
dull j fratffure fine grained earthy j fragments blunt-
edged.
Colour bluifti black, or blackifh gray ; ftreak fliin-
ing, metallic ; ftains a little ; eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.—Melts eafily before the blow-pipe into
a flaggy mafs, which, by continuing the heat, is par¬
tially volatilized, and the globule of filver remains.
Its-
*
1
22+ M I N E R
Metallic Its conflituent p?.rts art Hill unknown ; as it is ufual-
, ( re'i' ]y accoropanied by vitreous, corneous, and fome other
filver ores, it is fuppofed to be a mixture of thofe ores
in different proportions.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, in France, and
in Hungary.
6. Species. Vitreous Silver Ore.
Sulphurated Silver Ore, Kirw. ii. 115. L'Argent V1-
treux, Brochant, ii. 134. Argent Sulphure, Hauy,
iii. 39S.
Exter. Char.—Commonly found maffive, diffemina-
ted, or fuperficial 5 fometimes dentiform, filiform, ca¬
pillary, dendritic, or reticulated, with other forms and
impreffions. It is alfo cryftallized in cubes, which are
either perfed or truncated on the angles or edges; in
odahedrons, which are either perfed, or truncated on
the angles ; in flat, double, three-fided pyramids, the
edges of the one correfponding to the faces of the
other 5 in redangular four-fided prifms, terminated by
a four-fided pyramid ; in equiangular fix-fided prifms,
terminated at the two extremities by a three-fided pyra¬
mid ; correfponding alternately to three of the lateral
edges, forming the garnet dodecahedron, of which all
the lateral edges are fometimes flightly truncated ; in
broad and flat fix-fided prifms bevelled at the extremity,
and having the angles at the acute lateral edges trun¬
cated. The cryftals are commonly fmall, and grouped
together in rows, or in knots, like the fteps of a flair $
the cube and the odlahedron are the moft common,
and the cube is fometimes hollow. The furface of the
cryftal is ufually fmooth, fometimes rough or drufy;
luftre between Alining and weakly glimmering ; internal
luftre firming, metallic ; fra&ure conchoidal, fometimes
foliated j fragments blunt-edged.
Colour dark lead-gray, fteel gray, or blackiflr gray,
varying by expofure to the air j flreak flrining ; foft j
dudile ; may be cut with a knife; flexible without be¬
ing elaftic. Spec. gray. 6.909 to 7.215.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe vitreous filver is
reduced to the metallic ftate, and the fulphur is driven
off. By gradually heating it in a furnace, the fulphur
may be diflipated without fufion, and the filver is redu¬
ced to the metallic ftate in a dendritical or capillary
form, exadly refembling native filver.
Conjlituent Parts.
Bergman. Sage. Klaproth.
Silver 75 84 85
Sulphur 25 16 15
100 i00 100
Localities, &c.—Vitreous filver is one of the moft
common filver ores. It is ufually accompanied By
heavy fpar, calcareous fpar, and fluor fpar •, along with
the other ores of filver and lead, cobalt and blende.
It is found in Bohemia, Saxony, Norway, Siberia, and
South America.
7. Species. Brittle Vitreous Silver Ore.
VArgent Vitreux Aigre, Brochant, ii. 138.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difieminated, fuperfi-
A L O G Y. Part I.
cial, or cryftallized in equiangular fix-fided priims, the G’affifica-
terminal faces being fometimes plane, and fometimes tlon'
convex or concave ; the fame prifm truncated on its v
terminal edges, or terminated by a fix-fided pyramid fit
on the lateral faces, and having its fummit truncated j
in equiangular fix-fided tables, or in very flat rhom¬
boids. Cryftals fmall, and grouped together •, furface
fmooth, fometimes drufy ; prifms longitudinally ftreak-
ed j luftre thining or refplendent ; internal luftre flrin¬
ing, or weakly ftrining •, frafture conchoidal, fometimes
uneven $ fragments rather ftrarp-edged.
Colour iron-black, or fteel or lead gray } foft j brit¬
tle. Spec. grav. 7.208.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts with dif¬
ficulty 5 fulphur, antimony, and arfenic, are partially
driven off, and there remains a button of metallic fil¬
ver, which is not very dudliie, accompanied by a brown
flag.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silver, 66.5
Sulphur, 12.
Antimony, 1 o.
Iron, _ 5.
Copper and arfenic, .5
Earthy matters, I.
Lofs, 5.
100.0
Localities, See.—This is one of the richeft filve'r ores5
and it is ufually accompanied by red filver ore, vitreous
filver ore, fome other metallic ores, and various earthy
fpars. It is pretty common in Saxony and Hungary,
but lefs abundant than vitreous filver ore. It is alfo
occafionally met with in moft other filver mines.
8. Species. Red Silver ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 122. Id. Broch. ii. 143. Argent Anti-
monie Sulphure, Hatiy, iii. 402.
This is divided into two fubfpecies; dark red, and
bright red filver ore.
Subfpecies 1. Dark Red Silver Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or diffeminated, fuper¬
ficial, dendritical, or cryftallized in equiangular fix-fided
prifm, which is either terminated by a three-fided pyra¬
mid fet on the lateral edges, or has its terminal edges
truncated, or is terminated by an obtufe fix-fided pyra¬
mid fet on the lateral faces, and having the fummit and
lateral edges of the pyramid truncated j fometimes the
fummit of the pyramid is terminated by a fecond three-
fided pyramid, and fometimes the lateral edges of the
prifm are bevelled. The cryftals are fmall, and vari-
oufly grouped together, commonly fmooth and refplend¬
ent, rarely ftreaked j internal luftre weakly fhining, or
only glimmering, adamantine, often femimetallic;
frafture ufually uneven, fometimes conchoidal j frag¬
ments rather blunt-edged.
Colour between cochineal red and lead gray, and
fometimes iron black j cryftals tranflucent j in maffes
opaque ; ftreak but weakly ftiining, between cochineal
red
*
2
Part T. MINER
red and crimfon red ; foft j brittle, and eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 5.56 to 5.58.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it derepitates and
flies off before becoming red, and then melts with froth¬
ing up ; part is volatilized and lublimes in the form of
a yellowifh white powder, and leaves a button of me¬
tallic filver.
Its conftituent parts are fuppofed to be nearly the
fame as the following.
Localities, &c.—Found in alrnoft all filver mines,
and is ufually accompanied by other filver ores, as well
as different metallic ores.
A L o G Y.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive and diffeminated ;
luftre ftrongly glimmering j fraffure even j fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour bright lead-gray, or fteel-gray j foft ; Break
finning. Spec. grav. 5.3 22.
Conjlituent Parts.—According to fome, this mineral
is compofed of filver, antimony, and fulphur •, but ac¬
cording to others, minerals which have been reckoned
white filver ores, contain a very confiderable proportion
of lead, and therefore ought to be arranged among the
ores of that metal. Such are the following analyfes
by Klaproth.
Meta'
Ore:
Subfpecies 2. Bright Red Silver Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diffeminated, or fu-
perficial, and very often cryftallized. The forms of
its cryftals refemble fome of thofe of the former, or are
Ample fix-iided pyramids, or acute fix-fided pyramids,
having the lateral angles alternately acute and obtufe,
with the fummit furmounted by a three fided pyramid
placed on the obtufe edges of the firft ; or furmounted
by a fix fiued pyramid fet on the lateral faces. The
cryftals ate fometimes acicular, and are combined to¬
gether in a fafcicular or reticulated form. Surface of
the cryftals iometimes fmooth, fometimes drufy j ftreaked
longitudinally, but the pyramids are ftreaked tranf-
verfely or obliquely •, luftre refplendent or fhining ; in¬
ternal lu'ure fhining or weakly fhiniug and adamantine;
fradlure conchoidal, or fine grained uneven ; fragments
rather blunt-edged.
Colour blood-red, or light cochineal red, fometimes
bluifh on the furface; cryftals femitranfparent; in
maffes tranflucent, often opaque ; ftreak aurora red ; foft,
eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 5.44 to 5.59.
Chew. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe ; blackens,
and burns with a bluifh flame, giving out white fumes
with the odour of garlic. A button of nearly pure
filver remains behind.
ConJHtuent Parts.
Silver,
Antimony,
Sulphur,
Sulphuric acid and water,
Oxygen,
Klaproth.
62.
18.5
11.
8.5
100.0
Vauquelin.
56.67
16.13
I5-°7
12.13
100.00
The garlic fraell, which was formerly fuppofed to be
owing to arfenic, arifes from the antimony, which is vo¬
latilized by the adlion of the blow-pipe ; although, ac¬
cording to Prouft, there are ores of red filver which
contain fometimes arfenic and fometimes antimony fe-
parately, and fometimes the turn metals combined. The
red colour of this ore is by Thenard afcribed to the an¬
timony in the ftate of purple oxide.
Localities, &.c.—Red filver ore is ufually accom¬
panied by native arfenic, other ores of filver, as well
as other metallic ores; and it is found in Bohemia, Sax¬
ony, France, Spain, and Hungary.
9. Species. White Silver Ore.
/</. Broch. ii. 150. Light Gray Silver Ore. Kirw. ii.
1.19-
Vol. XIV. Part I.
Silver,
Lead,
Antimony,
Iron,
Sulphur,
Alumina,
Silica,
Lofs,
Light coloured.
2C.40
48.06
7.88
2.25
I 2.25
7-
.25
1.91
Dark coloured.
9'25
41-
21.5
I-75
2 2.
I>75
2.25
100.00
100.00
Localities, &c.—The teal wdiite filver ore has been
chiefly found in the mine of Himmelfurft, near Frey-
berg in Saxony, in a gangue of quartz, and accom¬
panied by galena, red filver, and blende.
10. Species. Black Silver Ore.
Exter. Char.—This ore of filver is of a cellular tex¬
ture ; the ftreak is fhining and metallic ; it is brittle,
and of a black colour ; but it can only be known to be
a filver ore by obtaining globules of filver under the
blow'-pipe. It is ufually accompanied by vitreous
red filver ores. It is fuppofed that it is fome of the
other fpecies of filver ores that may have undergone
fome change from chemical agents. The filver it con¬
tains is in very variable proportions.
Localities, &c.—Found in fome of the filver mines
at Freybergin Saxony, and Allemont in France. It is
'common in Peru and Mexico, and it is called by the
Spaniards, negrillo.
Befide the filver ores already defcribed, other fpecies
have been mentioned by mineralogifts, the exiftence of
which has not been diftimSlly afcertained ; as the car¬
bonate of filver of Widenmann and Kirwan, compofed
of 72.5 parts of filver, 1 2 of carbonic acid, and 15.5
of carbonate of antimony and oxide of copper * ; the * jj
reddith and greenifh black filver ore, alfo defcribed by
Kirwan, which is fuppofed to be a mixture of native
and fulphurated filver f. Light lamellar filver ore f
compofed of alumina, fulphuret of filver, oxide of iron f Ibid
and manganefe.
V. COPPER Genus.
1. Species. Native Copper.
Id. Kirw. ii. 128. Id. B.och. ii. 158. Id. Hauy, iii.
518.
Effen. Char.—Colour reddiih yellow, and malleable.
Exter. Char.—Native copper is found maflive, dif¬
feminated, fuperficial, or in rounded pieces; alfo den-
dritical and capillary, and very often cryftallized in per-
F f
226 •
Metallic
Ores.
' 
M I N E R
fe^ cube?, ov with truncated edges or angles •, double
four-fided pyramids ; Ample and acute tlrree-fided pyra¬
mids. Cryflals fmall, and grouped in a dendritical or
botryoidal form ; lull re finning or weakly flrining j in¬
ternal ludre glimmering or weakly Ihining ; fradlure
hackly; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour light copper-red, but expofed to the air, yel-
lowiib, blackilh, or greenifh j ftreak Hrining 5 foft, or
femihard ; dudlile, and flexible, but not elaftic. Spec,
grav. 7.72 to 8.58.
Chem. Char.— Copper immerfed for fome time in a
folution of ammonia, or volatile alkali, changes it to a
beautiful blue colour.
Localities, &c.—Native copper is not a very rare
mineral ; it is found in many copper mines accom¬
panied by the Other ores of copper, as in the copper
mines of Siberia, Saxony, Hungary, Sweden, and Corn¬
wall in England.
2. Species. Vitreous Copper Ore.
u Kirw. ii. 144. Id. Broch. ii. 162. Cuivre Sulfure,
Haiiy, iii. 551. ^
This is divided into two fuhfpecies; compaft and fo¬
liated.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Vitreous Copper Ore.
Ex ter. Char.—Found mafTiveordilTeminatedjfometimes
fliperficial, and rarely cryftallized in perfecl cubes with
convex faces ; in perfect oftahedrons, or in fix-fided
prifms, terminated by a three-iided pyramid, fet on
three of the lateral edges. Cryftals fmall j furface
fmooth and fhining •, internal luflre llrongly glimmer¬
ing or fhining j fratlure rhomboidal or even, fragments
rather (harp-edged.
Colour lead-gray, iron gray, or yellowifh, but feme-
times the colour of tempered fteel w hen tarnifhed \ ftreak
fhining or refplendent 5 foft, and eafily frangible. Spec,
grav. 4.81 to 5.338.
CoTifiituent Paris. Klaproth.
Copper 78.5
Sulphur 18.5
Iron 2.25
Silica .7 c
100.00
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Vitreous Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Always found maflive or diffeminat-
ed, rarely fuperficial j fra£lure foliated ; fragments blunt
edged.
Colour fimilar to the former, approaching a little
more to fawn or yellowifh brown.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Copper 50
Sulphur 20
Iron 2<;
Lofs 5
100
Chcm. Char.—Vitreous copper ore is often fufible
in the flame of a candle, and it melts eafily before the
A L O G Y. part I.
blow-pipe, and yields a button of copper enveloped in Claffifka-
a blackilh flag 5 heated with borax, gives it a green co- ft°n*
lour, and dsgefted in a folution of ammonia, changes it '' ^
to a fine blue.
Localities, &c.—Vitreous copper ore is accompanied
by quartz, calcareous fpar, heavy fpar, and the other
ores of copper ; and is common in Siberia, Hungary,
Norway, Germany, and Cornwall in England.
3. Species. Variegated Copper Ore.
Purple Copper Ore, Kirwan, ii. 142. La Mine de Cuivre
Panachee, Brochant, ii. 166. Cuivre Pyriteux He-
patique, Hauy, iii. 536.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difleminated, or fupet>
facial, and fometimes, it is faid, cryftallized in octa¬
hedrons •, internal luftre fhining ; fraCture conchoidai,
or fomewhat uneven ; fragments rather fharp-edged.
Colour reddifh yellow, violet blue, azure blue, and
greenifh 5 feveral colours exift on the fame fpecimen,
giving it a variegated appearance, from which it has
the name *, ftreak fhining ; powder reddiih ; foft, and
eafily frangible.
Conjlituent Parts.
Copper >
Iron
Sulphur
Oxygen
Lofs
Klaproth.
637 58
12.7 18
19. 19
4-5 5
.1
100.00 100
Localities, &c.—Variegated copper ore is accompanied
by quartz, calcareous fpar, bituminous marly fchiftus,
and other copper ores; and is found in Saxony, Hunga¬
ry, Sweden, Siberia, and England.
4. Species. Copper Pyrites.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 140. Id. Brochant, ii. 169. Id. Hauy,
iii. 529.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diiTeminated, fome¬
times fuperficial, more rarely in imitative forms, as den¬
dritical, &c. but often cryftallized. Forms are, the te¬
trahedron, which is either perfeCl, or with its four angles
truncated, giving it the appearance of a fix-fided table;
the perfeft oCtahedron, the fummit terminated by a
line ; a double cryftal formed of two tetrahedrons bafe
to bafe, the angles of the bafes being (lightly truncated,
produce three re-entering angles, and the lateral faces
three falient angles. Cryftals are fmall ; furface fmooth,
ihining ; internal luftre fhining or refplendent ; fraCture
often uneven, fometimes conchoidai, fragments rather
fharp edged.
Colour in the frefh fraCture, brafs yellow, fometimes
gold yellow, and fteel gray ; fometimes with varie¬
gated colours ; foft or femi-hard ; brittle. Spec. grav.
4.08 to 4.3.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it. decrepitates ;
gives out a fulphureous odour ; fufes into a black glo¬
bule, and the heat being continued, metallic copper ap¬
pears. Borax heated with it acquires a green co¬
lour.
• \ This
Part I.
MINERALOGY,
227
Claffifica- This ore of copper is compofed of fulphur, copper
tl0n' and iron in variable proportions, and fometimes alfo a
fmall admixture of gold or lilver.
Localities, &c.—This is a very common copper
ere. It is equally found in primitive and ftratiform
mountains, either in veins or in beds, and fometimes in
great abundance j in Saxony, Hungary, Sweden, France,
and England.
5. Species. White Copper Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 152. Id. Brochant, ii. 173.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated ; in¬
ternal lufire weakly {hinmg ; fraddure fine grained, un¬
even 5 fragments rather flrarp edged.
Colour between filver white and brafs yellow 5 femi-
hard ; brittle. Spec. grav. 4.5.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out a
white fume, with the fmell of arfenic, and melts into a
grayilh black flag.
'{ his ore is laid to be compofed of copper, iron, ar¬
fenic and fulphur.
* Metallic
7. Species. Black Copper Ore. , Qrcs-
Id. Kirwan, ii. 143. Id. Brochant, ii. 180.
Exter. Char.—Found in the Hate of powder, with a
dull appearance, and little coherence, fometimes incruft-
ing other ores of copper ,j ufually friable ; ftains •, feels
meagre.
Colour brownifh black, fometimes deep brown.
Chem. Char.—Gives out before the blow-pipe a ful-
phureous imeli, and melts with borax into a greenifh
It is fuppofed to arife from the decompofition of vi¬
treous copper ore and copper pyrites, and contains
fometimes from 40 to 30 per. cent, of copper.
8. Species. Red Copper Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 135. Id. Brochant, ii. 181.
This is divided into three fubfpeciesj compaft, foliat¬
ed and capillary.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Red Copper Ore.
6. Species. Gray Copper Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 146. Id. Brochant, ii. 175. Id. Hauy,
537-
Exter. C/for.—Found maflive or difleminated, fuper-
ficial, and often cryftallized in regular tetrahedrons,
which are rare j or having all the edges truncated, or
bevelled, fometimes fhghtly, and fometimes ftrongly ;
or having each of its angles furmounted by a three lid-
ed pyramid, fet on the lateral faces, with fome other
modifications. Cryflals of various fizes ; furface fmooth,
fhining j internal luftre between glimmering and re-
fplendent •, frafture uneven, or conchoidal j fragments
rather fharp edged.
Colour fleel gray of various fliades, lead gray, and
the tarniflied colours are often variegated ; ftreak black
or brown j femi-hard 5 brittle. Specific gravity 4.44
to 4.86.
Chem. C/for.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates,
and melts into a brittle metallic globule of a grayifh
colour, giving out a white fume, and communicating
to borax a yellowifh red colour.
Ccnjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Copper
Sulphur
Antimony
Silver
Iron
.Lead
Silica
Alumina
Lofs
16.25
10.
16.
2.25
34-5
2-5
4-75
100.00
3*.36
77 5
34-09
14.77
3-3
°-3
4.68
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is moft frequently
found in veins in primitive mountains, accompanied
by other .ores, of copper, as in Germany, France,
Sweden, Siberia, and in England.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difleminated, or fu-
perficial ; lutfre glimmering, femi-metallic ; frafture
even, or flightly conchoidal j fragments rather (harp
edged.
Colour cochineal red, or lead gray 5 opaque *, ftreak
Alining, of a brick red colour *, femi-hard, and brittle.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Red Copper Ore.
Exter. Char,—Found maflive, difleminated, or fu-
perficial, often cryftallized in octahedrons, which are
either truncated on the angles or edges j in perfeft
cubes, which are fometimes truncated on the angles,
and fometimes on the edges. Cryftals fmall, ufually
aggregated ; furface fmooth, Alining •, internally Aim¬
ing, or weakly Aiming, between metallic and adaman¬
tine ; fra&ure imperfe&ly foliated; fragments rather
ftiarp edged.
Colour fimilar to the former •, opaque, tranflucent at
the edges ; cryftals femi tranfparent.
Subfpecies 3. Capillary Red Copper Ore.
Fibrous Red Copper Ore, Kirwan, ii. 137. Le Cuivre
Oxide' Rouge Capillaire, Brochant, ii. 184.
Exter. Char.— Found in fmall capillary cryftals,
which are difleminated in fraall bundles, or fometimes
form a fuperficial incruflation j luftre ftiining and ada¬
mantine.
Colour carmine red, cochineal or fcarlet red ; cryf¬
tals tranflucent.
Chem. Char.—Red copper ore is eafily reduced be¬
fore the blow-pipe without any odour 5 entirely foluble
in muriatic acid without effei vefcence, but eifervefees
in nitric acid ; by which means it may be diftinguiftied
from cinnabar, which is infoluble, and from red filver
ore, which diflfolves with effervefcence.
The conftituent parts of red copper ore are fuppofed
to be copper and oxygen, and not a carbonate of cop¬
per, as was formerly conjeflured.
Localities, &c.—Red copper ore is found in various
places accompanying the other ores of the fame metal,
F f 2 and
228
Metallic
Ores.
and particularly native copper,
ties are rare.
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
The cryitallized varie- This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, earthy Clair.fica-
and indurated. . tlon>
9. Species. Brick-red Copper Ore.
Id. Kinvan, ii. 127. Id. Brochant, ii. 187.
Of this alfo there are two fubfpecies, earthy and in¬
durated.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Brick-red Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or diiTeminated, or fu-
perficial, in the fiffures of other copper ores, compofed
of fine earthy particles (lightly cohering •, dull, friable,
and (laining.
Colour hyacinth red, reddiih brown, brosvnidi red,
or yellow.
Subfpecies 2. INDURATED BrICK-RED Copper ORE.
Exter. Char.—Found maftive, diffeminated, or fu-
perficial; luftre glircmering, or weakly (hining j frac¬
ture imperfectly conchoidal, even or earthy j fragments
rather (harp edged.
Colour deep hyacinth red, brownifh red, or deep
brown j (freak (hining j foft, or femihard ; brittle.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is infufible and
blackens.
The conftituent parts of this ore are fuppofed to be a
mixture of red copper ore, or oxide of copper, and
brown oxide of iron, in variable proportions.
Localities, &c.—This ore is ufually found accompa¬
nying red copper ore.
10. Species. Emerald Copper Ore.
Dioptafe, Hauy, iii. 136. Id. Brochant, ii. 511.
EJJen. Char.—Divilible into an obtufe rhomboid,
vvhofe plane angles are 111° and 69®.
Exter. Char.—Found cryftallized in fix-fided prifms,
terminated by a three-fided fummit, placed on the three
alternate lateral edges •, luftre (hining, vitreous j frac¬
ture foliated } cleavage threefold, parallel to the lateral
edges of the fummit.
Colour emerald green ; tranflucent, or femi-tranfpa-
rent; femi-hard. Spec. grav. 3.3.
Chein. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
becomes brown, and tinges the flame of a candle yel-
lowilh green.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Oxide of copper 28.57
Silica 28.57
Carbonate of lime 42.85
Lofs .01
100.00
Localities, &.c.—This mineral is found in Siberia, in
a matrix covered with malachite.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Azure Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Rarely found maflive, ufually diffemi¬
nated or fuperficial ; compofed of fine particles which
are dull and fomewhat coherent ; frafture earthy.
Colour fmalt blue, fometimes (ky blue j opaque j
(tains a little 5 foft or friable.
Subfpecies 2. Indurated or Radiated Azure Cop¬
per Ore.
Exter. Char.—Rarely found maflive, fcmetimes diff
feminated, often fuperficial, or in imitative forms,
as ftalaftitical, botryoidal, &c. and alfo cryftallized in
reftangular four fided prifms, terminated by four-fided
acute pyramids fet on the lateral edges; in oblique
four tided prifms, with two broad and two narrow faces,
with a four-fided pyramid fet on the lateral faces; fome¬
times the lateral edges are truncated, and the termina¬
tion is by a fix-fided pyramid. Cryftals ufually fmall,
and varioufly aggregated j broad faces of the prifms
tranfverfely (freaked ; narrow faces longitudinally j
luftre (hining or refplendent, vitreous j fradfure radiat¬
ed ; fragments blunt edged, or wedge lhaped.
Colour light azure blue, Prufiian or indigo blue j
tranflucent or femi-tranfparent *, (freak (ky blue ; foft ,
brittle. Spec. grav. 3.4 to 3.608.
Chem. Char.—Soluble with effervefcence in nitric
acid j nearly infufible before the blow-pipe, but is ea-
fily reduced with borax, which affumes a fine green co¬
lour.
Conjlituent Parts. Pelletier.
Copper 66
Carbonic acid 18
Oxygen 8
Water 2
Lofs 6
100
Localities, Stc.—This variety of copper ore is not
very abundant j but it^ficcompanies the other ores of
copper, and other metallic ores, as thofe of lead, zinc,
and iron. It is found in Bohemia, Norway, Siberia,
and in the different mines of lead and copper in Bri¬
tain.
The earthy variety is found in fuperficial layers on a
flaty marl in Heflia, and it is alfo found fuperficial on
fandftone in Thuringia. Sometimes the whole of the
fandifone is impregnated with this earthy carbonate of
copper, there called copper fand earth, or copper fand-
Jlone. A fimilar fandftone, at Gourock near Greenock
in Scotland, was a few years ago dug out for the purpofe
of extrading copper.
11. Species, Azure Copper Ore, or Carbonate of
Copper.
Blue Calciform Copper Ore, Kirwan, ii. 129. DA-
%ur de Cuivre, Brochant, ii. 190. Cuivre Carbonate'
Bleu. Hauy, iii. 562.
12. Species. Malachite.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 131. Id. Brochant, ii. 197.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, fibrous
and compaft.
Subfpecies
Part I. MINERALOGY. 229
Claffifica-
tion. Subfpecies i. Fibrous Malachite.
Cuivre Carbonate Vert Soyeux. Hauy, iii. 573.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, fometimes dilTeminat-
ed, but often fuperficial, and in the form of fmall ca¬
pillary or acicular cryflals grouped together in different
forms; luftre fhining, or when mallive glimmering •
internal luftre weakly fhining, filky j fradture fibrous,
ilraight, or radiated j fragments blunt edged.
Colour, emerald or apple green j opaque ; ftreak of
a lighter colour ; foft j brittle.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Malachite.
Exter. Char.—Sometimes found maffive, difieminated
or fuperficial, but moll frequently globular, botryoi-
dal, ftalaftitical, &c. 5 furface rough or drufy, fome¬
times fmooth, almoft alwTays dull, and rarely fhining }
internal luftre dull or weakly ftiining •, fracture con-
choidal j fragments rather lharp edged or wedge
fliaped.
Colour emerald green, apple green, and blackilh
green j opaque j foft ) brittle. Spec. grav. 3.57 to
3'64-
Chern. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow-pipe, and
blackens without fufion ; effervelces with acids; colours
borax green, and communicates a blue colour to the fo-
lution of ammonia.
ConjHtuent Parts. Klaproth.
Compact malachite.
Copper 58.
Carbonic acid 18.
Oxygen 12.5
Water 11.5
100.0
Localities, &c.—Both the fibrous and compadt ma¬
lachites are ufually found in the fame repofitory, and ac¬
companied with other ores of copper. They are found
in Germany, but the fineft fpecimens are brought from
Siberia. Scotland affords fibrous malachite in fmall
quantity, as at Leadhills and in Shetland. Mala¬
chite is alfo met with in Cornwall and Derbyfhire in
England.
Vfes.—Malachite, when pure, is fometimes employ¬
ed as a pigment. The compadt variety is fufceptible
of a fine polifti; which, with its beautiful and delicate
colours, has brought it into much eftimation for various
ornamental purpofes.
The largeft and fineft fpecimen of compadf malachite
known, is in the cabinet of Dr Guthrie at Peterfburgh.
It is 32 inches long, 17 broad, and two inches thick.
It is eftimated, according to the account of Patrin, who
defcribes it, at 20,000 francs, above 8001. fterling. If
we are rightly informed, this fplendid mafs of malachite
was once offered to fale in Britain, but, having found
no purchafer, wTas carried back to Ruflia.
13. Species. Green Copper Ore.
Mountain Green, Kirw. ii. 134. Id. Broch. ii. 203.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or diffeminated, but
ufually fuperficial on other ores ; dull 5 fradlure con- Metallic
choidal or uneven ; fragments blunt-edged. , ef'
Colour verdigris green, emerald green, fometimes
Iky blue, opaque, or tranflucent at the edges; foft, or
friable ; brittle.
Chem. Char.—Becomes black before the blow-pipe
without fufion. Colours borax green.
Conflituent Parts.—Suppofed to be a mixture of oxide
of copper, or according to others, a carbonate, with alu¬
mina and lime.
Localities, &c.—It is ufually accompanied by gray
copper ore, and fome other copper ores, particular¬
ly with malachite, and fometimes with iron ochre,
alumina, and quartz. Found in Saxony, Hungary,
and Siberia.
14. Species. Ferruginous Green Copper Ore.
This is divided into two fubfpecies 5 1. earthy ; and,
2. flaggy.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Ferruginous Green Copper
Ore.
Iron-Jhot Mountain Green, KirwT. ii. 155. Id. Broch. ii.
205.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, but moft frequently
diffeminated j dull, wfith an earthy tradfure ; fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour light olive green 5 foft, friable 5 brittle } me-
gre to the feel.
Subfpecies 2. Slaggy Ferruginous Green Copper
Ore.
GlaJTy Iron-Jloot Mountain Green, Kirw. ii. 152.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or diffeminated ; luftre fhin¬
ing, vitreous; fradlure conchoidal; fragments fharp-
edged.
Colour deep olive green, fometimes black j foft j
brittle.
Conjlituent Parts.—Seems to be a mixture of oxide
of copper with iron ochre, in variable proportions.
Localities, &c.—Found along with other copper
ores, and is accompanied by iron ochre, heavy fpar and
quartz. It is a rare mineral. Has been found in Sax¬
ony, and it is faid in the Hartz.
15. Species. Micaceous Copper Ore, or drfeniate of
Copper.
Olive Copper Ore, Kirw. ii. 151. Le Cuivre Arfenical,
Broch. ii. 208. Cuivre Arfcniate, Hauy, iii. 575. Ar~
feniate of Copper, Bournon, Phil. Tranf. 1801. p. 193.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, foliated
and lenticular.
Subfpecies 1. Foliated Micaceous Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, diffeminated, or cry-
ftallized in oblique four-lided prifms, in fix-fided prifms,
in acute rhomboids, or in very imall cubes. Thefe cry-
ftals are alfo varioufly modified ; lateral faces ftreaked
longitudinally; luftre refplendent, pearly, or adaman¬
tine ; fradlure foliated, fometimes conchoidal.
Colour olive green, fometimes emerald green, or ver*
digris
5
Met '.Hie
Ores.
MINER
dlgris green-, tramlucent; cryftals femitranfparent;
foft. Spec. grav. 2.54.
SuhTpecies 2. Lenticular Micaceous Copper Ore.
Kxfer.Char.—1 his variety is found cryflallized In
ofhihedrons, compofed of two four-fided pyramids, with
ifofceles triangular faces ; cryflals fmall 5 external luilre
Alining j fraftue foliated.
Colour Iky blue, or verdigris green 5 feratches calca¬
reous fpar ; brittle ; eahly frangible. Spec. grav. 2.88.
Chem. Char.— I he cryftals of thefe varieties decre¬
pitate before the blow-pipe, and give out the odour of
arfenic. I hey mel? » o a grayifh globule, which being
treated with borax, yields a button ©f copper.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Oxide of copper
Arfenic acid
Water
Lofs
39
43
i?
. 1
100
Localities, Stc.—Thefe varieties of copper ores are
very rare j and have been hitherto difeovered only in the
Carrarach mine, Cornwall, accompanied by brown iron
ore and other copper ores.
Other arfeniates of copper have been deferibed by
Bournon. In many refpfebls they referable the prece¬
ding varieties. The fpec. grav. which is 4.28, is confi-
derably greater, and yet the proportions of the conftitu-
ent parts approach very near.
Conjlituent Parts. Chenevix.
Haematitiform.
Oxide of copper 50
Arfenic acid 29
Water 21
Lofs —
Capillary.
51
29
18
100
100
Fo'iated.
54
3°
16
100
Count de Bournon has deferibed another, under the
name of cupromartial arfeniate, which is alfo cryftal-
lized, has a fpec. grav. 3.3, and the following are its
conftituent parts.
Oxide of iron
— copper
Arfenic acid
Silica
Water
Xnofs
Cbenevix,
27-5
22.5
33-5
3-
12.
'■S
100.0
16. Specie?. Muriate of Copper, or Green Sand of
* Peru.
Id. Broch. ii. 149. Id. Broch. ii. 545.
Exter. Char.—1'ound maftive, or cryftallized in very
fmad fix-lided prams, bevelled at the extremities, or in
fmall oblique four-fided prifms, alfo bevelled at the
extremities, but the fides correfponding to the obtufe
3
A L O G Y.
lateral edges $ furface of the cryftals fmooth and re-
fplendent; luftre adamantine; fracture foliated j frag¬
ments rather fharp-edged.
Colour between emerald and leek green 3 opaque ;
cryftals a little tranfpaffcnt ; foft 3 ftrgak pale apple
green. Spec. grav. 3.57 to 4.43.
Chem. Char.—Thrown on burning coals, it commu¬
nicates a green colour to the flame 3 foluble in nitric
acid without effervefcence.
Conjlhucnt Parts.
Proud.
  A__, .—,
Oxide of copper 76.6 70.6
Muriatic acid 10.6 11.4
Water 12.8 18.1
100.0
IOO.o
Klaproth.
73-
jo. t
16.9
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in the
fand of rivers, accompanied by quartz, fchorl, copper
and iron ores, near Remolinos in Chili. It has alfo
been found in a fimilar fituation in Peru.
> Phosphate of Copper.—This mineral has been found
maffive, or cryftallized in oblique lix-fided prifms, with
convex faces, lining caviuesj luftre refplendent, be¬
tween vitreous and adamantine 3 internal luftre filky 3
fracture fibrous.
Colour grayifh black, but internally emerald green 3
opaque 3 ftreak apple green 3 foft, or femi-hard.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
68.13
3°-95
.92
100.00
Oxide of copper
Phofphoric acid
Lofs
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found
near Bologne, along with malachite, in a white drufy
quartz.
Copper Mines.—In addition to the hiftory of copper
ores now given, we fhall juft name fome of the more
celebrated copper mines in the world. The copper
mines of Spain are fituated on the frontiers of Por-
tugal, and yield from veins of confiderable thicknefs,
yellow- pyrites. France peflefies copper mines in the
Pyrenees, near Lyons, in Vofges, and in the neigh-
hood of Savoy, in the department of Mont Blanc.
There are extenfive copper mines in Piedmont, which
have been wrought to a very confiderable depth.
The copper mines of Cornwall in England, which are
in primitive rocks, have been long celebrated. The moft
abundant ores are copper pyrites, accompanied by native
copper, which latter, it is oblerved, is moft ufually found
near the furface. The fame mines yield all the varieties
of arfeniate of copper. The Affton copper mines on the
borders of the counties of Derby and Stafford are fttu-
ated in limeftone, in very declining or nearly perpen¬
dicular beds 3 but the richeft copper mines in Eng¬
land are thofe of the ifland of Anglefea, where is a
mafs of pyritous copper ore of immenfe thicknefs,
yielding from 16 to 40 per cent, of copper. Native
copper is alfo found near the furface, and immediately
under the turf.
Fart I.
Claffifica-
tion.
This'
Part T. M I N E R A L O G Y
Claflifica- The mines of Cronebane, in tbe county of Wicklow
ln Ireland, are very confiderable. They are fituated
in a primitive mountain, compofed of flinty date and
argillaceous fchiftus, which alternate with beds of llea-
tites.
In Germany, Hungary, Sweden, Norway, and Sibe¬
ria, there are many extenfive and valuable copper mines.
In the eaftern parts of the Afiatic continent, in the ifland
of Japan, in China, and in fomenf theiflands of the In¬
dian ocean,.rich copper ores are abundant.
Africa, in various places of that extenfive region,
abounds with ores of copper, as in the mountains to
the north of the Cape of Good Hope. On the weftern
coaft of Africa, the natives dig out copper ore, and are
acquainted with the mode of extracting it.
In North America mafles of native copper have been
found, near Hudfon’s Bay ; but the richeft copper mines
in the world are thofe of South America, and particu¬
larly in Chili, from which mafies of native copper of
imtnenfe magnitude have been obtained. The cop¬
per mines of Peru and Mexico are allb wrought to great
advantage.
VI. IRON Genus.
1. Species. Native Iron.
Id. Kirw. ii. 156. Id. Brochant, ii. 215. Id. Haiiy,
iv. i.
' Exter. Char.—Found maffive or branched ; furface
fmooth, fhining; internal luftre Ihining, metallic ; frac¬
ture hackly ; fragments rather (harp-edged.
Colour light (teel gray, or filvery white ; femi-
hard 5 ftreak fhining ; perfectly duCtile ; flexible but
not elaftic.
Localities, &c.—The exiflence of native iron as a
terreflrial production ftill remains doubtful. It is faid
that it has been found-along with other ores of iron, in
Saxony and in France. The only inftances fully eflablilh-
ed of the difcevery of native iron, are thofe of the im-
menfe mafs found by Pallas in Siberia, which amounted
to no lefs than i68olb. or 15 cwt. and another of q cwt.
which was difcovered by Rubin de Celis in South Ame¬
rica ; but thefe mafies correfpond fo nearly with the
Jubilances which are certainly known to have fallen
from the atmofphere, in their conftituent parts, that
it feems extremely probable they have had a fimilar ori¬
gin. But for a full account of this curious fubjedl, fee
Meteorolite.
2. Species. Iron Pyrites.
Martial Pyrites, Kirwan. ii.'^b. Id. Brochant, ii. 221.
Fer fulfuid, Haiiy, iv. 65.
Subfpecies 1. Common Iron Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or difleminated, fuper-
fcial, or in imitative forms, and frequently cryftallized.
The forms are, a perfeft cube with plane or convex
faces ; or with truncated angles, or edges j or having a
three-fided pyramid on each angle ; the perfeft oda-
hedron, or truncated on all its angles ‘ the dodecahe¬
dron with pentagonal faces, or with fix oppofite and pa¬
rallel edges truncated, or truncated on eight of its an¬
gles j or the perfeCl icofahedron, which is rare.
Cryflals fmall, excepting the cube, and grouped to- Metallic
gether ; furface fmooth or ftreaked * luftre fhining, re- °rcs-
fplendentj internal luftre fhining, metallic; fraCture un- '
even ; fometimes conchoidal ; fragments rather (harp¬
ed ged.
Colour bronze yellow, golden yellow, fometimes fteel
gray ; opaque ; hard ; brittle ; rather eaftly frangible.
Spec. grav. 4.6 to 4-83.
Chem. Char.—Before tbe blowr-pipe it gives out a
ftrong fulphureous fmell, and burns with abluifh flame ;
a brownifh globule is then obtained, which is attrafted
by the magnet.
Conflituent Parts. Hatchett.
Sulphur 52.15 52.5
Lon 47.85 47.5
100.00 100.0
Some varieties of common iron pyrites contain a mix¬
ture of gold, which is fuppofed to be accidental, as the
external characters are not affeCled by it, and it is onl^
recognifed by chemical analyfis. Thefe varieties are
called auriferous pyrites.
Subfpecies 2. Radiated Iron Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, or in different imita¬
tive forms, and alfo cryftallized in fmall cubes or oc¬
tahedrons ; furface fmooth or drufy ; luftre fhining
or refplendent ; fraClure radiated; fragments wedge-
fhaped.
Colour bronze yellow, lighter than the former ; fome¬
times fteel gray, and fometimes tarnifhed; hard ; brit¬
tle, and ealily frangible.
Subfpecies 3. Capillary Iron Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall, capillary, or acicular
cryftals, having the appearance of flocks of wool; fome¬
times the cryftals are acicular or in a ftellated form v
luftre fhining or weakly fliining, metallic.
Colour bronze yellow, approaching to fteel gray.
Subfpecies 4. Hepatic Iron Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or diffeminated, or in diffe¬
rent imitative forms, as ftalaCHtical, cellular, &c.; fome¬
times cryftallized in perfeft fix-fided prifms, or in fix-
fided tables, which are either per feel or bev- lied on the
terminal faces. Cryftals fmall; fometimes fmooth ;
fometimes drufy; internal luftre glimmering, or weakly
fhining ; fra&ure even, or imperfeflly conchoidal; frag¬
ments {harp-edged.
Colour bronze yellow, fteel-gray, fometimes brownith
or tarnifhed ; ftreak ffiining ; hard ; brittle.
Physical Char. By rubbing gives out a fulphureous
odour, and, according to fame, the fniell of arfenic.
^ Con/lituent Parts.—According to fome mineralogifts,
this variety is compofed of fulphur and iron, with a per-
tion of arfenic.
Localities, Ss,c.—I he fiift variety is umverfally dif-
fufed ; it is found in every kind of rock, and often in
great abundance.
I he fecond is rarer ; but is not uncommon in veins
of lead and filver, arid fometimes in nefts in indurated
marl. It is found in Saxony $nd Bohemia, in Derby-
fhire e
232 .
Metallic fliire In England, and at Leadhills and the ifland or
, 0‘'es• May in Scotland.
This variety is more fubje£t than the firft to decom-
pofition.
Capillary pyrites is only found in fmall quantity, as in
Saxony, and Andreafberg in the Hartz.
Hepatic pyrites is only found in veins, particularly
thofe of diver and lead, accompanied with quartz, cal¬
careous rpar, and heavy fpar, as in Germany and Siberia,
and at Wanlockhead in Scotland.
Expofed to the air, this variety is extremely liable to
decompolition.
3. Species. Magnetic Pyrites.
Id. Kirwan. ii. 79. Id. Brochant, ii. 232.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated j internal luf-
tre fliining or weakly flhining ; fra&ure uneven, rarely
conchoidal •, fragments rather {harp-edged.
Colour between copper red and bronze yellow ; when
expofed to the air it becomes brownilh or tarnifhed j hard,
or femihard 5 brittle. Spec. grav. 4.5
Phijs. Char.—This variety of pyrites a£ts on them ag-
netic needle, but not very powerfully.
Che-m. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out. a
flight odour of fulphur, and melts eafily into a grayifli
black globule, which is attradled by the magnet.
Conjlitucnt Parts. Hatchett.
Iron 63.5
Sulphur 36.5
100.6
Localities, &c.—Magnetic pyrites has been only
found in primitive rocks, as in micaceous fchiftus 5 and
is ufually difpofed in beds, along with other ores of
iron, and accompanied by quartz, hornblende, and
garnets. It is found in Saxony, Bavaria, Bohemia, and
in Caernarvonfliire in Wales.
XJfes.—This, as well as the former fpecies, is employ¬
ed for the purpofe of extrafting fulphur, or of manufac¬
turing copperas, or fulphate of iron.
4. Species. Magnetic Iron Ore.
Magnetic Irotijlone, Kirwan, ii. 158. Id. Brochant, ii.
235. Per Oxidule, Hauy, iv. 10.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, common and are¬
naceous.
Suhfpecies 1. Common Magnetic Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated, and often al-
fo cryflallized in fix-fided prifms, having a three-fided
pyramid at each extremity, fet on three alternate lateral
edges ; an oblique four-Cded prifm ; a double four-
fided pyramid, or perfedl o£lahedron, which is fome-
times truncated on all its edges. Cryflals of various
flzes ; faces fometimes fmooth j thofe of the four-fided
prifm ftreaked tranfverfely •, luflre Alining ; internal
luftre refplendent, or weakly glimmering ; fraflure un¬
even, fometimes conchoidal or foliated j fragments ra¬
ther blunt-edged.
4
Fart L
Colour iron-black, perfect black, or fteel-gray 5 Clafliflea-
ftreak brownifli black 5 femihard, or hard j brittle j t~0D' ,
more or lefs eaflly frangible. Spec. grav. 4.2 to 4 93. v
Subfpecies 2. Arenaceous Magnetic Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found in rounded grains, from the
fize of millet to that of a nut, and fometimes in fmall
odtahedral cryftals ; external furface rough or weakly
glimmering •, internal {Inning or refplendent ; fracture
conchoidal ; fragments (harp-edged.
Colour deep iron-black, fomet’.mes afli gray.
Phyf Char.—Magnetic iron ore, as the name im¬
ports, flrongly attrafts the magnetic needle, and iron
filings j to the compadt varieties of this ore, in which
this property was firft difcovered, the name of natural
magnet is given.
Chetn. Char.—Magnetic iron ore becomes brown be¬
fore the blow-pipe, and colours borax dark green.
Conjlituent Parts.-—This is fuppofed to be an oxide
of iron in confiderable purity, as it yields from 80 to 90
per. cent of metallic iron.
Localities, &c.—Common magnetic iron ore is very
common in primitive mountains, particularly in thofe of
gneifs and micaceous fchiflus, where it forms very
powerful beds, and even entire mountains. It is dif¬
feminated in cryftals in chlorite fchiftus, as in Corfica,
and in bafalt and greenftone, at Taberg in Sweden,
Found in Saxony, Bohemia, and Italy, and particularly
in the ifland of Elba in the Mediterranean j and indeed
is very univerfally diftributed over every part of the
globe.
The fecond variety, or magnetic fand, is found in
the beds of rivers, in a loofe ftate, and fometimes im¬
bedded in bafalt and wacken. It is found in thofe
countries where the other ores of iron abound ; and
alfo in the fand of many of the rivers within the torrid
zone, as in Jamaica, St Domingo, &c.
LJfes.—Magnetic iron is wrought for the purpofe of
obtaining metallic iron. Moft of the Swedfth iron
ores belong to this variety, and furniflr the iron which
is fo celebrated on account of its fuperior qualities,
throughout Europe.
Magnetic fand,“ where it is abundant, is alfo fmelted
as an iron ore.
5. Species. Specular Iron Ore.
Id. Broch. ii. 242. Id. Kirvv. ii. 162. Micaceous Iron
Ore, ibid. 284. Fer Oligtjle, Hairy, iv. 38.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, common
and micaceous.
Subfpecies i. Common Specular Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or diffeminated, but moft fre¬
quently cryftallized in doubled three-fided pyramids,
flattened, and the lateral faces of the one fet on the la¬
teral edges of the other $ the fame pyramid with the
angles at the common bafe truncated 5 in perfect cubes,
having the angles truncated j or the cube confidered as
a double three-fided pyramid ; or as a rhomboid, in
which the fummits are furmounted by an obtufe three-
fided pyramid, fet on the lateral faces j the fame cube
bevelled at each of the angles of the common bafe j
in fix-fided tables varioufly modified, or in perfect lenfes.
Surface
mineralogy.
Part I. MINER
Claffifica- Surface of the cryftals fmooth, refplendent j inter-
don. naj iuftre weakly (tuning or refplendent j fradure un-
even, fometimes conckoidal or foliated ; fragments
fharp-edged.
Colour (feel gray, bluidi, or reddifti ; fometimes
with tarnilhed colours, which are iridefcent j (freak
dark cherry-red j hard 5 opaque ; brittle. Spec. gray.
4.79 to 5.21.
C/iem. Char.— Before the blow-pipe it is infuiible ;
but heated on charcoal becomes white, and melts with
borax into a dirty yellow’ (lag.
'Phjf. Char.-—Affe6ts the magnetic needle, but does
not attrad iron filings.
ConjUtuent Parts.—This variety is fuppofed to be a
pretty pure oxide of iron, yielding from 60 to 80 per
cent, of iron.
Of this fubfpecies twro varieties have been formed,
compad and foliated, depending probably on the ap¬
pearance of the fradure.
Subfpecies 2. Micaceous Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or diffeminated, or in thin
fix-fided tables, fo grouped together as to appear cellu¬
lar ; fuiface (mooth, refplendent j internal luftre re-
fplendent •, fradure foliated j fragments in tables.
Colour iron-black, (feel-gray, or dark red 5 in thin
plates (lightly tranflucent j (freak dark cherry-red 5 fe-
mihard ; brittle. Spec. gray. 4.5 to 5.
Localities, &e.—Thefe varieties are found in primi¬
tive mountains, in beds or veins, accompanied by other
ores of iron, and in fuch quantity in many places as to
be dug out for the purpofe of manufadure, as in Ger¬
many, France, Ruflia, Sweden, Siberia, and particularly
in the iflands of Corfica and Elba, which furnifh the
fineif fpecimens of fpecular iron ore for the cabinet.
The latter variety is found in England, and fome
parts of Scotland.
*
6. Species. Red Iron Ore.
This is divided into four fubfpecies 3 1. red iron
froth ; 2. compad 3 3. red haematites 3 and, 4. red
ochre.
Subfpecies 1. Red Iron Froth.
Id. Broch. ii. 249. Red Scaly Iron Ore, Kirw. ii. 172.
Exter. Char.—Sometimes maffive, and frequently
fuperficial 3 lutfre glimmering or (hining, ufually com-
pofed of fcaly friable particles which (fain (trongly 3
feels greafy.
Colour dark cherry-red, blood-red, brownifh-red, or
If eel-gray.
Chem. Odr.-—Blackens before the blow-pipe.
Conflituent Parts. Henry.
Iron, 66.
Oxygen, 28.5
Silica, 4.25
Alumina, I-25
*Nicb.
^ovr. 4to,
iii. 455.
100.00 *
Localities, &c.—A rare mineral, ufually incrufling
other ores of iron. Found in Germany, and in Corn¬
wall and at Ulverftone in Lancafhire in England.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
A L O G Y, 233
Metallic
Subfpecies 2. Compact Red Iron Ore. °^es- .
Id. Broch. ii. 251. Id. Kirw. ii. 170.
Exter. Char.— Maffive or difleminated, in imitative
forms, as cellular, &c. or cryftallized in perfed cubes,
or four-fided pyramids with truncated fummits. Sur¬
faces of the cube fmooth 3 that of the pyramids rough
and dull j internal luifre glimmering 3 fradure even,
fometimes uneven or conchoidal 3 fragments rather
blunt-edged,
Colour browniffi-red, dark (feel-gray, fometimes
blood-red 3 femihard ; brittle 5 (freak blood-red 3 (tains.
Spec. grav. 3.4 to 3.8.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Confiituent Parts. Lampadius.
Oxide of iron, 65.4
Silica, 20.7
Alumina, 9.3
Oxide of manganefe, 2.7
Lofs, „ 1.9
ICO.O
Localities, &c.—Found along with other iron ores,
abundant in Cumberland and Lancaffiire, and various
places of the world.
Subfpecies 3. Red Haematites.
Id. Kirw. ii. 168. Id. Broch. ii. 254.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, and in various imitative
forms 3 furtace fmooth -or drufy ; internal luffre (hining,
or only glimmering ; fradure fibrous 5 fragments u^edge-
(haped.
Colour browniffi-red, (feel-gray, or blood-red ; (freak
light blood-red 3 hard or femibard j brittle; (tains.
Spec. grav. 4.7 to 5.
Conjhtuent Parts.—It yields from 60 to 70 per cent,
of iron, and contains, it is fuppofed, a portion of alumi¬
na, filica, and manganefe.
Localities, &c.—This ore of iron is not very com¬
mon, although in fome places it is very abundant, as in
the weft of England. It is difpofed in veins and beds,
accompanied by the former variety.
Subfpecies 4. Red Ochre.
Id. Kirw. ii. 171. Id. Broch. ii. 256.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, diffeminated, or fuper¬
ficial 3 dull 3 fradure earthy.
Colour between blood-red and browniffi-red 3 (tains
much 3 foft j often friable.
Localities, &c.—This variety ufually accompanies
the former, and is a very fufible iron ore.
7. Species. Brown Iron Ore.
This is divided into four fublpeciesj 1. brown iron
froth 3 2. compad 3 3. brown haematites 3 and, 4. brown
ochre.
Sub'pecn s 1. Brown Iron Froth.
Brown Scaly Iron Ore, Kirw, ii. 166. Le Eifenrahm
brun, Broch. ii. 258.
G g Exter.
234 .
Metallic Exter. Char.—Maflive or diiTerainated, often fuperfi-
, <,rc9' cial, or fpumiform •, ftrongly glimmering or fliining ;
v frafture foliated or compadl.
Colour between brown and dull gray ; very foft ; al-
moft friable \ flains j feels greafy } nearly fwims on
water.
Chetn. Char.—Blackens before the blow-pipe without
fufion.
Localities, $tc.— Accompanies other iron ores, as in
Saxony, but is rare.
Subfpecies 2. COMPACT BROWN Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or difleminated^ fometimes in
different imitative forms 5 dull, or rarely glimmering j
frafture fmooth, earthy, or conchoidal.
Colour clove brown, or browmilh yellow’ j flreak yel-
lowifh brown j femihard j brittle. Spec. grav. 3,07 to
3-75- . . ' . ,
Localities, &c.—In veins or beds, accompanied by
other iron ores, in various parts of the world.
Subfpecies 3. Brown Haematites,
Id. Kirw. ii. 163. Id. Broch. ii. 261.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, but moft frequently in dif¬
ferent imitative forms ; furface fmooth, granulated,
rough or drufy \ luflre fhining; internal luftre glim¬
mering or weakly fhining ; fraflure fibrous 5 fragments
fplintery, or w?edge-fhaped.
Colour clove browm, blackifh brown, fometimes yel¬
low, and fometimes with tarnifhed colours •, opaque ;
flreak -yellowifli brown ; femihard j brittle. Spec. grav.
3.78 to 4.02.
Localities, &c.—Always accompanies the preceding
variety, but in fmaller quantity.
Subfpecies 4. Brown Ochre.
Id. Kirwn ii. 167. Id. Broch. ii. 263.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or diffeminated } dull j frac¬
ture earthy ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour yellowifh brown, or ochre yellow; foft 5
fometimes friable ; flains more or lefs.
Localities, &c.—Always accompanies compaft brown
iron ore, and is therefore found in fimilar places.
8. Species. Sparry Iron Ore.
Id. Brochant, ii. 264. Id. Kirw. ii. 190.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, fometimes with
impreffions, and often cryflallized. Its forms are,
the rhomboid with plane or convex faces, or having two
oppofite angles ftrongly truncated j and the lens, the
equiangular fix-fided prifm, or the Ample or double
four-fided pyramid. Cryftals fmall) furface fmooth,
fometimes drufy, fometimes a little rough 5 luftre fhin¬
ing and fomewhat metallic \ internal luftre fhining, rare¬
ly refplendent, between pearly and vitreous j fradture
foliated $ fragments rhomboidal.
Colour yellowifh gray, grayifh white, and expofed to
the air, blackifh brown, or with tarnifhed colours j
fometimes tranflucent at the edges j thofe of a dark co¬
lour, opaque ; femihard, or foft) brittle. Spec. grav.
3.6 to 4.
Part L
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it blackens with- Claffifica-
out fufion. , tl^n’ ,
Conjlituent Earls.—According to Bergman, this mi¬
neral contains equal parts of carbonate of lime and of
iron, with about one-fourth of manganefe.
Localities, &c.—Found equally in primitive and ftra-
tiform rocks, and always accompanied by calcareous
fpar, and other ores of iron, as in Saxony, France, Bri¬
tain, and Ireland.
9. Species. Black Iron Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii; 167. Id. Broch. ii. 268.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies : 1. com¬
pact j and, 2. black haematites.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Black Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, or in various imitative forms j
furface rough or dull j internal luftre glimmering }
fradture flat conchoidal j fragments fharp-edged.
Colour between fteel gray and bluifh-black j femt-
hard ; brittle.
Subfpecies 2. Black Haematites.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or kidney-form ^ internal
luftre glimmering and firming j fradture fibrous, (ome-
times even 5 fragments vvedge-lhaped.
Colour fteel gray.
Conjlituent Parts.—This ore is fuppofed to contain a
larger proportion of manganefe, with alumina and lime,
than other ores of iron.
Localities, &c.—Found in veins in primitive moun¬
tains, and fometimes alfo in ftratiform mountains, ac¬
companied by brown and fparry iron ore.
10. Species. Argillaceous Iron Stone.
This is divided into fix fubfpecies : 1. red chalk \
2. columnar argillaceous iron ftone 5 3. granular 5 4.
common ; 5. reniform j and, 6- pifilorm.
Subfpecies 1. Red Chalk.
Id. Broch. ii. 271.
Exter. Char.—Maflive j fradlure flaty 5 luftre glim¬
mering $ crofs fradlure earthy, dull} fragments in plates,
or fplintery.
Colour brownilh red, black or blood red •, ftreak
blood red j writes and Plains, foft j adheres to the
tongue j feels meagre. Spec. grav. 3.13 to 3.93.
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates, and becomes black when
expofed to a red heat.
Localities, &c.—Ufually accompanies clay flate, ei¬
ther in thin beds, or in maffes, as at Thalitter in Hef-
fia, where it is dug out in confiderable quantity. It is
alfo found in Bohemia and Saxony.
JJfes.—Employed as crayons in drawing, and for
this purpofe it is dug out, rather than as an ore of
iron.
Red chalk, on account of the quantity of alumina
and other earths which it contains, w^as formerly arran¬
ged in the argillaceous genus.
Subfpecics
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Subfpecies
Id. Kirw. ii. 176.
MINER
2. Columnar Iron Stone.
Id. Broch. ii. 273.
Exter. Char.—Found in angular or rounded pieces j
furface rough and dull; fra&ure dull and earthy j com-
pofed of columnar diftindl concretions, which are often
a little curved, fometimes ftraight and artiqulated, and
Very eafily feparated j furface of the concretions rough
and dull.
Colour cherry red, blood or brownilh red } {Ireak
blood red, fometimes yellowilh brown 5 foft; adheres
to the tongue ; feels meagre, and is a little rough.
Localities, &.c»~—Ufually met with in beds of clay,
in ftratitoim mountains, and particularly in the neigh¬
bourhood of fubtefranean fires, by the effefts of which,
as it is fuppofed, it may have been produced. It is
found in Bohemia and fome other places, where it is
wrought as an ore of iron.
Subfpecies 3. GRANULAR IRON STONE.
Id. Broch. ii. 274. /Icinofe Iron Ore, Kirw. ii. 177.
Exter. -Maffive, or couftituting the bafe of pe-
tnfaftions j llrongly glimmering, or weakly fhining j
frafture uneven, fometimes flatyj fragments blunt-edged.
Colour reddifh and yellowilh brown, or grayilh
black j ilreak blood red, or varying according to the
colour of the ore, ufually foft, or femihard. Specific
gravity 2.673.
Conjlituent Parts. Lampadius.
Oxide of iron 64.
Alumina 23.
Silica 7.5
Water 5.
Lofs .5
100.0
A L O G Y.
brittle ; adheres to the tongue j feels meagre,
gravity 2.57. _ _ v
Localities, &c.-—Found in Bohemia, Saxony, Silefia,
and Poland, and in the coal countries of England and
Scotland, and almoft always in clay beds, fometimes
accompanied with bituminous wrood, in ftratiform moun¬
tains.
This variety was formerly called cetites or eagle-Jlone,
as it wras fuppofed that the eagle carried it to its neft.
Subfpecies 6. Pisiform Iron Stone.
Id. Kirw\ ii. 178. Id. Broch. ii. 280.
r Exter. Char.-~-\n fpherical or flattened particles,
which are generally fmall $ furface rough, dull; internal
luftre glimmering or weakly fhining j frafture fmooth.
Colour between brown and red; flreak yellowifh-
brown j femihard 5 brittle. Spec. grav. 5.2.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Iron, 30
Oxygen, 18
Alumina, 31
Silica, 15
Water, 6
235
Specific Metallic
Ores.
IOO
Localities, &c.—This variety is found in confiderablc
beds in ftratiform mountains. It is abundant in France,
Switzerland, and fome parts of Germany.
11. Species. Bog Iron Ore.
This is divided into three fubfpecies : i.moraffyj
2. fwampy ; and 3. meadow.
Subfpecies 1. Morassy Bog Iron Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 183. Id. Broch. ii. 283.
Localities, &c.—-Is found only in ftratiform moun¬
tains, as in Bohemia, Bavaria, and Switzerland.
Subfpecies 4. Common Iron Stone.
Id. Kirrv. ii. 173. Id. Broch. ii. 276.
Exter. Char'.—Maffive or difteminated, fometimes cel¬
lular or botryoidalj dull j fradlure earthy j fragments
rather (harp-edged.
Colour yellowilh or bluifh gray ; yellowifh brown, or
brownifh red j ftreak varies with the colour 5 foft j
brit tle ; adheres to the tongue $ feels mepgre.
Localities, &c.«—A common ore of iron in many
places of Saxony and Bohemia, in Norway, and in
England. It is connected with ftratiform mountains,
alternating w ith beds of clay (late.
Subfpecies 5. RenifoRm Iron Stone.
Id. Broch. ii. 278. Nodular Iron Ore, Kirw. ii. 178.
Exter. CAtfr.—Found in rounded or tuberculated
pieces, of a kidney-form figure j furface rough, covered
with earthy particles •, internal luftre glimmering j frac¬
ture fmooth, or earthy 5 fragments rather (harp-edged 5
compofed of lamellar and concentric diftinift concretions,
including a nodule which is ufually moveable.
Colour yellovvifh brown j flreak the fame j foft $
Exter. Char.—Sometimes earthy, fometimes in amor¬
phous, tuberculated, or corroded mafies ; fra&ure earthy.
Colour yellowifh-brown ; ftains ; foft ; friable 3 feels
meagre.
Subfpecies 2. Swampy Iron Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 183.
Exter. Char.—In amorphous mafTes, which are tu-
berofe or corroded 3 dull or (lightly ^Cmmering 3 frac¬
ture earthy ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour dark yellowifh-brown, blackifh-brown, or
fteel-gray 3 ftreak light yellowifh-brovvn 3 very foft 3
brittle 3 heavier than the former.
Subfpecies 3. Meadow Iron Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 182. Id. Broch. r. 284.
Exter. Char.—In kidney-form, tuberofe, often cor¬
roded mafles ; externally dull or rough ; internal luftre
fhining, refinous; fra&ure conchoidal, or earthy when
it is dull 5 fragments rather blunt-edged.
Colour dark blackifh-brown, or yellowifh-brown 3
ftreak yellowifh-brown 3 foft and brittle.
Conjhtuent Parts.—Bog iron ore is an oxide of iron,
combined with the phofphate of iron, with fome earthy
matters, as alumina and filica.
G g 2
Localities.
236
Meta lie
Ores.
\
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Localities, See.—Bog Iron ore is more abundant in
tne northern than in the fouthern parts of Europe. It
is not. uncommon in Poland, PruOia, Sweden, and in
the Weftern iflands of Scotland, as Jura and May. It
is fometimes found in extenfive beds, alternating with
fa nd It one and clay.
12. Species. Blue Earthy Ore.
Id. Broch.ii. 288. Blue Martial Earth, Kirw. ii. 185.
Native Prujftate of Iron, of others.
Exter. Char.—Ufually found {lightly cohering, or
loofe, or friable ; particles dull j ftains, and feels
meagre.
Colour grayiiltwhite, indigo blue, rarely fmalt-blue.
Chetn. Char.—Becomes reddilh-brown before the
blow-pipe } melts into a black globule ; eafily foluble
in acids.
Conjlituent Parts.—It was fufpefted by Bergman,
that this was a native Pruffian blue but according to
Klaproth, it is compofed of iron and phpfphoric acid,
with a mixture of alumina.
Localities, &c.—Found in final! nefts in beds of clay,
or bog iron ore, as in Saxony, Ruffia, and Siberia.
13. Species. Green Earthy Iron Ore.
Green Martial Earth, Kirw. ii. 188.
Exter. Char.—Found fiiable and fuperficial, rarely
maffive 3 internally dull 3 fra£ture earthy.
Colour yellowilh or olive-green , {tains ; foft 3 feels
meagre.
Chcm. Char.—Becomes red before the blow-pipe,
and then dark-brown, but without fuiion.
Conjlituent Parts.—It is conjectured to be a com¬
pound fimilar to the former, but in different proportions.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, in veins, and ac¬
companied with quartz and pyrites.
14. Species. Phosphate of Iron.
Id. Jour, de Phyfique, Iviii. 259. Ann. de Chim. 1. 200.
Exter. Char.—Found in rounded pieces, compofed
of capillary cryltals, which {eem to be four-fided prifms 3
fradture radiated and divergent.
Colour blue, from a blue powder coating the cry¬
ltals, which are otherwife colourlefs 3 femitranfparent.
Spec. gray. 2.5 to 2.6.
Conf ituent Parts.
Cadet Laugier.
Oxide of iron. 42.1 41 25
Phofphoric acid, 26.9 I9,z5
Silica, 3* 1*25
Alumina, 5-8 5.
Lime, 9-1 -
Water, 13-1 3I-25
Lofs, - 2.
100.0 100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found imbedded in
clay in the ifle of France, and in Brazil.
15. Species. Pitchy Iron Ore, or Phofphate of Iron
and Manganefe.
If. Broch. ii. 533. Jour, de Mines, N° 64. p. 295.
Exter. Char.—Maflive 3 furface earthy and dull 3 Claffifica-
internal luftre weakly thining, refinous 3 frafture com- i tlon-
pafbor foliated.
Colour dark reddiflt-browm, or black 3 opaque 3 fe~
mihard 3 brittle 3 lireak dark red. Spec grav. 3.956.
Chcm. Char.—Melts before the blow'-pipe into a
black enamel.
Confituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Oxide of iron, 31
Oxide of manganefe, 42
Phofphoric acid, 27
100
Localities, &c.—Found near Limoges.
16. Species. Cube Ore, or Arfeniate of Iron.
Id. Phil. Tranf. 1801. p. 190.
Exter. Char.—Found cryftallized in fmall cubes,
grouped together in a druiy form 3 cryltals fometimes
truncated on their angles 3 furface fmoothj {hining 3
lultre between refinous and adamantine 3 fradture con-
choidal.
Colour olive-green, yellow, or browm 3 tranflucent 3
femihard 3 powder yellow7. Spec. grav. 3.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe froths up with
the fmell of arfenic, and melts into a yellowilh-gray me¬
tallic globule.
Confituent Parts.
.Vauquelin. Chenevix.
Oxide of iron, 48 45.5
Oxide of copper, — > 9.
Arfenic acid, 18 31.
Silica, — 4*
Lime, 2 —
Water, 32 10.5
100 100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in the copper mines in Corn¬
wall.
17. Species. Arseniate of Iron and Copper.
Id. Phil. Tranf. 1801. p. 219.
Exter. Char.—Cryftallized in four-fided rhomboidal
prifms, with two edges very obtufe, and two very a-
cute, terminated by an acute foqr-fided pyramid 3 edges
of the prifm are fometimes truncated.
Colour bluifh-wdfite 3 cryftals femitranfparent 3 femi-
hard. Spec. grav. 3.4.
Confituent Parts.
Oxide of iron, . 27.5
Oxide of copper, 22.5
Arfenic acid, 33-5
Silica, 3’
Water, 3 2.
Lofs, 1-5
1.00.0
Localitits,
Part T.
Clafilfka- Localities^ &c.—Found in Cornwall, in Siberia, and
. t;»n- Spain. ' .
13. Species. Chromate of Iron.
Id. Broch. ii. 534. Id. Hauy, iv. 129.
Exter. Char.—Maflxve •, glimmering or weakly fhin-
ing ; fra&ure compaft and uneven, or iraperfedlly fo¬
liated.
Colour grayilh or blackifh brown •, opaque ] llreak
afh-gray j fmell earthy when breathed on $ hard. Spec,
grav. 4.032.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe ; melts
with borax, and colours it of a beautiful green.
Conjlituent Parts.
Oxide of iron, 35
Chromic acid, 43
Alumina, 20
Silica, 2
, 100
Localities, &c.—Difcovered by Pontier in France,
in the department of Var, and found in confiderable
abundance in veins and nodules, in beds of ferpentine ;
found alfo in Siberia.
VII. LEAD Genus.
1. Species. Galena.
237
the others only glimmering; internal luflre glimmer- Metallic
ing 5 fradlure even or conchoidal j fragments rather 0res• .
fharp-edged.
Colour lead or fteel-gray j flreak Ihining $ ftains j
foft. Spec. gray. 7.44.
Localities, &c.—This is a rare mineral. It is found
along with common galena, in Saxony, and other
parts of Germany ; in Derbyfhire, where it is known
by the name of JlickenJide, and in the county of Dur¬
ham, where it is known by the name of looking-glafs
ore.
2. Species. Blue Lead Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 220. Id. Broch. ii. 203.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, mod commonly cry-
ftallized in regular fix-fided prifms, which are often a
little curved, and fometimes fafcicularly grouped j liir-
face rough ; longitudinally ftreakedj lullre glimmering •,
fraflure even.
Colour between lead-gray and indigo blue •, opaque j
ftreak Alining j foft; eafily frangible. Specihc gravity
5.46.
Chem. Char.—Melts eafily before the blow-pipe ;
burns with a bluifli flame, and a fulphureous odour,
leaving a globule of lead. ^
Its conAituent parts have not been exaftly afcertain-
ed. Suppofed to be a green lead ore, which has under¬
gone fome change, but retaining its original form.
Localities, &c.—This ore has only been found in
■Saxony, and alio, it is faid, in France and Hungary.
MINERALOGY.
This is divided into two fubfpecies} common and
compact galena.
Subfpecies 1. Common Galena.
Id. Kirw. ii. 216. Id. Broch. ii. 294. Plotnb Sulfure,
Hauy, iii. 456.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, fuperficial, in
imitative forms, or cryfiallized in cubes, o&ahedrons,
fix-fided prifms, and fix-fided tables ; all which are
varioufly modified by truncations and bevelments on
the edges and angles. Cryfials grouped or imbedded j
lurface fmooth, or drufy ; luAre from glimmering to
refplendent j internal the lame ; fraflure foliated $ frag¬
ments cubic, excepting the fine-grained galena.
Colour lead-gray, fometimes tarnifiied, or iridefcent;
foft ; eafily frangible j Aains a little. Spec. grav. 7.22
to 7.58.
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow-pipe,
and fules, giving out a fulphureous odour.
Conjlituent Parts.—Compofed of fulphur and lead in
variable proportions, and generally a little filver, fome¬
times antimony. The proportion of lead is from 50 to
80 per cent. '
Localities, &c.—This is the mofi common ore of
lead, and exifis in all kinds of rocks, either in beds or
veins. In many countries this lead ore is dug out to a
great extent, as in Germany, France, and Britain.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Galena.
Id. Kirw. ii. 218. Id. Broch. ii. 301.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, dhT-minated, kidney-form, or
fpecular j luflre of the fpecular variety refplendent 5
3. Species. Brown Lead Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 222. Id. Broch. ii. 305.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maffive, commonly cryfiallized'
in equal fix-fided prifms, or the cryfials are acicular or
capillary ; luftre glimmering ; internal fhining j frac¬
ture uneven.
Colour reddifli or clove-brown j tranflucent at the
edges; flreak white j foft j brittle. Spec. grav. 6.6
to 6.97.
Chem. Char.—No effervefcence with acids j fufes
readily before the blow-pipe, but is not reduced ; cry-
fiallizes in fmall needles on cooling.
Conjlituent Parts.. Klaproth.
Oxide of lead, 7^-5^
Phofphoric acid, I9*73
Muriatic acid, 1.65
Lofs, .04
100.00
Localities, &c.—Found along with white lead ore,
quartz, and heavy fpar, in France and Germany.
4. Species. Black Lead Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 221. Id. Broch. ii. 307.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, difleminated, cellular, but
moft frequently cryflallized in fix-fided prifms, with
equal or unequal fides, or bevelled at the extremity.
Cryfials fmall, irregularly grouped 5 fmooth, and iome-
times longitudinally flreaked } lufire Alining j frafture
uneven.
Colour
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Colour grayJili black ; opaque ; ftreak grayifh black j
foft; brittle. Spec. grav. 5.^.
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow-pipe 5 and
is then reduced to the metallic date.
Conjiituent Paris.
Oxide of lead,
Carbonic acid,
Carbone, *
Water,
Lampadius.
18.
i-5
2.
100.0
Localities, &.c.—Found irt Saxony, England, and
Scotland, frequently accompanying white lead ore.
5. Species. White Lead Ore, or Carbonate of Lead.
Id. Kirw. ii. 203. Id. Broch. ii. 309. Plomb Car¬
bonate, Haiiy, iii. 475.
Cent, or only at the edges ; dreak greenifh white j Claffifka*
brittle. Spec. grav. 6.909 to 6.941. tlon-
Client. Cliar.-—-^\\e\ts ealily before the blow-pipe, into v
a grayilh polyhedral globule, but without being redu¬
ced ; folublc in acids, without effervefcence, but fome-
tirties with difficulty.
Conjiituent Parft.
Oxide of lead
Phofphoric acid
Muriatic acid
Oxide of iron
Lofs
77.10
19.
I-54
.10
2.26
100.00
Klaproth.
80.
18.
1.62
^•38
100.00
Localities, &c.-—-Found in veins along with other
lead ores, and generally near the top of the vein, in
Germany, France, and Leadhills in Scotland*
Exter. Char.—Rarely maffive, commonly diflemi*
nated, fuperficial, or cryftallized in fix-fided prifms ; in
four-fided prifms j in double cryilals, compofed of two
four-fided prifms j in oblique four-fided prifms, and in
double fix-fided pyramids, Thefe are varioufly modi¬
fied by truncations and acuminatmns on the edges and
angles.' They are alfo of various fizes, and varioufly
grouped together .* furface ufually fmooth, refplendent,
fometimes rough or ftreaked; luftre fliining, adaman¬
tine j fragments conchoidal, fplintery, or fibrous.
Colour white, yellowifh, or grayifh rvhite *, tranfpa-
rent or tranflucent; refraflion douole. Specific gravity
6.48 to 7.23.
Chem. -Decrepitates before the blow-pipe, be¬
comes yellowifh or reddifh, and melts into a metallic
globule j efferrefces flrongly with acids.
7. Species. Red Lead Ore, or Chromate of Lead.
Id. Broch. ii. 318. Led Lead Soar, Kirw. ii. 214.
Etxter. Char.—Rarely maffive, fometimes diffcminated
or fuperficial, but rnoft frequently cryftallized in oblique
four-fided priftns with the extremity bevelled, or the
lateral edges truncated 5 and in fix-fided prifms, with
two broad and two narrow faces lateral faces longitu¬
dinally ftreaked j external furface fmooth, fliining j
fracture even.
Colour aurora red, or hyacinth red ; tranflucent or
femitranfparent; ftreak orange yellow 5 foft 5 brittles
Spec. grav. 5.75 to 6.02.
Chevi. Ofor.-—No effervefcence with acids ; decrepi¬
tates a little before the blow-pipe, and melts into a
black flag.
Conjiituent Parts.
Klaproth. Macquart.
Oxide of lead 82 713
Carbonic acid 16 24
Water 2 3
100 100
Some carbonates of lead are alfo combined with a
Tmall portion of iron and earthy matters.
Localities, &c,—^Found in veins, accompanied by
galena and other lead ores, in Germany, France, and
Britain.
6. Species. GreEx Lead OrE, or Phofphnte of Lead.
Plomb Phofphate, Hauy, iii. 490. Id. Broch. ii. 314.
Phofphorated Lead Ore, Kirw. ii. 207.
Exter. C/wr -—Maffive or difleminated, botryoidal or
reniform, and often cryftallized in fixdided prifms, trun¬
cated on all the edges, or on the terminal edges, or
terminated by a fix-fided pyramid $ in fix-fided prifms
with the lateral faces converging towards one of the ex-
tremities ; and in fix-fided pyramids \ but this laft is
rare. Surface fmooth, fhinino' internal luftre weakly
flf ning and fdinous $ fraibu-; ■ even.
Colour olive green, emerald cen. yellow or
brown ; • - ? , greemfn, or yellow?ft- white $ tranflu-
a
Conjiituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Oxide of lead 64
Chromic acid 36
100
Localities, &c.—Found in veins at Berefof in Sibe¬
ria, accompanied by other ores of lead, fome ores of
iron, and native gold.
A fimilar ore of lead, but of a brown colour, was
brought from Mexico by Humboldt.
8. Species. Yellow Lead Ore, or Molybdate of
Lead.
Id. Rroch. ii. 322. Yellow Lead Spar, Kirw. ii. 212.
Hairy, iii. 498.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maffive, ufually cryftallized
in rectangular four-fided tables ; in perfeft cubes, with
plane or convex faces, or truncated on the terminal
edges ; In four-fided tables bevelled on the terminal
faces; in obtufe octahedrons, truncated on the fummit,
the lateral angles, or lateral edges. Cryftals fmall j
furface fmooth and fhining j internally fhining; luftre
waxy frafture conchoidal.
C •!;>u wax yellow, or honey yellow j tranflucent,
or only at the edges j loft $ brittle. Spec. grav. 5.48
t0'5'7
Chem.
Fart I.
MINERALOGY.
Claffifica-
tion.
Chem. (j/uir.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates-
ftrongly, and then melts into a blackiih-gray globule,
in which are feen particles of lead. Soluble in nitric
acid, and in fixed alkalies.
Conjlituent Parts.
a mixture of oxide of lead, with a little oxide of iron,
and fome earthy matters.
Localities, &c.—Found on the furface, or in the ca¬
vities of other lead ores, in Saxony, France, Siberia,
and at Leadhills and Wanlockhead in Scotland.
239
Metallic
Ore?.
Oxide of lead
Molybdic acid
Oxide of iron
Silica
Carbonate of lime
Lofs
Macquart.
63-5
28.
' 4*
4* 5
100.0
Hatchett.
58.4
38.
2.1
.28
1.22
100.00
Localities, &c.—This ore of lead was firft difcovered
at Bleyberg in Carinthia j it has been fince found in
Sax»ny and France.
11. Species. Muriate of Lead.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, or cryftallized in cubes, or
flat fix-lided prifms j external furface fhining j internal
luftre refplendent, adamantine ; frafture foliated.
Colour between afparagus green and wine yellow j
femitranfparent j foft; not brittle j ftreak dull, white.
Conjhtuent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of lead
Muriatic acid 45
100
9. Species. Native Sulphate of Lead.
Id. Kirw. ii. 211. Broch. ii. 325. Hauy, iii. 503-.
Exter. Char.—Cryfiallized in irregular octahedrons,
which are varioutly truncated and bevelled. Cryftals
fmooth and fhining ; luflre finning hnd vitreous 5 frac¬
ture compact.
Colour fnow white, grayifh or yellowifh white j
tranflucent j femihard. Spec. grav. 6.3.
Chem. Char.—Reduced even in the flame of a
candle j infoluble in nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of lead 7° j
Sulphuric acid 25'7S~
Water 2.25
Lofs 1.5
100.00
Localities, &c.—Found on brown iron ore in the
ifland of Anglefea, and on galena in the veins at Lead-
hills and Wanlockhead in Scotland.
10. Species. Earthy Lead Ore.
Id. Broch. ii. 327. Id. Kirwan, ii. 105.
This is divided into two fubfpecies : 1. friable j and,
2. indurated.
Subfpecies 1. Friable Lead Ore.
Exter} Char.—This is compofed of fine earthy parti¬
cles, which are dull, and have little coherence.
Colour fulphur or ochre yellow, yellowifh or fmoke
gray j flams ; feels meagre.
Subfpecies 2. Indurated Lead Ore.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or dilfeminated } dull j frac¬
ture uneven or earthy.
Colour of the former; opaque } ftreak lighter colour j
very foft and friable.
Chem. Char.—Eafily reduced before the blow-pipe,
into a black flag j effervefces a little with acids.
ConJUtuent Parir,-—Earthy lead ore is fuppofed to be
Localities, &c—Found in Derbyfliire, and alfo, it
is faid, in the mountains of Bavaria, but not cryftal¬
lized.
12. Species. Murio-Carbonate of Lead.
Id. Bournon and Chenevix, Nich. Jour. 4to. p. 219.
Exter. Char.—Gryftallized in cubes, which are va-
rioufly modified ; luftre ihining, adamantine ; fratturc
foliated j crofs frafture conchoidal.
Colour ftraw yellow, or clear white 5 femitranfpa-
rent; ftreak dull, fnow white ; eafily fcratched by car¬
bonate of lead. Spec. grav. 6.065.
Conjhtuent Parts. Chenevix.
Muriatic^ acid } Muriate of lead 59
Oxide of lead 14.1 ^ , r . ,
Carbonic acid 6 $Carbonate of lead 4°
Lofs i i
100 IO0
Localities, &c.—Found in Derbyfhire.
13. Species. Arseniate of Lead.
Id7 Broch. ii. 546.
Exter. Char.—Difleminated, fometimes in an earthy
flate, fometimes in filky filaments, and cryftallized in
fmall, double, fix-fided pyramids. Dull, or weakly
glimmering •, luftre filky.
Colour citron or greenifh yellow j very {oft; friable.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts eafily
into a globule of lead, and gives out the fmell of
garlic.
Conjl. Parts.—Compofed of oxide of lead and of ar-
ienic, with fome oxide of iron and earthy matters.
VIII. TIN Genus.
1. Species. Tin Pyrites.
Id. Kirw. ii. 200. Id. Broch. ii. 332.
Exter. CV/tfr.—Found maflive or diffeminated j luftre
fhining.
2.j-0
Metallic
Ores.
M I N E R A
fliining or weakly fhming j fraclure uneven j fragments
rather blunt-edged.
Colour fteel gray, fometimes brafs or bronze yellow }
femihard 5 brittle. Spec. grav. 4.3 to 4.7.
Chem. Char Before the blow-pipe it melts ealily in¬
to a black flag, but without being reduced, and gives
cut a fulphureous fmell.
Conjlituent Parts.
Tin
Copper
Iron
Sulphur
Earthy fubflances
Klaproth.
34
36
3
25
2
100
Localities, &c.-—This is a rare mineral, found only
in Cornwall, in a vein along with copper pyrites.
2. Species. COMMON Tinstone, or Oxide of Tin.
Id. Kirw. ii. 197. Id. Broch. ii. 334. Hatiy, iv. 137.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, in rounded
pieces or grains, and often cryllallized in redlangular
four-fided prifms, which are varioufly modified by trun¬
cations and bevelments •, in o&ahedrons, which are
rare ; in eight-fided prifms, or in double oftahedrons,
which are fb united by one of their fummits as to form
a re-entering angle. Cryftals of various fizes, always
grouped together ; furface fmooth 5 lull re (hining or re¬
splendent •, internal luttre fhining, between vitreous and
refinous •, fradlure uneven.
Colour brovvnifii black, blackifh brown, yellowifh
gray, or grayilh white ; opaque, or femitranfparent j
flreak light gray 5 hard j brittle. Specific gravity 6.3
to 6.9.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates,
lofes its colour, and is partially reduced to the metallic
Hate.
Confitucnt Parts.
Tin
Iron
Oxygen
Silica
Klaproth.
77‘5
•25
21.5
•75
100.00
in Germany, in the Eaft
Cornwall in England. It
LOGY.
Chetn. Char.—Becomes brownilh red before the blow¬
pipe, then decrepitates ftrongly, but is infuiible.
Part T.
Localities, &c.—Found
Indies, and particularly in
is not very univerfally diftributed $ but where it exifls,
it is depofited in granite, gneifs, micaceous fchiftas, and
porphyry ; and either in maffes, veins, or diffeminated
in the rocks.
3. Species. Grained Tin Ore, or Wood Tin.
Id. Broch. ii. 340. Id. Kirw. ii. 298.
Exter. Char.—Found only in fmall pieces, rounded
or angular ; furface rough j w'eakly {hining ; internal
luftre glimmering j a little filky j fra£!ure fibrous j
fragments wedge-ihaped.
Colour hair brown of various {hades 5 flreak yellow¬
ifh gray 5 hard and brittle. Spec. grav. 5.8 to 6.4.
Conjl. Parts.—According to Klaproth, it is compo-
fed of 63 of tin in the 100, with a little iron and
arfenic.
Localities, See.—Found in Cornwall, in alluvial land,
where it feems to have been depofited in a flaladlitical
form, accompanied by common tin. •
IX. BISMUTH Genus.
1. Species. Native Bismuth.
Id. Kirw. ii. 264. Id. Broch. ii. 343. Id. Hauy, iv.
184.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, but ufually diffemina¬
ted in a plumofe or reticulated form, and rarely cryffal-
lized, in fmall four-fided tables or cubes j luftre Ihin-
ing or refplendent j frafture foliated.
Colour filvery white, inclining to red •, colours com¬
monly tarnifhed ; foft $ almoft dudtile. Specific gravity
9.02 to 9.82.
Chem. Char.—Fufible almofl: in the flame of a
candle ; by increafing the heat it is volatilized $ foluble
with effervefcence in nitric acid, and precipitated by
water in the form of a white powder.
Localities, &c.—Bifmuth is a rare metal, found in
veins in primitive mountains, accompanied by calcare¬
ous fpar, heavy fpar, and quartz, and commonly with
gray cobalt, fometimes alio with black blende and na¬
tive filver. Found in Saxony, Bohemia, France, and
Sweden.
2. Species. Vitreous Bismuth Ore.
Sulphurated Bifmuth, Kirwan, ii. 266. Id. Brochant,
ii. 346.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated, rarely cryf-
talhzed in fmall imbedded capillary prifms j luftre fhin¬
ing or refplendent j fraffure radiated or foliated.
Colour between lead gray and tin white j ftains a
little j foft eafily frangible. Specific gravity 6.13
to 6.46. ^
Chem. Char.—Eafily fufible before the blow-pipe,
with a fulphureous odour.
Conf. Parts.—Compofed of bifmuth about 60 per
cent, and fulphur with a little iron.
Localities, &.c.—Found in Bohemia, Saxony and
Sweden, and is ufually accompanied by native bif¬
muth.
3. Species. Ochre of Bismuth.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 265. Id. Brochant, ii. 348.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, commonly diffeminat¬
ed on the furface of other minerals} internally glim¬
mering *, fraflure uneven or earthy.
Colour yellowilh gray, alh gray, or ftraw yellow,
opaque; foft ; fometimes even friable. Spec. grav.
4.37.
Chem. Char.—Very eafily reduced before the blow¬
pipe to the metallic ftate ; effervefees with acids.
Conflituent
3
Part 1.
MINERALOGY.
241
Conjlituent Parts. Lampadius.
Oxide of bifmuth
   — iron
Carbonic acid
Water
Lofs
86.3
J-2
4.1
3-4
1.
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral is very rare, and chief¬
ly found near Schneeberg in Saxony, along with native
bifmuth j and alfo in Bohemia and Suabia. ‘
X. ZINC Genus.
1. Species. Blende.
Id. Brochant, ii. 350. Id. Kirwan, ii. 237. Zinc
Sulfure, Hauy, iv. 167.
This fpecies is divided into three fubfpeciesj yellow,
brown, and black.
Subfpecies 1. Yellow Blende.
Exter Char.—Maffive or diffeminated, or fometimes
eryftallized in cubes or o£tahedrons, but they are fo
confufed as to prevent the form being eafily difcovered.
Surface fmooth, refplendent j internal ludre refplen-
dent, between adamantine and vitreous't fradture fo¬
liated 5 cleavage fix-fold $ fragments rather (harp edged,
or aflume fometimes a dodecahedral form, which is the
refult of the complete cleavage.
Colour dark fulphur yellow, olive green, or brown-
ifli red ; tranllucent, fometimes femitranfparent j ftreak
yellowilh gray j femi-hard 5 brittle. Spec. grav. 4.04
to 4.16.
them. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow'-pipe, and
becomes gray, but is infufible.
parent j ftreak yellowiih gray; femi-hard; brittle. Metallic
Spec. grav. 4. uJSl
ConJHtuent Parts.
Zinc
Sulphur
Iron
Silica
Alumina
Water
Bergman.
44
17
5
24
5
5
100
Localities, Sic.—Very common in veins of lead ore,
in moft parts of the world.
Subfpecies 3. Black Blende.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, or diffeminated, or cryftal-
lized like the former, which it refembles in moft of its
charadlers.
Colour perfedl black, brownifti black, or blood red ;
often iridefcent.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Zinc
Sulphur
Iron
Lead
Silica
Water
Arfenic
45
29
9
6
4
6
100
Localities, &c.—Found in the fame places with the
former.
2. Species. Calamine.
ConJUtuent Parts. Bergman.
Zinc 64
Sulphur 20
Iron . _ 5
Fluoric acid 4
Water 6
Silica 1
I0O
PInjsical Char.—Moft of the varieties of yellow
blende become phofphorefcent by friction in the dark.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, Bohemia, Hun-
garv and Norway,' accompanied by lead, copper, and
iron ores. It is rather a rare mineral.
Subfpecies 2. Brown Blende.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, and fom'etimes
cryftallized in fimple three-fided pyramids, oftahedrons,
and four-fided prifms, which are varioufty modified.
External luttre thining or refplendent ; furface fome¬
times drufy j internal luftre (hining, between vitreous
and refinous *, fra6ture foliated j cleavage fix-fold.
Colour reddifti, or yellowith brown j colour fome¬
times tarniftied ; tranflucent, or opaque j cryftals tranf-
Vol. XIV. Part T,
This is divided into two fubfpecies, compaft and fo«
liated.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Calamine.
Id. Kirwart, ii. 234. Id. Brochant, ii. 36li
Exter. Char.—Maflxve or diffeminated, cellular, or
ftaladtitical ; dull j fradlure compadl or earthy.
Colour grayith white, yellowith, or reddifti, or milk
white } opaque j femi-hard or friable j brittle j ftains
fometimes. Spec. grav. 3.52, to 4.1.
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow-pipe
when luddenly heated j is infufible. Forms a jelly
with acids, and fometimes effervefces.
Oxide of zinc
Silica
Iron
Alumina
Water
Lofs
ConJUtuent Parts.
Bergman.
84
12
3
100
H h
Tennant.
68.3
25*
4.4
2-3
100.0
Oxide
242
M I N E R A L O G Y.
Part L
Tennant.
64.8 65.2
35-2 34-8
100.0 100.0
Another variety examined by the fame cherniil con¬
tained,
Oxide of zinc 7I,4
Carbonic acid 13.5
Water 15.1
100.0
From thefe analyfes it appears, that calamines are
very different in their compofltion, confiding fometimes
of oxide of zinc, filica, and water, and this variety
forms a jelly with acids ; others are compofed of car¬
bonic acid and oxide of zinc, which effervefce in ful-
phuric acid, but do not form a jelly •, a third variety is
compofed of cxide of zinc, carbonic acid, and water,
«onftituting a hydro-carbonate of zinc, which is foluble
with effervefcence in fulphuric acid.
Localities, &e.— Ufually accompanied with iron
©chre, and very often with galena, white lead, and
other metallic ores. Found in Bohemia, Bavaria,
France, and Britain, in feme places in confiderable a-
bundance. *
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Calamine.
Jd. Brochant, ii. 364. Kinvan, ii. 236. Hauy, xv.
161.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or diffeminated, ffa-
Tattitical, incrufttd, or cryftaliized, in fmall four-fided
tables, or in very fmall cubes with plane or convex
faces, (hining, or glimmering ) luftre between pearly
and vitreous •, fradlure radiated.
Colour yellowitb, or fmoke gray j grayifli, or yel-
lowilh white j tranflucent or femitranfparent y femi-
hard ; brittle. Specific gravity 3.52.
Chem. Char.—Becomes white before the blow-pipe,
but is infufibie, and does not effervefee with acids.
Phijf. Char.—Becomes eleftric by heat.
Localities, &c.—This variety accompanies the for¬
mer, lining its cavities, but is lefs common. It is found
in the fame places.
XL ANTIMONY Genus.
I. Species. Native Antimony.
Id. Brochant, ii. 3^9- Kirwan, 13. 245* Id. Hauy,
W. 25 2.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diffeminated, or reni-
form ; refplendent •, fradlure foliated.
Colour tin white *, but expofed to the air, giayiih or
yellowilh j foft; eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 6.7.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is very eafily
fufible into a metallic globule, which gives out fumes
with the odour of garlic.
Conjl. Parts.—Native antimony fometimes contains a
fmall proportion of arfenic.
Localities, &c.—Has only been found in two places:
at Sahlberg in Sweden, where it was difeovered in
Metallic
Ores.
Oxide of zinc
Carbonic acid
1748, in limeffone ; and at Allemont in France, where Clafiifica.
it is accompanied by other ores of antimony and co- jj00,
bait. ^-—v—•—
2. Species. Gray Ore of Antimony.
Id. Brochant, ii. 371. Kirwan, li. 246. Hauy, iv.
64.
This is divided into four fubfpecies ; ccmpadd, fo¬
liated, radiated, and plumofe.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Gray Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.-—Maffive or diffeminated j {hining j
fradlure uneven.
Colour lead gray, or fteel gray ; foft •, not very
brittle j ftains a little j ftreak {hining. Spec. grav.
4-36-
Localities, Sac.—Ihis variety is rarer than the
others, but is met with in Saxony, Hungary, and
France.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated •, fracture fo¬
liated. In other characters it referable? the other va*-
rieties, and is ufually accompanied by the following.
Subfpecies 3. Rajhated Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, and very often
cryitallized in acicular, often in capillary cryltals, and
in fix and four-fided prifms varioufly modified ; furface
Itreaked longitudinally $ internal luffre refplendent j
frafture radiated, ftraight, parallel, or divergent.
Colour fimihr to the preceding ; foft j not very
brittle. Spec. grav. 4.1 to 4.5.
Confiituent Parts. Bergman.
Antimony 74*
Sulphur 26
100
Localities, &c.—This is the mofi: common ore of an¬
timony, and is found in Germany, France, and Swe¬
den. There is only one mine of antimony in Britain,
which is in the fouth of Scotland, near Weflerhall, in
the neighbourhood of Langholm.
Subfpecies 4. Plumose Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Ufually found in capillary cryflals,
fo interwoven, that they form a fuperficial covering to
other minerals : theie groups are externally weakly
{hining ; internal luftre glimmering •, fradlure fibrous.
Colour fimilar to the former, and fometimes tarnifh-
ed brown or like tempered fteel; opaque j foft j fome¬
times almoft friable } brittle.
Cofi/l. Parts.—Plumofe antimony is compofed of ful-
phuret of antimony combined with arfenic, iron, and
accidentally a little filver.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe this and the
other varieties of gray antimony give out white fumes,
with a fulphureous fmell, and are almoit entirely vola¬
tilized, or changed into a black flag.
Localities, &c.—Plumofe antimony is found at
Freyberg in Saxony, in the Hartz, and in Hungary.
3. Species.
*
Part I.
MINER
3. Species. Black Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Found cryftallized in reftangular four-
fided tables, truncated on the edges or angles $ cryftals
fmooth ; luftre ihining ; fradture conchoidal.
Colour iron black ; foftt
Localities, &c.—This fpecies, which is alfo a fulphu-
ret of antimony, combined probably with fome other
ingredients, is found in Cornwall.
4. Species. Red Ore of Antimony.
Id. Kirwan,]}. 250. Id. Brochant, ii. 279, Antimoine
Hydrofulfurt, iv. 276.
Exter. Char.—MalTive or diffeminated, but tnoft
commonly in capillary cryftals j lultre weakly Ihining,
vitreous $ fradfure fibrous.
Colour cherry red, brown, reddilh, or bluifh ; foft,
almoft friable ; brittle. Specific gravity 3.7 to 4.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts eafily,
and in nitric acid a white powder is depofited.
ConJIituent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of antimony 78.3
Sulphur 10,7
Lofs 2.
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony and France, ufu-
sllv accompanying gray or native antimony.
5. Species. White Ore of Antimony.
Muriated Antimony, Kirwan, ii. 151. Antimoine Oxide,
Hauy, iv. 273.
_ Exter. Char.—Rarely maffire, ufually fuperficial, in
divergent fibres, or cryftallized in redtangular four-
fided tables, cubes, or four-fided prifms. Cryftals ag¬
gregated 5 fmootb ; ftreaked longitudinally ; refplen-
dent ; internal luftre (Lining, between adamantine and
pearly j fradlure foliated.
Colour fnow' white, yellowifh white, or grayiih j
Iran (lucent ; foft •, brittle.
< Chem. Char.—Cryftals decrepitate before the blow¬
pipe, but in powder is eafily fufible.
Conjl. Parts.—Was formerly fuppofed to be a mu¬
riate of^ antimony, but according to Klaproth, it is a
pure oxide. The white ore of France, according to
Vauquelin, contains,
Oxide of antimony
  lead
Silica
Lofs
6. Species. Ochre of Antimony.
Id. Brochant, ii. 383. Id. Kirwan, ii. 252.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diflcminated, or in fuperfi¬
cial crufts, on gray antimony ; dull ; fraflure earthy.
Colour draw yellow, or yellowifti gray ; foft ; friable.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe ; be¬
comes white, and emits white fumes. Its condiments
are unknown.
Localities, &c—In Saxony and Hungary, accom¬
panying g-iv and red antim ny, and in the antimony
mine near Wefterhall, in the fouth of Scotland.
86
3
8
3
100
A L O G Y.
XII. COBALT Genl4»
1. Species. White Cobalt Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 382. Id. Broch. ii. 386.
Exter. Char—Maflive, diffeminated, reniform, and
rarely cryitallized in fmall four-fided tables, or in fmall
cubes or odahedrons. Luftre weakly (Lining, or (Lin¬
ing j fra&ure uneven.
Colour tin wdfite, but on the furface variable, and
tarniftred ; ftreak (Lining ; hard j brittle.
Chem. Char.—Eafily fufible before the blow-pipe,
emitting a denfe vapour, with a linell of arfenic, and
leaves a white metallic globule) colours borax blue.
Localities, &c.—Found in Norway, Sweden, and
Saxony, in beds of micaceous fchiftus, along with red
cobalt ore, quartz, and hornblende. Its compofition
is not known, but fuppofed to be alloyed with fome
other metals.
2. Species. Gray Cobalt Ore.
Id. Kirw. if. 271. Id. Broch. ii. 388.
Exter. char .-—Maflive, diiTeminated, reniform, and
and botryoidal j luftre (Lining ; fra&ure even.
Colour light fteel gray, or tin w hite j furface fteel
tarnifired j ftreak (Lining 5 femi-hard j brittle.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe j emit*
ting fumes and the fmell of arfenic.
ConJIituent Parts. Klaproth,
Cobalt 20
Arfenic 3 3
Iron 24
Lofs 2 2
100
It contains alfo fometimes nickel and filver.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, France, Norway
and Cornwall in England, with other ores of cobalt. *
3. Species. Shining Cobalt Ore.
Id. Broch. ii. 390. Kirw. ii. 273.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, fuperficial, in
various imitative forms, and cryftallized in cubes ’and
oftahedrons, wTich are varioufly modified $ cryftals
fmall, fmooth, and refplendent, rarely drufy; luftre
fhining ; frafture uneven, radiated, or fibrous.
Colour tin white, commonly grayiih, or yellowifti
tarniftied } hard 5 brittle. Spec. grav. 6.3 to 6.4
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it burns with a
fmall white flame, and a white vapour, fmelling ftrong-
ly of garlic j then blackens, and is almoft infufible:
foluble in nitric acid.
^ ConJIituent Parts of cryftallized (Lining cobalt from
Klaproth. Taffkert.
44* 36.66
55*5 49-
5 6.5
5.66
2.18
100.0 100.00
H h 2 Localities,
j-unaoerg in owTefler
Cobalt
Arfenic
Sulphur
Iron
Lofs
2-l3
Metallic
Ores.
v
244
-Metallic Localities, &c*—This is the moft common ore of
, °res' , cobalt; and it is ufually accompanied by the other
’ ~ ores, and fometimes alfo by vitreous, red, and native
filver. It is found in Bohemia, Saxony, Sweden, and
Cornwall in England, and ufually in beds in primitive
mountains.
Ufes.—This ore of cobalt is commonly wrought for
the purpofe of employing it in the preparation of
the fine blue colour known by the name of /malt,
which is ufed in the manufa&ure of porcelain, glafs,
and as a pigment.
4. Species. Black Cobalt Ochre.
Id. Broch. ii. 396. Kirw. ii. 275. Hauy, iv. 2x4.
This is divided into ttvo fubfpecies, friable and indu¬
rated.
Subfpecies 1. Friable Cobalt Ochre.
Exter. Char.—Compofed of particles which are
more or lefs cohering •, ftains a little.
Colour brownilh, bluilh, or grayilh black •, ftreak
fhining ; feels meagre. In other characters it agrees
with the following.
Subfpecies 2. Indurated Cobalt Ochre.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, in imitative
forms, or marked with impreflions $ dull, or weakly
glimmering ; fraCture earthy.
Colour bluilh black ; itreak fhining, refinous; foft $
femi-hard ; rather brittle. Spec. grav. 2.01 to 2.42.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out an
arfenical odour, but is infufible.
Its conftituent parts are fuppofed to be oxide of co¬
balt, with fome iron and arfenic.
Localities, &c.—Both varieties are found together,
and accompanied by ores of filver, copper, iron, in
Saxony, Suabia, and the Tyrol, as well as in France
and Spain.
5. Species. Brown Cobalt Ochre.
Id. Broch. ii. 400.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or difleminated j always dull j
fraClure earthy j ftreak fhining, refinous.
Colour light or dark liver brown j foft, almoft fri¬
able ; very eafily frangible.
Conjlituent Parts.—Suppofed be compofed of oxide
of cobalt, and iron.
* Localities, &c.—Found at Saalfeld in Thuringia,
in ftratiform mountains, and in Wirtemberg, in pri¬
mitive mountains, accompanied by other varieties of
cobalt ochre.
6. Species. Yellow Cobalt Ochre.
Id. Kirw. ii. 277. Broch. ii. 401.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or difleminated, or adhering to
the lurfaces of other minerals j dull $ frafture earthy j
ftreak fhining, refinous.
Colour dirty ftraw yellow, or ycllowifh gray ; very
foft or friable.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out an
cdour of arfenic, asd is infufible.
Part I.
Its conftituents are fuppofed to be oxide of cobalt, ClafilficA-
and a little arfenic. tlon~ ^
Localities, &c.—Found in the fame places with the v~
former, but is rare.
7. Species. Red Cobalt Ochre, or Arfeniate of Co.
halt.
Id. Kirw. ii. 278. Broch. ii. Cobalt Arfeniate, Hauy,
iv. 216.
This is divided into two fubfpecies 5 earthy and ra¬
diated.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Red Cobalt Ochre.
Exter. Char.—In thin fuperficial layers, or crufts j
dull, or weakly glimmering j frafture earthy.
Colour peach-bloflbm red, rofe red, or reddifh white \
ftreak a little finning 5 very foft, friable.
Localities, &c.—Found in Bohemia, Saxony, France,
and Norway.
Subfpecies 2. Radiated Red Cobalt Ochre, or
Cobalt Bloom, ox'Elowers of Cobalt.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or difleminated, rarely botry-
oidal or reniform j often fuperficial, and in fmall dru-
fy cryftals, whofe forms are rectangular four-fided ta¬
bles, four-fided prifms, double fix-fided pyramids, with
different modifications. Cryftals fmall and varioufly
aggregated 5 fmooth and fhining, fometimes refplen-
dent j fraCture radiated $ fragments wedge-fhaped, or
fplintery.
Colour peach bloflbm red, crimfon red, or, expofed
to the air, brownifh, grayifh, or whitifh j tranflucent y
cryftals femitranfparent j foft ; brittle.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe becomes black-
ifh gray, giving out a feeble odour of arfenic, with¬
out any fumes, but is infufible. Colours borax a
fine blue.
This fpecies has not been particularly analyzed,
but is confidered as a compound of cobalt and arfe¬
nic acid.
Localities, &c.—The fame as the former, and alfo
in Cornwall in England, and along with copper ores at
Alva in Scotland.
8. Species. Sulphate of Cobalt.
A faline fubftance in a ftalaftitical form, of a pale
rofe red colour and tranflucent, is found at Herrengrund
near Newfohl in Hungary, which wTas at firfl fuppofed
to be a fulphate of manganefe, and afterwards a ful-
phate of cobalt.
This fubftance has been examined by Klaproth, who
diflblved it in water, added an alkali, and obtained
a bluifti precipitate, which coloured borax of a beauti¬
ful fapphire bluej and with muriatic acid he obtained
from it a fympathetic ink.
XIII. NICKEL Genus.
1. Species. Copper-coloured Nickel.
Id. Brochant, ii. 408. Sulphurated Nickel, Kirw. ii.
286. Nickel Arfenical, Hauy, iii. 518. Kupfer.
nickel of the Germans.
Exter. CW.—Maffive or diffemmated, rarely reticu¬
lated
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Claflifica- lated 5 ftiining, or weakly Huning fradure uneven,
tion. fometimes conchoidal j fragments rather fharp-edged. _
* v  Colour pale copper red, whitifh, or grayilh j femi-
hard ; brittle. Spec. grav. 6.64 to 7.56. .
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out the
fumes and odour of arfenic ; melts with difficulty into a
flag, mixed with metallic particles. Solution in acids,
green.
ConJJituent Parts. Sage.
MINERALOGY. 245
Colour fleel gray, or iron black j ftreak black, with- Metallic
r r > Specific gravity q.7 c rrs .
Nickel
Arfenic
Sulphur
Lofs
75
22
2
1
out luftre ; ftains j foft J brittle,
to 4.7.
Conjlituent Parts. Cordier and Beaunier *.
From France,
Oxide of manganefe, 83.5
Brown oxide of iron 2.
Carbone —
Carbonate of lime —
Barytes 1*5
SiHca 7*5
Lofs 5 -5
100.0
Germany,
82.
7-5
3-
7-
•5
190.0
* 'Jour, des
Mines,
Piedmont. No. Iviii.
86. P- 77s-
3- •*
i-S
5-
4-5
100.0
100
Localities, &c.—Found in veins, in primitive and
ftratiform mountains, almoft always accompanied with
ores of cobalt, and often with rich filver ores. It is
found in Bohemia, Saxony, France, Spain, and Corn¬
wall in England.
Of purer fpecimens by Klaproth.
Oxide of manganefe 99-25 92,75
Water *25 7*
Lofs *5 *25
100.00 100.00
2. Species. Nickel Ochre, or Oxide of Nickel.
Id. Kirw. ii. 283. Broch. ii. 411. Haiiy, iii. 516.
Exter. Char.—Ufually diffeminated and efflorefcent
on other minerals; compofed of friable, loofe, and (light¬
ly agglutinated particles.
Colour apple-green of different (hades 5 ftains j feels
meagre.
Chem. Char.—Remains unchanged before the blow¬
pipe ; colours borax yellowifti red, and is infoluble in
nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Lampadius.
Oxide of nickel 67.
 iron 23.2
Water 1.5
Lofs 8.3
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in ftmilar fituations with the
preceding fpecies.
XIV. MANGANESE Genus.
1. Species. Gray Ore of Manganese, or Oxide of
Manganefe.
Id. Brochant, ii. 414. Id. Kirwan, ii. 291. Id. Hauy,
iv. 243.
This fpecies is divided into four fubfpecies : 1. radi¬
ated j 2. foliated 5 3. compaft ; and, 4. earthy.
Subfpecies 1. Radiated Gray Ore of Manganese.
EJJen. Char.—Colours borax violet.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or diffeminated, or cryftalli-
zed in oblique four-fided prifms, or in acicular prifms
fafcicularly grouped together; the cryftals are va-
rioufly modified. Faces (freaked longitudinally; ftiin¬
ing or refplendentj fradure radiated 3 fragments wedge-
(haped.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Gray Ore of Manganese*
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diffeminated, or cry-
ftallized in fmall, re£langular, .four-fided tables, fafci¬
cularly grouped ; luitre (hining 3 frafture foliated.
Colour fimilar to the former 3 ftreak black and dull 3
ftains 3 foft, and brittle. Spec. grav. 3.74.
Subfpecies 3. Compact Gray Ore of Manganese.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or diffeminated, in angular,
or botryoidal, or dendritical forms 3 luftre glimmering 3
frafture uneven, fometimes even or conchoidal.
Colour fteel gray, or bluifti black 3 ftains 3 femihard,
or foft 3 brittle.
Conf. Parts—approach prefty nearly to thofe of the
radiated variety.
Subfpecies 4. Earthy Gray Ore of Manganese.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, diffeminated, fome--
times fuperficial and dendritical 3 dull 3 fometimes a lit¬
tle glimmering 3 fracture earthy.
Colour between fteel gray and bluiffi black 3 ftains
very much 3 very foft, often even friable 3 feels
meagre.
Confituent Parts—fuppofed to be the fame as the for¬
mer, but with a larger proportion of oxide of iron.
Chem. Char.—Gray ore of manganefe is infufible be¬
fore the blowT-pipe, but becomes of a blackilh brown
colour ; gives a blue colour to borax.
Localities, &c.— A.11 the varieties of this fpecies are
ufually found together, and chiefly in primitive moun¬
tains. The earthy ore of manganefe almoft always ac¬
companies fparry iron ore, and other ores of iron. Man¬
ganefe is found in confiderable abundance in Saxony,
Bohemia, France, near Exeter in England, and in A-
berdeenfliire in Scotland.
2. Species. Black Ore of Manganese..
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, diffeminated, or cry—
ftallized in fmall four-fided double pyramids, arranged-
icu
M MINER
jVIjtnHic in rows; furface fliinin^ ; internal luftre weakly glim-
; ■ ■ menng j fraelure imperfeflly foliated.
Colour grayifti black, and brownilli black j ftreak
dull, brownifh red ; foft; brittle.
Localities, &c.—This fpecies is of rare occurrence,
it has been found in Thuringia, forming a cruft on
gray ore of manganefe, and alfo, it is faid, in Pied¬
mont.
3. Species. Red Ore of Manganese, or Carbonate of
Manganefe,
Extcr. Char.—Maftive, difleminated, botryoidal, &c.
or cry;-, i'rzed in flat rhomboids, or in very fmall pyra¬
mids or lenfes. Surface of the cryftals fmooth ; dull,
or • ’' kly glimmerings fra61ure uneven or fplintery.
Colour rofe red, or browniftr white ; tranflucent at
the edges ; femihard j brittle. Spec. grav. 3.23.
C/ietn. Char.—Infulible before the blow-pipe •, be¬
comes grayifh black, and colours borax violet blue, or
orimfen red.
ConJHtuent Parts.
Oxide of manganefe
■ i ron
Carbonic acid
Silica
Localities, &c—This fpecies of manganefe, which
is rare, is found in Tranfylvania at Offenbanya, and
particularly at Nagyag, where it conftitutes part of the
mafles of an auriferous vein, from which the gold ore of
Nagyag is obtained.
XV. MOLYBDENA Genus.
1. Species. Sulphuret of Molybdena.
Id. Brochant, ii. 432. Id. KirwTan, ii. 322. Id. Hatty,
iv. 289.
Exter. Char.—Maftive or dilfeminated, fometimes in
plates, and rarely cryftallized in equal fix-ftded tables}
cryftals fmall, imbedded, the lateral faces (hining } in¬
ternal luftre ftnn’mg } fra61ure foliated } fragments ra¬
ther blunt-edged, fometimes in plates.
Colour lead gray } opaque ; ftains, and writes; very
foft, and eafily frangible } flexible in thin plates, but
not elaftic ; feels greafy. Spec. grav. 4.56 to 4.73.
Chern. Char.—Infufible before tbe blow-pipe } gives
out a fulphureous fmell ; nitric acid converts it to a
white oxide, wdiich is the molybdic acid.
Lampaditts.
48.
2.1
49.
•9
100.0
A L O G Y. Part I.
found in Bohe .da, Saxony, Sweden, France, and Eng- Claffifica-
land. tion.
XVI. ARSENIC Genus.
1. Species. Native Arsenic.
Id. Broch. ii. 435. Id. Kirw. ii. 255. Id. Ilaiiy, iv.
220.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, in imitative
forms, or with impreflions; furface rough or granula¬
ted } dull, or weakly glimmering j internal luftre weak¬
ly fhining ; fraflure uneven, lometimes imperfe£Uy fo¬
liated } fragments rather blunt-edged in plates.
Colour light lead-gray, tin-white or grayifh black
when tarnifhed ; ftreak fltining } femihard} very eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. j.72 to 5.76.
Chew. Char.—Melts readily before the blow-pipe,
giving out white vapour, with the fmell of garlic } then
burns with a bluifh flame, and is diflipated, leaving
only a whitifh powder, w'hich is the oxide of arfenic.
Confituent Parts.-—Native arfenic is ufually alloyed
with a fmall portion of iron, and fometimes alfo with a
little gold or filver.
Localities, &c.— Found in veins in primitive moun¬
tains, accompanied by ores of ftlver, lead, copper, quartz,
and earthy fpars, in Bohemia, Saxony, and France,
2. Species. Arsenical Pyrites.
Id. Broch. ii. 438. Id. Kirw. ii. 236. Fer Arfenical,
Hiuy, iv. 56.
I his is divided into two fubfpecies, common and ar¬
gentiferous.
Subfpecies 1. Common Arsenical Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, often cryftalliz¬
ed in oblique four-fided prifms, acute octahedrons, and.
lenfes } the prifms being varioufly modified on their
angles, faces, and extremities. Cryftals fmall} lateial
faces fmooth, fhining } bevelled faces ftreaked tranf-
verfely } luftre Alining } fra61ure uneven.
Colour filvery white, but ufually tarnifhed yellow, or
bluifli, and iridefeent} hard } brittle. Specific gravity
5.75106.52.
Phyf. Char.—By fridlion gives out the odour of gar¬
lic.
Chew. Char.—Before the blow-pipe gives out a white
vapour with the odour of arfenic, the fumes depofiting
a white powder on cold bodies} a reddifh brown mat¬
ter, which is infufible, remains.
Conflituent Parts.—Compofed of arfenic, iron, and
fulphur.
Conjlituent Parts.
Pelletier. Klaproth.
Molybdic acid 45 60
Sulphur 55 40
ioo 100
Localities, &c.—-Alw’ays found in primitive moun¬
tains, in nefts or nodules, and very commonly in the
neighbourhood of tin ores. It is alfo accompanied by
Wolfram, quartz, native arfenic, and fluor fpar. It j,s
3
Subfpecies 2. Argentiferous Arsenical Pyrites,
Exter. Char Rarely maftive, often difleminated,
and cryftallized in fmall, acicular, four fided prifms}
luftre iliining, or weakly {hining } fradlure uneven.
Colour tin-white, or filvery-wrhite, ufually tarniihed.
Localities, &c.—Arfenical pyrites is found in Bo¬
hemia, Saxony, and Silefia, in veins of primitive moun¬
tains, or difleminated in the rocks.
The fecond variety is found in fimilar places, and dif¬
fers only from the firft, in being combined with a fraali
quantity cf filver, wrhich varies from i to 10 per cent.
g. Speciesa
Part T.
MINERALOGY.
Claflifica-
3. Species. Orpiment.
Id. Kirw, ii. 260. Id. Brocli. ii. 444. Hauy, iv. 234.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, yellow
and red.
Subfpecies 1. Yellow Orpiment.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, diffeminated, fuperhcial, and
cryftallized in oblique four-fided prifms, bevelled at
the extremity, or terminated by a four-fided pyramid,
or in acute oflahedrons. Cryflals fmall, and confufedly
aggregated •, furface fmooth 5 that of the bevelment
«nd pyramids finely ftreaked ; internal lulrre refplend-
ent, between refinous and adamantine j fradure foliat¬
ed j fragments in plates.
Colour citron-yellow, golden-yellow, cr aurora-red •,
tranflucent j in thin plates, femitranfparent 5 foft; flex¬
ible in thin plates. Spec. grav. 3.31 to 3.45.
ChetTi. Char.—Gives out a blue flame before the blow¬
pipe, with white vapour, and the fmell of arfenic and
(ulphur.
greenilh-white ; opaque ; cryflals tranflucent; foft, or
friable. Spec. grav. 3.706.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out a
white fume, and a garlic odour; burns with a bluifli
flame, and is entirely diflipated} foluble in water and
acids.
Conjlituent Paris.—This is a pure oxide of arfenic,
with an accidental mixture of earth.
Localities, &c.—A rare mineral, but is found in fmall
quantity, along with native arfenic, and ores of cobalt,
in Bohemia and Hungary.
5. Species. Pharmacolite, or Arfcniate of Lime.
Id. Broch. ii. 523. Chaux Arfeniate, Hauy,di. 293.
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall capillary cryflals;
luflre glimmering, filky j fracture fibrous or radiated.
Colour fnow-white 5 tranflucent 5 very foft. Specific
gravity 2.53 to 2.64.
Chem. Char.—Soluble in nitric acid with effervef-
cence, and gives out the odour of arfenic before the
blow-pipe.
24?
Metallic
Ores.
Conjlituent Parts.
Kirwan. WeilrumR.
Arfenic, 84 80
Sulphur, 16 20
Conjlituent Parts.
Arfenic acid,
Lime,
Water,
Klaproth.
5°.54 ‘
2 5-
24.46
100 100 100.CO * * Anafyr.
Localities, Sic.— Finally found in ftratiform moun- Localities, &c.—Found in a vein in primitive rocks,
tains, accompanied by clay, quartz, and fometimes by accompanied by heavy fpar and gypfum, near Wittichen
red orpiment, in Tranfylvania, Hungary, and other in Suabia. It has allb been found in France,
places.
Subfpecies 2. Red Orpiment.
Exter. Char.—Rarely mafiive, ufually difleminated,
or fuperficial, and often cryflallized in oblique four-
fided prifms, with obtufe lateral edges, truncated, or
bevelled : cryflals fmall, flreaked longitudinally ; Aim¬
ing or refplendent ; internal luftre fln’ning between vi¬
treous and refinous 5 frablure uneven, or conchoidal.
Colour light aurora-red, fcarlet-red, orange yellow1 j
tranflucent,. or femitranfparent, often opaque ; flreak
orange, or citron-yellow j very loft : fomewhat brittle.
Spec. grav. 3.2.
Chem. Char.-—Similar to the former.
Conjlituent Parts—according to fome, the fame as the
preceding, but with the addition of iron and filica, with
a fmaller proportion of fulphur.
Localities, Sic.—Chiefly found in primitive moun¬
tains, as in Saxony, Hungary, France, and in the neigh¬
bourhood of ./Etna and Vefuvius.
XVII. TUNGSTEN Genus.
1. Species. Wolfram,
Id. Kirw. ii. 316. Id. Broch. ii. 456. Scleelin Per-
rugine, Haiiy, iv. 314.
Exter. Cha*-.—Found maflive, difleminated, or cry-
ftalfized in fix-lided prifms, and in rectangular four-
fided tables, which are varioutly modified. Cryflals'
not very fmall, ufually grouped ; internal luftre Alin¬
ing or refplendent j longitudinal fraCture foliated j crofs-
fracture uneven.
Colour brownifh black, or perfeCt black, fometimes
tarniftied j opaque j flreak dark reddifti-brown 5 foft j
brittle. Spec. grav. 7.11 to 7.33.
Chew. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates,
but is infufible.
Conjlituent Paris.
4. Species. Native Oxide of Arsenic.
Id. Kirw. ii. 258. Id. Broch. ii. 450. Id. Hauy, iv.
225.
Exter. Char.—Found fuperficial, in an earthy form,
and friable, on other minerals-, rarely indurated, forre-
times botryoidal, or cryflallized in capillary cryflals,
very fmall oCtahedrons, or four-fided tables; luflre
glimmering or dull ; fraCture earthy or fibrous.
Colour [now-white, yellcwilh white, reddilh cr
Delhuyart,
Tungftic acid, 65
Oxide of manganefe, 22
Oxide of iron, 13
Silica, —
Lofs, —
100
Wiegleb. Klaproth. Vanquelim
35-75 46-9 67.
32- ~ 6.25
11, 31.2 18.
1.5
21.25 21.9 7.25
100.00 100.0 100.00
localities, See.—Wolfram, which is a rare mineral,
is found m primitive mountains, accompanied by quartz,
and
248 MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Metallic and tin ores,
i 0res; . England.
in Bohemia, France, and Cornwall in
2. Species. Tungstate of Lime.
Tungsten, Kirw. ii. 314. Id. Broch. ii. 453’ Scheelin
Calcaire, Hauy, iv. 3 20.
Enter. CVhzr.—Maflive, diffeminated, fometimes cry-
ftallized in regular o&ahedrons, which are fometimes
(lightly bevelled on the edges of the common bafe.
Cryftals ufually fmall; furface fmooth, refplendent $
bevelled furface ftreaked tranfverfely j internal luftre
fliining or refplendent, relinous or adamantine j fra£ture
foliated.
Colour grayiAi or yellovviAi white 5 tranllucent 5 femi-
hard ; brittle. Spec. grav. 6.06.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe decrepitates, and
lofes its tranfparency, but is infulible. Reduced to
powder, and digefted with nitric or muriatic acid, it
leaves a citron yellow refiduum, w7hich is tungftic
acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of tungAen
————— iron
— manganefe
Lime
Silica
Lofs
77-75
17.6
3-
1.65
75-25
1.25
•75
18.7
i-5
2.55
100.00 100.00
Localities, &c.—This is a rare mineral, ufually
found in primitive mountains, accompanied by ores of
tin, fome iron ores, quartz, fluor fpar, &c. in Sweden,
Saxony, and Cornwall in England.
XVIII. TITANIUM Genus.
1. Species. Menachanite.
Id. Brochant, ii. 468. Id. Kirwan, ii. 326. Hauy, iv.
3°5-
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall, detached, rounded
grains 5 furface rough, or weakly glimmering j luAre
Alining, femi-metallic } frafture imperfeftly foliated.
Colour grayilh or iron black j foft or femi-hard 5
brittle. Spec. grav. 4.4.
Chem. Char.—Infulible before the blow-pipe ; co¬
lours borax greenilh brown.
Conflituent Parts.
Klaproth. ' Cbenevix.
Oxide of titanium 45-25 40
———iron 51. 49
Silica 3.5 11
Oxide of manganefe 2.5 —
100.00 100
Localities, &c.—This mineral was firA difcovered by
Mr-Gregor, among fand, in the bed of a rivulet, in
the valley of Menachan in Cornwall j hence its name.
It has fince been found in the ifland of Providence, one
of the Bahamas, and at Botany Bay in New Hol¬
land.
2. Species. Octahedrite.
Anatafe, Hauy, iii. 129. Id. Brochant, ii. 548.
tahedrite, Sauffure, Voyages, §. 1901.
Exter. Char.—Found only cryAallized, in elongated,
oftahedrons with fquare bafes, and truncated, or acu¬
minated j cryAals fmall and imbedded j lateral faces
Areaked tranfverfely j luAre refplendent, vitreous j frac¬
ture foliated.
Colour Aeel gray, fometimes light indigo blue; tranf-
lucent, femi-hard ; brittle. Spec. grav. 3.85.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
melts with borax, which it colours green, and in cool¬
ing, cryAallizes in needles.
Conjl. Parts.—It is chiefly compofed of oxide of ti¬
tanium.
Localities, &c.—Has been found lining the cavities
of a vein, accompanied by quartz and feldfpar, in a
primitive rock, in Dauphine in France.
Oc-
3. Species. Titanite.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 329. Le Ruthiie, Brochant, ii. 470.
Titane Oxide, Hauy, iv. 296. Red Schorl of many.
Exter. Char.—Found cryAallized in oblique four-
fided prifms, the lateral edges truncated $ fometimes
thefe cryAals are double, being united obliquely j alfo
in acicular and capillary cryftals, imbedded and group¬
ed together j furface longitudinally Areaked, Alining *,
internal luflre Alining, adamantine ; fradlure foliated.
Colour blood-red or reddifh brown $ opaque, or
tranflucent; hard j brittle. Spec. grav. 4.1 to 4.24.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
lofes its tranfparency, and becomes gray.
Conjl. Parts.—Compofed chiefly of oxide of tita¬
nium.
Localities, &c.—Found in Hungary, in gneifs, and
imbedded in quartz. It has been found alfo in Switzer¬
land, Spain, and France.
4. Species. Nigrine.
Kirwan, ii, 331. Brochant, ii. 474. Hauy, iv. 307.
Exter. Char.-—Diffeminated, fometimes amorphous,
often cryAallized in oblique four-fided prifms, varioufly
modified by truncations and bevelments. Surface fmooth j
luflre fliining, or refplendent, between refinous and vi¬
treous $ fradture foliated.
Colour dark brownifli black, yellowifh white, or
violet brown ; opaque, or tranflucent; femi-hard. Spec,
grav. 3.51 to 4.6.
Chem. Char—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Oxide .of titanium
Silica
Lime
Conjlituent Parts.
Klaproth.
33
35
32
I GO
Abilgaard.
58
22
20
100
74
8
18
100
Localities, &c.—-Found in Bavaria, and
dal in Norway.
at Aren-
5. Species,
4
Part T.
MINERALOGY.
5. Species. Brown Ore of Titanium.
This fpecies in its chara&ers fo nearly refembles the
preceding, that it may be confidered merely as a varie¬
ty, as has been done by Brochant and Hauy.
6. Species. Iserine.
Id. Brochant, ii. 478.
f Exter. Char.—Found in rounded or angular grains,
having a rough and glimmering furface j internally
Ihining 5 fradlure conchoidal.
Colour iron black, or brownilh 5 hard 5 brittle. Spec,
grav. 45.
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a
dark brown flag.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of titanium 59.1
  iron 30.1
— uranium
10.2
Lofs
.6
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in the fand of a river in Bo¬
hemia, called Ifer, whence the name is derived.
XIX. URANIUM Genus.
1. Species. Pitchy Ore of Uranium.
Id. Brochant, ii. 460. Kirwan, ii. 305. Hauy, iv.
280.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, fometimes cel¬
lular *, fhiningor glimmering; fra&ure imperfectly con¬
choidal ; fragments rather fharp-edged.
Colour velvet black, iron black, or bluifh, fome¬
times fteel-tarnifhed ; ftreak black; opaque ; femi-hard;
brittle. Spec. grav. 6.5 to 7.5.
Chem Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe; foluble
in nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Uranium a little oxidated 86.5
Sulphuret of lead
Oxide of iron
Silica
6.
2-5
5'
100.0
Colour emerald or grafs green of various (hades, rare¬
ly wax yellow; tranflucent; ftreak greenifti white ; foft;
not very brittle. Spec. grav. 3.12.
Chem. Char.—Soluble, without effervefcence, in ni¬
tric acid, wdrich it colours citron yellow.
Conjl. Parts.—This fpecies is an oxide of uranium,
with a fmall portion of copper.
Localities, Sac.—Found in Saxony, France, and Corn¬
wall in England, accompanied by fame ores of iron,
fometimes by cobalt.
3. Species. Uranite Ochre.
Id. Broch. ii. 466. Id. Kirw. ii. 303.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, but ufually diffemi¬
nated, or fuperficial; is dull, or rarely filming; fradturq
earthy, or foliated ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour citron yellow, aurora red, or fulphur yellow ;
opaque ; foft and friable ; brittle ; ftains a little ; feels
meagre. Spec. grav. 3.15 to 3.24. r
Conjhtuent Parts.—Compofed of oxide of uranium,
with a portion of iron.
Localities^ &c.—Found in fimilar places with the
former.
XX. TELLURIUM Genus.
Hauy,
1. Species. Native Tellurium.
Id. Broch. ii. 480. Sylvanite, Kirw. ii. 324.
iv-32i-
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated ; fhining ;
fraflure foliated.
Colour between tin and ft! very white ; foft; not very
brittle. Spec. grav. 5.7 to 6.1.
Chem. Char.—Melts eafily before the blow-pipe.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Tellurium 92.6
Iron 7.2
Gold
.2
100.0
Localities, &c.—-Has been only found at Fatzebay
in Tranfylvania, w'here it exifts in veins, in mountains’
of gray wapken and tranfition limeftone. The ore is
dug out for the purpofe of extraditing the gold.
It was called aurum paradoxum, and aurum proble-
maticum, becaufe its external appearance did not indi¬
cate that it contained gold.
2. Species. Graphic Ore of Tellurium.
24
Metall
Ores.
Localities, &c.—Found in Bohemia and Saxony, ac¬
companying galena, copper pyrites, iron ochre, and fome
ores of filver and cobalt.
2. Species. Micaceous Uranite.
Id. Brochant, ii. 463. Kirwan, ii. 304.
Exter. Char.—Sometimes in thin layers, but often
cry ft alii zed in reftangular four-fided tables ; in cubes,
and fix-fided pvifms varioufly modified. Cryftals imall,
and grouped together; luitre fhining, pearly ; frac¬
ture foliated.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
Id. Broch. ii. 482. Hauy, iv. 327.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, and cryftallized in flat four
or fix-fided pfifms, which are arranged in rows, ex¬
hibiting fomething of the appearance of written cha¬
racters, and hence the name graphic ore. Surface
fmooth, fhining; longitudinal fraCture foliated and re-
fplendent; crofs fraCture uneven.
Colour tin white, yellowifh, or lead gray; foft and
brittle. Spec. grav. 5.72.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a greenifh flame before the
blow-pipe.
I i Conjlituent
o' O
250
Metallic
Cbnftisuent Parts.
Tellurium
Gold
Silver
Klaproth.
60
3°
10
Ciaffifica-
tioq.
ICO
Localities, &c.—Has only been found at Offenbanya
in Tranfylvania, in veins traverfing porphyry and gra¬
nular limeftone accompanied by iron pyrites and copper
ore/ It is wrought for the fake of the gold.
V Species. Yellow Ore of Tellurium.
Id. Broch.ii. 484. Hauy, iv. 327.
Exter. Char.—Diffeminated, and cryftallized in fmall
fcur-fided prifms j fliining, or weakly ihining > fradure
foliated j crofs fradure uneven.
Colour filvery white, brafs yellow, or gray.
6hem. Char.—Soluble in nitric acid.
M 1NERAL0GY. Part ^
Colour fteel grey, and ufually covered with a
greenilh tfilorelcence j folt, or femihard j not very
brittle.
Conjlituent Parts.—This is fqppofed to be an alloy of
chromium,
Exter. Char. &.c.—Found in the gold mineofRud-
nick near Schlangenberg in Suabia, in a matrix ol wThite
quartz, containing gold and galena.
2. Species. Ochre of Chromium.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, diffeminated, and in thin
plates ; dull *, fradure uneven or earthy.
Colour verdigris green, or yellowilh ; foft.
Localities, &c.— hound only in the fame place, ac¬
companying the former.
The chromates ot lead and iron have been already
deferibed among the ores of thofe metals.
XXII. COLUMBIUM Genus.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Tellurium 44‘75
Gold 26.75
Lead 19*5
Silver 8.5
Sulphur .5
100.00
Exter. Char.—Maflivej fradure uneven, or foliated \
luftre Ihining.
Colour dark gray 5 opaque j not very hard ) brittle.
Spec. grav. 5.918.
Conjhtuent Parts.
Oxide of columbium 78
 iron 21
Lofs 1
Localities, &c.—Found only at Nagyag in Tran¬
fylvania.
4. Species. Black or Foliated Ore of Tellurium.
Id. Broch. ii. 486. Hauy, iv. 327.
Exter. Char.—Found in plates, which are united in¬
to maffes, or diffeminated, rarely cryftallized in fix-
fided tables; furface fmooth, (hining; external luftre
refplendent; fradure foliated.
Colour between lead gray and iron black ; ftains;
foft; flexible in thin plates. Spec, grav, 8.91.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe the fulphur and
tellurium are diflipated in white fumes, and a metallic
globule remains, furrounded by a black flag.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Tellurium 33.
Lead fo.
Gold ‘ 8.5
Silver and copper 1.
Sulphur 7.5
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found only in the fame place with
the preceding.
XXL CHROMIUM Genus.
1. Species. Needle Ore of Chromium.
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall cryftals, which are
imbedded; luftre fliining; fradure uneven or conchoi-
daL
100
Localities, &c.—This mineral, of which the only
fpecimen known is in the Britifti Mufeum, w'as brought
from Maffachuffets in America; it was analyzed, by
Mr Hatchett, and found to contain a new7 metal, wnich
he denominated columbium.
XXIII. TANTALIUM Genus.
Two fpecies of this mineral have been, difeovered;
tantalite, and yttrio-tantalite.
1. Species. Tantalite.
Exter. Char. Cryftallized in odahedrons; furface
fmooth ; fradure compad.
Colour bluifti gray, or black. Spec. grav. 7'95’
Conjlituent Parts.—Compofed of tantalium, iron, and
manganefe.
Localities. &c.—Found in Finland, in globular pieces^
in a vein of red feldfpar, traverfing a gneifs rock.
2. Species. Yttrio-Tanialite.
Exter. Char.—Diffeminated, in pieces of the fize of a
nut; fradure even ; luftre metallic.
Colour dark gray ; may be fcratched with a knife,;
powder gray. Spec. grav. 5.13.
Conjlituent Parts.—Compofed of iron, manganele,
tantalium, and the new earth yttria.
Localities, &c.—Found at Ytterby in Sweden, in the
fame place with gadolinite.
Thefe minerals were analyzed by Eckeberg, who
difeovered in them the new metal tantalium.
XXiY,
Part T.
XXIV. CERIUM Genus,
i. Species. Cerite.
Exter. Char.—Found m.iffive or diffeminated ; luftre
weakly glimmering ; frafture fine grained, even.
Colour pale rofe red; opaque ; powder grayiflj 5
fcratches glafs. Spec. grav. 4.5 to 4.9.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow pipe, and
does not colour borax.
Conjlituent Parts.
Vauquelin.
MINERALOGY. 251
Exter. Char.—Found maffive; finning, vitreous j ffaO- Meul!i6
ture conchoidal. ^
Colour velvet black, or brownifh blaoi- *, opaque \
hard j fcratches quartz ; brittle. Spec. grav. 4.04^
Chem. Char.—Reduced to powder, and heated ia
diluted nitric acid, it is converted into a thick yel-
lowifh gray jelly. Before the blow-pipe it decrepit
tates and becomes whitifh red, but remains infufible.
Oxide of cerium
  iron
Silica
Lime
Water and carbonic acid
Lofs
67.
.02
I7*
.02
.12
15.84
100 00
Klaproth.
54-5
4-
34-
5-
2-5
100.0
APPENDIX.
IX. YTTRIAN Genus.
To follow Strontian genus, p. 209.
Species. Gadolinite.
Sel. Brochant, ii. 512. Id. Haiiy, iii. 141.
Yrtria
Silica
Lime
Alum;>a
Oxide of iron
 manganefe
Water and carbonic acid
Lofs
Conf ituent Parts.
Eckeberg. Vauquelin.
47-5
25-
35*
25-5
2.
4-5
18.
25.
2.
10.5
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in the
copper mine of Baftnaes, at Riddarhytta, in Sweden,
accompanied by copper, molybdena, bifmuth, mica,
and hornblende.
The netv metal contained in this mineral was dif-
covered by Hinger and Berzelius, chemills at Stock¬
holm.
100.0
100.0
Klaproth.
59-75
21.25
•5
17.5
•5
•5
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral was examined by pro-
feffor Gadolin of Sweden, wbofe name it bears, and
found to contain a peculiar earth. It was found near
Ytterby in Sweden, and hence the new earth was call-
Ettria.
The unavoidable length to which the firft part of this
treatife has extended, and fome other circumftances,
render it neceffary for us to introduce in a different
part of the work, what we propofed to lay before our
readers in the fecond part relative to the analyfis of
ftones and metallurgical operations. See Ores,
duci'ion of, and Stones, Analyfis of.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CCCLI.
Fig. 1. Reprefents the goniometer or graphometer,
an inftrument invented by Carangeau for meafuring the
angles of cryflals. MTN is a graduated femicircle of
brais or filver, furnifhed with two arms or rulers AB,
FG, one of which, FG, has a flit from a to R, except¬
ing the crofs bar at K, which {Lengthens the inftru-
ment. This arm is fixed to a brafs ruler at R and c
placed behind, and which makes part of the femicircle.
The arm FG is connedled with the ruler behind by nails
which enter the flit and are furnifhed with nuts. The
other aim has alio a flit or opening from x to c, where
it is fixed to the frrft by the fcrew nail which paffes
through both. By flackening the fcrews, the two parts
e G and c B may he fhortened at pleafure. The arm
AB being only fixed at c, which is the centre of the
circle, moves round this centre, while the arm GF re¬
mains conftantly fixed in the dire&ion of the diameter
which paflfes through the points o and 1 8o°. The up¬
per part of the arm AB fhould be brought to a thin
edge from z to j\ and the line of this edge fbould pafs
through the centre c ; becaul'e it is by this edge that the
meafure of the angle on the graduated circumference is
indicated.
To difcover the meafure of any angle of a cryftal,
the two arms c B, c G are brought into contaft with the
fides containing the angle, and the degree indicated by
the line z J on the circumference denotes the meafure
of that angle. The inftrument is fo contrived that the
arms may be fhortened for the convenience of applying
it in different cafes. But it might happen that it could
not be applied in cafes where the cryftals are aggregated
or attached to the matrix. This difficulty is obviated
by another contrivance. The femicircle is furnifhed
with a hinge at 90°, by which means it may be dimi-
nifhed at pleafure to a. quadrant, by folding back one
half. There is a {mail bar of fteel, one end of which
is fixed behind the immoveable arm FG, and the other
is attached by a notch and fcrew nail at O. When
this nail is unfcrewcd, the bar c O falls behind the ruler
which fupports FG, and thus one half of the femicircle
folds back, and any angle not exceeding 90° may be
meafured j but when the angle is greater, it muft be re¬
placed.
Fig. 2. is an apparatus by which fmall degrees of
I i a elefliicity
252 M I N E R A
Explan a- declricity may be obferved in minerals. A is a fmall
Opiates 6 brals needle with knobs a b, and moveable on the pivot
i at the middle. ’Fhe mineral whofe electricity is to be
tried, is rubbed on lilk or woollen, and then prefented
to one of the knobs j and by the diftance at which the
knob begins to be attracted, the ftrength. of the eleCtri-
city may be, in fome degree, eftimated. In the fame
way lubftances which become eleCtric by heat, fuch as
the tourmaline, are to be tried 5 the fame apparatus may
be employed. To afcertain in what part of the mi¬
neral the different electricities exift, take a flick of
fealing wax, at the extremity of which a filk thread has
been attached, and having rubbed the wax, bring alter¬
nately the oppofite extremities of the fubflance, for ex¬
ample, each of the fummits of a tourmaline, within a fmall
diltance of the filk thread. If the extremity which is
brought near the thread poffefs negative eleftricity, the
thread will be repelled ; on the contrary, it will be at¬
tracted. Or the experiment may be made in another
way, particularly when the eleCtrical body is fmall, or
its electricity feeble. At B, fig. 2. the tourmaline t /'
is held by a pair of pincers in fuch a way that the pole
/ is at a fmall diftance from the knob a of the needle.
C c is the flick of wax, one of whofe extremities is placed
on a tube of glafs U it, and which aCts by its extremity C,
on the knob a, to excite in it pofitive eleCtricity. In
this cafe the wrax, after the extremity which has been
rubbed is placed in the pofition defcribed, communi¬
cates to the knob of the needle to which it is prefented,
an eleClricity contrary to its own j fo that the extre¬
mity of the tourmaline a&ed on by pofitive eleClri¬
city, repels the needle to which it is prefented, and the
other extremity, poffefling negative eleClrieity, attrafts
the needle.
Fig. 3. is a fpirit of wine blow-pipe, nearly on the
plan of that invented by Mr Paul. It is made of brafs,
and confifts of the following parts.
Is a hollow oval frame about five inches in its
longeft dimenfion, w'hich fupports the pillar d and the
two lamps b c, which may burn either oil or alcohol,
but the latter is the beft. The rim e e flips upon the
pillar d as low as the Ihoulder of the latter will permit,
but the rim may be raifed at pleafure and kept faft by
the ferew peg f. The rim fupports the boiler g which
is a Angle hollow piece of thick brafs containing
about an ounce of alcohol, and has four openings, viz.
three at top <£, z, k, and one at bottom to receive the
tube This latter is long enough to reach the level
of the outfide or the top of the boiler, and confequent-
ly the alcohol within the boiler cannot readily boil
over into the tube, and the opening k which corref-
ponds with it, is clofely fliut by a ferew ftopper, hol-
low’cd out a little beneath, to allow the free paffage of
the vapour down the tube. Here the vaporized alcohol
is prevented from condenfing at the point 0 by the con¬
tiguity of the flame of the lamp b, and as it paffes on
through the hollowinto the jet tube r, it is imme¬
diately kindled by the flame of, the lamp c, and the
united flames are compelled fideways with fuch vio¬
lence as to form a long pencil of blue flame, attended
v,ith a confideraole roaring node. This continues as
long as any alcohol is left in the boiler, which allows
ample time for moft blowpipe operations. The boiler
is filled at the opening h. The centre hole i is nicely
L O G Y.
Part I.
fitted wdth a fmall brafs plug kept down by a thin flip Explana-
of iron /, the other end of which flips over the top of don ot the
the upright pillar d, and is confined between two flat Ia^es' .
fcrew-plates m n. The ufe of this is as a fafety valve
to take away all danger of the boiler burfting by the
confined vapour not being able to efcape fail enough
through the jet-pipe r, for when the internal preffure is
great, the elaflicity of the iron fpring / allows the valve
z to rife fufficiently to let out part of the enclofed va¬
pour. The ferew Hoppers h and k are made ftill tight¬
er by collars of leather, as is the part where the tube 0
joins the boiler. The jet-pipe r has a complete rota¬
tory motion, fo that the flame may be impelled in any
diredlion. This is effefled by turning in the form of a
ball that pait of the pipe which is inclofed in the hol¬
low p q.
But this blow-pipe, although an elegant philofophi-
cal apparatus, will not be found to anfwer where a great
degree of heat is required to be kept up for a confider-
able time. Other contrivances, therefore, of a Ampler
nature, have been propofed : and perhaps the beft of
thefe is the blow-pipe which is ufed by the mouth.
The following is a defeription of a blow-pipe of this
kind.
Fig. 4. reprefents this blow-pipe. « is a brafs tube,
having a circular enlargement c, for the purpofe of con¬
denfing the moifture which is blown from the lungs ;
the fmaller end d is moveable round the centre c, fo that
any degree of obliquity may be given to the flame.
Fig. 5. is a feparate jet-pipe with a fmall opening,
which is ferewed on the blow-pipe at d; and it may be
convenient to have two or three jet-pipes of different
fizes, according as a larger and more moderate, or a
fmaller and more intenfe flame is wanted, b h a piece
of ivory which flips on the larger end, for the purpofe
of being applied to the mouth, as being more aoree-
able. &
I he beft kind of flame for blowing through with the
common blow-pipe is a wax or tallow candle with a
very large wick, which ftiould be kept fnuffed mode¬
rately low, and the wick turned a little afide from the
pipe. A fpirit lamp is fometimes ufed, which makes a
perfedlly clear flame without fmoke, but weak when
ufed in this way. There is a kind of knack in blowing
with the mouth, which is not eafily defcribed, and re¬
quires a little pradlice to be performed with eafe. As
the flame muft often be kept for feveral minutes, the aft
of relpiration muft be carried on through the noftrils
without interruption, and the ftrefs of blowing muft be
performed merely by compreflion of the cheeks upon the
air in the mouth.
The fubftance to be heated is placed either on a piece
of charcoal or a metallic fupport. When the former
is ufed, a large clofe well-burnt piece of charcoal muft
be chofen, a fmall fhallow nole fcooped out with a knife,
and the fubftance laid upen it. The charcoal itfelf
kindles all round the hole, and the hole is thus gradual¬
ly enlarged ; and the heat too is kept up round the fub¬
ftance much more uniformly than when a metal fupport
is ufed. At the fame time however the chemical effeft
produced by heated charcoal fhould not be forgotten
particularly the reduftion of metallic oxides, and the
deoxygenation of the fixed acids; fo that, for example,
a fmall heap of minium or litharge heated red-hot on
charcoal
Fart I.
MINER
Explana¬
tion of the
Plates
* Aikin's
Diet- of
Chemiiiry,
&c. Ap-
pendix.
f mch.
'your. xv.
284.
charcoal hy the blow-pipe, is fpeedily teduced to a glo¬
bule of metallic lead j the phofphates are partially re¬
duced to phofphurets, &c.
Fur a metallic fujiport, platina is in general by far
the bed material. A fmall fpoon of this metal, the
fliank of which may be duck in a cork when held, and
a fmall filver cup, the lhank of which is fixed into a
wooden handle, may be ufed in fulions with borax or
alkaline fluxes. A fmall forceps lately brought into ufe,
and made entirely of two thin pieces of platina joined
by rivets, and bent, will be ufeful in holding any fmall
hard fubdance in the blow-pipe flame for any length of
time, without danger of the points of the forceps melt¬
ing ; and it is alfo found that this metal is fo much worfe
a condudor of heat than any other, that the forceps
never gets too hot for the naked fingers to touch at the
bend *.
Fig. 6. reprefents a portable pocket blow-pipe, in¬
vented by Dr Wollafton, and of its adlual fize. The
interior tube is longer than the exterior, that it may be
readily withdrawn 5 and the upper edge of the large
end is turned outward, to diminifh the effort of the lips
requifite for retaining it in the mouth.
Fig. 7. reprefents the whole apparatus, one half of
its real dimeniions, and connedfed for ufe. The fmall
extremity a is placed obliquely at an angle of about
120°, that the flame impelled by it may be carried to a
more convenient diftance from the eye, and thus an-
fwering the purpofe of a longer blow-pipe. This oblique
piece a is compofed of three parts, the largefl: of which
is made ftronger, that it may not be injured by ufe.
One end is clofed, and into the other is inferted a fmall
peg of wood, perforated fo as to receive the tip which
is intended to be occafionally feparated, for the pur¬
pofe of pafiing a fine needle into it, to remove obftruc-
tions f.
Plates CCCLII. and CCCLIII.
Fig. 1. Diamond,— fpheroidal, with 48 convex faces.
Fig. 2. Zircon,—the primitive form an octahedron
with ifofceles triangles.
Fig. 3. Zz'/rofl,—-reCtangular four-fided prifm termi¬
nated by a four-fided pyramid fet on the lateral faces.
Fig. 4. Hyacinth,—a dodecahedron formed from a
reCtangular four-fided prifm terminated by a four-fided
pyramid fet on the lateral edges.
Fig. 5. Chrysobery/,— double fix-fided pyramid flat¬
tened, having the fummits truncated.
Fig. 6. Chrysolite,—a comprefled eight-fided prifm,
terminated by an eight-fided pyramid, whofe fides cor-
refpond to thofe of the prifm, and whofe fummit is trun¬
cated by a convex furface.
Fig. 7. Augite,—\k\t primitive form, an oblique
four fided prifm with rhomboidal bafes.
Fig. 8. Common form of augite,—a fliort, eight-fided,
comprefled prifm, terminated by twm oblique faces.
Fig 9. Pijla%ite,—a fix-fided prifm with two broad
and four narrow faces, and bevelled at the extre¬
mities.
Fig. ic. and 11. other forms in which the prifms are
terminated by feveral oblique faces with a truncated
fumiiiit.
Fig. t 2. Vefuvian,—a four-fided prifm wnth the edges
truncated, and terminated by four oblique and one hori¬
zontal face.
A L O G Y.
t J>
P'ig. 13. Garnet,—primitive form, a rhomboidal do¬
decahedron.
Fig. 14. Trapet&oidalgarnet,—compofed of 24 faces,
which are equal and fimilar trapezoids.
Fig. 15. Grenatite,—a fix-fided pvilm with the greater
angles at each bafe truncated.
Fig. 16. Tw'o cryftals of the fame crofling each other
obliquely. Staurotide, obliqueangle, of Haiiy.
Fig. 17. Corundum,—two fix-fided pyramids united
by the bafes, with the fummits and angles truncated.
Fig. 18. A fix-fided prifm, having the alternate angles
at each bafe truncated.
Fig. 19. Topar.,—an eight-fided prifm terminated by
an obtufe four-fided pyramid at one extremity, and by
a different one at the other.
Fig. 20. A fimilar prifm with fix of the terminal
edges truncated.
Fig. 22. Tourmaline,—primitive form, which is am
obtufe rhomboid.
Fig. 23. A nine-fided prifm, terminated at one ex¬
tremity by.a fix-fided fummit, and by a three-fided fum-
Explana-
tion of the
Plates,
mit at the other.
Fig. 24. Same prifm with a three and a feven-fided
fummit at the extremities.
Fig. 25. Axinite or Thumerjlone,—primitive form,
which is a reClangular four-fided prifm, whofe bafes are
oblique-angled parallelograms.
Fig. 26. A fecondary form, fame prifm, having the
alternate lateral and terminal edges truncated.
Fig. 27. Rock-crystal.—A double fix-fided pyramid.
Fig. 28. A fix-fided prifm terminated at each extre¬
mity by a fix-fided pyramid, having the alternate angles
at the oppofite bafes (lightly truncated.
Fig. 29. Feldfpar,—the primitive form, which is an
oblique-angled parallelepiped.
Fig. 30. An oblique four-fided prifm.
Fig. 31. A fix-fided prifm with four of the angles
truncated, and the two extremities bevelled.
Fig. 32. The fame prifm, with four of the terminal
edges truncated.
Fig. 33. An oblique four-fided prifm, bevelled and
truncated at the extremities.
Fig. 34. Chiajlolite,-—the outer rhomboid marked
with black lines parallel to the fides of the black inter¬
nal rhomboid.
Fig. 3 5. Foliated Zeolite, or Stilbite,—comprefled
four-fided prifm, terminated by a four-fided fummit fet
on the lateral edges.
Fig. 36. A fix-fided prifm with two folid angles at
each extremity, truncated.
Fig. 37. Cubic Zeolite or Analcime,—the cube with
all the folid angles truncated.
Fig. 38. Cubic Zeolite or Chabafe,—compofed of
three rhomboids.
Fig. 39. Crofs-flone,—* double cryftal compofed of
two dodecahedrons crofling each other at right angles.
Fig. 40. Hornblende,—primitive form, an oblique
four-fided prifm, whofe bafe is a rhomboid.
Fig. 41. Bafaltic Hornblende,—a fix-fided prifm ter¬
minated at one -extremity by four trapezoidal planes ;
and at the other by a bevelment, the planes of which
are pentagons.
Fig. 42. Tremolite,—an oblique four-fided prifm,
having the acute angles truncated and terminated by a
dihedral fummit.
Fi
254
Explima-
MINERALOGY.
Fig. 43. Calcareous Spar, or Carbonate of Lime,—
tI«ni;;e:he primitive form a rhomboid
Fig. 44. A very obtufe rhomboid*
Fig. 45. An acute rhomboid.
Fig. 46. Approaching to the cube.
Fig. 47. Double fix-fided prifm, known by the name
of dog-tooth /par.
Fig. 48. A fix-fided prifm, terminated at each ex¬
tremity by a trihedral fummit whofe faces are pentagons.
Fig. 49. Alfo a fix-fided prifm with trihedral fum-
mits; but the bafes of the terminal pentagons are en-
Jargedin confequence of the inclination of the lateral faces.
Figs, 50, 51, 52. Other forms of calcareous fpar.
Fig- 53- Sulphate of lime,—primitive form.
Figs. 54. 55. Common forms.
Fig. 56. Sulphate of Barytes,—primitive form.
Figs- 57? 58, 59- Common forms of fulphate of ba¬
rytes.
Fig. 60. Sulphate of Strontites,—-'primitive form.
Fig. 61. Common form.
F'g. 62. Borate of Soda,—primitive form.
Fig. 63. One of the common forms.
Fig. 64. Carbonate of Soda,—primitive form, an a-
cute oclahedron.
Fig- 65. One of the common forms, having two
angles at the bafe truncated.
Part I.
Fig. 66. Nitrate of Votaflo,—primitive form, a reft- Explana-
angular oftahedron. tion of the
Fig. 67, 68. Common forms. ^ . ^atfcS- ^
Fig. 69. Sulphate of Mcgne/ia,—the common form.
Fig. 70, Borateoj Magnejta.
Fig. 71. Sulphur,—primitive form.
Fig. 72. Common form.
Fig. 73. Mercury, Native Amalgam.
Fig. 74. Cinnabar.
Figs. 75,76, 77. Bed Silver Ore.
Figs. 7S, 79, 80, 81, 8 2. Cryfals of Copper Ore.
Figs. 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93.
fall of the Ores of Iron.
Fig. 94. Carbonate of Lead.
Fig. 95. Sulphate of Lead.
Figs. 96, 97. Molybdate of J.ead.
Figs. 98, 99, joo. Crystals of Tin.
Fig. 101. Oxide of Tjinc.
Fig. 102. Sulphuret of Zinc.
Fig. 103. Sulphuret of Antimony
Figs. 104, 105. Crystals of Cobalt.
Fig. xc6. Manganefe.
Fig. 107. Sulphuret of Arfenic.
Fig. 108. Tellurium,— primitive form.
Fig. 109. Common form.
Figs. 110, in, 112,. 113. Crystals of Titanium.
INDEX.
dlcjNTICONE, See Pif azite.
ARynolite,
Adamantine fpar,
Adhtfive flate,
Adularia,
Agaric mineral,
Agate, varieties of,
formation of,
Ai'im (lone,
Alumina, native,
Aluminous fchiftus,
Amber,
Amethyst,
Amianthus,
Analcime. See Cubizite,
Andalu!ite>
Anhydrite,
Antimony, ores of,
Apatite,
Arragonite,
ArR ionite,
Arendalite. See Tifaxite,
Argillaceous genus,
Arfenic, ores of,
AJheflus,
Afparagus fone,
Augite,
Axe-fone,
Axinite,
A%urite,
B.
HgryteS) carbonate of,
Barytes, fulphate of,
p. 161 Barytic genus,
196 Bafalt,
157 Beryl,
183 Rijmuth, ores of,
178 Bitter fpar,
197 Bituminous marl (late,
167 Black lead. See Graphite.
168 Black fchorl,
184 Blende,
181 Bole,
184 Bnlognian fpar,
Boracite,
162 Borax,
J95 Brown fpar,
176 €.
178 Calamine,
Calcareous genus,
fpar,
fin ter,
201 tufa,
180 Calcedony,
161 Capillary fait,
181 Camelian,
246 Cads eye,
194 . Celefine,
203 Cerite,
153 Cerium, ores of,
193 Chabafe. See CubiAte,
161 Chalk, ’
177 Chiafolite. See Hollow fpar,
Chlorite,
2© 6 Chr it mate ef iron,
205
H2> 243
203
p. 206 Chromium, ores of,
lb. C -ysob try l,
188 t rysolite,
159 Chrysoprafe,
240 Cimolite,
202 Cmnabar. See Mercury,
203 Clay, common,
216 pipe,
160 potters,
241 variegated,
J91 flaty,
208 indurated,
212 flate,
ib. Chnk-fone. See Phonolite,
201 Coal,
Cobalt, ores of,
241 Columbium, ores of,
J97 Combufibles, clafs of,
199 Copper, ores of
200 mines of
201 Corundum,
167 Crofsfone,
209 Cryolite,
167 Cube fpar,
173 CubiAte,
208 Cyanite,
251 D.
ib. Datholite,
178 Diamond,
198 mines of,
180 method of valuing,
p, 187 Diamonds, celebrated,
237 mpn
250
15I
IJ2
172
I9I
220—221
182
ib.
ib.
x8fc
z8a
ib.
285
189
216
243> 244
250
212
225—230
230—231
*51
176
212
206
176
*95
206
148
149
*5«
ib.
177
Dolomite^
.1
Index.
Dolomite^
Drawing date,
Dmerald,
Emery,
JLpfom fait,
Euc/afey
F.
Feldspar,
common,
compact,
Figure done,
Flint,
Flints, formation of,
theories of,
gun, nianufa£lure of,
Flinty date,
Float done,
Fluor,
fpar,
Foam earth,
Fullers earth,
Gadeiinite, appendix,
Garnet,
precious,
common,
Bohemian,
black,
Glauber fait, native,
Gold, ores of,
mines of,
Graphite,
Green earth,
Grenatite,
Gun dints, manufa&ure of,
Gypfum,
H.
Hcematites. See Iron ores,
Heavy fpar,
Heliotrope,
Hollow fpar,
Hornftone,
Horn/lone,
fplintery,
conchoidal.
Hyacinth,
Hyalite,
Hy dr argillite,
I.
Egyptian,
driped,
porcelain,
common,
agate,
opal,
Jchth/ophthalmite,
Iridium, ore of- See Tlatina.
Iron, ores of,
p. 202
185
’59
T57
210
158
178
179
ib.
192
166
166
ib.
ib.
16 C
184
204
ib.
201
192
251
134
ib.
J53
tb.
I54
210
217
-220
216
190
166
204
233> 234
206
172
180
188
164
ib.
165
I51
169
118
171
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
172
ib.
l8l
217
231
219-
M I N E R A L O
Lava,
Lazulite,
Lead, ores of,
Lepidolite,
Leucite,
Lime/lone,
Lithomarga,
Loam,
Lydian done,
M.
Magne/ia, native,
Magnejian genus,
Magnetic iron ores,
Malachite ore otcopper,
Manganefe, ores of,
Marbles, varieties of,
Marl,
Meionite,
Melanite,
Mellite,
Menachanite,
Menilite,
Mercury, ores of,
Mefotype. See Fibrous Zeolite,
Mica,
Mineral oil. See Fetroleum,
pitch,
Mineralogy, hidory of,
Minerals, cladification of,
external characters of,
table of,
Mountain butter,
cork,
foap,
Muriate of copper,.
237-
G Y.
p. 189
177
-239
i85
154
198
190
182
l65
24S>
N.
Native vitriol,
alum,
Glauber fait,
nitre
Natrolite,
Nephrite,
Nickel, ores of,
Nigrine,
o.
Objidian,
Olivine,
Oolite,
Opal,
mines of,
common,
wood,
Orpiment,
Oftnium. See Platina,
Labradore done,
Laumonite,
L.
*79
*77
Palladium.
Pearl-fione,
Peajlone,
Petroleum,
Paonolite,
Phofphorite,
Finite,
Pifolite,
Pi/laaiite,
Puch-Jlone,
P.
See Platina,
191
ib.
232
228
246
199
202
l8l
*54
214
248
170
220—221
*73
j86
213
ib.
129—132
132
133
i45—M7
209
194
190
228
209
ib.
210
ib.
*77
*93
244* 243
248
*73
*32
198
169
ib.
170
ib.
247
2x7
217
174
200
213
189
203
186
200
l6l
*73
Plafma,
Platina, ore of,
Plumbago. See Graphite,
Polijhing date,
Porcelain-earth,
Pot-Jlone,
Prafe,
Prehnite,
Pumice,
Pyrites, copper,
iron,
Pyrope,
Pyrophyfalite,
^ &
Quartz,
common,
rofy red,
Ferruginous,
*33
172
217
216
*83
182
186
164
174
ib.
5,26
231
*35
J58
162
163
ib.
163
R.
Rhodium. See Platina, 217
Rhomb fpar, 202
Rock crydal, 162
fait, 210
S.
Sahlile, 197
Sal ammoniac, 2X1
Salts, clafs of, 209
Sapphire, 156
Scapolite, 180
Schiller-Jlone i 193
Schorl, 160
Schorlite, ib.
Schorlous beryl, ib.
Sea-froth, 191
Selenite, 205
Semi-opal, 170
Serpentine, 193
Siliceous genus, ' 151
Siliceous fchidus, 165
Silver ores, 2 22—225
Sinter, calcareous, ' 200
Slaty fpar, 201
Smaragdite, 197
Soda, „ 211
Sommite, 181.
Specular iron ore, 232-
Spine lie, 156
Spodumene, 180
Steatites, 192
Strontian genus, 208
Strontites, carbonate of, ib.
fulphate of, ib.
Stilbite. See Foliated Zeolite, 175
Sulphur, 2X2
Swine-Jlone, 202
T.
Talc, I94i-
Tantahum, ores of, 2 50
Tellurium, ores of, 249
Thumer-Jlone. See Axinile, 161
Tin, ores of, 239, 240
Titanium, ores of, 248
Ttpu%, 158
Tourmaline, 1 6q
Tremolke,,
256
1'retnohle,
Tripoli,
Tungjlen, ores of,
U.
Umber,
Uranium, ores of,
V.
Vefuvian,
w.
Wacken,
p. 196
183
247
190
249
I53
189
MINERALOGY.
Waveliite. See Hydr argillite,
Wernerite. See ArBi%ite,
Whet Hate,
Witherite,
Wolfram,
Wood opal,
Wood llone,
Y.
Yellow earth,
Yttrian genus, appendix,
p. 178
180 Tjeolite,
185 mealy,
206 fibrous,
247 radiat-d,
170 foliated,
165 Z/w, ores of,
"Zircon,
190 Zoyzite,
2il
z.
Index-
p. 175
ib.
ib»
ib,
ib.
241
11S
461
M I N
Minerva MINERVA, or Pallas, in Pagan worlhip, the
II goddefs of faiences and of wifdom, fprung completely
^ ,in^. t ia. armecj from Jupiter’s brain •, and on the day of her
nativity it rained gold at Rhodes. She difputed with
Neptune the honour of giving a name to the city of
Athens 5 when they agreed that whofoever of them
fhould produce what was moft ufeful to mankind,
Ihould have that advantage. Neptune, with a ftroke
of his trident, formed a h'orfe ; and Minerva caufed ^n
olive to fpring from the ground, which was judged to
be molt ufeful, from its being the fymbol of j)eace.
Minerva changed Arachne into a fpider, for pretending
to excel her in making tapeftry. She fought the
giants j favoured Cadmus, Ulyffes, and other heroes 5
and refufed to marry Vulcan, choofing rather to live
in a ftate of celibacy. She alfo deprived Tirefias of
fight, turned Medufa’s locks into fnakes, and per¬
formed feveral other exploits.
Minerva is ufually reprefented by the poets, paint¬
ers, and fculptors, completely armed, with a couipofed
but agreeable countenance, bearing a golden brealtplate,
a fpear in her right hand, and her aegis or fhield in the
left, on which is reprefented Medufa’s head encircled
with fnakes, and her helmet was ufually entwined with
olives.
Minerva had feveral temples both in Greece and
Italy. The ufual victim offered her was a white hei¬
fer, never yoked. The animals facred to her were the
cock, the owl, and the bafililk.
M/nf.r vjr Cajlrum, Arx Minervee, Minervium, or
Templum Minerva’, in Ancient Geography, a citadel,
temple, and town on the Ionian fea, beyond Hydrus;
feen a great way out at fea. Now Caftro, a town of
Otranto in Naples. E. Long. 19. 25. N. Eat. 46. 8.
Minervjb Promontorinm, in Ancient Geography, the
feat of the Sirens, a promontory in the Sinus Paeitanus,
the fouth boundary of Campania on the Tufcan coaft ;
fo called from a temple of Minerva on it 5 fituated to
the fouth of Surrentum, and therefore called Surrentium.
Now Capo della Minerva, on the weft ’coaft of Naples,
over againft the ifland Capri.
MINERS ALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals
1 celebrated in honour of Minerva, in the month of
March 5 at which time the fcholars had a vacation, and
ufually made a prefent to their mailers, called from this
feftival Minerva/.
MINGRELIA, anciently Colchis, a part of
Weftern Georgia, in Afia 5 bounded on the eaft by
Iberia, or Georgia properly fo called 5 on the weft, bv
M I N
the Euxine fea; on the fouth, by Afmenia, and part Mingrelia.
of Pontus j and on the north, by Mount Caucafus. —;v——>
Colchis, or Mingrelia, is watered by a great many
rivers j as the Corax, the Hippus, the Cyaneus, the
Chariftus, the Phafis, where the Argonauts landed, the
Abiarus, the Ciffa, and the Ophis, all emptying them-
felyes into the Euxine fea. The Phafis does not
fpring from the mountains in Armenia, near the fources
of the Euphrates, the Afiaxes, and the Tigris, as Stra¬
bo, Pliny, Ptolemy, Dioriyfius, and after them Arrian,
Reland, Calmet, and Sanfon, have falfely aflerted ; but
rifes in Mount Caucafus; and flows not from fouth to
north, but from north to fouth, as appears from the
map of Colchis or Mingrelia in Thevenot’s colle&ion,
and the account which Sir John Chardin gives of that
country. This river forms in its courfe a fmall ifland
called alfo Phajis: whence the pheafants, if Ifidorus
is to be credited, were firft brought to Europe, and
thence called by the Greeks Phajiani. The other ri¬
vers of Colchis are confiderable.
The whole kingdom of Colchis was in ancient times
very pleafant and fruitful, as it is ftill where duly cul¬
tivated • abounded in all neceffaries of life ; and
was enriched with many mines of gold, which gave
occafion to the fable of the Golden Fleece and the Ar-
gonautic expedition, fo much celebrated by the ancients.
Sir Jonn Chardin tells us, that this country extends
above 100 miles in length and 60 in breadth j being
not near fo extenfive as the ancient Colchis, which
reached from the frontiers of Iberia or Georgia Pro¬
per, weftward to the Palus Maeotis: that it is beau¬
tifully diverfified with hills, mountains, valleys, woods,
and plains, but badly cultivated : that there are all
the kinds of fruits which are found in England, grow¬
ing wild, but taftelefs and infipid for want of cul¬
ture : that, if the natives underftood the art of ma¬
king wines, thofe of this country would be the fineft
in the world : that there are many rivers which have
their fource in Mount Caucafus, particularly the Pha¬
fis, now called the Rione: that the country abounds
in beeves, hogs, wild boars, flags, and other venifon j
and in partridges, pheafants, and quails : that falcons,
eagles, pelicans, lions, leopards, tygers," wolves, and
jackals, breed on Mount Caucafus, and fometimes
greatly annoy the country : that the people are general¬
ly handlome, the men ftfong and well made, and the
women very beautiful ; hut both fexes very vicious and
debauched : that they marry their nieces, aunts, or
other relations, indifferently j and take two or three
wives
MIN [2
Mingreha. w;Ves if they pleafe, and as many concubines as they
y- will : that they not only make a common practice of
felling their children, but even murder them, or bury
them alive, vvhen they find it difficult to bring them
up : that the common people ufe a fort of pafte, made
of a plant called ,§w«, inflead of bread 5 but that of the
better fort confifls of wheat, barley, or rice : that the
gentry have an abfolute power over their vaffals, which
extends to life, liberty, and eftate : that their arms are
the bow and arrow, the lance, the fabre or broad-
fword, and the buckler: that they are very nafly, and
eat fitting crofs-legged upon a carpet, like the Perfiansj
but the poorer fort upon a mat or bench, in the fame
pofture : that the country is very thin of inhabitants,
no lefs than 1 2,000 being fuppofed to be fold yearly to
the Turks and Perfians: that the principal commodities
exported from it are, honey, wax, hides, caftor, martens
fkms, flax feed, thread, filk, and linen cloth j but that
there are no gold or filver mines now, and very little
money : that the revenue of the prince or viceroy
amounts to about 20,000 crowns per annum : that the
inhabitants call themfelves Chrijlians; but that both
they and their priefts are altogether illiterate, and igno¬
rant of the doftrines and precepts of Chriftianity: that
7 ] MIN
their bifhops are rich, have a great number of vaflals,
and are clothed in fcarlet and velvet: and that their
fervice is according to the rites of the Greek church,
with a mixture of Judaifm and Paganifm.
T. he cities of moft note in this country in ancient
times were Pityus ; Diofcurias, or Diofcorias, which
was fo called from Caftor and Pollux, two of the Ar¬
gonauts, by whom it is fuppofed to have been found¬
ed, and who in Greek are ftyled Diofcuroi, at prefent
known by the name of Savatapoh ; Aea on the Phaus,
fuppofed to be the fame as Hupolis; Phafts, fo called
from the river on which it flood ; Cyta, at the mouth
of the river Cyaneus, the birth place of the famous
Medea, called from thence, by the poets, Cytceis; Sa-
racae, Zadris, Sarinm, Madia, and Zoliffa. As for
modern cities, it does not appear that there are any
here confiderable enough to merit a defcription j or,
if there are, they feem to be little, if it all, known to
Europeans.
MINHO, a great river in Spain, which taking its
rife in Galicia, divides that province from Portugal,
and falls into the Atlantic at Caminha.
MINIATURE, in a general fenfe, fignifies repre-
fentation in a fmall compafs, or lefs than the reality.
Mink*,
Miniature.
MINIATURE PAINTING;
A DELICATE kind of painting, confifting of
little points or dots ; ufually done on vellum, ivo¬
ry, or paper, with very thin, Ample, water colours.—
The word comes from the Latin minium, “ red lead j”
that being a colour much ufed in this kind of painting.
The French frequently call it tnignature,' from mignon,
“ fine, pretty,” on account of its fmallnefs and deli¬
cacy : and it may be ultimately derived from tux-ros
« fmall.”
Miniature is diftinguifhed from other kinds of paint-
ing by the fmallnefs and delicacy of its figures and
faintnefs of the colouring ; on wdiich account it re¬
quires to be viewed very near.
Sect. I. Of Drawing and Defgning.
To fucceed in this art, a man fliould be perfe&ly
fkilled in the art of defigning or drawing : but as moft
people who aftefl the one, know little or nothing of
the other, and would have the pleafure- of painting
without giving themfelves the trouble of learning to
defign (which is indeed an art that is not acqpired
without a great deal of time, and continual applica-
t on), inventions have been found out to fupply the
place of it 5 by means of which a man defigns or draws
without knowing how to defign.
The firft is chalking : that is, if you have a mind to
do a print or defign in miniature, the backfide of it,
on another paper, muft be blackened with fmall coal,
and then rubbed very hard with the finger w-rapped in
a linen cloth : afterwards the cloth muft be lightly
drawn over the fide fo blackened that no black grains
may remain upon it to foil the vellum you would paint
upon ; and the print or draught muft be faftened upon
the vellum with four pins, to keep it from Shifting.
V-OL. XIV. Part I. *
And if it be another paper that is blackened, it muft
be put between the vellum and the print, or draught,
with the blackened fide upon the vellum. Then, with
a blunted pin or needle, you muft pafs over the princi¬
pal lines or ftrokes of the print, or draught, the con¬
tours, the plaits of the drapery, and over every thing
eife that muft be diftinguiftied ; prefling fo hard, that
the flrokes may be fairly marked upon the vellum un¬
derneath.
Copying by fquares is another convenient method
for fuch as arc but little Ikilled in the art of defigning,
and would copy pidlures, or other things, that cannot
be chalked. The method is this; The piece muft be
divided into many equal parts by little fquares, mark¬
ed out with charcoal, if the piece be clear and whitifli,
and the black can be fairly feen upon it; or with white
chalk, if it be too brown and dulky. After which, as
many fquares of equal dimenfions muft be made on
white paper, upon which the piece muft be defigned 5
becaufe, if this be done immediately upon vellum, (as
one is apt to mifearry in the firft attempt), the vellum
may be foiled with falfe touches. But vvhen it is neatly
done upon paper, it muft be chalked upon the vellum
in the manner before deferibed. When the original and
the paper are thus ordered, obferve what is in each
fquare of the piece to be defigned ; as a head, an arm,
a hand, and fo forth j and place it in the correfpond-
ing part of the paper. And thus finding where to
place all the parts of the piece, you have nothing to
do but to form them well, and to join them together.
By this method you may reduce or enlarge a piece to
what compafs you pleafe, making the fquares of your
paper greater or lefs than thofe of the original ; but
they muft always be of an equal number.
To copy a picture, or other thing, in the fame fize
K k and
258 MINIATURE
Drawing and propCLtion, another method is, to make ufe of
ran<^ varnkhed paper, or of the fkin of a hog’s bladder, very
■ tranfparent, fuch as is to be had at the gold-beaters.
Talc or ilinglafs will likewife do as well. Lay any one
of thofe thing* upon your piece ; through it you will
fee all the ftrokes and touches, which are to be drawn
upon it with a crayon or pencil. Then take it off;
and fattening it under paper or vellum, fet up both
againft the light in the manner of a window j and with
a crayon, or a filver needle, mark out upon the paper
or vellum you have put uppermoft, all the lines and
touches you fhall fee drawn upon the varnifhed paper,
bladder, talc, or ifinglafs, you have made ufe of, and
which will plainly appear through this window.
After this manner, making ufe of the window, or of
glafs expofed to the light, you may copy all forts oi
prints, defigns, and other pieces on paper or vellurn :
laying and faftening them under the paper or vellum
upon which you tvould draw them. And it is a very
good and a very eafy contrivance for doing pieces of
the fame fize and proportion.
If you have a mind to make pieces look another
way, there is nothing to be done but to turn them ;
laying the printed or drawn fide upon the glafs, and
fattening the paper or vellum upon the back of it 5 re¬
membering to let your lights fall on the left fide.
A good method likewife to take a true copy of a
picture in oil, is to give a touch of the pencil upon all
the principal ftrokes, with lake tempered with oil 5 and
to clap upon the wrhole a paper of the fame fize : then
palling the hand over it, the touches of the lake will
flick and leave the defign of your piece expreffed upon
the paper, which may be chalked like other things,
But you muft remember to take oft’ with the crumb of
bread what remains of the lake upon the pilfture be¬
fore it be dry.
You muft likewife make ufe of pounce, made of
powdered charcoal put in a linen rag ; wnth wdrich the
piece you would copy muft be rubbed, after you have
pricked all the principal ftrokes or touches, and faften-
ed white paper or vellum underneath.
When the piece is marked out upon the vellum
you muft pafs with a pencil of very clear carmine over
all the traces, that they may not be effaced as you
work : then clean your vellum with the crumb of bread,
that no black may remain upon it.
The vellum muft be pafted upon a plate of brafs or
wood, of the fize you would make your piece, to keep it
firm and tight. But this palling muft: be on the edges
of your vellum only, and behind the plate, for wffich
purpofe your vellum muft exceed your plate above an
inch on every fide j for the part you paint upon muft
never be pafted ; becaufe it would not only give it an
ill look, but you could not take it off if you would.
Cut off the little (hags and locks of the vellum ; and
svetting the fair fide with a linen cloth dipped in wrater,
clap the other upon the plate with a clean paper be¬
tween them : fo much as hangs over muft be pafted
upon the back of the plate, drawing it equally on all
fides, and hard enough to ftretch it well.
Sect. II. Of Materials.
The chief colours made ufe of for painting in minia¬
ture are,
PAINTING. Sea. II.
Carmine. Coiours,
Venice and Florence lake. , &,c' j
Rofe pink.
Vermilion.
Red lead.
Brown red.
Red orpiment.
Ultramarine.
Verditer.
Indigo.
Gall ftone.
Yellow ochre.
Dutch pink.
Gamboge.
Naples yellow’.
Pale mafticot.
Deep yellow mafticot.
Ivory black.
Lamp black.
True Indian ink.
Biftre, or wood foot.
Raw umber.
Burnt umber.
Sap green.
Verdigris.
Flake white.
Crayons of all colours.
Gold and filver (hells.
Leaf gold and leaf filver.
The feven tranfparent colours, which are ufed where
writing is feen through the colour.
' Lake.
Blue.
Y ellow.
Liquid ^ Grafs-green.
Dark-green.
Purple colour.
Brown.
Mod of thefe colours neceffary for miniature paint¬
ing may eafily be prepared by attending to the direc¬
tions given under the article CoLot/R-Making.
As colours taken from earth and other heavy mat¬
ter are always too coarfe be they never fo well ground,
efpecially for delicate work, becaufe of a certain fand
remaining in them j the fineft parts may be drawn out
by diluting them with the finger in a cup of water.
When they are well fteeped, let them fettle a while :
then pour out the cleareft, which will be at top, into
another veffel. This will be the fineft, and muft be
let dry; and when it is ufed, muft be diluted with gum
water.
If you mix a little of the gall of an ox, a carp, or
an eel, particularly of the laft, in green, black, gray,
yellow, and brown, colours, it will not only take a-
way their greafy nature, but alfo give them a luftre
and brightnefs they have not of themfelves. The gall
of eels muft be taken cut when they are (kinned, and
hung upon a nail to dry ; and when you would ufe it,
it muft be diluted with brandy 3 add a little of it mix¬
ed with the colour you have diluted already. This
likewife makes the colour (lick better to the vellum,
which it hardly dees when it is greafy : moreover, this
gall hinders it freni fealing.
Some
Sea. I
Colours,
MINIATURE PAINTING,
Some colours are made clearer by fire ; as yellow
ochre, brown red, ultramarine, and umber : all others
are darkened by it. But if you heat the laid colours
with a fharp fire, they change ; for the brown red be¬
comes yellow ; yellow ochre becomes red ; umber red¬
dens alfo. Cerufs by fire takes the colour of citron,
and is often called majlicot. Obferve, that yellow ochre
heated, becomes more tender than it was, and fofter
than brown red. Likewife brown red heated becomes
fofter than fine yellow ochre* Both are very proper.
The finefl and truelt ultramarine, heated upon a red-
hot iron, becomes more glittering 5 but it wafles, and
is coarfer and harder to work with in miniature.
All thefe colours are diluted in little cups of ivory,
made on purpofe, or in fea (hells, with water in which
gum arable and fugarcandy are put. For inftance,
in a glafs of water put a piece of gum as big as a wal¬
nut, and half that quantity of fugarcandy. This laft
hinders the colours from fealing when they are laid on,
which they generally do when they want it, or the
vellum is greafy.
This gum water mull; be kept in a neat bottle cork¬
ed •, and you never mull: take any out of it with a pen¬
cil that has colour upon it, but with a quill or fome
luch thing.
Some of this water is put in the (hell with the co¬
lour you would temper, and diluted with the finger
till it be very fine. If it be too hard, you mull let it
foften in the (hell with the faid water before you di¬
lute it. Afterwards let it dry ; and do thus with every
colour, except lily-green, fap-green, and gamboge,
which mull: be tempered with fair water only. But ul¬
tramarine, lake, and biftre, are to be more gummed
than other colours.
If you make ufe of fea {hells, you muft let them
fxeep two or three days beforehand in water: then
cleanfe them in boiling hot water, mixed with vinegar,
in order to carry off a certain fait, which otherwile
flicks to them, and fpoils the colours that are put to
them.
To know whether colours are fufficiently gummed,
you have nothing to do but to give a flroke of the pen¬
cil upon your hand when they are diluted, which dri'es
immediately : if they chap and fcale, there is too much
gum \ if they rub out by palling the finger over them,
there is too little. It may be feen likewife when the
colours are laid on the vellum, by paffmg the finger
over them. If they (tick to it like a powder, it is a
fign there is not gum enough, and more mull be put
to the water with which you temper them : but take
care you do not put too much ; for that makes the co¬
lour extremely hard and dry. It may be known like-
wife by their glueinefs and brigbtnefs : fo the more
they are gummed, the darker they paint ; and when
you have a mind to give a greater llrength to a colour
than it has of itfelf, you have nothing to do but to
^give it a great deal of gum.
Provide yourfelf with an ivory pallet, very fmooth,
as big as your hand ; on one fide of which the colours
for the carnation, or naked parts of a pifture, are to
be ranged in the following manner. In the middle put
a great deal of white, pretty largely fpread ; becaufe
it is the colour molt made ufe of: and upon the edge,
rrom the left to the right, place the following colours at
a little diifance from the white.
Mallicot.
Dutch pink.
Orpiment.
Yellow ochre.
Green ; compofed of verditer, Dutch pink, and
white, in equal quantities.
Blue *, made of ultramarine, indigo, and white,
to a great degree of palenefs.
Vermilion.
Carmine.
Biftre, and
Black.
On the other fide of the pallet, fpread fome white
in the fame manner as for the carnation. And when
you have a mind to paint draperies, or other tilings,
place near the white the colour you would make than
of, in order to work, as (hall be fhown hereafter.
The ufe of good pencils is a great matter. In or¬
der to make a good choice, wet them a little ; and if
the hairs keep clofe together as you turn them upon
the finger, and make but one point, they are good :
but if they clofe not together, but make feveral points,
and fome are longer than others, they are good for
nothing. When they are too fharp pointed, with only
four or five hairs longer than the reft, yet clofing all
together, they are, notwithftanding, good; but they'
muft be blunted with a pair of feiffars, taking care at
the fame time you do not clip away too much. It is
proper to have two or three forts of them ; the largeft
for laying the grounds and dead colouring, and the
fmalleft for finilhing.
To bring the hairs of your pencil to join clofe to¬
gether and make a good point, you muft often put the
pencil juft between your lips when you are at work j
moiftening and prefling it clofe with the tongue, even
when there is colour upon it; for if there be too much,
fome of it is taken off by this means, and enough left
for giving fine and equal touches. You need not ap¬
prehend this will do you any harm. None of the co¬
lours for miniature, except orpiment, when they are
prepared, have either ill tafte or ill quality. This ex¬
pedient muft efpecially be ufed for dotting, and for fi-
nifhing, particularly the naked parts of a pifture, that
the touches may be neat and fair, and not too much
charged with colour. As for draperies and other
things, as well in dead colouring as in finifhing, it is
fufficient, in order to make the hairs of your pencil
join well, and to unload it when it has too much co¬
lour, to draw it upon the edge of the ftiell, or upon
the paper you muft put upon your work to reft your
hand on, giving fome ftrokes upon it before you work
upon your piece.
To work well in miniature, you muft do it in a
room that has but one window, and fix yourfelf very
near it, with a table and delk almoft as high as the'
window ; placing yourfelf in fuch a manner, that the
light may always come in on l*e left fide, and never
forward or on the right.
When you would lay a colour on all parts equally
ftrong, as for a ground, you muft make your mixtures
in Ihells, and put in enough for the thing you defign
to paint for if there be not enough, it is a great chance
but the colour you mix afterwards is too dark or too
iight.
K k a
Sect.
26o MINIATURE
Of
Wo^ing-, Sect. III. Of Working.
Afier having fpoke of vellum, pencils, and colours,
let us now fhow how they are to be employed. In the
hrft place, then, when you would paint a piece, be it
carnation, drapery, or any thing elfe, you mult begin
by dead-colouring j that is to fay, by laying your co¬
lours on with liberal ftrokes of the pencil, in the
imootheft manner you can, as the painters do in oil ;
not giving it all the force it is to have for a finilhing j
that is, make the lights a little brighter, and the (trades
lefs dark, than they ought to be j becaufe in dotting
upon them, as you muit do after dead-colouring, the
colour is always fortilied, and would at laft be too
dark.
There are feveral wrays of dotting ; and every painter
has his owm. Some make their dots perfedtly round y
others make them a little longifh ; others hatch by
little ftrokes that crofs each other every way, till the
work appears as if it had been wrought wuth dots.
This laft method is the beft, the boldeft, and the foon-
eft done : wherefore fuch as would paint in miniature
ought to ufe it, and to inure themfelves from the firft
to dot in the plump and the foft way j that is to fay,
where the dots are loft, in a manner, in the ground
upon which you work, and only fo much appears as is
lufficlent to make the work feem dotted. The hard
and the dry w’ay is quite the reverfe, and always to be
avoided. This is done by dotting with a colour much
darker than your ground, and when the pencil is not
moiftened enough with the colour, which makes the
work feem rough and uneven.
Study likewife carefully to lofe and drowm your co¬
lours one in another, fo that it may not appear where
they disjoin j and to this end, foften or allay your
touches rvith colours that partake of both, in fuch fort
that it may not appear to be your touches which cut
and disjoin them. By the word cut, wre are to under-
ftand what manifeftly feparates and divides, and does
not run in and blend itfelf with the neighbouring co¬
lours } which is rarely praftifed but upon the borders
of drapery.
When your pieces are finifhed, to heighten them a
little, give them a fine air ; that is to fay, give, upon
the extremity of the lights, fmall touches with a co¬
lour yet lighter, which muft be loft and drowned wdth
the reft.
When the colours are dry upon your pallet or in
your ftielh, in order to ufe them, they muft be diluted
with water. And when you perceive they want gum,
which is feen when they eafily rub off the hand or the
vellum if you give a touch with them upon either, they
muft be tempered with gum water inftead of pure wa¬
ter, till they are in condition.
There are feveral forts of grounds for pidftures and
portraitures. Some are wholly dark, compofed of
biftre, umbre, and G >logn earth, with a little black
and white ; others more yellow, in which is mixed a
great deal of ochre •, others grayer, which partake of
indigo. In order to paint a ground, make a wafti of
the colour or mixture you would have it, or according
to that of the p’nfture or portraiture you vzould copy ;
that is to fay, a very light lay, in which there is hardly
any thyig but water, in order to foak the vellum,.
PAINTING. Sea. III.
Then pafs another lay over that, fomewhat thicker, and ^ Of
ftrike it on very fmoothly with large ftrokes as quick ^ Q'Ring. ^
as you can, not touching twice in the fame place be¬
fore it be dry •, becaufe the fecond ftroke carries off
what has been laid on at the firft, efpeciallv when you
lean a little too light upon the pencil.
Other dark grounds are likewife made of a colour a »*
little greenifti ^ and thofe are moft in ule, and the pro-
pereft to lay under all forts of figures and portraitures j
becaufe they make the carnation, or naked parts of a
pidfture, appear very fine •, are laid on very eaiily, and
there is no occafion to dot them, as one is often obli¬
ged to do the others, which are rarely made fmooth
and even at the firft 5 whereas in thefe one leidom fails
of fuccefs at the firft bout. To make them, you muft
mix black, Dutch pink, and white, all together : more
or lefs of each colour, according as you would have
them darker or lighter. You are to make one lay very
light, and then a thicker, as of the firft grounds. You
may alfo make them of other colours, if you pleafe j
but thefe are the moft common.
When you paint a holy perfon upon one of thefe
grounds, and would paint a fmall glory round the
head of your figure, you muft not lay the colour too
thick in that part, or you may even lay none at all,
efpecially where this glory is to be very bright; but
lay for the firft time with white and a little ochre
mixed together, of a fufficient thicknefs ) and in pro¬
portion as you go from the place of the head, put a
little more ochre 5 and to make it lofe itfelf, and die
away with the colour of the ground, hatch with a free
ftroke of the pencil, following the round of the glory
fometimes with the colour of which it is made, and
fometimes with that of the ground, mixing a little
white or ochre with the laft when it paints too dark
to work with : and do this till one be infenfibly loft in •
another, and nothing can be feen to disjoin them.
To fill an entire ground with a glory, the brighteft
part is laid on with a little ochre and white, adding
more of the firft in proportion as you come nearer the
edges of the picture: and when the ochre is not ftrong
enough (for you muft always paint darker and darker),
add gall ftone, afterwards a little carmine, and laftly
biftre. This firft laying, or dead colouring, is to be
made as foft as poftible ; that is to fay, let thefe (ha-
dowings lofe themfelves in one another without gap or
interfedion. Then the way is to dot upon them with
the fame colours, in order to drown the whole toge¬
ther ^ which is pretty tedious, and a little difficult,
eipecially when there are clouds of glory on the
ground. Their lights muft be fortified in proportion
as you remove from the figure, and finiilied as the
reft, by dotting and rounding the clouds ; the bright
and obfcure parts of which muft run infenfibly into one
another.
For a day Iky, take ultramarine and a good deal of
white, and mix them together. With this make a lay,
as (mooth as you can, with a large pencil and libexal
ftrokes, as for grounds } applying it paler and paler
as you defcend towards the horizon j which mull be
done with vermilion or red lead, and with white of
the fame ftrength with that where the fky ends, or
fometbing lefs ; making this blue lofe itfelf in the red,
which you bring down to the Ikivts of the earth, or
tops of houfes 5 mixing towards the end gall ftone and
3;
Sea. IV. MINIATURE PAINTING. 26f
Of a good deal of white, in fuch a manner that [the mix-
Working. ture paier than the former, without any vifible
’rr” ^ interfedlion or parting between all thefe colours of the
Iky.
W! ren there are clouds in the Iky, you may fpare
the places where they are to be ; that is to fay, you
need not lay on any blue there, but form them, if they
are reddifh, with vermilion gall flone, and white, with
a little indigo j and if they are more upon the black,
put in a good deal of the lafl ; painting the lights
of one and the other with mafticot, vermilion, and
white, more or lefs of any of thefe colours, according
to the flrength you would give them, or according to
that of the original you copy j rounding the whole as
you dot) for it is a difficult matter to lay them very
irnooth at the firft painting : and if the Iky is not
even enough, you muft dot it alfo.
It is at your pleafure to exempt the places of the
clouds, for you may lay them upon the ground of the
fky heightening the bright parts by putting a good
deal of white, and fortifying the fliadows by uling lefs.
This is the ffiorteft way.
A night or ftormy Iky, is done with indigo, black,
and white, mixed together j which is laid as for a
day Iky. To this mixture muft be added ochre, vermi¬
lion, or brown red, for the clouds; the lights of which
are to be of mafticot or red lead, and a little white,
now redder, now yellower, at difcretion. And when
it is a tempeftuous Iky, and lightning appears in
fome places, be it blue or red, it is to be done as in
a day Iky, drowning and loling the whole together
at the firft forming or dead colouring, and at the
finiftiing.
Sect. IV. Of Draperies.
To paint a blue drapery, put ultramarine near the
white upon your pallet j and mix a part of the one
with th$ other, till it makes a fine pale, and has a body.
With this mixture you muft form the brighteft parts ;
and then adding more ultramarine, form fuch as are
darker *, and go on after this manner till you come to
the deepeft plaits and the thickeft lhades, where you
muft lay pure ultramarine : and all this muft be done
as for a firft forming or dead colouring ; that is to fay,,
laying the colour on with free ftrokes of the pencil,
yet as fmooth as you can ; lofing the lights in the flia¬
dows with a colour neither fo pale as the light nor
fo dark as the fliades. Then dot with the fame colour
as in the firft forming, but a fmall matter deeper ;
that the dots may be fairly feen. All the parts muft
be drowmed one in another, and the plaits appear with¬
out interfeftion. When the ultramarine is not dark
enough to make the deeper fliadows, how well foever
it be gummed, mix a little indigo with it to finifli
them. And when the extremities of the lights are not
bright enough, heighten them with white and a very
little ultramarine.
A drapery of carmine is done in the fame manner
as the blue ; except that in the darkeft places there
is to be a lay of pure vermilion, before you dead
colour with carmine, which muft be applied at top j
and in the ftrongeft fliades, it muft be gummed very
much. To deepen it the more, mix a little biftre with
it.
There is likewife made another red drapery, which Of
is firft drawn with vermilion, mixing white with it DraPenes-
to dead colour the bright places, laying it pure and
unmixed for thofe that are darker, and adding car¬
mine for the grand ftiades. It is finiftied afterwards,
like other draperies, with the fame colours. And when
the carmine with the vermilion do not darken enough,
work with the firft alone, but only in the deepeft ot the
ftiades. t
A drapery of lake is made in the fame manner with
that of carmine ; mixing a good deal of white with it
for the bright places, and very little for thofe that are
dark. It is finiflied likewife with dotting 5 but you
have nothing to do with vermilion in it.
Violet draperies are likewife done after this manner j
after making a mixture of carmine and ultramarine,
putting always white for the bright parts. If you
would have your violet be columbine or dove colour,
there muft be more carmine than ultramarine : but if
you would have it bluer and deeper, put more ultra-
marine than carmine.
A drapery is made of a flefti colour, beginning
with a lay made of white, vermilion, and very pale
lake j and making the ftiades with the fame colours,
uling lefs wffiite in them. This drapery muft be very
pale and tender, becaufe the fluff of this colour is-
thin and light $ and even the ftiades of it ought not to
be deep.
To make a yellow drapery, put a lay of mafticot
over all j then one of gamboge upon that, excepting
the brighteft places, where the mafticot muft be left
entire ) the dead colour with- ochre, mixed with a
little gamboge and mafticot, putting more or lefs of
the laft according to the ftrength of the ftiades. And
when, thefe colours do not darken enough, add gall
ftone. And gall ftone pure and unmixed is uled for
the thickeft fliades ; mixing a little biftre with it, if
there be occafion to make them ftill darker. You
finifli by dotting with the fame colours you dead-
coloured with, and lofing the lights and the ftiades in
one another.
If you put Naples yellow, or Dutch pink, in lieu
of mafticot and gamboge, you will make another fort
of yellow.
The green drapery is made by a general lay of ver*
diter ; with which, if you find it too blue, mix mafti¬
cot for the lights, and gamboge for the fliades. After¬
wards add to this mixture lily-green or fap-green, to
ftiadow7 with ; and as the ftiades are thicker, put more of
thefe laft greens, and even work with them pure and
unmixed v/here they are to be extremely dark. You
finifti with the fame colours, a little darker.
By putting more yellow7, or more blue, in thefe co¬
lours, you may make different forts of green as you
pleafe.
To make a black drapery, you dead colour with
black and white, and finilh with the fame colour, put¬
ting more black as the lhades are thicker; and for
the darkeft, mix indigo with it, efpecially when you
would have the drapery appear like velvet. You may
always give fome touches with a brighter colour, to
heighten the lights of any drapery whatfoever.
A white woollen drapery is made by a lay of whitej,
in which there muft be a very fmall matter of ochre,,,
orpimentj or gall ftone, that it may look a little yel*
lewilL.
262
MINIATURE PAINTING.
Sefl. IV
Of low!Hi. Tlien dead-colour, and finifh the diades with
,Dr.ipenes. [)]ue) a little black, white, and bihre j putting a great
” deal of the laft in the darkefl.
The light gray is begun with black and white, and
finiihed with the fame colour deeper.
For a brown drapery, make a lay of bifire, white,
and a little brown red ; and ihadow with this mixture,
made a little darker.
There are other draperies, called variable, becaufe
the lights are of a different colour from the fhades.
Thefe are moftly ufed for the veilments of angels, for
young and gay people, for fcarfs and other airy attire,
admitting of a great many folds, and flowing at the
pleafure of the wind. The moft common are the
violets : of which they make two forts j one, where
the lights are blue j and the other, where they are
yellow.
For the firfl, put a lay of ultramarine and very pale
white upon the lights j and fhadow with carmine, ul¬
tramarine, and white, as for a drapery wholly violet; fo
that only the grand lights appear blue. Yet they muff
be dotted with violet, in which there is a great deal of
white, and loft infenfibly in the fhades.
The other is done by putting upon the lights only,
inftead of blue, a lay of mafticot 5 working the reft
as in the drapery all violet, excepting that it muft
be dotted, and the light parts blended with the fha-
dowy, that is, the yellow with the violet, with a little
gamboge.
The carmine red is done like the laft ; that is, let
the lights be done with mafticot, and the fhades with
carmine; and to lofe the one in the other, make ufe
of gamboge.
The lake red is done like that of carmine.
The green is done as the lake : always mixing ver-
diter with lily or fap green, to make the fhades ; which
are not very dark.
Several other forts of draperies may be made at dif-
cretion, always taking care to preferve the union of
the colours, not only in one fort of cloth or fo, but
alfo in a group of feveral figures; avoiding, as much
as the fubjedf will allow, the putting of blue near the
colour of fire, of green againft black j and fo of other
colours which cut and disjoin, and whofe union is not
kind enough..
Several other draperies are made of foul colours, as
brown red, biftre, indigo, &c. and all in the fame
manner. Likewife of other colours, fimple and com¬
pound ; the agreement between w’hich is always to be
minded, that the mixture may produce nothing harfh
and difagreeable to the eye. No certain rule can be
laid down for this. The force and effedl of your co¬
lours are only to be known from ufe and experience,
and you mult work according to that knowledge.
Linen cloths are done thus : After drawing the
plaits or folds, as is done in a drapery, put a lay
of white over all; then dead colour, and finifh the
fhades with a mixture of ultramarine, black, and
white, uung more or lefs of the laft, according to
their ftrength or tendernefs •, and in the greateft
deepenings put biftre, mixed with a little white;
giving only fome touches of this mixture, and even
of pure biftre, upon the extremities of the greateft
Shadows, where the folds muft; be drawn, and loft with
the reft,
2
They may be done in another manner, by making Of
a general lay of this mixture of ultramarine, black, G*apene'.
and very pale white ; and dead colour (as has been faid v
before^) with the fame colour, but a little deeper. And
when the (hades are dotted and finifhed, heighten the
lights with pure white, and lofe them with the deep¬
enings of the linen. But of whatever fort you make
them, when they are finiihed, you muft give a yellovvilh
teint of orpiment and white to certain plases; laying it
lightly on, and as it were in water j fo that what is
underneath may, notwithftanding, plainly appear, as
well the fhadows as the dotting.
Yellow linen cloth is done by putting a lay of white,
mixed with a little ochre. Then form and finifh the
(hades' with biftre, mixbd with white and ochre •, and
in the thickeft fhades ufe pure biftre ; and before you
finhh, give fome teints here and there of ochre and
white, and others of white and ultramarine, as well
upon the fhades as the lights j but let them be very
bnght: and drown the whole together in dotting, and
it will look fiaely. As you finifh, heighten the extre¬
mities of the lights with mafticot and white. You may
add to this fort of linen, as well as to the white, cer¬
tain bars from fpace to fpace, as in Turkey mantuas;
that is, fmall ftripes blue and red with ultramarine and
carmine 5 one of red between two of blue, very bright
and clear upon the lights, and deeper upon the fhades.
Virgins are pretty often dreffed with veils of this fort
(by Popifh painters), and fcarfs of this kind are put
about necks that are bare j becaufe they become the
teint mighty well.
If you would have both thefe forts of linen tranfpa-
rent, and the fluff or other thing that is beneath ap¬
pear through them, make the firft lay for them very
light and clear, and mix in the colour to fhadow with,
a little of that rvhich is underneath, efpecially towards
the end of the fhades j and only do the extremities of
the lights, for the yellow, with mafticot and white ;
and for the white, with pure white.
They may be done in another manner, efpecially
when you would have them altogether as clear as muf-
lin, lawn, or gauze. To this end form and finifh what
is to be beneath, as if nothing was to be put over it.
Then mark out the light and clear folds with white or
mafticot ; and a fhadowy with biftre and white, or with
black, blue, and white, according to the colour you
would make them of j making the reft fomewhat faint¬
er : yet this is not neceffary but for the parts that are
not to be fo clear.
Crape is done the fame way j excepting that the
folds of the fhades and the lights, and the borders too,
are to be marked out with little filaments of black up¬
on what is underneath j which is likewife to be finifhed
beforehand.
When you ivould make a fluff like a watered
tabby, make the waves upon it -with a colour a lit¬
tle lighter, or a little darker, in the lights and the
fhades.
There is a manner of touching draperies which di-
ftinguifhes the filken from the woollen. The laft are
more terreftrial and fenfible ; the others more light
and fading. But it muft be obferved, that this is an
effefl which depends partly upon the fluff and partly
upon the colour 5 and for the employing thefe in a
manner fuitable to the fubje&s and the deepenings of
painting,
Sea, TV.
M X N I A T U It
Of painting, we fliall here touch upon their different qua-
lities.
v~~~"J We have no colour which partakes more of light,
nor which comes nearer the air, than white; which
fhows it to be fickle and fleeting. It may, neverthelefs,
be held and brought to by lome neighbouring co¬
lour, more heavy and fenlible, or by mixing them to¬
gether.
Blue is a mod fleeting colour : and fo we fee, that
the Iky and the remoteft views of a piilure are of this
colour j but it will become lighter and fickler in pro¬
portion as it is mixed with white.
Pure black is the heavieft and moil terreflrial of all
colours *, and the more of it you mix with others, the
nearer you bring them to the eye.
Neverthelefs, the different difpofitions of black and
white make; alfo their effe£!s different : for white often
makes black difappear, and black brings white more
into view 5 as in the refleftion of globes, or other fi¬
gures to be made round, wdrere there are always parts
that fly as it wTere from the eye, and deceive it by the
craft of art : and under the white are here comprehend¬
ed all the light colours j as under the black, all the
heavy colours.
Ultramarine is then foft and light.
Ochre is not fo much fo.
Maflicot is very light j and fo is verditer.
Vermilion and carmine come near this quality.
Orpiment and gamboge not fo near.
Lake holds a certain mean, rather foft than rough.
Dutch pink is an indifferent colour, eafily taking
the quality of others. So it is made terreftrial by
mixing it with colours that are fo ; and, on the con¬
trary, the moft light and fleeting by joining it with
white or blue.
Brown red, umber, dark greens, and biftre, are the
heavieft and moft terreftrial, next to black.
Skilful painters, who underftand perfpe&ive, and
the harmony of colours, always obferve to place the
dark and fenftble colours on the fore parts of their
piftures ; and the moft light and fleeting they ufe for
the diftances and remote views. And as for the union
of colours, the different mixtures that may be made of
them will learn, you the friendfhip oi antipathy they
have to one another. And upon this you muft take
your meafures for placing them wttct fuch agreement
as fhall pleafe the eye.
For the doing of lace, French points, or other things
of that nature, put over all a lay of blue, black, and
white, as for linen : then heighten the tlowerwork with
pure white : afterwards make the (hades above with the
fi.rft colour, and finifti them with the fame. When they
are upon the carnation or naked parts of a pidlure, or
upon any thing elfe that you would fhow through an¬
other, finifti what is beneath, as if nothing was to be
put over it : and at top, make the points or lace with
pure white, fhadowing and finifhing them with the other
mixture.
If you would paint a fur, you muft begin with a kind
of drapery, done, if it be dark, with biftre and white,
making the ftiadowings of the fame colour, with lefs
white. If the fur be white, do it with blue, white,
and a little biftre. And when this beginning, or firft
forming, is done, inftead of dotting, draw fmall ftrokes,
turning, now in one manner, now in another, accord-
205'
E PAINTING.
ing to tne coarfe and ftatting of the hair. Heighten Of
the lights ot dark furs with ochre and white, and of the Carnations,
other with white and a little blue. ——y—j
For doing a building, if it be of ftone, take indigo,
biftre, and white, with which make the beginning or
firft form of it : and for thadowing it, put lefs of this
laft j and more biftre than indigo, according to the co¬
lour of the ftone you would paint. To thefe you may
likevvile add a little ochre, both for the forming and
the finifhing. But to make it finer, you muft give,
here and there, efpecially for old fabrics, blue and
yellow teints, fome with ochre, others with ultramarine,
mixing always white with them, whether before the firit
forming, provided they appear through the draught, or
whether upon it, lofing or drowning them with the reft
when you finilh.
When the building is of wood, as there are many
forts, it is done at difcretion 5 but the moft ordinary
way is to begin or firft form with ochre, biftre, and
white, and finilh without white, or with very little j
and if the ftiades- are deep, with pure biftre. In the
other they add fometimes vermilion, fometimes green
or black j in a word, juft according to the colour thev
would give it; and they finifli with dotting, as in dra¬
peries and every thing elfe.
Sect. V. Of Carnations, or the naked parts of a
Painting.
There are in carnation fo many different colour¬
ings, that it would be a difficult thing to give general
rules upon fo variable a fubjeft. Nor are they mind¬
ed, when one has got, by cultom and praftice, lome
habit of working eaiily : and fuch as are arrived ta
this degree, employ themfelves in copying their ori¬
ginals, or elfe they work upon their ideas, without
knowing how : infomuch, that the moft fkilful, who
do it with lefs reflexion and pains than others, would
likewife be more put to it to give an account of their
maxims and knowledge in the matter of painting, if
they were tb he afked what colours they made ufe of
for fuch and fuch a colouring, a teint here, and another
there.
Neverthelefs, as beginners wxmt fome inftruiftion at
the firft, wTe wflll ftiew in general after what manner fe-
veral carnations are to be done.
In the firft place, After having drawn your figure
with carmine, and ordered your piece, apply for wm-
men and children, and generally for all tender colour¬
ings, a lay of white, mixed with a verv little of the
blue made for faces, of which we have told the compo-
fition $ but let it hardly be feen.
And for men, inftead of blue, they put in this firfl
lay a little vermilion j and when they are old, a little
ochre is mixed wdth it.
Afterwards follow all the traces with vermilion,
carmine, and white, mixed together; and begin all
the fhades with this mixture, adding white in propor¬
tion as they are weaker 5 and putting but little in the
darkeft, and none, in a manner, in certain places
where ftrong touches are to be given : for inftance, in
the corner of the eye ; under the nofe •, at the ears 5
under the chin ; in the reparations of the fingers j in
all joints j at the corners of the nails j and generally
in every part where you-would mark out reparations
in
264 MINIATURE
Of In fiiades that are obfcure. Neither need you fear to
Carnations. gjve to thofe places all the force and ftrength they
^ ought to have as foon as you begin or firft form them,
becaufe in working at top with green, the red you have
put there is always weakened.
After having begun, or firll formed, or dead-colour¬
ed, with red, make blue teints with ultramarine and a
great deal of white, upon the parts which fly from the
eye •, that is to fay, upon the temples j under and in
the corners of the eyes j on both fides the mouth, above
and below j a little upon the middle of the forehead $
between the nofe and the eyes 5 on the fide of the
cheeks j on the neck and other places where the flefti
affumes a bluifli call. Yellow'ifh teints are likewife
made wdth ochre or orpiment, and a little vermilion
mixed with whi?c, under the eyebrows, on the fides of
the nofe towards the bottom, a little underneath the
cheeks, and upon the other parts which rife and come
nearer the eye. It is efpecially from thefe teints that
the natural complexion is to be obferved, in order to
catch it 5 for painting being an imitation of nature,
the perfection of the art confifts in the juftnefs and fim-
• plicity of the reprefentation, efpecially in face paint-
ing.
When, therefore, you have done your firft lay, your
dead-colouring, and your teints, you muft work upon
the ftiades, dotting with green for the carnations or
naked parts, mixing, according to the rule we have
given for the teints, a little blue for the parts which
fly from the eye j and, on the other hand, making it
a little yellower for thofe that are more fenfible that
is to fay, which rife, and come nearer the eye; and
at the end of the (hades, on the fide of the light, you
muft blend and lofe your colour infenfibly in the
ground of the carnation with blue, and then with red,
according to the places where you paint. If this mix¬
ture of green does not work dark enough at firft, pafs
over the (hades feveral times, now with red, and now
with green 5 always dotting: and this do till they are
as they (hould be.
And if you cannot with thefe colours give the (hades
all the force they ought to have, finifti, in the darkeft,
with biftre mixed with orpiment, ochre, or vermilion,
and fometimes with pure biftre, according to the co¬
louring you would make, but lightly, laying on your
colour very clear.
You muft dot upon the clear and bright places with
a little vermilion or carmine, mixed with much white,
and a very fmall matter of ochre, in order to lofe them
with the (hadowy, and to make the teints die away in¬
fenfibly into one another 5 taking care, as you dot, or
hatch, to make your ftrokes follow the turnings and
windings of the fleftiy parts. For theugh the rule be
to crofs always, this dotting or hatching ought to ap¬
pear a little more here, becaufe it rounds the parts.
And as this mixture might make a colouring too red,
if it was always to be ufed, they work likewife in
every part, to blend the teints and the (hades with
blue and a little green, and much white, fo mixed as
to be very pale 5 excepting, neverthelefs, that this
colour muft not be put upon the cheeks, nor upon the
extremities of the clear parts, no more than the other
mixture upon the.ie laft, which, muft be left with all
their light ; as certain places of the chh, of the nofe,
and of the forehead, and . pon the cheeks j which, and
.4
PAINTING.
Sea. V.
the cheeks, ought neverthelefs to be redder than the Of
reft, as well as the feet, the hollows of the hands, and Carnatlon5'<
the fingers of both.
Obferve, that thefe two laft mixtures ought to be fo
pale, that the work (hall hardly be vifible ; for they
fervc only to foften it •, to unite the teints with one
another, and the (hades with the lights, and to drown
the traces. Care muft likewife be taken that you work
not too much with the red mixture upon the blue
teints, nor with the blue upon the others ; but
change the colour from time to time, when you per¬
ceive it works too blue or too red, till the work be fi-
niftied.
The white of the eyes muft be (hadowTed with this
fame blue, and a little flefti colour j and the corners, on
the fide of the nofe, with vermilion and white ; giving
them a little touch of carmine. The whole is foftened
with this mixture of vermilion, carmine, white, and a
very fmall matter of ochre.
The apples or balls of the eyes are done with the
mixture of ultramarine and white 5 the laft prevailing
a little 5 adding a little biftre, if they are yellowifti 5 or
a little black, if they are gray. Make the little black
circle in the middle, called the crystal of the eye; and
(hadow the balls with indigo, biftre, or black, accord¬
ing to the colour they are of; giving to each a fmall
touch of pure vermilion round the cryftal ; which muft
be loft with the reft at the finiftnng. This gives viva¬
city to the eye.
The round or circumference of the eye is done with
biftre and carmine ; that is to fay, the flits or partings,
and the eyelids, when they are large and bold ; efpe¬
cially the upper ones; which muft afterwards be foft¬
ened with the red or blue mixtures we have mention¬
ed before, to the end they may be loft in one another,
and nothing feem interfered. When this is done, give
a little touch of pure white upon the cryftal, on the
fide of the lights. This makes the eye (hine, and gives
life to it.
The mouth is dead-coloured with vermilion, mixed
with white ; and finifhed with carmine, which is foft¬
ened as the reft. And when the carmine does not work
dark enough, mix a little biftre with it. This is to be
underftood of the corners in the feparation of the lips ;
and particularly, of certain mouths half open.
The hands, and all the other parts of carnation, are
done in the fame manner as the faces; obferving, that
the ends of the fingers be a little redder than the reft.
When your whole work is formed and dotted, mark
the reparations of all the parts with little touches of
carmine and orpiment mixed together, as well in the
(hadowy as the light places ; but a little deeper and
ftronger in the firft, and lofe them in the reft of the car¬
nation.
The eyebrows and the beard are dead-coloured, as
are the ihades of carnations ; and finiflied with biftre,
ochre, or bFck, according to the colour they are of,
drawing them by little ftrokes the way they ought to
go ; that is to fay, give them all the nature of hair.
The lights of them muft be heightened wutb ochre and
biftre, a little vermilion, and much white.
For the hair of the head, make a lay of biftre, ochre,
and white, and a little vermilion. When it is very
dark coloured, u(e black inftead of ochre. Afterwards
form the (hadowy parts with the fame colours, putting
lefs
Sea. VI.
MINIATURE
Of lefs white in them ; and fini(h with pure biftre, or mix-
Carnations. efl with ochre or black, by fmall ftrokes very fine, and
'l-l'r~v clofe to each other, waving and buckling them accord¬
ing to the curling of the hair. The light parts mull;
alfo be heightened by little ftrokes with ochre or or-
piment, white, and a little vermilion. After which, lofe
the lights and the (hades in each other, by working
fometimes with a dark and fometimes with a light co¬
lour.
And for the hair about the forehead, through which
the (kin is feen, it muft be firfl: formed with the co¬
lour thereof, and that of the carnaTion, working and
(hadowing with one and the otTier, as if you defigned
to paint none. Then form it, and finifii wuth biftre.
The lights are to be heightened as the other. Gray
hair is dead-coloured with white, black, and biftre,
and finifhed with the fame colour, but deeper ; height¬
ening the bright and clear parts of the hair, as well as
thofe of the eyebrows and the beard, with white and
very pale blue, after having formed them as the others,
with the colour of the flefti or (kin 5 and finifti with
biftre.
But the mod important thing is to foften one’s
work •, to blend the teints in one another, as well as the
beard and the hair about the forehead, with the other
hair and the carnation *, taking efpecial care not to
work rough and dry •, and that the traces, turnings,
and windings of the carnation or naked parts, be not
interfered. You muft likewife accuftom yourfelf to
put white in your colours only in proportion as you
work lighter or darker ; for the colour you ufe the fe-
cond time muft be always a little ftronger and deeper
fhan the firft, unlefs it be for foftening.
Different colourings are eafily made, by putting
more or lefs of red, or blue, or yellow, or biftre, whe¬
ther for the dead-colouring, or for the finiftring.—
That for women ought to be bluifh ; that for child¬
ren a little red j and both frefh and florid. That
for men ought to be yellower j efpecially when they
are old.
To make a colouring of death, there muft be a firfl:
lay of white and orpiment, or a very pale ochre : dead-
colour with vermilion, and lake, inftead of carmine,
and a good deal of wdiite; and afterwards w'ork over
it with a green mixture, in which there is more blue
than any other colour, to the end the flefti may be li¬
vid and of a purple colour. The tints are done the
fame way as in another colouring ; but there muft be
a great many more blue than yellow ones, efpecially
upon the parts w’hich fly from the fight, and about the
eyes j and the laft are only to be upon the parts which
rife and come nearer the eye. They are made to die
away in one another, according to the ordinary man¬
ner 5 fometimes writh very pale blue, and fometimes
with ochre and white, and a little vermilion *, foft¬
ening the whole together. The parts and con¬
tours muft be rounded with the fame colours. The
mouth is to be, in a manner, of a quite violet. It is
dead-coloured, however, with a little vermilion, ochre,
and white ; but finiftied with lake and blue ; and to
give it the deep ftrokes, they take biftre and lake,
with which they likewife do the fame to the eyes, the
nofe, and the ears. If it be a crucifix, or fome mar¬
tyr, upon vAom blood is to be feen, after the finifli-
Vol. XIV. Part L
PAINTING. 265
ing the carnation, form it with vermilion, and finilh ^
it with carmine, making in the drops of blood a little lj?nu^ap"s;
bright reflecting fpark, to round them. For the
crovvn of thorns, make a lay of fea green and mafticot;
(hadow it with biftre and green $ and heighten the clear
and light parts with mafticot.
Iron is formed, or firft laid, wuth indigo, a little
black and white ; and finiftied with pure indigo,
heightening it with white.
For painting fire and flames, the lights are done with
mafticot and orpiment ; and for the (hades, they mix
vermilion and carmine.
A fmoke is done with black, indigo, and white, and
fometimes with biftre ; one may likewife add vermilion
or ochre, according to the colour it is to be of.
Pearls are painted by putting a lay of w-hite, and a
little blue : they are (hadowed and rounded with the
fame colour, deeper ; a fmall white dot is made almoft
in the middle on the fide of the light ; and on the other
fide, between the (hadow and the edge of the pearl,
they give a touch with mafticot, to make the reflexion ;
and under the pearls is made a little ihadovv of the co¬
lour of the ground they are upon.
Diamonds are made with pure black ; then they
heighten them with little touches of wdiite on the fide
of the light. It is the fame thing for any other jetvels
you have a mind to paint : there is nothing to be done
but to change the colour.
For making a figure of gold, put a lay of (hell-gold,
and (hadow it wuth gallftone. Silver is done the
fame way ; excepting that it muft be (hadow7ed with
indigo.
One great means of acquiring a perfeflion in the art,
is to copy excellent originals. We enjoy with pleafure
and tranquillity the labour and pains of others. But a
man muft copy a great number before he is able to pro¬
duce as fine effefts j and it is better to be a good copier
than a bad author.
Sect. VI. Of Landfcapes.
In the firft place, After having ordered the economy
of your landfcape as of your other pieces, you muft form
the neareft grounds or lands, wdien they are to appear
dark, with fap or lily-green, biftre, and a little verditer,
to give a body to your colour ; then dot with this mix¬
ture, but a little darker, adding fometimes a little black
to it.
For fuch pieces of ground as the light falls upon, and
which are therefore clear and bright, make a lay of
ochre and white, then (hadow and finifti with biftre.
In fome they mix a little green, particularly for (ha¬
dowing and finiftiing.
There are fometimes upon the fore part certain red-
difti lands ; which are dead-coloured with brown-red,
white, and a little green j and finiftied wflth the fame,
putting a little more green in them.
For the making of grafs and leaves upon the fore¬
ground, you muft, when that is finiftied, form with fea-
green, or verditer, and a little white ; and for thofe
that are yellowifti, mix mafticot. Afterwards fliadow
them with lily-green, or biftre and gallftone, if you
would have them appear withered.
The grounds or lands at a little diftance are formed
L1 with
265 ' MINIATURE
with verditer, and fnadowed and fiftiflied with fap-
Landicapes green> adding bid re for feme of the touches here and
there.
* Such as are at a greater diflance, are done with
fea-green and a little blue ; and fhadowed with ver¬
diter.
In a word, the farther they go, the more bluifli they
are to be made j and the fartheft diftance ought to be
of ultramarine and white ; mixing in fome places fmall
touches of vermilion.
Water is painted with indigo and white, and fhadow¬
ed with the fame colour, but deeper; and to finifli it,
inflead of dotting, they do nothing but make ftrokes
and traces without eroding } giving them the fame turn
with the waves, when there are any. Sometimes a lit¬
tle green muft be mixed in certain places, and the light
and clear parts heightened with pure white, particularly
where the wTater foams.
Rocks are dead-coloured like buildings of ftone ;
excepting that a little green is mixed for forming and
fhadowing them. Blue and yellow teints are made up¬
on them, and loft with the reft in finifhing. And
when there are fmall branches, with leaves, mofs, or
grafs, when all is finiftied, they are to be railed at
top with green and mafticot. They may be made yel-
low, green, and reddifh, for appearing dry in the fame
manner as on the ground. Rocks are dotted as the
reft j and the farther they are off the more grayilh they
are made.
Caftles, old houfes, and other buildings of ftone and
wood, are done in the manner above mentioned ; fpeak-
ing of thofe things, when they are upon the firft lines.
But when you would have them appear at a diftance,
you muft mix brown-red and vermilion, with much
white •, and lhadow very tenderly with this mixture 5
and the farther they are off, the weaker are the ftrokes
to be for the reparations. If they are covered with
flate, it is to be made bluer than the reft.
frees are not done till the fky be finiftied •, one may,
neverthelefs, fpare the places of them when they con¬
tain a good number ^ and however it be, fuch as come
near the eye, are to be dead-coloured wuth verditer,
mixing fometimes ochre ; and fhadovved with the fame
colours, adding lily-green. Afterwards you muft work
leaves upon them by dotting without crofting : for
this muft be done with fmall longilh dots, of a darker
colour, and pretty full of it, which muft be conduced
on the fide the branches go, by little tufts of a little
darker colour. Then heighten the lights with verditer
or fea-green, and mafticot, making leaves in the fame
manner ; and when there are dry branches or leaves,
they are dead-coloured with brown-red or gallftone,
with white 5 and finilhed with gallftone, without white,
or with biftre.
The trunks of trees are to be dead-coloured with
ochre, white, and a little green, for the light and
clear parts j and for the dark, they mix black, adding
biftre and green for (hadowing one and the other. 
Blue and yellow tints are likewife made upon them
and little touches given here and there with white and
mafticot ; fuch as you ordinarily fee upon the bark of
trees.
1 he branches which appear among the leaves are
done with ochre, verditer, and white ; or with biftre
PAINTING. Sect. VII.
and white ; according to the light they are placed in. Of
They muft be fhadovved with biftre and lily-green. flowers.
Trees, which are at a little diftance, are dead-co- v
loured with verditer and fea-green 5 and are lhadowed
and finiftied with the fame colours, mixed with lily-
green. When there are fome which appear yellowiih,
lay with ochre and white, and finilh with gallftone.
For fuch as are in the diftances and remote views,
you muft dead-colour with fea-green ; with which, for
finiftiing, you muft mix ultramarine. Heighten the
lights of one and the other with mafticot, by fmall dif-
joined leaves.
It is the moft difficult part of landfcape, in manner
of miniature, to leaf a tree well. To learn, and break
one’s hand to it a little, the way is to copy good ones j
for the manner of touching them is fingular, and can¬
not be acquired but by working upon trees themfelves j
about which you muft obferve to make little boughs,
which muft be leafed, efpecially fuch as are below and
toward the Iky.
And generally, let your landfcapes be coloured in a
handfome manner, and full of nature and truth } for it
is that which gives them all their beauty.
Sect. VII. Of Flowers.
It is an agreeable thing to paint flowers, not only
on account of the fplendour of their different colours,
but alfo by reafon of the little time and pains that are
beftowed in trimming them. There is nothing but de¬
light in it ; and, in a manner, no application. You
maim and bungle a face, if you make one eye higher
than another ; a fmall nofe with a large mouth 3 and fo
of other parts. But the fears of thefe difproportions
conftrain not the mind at all in flower painting 3 for
unlefs they be very remarkable, they fpoil nothing.
For this reafon, moft perfons of quality, who divert
themfelves with painting, keep to flowers. Neverthe¬
lefs, you muft apply yourfelf to copy juftly 3 and for
this part of miniature, as for the reft, we refer you to
nature, for fhe is your beft model. Work, then, after
natural flowers ; and look for the tints and different
colours of them upon your pallet : a little ufe will
make , you find them eafily 3 and to facilitate this to
you at the firft, we (hall, in the continuance of our
defign, Ihow the manner of painting fome 3 for natu¬
ral flowers are not always to be had ; and one is often
obliged to work after prints, where nothing is feen but
graving.
It is a general rule, that flowers are defigned and
laid like other figures 3 but the manner of forming
and finilhing them is different: for they are firft formed'
only by large ftrokes and traces, which you muft turn
at the firft the way the fmall ones are to go, with which
you finifh 3 this turning aiding much thereto. And
for finilhing them, infteacLof hatching or dotting, you
draw fmall ftrokes very fine, and very clofe to one ano¬
ther, without crofting; repafling feveral times, till your
dark and your clear parts have all the force you would
give them.
Of Roses.—After making your firft fketch, draw
with carmine the red rofe, and apply a very pale lay
of carmine and white. Then form the fhades with the
fame colour, putting lefs white in it: and laftly, with
pure
\
Sea. vn. MINIATURE
of pure carmine, but very bright and clear at the firft ;
< Flowers. fortifying it more and more as you proceed in your
^ work, and according to the darknefs of the {hades.
This is done by large ftrokes. Then finiQi •, working
upon it with the fame colour by little ftrokes, which
you muft make go the fame way with tbofe of the
graving, if it be a print you copy •, or the way the
leaves of the rofe turn, if you copy after a painting,
or after nature $ lofing the dark in the clear parts,
and heightening the greateft lights, and the brighteft
or moft lightfome leaves, with white and a little car¬
mine. You muft always make the hearts of rofes, and
the fide of the Ihadow darker than the reft j and mix a
little indigo for ftiadowing the firft leaves, particu¬
larly when the rofes are blown, to make them feem
faded. The feed is dead-caloured with gamboge j
with which a little fap-green is mixed for ftiadowing.
Rofes ftreaked with feveral colours, ought to be paler
than others, that the mixture of colours may be better
feen ; which are done with carmine 3 a little darker in
the (hades, and very clear in the lights; always hatch¬
ing by ftrokes. For white rofes you muft put a lay of
white, and form and finifti them as the red ; but with
black, white, and a little biftre ; and make the feed a
little yellower. Yellow rofes are done by putting in
every part a lay of mafticot, and ftiadowing them with
gamboge, gallftone, and biftre } heightening the clear
and light places with mafticot and white.
The ftiles, the leaves, and the buds of all forts of
rofes are formed with verditer, with which is mixed a
little mafticot and gamboge ; and for ftiadowing them,
they add fap green, putting lefs of the other colours
when the (hades are deep. The outfide of the leaves
ought to be bluer than the infide j wherefore it muft
be dead-coloured with fea green, and fap green mixed
with that for ftiadowing, making the veins or fibres on
this fide clearer than the ground, and thofe on the
other fide darker. The prickles which are upon the
ftiles and budS of rofes, are done with little touches of
carmine, which are made to go every way ; and for
thofe'that are upon the (talks, they are formed with
verditer and carmine, and ftiadowed with carmine and
biftre : making the bottom of the (talks more reddifti
than the top, i. e. you muft mix with the green car¬
mine and pure biftre.
Of Tulips.—As there is an infinity of tulips, dif¬
ferent from one another, one cannot pretend to men¬
tion the colours with which they are all done. We
will only touch upon the handfomeft, ctf&z&flreahed;
and thefe ftreaks are dead-coloured with very clear car¬
mine in fome places, and with darker in others 5 fi-
niftiing with the fame colour by little ftrokes, which
muft be carried the fame way with the ftreaks. And
in others is put firft a lay of vermilion. Then they
form them by mixing carmine, and finifti them with
pure carmine. In fome they put Florence lake over
the vermilion inftead of carmine. Some are done
with lake and carmine mixed together, and with lake
alone, or with white and lake for the firft forming j
whether it be rofepink or Florence lake. There are
fome of a purple colour, which are formed with ultra-
marine, carmine, or lake, fometimes bluer and fome-
times redder. The manner of doing both one and
the other is the fame •, there is no difference but in
the colfursj You muft, in certain places, as between
PAINTING. 2&7
the ftreaks of vermilion, carmine, or lake, fometimes Of
put blue made of ultramarine and white, and fome- Fi0wers- <
times a very bright purple, which is finifhed by ftrokes
as the reft, and loft with the ftreaks. There are fome
likewife that have fallow tints, that are made with
lake, biftre, and ochre, according as they are : but
this is only in fine and rare tulips, and not in the
common ones. For (hadovving the bottom of them,
they ordinarily take indigo and white for fuch whofe
ftreaks are of carmine. For fuch as are of lake, they
take black and white ; with which, in fome, biftre is
mixed, and in others green. Some are likewife to be
ftiadovved with gamboge and umber, and always by
ftrokes and traces, that turn as the leaves turn. Other
tulips are likewife done, called bordered; that is to fay,
the tulip is not ftreaked but on the edges of the leaves,
where there is a border. It is white in the purple ;
red in the yellow ; yellow in the red ; and red in the
white. The purple is laid with ultramarine, carmine,
and white ; ftiadowing and finifhing it with this mix¬
ture. The border is (pared ; that is to fay, let only a
light lay of white be put there, and let it be ftiadovved
with very bright indigo. The yellow is formed with
gamboge, and (hadowed with the fame colour, mixing
ochre and umber or biftre with it. The border is
laid with vermilion, and fiaiftied with a very (mail
matter of carmine. The red is formed with vermi¬
lion, and finiftied with the fame colour, mixing car¬
mine or lake with it. The bottom and the border
are done with gamboge 5 and for finiftiing, they add
gallftone and umber, or biftre. The white is ftia¬
dowed with black, blue, and white. Indian ink is
very proper for this. The (hadowings of it are very
tender. It produces alone the effect of blue and
white, mixed with the other black. The border of
this white tulip is done with carmine. In all thefe
forts of tulips, they leave a nerve or finew in the
middle of the leaves that are brighter than the reft :
and the borders are drowned at the bottom by fmall
traces, turning croffwife j for they muft; not appear
cut and feparated, as the ftreaked or party-coloured.
They make them likewife of feveral other colours.
When they happen to be fuch whofe bottoms on the
infide are black, as it were, they form and finifti them
with indigo, as alfo the feed about the nozzle or ftalk.
And if the bottom is yell*w, it is formed with gamboge,
and finiftied by adding umber or biftre. The leaves and
the ftalks of tulips are ordinarily formed with fea green,
and ftiadowed and finiftied with lily green, by large
traces all along the leaves. Some may likewife be
done with verditer, mixing mafticot with it, and (ha¬
dowed with fap green, that the green of the {hades may
be yellower.
The Anemony, or WindJiower.—There are feveral
forts of them, as well double as fingle. The la ft are
ordinarily wdthout ftreaks. Some are made of a purple
colour, with purple and white, ftiadowing them with
the fame colour; fome redder, others bluer; fome-
times very pale, and fometimes very dark. Others
are formed with lake and white, and finifhed with
the fame, putting lefs white ; fome without any white
at all. Others are formed with vermilion, and (ha-
dowed with the fame colour ; adding carmine. We
fee likewife white ones, and fome of a citron colour.
The laft are laid with mafticot;; and one and the other ,
L 1 2 ftiadofved
MINIATURE PAINTING.
fhadowed and finidied fornetimes with vermilion, and
fometimes with very brown lake, efpecially near the
feed, at the bottom ; which is often likewife of a
blackiih colour, that is done with indigo, or black and
blue, mixing for fome a little biftre ; and always
working by very fine ftrokes and traces, and lofing
the lights in the fhades. There are others that are
brighter and clearer at the bottom than anywhere
elfe; and fometimes they are perfe&ly white there,
though the reft of the flower be dark. The feed of
all thefe anemonies is done with indigo and black, with
a very little white, and (hadowed with indigo ; and
in fome it is raifed with mafticot. The double ane-
rnonies are of feveral colours. The handfomeft have
their large leaves ftreaked. Some are done, that is,
the ftreaked or party coloured, with vermilion, to
which carmine is added for the finithing •, fhadowing
the reft of the leaves with indigo 5 and for the fmall
leaves within, a lay is put of vermilion and white,
and they are (hadowed with vermilion mixed wuth
carmine, mixing here and there fome ftronger touches,
efpecially in the heart of the flower, next the great
leaves on the fide of the fhadow. They finifti with
carmine, by little ftrokes and traces, turning the fame
way with the mixed or party colours, and the leaves.
They form and finifti the ftreaks or party colours of
fome others, as well as the fmall leaves, with pure
carmine •, leaving, neverthelefs, in the middle of the
laft, a little circle, in which is laid dark purple, which
is loft with the reft. And when all is finiihed, they
give fome touches with this fame colour round about
the fmall leaves, efpecially on the fide of the ftiadow,
drowning them with the large ones, the remainder of
which is fhadowed either with indigo or black. In
fome, the fraall leaves are done with lake or purple,
though the party colours of the large ones be done
with carmine. There are others, whofe mixed colours
are done with carmine, in the middle of moft of the
large leaves; putting in fome places vermilion under¬
neath, and lofing thefe colours with the fliadows of
the bottom ; which are done wuth indigo and wdiite.
The fmall leaves are laid with mafticot, and fliadowed
with very dark carmine on the fide of the {hade, and
with very clear on the fide of the light, leaving there
in a manner pure mafticot, and giving only fome little
touches with orpiment and carmine, to feparate the
leaves, which may be {hadowed fometimes with a very
little pale green. There are double anemonies painted
all red, and all purple. The firft are formed wuth ver¬
milion and, carmine, in a manner without white, and
fhadowed with pure carmine, well gummed, that they
may be very dark. Purple anemonies are laid with pur¬
ple, and white, and finifhed with white. In a word,
there are double anemonies as there are Angle ones,
of all colours ; and they are done in the fame manner.
The green of one and the other is verditer ; wuth
wdiich mafticot is mixed for forming. It is fhadowed
and fitufhed with fap green. The ftiles of them are a
little reddifti 5 wherefore they are fhadow7ed with car¬
mine mixed with biftre, and fometimes with green, af¬
ter having laid them with mafticot.
The Carnation and the Pink.—It is with pinks
and carnations as with anemonies and tulips ; that is,
there are fome mixt-coloured, and others of one fingle
colour,. The firft are ftreaked and diverfified fome-
Sect. VII.
times with vermilion and carmine ; fometimes with
pure lake, or with white ; fome ftreaks very dark, and
others very pale 5 fometimes by little ftreaks and di-
verfifications, and fometimes by large ones. Their
bottoms are ordinarily lhadowed with indigo and white.
There are pinks of a very pale fleih colour, and ftreaked
and diverfified wuth another, a little deeper, made with
vermilion and lake. Others, which are of lake and
white, are fhadowed and ftreaked without white. Others
all red, which are done with vermilion and carmine as
dark as poffible. Others all of lake. And, laftly,
there are others, wherein nature or fancy is the rule.
The green of one and the other is fea green, {hadowed
with lily green or fap green.
The Red Lily.—It is laid with red lead, formed
with vermilion, and in the deepeft of the {hades with
carmine ; and finiftied with the fame colour by ftrokes
and traces, turning as the leaves turn. The clear and
light parts are heightened with red lead and wdiite.
The feed is done with vermilion and carmine. The
green parts are done with verditer, fliadowed with lily
or lap green.
I he Day Lily.—There are three forts of them :
1. The gridelin, a little red ;
2. The gridelin, very pale ; and,
3. The white.
For the firft they put a lay of lake and white, and
fhadow and finifh with the fame colour deeper •, mix¬
ing a little black to deaden it, efpeciully in the darkeit
places.
The fecond are laid with w’hite, mixed with a very
little lake and vermilion, in fuch a manner that thefe
two laft colours are hardly feen. Afterwards thev
ftiadow with black and a little lake, working redder
in the middle of the leaves, next the ftalks; wdfich
ought to be, as alfo the feed, of the fame colour, parti¬
cularly towards the top ; and at the bottom a little
greener.
The ftile of the feed is laid with mafticot, and {ha¬
dowed with fap green.
The other day lilies are done by putting a lay of
pure white, and ftiadowing and finifhing with black and
white.
The ftalks of thefe laft, and the greens of them
all, are done writh fea green, and {hadowed with fap
green.
The Hyacinth, or PurpleJiower.—There are four
forts of them :
The blue, a little dark }
Others paler;
The gridelin j
And the white.
The firft are laid with ultramarine and white *, and
{hadowed and finiihed with lefs white. Others are
laid and {hadowed with pale blue. The gridelines
are formed with lake and white, and a very {mall mat¬
ter of ultramarine } and finiihed with the fame colour
a little deeper. For the laft they put a lay of white j
then they fliadow them with black, with a little white;
and finifti them all by ftrokes and traces, following
the turnings and windings of the leaves. The green
and the ftalks of fuch as are blue, are done with fea
and lily green very dark : and in the ftalks of the
firft may be mixed a little carmine, to make them red¬
difti. The ftalks of the two others, as alfo the green,
are
MINIATURE PAINTING.
Seft. VII.
Of are formed ivltl: vercliter and maflicct, and lliadowed
i Flowers, with faj . reen.
'ji.- — Xhe Pion v .—A lay of Venice lake and white muft
be put on all parts, pretty ilrong : then ihadc-v with
lefs white, and with none at all in the darkeii places :
after which nnifli with the fame colour by traces,
turning them as for the rofe 5 gumming it very much
in the deepeft of the fhades 5 and railing the lights and
the edges of the molt lightfome leaves with white and
a little lake. Little veins are likewife made, which
go like the llrokes in hatching, but are more vilible.
The green of tins flower is done with fea green, and
fhadowed with fap green.
Cowslips.—They are of four or five colours.
There are fome of a very pale purple.
The gridelin. The white and the yellow.
The purple is done wdth ultramarine, carmine, and
white ; putting lefs white for lhadowing. The gride¬
lin is laid with Venice lake, and a very fmall matter
of ultramarine, with much white ; and fhadorved with
the fame colour deeper. For the wdute a lay of
white mull be put 5 and they muft be fhadowed with
black and white 5 and finilhed, as the others, by tra¬
ces or ftrokes. The heart of thefe cowflips is done
with mafticot in the lhape of a liar, which is Ihadow-
ed with gamboge, making a little circle in the middle
with fap green. The yellow are laid with mafticot,
and fhadowed with gamboge and umber. The ftiles,
the leaves, and the buds, are formed with verditer,
mixed with a little mafticot, and finiflied with fap
green j making the fibres or veins, which appear upon
the leaves, with this fame colour j and heightening the
lights of the largeft with mafticot.
The Ranunculus, or Crow-foot.—There are fe-
veral forts of them : the fineft are the orange-coloured.
For the firft, they put a lay of vermilion, with a very
fmall matter of gamboge 5 and add carmine for Iha-
dowdng \ finilhing it with this laft colour, and a little
gallftone. In the others may be put Venice lake in-
flead of carmine, efpecially in the heart of the flower.
The orange-coloured are laid with gamboge, and fi-
niftied with gallftone, vermilion, and a little carmine ;
leaving fome little yellow' ftreaks. The green of the
ftalks is done with verditer and very pale mafticot $
mixing lily green to lhadow them. That of the leaves
is a little darker.
The Crocus.—Thefe are of two colours:
Yellow and purple. The yellow are formed with
mafticot and gallftone, and fhadowed with gamboge
and gallftone : after which, upon each leaf, on the
outfide, are made three ftreaks, feparate from one
another, with biftre and pure lake •, which are loft,
by little traces, in the bottom. The outfide of the
leaves is left all yellow.—The purple is laid with car¬
mine, mixed with a little ultramarine, and very pale
white. They are formed and finiflied with lefs white j
making likewife, in fome, purple ftripes or ftreaks,
very dark, as in the yellow ; and in others only fmall
veins. The feed of both is yellow7, and is done with
orpiment and gallftone. For the ftiles, they put a
lay of white, and fliadow with black, mixed with a
little green. The green of this flower is formed with
very pale verditer, and fliadowed with fap green.
The Iris.—The Perfian iris is done by putting,
loz the infide leaver a lay of white? and fhadowing
them With indigo and green together, leaving a little
wfliite feparation in the middle of each and for
thofe on the outfide, they put in the fame place a lay
of maflicot, which is fhadow’ed with galiftone and
orpiment ; making little dark and longifh dots over all
the leaf, at a fmall diflance from one another. And
at the end of each are made large ftrains, with biftre
and lake in fome, and in others with pure indigo, but
ver} black. The reft, and the outfide of the leaves,
are ihadowed with black. The green is formed with
fea green, and very pale mafticot, and fhadowTed with
fap green. The Sufian iris is laid with purple and
white, putting a little more carmine than ultramarine $
and for the tirades, efpecially in the middle leaves,
they put lefs white j and, on the contrary, more
ultramarine than carmine 5 making the veins of this
very colour, and leaving in the middle of the infido
leaves a little yellow finew. There are others which
have this very finew in the firft leaves ; the end of
which only is bluer than the reft. Others are ftia-
dowed and finiftied with the fame purple, redder :
They have alfo the middle finew on the outfide leaves ;
but white and fliadowed with indigo. There are like¬
wife yellow ones j which are done by putting a lay of
mafticot and orpiment; lhadowing them with gallftone,
and making the veins upon the leaves with biftre. The
green of one and the other is done with fea green, mix¬
ing a little mafticot for the ftiles. They are ihadowed
with Tap green.
The Jasmine.—It is done with a lay of white, and
fhadowed with black and white 5 and for the outfide
of the leaves, they mix a little biftre y making the half
of each, on this fide, a little reddifti with carmine.
The Tuberose.—For the doing of this, they make
a lay of white, and lhadow with black, with a little
biftre in fome places) and for the outlide of the leaves
they mix a little carmine, to give them a reddi lh temt,
particularly upon the extremities. The feed is done
with mafticot, and lhadow'ed with fap green. The green
of it is laid wdth verditer, and ftiadowed with fap green.
The Hellebore.—The flower of hellebore is done
almoft in the lame manner ; that is, let it be laid with
w'hite, and fliadowed wdth black and biftre, making
the outfide of the leaves a little reddilh here and there.
The feed is laid with dark green, and railed with
mafticot. The green of it is foul and rufty, and is
formed with verditer, mafticot, and biftre; and linilhed
with fap green and biftre.
The White Lily.—It is laid with white, and flia-
dow-ed with black and white. The feed is done with
orpiment and gallftone. And the green is done as in
the tuberofe.
The Snow-drop.—It is formed and finilhed as the
white lily. The feed is laid with mafticot, and Ih^
dowed with gallftone. And the green is done with
fea and fap green.
The Jonquil.—It is laid with mafticot and gall¬
ftone, and finilhed with gamboge and gallftone. The
green is formed with fea green, and Ihadowed with fap
green.
The Daffodil.—All daffodils, the yellow, the
double, and the lingle, are done by putting a lay of
mafticot : they are formed with gamboge, and finiftied
by adding umber and biftre ; excepting the bell in the
middle, which is done with orpimefit and gallftone,
bordered
270
MINIATURE
('i bordered or edged with vermilion and carmine. The
~ ^ . w hite are laid with white, and fhadowed with black
and white 5 excepting the cup or bell, which is done
with mafticot and gamboge. The green is Tea green,
ihadowed with fap green.
ihe Marigold.— It is done by putting a lay of
niallicot, and then one of gamboge ; fhadowing it with
this very colour, after vermilion is mixed with it : and
for nmOiing, they add galltlone and a little carmine.
1 he green is done with verditer, (hadotved wdth fap
green.
Fhe Austrian Rose.-—For making the Auftrian
rofe, they put a lay of *afticot, and another of gam-
boge. I hen they form it, mixing gallftone j and
finilh it with the laft colour, adding biftre and a very
fmaJI matter of carmine in the deepeft fhades. ■
Ihe Indian Pink, or Trench Marigold.—It is done
by putting a lay of gamboge ; fhadowing it with this
colour, after you have mixed a good deal of carmine
and gallftone with it 5 and leaving about the leaves a
little yellow border of gamboge, very clear in the
lights, and darker in the fhades> The feed is fhadow¬
ed with biftre. The green, as w'ell of the rofe as the
pink, is formed with verditer, and finifhed with fap-
green.
The Sun-flower.—It is formed with mafticot and
gamboge, and finifhed wbth gallftone and biftre. The
green is laid with verditer and mafticot, and fhadowed
with fap green.
The Passion-flower.—It is done as the rofe, and
the green of the leaves likewife ; but the veins are done
with a darker green.
Poetical Pinks and S\veet William.—They are
done by putting a lay of lake and white ; fhadowing
them with pure lake, with a little carmine for the laft;
which are afterwards dotted on all parts with little
round dots, feparate from one another; and the threads
in the middle are raifed with white. The green of
them is fea green, which is finifhed with fap green.
Ihe Scabious.—There are two forts of fcabious,
the red and the purple. The leaves of the firft are laid
with Florentine lake, in which there is a little W'hite j
and fhadowed without white *, and for the middle,
which is a great bofs or hulk in which the feed lies, it
is formed and finifhed with pure lake, with a little
ultramarine or indigo to make it darker. Then they
make little white longiih dots over it, at a pretty
diftance from one another, clearer in the light than in
the fliade, making them go every way. The other is
done by putting a lay of very pale purple, as well upon
the leaves as the bofs in the middle j fhadowing both
with the fame colour, a little deeper : and inflead of
little white touches for the feed, they make them pur¬
ple ; and about each grain they make out a little circle,
and this over the whole bofs or hufk in the middle.
The green is formed with verditer and mafticot, and
fhadowed with fap green.
The Sword or Day Uly.—lx. is laid with Florence
lake and very pale white *, formed and finifhed with
pure l«ke, very clear and bright in fome places, and
very dark in others; mixing even biftre in the thickeft
ot the fhades. I he green is verditer, fhadowed with
fap green.
^ Hepatica, or Liverwort.——There is red and blue.
J he laft is clone by putting on all parts a lay of ultra-
3
PAINTING, s Sea. VlT.
marine, wdiite, and a little carmine or lake : fhadovv-
ing the infide of the leaves with the mixture, but
deeper ; excepting thofe of the firft rank ; for Which,
and for the outfide of every one of them, they add indi¬
go and white, that the colour may be paler, and not fo
fine. The red is laid with lake columbine and very
pale wTite ; and finifhed with lefs white. The green is
done with verditer, maflicot, and a little biftre ; and fha¬
dowed with fap green, and a little biftre, efpecially on
the outfide of the leaves.
The Pomegranate.—The flower of the pomegra¬
nate is laid with red lead fhadowed with vermilion
and carmine ; and finifhed with this laft colour. The
green is laid wuth verditer and mafticot, and fhadowed
with fap green.
The flower of the Indian Bean.—It is done with
a lay of Levant lake and white ; fhadowing the middle
leaves with pure lake ; and adding a little ultramarine
for the others. The green is verditer, fhadowed with
fap green.
I he Columbine.—There are columbines of fevpral
colours : the moft common are the purple, the gridelin,
and the red. For the purple, they lay with ultrama¬
rine, carmine, and white •, and fliadcw with this mix'-
ture. deeper. The gridelin are done the fame way,
putting a great deal lefs ultramarine than carmine.
The red are done with lake and white, finifhing with
lefs white. There are fome mixed flowers of this kind,
of feveral colours ; which muft be formed and finifhed
as the others, but paler, making the mixtures of a little
darker colour.
The Lark’s Heel.—Thefe are of different colours,
and of mixed colours : the moft common are the pur¬
ple, the gridelin and the red j w'hich are done as the
columbines.
Violets and Pansies.—Violets and panfies are
done the fame way ; excepting that in the hft the
tw’o middle leaves are bluer than the others, that is,
the borders or edges 5 for the infide of them is yellow' :
and there little back veins are made, which take their
beginning from the heart of the flower, and die away
towards the middle.
The Muscipula, or Catch-fly.—There are two
forts of it, the wftute and the red ; the laft is laid with
lake and white, with a little vermilion, and finifhed
with pure lake. As for the k»ot or nozzle of the
leaves, it is formed with w'hite and a very fmall matter
of vermilion, mixing biftre or gallftone to finifli it.
1 he leaves of the white are laid wdth white ; adding
biflre and maflicot upon the knots which are fhadow¬
ed w’ith pure biftre, and the leaves with black and
white. The green of all thefe flowers is done with
verditer and mafticot, and fhadowed with fap green.
The Crown Imperial,—which is of two colours,
the yellow and the red. The .firft is done by putting
a lay of orpiment, and fhadowing it with gallftonfc and
orpiment with a little vermilion. The other is laid
with orpiment and vermilion, and fhadowed with
gallftone and vermilion ; making the beginning of
the leaves next the ftile, with lake and biftre, very
dark ; and veins with this mixture both in one and
the other, all along the leaves. The green is done with
verditer and mafticot, fhadowed with fap green and
gamboge.
The Cyclamen, or Sowbread.—The red is laid
with
Of
Flowets.
Sea. VII.
MINIATURE PAINTING.
with carmine, a little ultramarine, and much white 5
and finilhed with the fame colour, deeper ; putting, in
a manner, only carmine in the middle of the leaves,
next the heart, and in the reft add a little more ultra-
marine. The other is laid with white, and (liadowed
with black. The flalks of one and the other ought to
be a little reddifh ; and the green, verditer and fap
green.
The Gilliflower.—There are feveral forts of gil-
liflowers •, the white, the yellow, the purple, the red,
and the mixed of various colours. The white are laid
with white, and fhadowed with black, and with a little
indigo in the heart of the leaves. The yellow, with
mafticot, gamboge, and gallftone. The purple are
formed with purple and white •, and finifhed with lefs
white 5 making the colour brighter in the heart; and
even a little yellowiih. The red with lake and white 5
finilhing them with white. The mixed coloured are
laid with white, and the mixtures are fometimes made
with purple, in which there is much ultramarine j
others again, in which there is more carmine. Some¬
times they are of lake, and fometimes of carmine.
Some are done with white, and others without wdiite }
ihadowing the reft of the leaves with indigo. The
feed of all is formed with verditer and mafticot, and
finithed with fap green. The leaves and ftiles are laid
with the fame green, mixing fap green to finidi them.
Fruits, fifhes, ferpents, and all forts of reptiles,
are to be touched in the fame manner as the figures of
men are j that is, hatched or dotted.
Birds and all other animals are done like flowers, by
ftrokes or traces.
Never make ufe, for any of thefe things, of white
lead. It is only proper in oil. It blackens like ink,
when only tempered with gum ; efpecially if- you fet
your work in a moift place, or where perfumes are.
Cerufs of Venice is as fine, and of as pure a white.
Be not fparing in the ufe of this, efpecially in forming
or dead-colouring j and let it enter into all your mix¬
tures, in order to give them a certain body, w'hich will
render your work gluifh, and make It appear foft,
plump, and ftrong.
The tafle of painters is, neverthelefs, different in this
point. Some ufe a little of it, and others none at all.
But the manner of the laft is meagre and dry. Others
ufe a great deal ; and doubtlefs it is the bell method,
and molt followed among fkilful perfons 5 for befides that
it is fpeedy, one may by the ufe of it copy all forts of
pi£lures j which would be almoft impoffiblc othervvife j
notwithftanding the contrary opinion of fome, who
fay, that in miniature we cannot give the force and all
the different teints we fee in pieces in oil. But this is
not true, at leaft of good painters ; and effefts pr®ve
it pretty plainly : for we fee figures, landfcapes, pic¬
tures, and every thing elfe in miniature, touched in as
grand, as true, and as noble a manner (though more
tender and delicate), as they are in oil.
However, painting in oil has its advantages •, were
they only thefe, that it exhibits more work, and takes
up lefs time. It is better defended likewife againft
the injuries of time 5 and the right of birth muff be
granted it, and the glory of antiquity.
But miniature likewife has its advantages; and with¬
out repeating fuch as have been mentioned already, it
is neater and more commodious. You may eafily carry
all your implements in your pockets, and work when
and wherever you pleafe, without fuch a number of
preparations. You may quit and refume it when and
as often as you will ; which is not done in the other ;
in which one is rarely to work dry.
To conclude : In the art of painting, excellence
does not depend upon the greatnefs of the fubjeft, but
upon the manner in which it is handled. Some catch
the airs of a face well 3 others fucceed better in land¬
fcapes : fome work in little, who cannot do it in large:
fome are {killed in colours, who know little of defign :
others, laftly, have only a genius for fiowrers : and even
the Baffans got themfelves a fame for animals 3 which
they touched in a very fine manner, and better than any
thing elfe. • »
Minim
ij
Minifter.
M I N
MINIM, in Mujic, a note equal to two crotchets,
or half a femibreve. See Music.
MINIMS, a religious order in the church of Rome,
founded by St Francis de Paula, totvards the end of
the 15th century. Their habit is a coarfe black wool¬
len fluff, with a woollen girdle, of the fame colour,
tied in five knots. They are not permitted to quit
their habit and girdle night nor day. Formerly they
went barefooted, but are now7 allowed the ufe of
fhoes.
MINIMUM, in the higher geometry, the leaft
quantity attainable in a given cafe.
MINISTER, a perfon who preaches, performs re¬
ligious worfhip in public, adminifters the facraments,
&c.
Minister of State, a perfon to whom the prince in-
trufts the adminiftration of government. See Coun¬
cil.
Minnin.
M I N
Foreign Minister, is a perfon fent into a foreign Minifter
country, to manage the affairs of his‘province or of
the ftate to which he belongs. Of thefe there are two
kinds : thofe of the firft rank are ambaffadors and en¬
voys extraordinary, who reprefent the perfons of their
fovereigns 3 the minifters of the fecond rank are the or¬
dinary refidents.
MINIUM, or Red-lead. See Chemistry In¬
dex.
MINNIN, a ftringed inftrument of mufic among
the ancient Hebrews, having three or four chords to
it, although there is reafon to queftion the antiquity of
this inftrument 3 both becaufe it requires a hair bow,
which -was a kind of plecftrum not known to the an¬
cients, and becaufe it fo much refembles the modern
viol. Kircher took the figures of this, the machul,
chinnor, and pfaltery, from an old book in the Vatican
library.
MINOR,
MIN [ 272 1 MI N
Minor, MINOR, a Latin term, literally denoting lefs;
, inon.a. ufe(] jn oppofition to major, greater.
MltsOR, in Law, denotes a perfon under age } or
who, by the laws of the country, is not yet arrived
at the power of adminiftering his own affairs, or the
poffeliion of his eftate. Among us, a pevfon is a mi¬
nor till the age of twenty-one, before which time his
a61s are invalid. See Age. and Infant.
It is a maxim in the common law, that in the king
there is no minority, and therefore he hath no legal
guardian 5 and his royal grants and affents to a£ls of
parliament are good, though he has not in his natural
capacity attained the legal age of twenty-one. It is
alfo provided by the cuftom and law of parliament,
that no one (hall fit or vote in either houfe, unlefs he
be twenty-one years of age. This is likewufe exprefsly
declared by flat. 7. and 8 Will. III. cap. 25. with re¬
gard to the houfe of commons.
Minor, in Logic, is the fecond propofition of a for¬
mal or regular fyllogifm, called alfo the ajfumption.
Minor, in Mufic, is applied to certain concords,
which differ from or are lower than others of the fame
denomination by a leffer femitone or four comma1;.—
Thus we fay, a third minor, or leffer third, or a fixth
major and minor. Concords th«t admit of major and
minor, i. e. greater and lefs, are faid to be imperfedl
concords.
MINORCA, an ifland of the Mediterranean, fi-
tuated between 39 and 40 degrees of north latitude,
and near four degrees of eaft longitude. It is about
33 miles in length from north-weft to fouth-eaft, in
breadth from eight to twelve, but in general about ten
miles; fo that in fize it may nearly equal the county of
Huntingdon or Bedfordfliire. The form is very irregu¬
lar; and the coafts are much indented by the lea, which
forms a great number of little creeks and inlets, fome
of which might be very advantageous.
This iftand is one of tbofe called by the ancient Ro¬
mans Baleares, which arofe from the dexterity of the
inhabitants in ufing the fling. It fell under the power
of the Romans, afterwards of the northern barbarians,
who deftroyed that empire. From them it w^as taken
by the Arabs ; who w-ere fubdued by the king of Ma¬
jorca, and he by the king of Spain. The Englilh fub¬
dued it in 1708 ; it w’as afterwards retaken by the
French in 1756, but reftored to Britain by the treaty
of Paris in 1763. The Spaniards took it in 1782;
and in 1798, it again became fubjeft to Great Bri¬
tain.
The air of this ifland is much more clear and pure
than in Britain ; being feldom darkened wdth thick fogs:
yet the low valleys are not free from mills and un-
wholefome vapours; and in windy weather the fpray of
the fea is driven over the whole ifland. Hence it hap¬
pens that utenfils of brafs or iron are extremely fufcep-
tible of ruft, in fpite of all endeavours to preferve them;
and houfehold furniture becomes mouldy. The fum-
mers are dry, clear, calm, and exceflively hot ; the au¬
tumns moift, warm, and unequal ; at one time perfectly
ferene, at another cloudy and tempeftuous. During the
winter there are fometirnes violent ftorms, though nei¬
ther frequent nor of long continuance ; and whenever
they ceafe, the weather returns to its ufual ferenity.
The fpring is always variable, hut refembles the winter
Store than the fummer. The changes of heat and cold
2
are neither fo great nor fo fudden in this climate as in Minor
many others. In the compafs of a year, the thermo-
meter feldom rifes much above the 80th, or falls be¬
low the 48th degree. In fummer there is fcarcely ever
a difference of four or five degrees between the heat of
the air at noon and at night : and in winter the varia¬
tion is flill lefs conliderable. But this muft be under-
ftood of a thermometer flvaded from the influence of
the folar beams : for if expofed to them it will often
rife 12, 14, or 16 degrees higher than wfliat we have
mentioned ; and in other feafons the difference between
the heat of the air in the fun and the lhade is much
greater. Yet even in the dog-days, the heat of the
atmofphere, at leaft in open places, feldom furpaffes that
of human blood. The winds are very boifterous about
the equinoxes, and fometimes during the winter. At
other times they are generally moderate, and, according
to the obfervations of feamen, they rarely blow in the
fame diretftion near the iflands adjacent to the gulf of
Lyons as in the open fea. During the fummer there is
commonly a perfeft calm in the mornings and even¬
ings ; but the middle of the day is cooled by refrefliing
breezes which come from the eaft, and, following the
courfe of the fun, increafe gradually till two or three
in the afternoon, after which they infenfibly die away
as night approaches. This renders the heat of the fun
lefs dangerous and inconvenient ; and if thefe breezes
intermit for a day or two, the natives grow7 languid
and inaftive from the heat. The northerly winds in
general are cfear and healthy, difpel the mifts, and
make a clear blue Iky ; whiift thofe which blow from
the oppofite quarter, render the air w7arm, moift, and
unhealthy. The north wind is fuperior in powder to all
the reft ; which appears from hence, that the tops of all
the trees incline to the foutb, and the branches on the
north fide are bare and blafted. The next to it in
force is the north-weft. Both are frequent tow-ards the
clofe of winter and in the fpring ; and, being dry and
cold, they (hrivel up the leaves of the vegetables, de-
ftroy their tender (hoots, and are often exceflively de¬
trimental to the vineyards and riling corn. The pier¬
cing blafts at that feafon from the north-eaft, as they
are more moift, and more frequently Attended with
rain, are lefs prejudicial. The fouth and fouth-eaft
winds are by much the moft unhealthy. In whatever
feafons they blow, the air is foggy, and affedfts the
breathing ; but in the fummer feafon they are fultry
and fuffocating. An exceflive deje&ion of fpirits is
then a univerfal complaint ; and on expofmg the ther¬
mometer to the rays of the fun, the mercury has fre¬
quently rifen above the 100th degree. The weft wind
is ufually drier than the fouth : the eaft is cold and
bluftering in the fpring, and fultry in the fummer.
The weather in Minorca is generally fair and dry ;
but when it rains, the (bowers are heavy, though of
fhort continuance, and they fall moft commonly in the
night. The (ky in fummer is clear, and of a beautiful
azure, wuthout clouds or rain ; but moderate dews de-
feend regularly after funfet. In autumn the weather
becomes lefs ferene ; whirlwinds and thunder become
frequent; and in the night time lightning, and thofe
meteors called falling Jiars, are very common. Water
fpouts alfo are often feen at that feafon, and frequently
break upon the (bore. A fudden alteration in the wea¬
ther takes place about the autumnal equinox ; the Ikies
are
M IN ' [ 273 ] MIN
Minorca, are darkened with clouds, and the rains fall in fuch
quantities, that the torrents thereby occafioned, pour¬
ing down from the hills, tear up trees by the root, car¬
ry away cattle, break down fences, and do confiderable
mifchief to the gardens and vineyards. But thefe anni-
verfary rains are much more violent than lafting j al¬
ways falling in hidden and heavy {bowers, with inter¬
vals of fair weather. They are accompanied with
thunder, lightning, and fqualls of wind, moft common¬
ly from the north. Hail and (now’ are often intermix¬
ed with the rains which fall in winter and in fpring 5
but the fnow, for the moft part, diilolves immediately j
and ice is here an uncommon appearance.
The whole coaft of Minorca lies law ; and there are
only a few hills near the centre, of which the moft con¬
fiderable, named Toro by the inhabitants, may be feen
at the diftance of 1 2 or 14 leagues from the land. The
furface of the ifland is rough and unequal; and in many
places divided by long narrow vales of a confiderable
depth, called barancoes by the natives. They begin
towards the middle of the ifiand, and after feveral
windings terminate at the fea. The fouth-weft fide is
more plain and regular than towards the north eaft ;
where the hills are higher, with low marftiy valleys be¬
twixt them, the foil lefs fruitful, and the whole trad
unhealthy to man and beaft. Near the towns and vil¬
lages the fields are well cultivated, and enclofed with
Hone walls j but the reft for the moft part are rocky,
or covered wnth woods and thickets. There are fome
pools of Handing water, but very few rivulets, which
is the greateft defed about the ifland, as the inhabi¬
tants have fcarcely any wholefome water excepting
tvhat is faved from the clouds.
The foil is light, thin, and very ftony, with a good
deal of iea fait, and, in fome places, of calcareous nitre
intermixed. In moft places there is fo little earth, that
the ifland appears to be but one large irregular rock, co¬
vered here and there with mould, and an infinite varie¬
ty of ftones. Notwithftanding this, however, it is not
,only extremely proper for vineyards, but produces more
wheat and barley than could at firlt fight be imagined j
and if the peasants may be credited, it wouM always
yield a quantity of corn and wine fufficient for the na¬
tives, did not the violence of the winds, and the excef-
five drought of the weather, frequently fpoil their crops.
The fields commonly lie fallow for two years, and are
fown the third. About the latter end of winter, or the
beginning of fpring, they are firft broke up : and next
autumn, as foon as the rains fall, they are again plough¬
ed and prepared for receiving the proper feeds. The
tillage is very eafily performed ; for a plough fo light
as to be tranfported from place to place on the plough¬
man’s {boulder, and to be drawn by a heifer, or an afs
fometimes aflifted by an hog, is fufficient for opening fo
thin a foil. The later the harvelt happens, the more
plentiful it proves. The barley is ufually cut down
about the 20th of May and the wheat is reaped in
June, fo that the whole harveft is commonly got in
by Midfummer day. The grain is not thraftied with
flails as in this country, but trodden out ®n a fmooth
piece of rock by oxen and afles, according to the cuf-
tom of the eaftern nations.
The natives of Minorca are commonly lean, thin,
eno well-built, of a middle ftature, and olive com-
Vol. XIV. Part I.
plexion ; but their character is by no means agree- Minorca,
able. Such is the natural impetuofity of their temper, 'rm~~
that the flighteft caufe provokes them to anger, and
they feem to be incapable of forgiving or forgetting
an injury. Hence quarrels break out daily, even among
neighbours and relations : and family difputes are trani-
mitted from father to fon ; and thus, though lawyers
and pettifoggers are very numerous in this country,
there are ftill too few for the clients. Both fexes are,
by conftitution, extremely amorous : they are often be¬
trothed to each other while children, and marry at the
age of 14. The wTomen have eafy labours, and com¬
monly return in a few days to their ufual domeftic bu-
finefs; but, left the family ftiould become too numer¬
ous for their income, it is a pra&ice among the poorer
fort to keep their children at the breaft for two or
three years, that by this means the mothers may be
hindered from breeding.
Bread of the fineft wheat flour, well fermented and
well baked, is more than half the diet of people of all
ranks. Rice, pulfe, vermicelli, herbs and roots from
the garden, fummer fruits, pickled olives and pods
of the’ Guinea pepper, make up almoft all the other
half, fo that fcarce a fifth of their whole food is fur-
niftved from the animal kingdom, and of this fifti makes
by much the moft confiderable portion. On Fridays,
and other fall days, they abftain entirely from flefh $
and during Lent they live altogether on vegetables and
fifti, excepting Sundays, when they are permitted the
ufe of eggs, cheefe, and milk. Moft of their difties
are high-feafoned with pepper, clones, cinnamon, and
other (pices ; and garlic, onions, or leeks, are almoft:
^onftant ingredients. They eat a great deal of oil,
and that none of the fweeteft or be ft flavoured ; ufing
it not only with falads, but alfo with boiled and fried
fifh, greens, pulfe, &c. inftead of butter. A flice of
bread loaked in boil-d water, with a little oil and fait,
is the common breakfaft of the peafants, well known
by the name of olea^ua. Their ordinary meals are
very frugal, and confift of very little variety j but on
feftivals and other lolemn occafions their entertainments
are to the laft degree profule and extravagant, info-
much that the bill of fare of a country farmer’s wed¬
ding dinner would fcarce be credited.
With regard to other matters, the Minorquins are
accufed of prodigious indolence in the wray of bufinefs,
and neglefl ot the natural advantages they poffefs. In
the bowels of the earth are iron, copper, and lead ores,
of none of which any ufe hath been made except the
laft. A lead mine was wrorked to advantage fome t:me
ayo, and the ore fent into France and Spain for the
ufe of the potteries in thofe countries. The proprie¬
tor difcontinued his work on fome fmall difcourage-
ment ; and indeed it is faid, that thefe people are of
all mankind the moft eafily put out of conceit with an
undertaking that does not bring them in mountains of
prefent gain, or that admits of the flighteft probabi¬
lity of difappointing their moft fanguine expeflations :
nor will their purfe admit of many difappointments ;
and thus their poverty co-operating with their natural
delpondence and love of eafe, is the principal caufe of
their backwardnefs to engage in projefls, though ever
fo promifing, for the improvement of their private for¬
tune, and the advantage of the commerce of their
M m country.
MIN [2
country. This lead ore went under the name of vernis
among the natives, as it was wholly ufed by the potters
in varnilhing and gla/dng their earthen velTels.
There are few exports of any account, and they
are obliged to their neighbours for near one-third of
their corn, all their oil, and fuch a variety of articles
of -lefs confideration, that nothing could preferve them
from a total bankruptcy, but the Englilh money circu¬
lated by the troops, which is exchanged for the daily
fupplies of provihons, increafed by the multiplication of
vineyards, the breeding of poultry, and the production
of vegetables, in a proportion of at lead five to one
fince the ifland has been in our poffeflion. It will not
require many words to enumerate tbeir exports : they
make a fort of cheefe, little liked by the Englilh, which
fells in Italy at a very great price ^ this, perhaps, to
the amount of 8ool. per annum.—The wool they fend
abroad may produce qocl. more.—Some wine is expor¬
ted 5 and, if we add to its value that of the home con-
fumption, which has every merit of an export, being
nine parts in ten taken off by the troops for ready
money, it may well be eftimated at i 6,ocol. a-year. In
honey, wax, and fait, their yearly exports may be
about 400I. and this comes pretty near the fum of their
exports, which we eftimate together at 18,look Ilerling
jOer annum.
A vaft balance lies againd them, if we confider the
variety and importance of the articles they fetch from
ether countries, for which they mud pay ready cadi.
Here it may be neceffary to withdraw fome things
from the heap, fuch as their cattle, fheep, and fowls,
on which they get a profit; for the country does not
produce them in a fufficient abundance to fupply them,
efpecially when we have a fleet of men of war llation-
ed there.
Their imports are, corn, cattle, flieep, fowls, to¬
bacco, oil, rice, fugar, fpices, hardware, and tools
of all kinds \ gold and filver lace ; chocolate, or co¬
coa to make it ; tobacco, timber, plank, boards, mill-
flones, tobacco pipes, playing cards, turnery ware,
feeds, foap, fafidles ; ail manner of cabinetmakers
work, iron fpikes, nails, fine earthen ware, gla's
lamps, brafiery 5 paper, and other dationary wares 5
copperas, galls, dye duffs, painters brufhes and co¬
lours 5 mufical indruments, mufic, and dringsj watches,
wine, fruit ; all manner of fine and printed linens,
muflins, cambrics, and laces 5 bottles, corks, darch,
indigo, fans, trinkets, toys, ribbands, tape, needles,
pins, filk, mohair, lanthorns, cordage, tar, pitch, ro-
fin, drugs, gloves, fire arms, gunpowder, ihot, and
lead ; hats, caps, velvet, cotton duffs, woollen cloths,
dockings, capes, medals, vedments, luftres, pictures,
images, agnus dei’s, books, pardons, bulls, relicks, and
indulgencies.
The ifland is divided into what they ftyle lerminos,
of which there were anciently five, now reduced to four,
and refemble our counties. The tenrinoof Ciudadella,
at the north-weflern extremity of the ifland, is fo fly led
from this plaice, which was once a city, and the capital
of Minorca. It makes a venerable and majeftic figure,
even in its prefent ftate of decay, having in it a large
Gothic cathedra], fome other churches and convents,
the governor’s palace, and an exchange, which is no
contemptible pile —There are in it 600 houfes, which
before the feat of government and the courts of judice
74 ] M I N
were removed to Mahon, were fully inhabited ; and
there are dill more gentlemen’s families here than in
all the red of the itland. It hath a port commodious
enough for the veffels employed in the trade of this
country, which, though in the poffeflion of- a maritime
power, is lefs than it formerly was. It is dill, in the
flyle of our officers, the bejl quarters (and there are
none bad) in the country $ and it there was a civil go¬
vernment, and the place made a free port, the bed jud¬
ges are of opinion it would very foon become a flouri-
fliing place again ; and the fortifications, if it ffiould be
found neceffary, might then alfo be eafily redored and
improved.
The termino of Fcrerias is the next, a narrow dip
reaching crofs from fea to fea, and the country little
cultivated ; it is therefore united to Mercandal. In this
lad termino dands Mont-toro in the very centre of the
ifle, and the highed ground, ferae fay the only moun¬
tain in it; on the fummit of which there is a convent,
where even in the hotted months the monks enjoy a
cool air, and at all times a mod delightful profpeck
About fix miles north from Mont-toro dands the cadle
that covers Port Fornelles, which is very fpacious har¬
bour on the ead lide of the ifland. There are in it
flioals and foul ground, which, to thofe vffio are unac¬
quainted wdth them, render it difficult and dangerous ;
yet the packets bound from Mahon to Marfeilles fre¬
quently take flicker therein *, and while the Spaniards
were in poffeffion of the ille, large fliips and men of war
frequented it. At a fmall diftance from this lies ano¬
ther harbour called sldia, which runs far into the land
but being reputed unfafe, and being fo near Fornelles,
is at prefent ufelefs. The country about it is, however,
faid to be the pleafanteft and wholefomeft fpot in the
ifland, and almofl the only one plentifully fuppiied with
excellent fpring water ; fo that the gardens are well
laid out, and the richeft and fineft fiuits grow here in
the higbefi perfection. Alaior is the next termino, in
which there is nothing remarkable but the capital of
the fame name, well fituated on an eminence, in a plea-
fant and tolerably cultivated country.
The termino of Mahon, at the fouth-eafl: end of the
ifland, is at prefent the moft confiderable of them all,
containing about 60,000 Englifh acres, and nearly one-
half of the inhabitants in Minorca. The town of
Mahon derives its name from the Carthaginian general
Mago, wffio is univerfally allowed to be its founder.—
It Hands on an eminence on the weft ftde of the har¬
bour, the afeent pretty fteep. There are in it a large
church, three convents, the governor’s palace, and
fome other public edifices. It is large, but the ftreets
are winding, narrow and ill paved. The fortrefs of
St Philip Hands near the entrance of the harbour, which
it covers, is very fpacious, of great ftrength, with fub-
terranean works to protect the garrifon from bombs,
large magazines, and whatever elfe is neceffary to render
it a complete fortification, and hath a numerous and
well difpofed artillery. Port Mahon is allowed to be
the fineft harbour in the Mediterranean, about go fa¬
thoms wdde at its entrance, but within very large and
fafe, ftretching a league or more into the land. Beneath
the towm of Mahon there is a very fine quay, one end
of which is referved for the ihips of war, and furnifhed
wdth all the accommodations neceffary for careening
and refitting them 5 the other ferves for merchantmen.
On
Minorca.
Minors
1|
Minotaur.
MIN [ 275 1 MIN
On the other fide of the harbour is Cape Mola, where
it is generally agreed a fortrcfs might be conftrufled
which would be impregnable, as the callle of St Philip
was elleemed before we took it, and bellowed fo much
money upon it, that, though fome works were eretled
at Cape Mola, it was not judged proper to proceed in
the fortifications there at a frelh expence ; at lead this
is the only reafon that hath been affigned. Minorca
was taken by the Spaniards during the American war,
and is now in their poffeiTion.
MINORS, or Friers Minor, an appellation which
the Francifcans affume, out of Ihow of humility; calling
themfelves fratres minores, i. e. lefler brothers, and
fometimes minorites. There is alfo an order of regular
minors at Naples, which was ellablilhed in the year
1588, and confirmed by Sixtus V.
MINOS, in Fabulous HiJionj, a king of Crete, f0n
of Jupiter and Europa. He ilourilhed about 1432
years before the Chrifiian era. He gave laws to his
fubjefls, which llill remained in full force in the age of
the philofopher Plato, about 1000 years after the death
of the legiilator. His juflice and moderation precured
him the appellation of the favourite of the gods, the
confident of Jupiter, and the wife legiilator, in every
city of Greece ; and, according to the poets, he was
rewarded for his equity after death with the office of
fupreme and abfolute judge in the infernal regions. In
this capacity he is reprefented fitting in the middle of
the fhades,-and holding a feeptre in his hand. The
dead plead their different caufes before him ; and the
impartial judge {hakes the fatal urn, which is filled
with the deftinies of mankind. He married Ithona,
by whom he had Lycaftes, who wTas the father of
Mffios II.*
Minos II. was a fon of Lycalfes, the fon of Mi¬
nos I. and king of Crete. He married Pafiphae, the
daughter of Sol and Perfeis, and by her he had many
children. He increafed his paternal dominions by the
conquelf of the neighbouring ifiands •, but (bowed him-
felf cruel in the war which he carried on againll the A-
thenians, who had put to death his fon Androgeus.
He took Megara by the treachery of Scylla ; and not
fatisfied with vi&ory, be obliged the vanquiffied to
bring him yearly to Crete feven chofen boys and the
fame number of virgins to be devoured by the Mino¬
taur. This bloody tribute was at laft abolilbed when
Theseus had deflroyed the monfler. When Djedalus,
whofe induftry and invention had fabricated the laby¬
rinth, and whofe imprudence in affiiling Pafiphae in
the gratification of her unnatural defires, had offended
Minos, fled from the place of his confinement with
wings, and arrived fafe in Sicily ; the incenfed monarch
purfued the offender, refolved to puniffi his infidelity.
Cocalus, king of Sicily, who had hofpitably received
Daedalus, entertained his royal gueft with diffembled
friendfliip ; and, that he might not deliver to him a
man whofe ingenuity and abilities he fo well knew, he
put Minos to death. Minos died about 35 years before
the Trojan war. He was father of Androgeus, Glau-
cus, and Deucalion *, and two daughters, Phaedra, and
Ariadne. Many authors have confounded the two
Minofes, the grandfather and the grandfon; but Homer,
Plutarch, and Diodorus, prove plainly that they were
two different perfons.
MINOTAUR, in Fabulous Bijiory^ a celebrated
monfter, half a man and half a bull, according to this
verfe of Ovid,
Bemibovemque virum, fernivirumque bovem.
Minotv
.11
Minftre!.
It was the fruit of Pafiphae’s amour with a bull. Mi¬
nos refufed to facrifice a white bull to Neptune, an
animal which he had received from the god for that
purpofe. This offended Neptune, and he made Pa¬
fiphae the wife of Minos enamoured of this fine bull,
which had been refufed to his altars. Daedalus profti-
tuted his talents in being fubfervient to the queen’s
unnatural defires ) and by bis means, Pafiphae’s hor¬
rible paffions were gratified, and the Minotaur came
into the world. Minos confined in the labyrinth this
monfter, which convinced the world of his wife’s laf-
civioufnefs, and reflefted difgrace upon his family.
The Minotaur ufually devoured the chofen young men
and maidens which the tyranny of Minos yearly ex-
a£led from the Athenians. Thefeus delivered his
country from this tribute, when it had fallen to his
lot to be facrificed to the voracity of the Minotaur j
and by means of Ariadne, the king’s daughter, he de-
flroyed the monfter, and made his efcape from the
windings of the labyrinth.—The fabulous tradition of
the Minotaur, and of the infamous commerce of Pafi¬
phae with a favourite bull, has been often explained.
Some fuppofe that Pafiphae was enamoured of one of
her huffiand’s courtiers called Taurus; and that Dae¬
dalus favoured the paffions of the queen, by fuffering
his houfe to become the retreat of the two lovers.
Pafiphae fome time after brought twins into the world,
one of whom greatly refembled Minos and the other
Taurus; and in the natural refemblance of their coun¬
tenance with that of their fuppofed fathers, originated
their name, and confequently the fable of the Mino¬
taur.
MI NOW, a very fmall fpecies of cyprinus, fo well
known that it needs no defeription.
MINSTER, (Saxon, MjnJier or Mynjlre), ancient¬
ly fignified the church of a monaftery or convent.
MINSTREL, an ancient term for a finger and
inftrumental performer.
The word minjlrel is derived from the French mene-
Jlner, and was not in ufe here before the Norman con-
queft. It is remarkable, that our old monkiffi hifto-
rians do not ufe the xvord eithercedus, cantator, or the
like, to exprefs a minjlrel in Latin ; but either mimus,
hiJlrio,joculator^ or fome other xvord that impliesgejlure.
Hence it ftiould feem that the minftrels fet off their
finging by mimicry or a£lion; or, according to Dr
Brown’s hypothefis, united the powers of melody, poem,
and dance.
The Saxons as xvell as the ancient Danes, had been
accuftomed to hold men of this profeffion in the high-
eft reverence. Their (kill was confidered as fomething
divine, their perfons were deemed facred, their atten¬
dance was folicited by kings, and they were every¬
where loaded with honours and rewards. In ffiort,
poets and their art were held among them in that rude
admiration which is ever ffiown by an ignorant people
to fuch as excel them in intellectual accomplifiunents.
When the Saxons were converted to Chriftianity, in
proportion as letters prevailed among them this rude
admiration began to abate, and poetry was no longer
a peculiar profeffion. The poet and the minftrel be-
M m 3 cams
MIN [ 276 ] MIN
came two perfons. Poetry was cultivated by men of
letters indifcriminately, and many of tbe moft popular
rhymes were compofed amidft the lelfure and retire¬
ment of monafteries. But the minftrels continued a
diftinft order of men, and got their livelihood by fing-
ing verfes to the harp at the houfes of the great.
There they were ftill hofpitably and refpe&fully re¬
ceived, and retained many of the honours ftiown to
their predeceffors the Bards and Scalds. And in¬
deed, though fome of them only recited the compoli-
ttons of others, many of them ftill compofed fongs
themfelves : and all of them could probably invent a
few ftanzas on occafion. There is no doubt but moft
of the old heroic ballads were produced by this order
of men. For although fome of the larger metrical
romances might come from the pen of the monks or
others, yet the fmaller narratives were probably com¬
pofed by the mihftrels who fung them. From the
amazing variations which occur in different copies of
thefe old pieces, it is evident they made no fcruple to
alter each other’s produ&ions, and the reciter added
or omitted whole ftanzas according to his own fancy
or convenience.
In the early ages, as is hinted above, this pro-
feffion was held in great reverence among the Saxon
tribes, as well as among their Danilh brethren. This
appears from two remarkable fatfts in hiftory, which
ftiow that the fame arts of mulic and fong were equally
admired among both nations, and that the privileges
and honours conferred upon the profeffors of them
were common to both $ as it is well known their cu-
ftoms, manners, and even language, were not in thofe
times very diflimilar.
When King Alfred the Great was defirous to learn
the true fituation of the Danilh army, which had in¬
vaded his realm, he affumed the drefs and charadler of
a minftrel; and taking his harp, and only one at¬
tendant (for in the earlieft times it was not unufual
for a minftrel to have a fervant to carry his harp), he
went with the utmoft fecurity into the Danifh camp.
And though he could not but be known to be a Saxon,
the character he had affumed procured him an hofpitable
reception ; he was admitted to entertain the king at
table, and ftaid among them long enough to contrive
that affault which afterwards deftroyed them. This
was in the year 878.
About 60 years after, a Danifti king made ufe ef
the fame difguife to explore the camp of King Athel-
ftan. WTith his harp in his hand, and dreffed like a
minftrel, An)j|ff king of the Danes went among the
Saxon tents, and taking his ftand near the king’s pa¬
vilion, began to play, and was immediately admitted.
There he entertained Athelftan and his lords with his
finging and his mufic ; and was at length difmiffed
with an honourable reward, though his fongs muft
have difcovered him to have been a Dane. Athel¬
ftan was faved from the confequences of this ftratagem
by a foldier, who had obferved Anlaff bury the money
which had been given him, from fome fcruple of ho¬
nour or motive of fuperftition. This occafioned a dif-
covery.
From the uniform procedure of both thefe kings, it
is plain that the fame mode of entertainment prevailed
among both peoples, and that the minftrel was a pri¬
vileged chara&er among both. Even as. late as the
reign of Edward II. the minftrels were eafdy admitted MinftreL
into the royal prefei)ce, as appears from a paffage in ‘ " v -■
Stow, which alfo thowTs the fplendour of their appear¬
ance.
“ In the year 1316, Edward II. did folemnize his
feaft of Pentecoft at Weftminfter, in the great hall j
where fitting royally at the table with his peers about
him, there entered a woman adorned like a minftrel,
fitting on a great horfe trapped, as minftrels then
ufed, who rode round about the tables, fliowing paf-
time ; and at length came up to the king’s table and
laid before him a letter, and forthwith turning her
horfe, faluted every one, and departed.”-^-The fub~
je& of this letter was a remonftrance to the king on
the favours heaped by him on his minions, to the negleft
of his knights and faithful fervants.
The meffenger was fent in a minftrel’s habit, as
what would gain an eafy admiflion j and was a woman
concealed under that habit, probably to difarm the
king’s refentment ; for. we do not find that any of the
real minftrels were of the female fex $ and therefore
conclude this was only an artful contrivance peculiar to
that occafion.
In the 4th year of Richard II. John of Gaunt x
eredted at Tetbury in Staffordlhire a court of minftrels,
with a full power to receive fuit and fervice from the
men of that profeflion within five neighbouring counties,
to enadl laws, and determine their controverfies j and
to apprehend and arreft fuch of them as fhould refufe
to appear at the faid court, annually held on the 16th
of Auguft. For' this they had a charter, by which
they were empowered to appoint a king of the min¬
ftrels with four officers to prefide over them. Thefe
were every year elefted with great ceremony ; the
whole form of which is defcribed by Dr Plott 5 in
whofe time, however, they feem to have become mere.
muficians.
Even fo late as the reign of King Henry VIII. the
reciters of verfes or moral fpeeches learnt by heart,
intruded without ceremony into all companies; not
only in taverns, but in the houfes of the nobility them¬
felves. This we learn from Erafmus, whofe argument
led him only to defcribe a fpecies of thefe men who did
not fing their compofitionsj but the others that did, en¬
joyed without doubt the fame privileges.
We find that the minftrels continued down to the
reign of Elizabeth j in whofe time they had loft much
of their dignity, and were finking into contempt and
negleft. Yet ftill they fuftained a character far fuperior
to any thing we can conceive at prefent of the fingers
of old ballads. ,
When Queen Elizabeth was entertained at Killing-
worth caftle by the earl of Leicefter in 1575, among
the many devices and pageants which were exhibited
for her entertainment, one of the perfonages introduced
was that of an ancient minftrel, whofe appearance and
drefs are fo minutely defcribed by a writer there pre¬
fent, and gives us fo diftinft an idea of the chara£ler,
that we ffiall quote the paffage at large.
“ A perfon very meet feemed he for the purpofe,
of a xlv. years old, apparelled partly as he w’ould
himfelf. His cap off: his head feemingly rounded
tonfterwife : fair kembed, that, with a fponge daintly
dipt in a little capon’s greafe, was finely fmoothed, to
make it Ikine like a mallard’s wing. His beard fnugly
fhaven ;
M I N
[ 277 ]
M I N
Mint, {haven : and yet his fliirt after the new trink, with ruffs
Minftrel. fa;r ftarched, flecked, and gliftering like a pair of new
ihoes marflialled in good order with a fetting flick,
and ft rut, ‘ that’ every ruff flood up like a wafer. A
fide [i. e. long] gown of Kendale green, after the frefli-
nefs of the year now, gathered at the neck with a nar¬
row gorget, faftened afore with a white clafp and a
keeper clofe up to the chin •, but eafily, for heat, to
undo when he lift. Seemingly begirt in a red caddis
girdle: from that a pair of capped Sheffield knives
hanging a’ two fides. Out of his bofom drawn from
a lappet of his napkin edged with a blue lace, and
marked with a D for Damian j for he was but a bachelor
yet.
“ His gown had fide [i. e. long] fleeves down to
midleg, flit from the (boulder to the hand, and lined
with white cotton. His doublet fieeves of black wor-
fted : upon them a pair of points of tawny chamlet
laced along the wrift with blue threaden pointes. A
weak towards the hands of fuftian-a napes. A pair
of red neather flocks. A pair of pumps on his feet,
with a crofs cut at his toes for corns j not new indeed,
yet cleanly blackt with foot, and fliining as a flioing
horn.
“ About his neck a red ribband fuitable to his girdle.
His harp in good grace( dependent before him. His
wreft tyed to a green lace and hanging by : under the
gorget of his gown a fair flaggon chain (pewter for)
filver, as a Squire Minftrel of Middlefex, that travelled
the country this fummer feafon, unto fair and worftiipful
men’s houfes. From his chain hung a fcutcheon, with
metal and colour, refplendent upon h:s breaft, of the an¬
cient arms of Iflington.”
—This minftrel is defcribed as belonging to that
village. We fuppofe fuch as were retained by noble
families wore their arms hanging down by a filver chain
as a kind of badge. From the expr^flion of Squire
Minftrel above, we may conclude there were other in¬
ferior orders, as Yeomen Minftrels or the like.
This minftrel, the author tells us a little below,
“ after three lowly courtefies, cleared his voice with a
hem . .. and wiped his lips with the hollow of his hand
for ’filing his napkin 5 tempered a firing or twm with
his wrift ; and, after a little warbling on his harp for
a prelude, came forth with a folemn fong, warranted
for ftory out of King Arthur’s a£ls, &c.”
. Towards the end of the 16th century, this clafs of
men .had loft all credit, and were funk fo low in the
public opinion, that in the 39th year of Elizabeth a
ftatute was paffed by which “ minftrels, wandering
abroad, were included among “ rogues, vagabonds, and
fturdy beggars,” and w?ere adjudged to be punifhed as
fuch. This aft feems to have put an end to the pro-
feffion, for after this time they are no longer mentioned.
MINT, the place in which the king’s money is coin¬
ed. See Coinage.
t There were anciently mints in almoft every county
in England 5 but the only mint at prefent in the Bri-
tifh dominions is that in the tower of London. The
officers of the mint are, 1. The warden of the mint,
who is the chief j he overfees the other officers, and
receives the bullion. 2. The mafter worker who re¬
ceives bullion from the wardens, caufes it to be melted,
delivers it' to the moneyers, and, when it is coined,
receives it again. 3. The comptroller, who is the
overfeer of all the inferior officers, and fees that all the
money is made to the juft affize. 4. The affay mafter, '
who wreighs the gold and filver, and fees that it is
according to the ftandard. 5. The twm auditors -who
take the accounts. 6. The furveyor of the melting ;
■who, after the affay mafter has made trial of the bul¬
lion, fees that it is call out, and not altered after it is
delivered to the melter. 7. The engraver 3 who en¬
graves the (lamps and dies for the coinage of the mo¬
ney. 8. The clerk of the irons; who fees that the
irons are clean and fit to work with. 9. The melter,
who melts the bullion before it be coined. 10. The
provoft of the mint 3 who provides for and overfees
all the moneyers. 11. The blanchers, who anneal
and cleanfe the money. 12. The moneyers 3 fome of
whom forge the money, fome (hare it, fome round and
mill it, and fome (lamp and coin it. 13. Ihe porters
who keep the gate of the mint.
Mint was alfo a pretended place of privilege, in
Southwark, near the King’s Bench, put down by
ftatute. If any perfons, within the limits of the mint,
(hall obftruft: any officer in the ferving of any writ or
procefs, &c. or affault any perfon therein, fo as he
receive any bodily hurt, the offender (hall be guilty
of felony, and be tranfported to the plantations,
Stat. 9. Geo. I.
Mint Marks. It hath been ufual, from old time,
to oblige the mafters and workers of the mint, in the
indentures made with them, “ to make a privy mark
in all the money that they made, as well of gold as of
filver, fo that another time they might know, if need
were, and witte which moneys of gold and filver
among other of the fame moneys, were of their own
making, and which not.” And whereas, after every
trial of the pix at Weftminfter, the mafters and work¬
ers of the mint, having there proved their moneys to
be lawful and good, were immediately entitled to re¬
ceive their quietus under the great feal, and to be dif-
charged from all fuits or aftions concerning thofe
moneys, it was then ufual for the faid mafters and
workers to change the privy mark before ufed for ano¬
ther, that fo the moneys from which they were not yet
difcharged might be diftinguifhed from thofe for which
they had already received their quietus: which new
mark they then continued to (lamp upon all their
moneys, until another trial of the pix gave them alfo
their quietus concerning thofe.
The pix is a ftrong box with three locks, whofe'
keys are refpeftively kept by the warden, mafter, and
comptroller of the mint 3 and in which are depofited,
fealed up in feveral parcels, certain pieces taken at
random out of every journey as it is called 3 that is,
out of every 15 pounds weight of gold, or 60 pounds
weight of filver, before the fame is delivered to the
proprietors. And this pix is, from time to time, by
the king’s command, opened at Weftminfler, in the
prefence of the lord-chancellor, the lords of the coun¬
cil, the lords-commiflioners of the treafury, the ju-
ftices of the feveral benches, and the barons of the
exchequer 3 before whom a trial is made, by a jury
of goldfmiths impannelled and fworn for that purpofe,
of the colleftdve weights of certain parcels of the fe¬
veral pieces of gold and filver taken at random from
thofe contained in the pix 3 after which thofe parcels
being feverally melted, affays are then made of the
. bulUotj.
Mint.
M IN [2
Mn t bullion of gold and.filver fo produced, by tbe melt*
Minuet certa5,n ^mal1 quantities of the fame againft equal
—weights taken from the refpefiive trial pieces of gold
and filver that are depofited and kept in the exchequer
for that ufe. This is called the trial of the pix ; the
report made by the jury upon that trial is called the
verdtB of the fix for that time ; and the indented trial
pieces juil above mentioned, are certain plates of ffand-
ard gold and ftandard filver, made with the greateft
care, and delivered in upon oath, from time to time
as there is occafion, by a jury of the mod able and
• experienced goldfmiths, fummoned by virtue of a war-
rant from the lords of the treafury to the wardens of
the myflery of goldfmiths of the city of London for
that purpofe ; and which plates being fo delivered in,
are divided each, at this time, into feven parts by in¬
dentures, one of which parts is kept in his majefly’s
court of exchequer at Wed minder, another by the
fait! company of goldfmiths, and two more by the of¬
ficers of his majedy’s mint in the tower ; the remain¬
ing three being for the ufe of the mint, &c. in Scot¬
land. The pix has fometimes been tried every year,
or even oftener, but fometimes not more than once
in feveral years : and from hence is underdood how it
comes to pafs, that, among the pieces that are dated
us well as marked, three or more different dates are
fometimes found upon pieces iropreffed with the fame
mark : and again, that different marks are found upon
pieces bearing the fame date. Thefe marks are fird
obfervable upon the coins of King Edward III. ; the
words above quoted concerning thofe marks are from
the indentures made with the lord Hadings, mader
and worker to _ King Edward IV.; and the marks
themfelves continued to be damped very confpicuoudy
upon the moneys, till the coinage by the mill and
ferew was introduced and fettled after the Redoration,
in the year 1662 : nnce which time, the moneys being
made with far greater regularity and exaftnefs than
before, thefe marks have either been totally kid afide,
or fuch only have been ufed as are of a "more fecret
nature, and only known to the officers and engravers
concerned in the coinage : and indeed tbe condant
praflice that has ever fince prevailed, of dating all the
feveral pieces, has rendered all fuch marks of much lefs
confequence than before.
Mint. See Mentha, Botany and Materia
Medic a, Index.
MINI URNiE, a town of Campania, between Si-
nueffa and Formiae. It was in tbe marlhes in this neigh¬
bourhood that Marius concealed himfelf in the mud to
avoid the partizans of SyJla. The people condemned
him to death 5 but when his voice alone had terrified
the executioner, they Ihowed themfelves compaffionate
and favoured his efcape.
MINUET, a very graceful kind of dance, confiding
ot a coupee, a high dep, and a balance ; it begins with
a beat, and its motion is triple.
The invention of the minuet feems generally to be
aferibed to the French, and particularly to the inha¬
bitants of the province of Poiaou. The word is faid
by Menage and Furetiere to be derived from the
French menue or menu, “ fmall, or little;” and in
ftnanefs fignifies a fmall pace. The melody of this
dance confids of two ffrains, which, as being repeated,
Rie called teprifest each having eight or more barsj but
3
78 ] M I Pv
never an odd number. The meafure is three crotchets Minute
in a bar, and is thus marked though it is commonly II
performed in the time Walt her ipeaks of a minuet Vdade. ^
in Lully’s opera of Roland, each drain of which con-" v ^
tains ten bars, the fedlional number being 5 ; which
renders it very difficult to dance.
MINU FE, in Geo/netnj, the 60th part of a degree
of a circle.
Minute of Time, the 60th part of an hour.
Minute, in ArchiteBure, ufually denotes the 60th,
fometimes the 3°th, part of a module. See Archi¬
tecture.
Minute is alfo ufed for a ffiort memoir, or Iketch of
a thing taken in writing.
MINUTIUS Felix. See Felix.
MI NY An, a name given to the inhabitants of Or-
chomenos in Boeotia, from Minyas king of the coun¬
try. O'rchomenos the fon of Minyas gave his name
to the capital of the country; and the inhabitants
dill retained their original appellation, in cqntradi-
dinflion to the Orchoraenians of Arcadia. A colonv
of Orchomenians paffed into Theffaly and fettled in
lolchos; from which circumdance the people of the
place, and particularly the Argonauts, were called
Mmijce. This name they received, according to the
opinion of iome, not becaufe a number of Orchomeni-
ans had fettled among them, but becaufe the chi^F
and nobled of them were defeended from the daughters
ot Minyas. Part of the Orchomenians accompanied
the Tons of Codrus when they migrated to Ionia. The
defeendants of the Argonauts, as well as the Argo-
nauts themfelves, received the name of Minyce. They
fird inhabited Lemnos, where they had been born from
the Lemnian women who had murdered their huffiands.
They were driven from Lemnos by the Pelafgi, about
1160 before the Chridian era, and came to fettle in
Laconia, from whence they paffed into Callifte with a
colony of Lacedemonians.
MIQUELETS, a name given to the Spaniards who
inhabit the Pyrerean mountains on the frontiers of
Arragon and Catalonia, and live by robbing.
MIQUELON, a fmall defert idand to the fouth-
wed of Cape May in Newfoundland, ceded to the
French by tbe peace of 1763, for drying and curing
their fiffi. W. Long. 54. 30. N. Lat. 47. 22.
MIRx'ltBlLIS, Marvel of Peru ; a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the
natural method ranking with thofe of which the order
is doubtful. See Botany Index.
MIRACLE, in its original fenfe, is a word of the
fame import with wonder j but in its ufual and more
appropriate fignification, it denotes “ an effedl con¬
trary to the edabhfhed conditution and courfe of things,
or a fenfible deviation from the known laws of nature.”
1 hat the vifible world is governed by dated gene¬
ral rules, or that there is an order of caufes and ef-
fetls edabliffied in every part of the fydem of nature
which falls under our obfervation, is a fa6l which
cannot be controverted. If the Supreme Being, as
fome have fuppofed, be the only real agent in the
univerfe, we have the evidence of experience, that, in
the particular fydem to which we belong, he a£ts by
dated rules. If he employs inferior agents to con-
duft the .various motions from which the phenomena
refult, we have the fame evidence that he has fubjeft-
ed
M I R [ 279 ] MIR
Miracles, ed thofe agents to certain fixed laws, commonly called
-—v—- the laws of nature. On. either hypothefis, eiFefls
which are produced by the regular operation of thefe
laws, or which are conformable to the eftablifhed
courfe of events, are properly called natural; and every
contradiction to this conilitution of the natural fyftem,
and the correfpondent courfe of events in it, is called a
miracle.
If this definition of a miracle be juft, no event can
be deemed miraculous merely becaufe it is ftrange,
or even to us unaccountable \ fince it may be nothing
more than a regular effe£l of fome unknown lavv of
nature. In this country earthquakes are rare •, and
for monftrous births perhaps no particular and fatis-
fadlory account ran be given : yet an earthquake is
as regular an effeft of the eftablifhed laws of nature
as any of thofe with which wTe are moft intimately
acquainted *, and under circumftances in which there
would always be the fame kind of production, the
monfter is nature’s genuine iffue. It is therefore ne-
ceiTary, before we can pronounce any effeCt to be a true
miracle, that the circumftances under which it is pro¬
duced be known, and that the common courfe of na¬
ture be in fome degree underftood ; for in ail thofe
cafes in which we are totally ignorant of nature, it
is impoffible to determine what is, or what is not, a
deviation from its courfe. Miracles, therefore, are
not, as fome have reprefented them, appeals to our ig¬
norance. They fuppofe fome antecedent knowledge
of the courfe of nature, without which no proper judge¬
ment can be formed concerning thefti; though with it
their realitv may be fo apparent as to prevent all pofti-
bility of a difpute.
Thus, were a phyfician to cure a blind man of a ca-
taraft, by anointing his eyes with a chemical prepa¬
ration which we had never before feen, and to the na¬
ture and eftefls of which we are abfolute ftrangers, the
cure would undoubtedly be wonderful; but we could
net pronounce it miraculous, becaufe, for any thing
known to us, it might be the natural effect of the
operation of the unguent on the eye. But were be to
recover his patient merely by commanding him to fee,
or by anointing his eyes with fpittle, we fhouid with
the utmoft confidence pronounce the cure to be a mi¬
racle 5 becaufe we know perfectly that neither the hu¬
man voice nor human fpittle have, by the eftablifhed
conftituticn of things, any fuch power over the difeafes
of the eye. No one is now ignorant, that perfons ap¬
parently dead are often reftored to their families and
friends, by being treated in ihe manner recommended
by the Humane Society. To the vulgar, and fome-
times even to men of icience, thefe effects appear very
wonderful; but as they are known to be produced by
phyfical agency, they can never be confidered as mi¬
raculous deviations from the laws of nature. On the
other hand, no one could doubt of his having witneffed
a real miracle who had feen a perfon that had been four
days dead come alive cut of his grave at the call of an¬
other, or who had even beheld a perfon exhibiting all
the fymptoms of death inftantly refufeitated merely by
being dejired to live.
Thus eafy is it, in all cafes in which the courfe of
nature is underftood, to determine whether any parti¬
cular event be really a miracle ; whilft in circumftances
where we know nothing of nature and its courfe, even
a true miracle, tvere it performed, could not be admit- Miracles,
ted as fuch, or carry any conviflion to the mind of a v" 1
philofopher.
If miracles be effects contrary to the eftablifhed con-
ftitution of things, we are certain that they will never
be performed on trivial occaftons. The conftitution of
things was eftablifhed by the Creator and Governor of
the univerfe, and is undoubtedly the offspring of infinite
wifdom purfuing a plan for the beft of purpofes. From
this plan no deviation can be made but by God himfelf,
or by fome powerful being ailing with his permifiion.
The plans devifed by wifdom are fteady in proportion
to their perfection, and the plans of infinite wifdom
muft be abfolutely perfeCt. From this confideration,
fome men have ventured to conclude, that no miracle
was ever wrought, or can rationally be expeCted j but
maturer reflection muft foon fatisfy us that all fuch con-
cluftons are hafty.
Man is unqueftionably the principal creature in this
world, and apparently the only one in it who is ca¬
pable of being made acquainted with the relation in
which he Hands to his Creator. We cannot, therefore,
doubt, but that fuch 4of the laws of nature as extend
not their operation beyond the limits of this earth were
eftablifhed chiefly, if not folely, for the good of man¬
kind ; and if, in any particular circumftances, that good
can be more effectually promoted by an occafional de¬
viation from thole laws, fuch a deviation may be rea-
fonably expeCted. Were man, in the exercife of his
mental and corporeal powers, fubjeCted to the laws of
phyfical neceftity, the circumftances fuppofed would in¬
deed never occur, and of courfe no miracle could be ad¬
mitted. But fuch is not the nature of man.
Without repeating what has been faid elfewhere
(See Metaphysics, Part III. Chap. V.) of neceftity
and liberty, we (hall here take it for granted, that the
relation betw’een motives and aClions is different from
that between caufe and effeft in phyfics *, and that,
mankind have fuch command over themfelves, as that
by their voluntary conduCt, they can make themfelves
in a great degree either happy or miferable. We know
likewife from hiftory, that, by fome means or other, al-
moft all mankind were once funk into the groffeft igno¬
rance of the moft important truths; that they knew not
the Being by whom they were created and fupported ;
that they paid divine adoration to flocks, ftones, and
the vileft reptiles ; and that they were flaves to the moft;
impious, cruel, and degrading fuperftitions.
From this depraved ilate it was furely not unworthy
of the common “ Father of all” to refeue his helplel's
creature, to enlighten their underftandings that they
might perceive what is right, and to prefent to them
motives of fufticient force to engage them in the prac¬
tice of it. But the underftandings of ignorant bar¬
barians cannot be enlightened by arguments ■, becaufe
of the force of fuch arguments as regard moral fcience
they are not qualified to judge. The philofophers of
Athens and Rome inculcated, indeed, many excellent
moral precepts, and they fometimes ventured to ex-
pofe the abfurdities of the reigning fuperftition : but
their ledlures had no influence upon the multitude ;
and they had themfelves imbibed fuch erroneous no¬
tions refpefling the attributes of the Supreme Being,
and the nature of the human foul, and converted thofe
notions into firft principles, of which they would not
permit ■.
MIR [ 280 ] M I R
acles. permit an examination, that even among them a tho-
v rough reformation was not to be expected from the
powers of reafoning. It is Hkevvife to be obferved,
that there are many truths of the utmoft importance to
mankind, which unaffiifed reafon could never have dif-
covered. Atnongft thefe we may confidently reckon
the immortality of the foul, the terms upon which God
will he reconciled to tinners, and the manner in which
that all-perfedl Being may be acceptably worthipped ;
about all of which phil fimhers wrere in fuch uncer¬
tainty, that, according to Plato, “ Whatever is let
right, and as it Ihould , the preient evil ftate of
the world, can be fo only by the particular interpolition
of God (a).
An immediate revelation from Heayen, therefore,
was the only method by which infinite wifdom and
perfedl goodnefs could reform a bewdldered and vici¬
ous race. But this revelation, at whatever time we
fuppofe it given, mufi: have been made directly either
to lome chofen individuals commiflioned to inftruft
others, ©r to every man and woman for whofe benefit it
was ultimately intended. Were every perfon inftru6ted
in the knowledge of his duty by immediate infpiration,
and were the motives to practife it brought home to his
- mind by God himfelf, human nature would be wholly
changed : men would not be roafters of their own ac¬
tions j they wTould not be moral agents, nor by con-
fequence be capable either of reward or of punilhment.
It remains, therefore, that if God has been gracioully
pleafed to enlighten and reform mankind, without
deftroying that moral nature which is effential to vir-
ture, he can have done it only by revealing his truth to
certain chofen inftruments, who were the immediate
inltruftors of their contemporaries, and through them
have been the in(tru<5fors of fucceeding ages.
Let us fuppofe this to have been actually the cafe,
and confider how thofe infpired teachers could commu¬
nicate to others every truth which had been revealed to
themfelves. They might eafily, if it was part of their
duty, deliver a fublime fyilem of natural and moral
fcience, and eftablilh it upon the common bafis of ex¬
periment and demonftration ; but what foundation
could they lay for thofe truths which unaffilted reafon
cannot difeoyer, and which, when they are revealed,
appear to have no neceffary relation to any thing pre-
vioufiy known ? To a bare affirmation that they had
been immediately received from God, no rational be¬
ing could be expefted to affent. The teachers might
be men of known veradity, whofe Ample affertion
would be admitted as fufficient evidence for any fadt
in conformity with the laws of nature j but as every
man has the evidence of his own confcioufnefs and ex¬
perience that revelations from heaven are deviations
from thefe laws, an affertion fo apparently extravagant
■would be rejedled as falfe, unlefs fupported by lome
better proof than the mere affirmation of the teacher.
In this Hate of things, we can conceive no evidence
fufficient to make fuch dodfrines be received as the
truths of God, but the power of working miracles
committed to him who taught them. This would,
(a) Ei> UGtvciv, 0 rt 7rs§ craQr, « kki yeytflxi city
£)e Repub. ho. vi.
indeed, be fully adequate to the purpofe. For if there M'racle^
were nothing in the dodirines themfdves impious, im- ——y-—
moral, or contrary to truths already known, the only
thing which could render the teacher’s afiertion incre¬
dible, would be its implying fuch an intimate commu¬
nion with Gud as is contrary to the efiabliffied courfe
of things, by vvhich men are left to acquire all their
knowledge by the exercife of their own faculties.——
Let us now fuppofe one of thofe infpired teachers to
tell his countrymen, that he did not defire them, on
his ip/e dixit, to believe that be bad any preternalu il
cemmunion with the Deity, but that for the truth of
his alfertion he would give them the evidence or dieir
Own fenfes; and after this declaration let us fuppo'e
him immediately to raife a perlon from the dead in
their prefence, merely by calling upon him to come
out of his grave. Would not the only poffible objec-.
tion to the man’s veracity be removed by this miracle ?
and his affections that he had received fuch and fuch
do&rines from God be as fully credited, as if it related
to the molt common occurrence ? Undoubtedly it
would ; for when fo much preternatural power was vi-
fibly communicated to this perfon, no one could have
reafon to queltion his having received an equal portion
of preternatural knowledge. A palpable deviation from
the known laws of nature, in one inftance, is a fenfible
proof that.fuch a deviation is poffible in another j and
in fuch a cafe as this, it is the witnefs of God to the
truth of a man.
Miracles, then, under which we include prophecy,
are the only direft evidence which can be given of di¬
vine infpiration. When a religion, or any religious
truth, is to be revealed from heaven, they appear to be
abfolutely neceffary to enforce its reception among men}
and this is the only cafe in wffiich we can fuppofe them
neceffary, or believe for a moment that they ever have
been or will be performed.
The hiltory of altffoft every religion abounds witli
relations of prodigies and wonders, and of the inter-
courfe of men with the gods } but we know of no re¬
ligious fyftem, thofe of the Jews and Chriftians ex¬
cepted, which appealed to miracles as the foie evidence
of its truth and divinity. The pretended miracles
mentioned by Pagan hifforians and poets are not faid
to have been publicly wrought to enforce the truth of
a new religion contrary to the reigning idolatry. Many
of them may be clearly ffiown to have been mere natu¬
ral events} (fee Magic.) Others of them are repre-
fented as having been performed in fecret on the moft
trivial occafions, and in obfeure and fabulous ages long
prior to the era of the writers by whom they are re- >
corded. And fuch of them as at firft view appear to be
beft attelled, are evidently tricks contrived for intereft-
ed purpofes} to flatter power, or to promote the pre¬
vailing furperftitions. For thefe reafons, as well as on
account of the immoral charafter of the divinities by
whom they are faid to have been wrought, they are al¬
together unworthy of examination, and carry in the very
nature of them the completefl: proofs of falfehood and
impollure.
But
1, £'/) Tttscvh) KcPxrlxtru TroXnuw. Qicv ftogxv ct-Sjc
1
MIR [ sSr ] MIR
Miracle. But the miracles recorded of Mofes and of Chrift
v bear a very different chara&er. None of them is re-
prefented as wrought on trivial occafions. The waiters
who mention them were eye witneffes of the faftsj which
they affirm to have been performed publicly, in atteffa-
tion of the truth of their refpe£live fyftems. They are
indeed fo incorporated with thefe fyftems, that the mi¬
racles cannot be feparated from the dodlrines j and if
the miracles wrere not really performed, the doctrines
cannot poflibly be true. Befides all this, they were
wrought in fupport of revelations which oppofed all the
religious fyllems, fuperftitions, and prejudices, of the age
in which they were given : a circumftance which of it-
felf fets them, in point of authority, infinitely above the
Pagan prodigies, as well as the lying wonders of the
Romiffi church.
It is indeed, we believe, univerfally admitted, that
the miracles mentioned in the book of Exodus and in
the four Gofpels, might, to thofe who faw them per¬
formed, be fufficient evidence of the divine infpiration
of Mofes and of Chriff: ; but to us it may be thought
that they are no evidence whatever, as wTe muff; be¬
lieve In the miracles themfelves, if wre believe in them
at all, upon the bare authority of human teftimony.
Why, it has been fometimes alked, are not miracles
wrought in all ages and countries ? If the religion of
Chrifl; was to be of perpetual duration, every generation
of men ought to have complete evidence of its truth
and divinity.
To the performance of miracles in every age and
in every country, perhaps the fame objedlions lie as
to the immediate infpiration of every individual. Were
thofe miracles univerfally received as fuch, men wrould
be fo overwhelmed with the number rather than with
the force of their authority, as hardly to remain ma¬
ilers of their own condu£l j and in that cafe the very
end of all miracles would be defeated by their frequency.
The truth, however, feems to be, that miracles fo fre¬
quently repeated would not be received as fuch, and
of courfe wrould have no authority •, becaufe it wrould
be difficult, and in many cafes impofiible, to diffinguifh
them from natural events. If they recurred regularly
at certain intervals, we could not prove them to be de¬
viations from the knowm lawrs of nature, becaufe we
fhould have the fame experience for the one feries of
events as for the other; for the regular fucceffion of
preternatural effedls, as for the eftabliffied conftitution
and courfe of things.
Be this, however, as it may, we ihall take the li¬
berty to affirm, that for the reality of the Gofpel mi¬
racles we have evidence as convincing to the reflecting
mind, though not fo ftriking to vulgar apprehenfion,
as thofe had wrho were contemporary with Chrifl; and
his apoftles, and aClually faw’ the mighty works wdiich
he performed. To the admirers of Mr Hume’s phi-
lofophy this affertion will appear an extravagant para¬
dox •, but we hope to demonftrate its truth from prin¬
ciples which, confiffently with himfelf, that author
could not have denied. He has indeed endeavoured
^Ejaycn to prove *, that “no teftimony is fufficient to efta-
Muacles. blifh a miracle and the reafoning employed for this
purpofe is, that “ a miracle being a violation of the
laws of nature which a firm and unalterable experi¬
ence has eftabliffied, the proof againft a miracle, from
the very nature of the fa£l, is as entire as any argu-
Vol. XIY. Part 1.
ment from experience can be ; whereas cur experience Miracle,
of human veracity, which (according to him) is the •—'
foie foundation of the evidence of teflimony, is far
from being uniform, and can therefore never prepon¬
derate againft that experience w hich admits of no ex¬
ception.” This boafted and plaulible argument has
with equal candour and acutenefs been examined by
Dr Campbell f, w’ho juffly obferves, that fo far is t DifTerta-
experience from being the foie foundation of the ev\-tio,1°n
dence of teftimony, that, on the contrary, teftimony ^liracles-
is the foie foundation of by far the greater part of what
Mr Hume calls firm and unalterable experience ; and
that if in certain circumftances we did not give an
implicit faith to teftimony, our knowldge of events
W'ould be confined to thofe which had fallen under the
immediate obfervation of our own fenfes. For a ffiort
view' of this celebrated controverfy, in which the Chri-
ftian fo completely vanquiihes the philofopher, fee the
word Abridgment.
But though Dr Campbell has expofed the fophiftry
of his opponent’s reafoning, and overturned the
ciples from which he reafons, we are perfuaded that
he might fafely have joined iffue with him upon thofe
very principles. To us, at lead, it appears that the
teftimony upon which we receive the Gofpel miracles
is precifely of that kind which Mr Hume has acknow¬
ledged fufficient to eftablifh even a miracle. “ No
teftimony (fays he) is fufficient to eftablifh a miracle,
unlefs the teftimony be of fuch a kind that its falfe-
hood would be more miraculous than the fa£t which
it endeavours to eftablilh. When one tells me that he
faw a dead man reftored to life, I immediately confi-
der with myfelf whether it be more probable that this
perfon fhould either deceive or be deceived, or that
the faift which he relates ftiould really have happened.
I weigh the one miracle againft the other; and ac¬
cording to the fuperiority which I difeover, I pronounce
my decifion, and always rejeft the greater miracle.”
In this paffage every reader may remark wffiat did not
efcape the perfpicacious eye of Dr Campbell, a ftrange
confufion of terms} but as all miracles are equally eafy
to the Almighty ; and as Mr Hume has elfewhere ob-
ferved, that “ the raifing of a feather, when the wind
w'ants ever fo little of a force requifite for that pur¬
pofe, is as real a miracle as the raifing of a houfe or
a fhip into the aircandour obliges us to fuppofe,
that by talking of greater and lefs miracles and of
always reje&ing the greater, he meant nothing more,
but that of two deviations from the known laws of
nature he always rejefts that which in itfelf is leaft
probable.
If, then, w'e can fhow that the teftimony given by
the apoftles and other firft preachers of Chriftianity to
the miracles of their mafter would, upon their fuppofi-
tion that thofe miracles were not really performed, have
been as great a deviation from the known laws of nature
as the miracles themfelves, the balance muff; be confi-
dered as evenly poifed by oppofite miracles *, and wdiilft
it continues fo, the judgement muff: remain in a ftate of
fufpenfe. But if it (hall appear, that in this cafe the
falfe teftimony would have been a deviation from the
laws of nature lefs probable in itfelf than the miracles
recorded in the Gofpels, the balance will be inftantly de-
ftroyed ; and by Mr Hume’s maxim we fhall be obliged
to reject the fuppofition of falfehood in the teftimony
N n of
M I H [ 2;*
Miracle, of the apoftles, and admit the miracles of Chnfl'to have
been really performed.
In this argument we need not wafle time in proving
that thofe miracles, as they are reprefented in the writ¬
ings of the New Teftnment, were of fuch a nature, and
performed before fo many witneffes, that no impoiition
could poffibly be prafiited on the fenies of thofe who
affirm that they were prefent. From every page of
the Gofpels this is fo evident, that the philofophical
adverfaries of the Chriflian faith never fuppofe the apo-
jfles to have been themfelves deceived, but boldly ac-
cufe them of bearing falfe witnefs. But if tnis accufa-
tion be weli founded, their teftimony itfelf is as great a
» miracle as any which they reoord of themfelves or of
their Mafter.
It has been fhown elfewherc (fee Metaphysics,
N° r^S.), that by the law of affociation, which is one
of the laws of nature, mankind, in the very procefs of
learning to fpeak, neceffarily learn to fpeak the truth •,
that ideas and relations are in the mind of every man fo
clofely aflfociated with the words by which they are ex-
preffsd in his native tongue, and in every other lan¬
guage of which he is matter, that the one cannot be en¬
tirely feparated from the other ; that therefore no man
can on any occafion fpeak falfehood witiiout fome ef¬
fort ; that by no effort can a man give conliftency to a
unpremeditated detail of falfehood, if it be of any length,
and include a number of particulars } and that it is i’till
lefs poffible for feveral men to agree in fuch a detail,
when at a diftance from each other, and crofs quefiion-
ed by their enemies.
This being the cafe, it follows, if the teftimony of
the apoftles to their own and their Matter’s miracles
be falfe, either that they mutt have conceited a con-
fiftent fcheme of falfehood, and agreed to publitti it at
every hazard ; or that God, or fame powerful agent
appointed by him, mutt have dilfolved all/ the aflfocia-
tions formed in their minds between ideas of fenfe and
the wmrds of language, and arbitrarily formed new af-
fociations, all in exadf conformity to each other, but all
in direct contradiction to truth. One or other of thefe
events mutt have taken place •, becaufe, upon the fup-
polition of falfehood, there is no other alternative. But
fuch a diffblution and formation of aflbeiations as the
latter implies, muft, to every man who ihall attentively
confider it, appear to be as real a miracle, and to re¬
quire as great an exertion of power, as the refurreftion
of the dead. Nor is the fuppofed voluntary agreement
of the apottles in a fcheme of falfehood an event lefs mi¬
raculous. When they fat down to fabricate their pre¬
tended revelation, and to contrive a feries of miracles
to which they were unanimoufly to appeal for its truth,
it is plain, ftnce.they proved fuccefsful in their daring
enterprife, that they mutt have clearly forefeen every
poffible circumttance in which they could be placed,
and have prepared confident anfwers to every queftion
that could be put to them by their moft inveterate and
moft enlightened enemies ; by the ftatefman, the lawyer,
the philofopher, and the prieft. That fuch foreknow¬
ledge as this would have been miraculous, will not fine¬
ly be denied ; fince it forms the very attribute which
we find it moil difficult to allow even to God himielf.
It is not, however, the on/y miracle which this fuppof-
tion would compel us to fwallow. The tfery refolution
of the apottles to propagate the belief of falfe miracles
j ] M I U
in fupport of fuch a religion as that which is taught in
the New Teftament, is as great a miracle as human
imagination can eaftly conceive.
When they formed this defign, either they mutt have
hoped to fucceed, or they mutt have forefeen that they
fliould fail in their undertaking ; and in either cafe,
they chafe evil for its own fake. They could not, if
they forefaw that they ftiould fail, look for any thing
but that contempt, difgrace, and perfecution, which
were then the inevitable confequences of an unfuccefs-
ful endeavour to overthrow the eftahlilhed religion.
Nor could their profpedts be brighter upon the fuppoft-
ticn of their fuccefs. As they knew themfelves to be
falfe witneffes and impious deceivers, they could have
no hopes beyond the grave •, and by determining to cp-
pofe all the religious fyitems, fuperftitions, and preju¬
dices of the age in which they lived, they wilfully ex-
pofed themfelves to inevitable milery in the prefent life,
to infult, and imprifonment, to ftripes and death. Nor
can it be faid that they might look forward to power
and affluence when they fflould, through fufferings, have
converted their countrymen 5 for fo delirous were they
of obtaining nothing but mifery, as the end of their
miffion, that they made their own perfecution a teft of
the truth of their doffrines. They introduced the Ma¬
tter from whom they pretended to have received thefe
doclrines as telling them, that “ they were fent forth as
ftieep in the midft of wolves ; that they ihouid be deli¬
vered up to councils, and fcourged in fynagoguesj that
they ttiould be hated of all men for his name’s fake j
that the brother fliould deliver up the brother to death,
and the father tbe child ; and that he who took not up
his crofs and followed after him was not worthy of
him.” The very fyftem of religion, therefore, which
they invented and refolved to impofe upon mankind,
was fo contrived, that the worldly profperity of its firtt.
preachers, and even their exemption from perfecution,
w7as incompatible with its iuccefs. Had thefe clear pre¬
dictions of the Author of that religion, under whom the
apottles acted only as minifters, not been verified, all
mankind muft have inftantly perceived that their pre¬
tence to infpiration was falfe, and that Chriftianity was
a foandalous and impudent impofture. Ail this the
apoftles could not but forefee when they formed their
plan for deluding the world. Whence it follows, that
when they refolved to fupport their pretended revela¬
tion by an appeal to forged miracles, they wilfully, and
with their eyes open, expofed themfelves to inevitable
mifery, whether they ttiould fucceed or fail in their en¬
terprife ; and that they concerted their meafures fo as
not to admit of a poffibility of recompenfe to themfelves,
either in this life or in that which is to come. But if
there be a law of nature, for the reality of which we
have better evidence th^n ive have for others, it is, that
“ no man can choofe mifery for its own fakef or make
the acquilition of it the ultimate end of his purfuit.
The exiftence of other laws of nature we know by tef-
timony and our own obfervation of the regularity of
their efFeifts. The exiftence of this law is made known
to us not only by thefe means, but alfo by the ftill
clearer and more conclufive evidence of our own con-
feioufnefs.
Thus, then, do miracles force themfelves upon our
affent in every poflible view which we can take of this
interefting fubjeft. If the tettimony of the firft
preacher
Mii'acle.
MIR [2
Miracle preachers of Chriftianity was true, the miracles record-
K ed in the Gofpel were certainly performed, and the doc-
Mirandola.tr-nes of our rejjg5on are derived from heaven. On the
other hand, if that teilimony was falfe, either God mult
have miraculoufly effaced from the minds of thofe by
whom it was given all the affociations formed between
their fenfible ideas and the words of language, or he
mult have endowed thofe men frith the gift of prefci-
enee, and have impelled them to fabricate a pretended
revelation for the purpofe of deceiving the world,
and involving themfelves in certain and forefeen de¬
ft rudtion.
The power neceffary to perform the one feries of
thefe miracles may, for any thing known to us, be as
great as that which would be requifite for the perform¬
ance of the other •, and, confidered merely as exertions
of preternatural power, they may feem to balance each
other, and to hold the mind in a ftate of fufpenfe. But
when we take into confideration the difterent purpofes
for which thefe oppofite and contending miracles were
wrought, the balance is inftantly deftroyed. The mi¬
racles recorded in the Gofpels, if real, were wrought in
fupport of a revelation which, in the opinion of all by
W'hom it is received, has brought to light many import¬
ant truths which could not otherwife have been made
known to men } and which, by the confeflion of its ad-
verfaries, contains the pureft moral precepts by w7hich
the condudl of mankind w7as ever direffed. The oppo¬
fite feries of miracles, if real, was performed to enable,
and even to*compel, a company of Jews, of the loweft
rank and of the narroweft education, to fabricate, with
the view of inevitable deftruftion to themfelves, a con-
fiftent fcheme of falfehood, and by an appeal to forged
miracles to impofe it upon the world as a revelation
from heaven. The objeft of the former miracles is
worthy of a Gad of infinite w'ifdom, goodnefs, and
power. The objeft of the latter is abfolutely inconfift-
ent with wifdom and goodnefs, which are demonftrably
attributes of that Being by whom alone miracles can be
performed. Whence it follows, that the fuppofition of
the apoftles bearing falfe teftimony to the miracles of
their Matter, implies a feries of deviations from the laws
of nature, infinitely lefs probable in themfelves than
thofe miracles : and therefore by Mr Hume’s maxim,
we muft neceflarily reje<5l the fuppolition of faifehood in
the teftimony, and admit the reality of the miracles.
So true it is, that for the reality of the Gofpel miracles
we have evidence as convincing to the reflecting mind,
as thofe had who w'ere contemporary with Chrift and
his apoftles, and were aftual witneffes to their mighty
works.
MIRANDA-DE-Ebro, a town of Spain, in Old
Caftile, with a ftrong cattle 5 feated in a country that
produces excellent wine. W. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat.
42. 52.
MIRANDO-DE-Douro, or Duero, a ftrong town
of Portugal, and capital of the province of Tra-los-
Montes, with a bifRop’s fee. It is well fortified, and
feated on a rock near the confluence of the rivers Douro
and Frefna. W. Long. 5. 40. N. Lat. 41. 30.
MIR ANDO LA, a town of Italy, and capital of a
duchy of the fame name, fituated between the duchies
of Mantua and Modena j is well fortified, and has alfo
a ftrong citadel and fort. It has been fevcral times ta¬
ken and retaken. E. Long. 11. 5. N. Lat. 44. 52.
83 ] Mis
MIRIAM, fifter of Aaron and Mofes, makes trvo Mxnaaf
or three remarkable appearances in Scripture. It was
owing to her that her mother wras employed by Pha- ture
raoh’s daughter as nurfe to Mofes. She put herfelf —v—
at the head of the women of Ifrael after their paflage
through the Red !ea, in order to ftng the fong which
the men had fung before. She joined with her bro¬
ther Aaron in murmuring againft Mofes, and was fe-
verely chaftifed for that adlion ; for (he became leprous,
and continued feparate from the r<fft without the camp
for feven days. She died before her brothers, though
in the fame year with them, and was buried at the pub¬
lic expence.
MIRROR, a name for a looking glafs, or any po-
liftied body, whofe ufe is to form the images of diftant
objedls, by reftedtion of th^rays of light. See Reflec¬
tion.
Mirrors are either plane, convex, or concave. The
firft refledl the rays of light in a direclion exadlly fimi-
lar to that in which they fall upon them, and therefore
reprefent bodies of their natural magnitude. T he con¬
vex ones make the rays diverge much more than before
refledtion, and therefore greatly diminilh the images of
thofe objedts which they ftrow : while the concave ones,
by colledling the rays into a focus, not only magnify
the objedls they ftiow, but will burn very fiercely when
expofed to the rays of the fun ; and hence they are
commonly knoum by the name of burning mirrors. See
Burning Mirrors.
In ancient times the mirrors were made of fome kind
of metal ; and from a paflfage of the Mofaic writings wTe
learn that the mirrors ufed by the Jewdih women were
made of brafs. The Jews certainly had been taught to
ufe that kind of mirrors by the Egyptians j from vvhence
it is probable that brazen mirrors were the firft kind
ufed in the world. Any kind of metal, indeed, when
well polilhed, will refledt very powerfully ; but of all
others ftlver reftedls the moft, though it has been in all
countries too expenfive a material for common ufe.
Gold alfo is very powerful; and metals, or even wood,
gilded and poliftied, will adt very powerfully as burn¬
ing mirrors. Even poliftied ivory, or ftraw nicely plait¬
ed together, will form mirrors capable of burning, if on
a large fcale.
Since the invention of glafs, and the application of
quickiilver to«»‘:, became generally known, it hath been
univerfally employed for thofe plane mirrors ufed as or¬
naments to houfes j but in making refledfing telefcopes,
they have been found much inferior to metallic ones.
It doth not appear that the fame fuperiority belongs to
the metalline burning mirrors, confidered merely as
burning glaffes j fince the mirror with which M. Mac-
quer melted platina, though only 22 inches diameter, and
which was made of quicklilvered glafs, produced much
greater effedts than M. Villette’s metalline fpeculum,
which confiderably exceeded it in fize. It is very pro¬
bable, however, that this mirror of M. Villette’s was
by no means fo well polifhed as it ought to have been ;
as the art of preparing the metal for taking the fineft
poliih has but lately been difcovered and publiftied in
the Philofophical Tranfadtions by Mr Mudge. See
Gl Ass-Grinding.
MIRE-CROW, Sea-crcw, or Pewit. See Larus,
Ornithology',
MISADVENTURE, in common language, figni-
N n 2
V
M I S
Mtr -fieS fy unIucky accident which takes place without'be-
[ 284 ]
Mrs
lure
. i!
Milrhna.
ing forefeen
. Misadventure, in Law, has an efpecial fignifica-
—< tion tor the killing a man partly by negligence, and
partly by chance. See Homicide.
MISANi HROPY (from fua-tg, hatred, and
^oiTvag, a mati) ; a general dillike or averlion to man,
and mankind. In which fenfe it ftands oppofed to phi-
tanthropy, or the love of mankind.
MISCARRIAGE. See Abortion and Mid¬
wifery.
MISCHNA, or Misna, (from mir, iteravit), a part
of the Jewilh Talmud. '
Tim Mifchna contains the text; and the Gemara,
v^nch is the lecond part of the Talmud, contains the
commentaries : fo that the Gemara is, as it were, a glof-
fary on the Mifchna.
The Mifchna confifts of various traditions of the
Jews, and of explanations of feveral pafTages of Scrip¬
ture : theie traditions ferving as an explication of the
written law, and fupplement to it, are faid to have
been delivered to Mofes during the time of his abode
on the Mount; which he afterwards communicated to
Aaron, Eleazar, and his fervant Jofhua. By thefe they
irere tranfmitted to. the 70 elders, by them to the pro¬
phets, who communicated them to the men of the great
fanhedrim, from whom the wife men of Jerufalem and
Babylon received them. According to Prideaux’s ac¬
count, they palled from Jeremiah to Baruch, from him
to Ezra, and irom Ezra to the men of the great fyna-
gogue, the laft of whom wras Simon the Juft ; who de¬
livered them to Antigonus of Socho : and from him
they came down in regular fucceflion to Simeon, who
took our Saviour in his arms ; to Gamaliel, at whofe
leet Paul was educated ; and laft of all to Rabbi Judah
the Holy, who committed them to writing in the
Mifchna. But Dr Prideaux, reje&ing this Jewifh fic¬
tion, obferves, that after the death of Simon the Tuft
about 299 years before Chrift, the Mifchnical doftorJ
arofe, who, by their comments and conclufions, added
to.the number of thofe traditions which had been re¬
ceived and allowed by Ezra and the men of the great
Synagogue ; fo that towards the middle of the fecond
century after Chrift, under the empire of Antoninus
iuus, it rvas found nec.effary to commit thefe traditions
fo writing ; more efpecially, as their country had con-
fiderably fuffered under Adrian, and many of their
xchools had been dilfolved, and their learned men cut
eft ; and therefore the ufual method of preferving their
traditions had failed. Rabbi Judah on this occafion be¬
ing re£1 or of the fchool at Tiberias, and prefident of the
fanhedrim in that place, undertook the work, and com-
pilea it in fix books, each confiding of feveral tra&s
which altogether make up the number of 6?. Prid
Conncx. vol. ir. P. 468, &c. edit. 9. This learned au¬
thor computes, that the Mifchna was compofed about
y°uT- rf,°f °Ur L°rd ; hut Dr Lightfoot fays,
r Jud?n cotnPlled th? Mifchna about the year
of Chnft 190, in the latter end of the reign of Com-
mcc us; or, as feme compute, in the year of Chrift 220.
Dr Eardner is of opinion, that this work could not
have been fimlhed before the year 190, or later. Col¬
let. of Jewilh and Heathen Teftimonies, &c. vol i
p. 17R Thus the book called the Mifchna was form¬
ed; a book which the Jews have generally received
with, the greateft veneration. The original has been
published with a Latin tranflation by Surenhufius, with
notes of his own, and others from the learned Maimo-
nides, &c. in 6 vol. fob Amfterd. A. D. 1698—1703.
(See 1 almud). It is written in a much purer ftyle,
r dreams and vifions as the Ge-
and is not near fo full o
mara.
MISDEMEANOUR, in Law, fignifies a crime.
Every crime is a mifdemeanour ; yet the law has made
a cuftinftion between crimes of a higher and a lower
nature ; the latter being denominated mifdemeanourx,
the.foxmer felonies, &c. For the underftanding of which
diftinclion, we lhail give the following definition from
Blackftone’s Commentaries, vol. iv. 3.
A crime, or mifdemeanour, is an a<ft committed
or omitted, in violation of a public lawg either forbid¬
ding or commanding it. This general definition com-.
pi eh ends both crimes and mfdemeanours ; which, pro¬
perly fpeaking, are mere fynonymous terms; though,
in common ufage, the word crime is made to denote
fuch oflences as are of a deeper and more atrocious dye ;
while fmafter faults, and omiflions of lefs confequence
are compnfed under the gentler name of mfdemeanours
only.”
M1SE, in law books, is ufed in various fenfes :
thus it fometimes fignif es cofts or expences; in which
fenfe it is commonly ufed in entering of judgements in
aftions perfonal. It is alia ufed for the iffue to be
tried on the grand affize; in which cafe, joining of the
nufe upon the mere right, is putting in iffue between
the tenant and demandant, Who has the beft or clear-
eft right.
Mise, alfo fignifies a tax or tallage, &c. An ho¬
norary gift, or cuftomary prefent from the people of
Wales to every new king or prince of Wales, anciently
given in cattle, wine, and corn, but now in money,
being 5000I. or more, is denominated a mfe : fo was the
ufual tribute or fine of 3000 meiks paid'by the inhabi¬
tants of the county palatine of Chefter at the change of
every owner of the laid earldom, for enjoying their li¬
berties. And at Chefter they have a mile-book, where¬
in every towm and village in the county is rated what to
pay towards the mife. The 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26. or¬
dains that lords (hall have aft fuch mifes and profits of
their lands as they had in times paft, Sec.
Mise, is fometimes alfo corruptly ufed for meafe, in
law French mees, “ a mefluage as a mfe place, in
iome manors, is fuch a mefluage or tenement as an-
iwers the lord a heriot at the' death of its owner. 
2. Infl. 528.
MISENUM, or Misenus, in Ancient Geography;
a promontory, port, and town in Campania, fituafted to
the fouth-weft of Baiae, in the Sinus Puteolanus, on the
north fide. Here Auguftus had a fleet, called Claflis
Mijenenfis, for guarding the Mare Inferum ; as he had
another at Ravenna for the Superura.
. On this peninfula a villa was built by Caius Marius,
wfltb a degree of elegance that gave great offence to the
more auftere among the Romans, who thought it ill
fuited to the charaifter of fo rough a loldier. Upon the
fame foundation Lucullus the plunderer of the eaftern
world, ereefted an edifice, in comparifon of which the
former houfe was a cottage ; but even his magnificence
was eclipfed. by the fplendour of the palace which the
emperors rsufed upon the fame fpot. To thefe proud
abodes
Milfte-
meanour
. II
Mifenum.
t
MIS r 2$5 ] M I S
Mifer. abodes of heroes and monarch?, which tave lon^ been
”~v~' levelled to the ground, a few dflung huts, as Mr Swin¬
burne informs us, and a lonely public houfe, have fuc-
ceeded : hither boatmen refort to tipple perhaps on the
• identical fite where the voluptuous mailers ot the world
quaffed Chian and Falernian wanes.
MISER, a parfimonibus perfon who is at the fame
time rich •, or a wretch covetous to extremity, whom
avarice has diverted of all the charities of human na¬
ture, and made even an enemy to himfelf.
Of this moll unaccountable of all charadters, many
inrtances occur •, fome of them fo extraordinary as al-
mofl to furpafs belief. The following are here feleft-
ed, as being of recent date, perfedfly authentic, and
the laft of them in particular exhibiting an affemblage
of qualities the moft rtngular perhaps that ever exifted
in the fame perfon. Too little dignirted to merit a
place in regular biography7, yet too curious a variety of
human chara6ler to pafs unnoticed in this work, the
preient feemed the only title under which it could with
propriety be introduced.
1. In December 1790, died at Paris, literally of
want, Mr Ortervald, a well known banker. This man,
originally of Neufchatel, felt the violence of the dif-
eafe of avarice (for furely it is rather a difeafe than a
paflion of the mind) fo ilrongly, that within a few days
of his death, no importunities could induce him to buy
a few pounds of meat for the purpofe of making a little
foup for him. “ ’Tis true (laid he), I fliould not dif-
like the foup, but I have no appetite for the meat;
what then is to become of that ?” At the time that he
refufed this nourithment, for fear of being obliged to
give away two or three pounds of meat, there was tied
round his neck a filken bag, which contained 800 af-
lignats of 1000 livres each. At his outlet in life, he
drank a pint of beer which ferved him for fupper, every
right at a houfe much frequented, from which he car¬
ried home all the bottle corks he could come at. Of
thele, in the eourfe of eight years, he had collefted as
many as fold for 12 louis d’or, a fum that had laid the
foundation of his future fortune, the fuperftrudluie of
which was rapidly railed by his uncommon fuccefs in
flock jobbing. He died pofleffed of three millions of
livres (125,003!. rterling).
2. The late John Elwes, Efq. was member for .Berk-
Ihire in three fucceflive parliaments. His family name
was Meggot; and his father Was a brewer of great
eminence, and diilinguiflied by no peculiarity of cha¬
racter : but his mother, though flie was left nearly
100,cool, by her hulband, ftarved herfelf to death!
At an early period of life he was fent to Weftminfter
fchool, where he remained for 10 or 12 years. Dur¬
ing that time he certainly had not mifapplied his ta¬
lents ; for he was a good clafl'ical fcholar to the lall:
and it is a circumrtance not a little remarkable, though
well authenticated, that he never read afterwards, nor
had he ever any knowledge in accounts $ to which
may in fome meafure be attributed the total ignorance
lie was always in as to his affairs. From Weffminrter
fchool Mr Meggot removed to Geneva, where he foon
entered upon purfuits more agreeable to him than fludy.
The riding mafter of the academy^ there had then to
boaft perhaps of three of the beft riders in Europe, Mr
Worrtey, Mr Elwes, and Sir Sidney Meadows. Of
the three, Elwes was reckoned the ntofl defperate } the
young horfes were always put into his hands, and he
was the rough rider to the other two.
On his return to England, after an abfence of two
or three years, he was to be introd. A to his uncle the
late Sir Harvey Elwes, who was then living at Stoke
in Suffolk, perhaps the moff pert- A piTire of human
penury that ever exifted. Th attempts at Tav.ng mo¬
ney were in him fo extraordinary, that Mr Eiwes per¬
haps never quite reached them, even at the iaff period
of his life.—Of what temperance can do, Sir Harvey
was an inftance. At an early period of life he was gi¬
ven over for a confumption, and he lived till betwixt
80 and 90 years of age. On his death, his fortune,
which was at leatl 250,000!. fell to his nephew Mu
Meggot, who by will was ordered to affume the name
and arms of Elwes. To this uncle, and this property,
Mr Eiwes fucceeded when he had advanced beyond
the 40th year of his age. For 15 years previous to this
period, he was well known in the more fafhionable cir¬
cles of London. Fie had always a turn for play ; and
it was only late in life, and from paying always and not
always being paid, that he conceived difguft at it. The
theory which he profeiTed, “ that it was impoffible to
afk a gentleman for money,” he perfeilly confirmed by
the practice 5 and he never violated this feeling to the
lateft hour of his life.
The manners of Mr Elwes were fuch—fo gentle, fo
attentive, fo gentlemanly, and fo engaging—that rude-
nefs could not ruffle them, or itrong ingratitude break
their obfervance. He retained this peculiar feature of
the old court to the laft : but he had a praife beyond
this; Fie had the moft gallant difregard of his own per¬
fon, and all care about himfelf that can be imagined.
The inftances in younger life, in the moll imminent
perfonal hazard, are innumerable j but when age had
defpoiled him of his aflivity, and might have rendered
care and attention about himfelf natural, he knew not
what they were : He wilhed no one to affift him :
“ He was as young as ever 5 he could walk; he could
ride, and he could dance j and he hoped he ftiould not
give trouble even when he was old He was at that
time 75.
It is curious to remark how he contrived to mingle
fmall attempts at having with objects of the moft un¬
bounded diffipation. After fitting up a whole night
at play for thoufands with the moft faftiionable and pro¬
fligate men of the time, amidlt fplendid rooms, gilt fofas,
wax lights, and waiters attendant on his call, he would
walk out about four in the morning, not towards home,
but into Smithfield, to meet his own cattle, which were
coming to market from Thaydonhall, a farm of his in
Effex ! There would this fame man, forgetful of the
feenes he had juft left, Hand in the cold or rain, barter¬
ing with a carcafs butcher for a {hilling ! Sometimes
when the cattle did not arrive at the hour he expected,
he would walk on in the mire to meet them •, and more
than once has gone on foot the whole way to his farm
without Hopping, which was 17 miles from London,
after fitting up the whole night. Had every man been
of the mind of Mr Elwes, the race of innkeepers mull
have periftied, and poft-chaifes have been returned back
to thofe who made them ; for it was the bufinefs of his
life to avoid both. He always travelled on horfeback.
To fee him fetting out on a journey, was a matter truly
curious; his firft care was to put two or three eggs,
boiled,
Wur.
—“V—
* Mr Top-
ham; from
whofe Life
of John
JLlnves, Efq.
the parti¬
culars ef
this article
are extract ¬
ed.
MIS [ 286 ] MIS
boiied hard, into his great coat pocket, or any fejaps
of bread which be found ; baggage he never took \ then
mounting one of his hunters, his next attention was to
get out of London into that road where turnpikes were
the fewjeft : then, flopping under any hedge where grafs
prefented itfelffor his borfe, and a little water for him-
felf, he would fit down and refrefh himfelf and his horfe
togetiier.
The chief refidence of Mr Elwes at this period of his
life was in Berkfh're, at his own feat at Marcham. Here
it was he had two natural fons born, who inherit the
greatefl part of his , property by a will made about the
year 1785. The keeping of fox hounds was the only
iuftance in the whole life of Mr Eiwes of his ever facri-
ficing money to pleafure 5 and may be felefled as the
only period when he forgot the cares, the perplexities,
and the regret, which his wealth occafioned. But
even here every thing was done in the mofi frugal man¬
ner. Scrub, in the Beaux Stratagem, when compared
with Mr El wes’s huntfman, had an idle life of it. This
famous huntfman might have fixed an epoch in the
hiftory of fervants ; for in a morning, getting up at
four o’clock, he milked the cows ; he then prepared
breakfaft for Mr Elwes or any friends he might have
with him : then flipping on a green coat, he hurried
into the liable, faddled the horfes, got the hounds out
of the kennel, and away they w7ent into the field. After
the fatigues of hunting, he refreflied himfelf by rubbing
dowrn two or three horfes as quickly as he could ; then
running into the houfe to lay the cloth, and wait at
dinner 5 then hurrying again into the liable to feed the
horfes—diverfified with an interlude of the cowts again
to milk, the dogs to feed, and eight hunters to litter
down for the nio;ht.
In the penury of Mr Elwes there was fomething that
feemed like a judgement from heaven. All earthly
comforts he voluntarily denied himfelf: he would walk
home in the rain London rather than pay a IhilJing
for a coach ; he would fit in wet clothes fooner than
have a fire to dry them •, he would eat his provifions in
the laft liage of putrefadiion fooner than have a frelh
joint from the butchers ; and he wore a wig for above
a fortnight, which his biographer * faw him pick up out
of a rutin a lane vrhere they were riding. This was the
lafl extremity of laudable economy 5 for to all appearance
it was the cafl-off wig of fome beggar !
Mr Elwes had now refided about 13 years in Suffolk,
when the contefl for Berklhire prefented itfelf on the
diffolution of the parliament; and when, to preferve the
peace of that county, he was nominated by Lord Cra¬
ven. Mr Elwes, though he had retired from public
bufinefs for fome years, had ftill left about him fome of
the feeds of more aftive life, and he agreed to the pro-
pofal. It came farther enhanced to him, by the' agree¬
ment, that he was to be brought in by the freeholders
for nothing. All he did on the occafion was dining at
the ordinary at Reading $ and he got into parliament
for 18 pence !
1 hough a new man, Mr Elwes could not be called
a young member ; for he was at this time nearly 60
years old when he thus entered on public life. But he
was in poffefiion of all his aflivity ; and, preparatory
to his appearance on the boards of St Stephen’s Chapel,
he ufed to attend confiantly during the races and
other public meetings all the great towns where his
3
voters refided. At the different affemblies he would Mife,
dance among the youngeft to the laft, after riding over ’’“■"■‘n
on horfeback, and frequently in the rain, to the place
of meeting. A gentleman who v,Tas one night {land¬
ing by, oblerved on the extraordinary agility of fo old
a man.—“ O ! that is nothing (replied another) j for
Mr El wes, to do this, rode 20 miles in the rain, with
his flioes ftuck into his boots and his bag-wig in his
pocket.”
The honour of parliament made no alteration in
the drefs of Mr Elvves : on the contrary, it feemed
at this time to have attained additional meannefs j
and nearly to have reached that happy climax of po¬
verty, which has more than once drawn on him the
compaffion of thofe who pafled by him in the ftreet.
For the fpeaker’s dinners, however, he had one fuit,
wi th which the fpeaker in the courfe of the feffions
became very familiar. The minifter likewife was well
acquainted with it; and at any dinner of oppofition
ftill was his apparel the fame. The wits of the mino¬
rity ufed to fay, “ that they had full as much reafon
as the miniiler to be fatisfied with Mr Elwes, as he
had the fame habit with every body.” At this period
of his life Mr Elwes wore a wig. Much about the time
when his parliamentary life ceafed, that wig was worn
out ; fo then, being older and wifer as to expence, he >
wore his own hair, which like his expences was very
fmall.
All this time the income of Mr Elwes was increaf-
ing hourly, and his prefent expenditure was next to
nothing ; for the little pleafures he had once engaged
in he had now given up. He kept no houfe, and only
one old fervant and a couple of horfes : he refided with
his nephew : his two fons he had flationed in Suffolk
and Berkfhire, to look after his refpedlive eftates: and
his drefs certainly was no expence to him ; for had not
other people been more careful than himfelf, he would
not have had it even mended.
When he left London, he went on horfeback to his
country feats with his couple of hard eggs, and with¬
out once flopping upon the road at ary houfe. He
always took the moft unfrequented road, and ufed
every fhift to avoid turnpikes. Marcham was the feat
he now chiefly vifited ; which hnd fome reafon to be
flattered with the preference, as his journey into Suf¬
folk coft him only twopence-halfpeny, while that into
Berkfhire amounted to fourpence !
As Mr Elrves came into parliament without ex¬
pence, he performed his duty as a member would have
done in the pure days of ouj: conffitutioni What
he had not bought he never attempted to fell; and
he went forward in that ftraight and direft path,
which can alone fatisfy a reflefting mind. Amonglt
the frnaller memorials of the parliamentary life of Mr
Elwes may be noted, that he did not follow the cu-
flom of members in general by fitting on any parti¬
cular fide of the houfe, but fat as occafion prefented
itfelf on either indifcriminately ; and he voted much
in the fame manner, but never rofe to fpeak. In his
attendance at the houfe, he was always early and late $
and he never left it for dinner, as he had accuflomed
himfelf to falling, fometimes for 24 hours in conti¬
nuance.
When he quitted parliament, he was, in the com¬
mon phrafe, “ a fifh cut of water!” The fiyle of Mr
Elvves’s
MIS [2
Mifer. Elwes’s life had left him no domeftic fcenes to which
v he could retire—his home was dreary and poor—his
rooms received no cheerfulnefs from fire y and while
the outfide had all the appearance of a “ Houfe to be
Let,” the infide was a defert; but he had his penury
alone to thank for this, and for the want of all the
little confolations which fhould attend old age, and
fmooth the paffage of declining life. At the clofe of
the fpring of 1785, he wilhed again to vifit, which
he had not done for fome years, his feat at Stoke.
.But then the journey was a moft ferious obje£l to him.
The famous old fervant was dead ; all the hcrfes that
remained xvith him were a couple of worn-out brood
mares ; and he himfelf was not in that vigour of body
in which he could ride 60 or 70 miles on the fufle-
nance of two boiled eggs. The mention of a poll chaife
would have been a crime—“ He afford a poll chaife,
indeed ! where was he to get the money ?” would
have been his exclamation. At length he was carried
into the country as he was carried into parliament,
free of expence, by a gentleman who was certainly
not quite fo rich as Mr Elwes. When he reached
Stoke—the feat of more affive fcenes, of fomewhat re-
fembling hofpitality, and where his fox hounds had
fpread fomewdiat like vivacity around—he remarked,
he had expended a great deal of money once very
fooliflily j but that a man grew' wifer by time.”
The rooms at this feat, which were now much out of
repair, and would have all fallen in but for his fon John
Elwes, Efq. who had refided there, he thought too
expenfively furnifhed, as worfe things might have
ferved. If a window was broken, there was to be no
repair but that of a little'brown paper, or that. of
piecing in a bit of broken glafs j wdiich had at length
been done fo frequently, and in fo many fhapes, that
it would have puzzled a mathematician to fay “ what
figure they defcribed.” To fave fire, he would walk
about the remains of an old greenhoufe, or fit with a
fervant in the kitchen. During the harveft he xvould
amufe himfelf with going into the fields to glean the
corn on the grounds of his own tenants ; and they
ufed to leave a'little more than common to pleafe the
old gentleman, who was as eager after it as any pau¬
per in the parilh. In the advance of the feafon, bis
morning employment was to pick up any ftray chips,
bones, or other things, to carry to the fire, in his
pocket—and he was one day furprifed by a neighbour¬
ing gentleman in the aft of pulling down, with fome
difficulty, a crow’s neft for this purpofe. On the
gentleman xvondering why he gave himfelf this trou¬
ble—“ Oh, Sir, (replied old Elwes), it is really a ffiame
that thefe creatures ffiould do fo. Do but fee what
walle they make ! They don’t care how extravagant
they are !■”
As no gleam of favourite paffion, or any ray of
amufement, booke through this gloom of penury, his
infatiable defire of faving was now become uniform
and fyftematic. He ufed Hill to ride about the coun¬
try on one of thefe mare?—but then he rode her very
economically, on the foft turf, adjoining the road,
without putting himfelf to the expence of {hoes, as he
obferved, “ The turf was fo pleafant to a hcrfe’s foot !”
And when any gentleman called to pay him a vifit,
and" the boy who attended in the ftables was profufe
enough to put a little hay before his horfe; old Ehves
87 ] MIS
would ffily fteal back into the liable, and take the
hay very carefully away. That very ftrong appetite
which Mr Elwes had in fome meafure reftrained dur¬
ing the long fitting of parliament, he now indulged
moft voracioully, and on every thing he could find.
To (ave, as he thought, the expence of going to a
butcher, he would have a whole ffieep killed, and fo
eat mutton to the—end of the chapter. When he oc-
cafionally had his river drawn, though fometimes horle
loads of fmall fifti were taken, not one would he fuf-
fer to be thrown in again; for: he obferved, He
ftiould never fee them again !”' Game in the laft ftate
of putrefaction, and meat that walked about his platey
would he continue to eat, rather than have new things
killed before the old provifion was finiffied. With
this diet—the charnel houfe offufenance—his drefs kept
pace—-equally in the laft ftage of abfolule dijfolution.
Sometimes he would walk about in a tattered brown-
coloured hat, and fometimes in a red and white wool¬
len cap, like a prifoner confined for debt. His
{hoes he never would fuffer to be cleaned, left they
fhould be worn out the fooner. But ftill, with all
this felf-denial—that penury of life to which the in¬
habitant of an alms houfe is not doomed—ftill did
he think he was profufe, and frequently fay, “ He
muft be a little more careful of his property.” His
difquietude on the fubjeCt of money was now conti¬
nual. When he went to bed, he would put five or
ten guineas into a bureau ; and then, full of his mo-
.ney, after he had retired to reft, and fometimes in the
middle of the night, he would come down to fee if it was
there.
• The feene of mortificaTion at which Mr Elw7es was
now arrived was all but a denial of the common ne-
ceffaries of life : and indeed it might have admitted a
doubt, whethel or not, if his manors, his fi(h ponds,
and fome grounds in his own hands, had not furniftied
a fubliftence, where he had not any thing actually to
buy, he would not, rather than have bought any thing,
have ftarved. Strange as this may appear, it is not ex¬
aggerated.—He one day, during this period, dined upon
the remaining part of a moor hen, which had been
brought out of the river by a rat ! and at another ate
an undigefted part of a pike which a larger one had
fwallowed, but had not finilhed, and which were taken
in this ftate in a net. At the time this laft circumftance
happened, he efifeovered a ftrange kind of fatisfaClion ;
for he faid to a friend, “ Aye ! this xvas killing two
birds with one fione !” In the room of all comment-—
of all moral—let it be remarked, that at this time Mr
Elwes was perhaps worth nearly hundred thoufand
pounds ! and, at this period, he had not made his will,
of courfe was not faving from any fentiment of aftedion ,
for any per fon.
The fummer of 1788 Mr Elwes pafled at his houfe
in Welbeck ftreet, London ; and he paffed that fum¬
mer without any other fociety than that of two maid
fervants; for he had now given up the expence of
keeping any male domeftic. . His chief employment ufed
to be that of getting up early in a morning to vifit fome
of his houfes in Mary-le-bone, xvhich during the fum¬
mer were repairing. As he was there generally at ,
four o’clock in a morning, he was of courfe on the
fpot before the workmen ; and he ufed contentedly
to fit.down on the fteps before the door, to fcold
them, t
MIS r 288 1 M I s
them when they did . come. The neighbours who ufed
to fee him appear thus regularly every morning, and
who concluded, from his apparel, that he was one of
the workmen, obferved, “ there never was io punctual a
man as the old carpenter.” During the whole morn¬
ing he wTould continue to run up and down flairs to fee
the men were not idle for an inftant, with the fame an¬
xiety as if his whole happinefs in life had been centered
in the finifhing of this houfe, regardlefs of the greater
property he had at a flake in various places, and for
ever employed in the minutice only of affairs. Indeed
fuch was his anxiety about this houfe, the rent of which
was not above 50I. a-year, that it brought on a fever
which nearly coff him his life : but the fate which drag¬
ged him on thus ftrangely to bury him under the load
of his own wealth, feemed as refifflefs as it was unac¬
countable.
In the mufcular and unencumbered frame of Mr
Ehves there was every thing th it premifed extreme
length of life \ and he lived to above 70 years of age
without any natural, diforder attacking him : but, as
Lord Bacon has well obferved, “ the minds of fome
men are a lamp that is continually burning and fuch
was the mind of Mr Elwes.^ Removed from thofe
cccafional public avocations wdiich had once engaged
his attention, money was nowr his only thought. He rofe
upon money—upon money he lay down to reft ; and
as his capacity funk away from him by degrees, he
dwindled from the real c?.res of his property into the
puerile concealment of a few guineas. This little ftore
he would carefully wrrap up in various papers, and de-
pofiting them in different corners, would amufe him-
felf with running from one to the other, to fee whe¬
ther they were all fafe. Then forgetting, perhaps,
where he had concealed fome of them, he would be¬
come as ferioufly afflidled as a man might be who had
loft all his property. Nor was the day alone thi&
fpent—-he would frequently rife in the middle of the
night, and be heard walking about different parts of
the houfe, looking after what he had thus hidden and
forgotten.
During the winter of 1789, the laft winter Mr El-
wes was fated to fee, his memory vifibly weakened every
day ; and from the unceafing wi(h to fave money, he
now began to fear he ftiould die in want of it. Mr
Gibfon had been appointed his builder in the room of
Mr Adams; and one day, when this gentleman wait¬
ed upon him, he faid with apparent concern, “ Sir,
pray confider in w hat a wretched flate I am $ you fee
in what a good houfe I am living j and here are five
guineas, which is all I have at prefent 5 and how I
ftiall go on with fuch a fum of money puzzles me to
death. I dare fay you thought I was rich j now you
fee how7 it is !”
Mr George Elwes having now fettled at his feat at
Marcham in Berkfliire, he w7as naturally defirous that,
in the affiduities of his wnfe, his father might at length
find a comfortable home. In London be was certain¬
ly moft uncomfortable : but ftill, with thefe tempta¬
tions before and behind him, a journey wnth any ex¬
pence annexed to it was infurmountable. This, how¬
ever, w7as luckily obviated by an offer from Mr Partis,
a gentleman of the law, to take him to his ancient
feat in Berklhire with his purfe perfectly whole. But
there was one circumflance ftill very diftreffing—the
2
old gentleman had now nearly worn out his laft coat, Mifer
and he would not buy a new one ; his fon, therefore, If.
with a pious fraud, contrived to get Mr Partis to buy ‘ f^e"
him a coat and make him a prefent of it. Thus for-
merly having had a good coat, then a bad one, and at
laft no coat at all, he was kind enough to accept one
from a neighbour.
Mr Elwes carried with him into Berkfhire five gui¬
neas and a half, and half a crown. Left the mention
of this fum may appear lingular, it Ihould be faid,
that previous to his journey he had carefully wrapped
it up in various folds of paper, that no part of it
might be loft. On the arrival of the old gentleman,
Mr George Elwes and his wife did every thing they
could to make the country a fcene of quiel! to him.
But “ he had that wTithin” which baffled every effort
of this kind. Of his heart it might be faid, “ there
was no peace in Ifrael.” His mind, call aw7ay upon
the vaft and troubled ocean of his property, extending
beyond the bounds of his calculation, returned to a-
mufe itfelf with fetching and carrying about a few gui¬
neas, which in that ocean was indeed a drop. But na¬
ture had now carried on life nearly as far as Ihe was
able, and the fand w7as almoft run out. The firft fymp-
tom of more immediate decay was his inability to enjoy
his reft at night. Frequently would he be heard at
midnight as if ftruggling with fome one in his cham¬
ber, and crying out, “ I will keep my money, I will j
nobody (hall rob me of my property.” On any one
of the family going into his room, he would ftart
from this fever of anxiety, and, as if waking from a
troubled dream, again hurry into bed, and feem uncon-
fcious of w7hat had happened. At length, on the 26th
November 1789, expired this miferably rich man,
whofe property, nearly reaching to a million, extended
itfelf almoft through every county in England.
MISERICORDIA, in Law, is an arbitrary fine
impofed on any perfon- for an offence : this is cal'n d
mifericordia, becaufe the amercement ought to be but
fmall, and lefs than that required by magna charta.
If a perfon be outrageoufly amerced in a court that is
not of record, the writ called moderata mifericordia lies
for moderating the amercement according to the nature
of the fault.
MISFORTUNE. An unlucky accident.
Misfortune, or chance, in Law, a deficiency of
the will j or committing of an unlawful a£t by misfor¬
tune or chance, and not by defign. In fuch cafe, the
will obferves a total neutrality, and does not co-operate
with the deed ; wThich therefore wants one main ingre¬
dient of a crime. See Crime.
Of this, when it affedls the life of another, we have
fpoken under the article Homicide j and in this place
have only occafion to obferve, that if any accidental
mifcbicf happens to follow from the performance of a
lawful a£f, the party Hands excufed from all guilt: but
if a man be doing any thing unlawful, and a confe-
quence enfues which he did not forefee or intend, as the
death of a man or the like, his want of forefight lhall
be no excufe j for, being guilty of one offence, in doing
antecedently what is in itfelf unlawful, he is criminally
guilty of whatever confequence may follow the firft
mifbehaviour.
MISFEASANCE, in law books, fignifies a tref-
pafs.
MISLETOE,
Miiletoe
il
Mifprifion.
MIS [
MISLETOE. See Viscum, Botany index.
MISNOMER, in Lavo, a mifnaming or miftaking
a perfen’s name. The Chriftian name of a perfon
ftiould always be perfect ; but the law is not fo ftrifl in
regard to furnames, a fmall millake in which will be
dii'penfed with to make good a contraft, and fupport
the act of the party. See Plea to IndiElment.
MISPRISIONS, (a term derived from the old
French, mefyris, a negleft or contempt), are, in the
acceptation of our law, generally underftood to be all
fuch high offences as are under the degree of capital,
but nearly bordering thereon : and it is faid, that a
mifprifion is contained in every treafon and felony what-
foever; and that, if the king fo pleafe, the offender may
be proceeded againft for the mifprifion only. And upon
the fame principle, while the jurifdidtioa of the flar-
chamber fubfiiled, it was held that the king might re¬
mit a profecution for treafon, and caufe the delinquent
to be cenfured in that court, merely for a high mifde-
meanor : as happened in the cafe of Roger earl of Rut¬
land, in 43 Eliz. who was concerned in the earl of
Effex’s rebellion. Mifprifions are generally divided in¬
to two forts ; negative, which confilf in the conceal¬
ment of fomething which ought to be revealed j and po-
fitive, which confift in the commiffion of fomething
which ought not to be done.
i. Of the firft, or negative kind, is what is called
inifprijion of treafon ; confifting in the bare knowledge
and concealment of treafon, without any degree of af-
fent thereto j for any affent makes the party a princi¬
pal traitor; as indeed the concealment, which was
conftrued aiding and abetting, did at the common
law; in like manner as the knowledge of a plot againfl
the ffate, and not revealing it, w7as a capital crime at
Florence, and other ftates of Italy. But it is now en¬
acted by the ftatue I & 2 Ph. & Mar. c. 10. that a
bare concealment of treafon {hall be only held a mif¬
prifion. This concealment becomes criminal, if the
party apprifed of the treafon does not, as foon as con¬
veniently may be, reveal it to fome judge of aflize or
juflice of the peace. But if there be any probable cir-
cumftances of affent, as if one goes to a treafonable
meeting, knowing beforehand that a confpiracy is in¬
tended againft the king ; or, being in fuch company
once by accident, and having heard fuch treafonable
confpiracy, meets the fame company again, and hears
more of it, but conceals it ; this is an implied affent
in law, and makes the concealer guilty of a6tual high
treafon.
Mifprifion of felony is alfo the concealment of a fe¬
lony which a man knows, but never affented to ; for,
if he affented, this makes him either principal or ac-
ceffory. And the punifhment of this, in a public of¬
ficer, by the ftatute Weftm. I. 3 Edw. I. c. 9. is im-
prifonment for a year and a day ; in a common perfon,
imprifonment for a lefs difcretionary time ; and, in
both, fine and ranfom at the king’s pleafure : which
pleafure of the king muft be obferved, once for all, not
to fignify any extrajudicial will of the fovereign, but
fuch as is declared by his reprefentatives, the judges
in his courts of juftice 5 voluntas regis in curia, non in
comer a.
2. Mifprifions, which are merely pofitive, are ge¬
nerally denominated contempt or high mifdemeanours; of
which the principal is the mal adminijlration of fuch
Vol. XIV. Part I.
289 ]
M I .S
high officers as are in public truft and employment.
This is ufually punifhed by tke method of parliamen¬
tary impeachment; wherein fuch penalties, fhort of
death, are inflifted, as to the wifdom of the houfe of
peers fhall feem proper ; confifting ufually of banifh-
ment, imprifoment, fines, or perpetual difability. Hither
alfo may be referred the offence of embczxling the public
money, called among the Romans peculatus; which
the Julian law punifhed with death in a magiftrate, and
with deportation, or banifhment, in a private perfon.
With us it is not a capital crime, but fubjedts the com¬
mitter of it to a difcretionary fine and imprifonment.—•
Other mifprifions are, in general, fuch contempts of the
executive magiftrate as demonftrate themfelves by fome
arrogant and undutiful behaviour towards the king and
government : for a detail of which, vide Blackftone’s
Comment, iv. 22.
MISSAL, the Romifh mafs-book, containing the
feveral mafles to be faid on particular days. It is de¬
rived from the Latin word tnijfa, wdiich, in the ancient
Chriftian church, fignified every part of divine fer-
vice.
MISSEL-bird, a fpecies of Turdus. See Tur-
dus, Ornitholqgy Index.
MISSIO, among the Romans, was a full difeharge
given to a foldier after 20 years fervice, and differed
from the exauRoratio, which was a difeharge from
duty after 17 years fervice. Every foldier had a right
to claim his mifio at the end of 20 years.
MISSION, in Theology, denotes a powrer or com-
miflion to preach the gofpel. Jefus Chrift gave his
difciples their miffiion in thefe words, Go and teach all
nations, &c.
The Romanifts reproach the Proteftants, that their
minifters have no million, as not being authorized in
the exercife of their miniftry, either by an uninter¬
rupted fucceffiion from the apoftles, or by miracles, or
by any extraordinary proof of a vocation.
Many among us deny any other midion neceffary
for the miniftry than the talents neceffary to dil-
charge it.
Mission is alfo ufed for an eftablifhment of people
zealous for the glory of God and the falvation of
fouls ; who go and preach the gofpel in remote coun¬
tries and among infidels.
There are millions in the Eaft as well as in the
Weft Indies. Among the Romanifts, the religious
orders of St Dominic, St Francis, St Auguftine, and
the Jefuits, have millions in the Levant, America,
&c. The Jefuits have alfo miftions in China, and all
other parts of the globe where they have been able
to penetrate. There have been alfo feveral Prote-
ftant miflions for diffufing the light of Chriftianity
through the benighted regions of Afia and America.
Of this kind has been the Danifh miflion planned by
Frederic IV. in 1706. And the liberality of private
benefadlors in our own country has been alfo extended
to the fupport of miflionaries among the Indians in
America, &c.
MISSIONARY, an ecclefiaftic who devotes him-
felf and his labours to fome miflion, either for the in-
ftru£tion of the orthodox, the convi£tion of heretics,
or the converfion of infidels. See Jesuits.
MISSISSIPPI, a noble river in America, which
waters about fivd-eighths of the United States, forming
O 0 their
Miflal
II
Mifliffippi
MIT [ 290 ] M I T
Mlffiflippi their u’eAern boundary, and feparating them from the
province of Louiliana and the Indian country. Its
i ' ' ; length has not been accurately afcertained, but it is
conjedlured to be upwards of 3000 miles. There are
numerous tributary ftreams which fall into it from the
W. and E.; and the country on both fides of the ri¬
ver, is faid to be equal in goodnefs and fertility to any
in North America. It is navigable as far as to what
are denominated the falls of St Anthoni/, and fome fay
farther". There are fait fprings on each fide of
this river, which produce fait of an excellent quality,
and large quantities of coal are found on its upper
branches. Its mouths alfo form an ifland of confider-
able extent. Thefe are fituated between 290 and 30°
N. Lat. and between 89® and 90° W. Long.
MISSOURI, a river in Louifiana, which falls into
the Miflifiippi from the weft, 195 miles above the
mouth of the Ohio, and about 1160 miles from the
Balize in the gulf of Mexico. The extent of its navi¬
gation is not fufficiently known ; but by the map of
Captain Hutchins it appears to be navigable 1300
miles. The progrefs of fettlement by the Spaniards on
the fouth and weft, and by the Englilh on the north
and eaft, is reported by late travellers to be aftonilhing;
and according to the map of Mr M’Kenzie, it appears
that there is a communication by water, attended with
little difficulty, from the upper lakes to Nootka found,
or its vicinity.
In a voyage of difcovery undertaken by Captains
Lewis and Clarke in 1805, under the aufpices of the
American government, it appears that the Miffouri at
the diftance of 3848 miles by the courfe of the river
from its junction with the Miffiffippi, divides into three
branches, to which they gave the names of Jefferfon’s,
Madifon’s, and Gallatin’s rivers5 and the firft of thefe,
Jefferfon’s river, and the only one explored, is naviga¬
ble for 248 miles. Phil. Mag. xxvii. 13.
MISSUS, in the Circenfian games, were the match¬
es in horfe or chariot races. The ufual number of tnijfus
or matches in one day was 24 ; though the emperor
Domitian prefented the people with too. The laft
match w7as generally made at the expence of the people,
who made a colledtion for the purpofe •, hence it was
called mijfus cerarius, a fubfcription plate.
MIST, or Fog. See Fog.
MISTAKE, any wwong adlion committed, not
through an evil defign, but through an error of judge¬
ment.
Mistake, in Law. See Ignorance.
MISUSER, in Law, is an abufe of any liberty or
benefit •, as “ He (hall make fine for his misuser.”
Old. Nat. Br. 149. By mifufer a charter of a corpo¬
ration may be forfeited ^ fo alfo an office, &c.
MITCHELSTOWN, a port town of Ireland, in
the county of Cork and province of Muniler in Ireland,
where there is a college founded by the Earl of King-
fton for the fupport of 12 decayed gentlemen and 1 2
decayed gentlewomen, who have 40I. yearly, and hand-
fome apartments.
MITE, a fmall piece of money mentioned Luke xii.
59. and xxi. 2. In the Greek it is %o$gtty7ns, h e. g//a~
drans, or a quarter of the Roman denarius fo that the
mite was wmrth about feven farthings, or two pence of
our money.
Mite. See Acarus, Entomology Index,
MIT EL LA, bastard American sanicle : A Mltella
genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs, and in ^ .
the natural method ranking under the 13th order, Sue-
eulentce. See Botany Index. —y—.
MITHRA, feafts of, in antiquity, were feafts cele¬
brated among the Romans in honour of Mithras or the
fun. The moft ancient inftance of this Mithras among
the Romans occurs in an infeription dated in the third
confulate of Trajan, or about the year of Chrift 101.
This is the dedication of an altar to the fun under the
above name, thus inferibed, Deo Soli Mithrce. But the
worlhip of Mithras was not known in Egypt and Syria
in the time of Origen, who died about the year of
Chrift 263 ; though it was common at Rome for more
than a century before this time. The worffiip of Mi¬
thras was proferibed at Rome in the year 378, by or¬
der of Gracchus, prefect of the praetorium. According
to M. Freret, the feafts of Mithras were derived from
Chaldea, where they had been inftituted for celebrating
the entrance of the fun into the fign Taurus.
MITHRAS, or MiTHRA, a god of Perfia and Chal¬
dea, fuppoled to be the fun. His worlhip was intro¬
duced at Rome. He is generally reprefented as a young
man, whole head is covered with a turban after the
manner of the Perfians. He fupports his knee upon a
bull that lies on the ground, and one of whofe horns he
holds in one hand, while with the other he plunges a
dagger in his neck.
MITHRIDATE, an old term, in Pharmacy; an
antidote, or compofition, in form of an eleftuary, fup-
pofed to ferve either as a remedy or a prefervative a-
gainft poilons. It takes its name from the inventor,
Mithridates king of Pontus, who is faid to have fo for¬
tified his body again!! poifons with antidotes and prefer-
vatives, that when he had a mind to defpatch himfelf,
he could not find any poifon that would take effeff.
MITHRIDATES, the name of feveral kings of
Pontus. See Pontus.
Mitiiridates VII. furnamed Kupator and the Great,
fucceeded to the throne at the age of 11 years, about
123 years before the Chriftian era. The beginning of
his reign was marked by ambition, cruelty, and arti¬
fice. He murdered his own mother, who had been left
by his father co-heirefs of the kingdom 3 and he forti¬
fied his conftitution by drinking antidotes again!! the
poifon with which his enemies at court attempted to
deftroy him. He early inured his body to hardffiip,
and employed himfelf in the moft manly exercifes, of¬
ten remaining whole months in the country, and mak¬
ing frozen fnow and the earth the place of his repofe.
Naturally ambitious and cruel, he fpared no pains to
acquire himfelf power and dominion. He murdered
the two fons whom his lifter Laodice had had by Aria-
rathes king of Cappadocia, and placed one of his own
children, only eight years old, on the vacant throne.
Thefe violent proceedings alarmed Nicomedes king of Bi-
thynia, who had married Laodice the widow of Ariara-
thes. He fuborned a youth to be king of Cappadocia,
as the third fon of Ariarathes 3 and Laodice was lent
to Rome to impofe upon the fenate, and affure them
that her third fon was noxv alive, and that his preten-
fions to the kingdom of Cappadocia were juft and w^ell
grounded. Mithridates, on his part, fent to Rome
Gordius the governor of his fon 3 who folemnly declar¬
ed before the Roman people, that the youth who fat
MIT [ 2oi ] Ml T
MIthri- on tlie tlirone of Cappadocia was tlie third fon and
^atcs* lawful heir of Ariarathes, and that he was fupported as
"J v 1 fuch by Mithridates. This intricate affair difpleafed
the Roman fenate ^ and finally to fettle the difpute they
took away the kingdom of Cappadocia from Mithri¬
dates, and Paphlagonia from Nicomedes. Thefe two
kingdoms being thus feparated from their original pof-
feffors, were prefented with their freedom and indepen¬
dence j but the Cappadocians refufed it, and received
Ariobarzanes for king. Such were the firft feeds of
enmity between Rome and the king of Pontus. Mithri¬
dates never loft an opportunity by which he might lef-
fen the influence of his adverfaries j and the more ef¬
fectually to deftroy their power in Afia, he ordered all
the Romans that were in his dominions to be maffacred.
This was done in one night, and no lefs than 150,000,
according to Plutarch, or 80,000 Romans, as Appian
mentions, were made the viftims of his cruelty. This
called aloud for vengeance. Aquilius, and foon after
Sylla, marched againft Mithridates with a large army.
The former was made prifoner ; but Sylla obtained a
vidlory over the king’s generals; and another decifive
engagement rendered him matter of all Greece, Mace¬
donia, Ionia, and Afia Minor. This ill fortune was ag¬
gravated by the lofs of about 200,000 men, who were
killed in the feveralengagements that had been fought;
and Mithridates, weakened by repeated ill fuccefs by
fea and land, fued for peace from the conqueror, which
he obtained on condition of defraying the expences
which the Romans had incurred by the war, and of
remaining fatisfied with the poffeflions which he had re¬
ceived from his anceftors. While thefe negotiations of
peace were carried on, Mithridates was not unmindful
of his real intereft. His poverty, and not his inclina¬
tions, obliged him to wifti for peace. He immediately
took the field with an army of 140,000 infantry, and
16,000 horfe, which confifted of his own forces and
thofe of his fon-in-law Tigranes king of Armenia.
With fuch a numerous army he foon made himfelf maf-
ter of the Roman provinces in Afia ; none dared to op-
pofe his conquefts ; and the Romans, relying on his fi¬
delity, had withdrawn the greateft part of their armies
from the country. The news of his warlike prepara¬
tions were no fooner heard, than Lucullus the conful
marched into Afia ; and without delay he blocked up
the camp of Mithridates who was then befieging Cyzi-
cus. The Afiatic monarch efcaped from him, and fled
into the heart of his kingdom. Lucullus purfued him
with the utmoft celerity ; and would have taken him
prifoner after a battle, had not the avidity of his fol-
diers preferred the plundering of a mule loaded wdth
gold to the taking of a monarch who had exercifed
inch cruelties againft their countrymen, and Ihowm
himfelf fo faithlefs to the moil folemn engagements.
After this efcape Mithridates was more careful about
the fafety of his perfon ; and he even ordered his wives
and lifters to deftroy themfelves, fearful of their falling
into the enemy’s hands. The appointment of Gla-
brio to the command of the Roman forces, inftead of
Lucullus, was favourable to Mithridates, who recover¬
ed the greateft part of his dominions. The fudden
arrival of Pompey, however, foon put an end to his
vidlories. A battle in the night was fought near the
Euphrates, in which the troops of Pontus laboured
under every difadvantage. The engagement was by
moon-light, and as the moon then fliown in the face Mithri-
of the enemy, the lengthened lhadows of the arms of, (iates-
the Romans having induced Mithridates to believe that
the twro armies were clofe together, the arrow's of his
foldiers were darted from a great dilxance, and their
efforts rendered ineffedtual. An univerfal overthrow
enfued, and Mithridates, bold in his misfortunes, rufli-
ed through the thick ranks of the enemy at the head
of 800 horfemen, 500 of whom periftied in the at¬
tempt to follow him. He fled to Tigranes ; but that
monarch refufed an afylum to his father-in-law, whom
he had before fupported with all the colledted forces of
his kingdom. Mithridates found a fafe retreat among
the Scythians; and though deftitute of powder, friends,
and refources, yet he meditated the overthrow of the
Roman empire, by penetrating into the heart of Italy
by land. Thefe wild projects were rejefled by his fol-
kwers, and he fued for peace. It was denied to his
ambafl’adors ; and the vidlorious Pompey declared, that,
to obtain it, Mithridates mutt alk it in perfon. Pie
fcorned to truft himfelf in the hands of his enemy, and
refolved to conquer or to die. His fubjedts refufed to
follow him any longer ; and revolting from him, made
his fon Pharnaces king. The fon fhowed himfelf un¬
grateful to his father ; and even, according to forae
w'riters, he ordered him to be put to death. This un¬
natural treatment broke the heart of Mithridates; he
obliged his wfife to poifon herfelf, and attempted to do
the fame himfelf. It was in vain : the frequent anti¬
dotes he had taken in the early part of his life, ttrength-
ened his conftitution againft the poifon ; and when this
was unavailing, he attempted to ftab himfelf. The
blow was not mortal ; and a Gaul who wTas then pre-
fent, at his owm requeft, gave him the fatal ftroke, a-
bout 64 years before the Chriftian era. Such w'ere the
misfortunes, abilities, and miferable end, of a man, who
fupported himfelf fo long againft the power of Rome,
and wko, according to the declarations of the Roman
authors, proved a more powerful and indefatigable ad-
verfary to the capital of Italy than the great Hannibal,
Pyrrhus, Perfeus, or Antiochus. Mithridates has been
commended for his eminent virtues, and cenfured for
his vices. Asa commander he deferves the moft un¬
bounded applaufe ; and it may create admiration to fee
him waging w'ar with fuch fuccefs, during fo many
years, againft the moft powerful people on earth, led
to the field by a Sylla, a Lucullus, and a Pompey.
He was the greateft monarch that ever fat on a throne,
according to the opinion of Cicero ; and indeed no
greater proof of his military chara&er can be brought,
than the mention of the great rejoicings which hap¬
pened in the Roman armies and in the capital at the
news of his death. No lefs than 12 weeks were ap¬
pointed for public thankfgivings to the immortal gods;
and Pompey, who had fent the firft intelligence of
his death to Rome, and who had partly haftened his
fall, w'as rewarded with the moft uncommon honours.
It is faid that Mithidrates conquered 24 nations, whofe
different languages he knew, and fpoke with the fame
eafe and fluency as his own. As a man of letters he
alfo deferves attention. He was acquainted with the
Greek language, and even wrote in that dialed! a trea-
tiie on botany. His fkill in phyfic is well known ; and
even now there is a celebrated antidote which bears his
name, and is called miihridale. Superftition as well as
O 0 2 nature
M 1 T j 2<
Mitliiidati- nature had united to render him great j and, if we rely
cu‘rn upon the authority of Jultin, his birth was accompanied
Mittimus by the appearance of two large comets, which were feen
t-—y—w for 70 days fucceffively, and whofe fplendour eclipfed
the mid-day fun, and covered the fourth part of the
heavens.
MITHRIDATICUM bellum, the Mithridatic
IVar, one of the longed and molt celebrated wars ever
carried on by the Romans againft a foreign power.
See Povrus.
MITRA, was a cap or covering for the head, worn
by the Roman ladies, and fometimes by the men ; but
it was looked upon as a mark of effeminacy in the laft,
efpecially when it was tied upon their heads.
MITRE, a facerdotal ornament worn on the head,
by bilhops and certain abbots on folemn occafions j
being a fort of cap, pointed and cleft at top. The
high prieff among the Jews wore a mitre or bonnet on
his head. The inferior priefts of the fame nation had
likewife their mitres; but in what relpeft they differ¬
ed from that of the high prieft, is uncertain. Some
contend that the ancient bifhops wore mitres; but this
is by no means certain.
Mitre, in ArchiteElure, is the workmen’s term for
an angle that is juft 45 degrees, or half a right one.
If the angle be a quarter of a right angle, they call it
a half mitre.
To defcribe fuch angles, they have an inftrument
called the tmtre fqiiare; with this they ftrike mitre
lines on their quarters or battens ; and for defpatch,
they have a mitre box, as they call it, which is made
of two pieces of wood, each about an inch thick, one
nailed upright on the edge of the other ; the upper
piece hath the mitre lines ftruck upon it on both fides,
and a kerf to direft the faw in cutting the mitre joints
readily, by only applying the piece into this box.
Mitre is ufed by the writers of the Irilh hiftory
for a fort of bale money, which was very common
there about the year 1270, and for 30 years before and
as many after.
There were belides the mitre feveral other pieces,
called, according to the figures imprefled upon them,
rolaries, lionades, eagles, and by the like names. They
were imported from France and other countries, and
were fo much below the proper currency of the king¬
dom, that they were not worth fo much as a halfpenny
each. They were at length decryed in the year 1300,
and good coins ftruck in their place. Thefe were the
firft Irifh coins in which the feeptre was left out. They
were ftruck in the reign of Edward, the fon of our
Henry III. and are ftill found among the other anti¬
quities of that country. They have the king’s head
in a triangle full faced. The penny, when well pre-
ferved, weighs 22 grains; the halfpenny lojj grains.
MtfTAU, the capital of the duchy of Courland.
It is ftrongly fortified ; but was taken by the Swedes
in 1701, and by the Mufcovites in 1706. E. Long.
23. 91. N. Lat. 56. 44.
MITTIMUS, as generally ufed, hath two fignifi-
cations. 1. It fignifies a writ for removing or tranf-
ferring of records from one court to another. 2. It
fignifies a precept, or command in wwiting, under the
hand and feal of a juftice of the peace, direffed to the
gaoler or keeper of fome prifon, for the receiving and
2 ] M O A
fafe keeping of an offender, charged with any crime, Mitylene
until he be delivered by due courfe of law. n II
MITYLENE, or My TELE NIC, in Ancient Georra-
plnj, a celebrated, powerful, and affluent city, capital of
the iftand of Lefbos. It received its name from Mity/ene,
the daughter of Macareus, a king of the country. It is
greatly commended by the ancients for the ftatelinefs
of its buildings and the fruitfulnefs of its foil, but
more particularly for the great men it produced : Pit-
tacus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Terpander, Theophanes, Hel-
lanicus, &x. were all natives of Mitylene. It was long
a feat of learning ; and, with Rhodes and Athens, it
had the honour of having educated many of the great
men of Rome and Greece. In the Peloponnefian war,
the Mitylenians fuffered greatly for their revolt from
the power of Athens; and in the Mithridatic wars,
they had the boldnefs to refill the Romans, and difdain
the treaties which had been made between Mithridates
and Sylla. See Metelin.
MIXT, or mixt body, in Chemiftry, that which is
compounded of different elements or principles.
MIXTURE, a compound or affemblage of feveral
different bodies in the fame mafs. Chemical mixture is
attended with many phenomena which are never obferv-
ed in fimple mixtures ; fuch as heat, effervefcence, &c.
To chemical mixture belong the union of acids and
alkalies, the amalgamation of metals, folution of gums,
&c. and upon it depend many of the principal opera¬
tions of Chemistry. See that article,/xt/ESw.
Mixture, in Pharmacy, a medicine which differs
from a julep in this refpeft, that it receives into its
compofition not only falls, extrafts, and other fub-
ftances diffoluble in water; but alfo earths, pow'ders,
and fuch fubftances as cannot be diffolved.
MIZEN, in the fea language, is a particular mail
or fail. The mizen mail Hands in the fternmoft part
of the fhip. In fome great ftrips there are two of
thefe; when that next the main-maft is called the
main-mi%en, and that next the poop the bonaventure
mi%en.
MIZRAIM, or Misraim, the dual name of Egypt,
ufed in Scripture to denote the Higher and Lower E-
gypt, which fee. It fometimes occurs lingular, Mat&or :
2 Kings xix. Ifaiah xix. Micah vii.
MNEMOSYNE, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of
Coelus and Terra. She married Jupiter, by wdiom ihe
had the nine Mufes. The word mnemofyne fignifies
“ memory and therefore the poets have rightly call¬
ed Memory the mother of the Mufes, becaufe it is to
that mental endowment that mankind are indebted for
their progrefs in fcience.
MNIUM, marshmoss ; a genus of the natural or¬
der of mufei, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. See Botany Index.
MOAB, in Ancient Geography, a country of Arabia
Petraea ; fo called from Moab the fon of Lot, to whofe
pofterity this country was allotted by divine appoint¬
ment, Deut. xi. 9. It was originally occupied by the
Emim, a race of giants extirpated by the Moabites, ibid.
Moab anciently lay to the fouth of Ammon, before
Sihon the Amorite ftripped both nations of a part of
their territory, afterwards occupied by the Ifraelites,
Numb. xxi.; and then Moab was bounded by the river
Arnon to the north, the Lacus Afphaltites to the weft,
the
M O C
the brook Zared to the fouth, and the mountains Abarim
to the eaft.
MOAT, or Ditch, in fortification, a deep trench
dug round the rampart of a fortified place, to prevent
furprifes.
The brink of the moat, next the rampart, is called
the fcarpe \ and the oppofite one, the counterfearpe.
A dry moat round a large place, with a ilrong gar-
xifon, is preferable to one full of water j becaufe the
paffage may be difputed inch by inch, and the be-
fiegers, when lodged in it, are continually expofed to
the bombs, grenades, and other fire works, which are
thrown inceffantly from the rampart into their works.
In the middle of dry moats, there is fometimes another
fmall one, called cunette; which is generally dug fo
deep till they find water to fill it.
The deepeft and broadett moats are accounted the
belt *, but a deep one is preferable to a broad one : the
ordinary breadth is about 20 fathoms, and the depth
about x6.
To drain a moat that is full of water, they dig a
trench deeper than the level of the water, to let it run
off; and then throw hurdles upon the "mud and llime,
covering them with earth or bundles of rulhes, to make
a fure and firm paffage.
MOATAZAL1TES, or Separatists, a religious
fefl among the Turks, who deny all forms and quali¬
ties in the Divine Being 5 or who diveft God of his at¬
tributes.
There are two opinions among the Turkilh divines
concerning God. The firft admits metaphyfical forms
or attributes 5 as, that God has wifdom, by which he
is wife; power, by which he is powerful 5 eternity,
by which he is eternal, &c. The fecond allows God
to be wife, powerful, eternal ; but will not allow any
form or quality in God, for fear of admitting a mul¬
tiplicity. Thofe who follow this latter opinion are
called Moata%alites ; they who follow the former, Se-
phalites.
The Moatazalites alfo believed that the word of God
was created in fubjefto, as the fchoolmen term it, and
to confift of letters and found ; copies thereof being
written in books to exprefs or imitate the original :
they denied abfolute predeflination, and affirmed that
man is a free agent. This fe6t is faid to have firft
invented the fcholaltic divinity, and is fubdivided into
no lefs than 20 inferior feds, which mutually brand one
another wfith infidelity.
MOBILE, moveable, any thing fufceptible of
motion, or that is difpofed to be moved either by it-
felf or by fome other prior mobile or mover.
Primum Mobile, in the ancient aitronomy, was a
ninth heaven or fphere, imagined above thofe of the
planets and fixed ftars. This was fuppofed to be the
firft mover, and to carry all the lower fpheres round
along with it •, by its rapidity communicating to them
a motion whereby they revolved in 24 hours. But
the diurnal revolution of the planets is now accounted
for without the affiftance of any fuch primum mobile,
Perpetuum Mobile. See Perpetual Motion.
MOCHO, Moco, or Mohha; by fome fuppofed to
be the Mufa or Muza of Ptolemy, is a port and town
on the Red fea, of confiderable trade 5 contains about
10,000 inhabitants, Jews, Armenians, and Moham¬
medans } and it gives name to a kingdom extending
MOD
along the mofl fouthern coaft of Arabia ; cf which that Macho
part which lies next the fea is a dry barren defert, in Mo''le_
fome places 10 or 12 leagues over j but bounded by ^
mountains, which being well watered, enjoy an al-
moft perpetual fpring j and befides coffee, the peculiar
produce of this country, yields corn, grapes, myrrh,
frankincenfe, caffia, balm, gums of feveral forts, man¬
gos, dates, pomegranates, &c. The weather here is fo
hot and fultry in fummer, efpecially when the fouth
wind blows, that it would be infupportable, if it was not
mitigated by the cool breezes that generally blow from
the mountains on the north, or the Red and Arabic feas
on the weft and eaff. The heat in winter is equal to
that of our warmeft fummers ; and it is very feldom
that either clouds or rain are leen. The city of Mocho
is now7 the emporium for the trade of all India to the
Red fea. The trade was removed hither from Aden,
in confequence of the prophecy ot a ffieik, much rever¬
ed by the people, who foretold that it wmuld loon be¬
come a place of extenfive commerce notwithftanding its
difadvantageous fituation. 1 he buildings here are lof¬
ty, and tolerably regular, having a pleafant afped from
Mecca. The fteeples of feveral mofques are very high,
prefenting themfelves to view at a great diffance. Their
markets are w’ell ftored with beef, mutton, lamb, kid,
camels, and antelopes fieffi, common fowls, Guinea
hens, partridges, and pigeons. I he fea affords plenty
of filh, but not favoury ; which fome think proceeds
from the extreme faltnefs of the water and the nature
of their aliment. The markets are alio flocked with
fruit, fuch as grapes, peaches, apricots, quinces, and
neftarines ; although neither ffirub nor tree is to be
feen near the town, except a few date trees. Frequent¬
ly no rain falls here in two or three years, and leldom
more than a Ihower or two in a year j but in the
mountains, at the diftance of about 20 miles from
Mocha, the earth is watered with a gentle fhower
every morning, which makes the valleys fertile in corn
and the fruits natural to the climate. The Arab inha¬
bitants, though remarkably grave and fuperftitious,
are faid to be extremely covetous and hypocritical ;
robbing, thieving, and committing piracy, without the
leaft fcruple or remorfe. The Englifh and Dutch com¬
panies have handfome houfes here, and carry on a
great trade in coffee, olibanum, myrrh, aloes, liquid
ftorax, white and yellow arfenic, gum arabic, mum¬
my, balm of Gilead, and other drugs. One inconve¬
nience, however, they fuftain from the violence and
exaftions of the Arabian princes 5 but the king’s cu*
floms are eafy, being fixed at three per cent, to Euro¬
peans. Of the coins at Mocha, the mod current is
the camaffie, which rifes and falls in value at the bank¬
er’s diferetion : they are from 50 to 80 for a current
dollar, which is but an imaginary fpecies, being always
reckoned one and a half per cent, lower than Spanilh
dollars.
MOCKING Bird. See Turdus, Orkitiiologt
Index.
MOCOCO. See Lemur, Mammalia Index.
MODE, which is a word of the lame general im¬
port with manner, is ufed as a technical term in gram¬
mar, metaphyfics, and mufic. For its import in Gram¬
mar, fee that article, N° 80.
Mode, in Metaphysics, feems properly to denote
the manner of a thing’s exiftence : but Locke, whofe.
language c
[ 293 3
r
MOD [ 294 ] MOD
Mode, language In that fcience is generally adopted, ufes the
■ a/iodel- word in a fenfe fomewhat different from its ordinary
and proper fignification. “ Such complex ideas, which,
however compounded, contain not in them the fuppo-
lition of fubfifting by themfelves, but are confidered as
dependencies on, or affedtions of, fubftances,” he calls
modes. Of thefe modes, there are, according to him,
two forts, which deferve diftin£t confideration. Firft,
There are fome “ which are only variations, or differ¬
ent combinations of the fame fimple idea, without the
mixture of any other, as a do%en or a /core ; which are
nothing but the ideas of fo many dilfindl units added
together and thefe he calls Jlmple modes. Secondly,
“ There are others compounded of fimple ideas of fe-
veral kinds put together to make one complex one $
v. g. beauty, confifting of a certain compofition of co¬
lour and figure, caufing delight in the beholder; theft,
which being the concealed change of the pofleftion of
any thing without the confent of the proprietor, con¬
tains, as is vifible, a combination of feveral ideas of fe-
veral kinds $” and thefe he calls mixed modes. For
the juft diftindlion between ideas and notions, as well as
between ideas and the qualities of external objedls,
which in this account of modes are all confounded to¬
gether, fee Metaphysics.
Mode, in Mujic, a regular difpofition of the air
and accompaniments, relative to certain principal founds
upon which a piece of mufic is formed, and which are
called the effential founds of the mode.
Our modes are not, like thofe of the ancients, cha-
ra&erized by any fentiment which they tend to excite,
but refult from our fyftem of harmony alone. The
lounds eflential to the mode are in number three, and
form together one perfeft chord. 1. The tonic or key,
which is the fundamental note both of the tone and of
the mode. 2. The dominant, which is a fifth from the
tonic. 3. The mediant, which properly conftitutes
the mode, and which is a third from the fame tonic.
As this third may be of two kinds, there are of confe-
quence two different modes. When the mediant forms
a greater third with the tonic, the mode is major j
when the third is leffer, it is minor. See Music.
MODEL, in a general fenfe, an original pattern,
^ propofed for any one to copy or imitate.
Different U This word is particularly ufed, in building, for an
kinds ot artificial pattern made in wood, ftone, plafter, or other
models. matter, with all its parts and proportions, in order for
the better conducing and executing fome great work,
and to give an idea of the effedt it will have in large.
In all great buildings, it is much the fureft way to
make a model in relievo, and not to truft to a bare
defign or draught. There are alfo models for the
building of Ihips, See. and for extraordinary ftaircafes,
&c.
They alfo ufe modes in painting and fculpture;
whence, in the academies, they give the term model to
a naked man or women, difpofed in feveral poftures, to
afford an opportunity to the fcholars to defign them in
2 various views and attitudes.
General Models in imitation of any natural or artificial fub-
method of ftance, are moft ufually made by means of moulds
-making compofed of plafter of Paris. For the purpofe of
models. making thefe moulds, this kind of plafter is much
more fit than any other fubftance, on account of the
power it has of abforbing water, and focn condenfing
4
into a hard fubftance, even after it has been rendered Model,
fo thin as to be of the confiftence of cream. This
happens in a ftiorter or longer time as the plafter is
of a better or worfe quality j and its good or bad pro¬
perties depend very much upon its age, to which,
therefore, particular regard ought to be had. It is
fold in the {hops at very different prices 5 the fineft be¬
ing made ufe of for cafts, and the middling fort for
moulds. It may be very eafily coloured by means of
almoft any kind of powder excepting what contains an
alkaline fijlt j for this would chemically decompofe the
fubftance of it, and render it unfit for ufe. A very
confiderable quantity of chalk would alfo render it
foft and ufelefs, but lime hardens it to a great degree.
The addition of common fize will like wife render it
much harder than if mere water is made ufe of. In
making either moulds or models, however, we muft;
be careful not to make the mixture too thick at firft j
for if this is done, and more wTater added to thin it,
the compofition muft always prove brittle and of a bad
quality.
The particular manner of making models (or cajls,
as they are alfo called) depends on the form of the
fubjedl to be taken. The procefs is eafy, where the
parts are elevated only in a flight degree, or where
they form only a right or obtufe angle with the prin¬
cipal furface from which they projeft ; but where the
parts projeft in fmaller angles, or form curves inclined
towards the principal furface, the work is more diffi¬
cult. This obfervation, however, holds good only
with regard to hard and inflexible bodies 5 for fuch as
are foft may often be freed from the mould, even
though they have the ftiape laft mentioned. But
though this be the cafe with the foft original fubftance,
it is not ft) with the inflexible model when once it is
caft.
The moulds are to be made of various degrees of
thicknefs, according to the fize of the model to be
caft j and may be from half an inch to an inch, or, if
very large, an inch and a half. Where a number of
models are to be taken from one mould, it will like-
wife be neceffary to have it of a ftronger contexture
than where only a few are required, for very obvious
reafons. ^
It is much more eafy to make a mould for any foft Anatomical
fubftance than a rigid one, as in any of the vifeera of models,
the animal body } for the fluidity of the mixture makes
it eafily accommodate itfelf to the projedling parts of
the fubftance j and as it is neceffary to inflate thefe
fubftances, they may be very readily extra&ed again
by letting out the air which diftended them.
When a model is to be taken, the furface of the
original is firft to be greafed, in order to prevent the
plafter from flicking to it j but if the fubftance itfelf
is flippery, as is the cafe with the internal parts of the
human body, this need not be done : when neceffary,
it may be laid over with linfeed oil by means of a
painter’s brulh. The original is then to be laid on a ^na_
fmooth table, previoufly greafed or covered with AtomicalIn-
cloth, to prevent the plafter flicking to it; then {wx-Jlru&or.
round the original with a frame or ridge of glaziers
putty, at fuch a dirtance from it as will admit the
plafter to reft upon the table on all fides of the fubjedl
for about an inch, or as much as is fufficient to give
the proper degree of ftrength to the mould. A fuffi¬
cient
M O D
[ 295 ]
MOD
Model, cient quantity of plafter is then to be poured as uni-
—y-™— formly as poffible over the whole fubftance, until it be
everywhere covered to fuch a thicknefs as to give a
proper fubftance to the mould, which may vary in
proportion to the fize. The whole mult then be fuf-
fered to remain in this condition till the plafter has
attained its hardnefs ; when the frame is taken away,
the mould may be inverted, and the fubjedt removed
from it; and w'hen the plafter is thoroughly dry let it
be well feafoned.
Having formed and feafoned the moulds, they muft
next be prepared for the cafts by greafing the infide
of them with a mixture of olive oil and lard in equal
parts, and then filled with fine fluid plafter, and the
plane of the mould formed by its refting on the furface
of the table covered to a fufficient thicknefs with
coarfe plafter, to form a ftrong bafis or fupport for the
call where this fupport is requifite, as is particularly
the cafe where the thin and membranous parts of the
body are to be reprefented. After the plafter is pour¬
ed into the mould, it muft be fuffered to ftand until
it has acquired the greateft degree of hardnefs it will
receive •, after which the mould muft be removed :
but this will be attended with feme difficulty when the
fhape of the fubjedf is unfavourable ; and in fome cafes
the mould iriuft be feparated by means of a fmall mallet
and chiflel. If by thefe inftruments any parts of the
model ftiould be broken off, they may be cemented by
making the twro furfaces to be applied to each other
quite Wet ; then interpofing betwixt them a little li¬
quid plafter 5 and laftly, the joint fmoothed after being
thoroughly dry. Any fmall holes that may be made
in the mould can be filled up with liquid plafter, after
the fides of them have been thoroughly wetted, and
fmoothed over with the edge of a knife.
In many cafes it is altogether impradticable to pre¬
pare a mould of one piece for a whole fubjedt} and
therefore it muft: be confidered how this can be done
in fuch a manner as to divide the mould into the fewreft
pieces. This may be effedfed by making every piece
cover as much of the pattern as poffible, without fur¬
rounding (uch projedting parts, or running into fuch
hollow's as would not admit a feparation of the mould.
It is impoffible, however, to give any particular direc¬
tions in this matter which can hold good in every in-
ftance, the number of pieces of which the mould is to
confift being always determined from the ffiape of the
pattern. Thus the mould of the human calculus will
require no more than three pieces, but that of an os
femoris could fcarce have fewrer than ten or twelve.—
Where any internal pieces are required, they are firft to
be made, and then the outer pieces after the former
have become hard.
To make a mould upon a hard and dry fubftance,
we muft, in the firft place, rub the furface of it
fmoothly over wdth the mixture of oil and lard above
mentioned. Such hollows as require internal pieces
are then to be filled up with fluid plafter •, and while
it continues in this ftate, a wire loop muft be intro¬
duced into it, by which, when hardened, it can be
pulled off. The plafter fhould be fomewhat raifed
in a pyramidal form around this wire, and afterwards
cut fmooth with a knife while yet in its foft ftate 5
preferving tw’O or three angular ridges from the loop
to the outer edge, that it may fix the more fteadily
in the outer piece of the mould to be afterwards made
upon it. Let the outer piece then be well greafed,
to prevent the fecond piece from adhering \ the loop
being enclofed with fome glaziers putty, both to pre¬
vent the fecond piece from adhering and to preferve a
hollow place for the cord.
To form the fecond or outfide piece, mix a quan¬
tity of plafter proportioned to the extent of furface
it is to cover and the intended thicknefs of the
mould : when it is juft beginning to thicken, or af-
fumes fuch a confiftence as not to run off very eafily,
fpread it over the internal piece or pieces as well as
the pattern, taking care at the fame time not to
go too far left it fhould not deliver fafely 5 and as the
plafter becomes more tenacious, add more upon the
pattern until it has become fufficiently thick, keeping
the edges fquare and fmooth like the edge of a board.
The plafter ffiould be fpread equally upon all parts,
which is beft done by a painter’s pallet knife or a-
pothecary’s bolus knife: but for this the inftrument
Ihould be fomewhat lefs pliable than it is commonly made.
When the outfide piece is hardened, the edges are
to be pared fmooth, and nearly made fquare with a
{mall pointed knife. Little holes of a conical ffiape
are to be made with the point of a knife about an inch
diftant from one another, according to the fize of the
piece. Thefe are defigned to receive the fluid pla¬
fter in forming the adjacent parts of the mould, and
occafion points correfponding to the hollow's •, and are
intended to preferve the edges of the different pieces
fteadily in their proper relative fituations. The third
piece is then to be formed in a manner fimilar to the
fecond ; greafing the edges of the former plentifully
with hog’s lard and oil, to prevent the pieces from ad¬
hering to each other. Thus the pattern is to be
wholly enclofed, only leaving a proper orifice for
pouring in the plafter to form the model 5 fmall holes
being alfo bored in the mould oppofite to the wire-
loops fixed in the infide pieces, through which a cord
is to be conveyed from the loop to confine fuch pieces
during the time of calling. In fome cafes, however,
it is not neceflary that the mould Ihould totally en-
clofe the pattern 5 for inftance, where a model is to
be made of a pedcftal, or a bull of any part of the hu¬
man body. The bottom of fuch moulds being left
open, there is accordingly ample room for pouring in
the plafter.
After the mould is completely formed, it is next
to be dried either naturally or by a gentle artificial
heat, and then feafoned in the following manner :—>-
Having been made thoroughly dry, which, if the
mould is large, will require tw'O or three weeks, it is
to be bruffied over plentifully with linfeed oil boiled
with fugar of lead, finely levigated litharge, or oil of
vitriol. The infide and joints of the mould fhould be
particularly well fupplied with it. If the mould be
large, it is needlefs to attend to the outfide j but when
the moulds are fmall, it will not be improper to boil
them in the oil 5 by which means their pores are more
exactly filled than could otherwife be done. After
the moulds have undergone this operation, they are
again fet by to dry, when, being greafed with olive
oil and hog’s lard, they are fit for ufe. If linieed oil
be ufed for greafing the moulds, it will in a ffiort time
impart a difagreeable yellowr colour to the cafts.
The
Model.
MOD [ 296 ] M O D
Model. Xlie mould being properly prepared and feafoned,
"nothing more is requiiite to form the model than to
pour the hneft liquid plafler of Paris into it. After a
layer of this, about half an inch in thicknefs, has been
•fo rmed all round the mould, we may ufe the coarfer
kind to fill it up entirely, or to give to the model
4 what thicknefs we pleafe.
Models Befides the models which are taken from inanimate
from living bodies, it has been frequently attempted to take the
-fubjedts. exadt refemblance of people while living, by ufing
their face as the original of a model, fiom whence to
take a mould ; and the operation, however difagree-
able, has been fubmitted to by perfons of the higheft
ranks in life. A confiderable difficulty occurs in this,
however, by reafon of the perfon’s being apt to (brink
and dillort his features when the liquid is poured up¬
on him ) neither is he altogether without danger of
fuffocation, unlefs the operator well underltands his bufi-
nefs.
To avoid tbe former inconvenience, it wfill be pro¬
per to mix tbe plafier with warm inflead of cold wa¬
ter, by which means the perfon will be under no temp¬
tation to (brink 5 and to prevent any danger of a fa¬
tal accident, tbe following methoel is to be pra&ifed :
Having laid the perfon horizontally on his back, tbe
head mud firft be raifed by means of a pillow to the
exact pofition in which it is naturally carried when
the body is ere£t 5 then tbe parts to be reprefented
nauft be very thinly covered over with fine oil of al¬
monds by means of a painter’s bruffi 5 tbe face is then
to be firft covered with fine fluid plafter, beginning at
the upper part of the forehead, and fpreading it over
tbe eyes, wffiich are to be kept clofe, that tbe plafter
may not come in contact with tbe globe ; yet not clofed
fo ftrongly as to caufe any unnatural ’wrinkles. Cover
then the nofe and ears, plugging firft up the meatus
auditor^ with cotton, and the noftrils with a frnall
quantity of tow rolled up, of a proper fize, to exclude
the plafter. During tbe time that the ncife is thus
Hopped, tbe perfon is to breathe through the mouth :
in this date the fluid plafter is to be brought down low
enough to cover the upper lip, obferving to leave the
rolls of tow projedfting out of tbe plafter. When the
operation is thus far carried on, the plafter muft be buf¬
fered to harden ; after wffiich the tow may be with¬
drawn, and tbe noftrils left free and open for breathing.
The mouth is then to be clofed in its natural pofition,
and the plafter brought down to the extremity of the
chin. Begin then to cover that part of the bread
which is to be reprefented, and fpread tbe plafter to the
outfides of the arms and upwards, in fuch a manner as
to meet and join that which is previoufly laid on the
face : when the whole of tbe mafs has acquired its due
hardnefs, it is to be cautioufly lifted, without breaking,
or giving pain to the perfon. After tbe mould is
conftrufted, it muft<tbe feafoned in the manner already
diredled •, and when the mould is caft, it is to be fepa-
rated from the mould by means of a fmall mallet and
chiffeh ft. be eyes, which are neceflarily (hown clofed,
are to be carved, fo that the eyelids may be reprefented
in an elevated pofture •, the noftrils hollowed out, and
the back part of the head, from which, on account of
the hair, no mould can be taken, muft be finiftied ac¬
cording to the (kill of the artift. The edges of the
model are then to be neatly fmoothed off, and the buft Model,
fixed on its pedeftal.
The method of making models in the plafter of j.0p0^ra
Paris is undoubtedly the moft eafy wTay of obtaining phicat mo.
them. When models, however, are made of fuch dels, Sec.
large objects that the model itfelf muft be of confi¬
derable fize, it is vain to attempt making it in the
way above deferibed. Such models muft be conftrudt-
ed by tbe hand with fome foft fubftance, as wax,
clay, putty, &c. and it being neceffary to keep all the
proportions with mathematical exaftnefs, the conftruc-
tion of a (ingle model of this kind muft be a wrork of
great labour and expence as well as of time. Of all
thofe which have been undertaken by human induftry,
however, perhaps tbe moft remarkable is that con-
ftrufted by General Pfiffer, to reprefent tbe moun¬
tainous parts of Switzerland. It is compofed of 142
compartments, of different fizes and forms, refpec-
tively numbeied, and fo artfully put together, that
they can be feparated and replaced with the greateft
eafe. The model itfelf is 20^ feet long and 12 broad,
and formed on a fcale which reprefents two Englifti
miles and a quarter by an Englifti foot : comprehend¬
ing part of the cantons of Zug, Zurich, Schw’eitz,
Underwalden, Lucerne, Berne, and a fmall part of
the mountains of Glarus j in all, an extent of country of
18|- leagues in length and 12 in breadth. The higheft
point of the model, from the level of the centre (which
is the lake of Lucerne), is about ten inches ; and as the
moft elevated mountain reprefented therein rifes 1475
toifes or 9440 feet above the lake of Lucerne, at a
grofs calculation, the height of an inch in the model
is about 900 feet. The whole is painted of different
colours, in fuch a manner as to reprefent objects as
they exift in nature ; and fo exadlly is this done, that
not only the woods of oak, beech, pine, and other
trees, are diftinguiihed, but even the ftrata of the
feveral rocks are marked, each being (haped upon the
fpot, and formed of granite, gravel, or fuch other fub-
ftances as compofe the natural mountain. So minute
alfo is the accuracy of the plan, that it comprifes not
only all the mountains, lakes, rivers, towns, villages,
and forefts, hut every cottage, bridge, torrent, road,
and even every path is diftintftly marked.
The principal material employed in the conftruc-
tion of this extraordinary model, is a mixture of char¬
coal, lime, clay, a little pitch, with a thin coat of
wax and is fo hard that it may be trod upon without
any damage. It was begun in the year 1766, at
which time the general was about 50 years of age,
and it employed him till the month of Auguft 1785 j
during all which long fpace of time he was employ¬
ed in the moft laborious and even dangerous talks.—
He raifed the plans with his own hands on the fpot,
took the elevation of mountains, and laid them down
in their feveral proportions. In the profecution of
this laborious employment, he was twice arrefted for
a fpy ; and in the popular cantons wTas frequently
forced to work by meon light, in order to avoid the
jealoufy of the peafants, who imagined that their li¬
berty would be endangered (hould a plan of their
country be taken wffih fuch minute exailnefs. Be¬
ing obliged frequently to remain on the tops of fome
of the Alps, where no provifions could be procured.
3
MOD [ 297 ] - MOD
Modena, lie took along with him a few milk goats, who fup-
 plied him with nouriihment. When any part was
finilhed, he fent for the people redding near the fpot,
and deftred them to examine each mountain with ac¬
curacy, whether it correfponded, as far as the fmallnefs
of the fcale would admit, with its natural appearance ;
and then, by frequently retouching, corre£ted the de¬
ficiencies. Even after the model was finilhed, he
continued his Alpine expeditions with the fame ardour
as ever, and with a degree of vigour that would fatigue
a much younger perfon. All his elevations were taken
from the level of the lake Lucerne 5 which, according
M. Sauffure, is 1408 feet above the level of the Medi¬
terranean.
MODENA, a duchy of Italy, bounded on the
fouth by Tufcany and the republic of Lucca, on the
north by the duchy of Mantua, on the eail by the
Bolognefe and the territories of the Church, and
on the weft by the duchy of Parma; extending in
length from fouth to north about 56 Engliih miles,
and in breadth between 24 and 36, and yielding
plenty of corn, wane, and fruits, with mineral waters.
In fome places alfo petroleum is Ikimmed off the fur-
face of the water of deep wells made on purpofe ; and
in others is found a kind of earth or tophus, which,
when pulverized, is faid to be an excellent remedy
againft poifon, fevers, dyfenteries, and hypochondriac
diforders. The country of La Salfa affords feveral
kinds of petrifaftions. The principal rivers are the
Croftolo, Secchia, and Panaro. The family of Efte,
dukes of Modena, is very ancient. They had their
name from Efte, a fmall city in the diftrift of Pa¬
dua. In 1753, the duke was appointed imperial
vicar general, field marfhal, and governor of the Mi-
lanefe, during the minority of the archduke Peter
Leopold, who w’as declared governor general of the
Auftrian Lombardy. The duke, though a vaffal of
the empire, hath an unlimited power within his own
dominions.
Modena, an ancient city, in Latin Mutina, which
gives name to a duchy of Italy, and is its capital. It
Hands 28 miles eaft of Parma, 44 almoft fouth of
Mantua, and 20 weft of Bologna ; and is a pretty
large and populous, but not a handfome city. The
population is faid to amount to about 4^50^0. It is
much celebrated by Roman authors for its grandeur
and opulence; but W'as a great fufferer by the fiege
it underwent during the troubles of the triumvirate.
It hath long been the ufual refidence of the dukes;
and is alfo the fee of a bifhop, who is fuffragan to the
archbilhop of Bologna. Mr Keyfler fays, that when
Decius Brutus wras befieged here by Mark Antony,
Hirtius the conful made ufe of carrier pigeons ; and
that, even at this day, pigeons are trained up at Mo¬
dena to carry letters and bring back anfwers. dhis
city hath given birth to feveral celebrated perfons, par¬
ticularly Taffo the poet, Corregio the great painter,
Sigonius the civilian and hiftorian, Da Vignola the ar-
chiteft, and Montecuculi the imperial general. The
tutelary faint of it is named Geminianus. The ducal
palace is a very noble edifice, in which, among the
other fine pi&ures, the birth of Chrift by Corregio,
called la Notte Felice, is much celebrated. The only
manufafture for which this city is noted, is that of
malks, of which great numbers are exported. "Lhe
Voe. XIV. Part I.
churches of the Jefuits, of the Theatines, and of St Moderation
Dominic, are wrell worth viewing. In the college of H
St Carlo Boromeo between 70 and 80 young noblemen , ^ .
are continually maintained, and inftnnfted both in the
fciences and genteel exercifes. St Beatrix, w-ho was
of the family of Efte, is faid to knock always at the
gate of the palace three days before any of the family
dies. Before moft of the houfes are covered walks or
porticoes, as at Bologna. The city is fortified, and on
its fouth fide Hands the citadel. E. Long. 11.0. N. Lat.
44* 34- . .
MODERATION, in Ethics, is a virtue confift-
ing in the proper government of our appetites, paf-
fions, and purfuits, with refpefl to honours, riches,
and pleafures; and in this fenfe it is fynbnymous
wdth temperance : it is alfo often ufed to denote can¬
dour.
MODERATOR, in the fchools, the perfon who
prelides at a difpute, or in a public affembly : thus the
prefident of the annual affembly of the church of Scot¬
land is ftyled moderator.
MODERN, fomething new, or of our time ; in
oppofition to what is antique or ancient.
Modern Authors, according to Naude, are all thofe
who have wmote fince Boethius. The modern pbilo-
fophy commences with Galileo ; the modern aftronomy
with Copernicus.
MODESTY, in Ethics, is fometimes ufed to de¬
note humility ; and fometimes to exprefs chaftity, or
purity of fentiments and manners.—Modefty, in this
laft fenfe, and as particularly applied to women, is de¬
fined by the authors of the Encyclopedic Methodique, as
a natural, chary, and honeft fhame; a fecret fear; a
feeling on account of wdiat may be accompanied wfith
difgrace. Women who poffefs only the remains of a
fufpicious modefty, make but feeble efforts to refift :
thofe who have obliterated every trace of modefty from
their countenance, foon extinguifti it completely in their
foul, and throw afide for ever the veil of decency. She,
on the contrary, who truly poffeffes modefty, palfes over
in filence attempts againft her honour, and forbears fpeak-
ing of thofe from whom ftie has received an outrage, when
in doing fo (he muft reveal aflions and expreflions that
might give alarm to virtue.
The idea of modefty is not a chimera, a popular
prejudice, or an illufion arifing from laws and educa¬
tion. Nature, which fpeaks the fame language to all
men, has, with the unanimous confent of nations, an¬
nexed contempt to female incontinence. To refift and
to attack are laws of her appointment : and while flie
beftows defires on both parties, they are in the one
accompanied with boldnefs, in the other w ith fhame.
To individuals fire has allotted long fpaces of time for
the purpofes of felf-prefervation, and but moments for
the propagation of their fpecies. What arms more
gentle than Modefly could file have put into the
hands of thflt fex which fire defigned to make re-
fiftance.
If it w’ere the cuftom for both fexes to make and
receive advances indiferiminately, vain importunity
would not be prevented : the fire of paftion would ne¬
ver be ftirred up, but languifh in tedious liberty ; the
moft amiable of all feelings would fcarcely warm the
human breaft ; its object would with difficulty be at¬
tained. That obftacle which feems to remove tins ob-
P p jeft
MOD [ 298 ] M O G
MoJefty jeft to a diilance, in fa£l brings it nearer. The veil
M-r! ih ^'ame makes the defires more attractive. Mo¬
tion.' deity kindles that flame which it endeavours to fup-
prel’s : its fears, its evafions, its caution, its timid
avowals, its plcafing and affeCting fineffes, fpeak more
plainly what it willies to conceal, than paflion can do
without it : it is Modesty, in Ihort, which enhances
the value of a favour, and mitigates the pain of a re-
fufal.
Since modefty is the fecret fear of ignominy ; and
fince all nations, ancient or modern, have confeffed
the obligation of its laws •, it mull be abfurd to violate
them in the puniihment of crimes, which Ihould al¬
ways have for its objeCl the re-eftablilhment of order.
Was it the intention of thofe oriental nations, who
expofed women to elephants, trained for an abominable
fpecies of puniihment, to violate one law by the ob-
fervance of another ? By an ancient practice among
the Romans, a girl could not be put to death before
die was marriageable. Tiberius found means to evade
this law', by ordering them to be violated by the
executioner previous to the inflidion of puniihment ;
the refinement of a cruel tyrant, who facrificed the
morals to the cultoms of his people ! When the
legiflature of Japan caufed women to be expofed na¬
ked in the market places, and obliged them to walk on
all fours like brutes, modelfy was fhocked: but when
it wanted to force a mother-—when it wanted to com¬
pel a fon—nature received an outrage.
Such is the influence of climate in other countries,
that the phyfical part of love poflefles an almoft irrefid-
ble force. The refidance is feeble ; the attack is ac¬
companied with a certainty of fuccefs. This is the
cafe at Patana, at Bantam, and in the fmall kingdoms
on the coaft of Guinea. When the women in thefe
countries (fays Mr Smith) meet with a man, they lay
hold of him and threaten to inform their hulbands if
he defpifes their favours. But here the fexps feem to
have abolilhed the laws peculiar to each. It is fortu¬
nate to live in a temperate climate-like ours, where
that fex which poffelTes the mod powerful charms
exerts them to embellilh fociety ; and where moded
women, while they referve themfelves for the pleafures
of one, contribute to the amufement of all.
MODIFICATION, in Philofophy, that which mo¬
difies a thing, or gives it this or that manner of being.
Quantity and quality are accidents which modify all
bodies.
Decree of Moditication, in Scots Law, a decree
afcertaining the extent of a minider’s flipend, with¬
out proportioning it among the perfons liable in pay-
\ ment.
MODILLIONS, in ArchteBure, ornaments in
the corniche of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Compofite
columns.
MODI US, a Roman dry meafure for all forts of
grain, containing 32 heminae, or 16 fextarii, or one
third of the amphora j amounting to an Englifh peck.
See Measure.
MODULATION, the ait of forming any thing
to certain proportion.
Modulation, in reading or fpeaking. See Read¬
ing.
Modulation, in Mafic, derived from the Latin
modu/ari. This word in our language is fufceptible
of feveral different fignifications. It frequently means Module
no more than an air, or a number of mufical founds II
properly connefled and arranged. Thus it anfwers
to what Mr Malcolm underdands by the word tune,
when he does not exprefsly treat concerning the tun¬
ing of indruments. Thus likewife it expreffes the
French word chant; for which reafon, in the article
Music, W’e have frequently expreffed tj,ie one word
by the other. But the precife and technical accep¬
tation to which it ought to be confined, is the art of
compofing melody or harmony agreeably to the laws
prefcribed by any particular key, that of changing the
key, or of regularly and legitimately palling from one
key to another. See Music.
MODULE, in ArchiteBure, a certain meafure, or
bignefs, taken at pleafure, for regulating the propor¬
tions of columns, and the fymmetry or difpofition ot
the whole building. Architefts generally choofe the
femidiameter of the bottom of the column for their
module, and this they fubdivide into parts or mi¬
nutes.
MCE ONI A, or M^eonia. See M/eonia and Ly¬
dia.
MCESIA, or Mysia, in Ancient Geography, a coun¬
try of Europe, extending from the ccnduence of the Sa-
vus and the Danube to the ihores of the Euxine. It was
divided into Upper and Low-er Moefia. Lower Madia
was on the borders of the Euxine, and comprehended
that tract of country which received the name of Pontus
from its vicinity to the fea. Upper Moefia lay beyond
the other, in the inland country.
MOFFAT, a village ot Scotland, in Annandale, in
the county of Dumfries, 50 miles fouth-w'eft of Edin¬
burgh j famous for its fulphureous w^ell, which has been
in juft eftimation for near 150 years as a remedy in all
cutaneous and fcrofulous complaints •, and for its chaly¬
beate fpring, called Hartfell fpaw, which wras difeo-
vered above 50 years ago, and is of a very bracing qua¬
lity.—The place is chiefly fupported by the company
who refort thither for the benefit of its waters and air j
but it has alfo a manufacture of coarfe woollen fluffs. It
is a well-built clean village j and contains many good
and even elegant lodgings, a tolerable affembly room, a
bowling green and walks, and one of the beft inns be¬
tween London and Edinburgh.
MOFFETT A. See Ampsancti.
MOGODORE, or Mogadore, a large, uniform,
and well built town in the kingdom of Morocco, fituat-
ed about 350 miles from Tangier on the Atlantic ocean,,
and furrounded on the land fide by deep and heavy fands.
The European fadlory here confifts of about a dozen
mercantile houfes of different nations, whofe owners,
from the protedion granted them by the emperor, live
in full fecurity from the Moors, whom indeed they keep
at a rigid diftance. They export, to America, mules j
to Europe, Morocco leather, hides, gum arabic, gum
fandaric, oftrich feathers, copper, wax, wool, elephants
teeth, fine mats, beautiful carpeting, dates, figs, raifins,
olives, almonds, oil, &c. In return, they import tim¬
ber, artillery of all kinds, gunpowder, woollen cloths,
linens, lead, iron in bars, all kinds of hardware and
trinkets, fuch as looking glaffes, Inuff boxes, watches,
fmall knives, &c. tea, fugar, fpices, and moft of the ufe-
ful articles which are not otherwife to be procured in
this empire. The town is regularly fortified on the
fea
Moguls de-
fcended
from Ja-
phet.
M O G [ 299 ]
Moguls, fea fide ; and on the land, batteries are fo placed as to char a,
m—v  prevent any incurfion from the fouthern Arabs, who
are of a turbulent difpofition, and who, from the great
wealth w7hich is known to be always in Mogodore,
would gladly avail themfelves of any opportunity that
offered to pillage the town. The entrance, both by
fea and land, confifts of elegant ftone arch-ways, with
double gates. The market-place is handfomely built,
with piazzas of the fame materials *, and at the wa¬
ter port there is a cuflomhoufe and powder maga¬
zine, both of which are neat ftone buildings. Ee-
ftdes thefe public edifices, the emperor has a fmall but
handfome palace for his occafional refidence. The
ftreets of the town, though very narrow’, are all in
ftraight lines •, and the houfes, contrary to what w’e
meet wdth in the other towns of the empire, are lofty
and regulaf. The bay, w’hich is little better than a
road, and is very much expoied when the wind is at
north-weft, is formed by a curve in the land, and a
fmall ifland about a quarter of a mile from the fhore.
—Its entrance is defended by a fort w’ell furnifhed
with guns.
MOGULS, a celebrated nation of Afia, whofe
conquefts formerly were the moft rapid and extenfive
1 of any people recorded in hiftory. They themfelves
deduce their origin from Japhet, or, as they call him,
Japhis, the fon of Noah. His fon Turk, they fay,
was the firit king, or khan, of thofe nations who are
now’ known by the feparate names of Turks, Tartars,
and Moguls ; and the Tartars efpecially affert, that their
proper defignation is Turks. To this prince is attributed
many of thofe inventions which barbarous nations com¬
monly afcribe to their firft fovereigns. He was fucceed-
ed by Taunak ; in whofe reign the whole pofterity of
Turk were divided into four large tribes, denominated
the orda's of Erlat, Gialair, Kaugin, Berks or Perks j
of which kft came the famous Timur Eeg, or Tamer¬
lane.—From this time to that of Aknza Khan, we meet
with nothing remarkable. In his reign the Turks
being immerfed in all kinds of luxury, univerfally
apoftatized into idolatry. Having two fons, Tartar
and Mogul, he divided his dominions among them, and
thus gave rife to the two empires of the Tartars and
Moguls.
The two nations had not long exifted before they
began to make war upon each other : and after long
contention, the event at kft w’as, that II Khan, empe¬
ror of the Moguls, W’as totally overthrown by Siimtz
Khan, emperor of the Tartars; and fo great was the
defeat, that the Mogul nation feems to have been al-
moft exterminated. Only two of II Khan’s family fur-
vived this difafter. Thefe were Kajan his youngeft
fon, and Nagos his nephew, who were both of an age,
and had both been married the fame year. Thefe two
princes, with their wives, had been taken prifoners by
Siuntz Khan, but found means to make their efcape to
their owm country. Here they feized upon all the cattle
which had not been carried off by the Tartars : which
was eafily done, as having none to dilpute the property
with them ; then ftrioping fome of the flain, they took
their clothes, and retired into the mountains. They
paffed feveral mountains without much difficulty; but
at kft advanced to the foot of one exceedingly high,
which had no way over it but a very fmall path made
by certain animals, called in the Tartar language ar¬
ia Mogul.
Aim oft ex¬
terminated,
M O G
This path they found themfelves obliged
make ufe of, though it was fo ftrait, that only one ’
could pafs at a time, and he w’as in the moft imminent
danger of breaking his neck at the leaft falfe ftep. ?
Having afeended the mountain on one fide by this They ar-
path, they defeended by the fame on the other fide ; rive in a
and wrere agreeably furprifed to find themfelves in a 1 u
moft delightful tradft, interfperfed with rivulets andva ey‘
charming meadow’s, abounding with a vaft variety of
delicious fruits, and enclofed on all fides by inacceffible
mountains, in fuch a manner as to (belter them from all
future purfuits of the Tartars. Here they lived fome
time, and gave this beautiful country the name of Ir-
gana-kon, in illufion to its fituation ; Irgana fignifying,
in the old language of the Moguls, a “ valley,” and
Kon a “ fteep height,”
In procefs of time thefe two families very much in-
creafed. Kajan, whofe pofterity w’as the moft nume¬
rous, called his defeendants Kajath ; but the people
fpringing from Nagos were divided into two tribes ;
one of w’hich received the appellation of Nagojler, and
the other that of Dur/agan.
Thefe two Mogul princes and their defeendants lived
in this place for more than 400 years ; but the latter
then finding it too narrow for them, meditated a return
to the country from which their forefathers had been
driven. For fome time, however, they found this im-
prafticable, as the path that condufted their anceftors
had been long fince deftroyed. At kft: they difeovered,
that one part of the high mountain above-mentioned
was not very thick in a certain place ; and alfo, that
it confided entirely of iron ore. To this, having before
fet fire to a layer of wood, and another of charcoal,
kid along the foot of the mountain, they applied 70
large bellows, and at kft melted the mountain in fuch
a manner, that an opening was made large enough for
a loaded camel to pafs ; and through this paffage -they
all marched out with great joy. ^
The Moguls having thus iffued as it were from a From
new world, overthrew the Tartars in their turn; andwhence
continued to be a very confiderable nation till the time
of their great hero Temujin, afterwards called Jengine defeat the
Khan, whom they extol in the moft extravagant man-Tartars,
ner. It is difficult, however, to fay, at the time Te¬
mujin made his appearance, how far the dominions of
the Moguls extended, or in what eftimation they were
held by their neighbours. It feems to be pretty cer¬
tain that great part of the vaft region, now known by
the name of Tartary, was then in a (late of confider¬
able civilization, and likewife extremely populous, as
we find mention made of many cities which the Mo¬
guls deftroyed; and the incredible multitudes whom
they fiaughtered, abundantly (how the populoufnefs of
the country. On the eaft, the country of the Moguls
and Tartars had the great defert which divides Tartary 5
from China ; on the weft, it had the empire of Karaztn, ^tate •A-
founded by Mahmud Gazni ; and on the fouth were ^ ^
the countries now known by fhe name of IndoJlanj^g^
Siam, Pegu, Tonquin, and Cochin China. Thus it com-Khan,
prehended the eaftern part of modern Tartary, and
all Siberia. This whole region was divided among
a great number of Aymacks, or tribes; who had each
one or more khans, according as it was more or lefs
numerous, or divided into branches. Among thefe
that of the Kara-iis was the moft powerful: their
P p 2 prince
M O G
'Moral'
r
prince aSumed the title of Grand Khan, and among
the reft the Moguls were tributary to him ; but, ac¬
cording to the Chinefe hiftorians, both the one and
the other were tributary to the emperor of Kitay or
Katay. China was divided into two parts: the nine
fouthem provinces were in the hands of the Chinefe
emperors of the Song dynafty, who kept their court
at Hang-chew, the capital of the province of Chek-
yang ; the five northern provinces, excepting part of
Shenfi, were poffeffed by the Kin, a people of Eaftern
Tartary, from whom are defcended the Manchew Tar-
tart, at prefent mailers of China. This vaft domi¬
nion was named Kitaij or Katay, and was divided into
two parts : that which belonged to China, was proper¬
ly called Kit ay ; and the part which belonged to Tar¬
tary was called Karahitay, in which fome even include
the territories of the Moguls, Karaits, and other tribes
which are the fubjesft of the prefent hiftory. The
weftern part of the empire of Kitay was poffelfed by a
Turkifh prince, who had lately founded a new king¬
dom there called Hya ; whofe capital city was Hya-
chew, now Ninghya in Shenfi, from wdience the king¬
dom took its name. To the weft of Hya lay Tangut j
a country of great extent, and formerly very powerful j
but at that time reduced to a low ftate, and divided
among many princes 5 fome of whom were fubjefl to
the emperor of Hya, and others to the emperor of
China. All Tartary to the weftward as far as the
Cafpian fea, with the greater part of Little Buekharia,
wdiich then palled under the general name of Turkejlan,
was fubjeft to Ghurkhan, Khurkhan, or Kaver Khan ;
to whom even the Qazni monarchs are laid to have
been tribuary. This Ghurkhan had been prince of the
Weftern Kitan or Lyau ; who, driven out of Kitay by
the king, fettled in Little Buckharia, and the country
to the north, where they founded a powerful ftate about
the year 11 24.
Thus the Moguls, properly fo called, had but a very
ami birth of fmall extent of empire wdiich could be called their own,
lemujin. jf in4eed they had any, when Temujin made his appear-
ancy. This hero is faid by the Tartars to have been
of divine origin, fince his family could be traced no far¬
ther back than ten generations, the mother of whom
was got with child by a fpirit. The names and tranf-
aflions of hi? predeceffors are equally uncertain and un¬
important : he himfelf, howmver, was born in the year
1163, and is faid to have come into the wmrld with con¬
gealed blood in his hands ; from whence it was progno-
fticated that he wrould be a great warrior, and obtain
the victory over all his enemies.
This prediction, if any fuch there was, Temujin
moft literally fulfilled. At the time of his father’s de-
ceafe, his fubjeCts amounted to between 30,000 and
40,000 families; but of thefe two-thirds quickly defer-
ted, and Temujin was left almoft without fubjeCts.
When only 13 years of age, he fought a bloody battle
againft theie revolters j but either was defeated, or gain¬
ed an indecifive victory 5 fo that he remained in obfcu-
- 1 7 v nty for 27 5 ears longer- His good fortune at laft he
itvobed hlS°wed to the foendthip of Vang Khan, who ruled over
^bjedts by a Hreat number of Tartar tribes to thd north of Kitay,
neans of and has been heard of under the name of Prejler ’John
among the Europeans. This prince took Temujin un¬
der his protection; and a rebellion being afterwards
raifed againft himfelf, Temujin was made his general,
]
IV
.1 O G
6
Befcent
Vang
tv ban.
and the khan was kept in pofieflion of his throne : foon Moguls.
after which Temujin lubdued the tribes which had re-  ■'
volted from himfelf, treating them at the fame time
with the utmoft barbarity. $
This happened in the year 1201 ; but Vang Khan, Who be-
inftead of continuing the friend of Temujin, now became comesjea"
jealous, and refolved to deitroy him by treachery. With
tnis view he propofed a marriage between Temujin’s Ion h?s deftruc-
Juji and his own daughter, and another between Temu-tuon.
jin’s daughter and his own ion. Temujin was invited to
the camp of Vang Khan, in order to celebrate this dou¬
ble marriage ; but receiving intelligence of fome evil
intention againft him, he excufed himfelf to Vang
Khan’s mefiengers, and defired that the ceremony might
be put off to Kme other time.
A few days after the departure of thefe meffengers,
Badu and Krlluik, two brothers, who kept the horfes
of one of Vang Khan’s chief domeftics, came and in¬
formed Temujin, that the grand Khan finding he had
miffed his aim, was refolved to fet out inftantly, and
furprife him next morning, before he could fufpeCt any
danger. Temujin, alarmed at this intelligence, quit¬
ted his camp, in the night time, and retired with all his
people to fome diftance. He was fcarce gone when
Vang Khan’s troop.s arrived, and difcharged an incre¬
dible number of arrows among the empty tents; but
finding nobody there, they purfued Temujin in fuch
hafte that they fell into great dii’order. In this con¬
dition they were fuddenly attacked and routed by Te¬
mujin ; after which an open war with Vang Khan
took place.
By this quarrel almoft all the princes of Tartary Temujin
were put in motion, fome fading with Temujin, andovercomes
others with Vang Khan. But at laft fortune declared al! his ene-’
in favour of the former: Vang Khan was overthrown
in a battle, where he loft 40,000 men ; and obliged to
fiy for refuge to a prince named Tayyan Khan, who
was Temujin’s father-in-law, and his own enemy, and
by whom he was ungenerouily put to death. Temu¬
jin immediately began to feize on his dominions, great
part of wdiich voluntarily lubmitted : but a confedera¬
cy was formed againft him by a number of Vang Khan’s
tributaries, at the head of whom was Jamuka, a prince
who had already diftinguifhed himfelf by his enmity to
Temujin 5 and even Tayyan Khan himfelf was drawn
into the plot, through jealoufy of his fon-in-law’s good
fortune. But Temujin was w'ell prepared ; and in the
year t 204 attacked Tayyan Khan, entirely routed his
army, killed himfelf, and took Jemuka prifoner, whofe
head he caufed inftantly to be Itruck off; after which
he marched againft the other tribes who had confpired
againft him. Them he quickly reduced ; took a city
called Kajhin, where he put all to the fwmrd who had
borne arms againft him j and reduced all the Mogul
tribes in 1 203.
Temujin nowq having none to oppofe him, called a
general diet, which he appointed to be held on the firft
day of the fpring 1206 •, that is, on the day in which
the fun entered Aries. To this diet were fummoned
all the great lords both Moguls and Tartars j and in
the mean time, to eftablifh good order in the army,
he divided his foldiers into bodies of 10,000, 1000
100, and 10 men, with their refpe&ive officers, all
fubordinate to the generals, or thofe who commanded
the bodies of 10,000 j and thefe were to a£t under his
oym
Moguls.
10
A flumes
the title of
Jenghiz
Khan.
it
Invades
Hya, Chi¬
na, See.
M O G [ 301 ] M O G
own fons. On the day of holding the diet, the prin¬
ces of the blood and great lords appeared dreffed in
white. Temujin dreffed in the fame manner, with
his crown on his head, fat down on his throne, and
was complimented by the whole affembly, who wilhed
him the continuance of his health and profperity. Af¬
ter this they confirmed the Mogul empire to him and
his fucceffors, adding all thole kingdoms which he had
fubdued, the defeendants of whole vanquilhed khans
were deprived of all right or title to them •, and after
this he was proclaimed emperor wfith much ceremony.
During this inauguration, a pretended prophet declar¬
ed that he came from God to tell the affembly, that
from thenceforth Temujin Ihould affume the name of
'jenghi% Khan, or the nuji Great Khan of khans ; pro-
phecying alfo, that all his pofterity Ihould be khans from
generation to generation. This prophecy, which was
no doubt owing to Temujin himfelf, had a furpriling
effetff on his fubjedls, who from that time concluded
that all the world belonged of right to them, and even
thought it a crime againll heaven for any body to pre¬
tend to refill them.
Jenghiz Khan having now reduced under his fubjec-
tion ail the wandering tribes of Moguls and Tartars,
began to think of reducing thofe countries to the fouth
and fouth-weil of his own, where the inhabitants were
much more civilized than his own fubjefls : and the
countries being full of fortified cities, he mull of courfe
expect to meet with more refiftance. He began with
the emperor of Hya, whofe dominions he invaded in
1209, who at lall fubmitted to become his tributary.
But in the mean time Jenghiz Khan himfelf was fup-
pofed to be tributary to the emperor of Kitay : wTho, in
1210, fent him an officer, demanding the cuftomary
tribute. This was refufed with the utmoft indignation,
and a war commenced, which ended not but with the
diffolution of the empire of Kitay, as mentioned under
the article China.
In the year 1216, Jenghiz Khan refolved to carry
his arms v;eftward, and therefore left his general
Muchuli to purfue his ccnqueils in Kitay. In his
journey w’eftward he overthrew an army of 300,000
Tartars who had revolted againft him j and, in 1218,
fent ambaffadors defiring an alliance with Mohammed
Karazm Shah, erpperor of Gazna. His ambaffador
was haughtily treated : however, the alliance was con¬
cluded ; but foon after broken, through the treachery
as it is faid, of the Karazmian monarch’s fubjefts. This
brought on a wrar attended with the moil dreadful de-
vaftations, and which ended with the entire deftruCtion
of the empire of Karazm or Gazna, as related under the
the article Gazna.
After the reduction of Karazm, part of the Moguls
broke into Iran or Perfia, where alfo they made large
conqueds, while others of their armies invaded Georgia
and the countries to the wrelf *, all this time committing
fuch enormities, that the Chinefe hiftorians fay both
men and fpirits burft with indignation. In 1225,
Jenghiz Khan returned to Hya, where lie made war on
the emperor for having Iheltered fome of his enemies.
The event was, that the emperor was fiain, and his
kingdom conquered, or rather dedroyed ; wffiich, how*-
ever, was the laft exploit of this moft cruel conqueror,
who died in 1227, as he marched to complete the de-
ftru&ion of the Chinefe.
The Mogul empire, at the death of Jenghiz Khan, Moguls.^
extended over a prodigious traft of country j being v " J
more than 1800 leagues in length from ealt to weft, and Vaft extent
upwards of 1000 in breadth from north to fouth. Its0f his em-
princes, however, were ftill infatiable, and puftied onpire.
their conquefts on all fides. Ok-tay was acknowledged
emperor after Jenghiz Khan ; and had under his imme¬
diate goverment Moguleftan (the country of the Mo¬
guls properly fo called), Kitay, and the countries eaft
w'ard to the Tartarian iea. Jagaty his brother govern¬
ed under him a great part of the weftern conquefts.
The country of the Kipjacks, and others to the eaft,
and north-eaft, north, and north-weft, were governed
by Batu or Patu the fon of Juji, who had been killed
in the wars •, while Tuli or Toley, another fon of Jen- 1
ghiz Khan, had Khoraffan, Perlia, and what part of In¬
dia was conquered. On the eaft fide the Mogul arms
were ftill attended with fuccefs ; not only the empire of
Kitay, but the fouthern part of China, was conquered,
as already related under that article, N° 24—42. On
the weft fide matters continued much in the fame way
till the year 1254, when Magu, or Menkh®, the fourth
khan of the Moguls, (the fame who was afterwards
killed at a fiege in China*), raifed a great army, * See «>/-
which he gave to his brother Hulaku or Hulagfl, to tK-na, 3S.
tend his dominions weftward. In 1255 he entered
Iran, where he fuppreffed the Ifmaelians or Affaffins,
of whom an account is given under the article Assas¬
sins, and two years afterwards he advanced to Bagdad,
which he took, and cruelly put the caliph to death,
treating the city with n@ more lenity than the Moguls ^3 ,
ufually treated thofe which fell into their hands. Eve-®^^
ry thing was put to fire and fword $ and in the city and
its neighbourhood the number of fiain, it is faid, a-
mounted to i,6oo,oco. The next year he invaded Sy¬
ria ; the city of Damafcus w’as delivered up, and, as it
made no refiftance, the inhabitants were fpared j but
Aleppo being taken by ftorm, a greater {laughter en-
fued there than had taken place at Bagdad, not even-
the children in their cradles being fpared. Some cities
of this country revolted the next year, or the year af¬
ter •, but falling again into the hands of the Moguls,
they were plundered, and the inhabitants butchered-
without mercy, or carried into fiavery.
Hulaku died in 1264, and at his death we may fix
the greateft extent of the Mogul empire. It now com¬
prehended the whole of the continent of Alia, except¬
ing part of Indoftan, Siam, Pegu, Cochin China, and
a few of the countries of Lefter Alia, which had not
been attacked by them ; and during all thefe vaft con¬
quefts no Mogul army had ever been conquered, ex
cept one by Jaloloddin, as mentioned under the article
Gazna.—From this period, however, the empire be-it beghis to
gan to decline. The ambition of the khans having(ie(;ijne.
prompted them to invade the kingdoms of Japan and
Cochin China, they were miferably difappointed in their
■ attempts, and loft a great number of men. The fame
bad fuccefs attended them in Indoftan •, and in a Ihort
time this mighty empire broke into feveral fmaller ones.
The governors of Perfia being of the family of Jenghiz
Khan, owned no allegiance to any fuperior ; thole of
Tartary did the fame. The Chinefe threw oft the
yoke ; and thus the continent of Afia wore much the
lame face that it had done before Jenghiz Khan began
hi$ conquefts.
The i
M O G [ 302 ]
Mogms. 7he fuccefiors of Hulaku reigned in Perfia till the a wall
16
Becomes a
great con¬
queror.
year 1335 j but that year Abufaid Khan, the eighth
from Hulaku, dying, the affairs of that country fell
into confufion for want of a prince of the race of
Jenghiz Khan to fucceed to the throne. The empire,
therefore, was divided among a great number of petty
princes who fought againfl each other almoft without
intermiffion, till in the year 1369 Timur Bek, or Ta-
. *3 ^ merlane, one of thefe princes, having conquered a num-
'crowued" ber others, was crowned at Balkh, with the porn-
emperor of P0lls title of Saheb Karan ; that is, “ the emperor of
i5alkh. the age, and the conqueror of the world.” As he had
juft before taken that city, and deftroyed one of his
moft formidable rivals who had (hut himfelf up in it,
the new emperor began his reign with beheading fome
of the inhabitants, impriloning others, burning their
houfes, and felling the women and children for Haves.
In 137° he crofted the Sihun, made war on the Getes,
and attacked Karazm. Next year he granted a peace
to his enemies 5 but two years after, he again invaded
the country of the Getes, and by the year 1379 ha'd
fully conquered that country as well as Korazan ; and
from that time he continued to extend his conquefts in
much the fame manner as Jenghiz Khan had done,
though with lefs cruelty.—In 1387 he had reduced Ar¬
menia, Georgia, and all Perfia j the conqueft of which
laft was completed by the redu£lion of Ifpahan, 70,000
of the inhabitants of which were flaughtered on ac¬
count of a fedition raifed by fome ralh or evil difpofed
perfons.
After the redu£lion of Perfia, Timur turned his
arms northward and weft ward, fubduing all the coun¬
tries to the Euphrates. He took the city of Bagdad ;
, fubdued Syria; and having ravaged great part of Ruf-
Invades andfia, returned to Perfia in 1396, where he fplendidly
Jndoftan ^ea^e<^ ^Eole army. In ] 398 he invaded Indof-
tan, crofted the Indus on the 17th of September, redu¬
ced feveral fortreffes, and made a vaft number of cap¬
tives. However, as he was afraid that, in cafe of any
emergency, thefe prifoners might take part udth the
enemy, he gave orders to his foldiers to put all their In¬
dian flaves to death 5 and in confequence of this inhu-
jnan order, more than 100,000 of thefe poor wTretches
were flaughtered in lefs than an hour.
In the beginning of the year 1399 Timur was met
by the Indian army ; whom after a defperate battle, he
defeated with great daughter, and foon after took the
city of Delhi the capital of the country. Here he feat-
ed himfelf on the throne of the Indian emperors, and
here the fnarifs, kadis, and principal inhabitants of the
city, came to maKe their fubmiflion, and begged for
mercy. The tame elephants and rhinocerofes likewife
Mere brought to kneel before him as they had been ac-
cuhomed to do to the Indian emperors, and made a
great cry as if they implored his clemency. Thefe war
elephants, 120 in number, were, at his return, fent to
Samarcand, and to the province where his fons refided.
Aftei this, at the requeft of the lords of the court, Ti¬
mur made a great feaft ; at which he diftributed pre-
)3 tents to the princes and principal officers.
ShiT <■ ** AhiA •,lmc ,COI,Mcd of «“« cities, called
itroyed, ‘^7/r9 Old. Delhi, and Je/uin Pencil. Seyri was fur-
andthein- r°tinded with a wall in form of a circle. Old Delhi
habitants was the fame, but much larger, lying fouth-weft of the
daughter- other. Thefe two parts were joined^ on each fide by
M O G
and the third, lying between them, was called Moguls.
Jehan Penah, which was larger than Old Delhi. Pe- 
nah had ten gates j Seyri had feven, three of which
looked towards Jehan Penah j this laft had 13 gates,
fix to the north-'weft, and feven to the fouth-eaft. Eve¬
ry thing feemed to be in a quiet pofture ; when, on the
12th of January 1399, the foldiers of Timur being af-
fembled at one of the gates of Delhi, infulted the inha¬
bitants of the fuburbs. The great emirs were ordered
to put a flop to thefe diforders j but their endeavours
wrere not effedlual. The foltanas having a curiofity to
fee the rarities of Delhi, and particularly a famous "pa¬
lace adorned with loco pillars, built by an ancient
king of India, went in with all the court j and the gate
being on that occafion left open for every body, above
rjjOOo foldiers got in unperceived. But there was a
far greater number of troops in a large place between
Delhi, Seyri, and Jehan Penah, who committed great
diforders in the two laft cities. This made the inhabi¬
tants in defpair fall on them j and many, fetting fire to
their houles, burnt their wives and children. The fol¬
diers feeing this confufion, did nothing but pillage the
houfes; while the diforder was increafed by the admif-
fion of more troops, who feized the inhabitants of the
neighbouring places who had fled thither for fhelter.
i he emirs, to put a flop to this mbchief, caufed the
gates to be ffiut: but they were quickly opened by the
foldiers within, who rofe in arms againft their officers 5
fo that by the morning of the 13th the whole army was
entered, and this great city was totally deftroyed. Some
foldiers carried out 150 flaves, men, women, and chil¬
dren 5 nay, fome of their boys had 20 flaves a piece to
their (hare. The other fpoils, in jewels, plate, and ma-
nufa&ures, were immenfe; for the Indian women and
girls were adorned with precious ftones, and had brace¬
lets and rings on their hands, feet, and even toes, fo
that the foldiers were loaded with them. On the 1 5th,
in Old Delhi, the Indians retired into the great mofque,
to defend themfelves; but being attacked by the Tar-
tats, they wrere all flaughtered, and towers erected with
their heads. A dreadful carnage now enfued through¬
out the whole city, and feveral days were employed be¬
fore the inhabitants could be made to quit it entirelv •
and as they went, the emirs took a number of them for
their fervige. The artifans were alfo diftributed among
the princes and commanders; all but the mafons, who
were referved for the emperor, in order to build him a
fpacious ftone mofque at Samarcand.
After this terrible clevaftation, Timur marched into
the difterent provinces of Indoftan, everywhere defeat¬
ing the Indians who oppofed him, and flaughtering the
Ghebrs or worffiippers of fire. On the 23th of March
lie fet out on his return, and on the 9th of May ar¬
rived at Samarcand. In a few months after his arrival,
he was obliged to undertake an expedition into Perfia,
where affairs were in the utmoft diforder on account of
the mifcondudl of his fon, whom he had appointed fo-
vereign of that empire. Here Timur foon fettled mat¬
ters ; after which he again fet out on an expedition
weft ward, reduced many places in Georgia which had
not fubmitted before, and invaded and conquered Sy-
ria. At the fame time he quarrelled with Bajazet the iirnur
Turkifti fultan, then bufied in an enterprife againftKbL
Conftantinople, in which he would probably have fuc-zet the^'
ceeded had not Timur interpofed. The caufe of thisTurkifll
quarrelfultatl-
M O G [ 30
Moguls, quarrel at firft was, that Bajazet had demanded tribute
 r > £rom a prjnce WJ}0 v^s under Timur’s protedion, and
is faid to have returned an infulting anfwer to the Tar¬
tar ambafiadors who were fent to him on that account.
Timur, however, who was an enthufiaft in the caufe of
Mahometanifm, and confidered Bajazet as engaged, in
the caufe of heaven when befieging a Chriftian city,
was very unwilling to difturb him in fo pious a work j
and therefore undertook feveral expeditions againft the
princes of Syria and Georgia, in order to give the
Turkifh monarch time to cool and return to reafon.
Among other places, he again invefled the city of Bag¬
dad, w-hich had call; off its allegiance to him ; and hav¬
ing taken it by Itorm, made fuch a dreadful maffacre of
the inhabitants, that 1 20 towrnrs were ere&ed with the
heads of the (lain. In the mean time Bajazet conti¬
nued to give frelh provocation, by protecting one Kara
Yufef a robber, who had even infulted the caravan of
Mecca 5 fo that Timur at length refolved to make war
upon him. The fultan, however, forefeeing the dan¬
ger of bringing fuch a formidable enemy againfl: him-
felf, thought proper to afk pardon, by a letter, for what
was paft, and promife obedience to limur’s wall for the
future. This embaffy was gracioufly received •, and Ti¬
mur returned for anfwer, that he would forbear hoftili-
ties, provided Bajazet would either put Kara Yufef to
death, fend him to the Tartar camp, or expel him out
of hjs dominions. Along with the lurkilh ambafiadors
he fcnt one of his own 5 telling Bajozet that he would
march into the confines of Anatolia, and there W’ait his
final anfwer.
20
BEjazet de¬
feated and
taken pri-
Ipner.
Death of
Tamerlane
and diffohi'
tion of his
empire.
Though Bajazet had fecmed at firfi: willing to come
to an agreement with Timur, and to dread his fuperior
power ) yet he nowr behaved in firch an unfatisfaftory
manner, that the Tartar monarch defired him to pre¬
pare for war } upon which he raifed the fiege of Con-
ftantinople, and having met Timur with an army great¬
ly inferior to the Tartars, was utterly defeated and ta¬
ken prifoner. According to fome accounts, he was
treated with great humanity and honour •, while others
inform us, that he was (hut up in an iron cage, againfl:
which he dalhed out his brains the following year. At
any rate, it is certain that he was not reftored to liberty,
but 'died in confinement.
This viClory was followed by the fubmiflion of many
places of the Lefler Afia to Timur; the Greek empe¬
ror owned himfelf his tributary, as did alfo the fultan
of Egypt. After this Timur once more returned to
Georgia, which he cruelly ravaged •, after which he
marched to Samarcand, where he arrived in the year
1-405. Here, being now an old man, this mighty con¬
queror began to look forward to that ftate which at one
time or other is the dread of all living creatures ; and
Timur, in order to quiet the remorfes of his own con-
fcience, came to the following curious refolution, which
he communicated to his intimate friends 5 namely, that
“ as the vafl: conquefts he had made were not obtained
without fome violence, which had occafioned the de-
ftruftion of a great number of God’s creatures, he was
refolved, by way of atonement for his paft crimes, to
perform fome good action j namely, to maKe war on
’ the infidels, and exterminate the idolaters of China.”
This atonement, however, he did not live to accom-
plilh ; for he died the fame year of a burning ftver, in
the ^ift year of his age and 36th of his reign.
3 1 M O H
On the death of Timty, his empire fell immediately
into great diforder, and the civil wars continued for
five or fix years; but at laft peace was reftored, by the v
fettlement of Shah Rukh, Timur’s fon, on the throne.
He did not, however, enjoy the empire in its full ex¬
tent, or indeed much above one half of it ) having only
Karazm, Khoraffan, Kandahar, Perfia, and part of
Hindoftan. Neither was he able, though a brave and
warlike prince, to extend his dominions, though he
tranfmitted them to his fon Uhig Beg. He proved a
wife and learned monarch *, and is famous for the aftro-
nomical tables which he caufed to be eompofed, and
which are well known at this day. He was killed in
1448 by his fon Abdollatif, who fix months after was
put to death by his own foldiers. Aiter the death ot
Abdollatif, Abdollah, a grandfon of Shah Rukh, fei-
zed the throne ; but, after reigning one year, was ex¬
pelled by Abuiaid Mirza, the grandfon of Miran Shah
the fon of Timur. His reign was one continued feene
of wars and tumults ; till at laft he was defeated and ta¬
ken prifoner by one Haflan Beg, who put him to death
in 1468. From this time we may look upon the em¬
pire of Timur as entirely diflblved, though his descend¬
ants ftill reigned in Perfia and Indoftaa, the latter
of which is ftill known by the name of the Mogul's em-
Moguls
n
Mohilof.
pire. _ 22*
On the death of the above mentioned monarch, his of
fon Babr or Babor fucceeded him, but was foon drivenHnr
out by the Ufbeck Tartars j after which he refided fome
time in Gazna, whence he made incurfions into Hindo¬
ftan, and at length became mafter of the whole empire,
excepting the kingdoms of Dekan, Guzerat, and Ben¬
gal.—For the tranfaftions fubfequent to this period, fee
Hindostan and India.
MOHAIR, in commerce, the hair of a kind of goat
frequent about Angora in Turkey j the inhabitants of
which city are all employed in the mamifafture of cam-
blets made of this hair.
Some give the name mohair to the camblets or fluffs
made of this hair : of thefe there are two kinds \ the
one fmooth and plain, the other watered like tabbies :
the difference between the two only confifts in this, that
the latter is callendered, the other not. There are alfo
mohairs both plain and watered, whofe woof is of wool,
cottoa, or thread.
Mohair Shell, in Conchology, a name given to a
fpecies of voluta, which feems of a clofely and finely
reticulated texture, and refembles on the furface a piece
of mohair or a very clofe filkworm’s web.
MOHAWKS. See Muck.
Mqhavpk Country, a part of North America, inha¬
bited by one of the five nations of the Iroquois, fituated
between the province of New York, and the lake On¬
tario or Frontignac.
MOHILA, .or Moelia, one of the Comora iflands
in the Indian fea, between the north end of Madagafcar
and the continent of Africa. The inland parts are
mountainous and woody ; but the lands adjoining to the
fea are watered by feveral fine ftreams. The ifland
abounds with provifions of all kinds ; and the Eaft In¬
dia fhips of different nations fometimes touch here for
refrerhment.
MOHILOF, a large and ftrong city of Poland, in
the province of Lithuania, and palatinate of Mfciflau.
It is well built, populous*.and has a confiderable trade.
Nearv-
M O I
Near this place the Swedes obtained a great victory over
the Ruffians in 1707.
MOIDORE, a Portuguefe gold coin, value il. 7s.
fterling.
P.iOIErit (Medietas'), the half of any thing.
I\iOLv A, a town of Ireland, in the county of Down
and province of Lifter, 69 miles from Dublin 5 noted
for its linen manufacture. It gives title of earl to the
family of Rawdon.
MOISTURE. See Humidity.
■1 he moifture of the a:r has conliderable effects on
the human body. For the quantity and quality of the
food, and the proportion of the meat to the drink, be-
ing given, the weight,of a human body is lefs, and con-
fequently its difcbarges greater in dry weather than in
wet weather ; which may be thus accounted for: the
moifture of the air moiftens the fibres of the fkin and
leffens perfpiration by leffening their vibratory motion.
When perfpiration is thus leffened by the moifture of
tire air, urine indeed is by degrees increafed, but not
equally. Hence, according to Dr Eryan Robinfon,
we learn, that to keep a body of the fame weight in
wet weather as in dry, either the quantity of food
.muft b£ leffened, or the proportion of the meat to the
drink increafed : and both thefe may be done by lef-
fening the drink without making any change in the
meat.
The inftrument ured for determining the degree of
moifture in the air, is called an hygrometer. See Hy¬
grometer.
MOIVRE, Abraham, a learned mathematician,
was born at Vitri in Champagne, in France, 1667,
v\heie his father wTas a furgeon. At the revocation
of the edict of Nantes, he came to England. Before
he left France, he had begun the ftudy of mathema¬
tics ; and having perfected himfelf in that fcience in
London, he was obliged, byneceffity, to teach it. New¬
ton’s Principle, which accidentally fell into his hands,
ffiowed him how little progrefs he had made in a fcience’
of which he thought himfelf mafter. From this w’ork
he acquired a knowledge of the geometry of infinites
with as great facility as he had learned the elementary
geometry 5 and in a fhort time he was fit to be ranked
with the moft celebrated mathematicians. His fuccefs
in thefe ftudies procured him a feat in the Royal Society
of London and in the Academy of Sciences at Paris.
His merit was fo w’ell underftood in the former, that he
was thought capable of deciding in the famous difpute
between Leibnitz and Newton concerning the differen¬
tial calculus.—He publifhed a Treatife on Chances in
I73*> and another on Annuities in 17525 both ex¬
tremely accurate, "I he Philofophical Tranfaflions con¬
tain many interefting memoirs of his compofition.—
Some of them treat of the method of fluxions 5 others
are on the lunula of Hippocrates 5 others on phyfical
aftronomy, in which he refolved many important pro¬
blems j and others, in fhort, on the analyfis of the
games of chance, in which he followed a different
coune from that of Montmort. Towards the clofe of
Ins life he loft his fight and hearing 5 and the demand
for fleep became fo great that he required 20 hours of
it in a day. He died at London, 1754, aged 87.
His knowledge was not confined to mathematics ; but
he retained to the laft a tafte for polite literature. He
Vi as intimately acquainted wuth the belt authors of anti-
3
r 304 ]
MOL
quity 5 and he was frequently confulted about difficult
paffages in their works. Rabelais and Moliere were
his favourite French authors: he had them by heart 5
and he one day obferved to one of his acquaintance,
“ that he would rather have been Moliere than New¬
ton.” He recited whole feenes of the Mifanthrope with
that delicacy and force with which he remembered to
have lieard them recited at Paris 70 years before, by
Moliere’s own company. The charatfter indeed ’was
fomewffiat fimilar to his own. He judged feverely of
mankind 5 and could never conceal bis difgull at" the
converfation of a fool, or his averfion to cunnincr and
diffimulation. He was free from the affeflation of fci¬
ence, and no one could know him to be a mathemati¬
cian but from the accuracy of his thoughts. His con¬
verfation was general and inftruftive. Whatever he
faffi was W'ell digefted and clearly expreffed. His ftyle
poffeffed more ftrength and folicity than ornament and
animation 5 ^but he was always corrett, and he bellowed
as much pains on his icntences as on his calculations.
* could never endure any bold affertions or indecent
witticifms againft religion.
Mola, an ancient town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Terra di Lavoro, where they .pre¬
tend to Ihow the ruins of Cicero’s houfe. It is feated
on the gulf of Venice, in E. Long. 17.50. N. Lat
41, 5-
Mola Salfa ((Salt Cahe), in antiquity, was barley
parched, and afterwards ground to meal or flour, then
mixed with fait and frankincenie, with the addition of
a little water. Thus prepared, it was fprinkled be¬
tween the horns of the vi&im before it was killed in fa-
enfice. This aft was called immolatio, and was com¬
mon to the Greeks as well as Romans; with this dif¬
ference, that the mola of the Romans was of wheat.
The Greeks called it sAn or
MGLARES, or Dentes molares, in Anatomy,
the large teeth, called in Engliffi the grinders. See
Anatomy Index.
MOLASSES, or Molosses. See Molosses.
MOLDAVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe,
bounded on the north-eaft by the river Niefter, which
divides it from Poland 5 .on the eaft, by Beflarabia 5 on
the fouth by the Danube, which parts it from Bulga¬
ria 5 and on the weft, by Walachia and Tranfylvania.
It is 240 miles in length and 150 in breadth. It lies in
a good air and fruitful foil, producing corn, wine, rich
paftures, a good breed of horfes, oxen, ffieep, plenty of
game,^ fiffi, fowl, honey, wax, and all European fruits.
Its principal rivers are the Danube, Niefter, Pruthj
Bardalach, and Ceret. 1 he inhabitants are Chriftians
or the Greek church, and Jaffy is the principal town.
It has been tributary to the Turks fince the year 1574 5
who appoint a prince who is a native of the country’
but have no regard to his being of the principal fami¬
lies. . I he province pays a large yearly tribute to the
Turkiffi government ; befides raffing a great body of
horfe at its own expence.
MOLE, a river in Surry, which has taken its name
from running under ground. It firft difappears at Box-
hill, nearDarking, in the county of Surry, and emerges
again near Leatherhead.
Mole. See Talpa, Mammalia Index; and for
methods of deftroying, fee Vermin, DeJh uBion of.
Mole, in Midwifery, a mafs of fieffiy matter, of a
fpherical
MOL
Mole,
Moliere.
fpherical figure, generated in the uterus, and fometimes
miftaken for a child. See MiDWlFER'f.
Mole, or Marie. See N^evus.
Mole, in ArchiteBure, a maffive work formed of
large ftones laid in the fea by means of coffer dams, ex¬
tended either in a right line or an arch of a circle, be¬
fore a port, which it ferves to clofe \ to defend the vef-
fels in it from the impetuofity of the waves, and to pre¬
vent the paifage of (hips without leave. Thus we fay
the mole of the harbour of Medina, &c.
Mole is fometimes alfoufed to fignify the harbour itfelf.
Mole, {mules), among the Romans, was alfo ufed
for a kind of maufoleum, built in manner of a round
tower on a fquare bafe, infulate, encompalfed with co¬
lumns, and covered with a dome.—ITe mole of the
emperor Adrian, now the caflle of St Angelo, was the
greateil and moft (lately of all the moles. It was
crowned with a brazen pine apple, wherein was a gold¬
en urn containing the alhes of the emperor.
Mole Cricket. See Gryllotalpa, Entomology
Index
Mole Hills. Thefe little hillocks of earth are a very
great prejudice to the pafture lands, not only in wafting
fo much of the land as they cover, but in obftrufting
the feythe in mowing. In the weft of England they
ufe a peculiar inftrument for the breaking up of thefe $
it is a flat board, very thick-; and of about eight inches
in diameter, into which there is faftened a perpendicu¬
lar handle of three or four feet long. It has four broad
and {harp iron 'teeth at the front, which readily cut
through the hill, and fpread the earth it confifts of;
and behind there is a large knob proper for breaking
the clods with, if there are any. Some ufe a fpade, or
other common inftrument, in the place of this, but not
fo w7ell. There is, however, a much better inftrument
even than this, for deftroying thefe hills, where they
are in very great numbers. This is a kind of horfe ma¬
chine ; it has a (harp iron about three feet over, and
with a ftrong back.—It is about four or five inches
broad, and has two long handles for a horfe to be har-
neffed to, and a crofs bar of iron to ftrengthen it at the
bottom of the handles, reaching from the one handle to
the other. The middle of this crofs bar is furnilhed
with one, two, or more (harp pieces of iron like fmall
ploughfhares, to cut the mole hills into two, three, or
more parts. The iron behind is of a femicircular fi¬
gure. A fingle horfe is harnefled to this machine, and
a boy muft be employed to drive it, and a man to hold
and guide it; the (harp irons or (hares are the firft
things that meet the hill, they run through it, break
its texture, and cut it into feveral parts •, and the circu¬
lar iron following immediately behind them, cuts up the
whole by the roots, and leaves the land level. This
inftrument will deftroy as many mole hills in one day
as a common labourer can do in eight, and wmuld be of
very great advantage to the kingdom if brought into
general ufe.
MOLIERE, John Baptist, a celebrated French
comedian and dramatic writer, whofe true name was
Pocquelin, which for fome reafon he changed to that of
Moliere. He was the fon of a valet de chambre, and was
born at Paris about the year 1620. He went through
the ftudy of the claflics under the Jefuits in the college
of Clermont, and was defigned for the bar; but at his
quitting the law fchools, he made choice of the adlor’s
Vol. XIV. Part I.
[ 3°5-1 MOL
profeflion. From a ftrong attachment to the dfama,
his whole ftudy and application were diredled to the
ftage, and he continued till his death to exhibit plays,,
which were greatly applauded. It is faid the firft mo¬
tive of his going upon the flage was to enjoy the com¬
pany of an atfrefs for wrhom he had contraefed a vio¬
lent fondnefs. His comedies are highly efteemed. And
it is no wonder he fo juftly reprefented domeftic feuds,
and the torments of jealous hufbands, or of thofe who
have reafon to be fo ; for it is aflerted that no man-ever
experienced this more than Moliere. His laft comedy
was Le Malade Imaginaire, which was brought on the
ftage in 1673 ; and Moliere died on the fourth night
of its reprefentation 5 fome fay in a&ing the very part
of the pretended dead man, which gave fome exercife
for the wits of the time •, but according to others he
died in his bed that night, from the burlting of a vein
in his lungs by coughing. The king, as a laft mark,
of his favour, prevailed with the archbilhop of Paris to
fuffer him to be buried in confecrated ground though
he had irritated the clergy by his Hartuff. I he moft
efteemed editions of his works are that of Amfterdam, 5
vols. i2mo, 1699 ; and that of Paris, 6 vols. 4to, 1734‘
MOLINISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a (cef in the
Romifti church, who follow the doiftrine and fentiments
of the Jefuit Molina, relating to futficient and efficaci¬
ous grace. He taught that the op nations of divine
grace were entirely confiftent with the freedom of hu*
' man will ; and he introduced a new kind of hypothefis
to remove the difficulties attending the dodtrines of
predeftination and liberty, and to reconcile the jarring
opinions of Auguftines, Thomifts, Semi-Pelagians, and
other contentious divines. He affirmed, that the de¬
cree of predeftination to eternal glory was founded up¬
on a previous knowledge and confideration of the merits
of the eledfj that the grace, from whofe operation, thefe
merits are derived, is not efficacious by its own intrinfic
power only, but alfo by the confent of our own will, and
becaufe it is adminiftered in thofe circumftances, in which
the Deity, by that branch of his knowledge which is
called feienlia media, forefees that it will be efficacious.
The kind of prefcience, denominated in the fchools fci-
entia media, is that foreknowledge of future contingents
that arifes from an acquaintance with the nature and fa¬
culties of rational beings, of the circumftances in which
they (hall be placed, of the objedts that {hall be pre-
fented to them, and of the influence which their circum¬
ftances and objedts muft have on their adlions.
MOLINOSISTS, a fedl among the Romanifts, who
adhere to the dodlrine of Molinos. Thefe are the fame
with what are otherwife called ^uietifts, whofe chief
principle was, that men ought to annihilate themfelves
in order to be united to God, and afterwards remain in
quietnefs of mind, without being troubled for what
(hall happen to the body. Molinos, the author of thofe
opinions, was a Spanifh prieft, and was born in 1627.
His 68 propofitions were examined in 1687 by the
pope and inquifitors, who decreed that his dodlrine w-as
falfe and pernicious, and that his books (hould be burn¬
ed. He was forced to recant his errors publicly in the
Dominican church, and was condemned to perpetual
imprifonment. He was then 60 years old, and had
been fpreading his dodfrine 22 years before. He died
in prifon in 1692.
MOLLUGO, African chickweed ; a genus of
£ q ^ plants
MoiiniftS
1!
Mollugo.
MOL [ ] MOL
Mc;IuLa, plants belonging to the triandrla clafs, and in the na-
^MuciLs. ^ turrj method rankind under the 22d order, Caryophyllei.
See Botany lnd.tx,
MOLLUSCA, in the Linnsean fyflem, one of the
orders of vermes or worms. Thefe are limple naked
animals, not included in a (hell, but furnifhed with
limbs. See Helminthology Index.
MOLOCH, a falfe god of the Ammonites, who de¬
dicated their children to him, by making them “ pafs
through the fire,” as the Scriptures exprefs it. There
are various opinions concerning this method of confe-
cration'. Some think, the children leaped over a fire
facred to Moloch ; others, that they paffed between
two fires ; and others, that they were really burnt in
the fire, by way of factifice to this god. There is foun¬
dation for each of thefe opinions. For, firft, it was
ufual among the pagans to luftrate or purify with fire j
and, in the next place, it is exprefsly faid, that the in¬
habitants of Sepharvaim burnt their children in the fire
to Anamelech and Adramelech j much fuch deities as
Moloch of the Ammonites.
Mofes, in feveral places, forbids the Ifraelites to de¬
dicate their children to this god as the Ammonites did,
and threatens death and utter extirpation to fuch per-
fofts as were guilty of this abominable idolatry. And
there is great probability that the Hebrews were much
addicted to the \-orlhip of this deity : fince Amos, and
after him St Stephen, reproaches them with having-
carried along with them into the wildemefs the taber¬
nacle of their god Moloch.
Solomon built a temple to Moloch upon the mount
of Olives •, and Manaffeh, a long time after, imitated
his impiety, by making his fon pafs through the fire
in honour of Moloch. It was chiefly in the valley of
Tophet and Hinnom, to the eaft of Jerufalem, that the
Ifraelites paid their idolatrous worlhip to this falfe god
of the Ammonites.
There are various fentiments concerning the relation
which Moloch had to the other pagan divinities. Some
believe he was the fame with Saturn, to whom it is
well known that human facrifices were offered. Others
fuppofe him to be Mercury •, others, Mars *, others, Mi¬
thras 5 and others, Venus. Laftly, Others take Moloch
to be the fun, or the king of heaven. Moloch was
likewife called Mi/com; as appears from what is faid
of Solomon, that he went after Afhtaroth the abomi¬
nation of the Zidonians, and Milcom the abomination
of the Ammonites.
MOLOSSES, Molasses, or MeiaJJes^ that grofs
fluid matter remaining of fugar after refining, and
which no boiling will bring to a confidence more
folid than that of fyrup ; hence alfocalled fyrup of fugar.
Properly, moloffes are only the fediment of one kind
of fugar called chypre, or brown fugar, which is the
refufe of other fugars not to be whitened or reduced
into loaves.
Moloffes ifre much ufed in Holland for the prepara¬
tion of tobacco, and alfo among poor people inftead of
fugar. There is a kind of brandy or fpirit made of
moloffes ; but by fome held exceedingly unwholefome.
See below-.
Artificial Molosses. There has been found a me¬
thod of making moloffes from apples without the ad¬
dition of fugar. The apple that fucceeds bell in this
operation is a fummer fweeting of a middle fize, plea-
fant to the tnffe, and fo full of juice that feven buihels Moloffes
will yield a barrel of cyder. Jl
rrL c , - . . i • i . Molucca
1 he manner ol making it is this : the apples are to jfl.inc}s_
be ground and preffed, then the juice is to be boiled ——y——
in a large copper, till three quarters of it be evapora¬
ted : this rvill bfe done with a moderate fire in about fix
hours, with the quantity of juice above mentioned 5
by this time it will be of the confifience and tafte as
well as of the colour of moloffes.
This new- molaffes ferves all the purpofes of the com¬
mon kind, and is of great ufe in preferving cyder. Two
quarts of it, put into a barrel of racked cyder, will pre-
ferve it, and give it an agreeable colour.
The invention of this kind of moloffes w-as owing to
Mr Chandler of Woodftock in New England, who liv¬
ing at a diftance from the fea, ai d where the com¬
mon molaffes was very dear and fcarce, provided this
for the fupply of his own family, and introduced the
praftice among people of the neighbourhood. It is
to be obferved, that this fort of apple, the fweeting, is
of great ufe in making cyder ; one of the very belt
kinds we know being made of it. The people in New-
England alfo feed their hogs with the fallings of their
orchards of thefe apples j and the confequence of this
is, that their pork is the fineft in the world.
Molosses Spirit; a very clean and pure fpirit, much
ufed in England, and made from moloffes or common
treacle diffolved in water, and fermented in the fame
manner as malt or the common malt fpirit. See Di¬
stillation.
MOLOSSI, a people of Epirus, who inhabited
that part of the country which was called MoloJJtay or
MoloJJits, from King Moloffus, a fon of Pyrrhus and
Andromache. This country had the bay of Ambracia
on the fouth, and the country of the Perrhaebeans on
the eaft. The dogs of the place were famous, and re¬
ceived the name of MoloJJi among the Romans. Do-
dona was the capital of the country, according to fome
w-riters. Others, however, reckon it as the chief city
of Thefprotia.
MOLOSSUS, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a
foot confifting of three long fyllables. As aitdiri^ can-
tabant, virtutem.
It takes its name either from a dance in ufe among
the people called MoloJJi or Epirotce; or from the temple .
of Jupiter Moloffus, where odes w-ere fung, in w-hich
this foot had a great fiiare j or elfe becaufe the march
of the Molofli, w hen they went to the combat, was
compofed of thefe feet, or had the cadence thereof.
The fame foot was alfo called among the ancients.
Vertumnus, extenjipes, liippius, et cannius.
MOLUCILLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 4 2d order, Verticillatx. See Botany Index.
MOLTEN-grease. See Farriery, N° 499.
MOLUCCA ISLANDS, lie in the Eaft Indian fea
under the line; of which there are five principal, name¬
ly, Ternate, Tydor, Machian, Motyr, and Bachian.
The largeft of them is hardly 30 miles in circumfe¬
rence. They produce neither corn, rice, nor cattle,
except goats : but they have oranges, lemons, and
other fruits and are moft remarkable for fpices, efpe-
cially cloves. They have large fnakes, which are not
venomous, and very dangerous land crocodiles. At
prefent they have three kings j and the Dutch, who
arq
MON
Molwitz
are very flrong here, keep out all other European na
Mona t‘ons» being jealous of their fpice trade. The religion
— / is idolatry ; but there are many Mahometans. They
were difcovered by the Portuguefe in 1511, who fet¬
tled upon the coaft ; but the Dutch drove them away,
and are now mafters of all thefe illands.
MOLWITZ, a town of Silelia, in the province of
Grotlka, remarkable for a battle gained by the Pruf-
fians over the Auftrians in 1741. E. Long. 16. 45.
N. Lat. 50. 26.
MOLY. The name of this plant is rendered fa¬
mous by Homer : and hence has been much inquired
into, as to its true fenfe, by the botaniits of almoft all
times. I he old interpreters of Homer explain this
word by the “ wild rue and the only reafon for
this is, that at forae time, probably long after the
days of Homer, the people of Cappadocia called the
wild rue moly. But this plant is wholly different from
the moly of Homer, which Theophraftus affirms
grew in his time in Arcadia in great plenty, and had
a round bulbous root like an onion, and long and
graffy leaves like the fquill. On the whole, the moly
of Homer feems to have been a fpecies of allium or
garlic.
MOLYBDENA, a metal. See Chemistry and
Mineralogy Index.
MOMBAZA, or Monbaza, a town of Africa, in
an ifland of the fame name, with a calfle and a fort;
feated on the eaftern coafl, oppofite to the country of
Mombaza in Zanguebar, 75 miles fouth of Melinda, and
fubjeft to Portugal. E, Long. 39. 30. S. Lat. 3. 15.
Mombaza, a country of Africa in Zanguebar, fub-
je£t to the Portuguefe, from whence they export Haves,
gold, ivory, rice, fleffi, and other proviflons, with
which they fupply the fettlements in Brafil. The king
of this country being a Chriftian, had a quarrel with the
Portuguefe governor, took the caftleby affault in 1631,
turned Mahometan, and murdered all the Chriftians j but
in 1729 they became mafters of the territory again.
MOMENT, in the dodtrine of time, an inftant, or
the moft minute and indivifible part of duration.
MOMENTUM, in Mechanics, fignifies the fame
with impetus, or the quantity of motion in a moving
body ; which is always equal to the quantify of matter
multiplied into the velocity 3 or, which is the fame
thing, it may be confidered as a reflangle under the
quantity of matter and velocity. See Mechanics.
MOMORDICA, male balsam apple ; a genus
of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs j and in the
natural method ranking under the 34th order, Cucurbi-
tacece. See Botany Index.
MOM US, in fabulous hiftory, the god of raillery,
or the jefter of the celeftial affembly, and wffio ridicu¬
led both gods and men. Being chofen by Vulcan,
Neptune, and Minerva, to give his judgement concern¬
ing their wmrks, he blamed them all: Neptune for not
making his bull with horns before his eyes, in order
that he might give a furer blow; Minerva for building
a houfe that could not be removed in cafe of bad
neighbours 5 and Vulcan, for making a man wnthout
a wdndow in his breaft, that his treacheries might be
i'een. For his free reflefHons upon the gods, Momus
, w^s driven from heaven. Pie is generally reprefented
raffing a malk from his face, and holding a fmall figure
in his hand. 5
[ 307 1
MON
MONA, in Ancient Geography, tw7o iflands of this Mo-it
name in the fea lying, between Britain and Ireland. I!
I he one defcribed by Cmfar, as fituated in the middle
paflage between both iflands, and ftretching out in ~
length from fouth to north. Called Monaa-da (Ptole-
my); Monapia, or Monabia (Pliny). Suppofed to be
the ifle of Man.—Another Mona, (Tacitus) 5 an ifland
more to the fouth, and of greater breadth ; fituated
on the coaft of the Ordovices, from which it is fepa-
rated by a narrow ftrait. The ancient feat of the
Druids. Now called Anglefey, the ifland of the An¬
gles or Englifh.
Mona, an ifiand of the Baltic fea, fouth-wTeft of the
ifland of Zealand, fubject to Denmark. E. Long.
12. 30. N. Lat. 55. 20.
Mona. See Inchcolm.
MONACO, a fmall but handfome and ftrong town
of Italy, in the territory of Genoa, with a caftle, cita¬
del, and a good harbour. It is feated on a craggy
rock, and has its own prince, under the prote&ion of
France. E. Long. 7.-33. N. Lat. 43. 48.
MONAD. See Leibnitzian Philofophy.
MONADELPHIA, (from alone, and AkXtpux.
a brotherhood;) a “ Angle brotherhood The name
of the 16th clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual fyflem, confiflingof
plants with hermaphrodite flowers; in which all the fta-
mina are united below into one body or cylinder, through
which pafies the piftillum. See Botany Index.
MONAGHAN, a county of Ireland, fituated in
the province of Ulfler, is bounded by Tyrone on the
north, Armagh on the eaft, Cavan and Louth on the
fouth, and Fermanagh on the w7eft. It is a mountain¬
ous tra£l, but in fome places is well improved. It con¬
tains 170,090 Irifh plantation acres, and is about 30
miles long and 22 broad. The linen trade of this
county is averaged at 104,000]. yearly.
Monaghan, the capital towmof the county of that
name, is diftant 62 miles from Dublin, and gives title
of baron to the family of Blayney. It was anciently
called Muinechan. An abbey was founded here in a
very early age, of wffiich Moelodius the fon of Aodh
w7as abbot. In 1462, a monaftery for conventual Fran-
cifcans was eredted on the file of this abbey, which was
granted on. the general fuppreffion of monafteries to
Edward Withe, and a caftle has been ftnce eredted on
the fite by Edwrard Lord Blayney.
MONANDRIA, (from /xovog alone, and xvrg a man
or Jirjband), the name of the firft clafs in Linnmus’s
fexual fyftem 5 confifting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which have only one flamen.
MONARCHY, a large ftate governed by one ; or
a ftate where the fupreme power is lodged in the hands
of a Angle perfon. 1 he word comes from the Greek
“ one who governs alone j” formed of [tove?.
Joins, and imperium, “ government.” Of the three
forms of government, viz. democracy, ariftocracy,
and monarchy, the laft is the moft powerful, all the
Anews of government being knit together, and united
m the hand of the prince 5 but then there is imminent
danger of his employing that (Length to improvident
or oppreflive purpofes. Asa democracy is the beft cal¬
culated to diredt the end of a law, and an ariftocracy to
invent the means by which that end (hall be obtained,
a monarchy is moft At for carrying thofe means into exe¬
cution.
O
q 2
The
MON [ 308 ] MO N
Manarchy. The moft ancient monarchy was that of the Affy-
jians, which was founded foon after the deluge. We
iifually reckon four grand or univerfal monarchies ; the
AlTyrian, Perfian, Grecian, and Roman ; though St
AugufUne makes them but two ; viz. thofe of Baby¬
lon and Rome. Belus is placed at the head of the
feries of AiTyrian kings who reigned at Babylon, and
*■ is by profane authors efleemed the founder of it, and
by feme the fame whom the Scriptures call Nimrod.
The principal AlTyrian kings after Belus were Ninus,
who built Nineveh, and removed the feat of empire to
it f Semiramis, who, difguifing her fex, |took pofief-
lion of the kingdom inllead of her fon, and was killed
and fucceeded by her fon Ninyas; and Sardanapalus,
the laft of the Affyrian monarchs, and more effeminate
than a -woman. After his death the Affyrian empire
was fplit into three feparate kingdoms, viz. the Me¬
dian, Alfyrian, and Babylonian. The firft king of
the Median kingdom was Arbaces •, and this kingdom
lafted till the time of Aftyages, who was fubdued and
diverted of his kingdom by Cyrus.
In the time ©f Cyrus there arofe a new and fecond
monarchy called the Perfian, which flood upwards of
200 years from Cyrus, whofe reign began A. M. 3468,
to Darius Codomannus, wdio was conquered by Alex¬
ander, and the empire tranflated to the Greeks A. M.
3674.—The firft monarch was Cyrus, founder of the
empire. 2. Cambyfes, the fon of Cyrus. 3. Smer-
dis. 4. Darius, the fon of Hyftafpis, who reigned
521 years before Chrirt. 5. Xerxes, who reigned 485
years before Chrirt. 6. Artaxerxes Longimanus, who
reigned 464 years before Chrift. 7. Xerxes the fe¬
cond. 8. Ochus, or Darius, called Nothus, 424
years before Chrift. Cf. Artaxerxes Mnemon, 405
years before Chrift. 10. Artaxerxes Ochus, 359 years
before Chrift. 11. Arfes, 338 years before Chrift.
12. Darius Codomannus, 336 years before Chrift, who
was defeated by Alexander the Great, and deprived
of his kingdom and life about 331 years before Chrift :
the dominion of Perfia after his death was tranftated to
the Greeks.
The third monarchy was the Grecian. As Alex¬
ander, when he died, did not declare- who ftrould fuc-
ceed him, there ftarted up as many kings as there were
commanders. At firft they governed the provinces
that were divided among them under the title of vice¬
roys 5 but when the family of Alexander the Great
was extin6t, they took upon them the name of kings.
Hence, in procefs of time, the whole empire of Alex¬
ander produced four diftinft kingdoms, viz. 1. The
Macedonian ; the kings of which, after Alexander,
were Antipater, Caffander, Demetrius Poliorcetes, Se-
leucus Nicanor, Meleager, Antigonus Dofon, Philip,
and Perfeus, under whom the Macedonian kingdom
was reduced to the form of a Roman province. 2. The
Afiatic kingdom, which upon the death of Alexander
fell to Antigonus, comprehending that country now
called Natolia, together with fome other regions be¬
yond Mount Taurus. From this kingdom proceeded
two lefler ones, viz. that of Pergamus, whofe laft king,
Attalus, appointed the Roman people to be his heir 5
and Pontus, reduced by the Romans into the form of a
province, when they had fubdued the laft king, Mith-.
ridates. 3. The Syrian, of whofe tw-enty-two kings the
rnoft celebrated were, Seleucus Nicanor, founder of the
kingdom; Antlochus Deus; Antiochus the Great; Monarchy
Antiochus Epiphancs; and Tigranes, who was con- II
quered by the Romans under Pompey, and Syria re. Monaftere-
duced into the form of a Roman province. 4. The ■ ^ ' .
Egyptian, which was formed by the Greeks in Egypt,
and flourilhed near 240 years under 1 2 kings, the prin¬
cipal of w hom wrere, Ptolemy Lagus, its founder ; Pto¬
lemy Pbiladelphus, founder of the Alexandrian library ;
and Queen Cleopatra, who was overcome by Auguftus,
in confequence of which Egypt was added to the demi¬
nion of the Romans.
The fourth monarchy was the Roman, which lafted
244 years, from the building of the city until the time
when the royal power w'as abrogated. The kings of
Rome were Romulus, its founder ; Numa Pompilius ;
Tullus tloftilius; Ancus Martius; Tarquinius Prif-
cus ; Servius Tullius ; and Tarquin the Pround, who
was baniftied, and with whom terminated the regal
porver.
There feems in reality no neceffity to make the
Medes, Perfians, and Greeks, fucceed to the whole
power of the Aflyrians, to multiply the number of
the monarchies. It was the fame empire ftill; and
the feveral changes that happened in it did not confti-
tute different monarchies. Thus the Roman empire
wras fucceffively governed by princes of different na¬
tions, yet without any new monarchy being formed
thereby. Rome, therefore, may be faid to have imme¬
diately fucceeded Babylon in the empire of the world.
See Empire.
Of monarchies fome are abfolute and defpotic, where
the will of the monarch is uncontroulable ; others are
limited, where the prince’s authority is reftrained by
laws, and part of the fupreme power lodged in other
hands, as in Britain. See Government.
Some monarchies again are hereditary, where the
fucceflion devolves immediately from father to fon ;
and others are eleftive, where, on the death of the
monarch, his fucceffor is appointed by ele&ion, as in
Poland.
Fifi/i-Monarchy Men, in the ecclefiaftical hiftory
of England, were a fet of wrong-headed and turbu¬
lent enthufiafts who arofe in the time of Cromwell, and
who expedted Chrift’s fudden appearance upon earth to
eftablifh a new kingdom ; and, a£lihg in confequence
of this illufion, aimed at the fubverfton of all human
government.
MONARDA, Indian horehound, a genus of
plants belonging to the diandria clafs ; and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the 42cf order Verticillatce.
See Botany Index.
MONASTEREVAN, a port town of Ireland, in
the county of Kildare and province of Leinfter, 36
miles from Dublin, fo called from a magnificent abbey
which was founded here, in which St Evan in the be¬
ginning of the 7th century placed a number of monks
from South Munfter, and which had the privilege of
being a fanftuary. The confecrated bell, which be¬
longed to this faint, was on folemn trials fworn upon
by the whole tribe of the Eoganachts, and was always
committed to the care of the Mac Evans, hereditary
chief juftices of Munfter; the abbot of this heufe fat as
a baron in parliament.—At the general luppreftion of
monafteries, this abbey was granted to Lord Audley,
who afligned it to Vifcount Ely. It afterwards came
into
MON r 309 ] MON
Monaftery. into the family of Moor, earls of Drogheda, and has
been beautifully repaired by the prefent Lord Drogheda,
ftill wearing the venerable appearance of an abbey.
There is a nurfery at Monafterevan for the charter
fchools of the province of Leinfler j and the grand canal
has been carried up to this town from Dublin, fince
which it has been much improved and enlarged with
feveral new buildings.
MONASTERY, a convent or houfe built for the
reception of religious $ whether it be abbey, priory,
nunnery, or the like.
Monastery is only properly applied to the houfes
of monks, mendicant friars, and nuns. The reft are
more properly called religious houfes. For the origin
of monafteries, fee Monastic and Monk.
The houfes belonging to the feveral religious orders
which obtained in England and Wales were, cathe¬
drals, colleges, abbeys, priories, preceptories, com-
mandries, hofpitals, friaries, hermitages, chantries,
and free chapels. Thefe were under the dire&ion and
management of various officers. The diffolution of
houfes of this kind began fo early as the 1312, when
the Templars were fuppreffed ; and in 1323 their lands,
churches, advowfons, and liberties, here in England,
were given by 17 Ed. II. ft. 3. to the prior and brethren
of the hofpital of St John at Jerufalem. In the years
I39°> I437> I44I» ,I459> i497».I5°5» 1508, and
1515, feveral other houfes were diffolved, and their
revenues fettled on different colleges in Oxford and
Cambridge. Soon after the laft period, Cardinal Wol-
fey, by licenfe of the king and pope, obtained a dif¬
folution of above 30 religious houfes for the founding
and endowing his colleges at Oxford and Ipfwich.
About the fame time a bull was granted by the fame
pope to Cardinal Wolfey to fupprefs monafteries, where
there were not above fix monks, to the value of 8000
ducats a-year, for endowing Windfor and King’s Col¬
lege in Cambridge •, and two other bulls were granted
to Cardinals Wolfey and Campeius, where there were
lefs than twelve monks, and to annex them to the
greater monafteries $ and another bull to the fame car¬
dinals to inquire about abbeys to te fuppreffed in or¬
der to be made cathedrals. Although nothing ap¬
pears to have been done in confequence of thefe bulls,
the motive which induced Wolfey and many others
, to fupprefs thefe houfes was the defire of promoting
learning ; and Archbifliop Crammer engaged in it with
a view of carrying on the Reformation. There were
other caufes that concurred to bring on their ruin :
many of the religious were loofe and vicious j the
monks were generally thought to be in their hearts
attached to the pope’s fupremacy.} their revenues
were not employed according to the intent of the do¬
nors } many cheats in images, feigned miracles, and
counterfeit relicks, had been difcovered, which brought
the monks into difgrace j the Obfervant friars had op-
pofed the king’s divorce from Queen Catharine 5 and
thefe circumftances operated, in concurrence with the
king’s want of a fupply and the people’s defire to fave
their money, to forward a motion in parliament, that
in order to fupport the king’s ftate and fupply his
wants, all the religious houfes might be conferred up¬
on the crown which were not able to fpend above 200I.
a-year j and an adl was paffed for that purpofe 27
Hen. VIII. c. 28. By this ad! about 380 houfes were Monaftery.
diffolved, and a revenue of 30,000!. or 32,000!. a-year ,J
came to the crown j befides about ioo,oool. in plate
and jewels. The fuppreflion of thefe houfes occafion-
ed difcontent, and at length an open rebellion : when
this was appeafed, the king refolved to fupprefs
the reft of the monafieries, and appointed a new vifita-
tion : which caufed the greater abbeys to be furren-
dered apace j and it was ena&ed by 31 Hen. VIH.
c. 13. that all monafteries, &c. which have been fur-
rendered fince the 4th of February, in the 27th year
of his majefty’s reign, and which hereafter (hall be fur-
rendered, Ihall be veiled in the king. The knights of
St John of Jerufalem were alfo fuppreffed by the 32
Hen. VIII. c. 24. The fuppreflion of thefe greater
houfes by thefe two a6ts produced a revenue to the
king of above ioo,oool. a-year, befides a large fum in
plate and jewels. The laft a£t of diffolution in this
king’s reign was the adl of 37 Hen. VIII. c. 4.
for diffolving colleges, free chapels, chantries, &c.
which adl was farther enforced by 1 Edw. VI. c. 14.
By this adl were fuppreffed go colleges, no hofpitals,
and 2374 chantries and free chapels. The number of
houfes and places fuppreffed from firft to laft, fo far as
any calculations appear to have been made, feems to be
as follow :
Gf leffer monafteries, of which we have the va¬
luation, - 1
Of greater monafteries,
Belonging to the hofpitallers,
Colleges,
Hofpitals,
Chantries and free chapels,
374
186
48
90
no
2374
Total 3182
Befides the friars houfes and thofe fuppreffed by Wol¬
fey, and many fmall houfes of which we have no parti¬
cular account.
The fum total of the clear yearly revenue of the
feveral houfes at the time of their diffolution, of which
we have any account, feems to be as follow :
Of the greater monafteries, L. 104,919 13 34.
Of all thofe of the leffer monafteries
of which we have the valuation, 29,702 1
Knights hofpitallers head houfe in
London 2385 12 8
We have the valuation of only 28 of
their houfes in the country 3026 9 5
Friars houfes ©f which we have the
valuation 731 2 o|>
Total L. 140,786 19 3I-
If proper allowances are made for the leffer monafte-
ries and houfes not included in this eftimate, and for
the plate, &c. which came into the hands of the king
by the diffolution, and for the value of money at that
time, which was at leaft fix times as much as at pre¬
fent, and alfo confidcr that the eftimate of the lands
was generally fuppofed to be much under the real worth,
we muft conclude their whole revenues to have been
immenfe.
It does not appear that any computation hath been
made of the number of perfons contained iq the re¬
ligious houfes.
Thofe
MON Is
"Monaftery, Thofc of tlie leffer monafteries diffolved by
.Monafhc. yin. were reckoned at about 10,000
If we fuppofe the colleges and hofpitals to have
contained a proportionable number, thefe
will make about - - 5347
If we reckon the number in the greater mona¬
fteries, according to the proportion of their
revenues, "they will be about 35,000 j but
as probably they had larger allowances in
proportion to their number than thofe of
the leffer monafteries, if we abate upon
that account 5000, they will then be 30,000
One for each chantry and free chapel, 2374
Total 47,721
But as there were probably more than one perlbn to
officiate in feveral of the free chapels, and there wrere
other houfes which are not included within this calcu¬
lation, perhaps they may be computed in one general
eftimate at about 50,000. As there were penfions
paid to almoft all thofe of the greater monafteries, the
king did not immediately come into the full enjoy¬
ment of their whole revenues : however, by means of
what he did receive, he founded fix new. biffioprics,
viz. thofe of Weftminfter (which was changed by
Queen Elizabeth into a deanery, with twelve prebends
and a fchool), Peterborough, Chefter, Gloucefter,
Briftol, and Oxford. And in eight other fees he
fonnded deaneries and chapters, by converting the
priors and monks, into deans and prebendaries, viz.
Canterbury, Winchefter, Durham, Worcefter, Roche-
fter, Norwich, Ely, and Carlifle. He founded alfo the
colleges of Chrift-church in Oxford and Trinity in Cam¬
bridge, and finifhed King’s college there. He like-
W’ife founded profefforffiips of divinity, law, phyfic,
and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues, in both the
faid univerfities. He gave the houfe of Greyfriars
and St Bartholomew’s hofpital to the city of London,
and a perpetual penfion to the poor knights of Wind-
for, and laid out great firms in building and fortifying
many ports in the channel. It is obfervable, upon
the whole, that the diffolution of thefe houfes was an
abl, not of the church, but of the ftate j in the pe¬
riod preceding the Reformation, by a king and par¬
liament of the Roman catholic communion in all points
except the king’s fupremacy $ to which the pope him-
felf, by his bulls and licenfes, had led the way.
MONASTIC, fomething belonging to monks, or
the monkifli life. The monaftic profeffion is a kind
of civil death, which in all worldly matters has the
fame effeft wfith the natural death. The council of
Trent, &c. fix fixteen years for the age at which a
perfon may be admitted into the monaftical ftate.
St Anthony is the perfon who, in the fourth cen¬
tury, firft inftituted the monaftic life; as St Pacho-
mius, in the fame century, is faid to have firft fet on
•foot the coenobitic life, 1. e. regular communities of
religious. In a ftiort time the deferts of Egypt be¬
came inhabited with a fet of folitaries, who took up¬
on them the monaftic profeffion. St Bafil carried the
monkifti humour into the eaft, where he compofed a
rule which afterwards obtained through a great part
of the weft.
In the nth century the monaftic difcipline was
grown very remifs. St Odo firft began to retrieve it
4
o ] MON
in the monafiery of ^luny j that monaftery, by the Monda
conditions of its eredion, was put under the immediate II
protedion of the holy fee ; with a prohibition to all Mon^tan-
powers, both fecular and ecclefiaftic?!, to difturb the u—y—
monks in the polfeffion of their effeds or the eledion of
their abbot. In virtue hereof they pleaded an exemp¬
tion from the jurifdidion of the biffiop, and extended
this privilege to all the houfes dependent on Cluny.
This made the firft congregation of feveral houfes,
under one chief immediately fubjed to the pope, fo
as to conftitute one body, or, as they now call it, one
religious order. Till then, each monaftery was inde¬
pendent and fubjed to the biffiop. See Monk.
MONDA, or Mu NBA, in Ancient Geography} a
river of Lufitania, running mid-way from eaft to weft
into the Atlantic, between the Durius and Tagus, and
wafhing Conimbrica. Now the Mondego, a river of
Portugal, which running by Coimbra, falls into the
Atlantic, 30 miles below it.
MONDAY, the fecond day of the week, fo called
as being anciently facred to the moon j q. d. moon-
day.
MONDOVI, a confiderable town of Italy, in
Piedmont 3 with a citadel, univerfity, and bilhop’s
fee. It is the largeft and moft populous town of
Piedmont, and is feated in E. Long. 8. 6. N. Lat.
44- 33-
MONEMUGI, an empire in the fouth of Africa,
has Zanguebar on the eaft, Monomotapa on the fouth,
Motamba and Makoko on the weft, and Abyffinia on
the north and partly to the eaft, though its boun¬
daries that way cannot be afcertained. It is divided
into the kingdoms of Mujaco, Makoko or Anfiko,
Gingiro, Cambate, Alaba, and Monemugi Proper.
This laft lies in the middle of the torrid zone, and a-
bout the equinoftial line, fouth of Makoko, weft of
Zanguebar, north of Monemotapa, and eaft of Con¬
go and of the northern parts of Monomotapa. To
afcertain its extent, is too difficult a talk, being | a
country fo little frequented. The country known, a-
bounds with gold, filver, copper mines, and elephants.
The natives clothe themfelves in filks and cottons,
which they buy of ftrangers, and wear collars of tranf-
parent amber beads, brought them from Cambaya:
which beads ferve alfo inftead of money ; gold and fil¬
ver being too common, and of little value among them.
Their monarch always endeavours to be at peace
with the princes round about him, and to keep an
open trade with Quitoa, Melinda, and Mombaza, on
the eaft, and with Congo on the weft 3 from all which
places the black merchants refort thither for gold.
The Portuguefe merchants report, that on the eaft
fide of Monemugi there is a great lake full of fmall
iflands, abounding with all forts of fowl and cattle, and
inhabited by negroes. They relate alfo, that on the
main land eaftward they heard fometimes the ringing of
bells, and that one could obferve buildings very much
like churches 3 and that from thefe parts came men of
a brown and tawny complexion, who traded with thofe
iflanders, and with the people of Monemugi. This
country abounds in palm wine, oil, and honey.
MONETARIUS, or Moneykr, a name which an¬
tiquaries and medalifts give, to thofe who ftruck the an¬
cient coins or monies.
Many of the old Roman, &c. coins have the name
of
MON t 31
Money, of the mandarins, either written at length, or at leaft
—'"V—-' the initial letters of it. See Medal.
MONEY, a piece of matter, commonly metal, to
which public authority has affixed a certain value and
weight to ferve as a medium in commerce. See Coin,
Commerce, and Medals ; alfo the article Bank.
Money is ufually divided into real or effective, and
imaginary or money of account,
I. Rzal Money.
i. Hijlory of real money. Real money includes all
coins, or fpecies of gold, lilver, copper, and the like ;
which have courfe in common, and do really exift.
Such are guineas, piftoles, pieces of eight, ducats, &c.
Real money, civilians obferve, has three effential
qualities, viz. matter, form, and weight or value,
For the matter, copper is that thought to have been
firft coined 5 afterwards filver ; and laftly gold, as be¬
ing the moil beautiful, fcarce, cleanly, divifible, and
pure of all metals.
The degrees of goodnefs are expreffed in gold by
carats $ and in filver by pennyweights, &c. For there
are feveral reafons for not coining them pure and with¬
out alloy, viz. the great lofs and expence in refining
them, the neceffity of hardening them to make them
more durable, and the fcarcity of gold and filver in
molt countries. See Alloy.
Among the ancient Britons, iron rings, or, as fome
fay, iron plates, were ufed for money ; among the La¬
cedemonians, iron bars quenched with vinegar, that
they might not ferve for any other ufe. Seneca ob-
ferves, that there was anciently damped money of lea¬
ther, corium forma pub lie a impreffum. And the fame
thing was put in practice by Frederic II. at the liege
of Milan ; to fay nothing of an old tradition among
ourfelves, that in the confufed times of the barons
wars the like was done in England : but the Hollan¬
ders, we know, coined great quantities of pafteboard
in the year 1574.
iks to the form of money, it has been more various
than the matter. Under this are comprehended the
weight, figure, impreffion, and value.
For the impreffion, the lews, though they detefted
images, yet damped on the one fide of their fhekel the
golden pot which held the manna, and on the other
Aaron’s rod. The Dardans damped two cocks fight¬
ing. The Athenians damped their coins with an owl,
or an ox ; whence the proverb on bribed lawyers, Bos
in lingua. They of ^Egina, with a tortoife } whence
that other faying, Virtutem et fapientiam vincunt tejlu-
dines. Among the Romans, the monetarii fometimes
impreiled the images of men that had been eminent in
their families on the coins: but no living man’s head
was ever damped on a Roman coin till after the fall of
the commonwealth. From that time they bore the em¬
peror’s head on one fide. From this time the practice
of damping the prince’s image on coins has obtained
among all civilized nations; the Turks and other Ma¬
hometans alone excepted, who, in detedation of images,
inferibe only the prince’s name, with the year of the
tranfmigration of their prophet.
As to the figure, it is either round, as in Britain ;
multangular or irregular, as in Spain j fquare, as in
fome parts of the Indies 3 or nearly globular, as in
mod of the red,.
i ] MON
Alter the arrival of the Romans in this ifland, the
Britons imitated them, coining both gold and filver
with the images of their kings damped on them.
When the Romans had fubdued the kings of the Bri¬
tons, they alfo fuppreffed their coins, and brought in
their own 3 which were current here from the time of
Claudius to that of Valentinian the younger, about
the fpace of 500 years.
Mr Camden obferves, that the mod ancient Englifh
coin he had known was that ol Ethelbert king of Kent,
the fird Chridian king in the idand 3 in whofe time all
money accounts begin to pafs by the names of pounds,
Jhillings, pence, and mancufes. Pence feems borrowed
from the Latin pecunia, or rather from pendo, on ac¬
count of its jud weight, which was about threepence
of our money. Thefe were coarfely damped with the
king’s image on the one fide, and either the mint-
mader’s, or the city’s where it was coined, on the
other. Five of thefe pence made their fchilling, pro¬
bably fo called from fei/ingus, which the Romans ufed
for the fourth part of an ounce. Forty of thefe fchil-
lings made their pound 3 and 400 of thefe pounds were
a legacy, or a portion for a king’s daughter, as appears
by the lad will of King Alfred. By thefe names they
trandated all fums of money in their old Englilh teda-
ment 3 talents by pundes ; Judas’s thirty pieces of filver
by thirtig fcillinga ; tribute money, by pennimng; the
mite by feorthling.
But it mud be obferved, they had no other real mo¬
ney, but pence only 3 the red being imaginary moneys,
i. c. names of numbers or weights. Thirty of thefe
pence made a mancus, which fome take to be the fame
with a mark ; manca, as appears by an old MS. was
quinta pars uncite. Thefe mancas or mancufes were
reckoned both in gold and filver. For in the year 680
we read that Ina king of the Wed Saxons obliged the
Kentidunen to buy their peace at the price of 30,000
mancas of gold. In the notes on King Canute’s laws,
we find this didindtion, that mancufa was as much as
a mark of filver, and manca, a fquare piece of gold,
valued at 30 pence.
The Danes introduced a way of reckoning money
by ores, per oras, mentioned in Domefday book 3 but
whether they were a feveral coin, or a certain fum,
does not plainly appear. This, however, may be ga¬
thered from the Abbey book of Burton, that 20 ores
were equivalent to two marks. They had alfo a gold
coin called by%antine, or bezant, as being coined at
Condantinople, then called Byzantium. The value of
which coin is not only now lod, but was fo entirely
forgot even in the time of King Edward III. that
whereas the bifhop of Norwich was fined a byzantine
of gold to be paid the abbot of St Edmund’s Bury
for infringing his liberties (as it had bc-en ena&ed by
parliament in the time of the Conqueror^, no man then
living could tell how much it was 3 fo it was referred
to the king to rate how much he dmuld pay. Which
is the more unaccountable, becaufe but 10.0 years be¬
fore, 200,000 bezants were exadded by the foldan for
the ranfom of St Louis of France t which were then
valued at 100,000 livres.
Though the coining of money be a fpecial prero¬
gative of the king, yet the ancient Saxon princes com¬
municated it to their fubjetds 3 infomuch that in every
good town there was at lead one mint 3 but at Lon¬
don
Money.
MON [ 312 ] * M O N
Money. cJyn eight ; at Canterbury four for tfie king, two for
~the archbifliop, one for the abbot at Winchefter, hx
at Rochefter, at Haftings two, &c.
The Norman kings continued the fame cuftom of
coining only pence, with the prince’s image on one
fide, and on the other the name of the city where it
was coined, with a crofs fo deeply impreffed, that it
might be eafily parted and broke into two halves, which,
fo broken, they called halfpence; or into four parts,
w hich they called fourthings or farthings.
In the time of King Richard I. money coined in the
eaft parts of Germany came in fpecial requeft in Eng*
land on account of its purity, and was called eajlerling
fnoney, as all the inhabitants of thofe parts were called
Ea/lerlings. And ihortly after, fome of thofe people
Ikiiled in coming were lent for hither, to bring the coin
to perfection ; w hich fince has been called Jlerling for
Eajlerling. See STERLING.
King Edward I. who firfl adjufted the meafure of
an ell by the length of his arm, herein imitating Charles
the Great, was the firft alfo w ho eftabhihed a certain
fiandard for the coin, which is expreffed to this effect
by Greg. Rockley, mayor of London, and mint-ma-
fter.—“ A pound of money containeth twelve ounces :
.m a pound there ought to be eleven ounces, twro ealf-
erlings, and one farthing ; the reft alloy. The faid
pound ought to wTeigh twenty (hillings and three pence
in account and wTeight. The ounce ought to weigh
twrenty pence, and a penny tw'enty-four grains and a
half. Note, That eleven ounces twm pence fterling
ought to be of pure filver, called leaf fiver ; and the
minter muft add of other weight feventeen pence half¬
penny farthing, if the filver be fo pure.”
About the year 1320, the ftates of Europe firft be¬
gan to coin gold ; and among the reft, our King Ed¬
ward III. The firft pieces he coined were called flo-
rences, as being coined by Florentines: afterwards he
coined nobles ; then rofe-nobles, current at 6s. 8d.
half nobles called half pennies, at 3s. 4ft. of gold ; and
quarters at 2od. called farthings of gold. The fucceed-
ing kings coined rofe-nobles, and double rofe-nobles,
great fovereigns, and half Henry nobles, angels, and
Ihillings.
King James I. coined units, double crowns, Britain
crowns : then crowns, half-crowns, &c.
2. Comparative value of Money and Commodities at
different periods. The Englilh money, though the fame
names do by no means correfpond wdth the fame quan¬
tity of precious metal as formerly, has not changed fo
much as the money of moft other countries. From the
time of William the Conqueror, the proportion between
the pound, the (hilling, and the penny, feems to have
been uniformly the fame as at prefent.
Edward III. as already mentioned, was the firft of
our kings that coined any gold ; and no copper was
coined by authority before James I. Thefe .pieces
were not called farthings, but farthing tokens, and all
people were at liberty to take or refufe them. Before
the time of Edward III. gold w7as exchanged, like
any other commodity, by its weight; and before the
time of James I. copper wTas (lamped by any one perfon
who chofe to do it.
In the year 712 and 727, an ewe and lamb were
rated at is. Saxon money till a fortnight after Eafter.
Between the years 900 and 1000, two hydes of land,
3
each containing about 120 acres, were fold for loo
(hillings. In 1000, by King Ethelred’s laws, a horfe
was rated at 30s. a mare or a colt of a year old, at 20s.
a mule or young afs, at 1 2s. an cx at 30s. a cow at
24s. a fwine at 8d. a fheep at is In 1043, a quarter
of wheat w7as fold for 6od. Hence it is computed,
that in the Saxon times there was ten times lefs money,
in proportion to commodities, than at prefent. Their
nominal fpecie, therefore, being about three times high¬
er than ours, the price of every thing, according to our
prefent language, muft be reckoned thirty times cheaper
than it is now.
In the reign of William the Conqueror, commodi¬
ties were ten times cheaper than they are at prefent.;
from which wre cannot help forming a very high idea
of the wealth and powder of that king : for his revenue
was 400.000I. per annum, every pound being equal
to that weight of filver, confequently the whole may
be eftimated at 1,200,000!. of the prefent computa¬
tion j a fum wdiich, confidering the different value of
money between that period and the prefeiit, was equi¬
valent to 12,000,cool, of modern eftimation.
The moft neceffary commodities do not feem to
have advanced their price from William the Conqueror
to Richard I.
The price of corn in the reign of Henry III. was
near half the mean price in our times. Bithop Fleet-
wood has (liown, that in the year 1240, which w^as in
this reign, 4I. 13s. pd. was worth about 50I. of our pre¬
fent money. About the latter end of this reign, Robert
de Hay, redlor of Souldern, agreed to receive loos, to
purchafe to himfelf and fuccelfor the annual rents of 5s.
in full compenfation of an acre of corn.
Burchers meat, in the time of the great fcarcity in
the reign of Edward II. was, by a parliamentary or¬
dinance, fold three times cheaper than our mean price
at prefent ; poultry fomewhat low’er, becaufe being
now confidered as a delicacy, it has rifen beyond its
proportion. The mean price of corn at this period
was half the prefent value, and the mean price of cattle
one eighth.
In the next reign, which was that of Edward III.
the mod necelfary commodities were in general about
three or four times cheaper than they are at prefent.
In thefe times, knights, who ferved on horfcback
in the army, had 2s. a day, and a foot archer 6d.
which lad would now be equal to a crown a-day.
This pay has continued nearly the fame nominally
(only that in the time of the commonwealth the pay
of the horfe was advanced to 2s. 6d. and that of the
foot is. though it was reduced again at the Reftora-
tion), but foldiers were proportionably of a better rank
formerly.
In the time of Henry VI. corn was about half its
prefent value, other commodities much cheaper. Bi-
(hop Fleetwood has determined, from a mod accurate
confideration of every circumftance, that 3I. in this
reign was equivalent to 28I. or 30I. now.
In the time *,f Henry VII. many commodities
were three times as cheap here, and in all Europe,
as they are at prefent, there having been a great in-
creafe of gold and diver in Europe fince his time occa-
(ioned by the difeovery of America.
The commodities whofe price has rifen the moft
fince before the time of Henry VII, are butchers meat,
‘ fowls,
Money.
■ ■■ Mwaadf
#
MON [313] MON
Money, fowls, and fifh, efpecially the latter. And the reafon
why corn was always much dearer in proportion to
other eatables, according to their prices at prefent, is,
that in early times agriculture was little underrtood.
It required more labour and expence, and was more
precarious than it is at prefent. Indeed, notwith-
ilanding the high price of corn in the times we are
fpeaking of, the raifing of it fo little anfwered the ex¬
pence, that agriculture was almoft univerfally quitted
for grazing j which was more profitable, notwithttand-
ing the low price of butchers meat. So that there was'
conftant occafion for ftatutes to reftrain grazing, and to
promote agriculture $ and no effe&ual remedy was found
till the bounty upon the exportation of corn j fince
which, above ten times more corn has been raifed in
this country than before.
The price of corn in the time of James I. and con-
fequently that of other necefi'aries of life, was not
lower, but rather higher, than at prefent : wool is not
two thirds of the value it was then ; the finer manu-
fa&ures having funk in price by the progrefs of art
and induftry, notwithftanding the increafe of money.
Butchers meat was higher than at prefent. Prince
Henry made an allowance of near 4d. per pound for
all the beef and mutton ufed in his family. This may
be true with refpeft to London $ but the price of
butchers meat in the country, which does not even
now much exceed this price at a medium, has certainly
greatly increafed of late years, and particularly in the
northern counties.
The prices of commodities are higher in England
than in France j befides that the poor people of France
live upon much lefs than the poor in England, and
their armies are maintained at lefs expence. It is
computed by Mr Hume, that a Britilh army of 20,®oo
men, is maintained at near as great an expence as
60,000 in France, and that the Englilh fleet, in the
war of 1741, required as much money to fupport it
as all the Roman legions in the time of the emperors.
However, all that we can conclude from this is, that
money is much more plentiful in Europe at prefent
than it wTas in the Roman empire.
In the 13th century, the common intereft which the
Jews had for their money, Voltaire fays, was 20 per
cent. But with regard to this, we muft confider the
great contempt that nation was always held in, the
large contributions they were frequently obliged to
pay, the riik they ran of never receiving the princi¬
pal, the frequent confifcations of all their effects, and
the violent perfecutions to which they were expofed j
in which circumftances it was impoflible for them to
lend money at all, unlefs for moft extravagant intereft,
and much difproportioned to its real value. Before
the difcovery of America, and the plantation of our
colonies, the intereft of money was generally 12 per
cent, all over Europe; and it has been growing gra¬
dually lefs fince that time, till it is now generally about
four or five.
When fums of money are faid to be raifed by a
whole people, in order to form a juft eftimate of it,
we muft take into confideration not only the quantity
of the precious metal according to the ftandard of the
coin, and the proportion of the quantity of coin to
the commodities, but alfo the number and riches of
the people who raife it; for populous and rich coun-
Vol. XIV. Part I.
tries will much more eafily raife any certain fum of Money,
money than one that is thinly inhabited, and chiefly v
by poor people. This circumftance greatly adds to
our furprife at the vaft fums of money railed by Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, wdio had a revenue nearly in value
equal to i2,qoo,ooo1. of our money (allowance being
made for the ftandard of coin and the proportion it
bore to the commodities), from a country not near fo
populous or rich as England is at prefent. Indeed,
the accounts hiftorians give us of the sevenues of this
■ prince, and the treafure he left behind him, are barely
credible.
II. Imaginary Money, or Money of Account, is that
which has never exifted, or at leaft which does not
exift in real fpecie, but is a denomination invented or
retained to facilitate the dating of accounts, by keep¬
ing them ftill on a fixed footing, not to be changed,
like current coins, which the authority of the fovereign
raifes or lowers according to the exigencies of the ftate.
Of which kind are pounds, livres, marks, maravedies,
&c. See the annexed Table, where the fidlitious mo¬
ney is diftinguithed by a dagger(f).
Moneys of Account among the Ancients.—1. The Gre¬
cians reckoned their fums of money by drachma, mintc,
and talenta. The drachma was equal to y^d. fterling;
100 drachmae made the mina, equal to 3I. 4s. yd. fter¬
ling 5 60 minae made the talent, equal to 193I. 15s.
fterling ; hence 100 talents amounted to 19,375!. fter¬
ling. The mina and talentum, indeed, were different in
different provinces : their proportions in Attic drachms
are as follow : The Syrian mina contained 25 Attiq
drachms 5 the Ptolemaic 33^- j the Antiochic and Eu-
boean 100; the Babylonic ii6j the greater Attic and
Tyrian 133-fj the Aiginean and Rhodian i66y. The
Syrian talent contained 15 Attic minae 5 the Ptolemaic
20 j the Antiochic 60 j the Euboean 60 ; the Babylo¬
nic 70 5 the greater Attic and Tyrian 80 j the ^Egi-
nean and Rhodian 100.
2. Roman moneys of account were the fejlertius and
fejlertium. The leftertius was equal to id. 3^q. fter¬
ling. One thoufand of thefe made the feftertium,
equal to 81. is. jd. 2q. fterling. One thoufand of
thefe feftertia made the decies feftertium (the adverb
centies being always underftood) equal to 8072I. 18s. 4d.
fterling. The decies feftertium they alfo called decies
centena millia nummum. Centies feftertium, or centies
HS, were equal to 80,729!. 3s. 4d. Millies HS to
807,291!. 13s. 4d. Millies centies HS to 888,020!.
16s. 8d.
Theory of Money.
1. Of Artificial or Material Money.
I. As far back as our accounts of the tranfa&ions
of mankind reach, w*e find they had adopted the pre¬
cious metals, that is, filver and gold, as the common
meafure of value, and as the adequate equivalent for
every thing alienable.
The metals are admirably adapted for this purpofe :
they are perfedlly homogeneous ; when pure, their
maffes, or bulks, are exa&ly in proportion to their
weights 5 no phyfical difference can be found between
two pounds of gold, or filver, let them be the produc¬
tion of the mines of Europe, Afia, Africa, or Ame¬
rica : they are perfe&ly malleable, fufible, and fuffer
R r the
M O N [ 3
^oveY' the tnoft exact divifion which human art is capable to
give them : they are capable of being mixed with one
another, as well as with metals of a bafer, that is, of
a lefs homogeneous nature, fuch as copper : by this
mixture they fpread themfelves uniformly through
the whole mafs of the compofed lump, fo that every
atom of it becomes proportionally pofleiTed of a (hare
of this noble mixture ; by which means the fubdi-
vilion of the precious metals is rendered very exten-
live.
Their phyfical qualities are invariable : they lofe no¬
thing by keeping j they are folid and durable; and
though their parts are feparated by friction, like every
other thing, yet ftill they are of the number of thofe
which fuffer leaf! by it.
If money, therefore, can be made of any thing, that
is, it the proportional value of things vendible can be
meafured by any thing material, it may be meafured by
the metals.
II. The two metals being pitched upon as the mofl:
proper fubftances for realizing the ideal fcale of money,
thofe who undertake the operation of adjufting a ftand-
ard, mull conftantly keep in their eye the nature and
qualities of a fcale, as well as the principles upon w'hich
it is formed.
The unit of the fcale mufl: confiantly be the fame,
although realized in the metals, or the whole operation
fails in the moll eilential part. This realizing the unit
is like adjuhing a pair of compaHes to a geometrical
fcale, wdiere the fmalleft deviation from the exadt open¬
ing once given mufl; occafion an incorrefl meafure. The
metals, therefore, are to money what a pair of compaffes
is to a geometrical fcale.
This operation of adjufting the metals to the money
of account implies an exaft and determinate propor¬
tion of both metals to the money unit, realized in all
the fpecies and denominations of coin, adjufted to that
ftandard.
The fmalleft particle of either metal added to, or
taken away from, any coins, which reprefent certain
determinate parts of the fcale, overturns the whole
fyftem of material money. And if, notwithftanding
fuch variation, thefe coins continue to bear the fame
denominations as before, this will as effeflually de-
ftroy their ufefulnefs in meafuring the value of things,
as it would overturn the ufefulnefs of a pair of com-
paftes, to (ufter the opening to vary, after it is adjuft¬
ed to the fcale reprefenting feet, toifes, miles, or leagues,
by which the diftances upon the plan are to be mea¬
fured.
III. Debafing the ftandard is a good term, be-
caufe it conveys a clear and diftinft idea. It is dimi-
niftiing the weight of the pure metal contained in
that denomination by which a nation reckons, and
which we have called x\\z money unit. Railing the ftand¬
ard requires no farther definition, being the dired con¬
trary.
IV. Altering the ftandard (that is, railing or debaf¬
ing the value of the money unit) is like altering the
national meafures or weights. This is beft difeovered
by comparing the thing altered with things of the
fame nature which have fuffered no alteration. Thus,
if the foot of meafure was altered at once over all Eng¬
land, by adding to it, or taking from it, any propor-
[4 ] MON
tional part of its ftandard length, the alteration would Money
be beft difeovered by comparing the new foot with ““""V”
that of Paris, or of any other country, which had fuf¬
fered no alteration. Juft fo, if the pound fterling,
which is the Englilh unit, ftiall be found anyhow
changed, and if the variation it has met with be diffi¬
cult to afeertain becaufe of a complication of circum-
ftances, the beft way to difeover it, will be to compare
the former and the prefent value of it w:th the money
of other nations which has fullered no variation. This
the courfe of exchange will perform with the greatell
exa&nefs.
V. Artifts pretend, that the precious metals, when
abfolutely pure from any mixture, are not of fufficient
hardnefs to conftitute a folid and lafting coin. They
are found alfo in the mines mixed with other metals of
a bafer nature ; and the bringing them to a ftate of
perfedt purity occafions an unneceflary expence. To
avoid, therefore, the inconvenience of employing them
in all their purity, people have adopted the expedient
of mixing them with a determinate proportion of other
metals, which hurts neither their fufibility, malleabi¬
lity, beauty, nor luftre. This metal is called &licy:
and, being confidered only as a fupport to the princi¬
pal metal, is accounted of no value in itfelf. So that
eleven ounces of gold, when mixed with one ounce of
filver, acquires by that addition no augmentation of
value whatever.
1 his being the cafe, we ftiall, as much as poffible,
overlook the exiftence of alloy, in Ipeaking of money,
in order to render language lefs fubjedlto ambiguity.
2. Incapacities of the Metals to perform the Ojficfof an
invariable Meafure of Value.
I. Were there but one fpecies of fuch a fubftance as
wre have reprefented gold and filver to be ; were there
but one metal pofleffing the qualities of purity, divifi-
bility, and durability ; the inconveniences in the ufe of
it for money would be fewer by far than they are found
to be as matters ftand.
Such a metal might then, by an unlimited divifion
into parts exactly equal, be made to ferve as a toler¬
ably fteady and univerfal meafure. But the rivalfliip
between the metals, and the perfeft equality which is
found between all their phyfical qualities, fo far as
regards purity and divifibility, render them fo equally
well adapted to ferve as the common meafure of value,
that they are univerfally admitted to pafs current as
money.
What is the confequence of this ? that the one mea-
fures the value of the other, as well as that of every
other thing. Now the moment any meafure begins to
be meafured by another, whofe proportion to it is not
phyfically, perpetually, and invariably the fame, all
the ufefulnefs of fuch a meafure is loft. An example
will make this plain.
A foot of meafure is a determinate length. An
Englifa foot may be compared with the Paris foot, or
with that of the Rhine ; that is to fay, it may be mea¬
fured by them : and the proportion between their
lengths may be exprefled in numbers, which pro¬
portion will be the fame perpetually. The meafur¬
ing the one by the other will occafion no uncertain¬
ty ; and we may fpeak of length by Paris feet, and
be
M O N
Money, be perfectly well underftood by others who are ufed
■—V to meafure by the Englilh foot, or by the foot of the
Rhine.
But fuppofe that a youth of x 2 years old takes it
into his head to meafure from time to time, as he ad¬
vances in age, by the length of his own foot, and that
he divides this growing foot into inches and decimals:
what can be learned from his account of meafures ? As
he increafes in years, his foot, inches? and fubdivilions,
will be gradually lengthening •, and were every man to
follow his example, and meafure by his own foot, then
the foot of a meafure now eftablillied would totally ceafe
to be of any utility.
This is juft the cafe with the two metals. There is
no determinate invariable proportion between their va¬
lue ; and the confequence of this is, that when they are
both taken for meafuring the value of other things,
the things to be meafured, like lengths to be meafured
by the young man’s foot, without changing their re¬
lative proportion between themfelves, change, however,
with refpeft to the denominations of both their mea¬
fures. An example will make this plain.
Let us fuppofe an ox to be worth 3000 pounds
weight of wheat, and the one and the other to be worth
an ounce of gold, and an ounce of gold to be worth ex¬
actly 15 ounces of fdver : if the cafe fliould happen,
that the proportional value between gold and filver
Ihould come to be as 14 is to 1, would not the ox, and
confequently the wheat, be efiimated at lefs in filver,
and more in gold, than formerly ? Farther, Would it be
in the power of any ftate to prevent this variation in
the meafure of the value of oxen and wheat, without
putting into the unit of their money lefs filver and
more gold than formerly ?
If therefore any particular ftate fhould fix the ftand-
ard of the unit of their money to one fpecies of the
metals, while in faft both the one and the other are
adlually employed in meafuring value ; does not fuch
a ftate refemble the young man who meafures all by
his growing foot ? For if filver, for example, be re¬
tained as the ftandard, while it is gaining upon gold
one fifteenth additional value ; and if gold continue
all the while to determine the value of things as well
ss filver ; it is plain, that, to all intents and purpofes,
tins filver meafure is lengthening daily like the young
man’s foot, fince the fame weight of it muft become
every day equivalent to more and more of the fame
commodity , notwithftanding that we fuppofe the fame
proportion to fubfift, without the leaft variation, between
that commodity and every other fpecies of things alien¬
able.
Buying and felling are purely conventional, and no
man is obliged to give his merchandife at what may
be fuppofed to be the proportion of its worth. The
ufe, therefore, of an univerfal meafure, is to mark, not
only the relative value of the things to which it is ap¬
plied as a meafure, but to difeover in an inftant the
proportion between the value of thofe, and of every
other commodity valued by a determinate meafure in
all the countries of the world.
Were pounds fterling, livres, florins, piaftres, &c.
which are all money of account, invariable i» their
values, what a facility would it produce in all con-
Verfions ! what an afliftance to trade ! But as they are
,11 limited or fixed to coins, and confequently vary from
M O N-
time to time, this example Ihows the utility of the in- Money-
variable meafure which we have deferibed. 'Tv
There is another circumftance which incapacitates
the metals from performing the office of money ; the
fubftance of which the coin is made, is a commodity
which rifes and finks in its value with refpe<ft to other
commodities, according to the wants, competition, and
caprices of mankind. The advantage, therefore, found
in putting an intrinfic value into that fubftance which
performs the fundlion of money of account, is compen-
fated by the inftability of that intrinfic value 5 and the
advantage obtained by the liability of paper, or fym-
bolical money, is compenfated by the defedf it common¬
ly has of not being at all times fufceptible of realization
into folid property or intrinfic value.
In order, therefore, to render material money more
perfedl, this quality of metal, that is, of a commodity,
Ihould be taken from it ^ and in order to render paper
money more perfect, it ought to be made to circulate
upon metallic or land fecurity.
II. There are feveral fmaller inconveniences accom¬
panying the ufe of the metals, which we fnall here ihort-
ly enumerate.
1 mo, No money made of gold or filver can circulate
long, without lofing its weight, although it all along
preferves the fame denomination. This reprefents the
contrafting a pair of compaffes which had been rightly
adjufted to the feale.
2do, Another inconvenience proceeds from the fa¬
brication of money. Suppofing the faith of princes
who coin money to be inviolable, and the probity as-
well as capacity of thofe to whom they commit the in-
fpeftion of the bufinefs of the metals to be fufficient, it
is hardly poflible for workmen to render every piece
exadlly of a proper weight, or to preferve the due
proportion between pieces of different denominations y
that is to fay, to make every ten fixpences exaflly of
the fame weight with every crown piece and every five
(hillings ftruck in a coinage. In proportion to fuch in¬
accuracies, the parts of the fcale become unequal.
3//0, Another inconvenience, and far from being
inconfiderable, flows from the expence requifite for
the coining of money. This expence adds to its va¬
lue as a manufacture, without adding any thing to its
weight.
4/0, The laft inconvenience is, that by fixing the
money of account entirely to the coin, without having
any independent common meafure, (to mark and con-
troul thefe deviations from mathematical exaClnefs,
which are either infeparable from the metals them¬
felves, or from the fabrication of them), the whole
meafure of value, and all the relative interefls of debt¬
ors and creditors, become at the difpofal not only of
workmen in the mint, of Jews who deal in money, of
clippers and waffiers in coin y but they are alfo entire¬
ly at the mercy of princes who have the right of
coinage, and who have frequently alfo the right of
railing or debafing the ftandard of the coin, according
as they find it mod for their prefent and temporary
intereft.
3. Methods which may be propofedfor leffening the fe¬
veral Inconveniences to which Material Money is li¬
able.
The inconveniences from the variation in the relative
,R r 2 value
r 315 7
MON [ 310 '] MO N
Money.
value of the metals to one another, may In fome mea-
fure be obviated by the following expedients.
\mo, By confidering one only as the ftandard, and
leaving the other to feek its own value like any other
commodity.
Srfb, By confidering one only as the ffandard, and
fixing the value of the other from time to time by au¬
thority, according as the market price of the metals
fiiall vary.
3/fo, By fixing the ftandard of the unit according
to the mean proportion of the metals, attaching it to
neither 5 regulating the coin accordingly j and upon
every confiderable variation in the proportion between
them, either to make a new coinage, or to raife the
denomination of one of the fpecies, and lower it in the
other, in order to preferve the unit exa&ly in the mean
proportion between the gold and filver.
4/0, To have two units and two ftandards, one of
.gold and one of filver, and to allow every body to
flipulate in either.
jta, Or laft of all, To oblige all debtors to pay one
half in gold, and one half in the filver ftandard.
4. Variations to which the Value of the Money unit is
cxpofedfrom every Diforder in the Coin.
Let us fuppofe, at prefent, the only diforder to con-
fift in a want of the due proportion between the gold
and filver in the coin.
This proportion can only be eftablifhed by the mar¬
ket price of the metals 3 becaufe an augmentation and
rife in the demand for gold or filver has the effeft of
augmenting the value of the metal demanded. Let us
fuppofe, that to day one pound of gold may buy fif¬
teen pounds of filver : If to-morrow there be a high
demand for filver, a competition among merchants to
have filver for gold will enfue : they will contend who
fhall get the filver at the rate of 15 pounds for one of
gold : this will raife the price of it 3 and in propor¬
tion to their views of profit, fome will accept of lefs
than the 15 pounds. This is plainly a rife in the
filver, more properly than a fall in the gold 3 becaufe
it is the competition for the filver which has occafion-
ed the variation in the former proportion between the
metals.
Let us now fuppofe, that a ftate, having with great
exa&nefs examined the proportion of the metals in the
market, and having determined the precife quantity of
each for realizing or reprefenting the money unit,
fhall execute a moft exaft coinage of gold and filver
coin. As long as that proportion continues unvaried
in the market, no inconvenience can refult from that
quarter in making ufe of metals for money of ac¬
count.
But let us fuppofe the proportion to change : that
the filver, for example, fhall rife in its value with re¬
gard to gold : will it not follow, from that moment,
that the unit realized in the filver, will become of more
value than the unit realized in the gold coin ?
But as the law has ordered them to pafs as equiva¬
lents for one another, and as debtors have always the
option of paying in what legal coin they think fit,
will they not all choofe to pay in gold 3 and will not
then the filver com be melted down or exported, in
order to be fold as bullion, above the value it bears
when h circulates in coin ? Will not this paying in
gold alfo really diminifti the value of the money unit,
lince upon this variation every thing muft fell for more
gold than before, as we have already obferved.
Confequently, merchandifes, which have not varied
in their relative value to any other thing but to gold
and filver, muft be meafured by the mean 'propor¬
tion of the metals : and the application of any other
meafure to them is altering the ftandard. If they are
meafured by the gold, the ftandard is debafed 3 if by
filver, it is railed.
If, to prevent the inconvenience of melting down
the filver, the ftate lhall give up affixing the value of
their unit to both fpecies at once, and fhall fix it to
one, leaving the other to feek its price as any other
commodity 3 in that cafe, no doubt, the melting down
of the coin will be prevented 3 but will this ever re-
ftore the value of the money unit to its former ftand¬
ard ? Would it, for example, in the foregoing fup-
pofition, raife the debafed value of the money unit in
the gold coin, if that fpecies were declared to be the
ftandard ? It would indeed render filver coin purely a
merchandife, and, by allowing it to feek its value,
would certainly prevent it from being melted down as
before 3 becaufe the pieces would rife conventionally in
their denomination 3 or an agio, as it is called, would
be taken in payments made in filver 3 but the gold
would not, on that account, rife in its value, or be¬
gin to purchafe any more merchandife than before.
Were therefore the ftandard fixed to the gold, would
not this be an arbitrary and a violent revolution in the
value of the money unit, and a debafement of the ftand¬
ard ?
Money.
If, on the other hand, the flate fhould fix the ftand¬
ard to the filver, which we fuppofe to have rifen in its
value, would that ever fink the advanced value which
the filver coin had gained above the worth of the form¬
er ftandard unit ? and would not this be a violent and
an arbitrary revolution in the value of the money unit,
and a raifing of the ftandard ?
The only expedient, therefore, is, in fuch a cafe,
to fix the numerary unit to neither of the metals, but
to contrive a way to make it fluftuate in a mean pro¬
portion between them 3 which is in effefl the intro-
duftion of a pure ideal money of account.
The regulation of fixing the unit by the mean pro¬
portion, ought to take place at the inftant the ftand¬
ard unit is fixed with exa£lnefs both to the gold and
filver. If it be introduced long after the market pro¬
portion between the metal has deviated from the pro¬
portion eftabliflied in the coin 3 and if the new regula¬
tion is made to have a retrofpeft, with regard to the
acquitting of permanent contra&s entered into while
the value of the money unit had attached itfelf to the
loweft currency in confequence of the principle above
laid down 3 then the reftoring the money unit to that
ftandard where it ought to have remained (to wit, to
the mean proportion) is an injury to all debtors, who
have contra&ed fince the time that the proportion of
the metals began to vary.
This is clear from the former reafoning. The mo¬
ment the market price of the metals differs from that
in the coin, every one who has payments to make,
pays in that fpecies wffiich is the higheft rated in the
coin 3 confequently, he who lends, lends in that fpe¬
cies. If after the contra#, therefore, the unit is car¬
ried;
MON [3
Money, ried us to the mean proportion, this muft be a lofs to
—Y—-—' him w]10 ha(i borrowed.
From this we may perceive, why there is lefs incon¬
venience from the varying of the proportion of the
metals, where the ftandard is fixed to one of them,
than when it is fixed to both. In the firft cafe, it is at
leaft uncertain whether the ftandard or the merchan-
dife fpecies is to rife $ confequently, it is uncertain
whether the debtors or the creditors are to gain by a
variation. If the ftandard fpecies ftiould rife, the
creditors will gain *, if the merchandife fpecies rifes,
the debtors wall gain ; but when the unit is attached
to both fpecies, then the creditors never can gain, let
the metals vary as they will; if filver rifes, then
debtors will pay in gold; if gold rifes, the debtors
will pay in filver. But whether the unit be attached
to one or to both fpecies, the infallible confequence of
a variation is, that one half of the difference is either
gained or loft by debtors and creditors. The invari¬
able unit is conftantiy the mean proportional between
the two meafures.
5. How the Variations of the intrinjic value of the Unit
of Money mujl affecl all the domefic Intere/ls of a
Nation.
If the changing the content of the bufliel by which
grain is meafured, would affedt the intereft of thofe
who are obliged to pay, or who are entitled to receive,
a certain number of buftiels of grain for the rent of
lands j in the fame manner muft; every variation in the
value of the unit of account affeft all perfons who, in
permanent contra&s, are obliged to make payments,
or who are obliged to receive fums of money fti-
pulated in multiples or in fra&ions of that money
unit.
Every variation, therefore, upon the intrinfic value
of the money unit, has the effeft of benefiting the
clafs of creditors at the expence of debtors, or vice
verfa.
This confequence is deduced from an obvious prin¬
ciple. Money is more or lefs valuable in proportion
as it can purchafe more or lefs of every kind of
merchandife. Now, without entering anew into the
caufes of the rife and fall of prices, it is agreed upon
all hands, that whether an augmentation of the gene¬
ral mafs of money in circulation has the effeft of raifing
prices in general or not, any augmentation of the quan¬
tity of the metals appointed to be put into the money
unit, muft at leaft affeft the value of that money unit,
and make it purchafe more of any commodity than be¬
fore : that is to fay, 113 grains of fine gold, the prefent
weight of a pound fterling in gold, can buy 113 pounds
of flour *, were the pwaund fterling raifed to 114 grains
of the fame metal, it would buy 114 pounds of flour ;
confequently, were the pound fterling augmented by
one grain of gold, every miller who paid a rent of ten
pounds a-year, would be obliged to fell 1140 pounds of
his flour, in order to procure ten pounds to pay his rent,
in place of 1130 pounds of flour, which he fold former¬
ly to procure the fame fum ; confequently, by this in¬
novation, the miller muft lofe yearly ten pounds of
flour, which his mafter confequently muft gain. From
this example, it is plain, that every augmentation of
7 ] MON
metals put into the pound fterling, either of filver or
gold, muft imply an advantage to the whole clafs of
creditors who are paid in pounds fterling, and confe¬
quently muft be a proportional lofs to all debtors who
muft pay by the fame denomination.
6. Of the Diforder in the Britifh Coiny fo far as it occa-
fons the melting down or the exporting of the Specie.
The defefts in the Britifti coin are three.
jmoy The proportion between the gold and filver in
it is found to be as 1 to 15^, whereas the market
price may be fuppofed to be nearly as 1 to 14^.
ldoy Great part of the current money is worn and
Fight.
3/Z0, From the fecond defefl proceeds the third, to
wit, that there are feveral currencies in circulation
which pafs for the fame value, without being of the
fame weight.
4Z0, From all thefe defers refults the laft and
greateft inconvenience, to wit, that fome innovation
muft be made, in order to fet matters on a right foot-
ins*
The Englifti, befides the unit of their money which
they call the pound fterling, have alfo the unit of their
weight for weighing the precious metals.
This is called the pound troy, and confifts of 12
ounces, every ounce of 20 pennyweights, and every
pennyweight of 24 grains. The pound troy, there¬
fore, confifts of 240 pennyweights and 5760 grains.
The finenefs of the filver is reckoned by the number
of ounces and pennyweights of the pure metal in the
pound troy of the compofed mafs; or, in other words,
the pound troy, which contains 5760 grains of ftand¬
ard filver, contains 53 28 grains of fine filver, and 432
grains of copper, called alloy.
Thus ftandard filver is 11 ounces 2 pennyweights of
fine filver in the pound troy to 18 pennyweights copper,
or 111 parts fine filver to nine parts alloy.
Standard gold is 11 ounces fine to 1 ounce filver or
copper employed for alloy, which together make the
pound troy j confequently, the pound troy of ftandard
gold contains 5280 grains fine, and 480 grains alloy,
which alloy is reckoned of no value.
This pound of ftandard filver is ordered, by ftatute
of the 43d of Elizabeth, to be coined into 62 (hillings,
20 of which make the pound fterling •, confequently,
the 20 (hillings contain 1 718.7 grains of fine filver, and
1858.06 ftandard filver.
The pound troy of ftandard gold, 44 fine, is order¬
ed, by an aft of King Charles II. to be cut into 44^
guineas: that is to fay, every guinea contains 12'9.43
grains of ftandard gold, and 118.644 fine g°W >
and the pound fterling, which is 4r of the guinea,
contains 112.994, which we may date at 113 grains of
fine gold.
The coinage in England is entirely defrayed, at the
expence of the ftate. The mint price for the metals is
the very fame with the price of the coin. Whoever
carries to the mint an ounce of ftandard filver, receives
for it in filver coin 5s. 2d. or 62d.: whoever carries an
ounce of (landard,gold receives in gold coin 3I. 17s. 1 o|d.
the one and the other making exaftly an ounce of the
fame finenefs with the bullion. Coin, therefore, can
have
MON [ 31
Money, have no value in the market above bullion j confe-
''““■’“■quently, no lofs can be incurred by thofe who melt it
down.
When the guinea was firft {truck, the government
(not inclining to fix the pound fterling to the gold
coin of the nation) fixed the guinea at 20 (hillings,
(which was then below its proportion to the filver),
leaving it to feek its own price above that value, ac¬
cording to the courfe of the market.
By this regulation no harm was done to the Englifh
filver itandard j becaufe the guinea, or 118.644 grains
fine gold, being worth more, at that time, than 20
(hillings, or 1718.7 grains fine filver, no debtor would
pay with gold at its ftandard value •, and whatever it
was received for above that price was purely conven¬
tional.
Accordingly guineas fought their own price until
the year 1728, that they were fixed a-new, not below
their value as at firft, but at what was then reckoned
their exadt value, according to the proportion of the
metals, viz. at 21 (hillings j and at this they were or¬
dered to pafs current in all payments.
This operation had the effedl of making the gold a
ftandard as well as the filver. Debtors then paid in¬
differently in gold as well as in filver, becaufe both
were fuppofed to be of the fame intrinfic as well as
current value j in which cafe no inconvenience could
follow' upon this regulation. But in time filver came
to be more demanded j the making of plate began to
prevail more than formerly, and the exportation of fil¬
ver to the Eaft Indies increafing yearly, made the de¬
mand for it greater, or perhaps brought its quantity
to be proportionally lefs than before. This changed
the proportion of the metals j and by (low degrees they
have come from that of I to 15.2 (the proportion they
were fuppofed to have when the guineas were fixed and
made a lawful money at 21 (hillings) to that of 14.5,
the prefent fuppofed proportion.
The confequencc of this has been, that the fame gui¬
nea which was worth 1804.6 grains fine filver, at the
time it was fixed at 2is. is now worth no mere than
1719.9 grains of fine filver according to the proportion
of 144 to 1.
Confequently debtors, who have alw’ays the option of
the legal fpecies in paying their debts, will pay pounds
fterling no more in filver but in gold •, and as the gold
pounds they pay in are not intrinfically worth the filver
pounds they paid in formerly according to the fta-
tute of Elizabeth, it follows that the pound fterling
in filver is really no more the ftandard, fince nobody
will pay at that rate, and fince nobody can be compel¬
led to do it.
Befides this want of proportion between the metals,
the filver coined before the reign of George I. is now
become light by circulation j and the guineas coined
by all the princes fince Charles II. pafs by tale, though
many of them are confiderably diminifhed in their
weight.
Let us now examine what profit the want of propor¬
tion and the want of weight fn the coin can afford to the
money-jobbers in melting it down or exporting it.
Did every body confider coin only as the meafure for
reckoning value, without attending to its value as a me¬
tal, the deviations of gold and filver coin from perfeft
8 ] MON
exafrnefs, either as to proportion or-weight, would oc- Money,
cafion little inconvenience. -—-y—-
Great numbers, indeed, in every modern focietyr
confider coin in no other light than that of money of
account \ and have great difficulty to comprehend what
difference any one can find between a light dulling and
a heavy one, or what inconvenience there can poffibly
refult from a guinea’s being fame grains of fine gold too
light to be worth 21 (hillings ftandard weight. And
did every one think in the fame way, there would be
no occafion for coin of the precious metals at all ; lea¬
ther, copper, iron, or paper, would keep the reckon-
*ng as well as gold and filver.
But although there be many who look no farther
than at the damp on the coin, there are others whofe
foie bufinefs it is to examine its intrinfic w'orth as a
commodity, and to profit of every irregularity in the
weight and proportion of metals.
By the very inftitution of coinage, it is implied, that
every piece of the fame metal, and fame denomination
with regard to the money-unit, (hall pafs current for
the fame value.
It is, therefore, the employment of money-jobbers,
to examine, with a fcrupulous exa&nefs, the precife
weight of every piece of coin which comes into their
hands.
The firft objeft of their attention is, the price of the.
metals in the market: a jobber finds, at prefent, that
with 14.5 pounds of fine filver bullion, he can buy one
pound of fine gold bullion.
He therefore buys up with gold coin all the new fil¬
ver as faft as it is coined, of which he can get at the.
rate of 15.2 pounds for one in gold ; thefe 15.2 pounds
filver coin he melts down into bullion, and converts
that back into gold bullion, giving at the rate of only
14.5 pounds for one.
By this operation he remains with the value of
of one pound weight of filver bullion clear profit upon
the 154 pounds he bought; which is really loft by
the man who inadvertently coined filver at the mint,
and gave it to the money-jobber for his gold. Thus
the (late lofes the expence of the coinage, and the pub¬
lic the convenience of change for their guineas.
But here it may be afleed, Why (hould the money-
jobber melt down the filver coin ? can he not buy gold
with it as well without melting it down ? He cannot ;
becaufe when it is in coin he cannot avail himfelf of its
being new and weighty. Coin goes by tale, not by
weight j therefore, were he to come to market with
his new filver coin, gold bullion being fold at the mint
price, we (hall fuppofe, viz. at 3I. 17s. lO^d. fterling
money per ounce, he w'ould be obliged to pay the price
of what he bought with heavy money, which he can
equally do with light.
He therefore melts down the new filver coin, and
fells it for bullion, at fo many pence an ounce ; the
price of which bullion is, in the Englifti market, al¬
ways above the price of filver at the mint, for the rea-
fons now to be given.
When you fell ftandard filver bullion at the mint,
you are to be paid in weighty money ; that is, you re¬
ceive for your bullion the very fame weight in ftand¬
ard coin ; the coinage cofts nothing : but when you
fell bullion in the market, you are paid in worn-out
filver,
M O N
Money, {liver, In gold, in bank notes, in ftiort, in every fye-
-—y  cies 0f lawful current money. Now all thefe pay¬
ments have fome defedl: the filver you are paid with
is worn and light; the gold you aie paid with is over¬
rated, and perhaps alfo light ; and the bank notes
muff have the fame value with the fpecie with which
the bank pays them ; that is, with light frlver or over¬
rated gold.
It is for thefe reafons, that filver bullion, which is
bought by the mint at 5s. 2d. per ounce of heavy filver
money, may be bought at market at 65 pence the
ounce in light filver, overrated gold, or bank notes,
which is the fame thing.
Further, We have feen how the impofition of coin¬
age has the efteft of railing coin above the value of
bullion, by adding a value to it which it had not as a
'metal.
Juft fo, when the unit is once affixed to certain de¬
termined quantities of both metals, if one of the metals
fnould afterwards rife in value in the market, the coin
made of that metal mult lofe a part of its value as coin,
although it retains it as a metal. Confequently, as in
the firft cafe it acquired an additional value by being
coined, it mutt now acquire an additional value by be¬
ing melted down. From this we may conclude, that
when the Itandard is affixed to both the metals in the
coin, and when the proportion of that value is not made
to follow the price of the market, that fpecies which
rifes in the market is melted down, and the bullion is
fold for a price as much exceeding the mint price as the
metal has rifen in its value.
If, therefore, in England, the price of filver bullion
is found to be at 65 pence the ounce, while at the mint
it is rated at 62 ; this proves that filver has rifen ^T
above the proportion obferved in the coin, and that all
coin of ffandard weight may confequently be melted
down with a profit of ^r. But as there are feveral
other circumflances to be attended to which regulate
and influence the price of bullion, we {hall here pafs
them in review, the better to difcover the nature of this
diforder in the Englifh coin, and the advantages which
money-jobbers may draw’ from it.
The price of bullion, like that of every other mer-
chandife, is regulated by the value of the money it is
paid with.
If bullion, therefore, fells in England for 65 pence
an ounce, paid in filver coin, it mull fell for 65 Ihillings
the pound troy ; that is to fay, the (hillings it is com¬
monly paid with do not exceed the weight of of a
pound troy : for if the 65 (hillings with which the
pound of bullion is paid weighed more than a pound
troy, it would be a (horter and better way for him who
wants bullion to melt down the (hillings and make ufe
of the metal, than to go to market with them in order
to get lefs.
We may, therefore, be very certain, that no man
will buy filver bullion at 65 pence an ounce, with any
(lulling which weighs above of a pound troy.
We have gone upon the fuppofition that the ordi¬
nary price of bullion in the Englifh market is 65 pence
per ounce. This has been done upon the authority of
fome late writers on this fubjedf : it is now proper to
point out the caufes which may make it deviate from
that value..
MON
I. It may, and certainly will vary, in the price, ac- Money,
cording as the currency is better or w’or*e. When ^
the expence of a war, or a wrong balance of trade,
have carried off a great many heavy guineas, it is natu¬
ral that bullion (hould rife ; becaufe then it will be paid
for more commonly in light gold and filver ; that is to
fay, with pounds fterling, below the value of 113 grains
fine gold, the worth of the pound fterling in n^w
guineas.
II. This wrong balance of trade, or a demand for
bullion abroad, becoming very great, may occafion a
fcarcity of the metals in the market, as well as a
fcarcity of the coin ; confequently, an advanced price
muft be given for it in proportion to the greatnefs and
height of the demand. In this cafe, both the fpecie
and the bullion muft be bought with paper. But the
rife in the price of bullion proceeds from the demand
for the metals and the competition between merchants
to procure them, and not becaufe the paper given as
the price is at all of inferior value to the fpecie. The
leaft diferedit of this kind would not tend to diminifh
the value of tire paper ; it would annihilate it at once.
Therefore, fince the metals muft be had, and that the
paper cannot fupply the want of them when they are to
be exported, the price rifes in proportion to the difficul¬
ties in finding metals elfewhere than in the Englifh
market.
III. A hidden call for bullion, for the making of
plate. A goldfmith can well afford to give 67 pence
for an ounce of fllver, that is to fay, he can afford to
give one pound of gold for 14 pounds of filver, and per-
haps for lefs, notwithftanding that what he gives be
more than the ordinary proponion between the metals,
becaufe he indemnifies himfelf amply by the price of his
workmanfhip ; juft as a tavern keeper wall pay any price
for a fine fiffi, becaufe, like the goldfmith, he buys for
other people.
IV. The mint price has as great an effect in bring¬
ing down the price of bullion, as exchange has in raif-
ing it. In countries where the metals in the coin are
juftly proportioned, where all the currencies are of le¬
gal weight, and where coinage is impofed, the opera¬
tions of trade make the price of bullion conftantly to
flubluate between the value of the coin and the mint
price of the metals. j
Now let us fuppofe that the current price of filver
bullion in the market is 65 pence the ounce, paid in
lawful money, no matter of what weight or of what
metal. Upon this the money-jobber falls to work. A1F
{hillings which are above -gT of a pound troy, he throws-
into his melting pot, and fells them as bullion for bjd.
per ounce; all thofe which are below that weight he
carries to market, and buys bullion with them at 65di
per ounce.
What is the confequence of this ?
That thofe who fell the bullion, finding the (hillings
which the money-jobber pays with perhaps n6t above
^g- of a pound troy, they on their fide raife the price
of their bullion to 66d. the ounce.
This makes new work for the money-jobber ; for
he muft always gain. He now weighs all Ihillings as
they come to hand ; and as formerly he threw into his
melting pot thofe only which were worth more than -gV
of a pound troy; he now throws in all that are in va-
f 319 1
MON [ 3
Money, lue above -~s. He then fells the melted {hillings at
66d. the ounce, and buys bullion with the light ones
at the fame price.
This is the confequence of ever permitting any fpe-
cses of coin to pafs by the authority of the {lamp, with¬
out controlling it at the fame time by the weight : and
this is the manner in which money-jobbers gain by the
currency of light money.
It is no argument againft this expofition of the mat¬
ter to fay, that filver bullion is feldom bought with fil-
ver com *, becaufe the pence in new guineas are worth
no more than the pence of (hillings of 65 in the pound
troy : that is to fay, that 240 pence contained in -Jx
of a new guinea, and 240 pence contained in 28 (hil¬
lings of 65 to the pound troy, differ no more in the in-
trinfic value than 0.83 of a grain of fine filver upon the
whole, which is a mere trifle.
Whenever, therefore, drillings come below the
weight of ^5- of a pound troy, then there is an advan¬
tage in changing them for nerv guineas •, and when that
'is the cafe, the newr guineas will be melted dowm, and
profit will be found in felling them for bullion, upon
the principles we have juft been explaining.
We h ave already given a fpecimen of the domeftic
operations of the money-jobbers j but thefe are not the
mod prejudicial to national concerns. The jobbers may
be fuppofed to be Engliihmen j and in that cafe the
profit they make remains at home : but whenever there
is a call for bullion to pay the balance of trade, it is
evident that this will be paid in filver coin 5 never in
gold, if heavy filver can be got ; and this again carries
away the filver coin, and renders it at home fo rare,
that great inconveniences are found for want of the lef-
(er denominations of it. The lofs, however, here is
confined to an inconvenience ; becaufe the balance of
trade being a debt which muft be paid, we do not con-
fider the exportation of the filver for that purpofe as
any confequence of the diforder of the coin. But be-
fides this exportation which is neceffary, there are others
which are arbitrary, and which are made only with a
view to profit of the wrong proportion.
When the money-jobbers find difficulty in carrying
on the traffic we have defcribed, in the Englifti market,
becaufe of the competition among themfelves, they
carry the filver coin of the country, and fell it a-
broad for gold, upon the fame principles that the Eaft
India Company (end filver to China in order to pur-
chafe gold.
It may be demanded, What hurt this trade can do
to Britain, fince thore who export filver bring back the
fame value in gold ? Were this trade carried on by na¬
tives, there would be no lofs •, becaufe they would bring
home gold for the whole intrinfic value of the filver.
But if we fuppofe foreigners fending over gold to be
coined at the Englifh mint, and changing the gold in¬
to Englifti filver coin, and then carrying off this coin,
it is plain that they muft gain the difference, as wrell as
the money-jobbers. But it may be anfwered, That
having given gold for filver at the rate of the mint,
they have given value for wfftat they have received.
Very right j but fo did Sir Hans Sloane, when he paid
five guineas for an overgrown toad : he got value for
his money *, but it was value only to himfelf. Juft fo,
whenever the Englilh government (hall be obliged to
reftore the proportion of the metals (as they muft do),
3
20 1 MON
this operation will annihilate that Imaginary Value which Money,
they have hitherto fet upon gold ; which imagination is l'—y—■
the only thing which renders the exchange of their fil¬
ver againft the foreign gold equal.
But it is farther objefted, that foreigners cannot
carry off the heavy filver 5 becaufe there is none to
carry off. Very true 5 but then they have carried off
a great quantity already : or if the Englifti Jews have
been too (harp to allow fuch a profit to fall to ftrangers,
(which may or may not have been the cafe), then this
diforder is an effeflual flop to any more coinage of fil¬
ver for circulation.
7. Of the Diforder in the Britifj Coin, fo far as it affeEls
the Value of the Pound Sterling Currencij.
From what has been faid, it is evident, that there
muft be found in England two legal pounds fterling,
of different values ; the one worth 113 grains of fine
gold, the other worth 1718.7 grains of fine filver.
We call them different : becaufe thefe two portions of
the precious metals are of different values all over Eu¬
rope.
But befides thefe two different pounds fterling, which
the change in the proportion of the metals has created,
the other defefts of the circulating coin produce fimilar
effe£ls. The guineas coined by all the princes fince
King Charles II. have been of the fame ftandard weight
and finenefs, 444 in a pound troy of ftandard gold 41-
fine : thefe have been conftantly wearing ever fince they
have been coined ; and in proportion to their wearing
they are of lefs value.
If, therefore, the new guineas are below the value
of a pound fterling in filver, ftandard weight, the old
muft be of lefs value Kill. Here then is another cur¬
rency, that is, another pound fterling 5 or indeed, more
properly fpeaking, there are as many different pounds
fterling as there are guineas of different weights. This
is not all $ the money-jobbers having carried off all the
weighty filver, that which is worn with ufe, and redu¬
ced even below the ftandard of gold, forms one curren¬
cy more, and totally deftroys all determinate proportion
between the money unit and the currencies which are
fuppofed to reprelent it.
It may be afked, bow, at this rate, any filver has
remained in England ? It is anfwered, that the few
weighty (hillings which ftill remain in circulation, have
marvelloufly efcaped the hands of the money-jobbers :
and as to the reft, the rubbing and wearing of thefe
pieces has done what the (late might have done ; that
is to fay, it has reduced them to their due proportion
with the lighted gold.
The diforder, therefore, of the Englifti coin has ren¬
dered the ftandard of a pound fterling quite uncertain.
To fay that it is 1718.7 grains of fine filver, is quite
ideal. Who are paid in fuch pounds ? To fay that it
is 113 grains of pure gold, may alfo not be true $ be¬
caufe there are many currencies worfe than the new
guineas.
What then is the confequence of all this diforder ?
What effeft has it upon the current value of a p*und
fterling ? And which way can the value of that be de¬
termined ?
The operations of trade bring value to an equation,
notwithftar.ding the greateft irregularities poflible $ and
fo
MON [ 321 1 MON
Honey.
value over all the world by the means of foreign ex¬
change. This is a kind of ideal fcale for meafuring the
Britilh coin, although it has not all the properties of
that defcribed above.
Exchange confiders the pound fterling as a value
determined according to the combination of the va¬
lues of all the different currencies, in proportion as
payments are made in the one or the other ; and as
debtors generally take care to pay in the worft fpecies
they can, it confequently follows, that the value of
the pound fterling fhould fall to that of the loweft
currency.
Were there a fufficient quantity of worn gold and
lilver to acquit all bills of exchange, the pound fterling
would come down to the value of them} but if the new
gold be alfo neceffary for that purpofe, the value of it
muft be proportionally greater.
All thefe combinations are liquidated and compen-
fated with one another, by the operations of trade and
exchanee ; and the pound fterling, which is fo different
in itfelf, becomes thereby, in the eyes of commerce a de¬
terminate unit; fubjedl, however, to variations, from
which it never can be exempted.
Exchange, therefore, is one of the beft meafures for
valuing a pound fterling, prefent currency. Here oc¬
curs a queftion :
Does the great quantity of paper money in England
tend to diminifh the value of the pound fterling ?
We anfwer in the negative. Paper money is juft as
good as gold or filver money, and no better. The va¬
riation of the ftandard, as we have already faid, muft
influence the interefts of debtors and creditors propor¬
tionally everywhere. From this it follows, that all aug¬
mentation of the value of the money unit in the fpecie
muft hurt the debtors in the paper money j and all
diminutions, on the other hand, muft hurt the creditors
in the paper money as well as everywhere elfe. The
payments, therefore, made in paper money, never can
contribute to the regulation of the ftandard of the
pound fterling ; it is the fpecie received in liquidation
of that paper money which alone can contribute to
mark the value of the Britifh unit j becaufe it is affixed
to nothing elfe.
From this we may draw a principle, “ That in
countries where the money unit is entirely affixed to
the coin, the a£!ual value of it is not according to the
legal ftandard of that coin, but according to the mean
proportion of the aftual worth of thofe currencies in
which debts are paid.
From this we fee the reafon why the exchange be
tween England and all other trading towns in Europe
has long appeared fo unfavourable. People calculate
the real par, upon the fuppofition that a pound fter¬
ling is worth 1718.7 grains troy of fine filver, when in
fa6i the currency is not perhaps worth 1638, the va¬
lue of a new guinea in filver, at the market proportion
of 1 to 14.5 ; that is to fay, the currency is but 95.3
per cent, of the filver ftandard of the 43d of Elizabeth.
No wonder then if the exchange be thought unfavour¬
able.
From the principle we have juft laid down, we may
gather a confirmation of what we advanced concerning
the caufe of the advanced price of bullion in the Englifh
market.
When people buv bullion with current money at a
Vol. XIV. Part I.
determinate price, that operation, in conjunflion with Money,
the courfe of exchange, ought naturally to mark the
atlual value of the pound fterling with great exaft-
nefs.
If therefore the price of ftandard bullion in the Eng¬
lifh market, when no demand is found for the exporta¬
tion of the metals, that is to , fay, when paper is
found for paper upon exchange, and when merchants
verf^d in thefe matters judge exchange (that is, re¬
mittances) to be at par, if then filver bullion can¬
not be bought at a lower price than 65 pence the
ounce, it is evident that this bullion might be bought
with 65 pence in fhillings, of which 65 might be coin¬
ed out of the pound troy Engliih ftandard filver ; fince
65 per ounce implies 65 (hillings for the 12 ounces or
pound troy.
This plainly (hows how ftandard filver bullion fhould
fell for 65 pence the ounce, in a country where the
ounce of ftandard filver in the coin is worth no more
than 62 j and were the market price of bullion to
ftand uniformly at 65 pence per ounce, that w'ould
fliow the value of the pound fterling to be tolerably
fixed. All the heavy filver coin is now carried off $ be¬
caufe it was intrinfically worth more than the gold it
paffed for in currency. The filver therefore which re¬
mains is worn down to the market proportion of the
metals, as has been faid ; that is to fay, 20 fhillings
in filver currency are worth 113 grains of fine gold,
at the proportion of 1 to 14.5 between gold and filver.
Now,
as 1 is to 14.5, fo is 113 to 1638 :
fo the 20 fhillings current w’eigh but 1638 grains fine
filver, inftead of 17x8.7, which they ought to do ac¬
cording to the ftandard.
Now let us fpeak of ftandard filver, fince we are
examining how far the Englifh coin muft be worn by
ufe.
The pound troy contains 5760 grains. This, ac¬
cording to the ftandard, is coined into 62 fhillings j
confequently, every (hilling ought to weigh 92.9 grains.
Of fuch (hillings it is impoffible that ever ftandard
bullion fhould fell at above 62 pence per ounce.
If therefore fuch bullion fells for 65 pence, the fhil¬
lings with which it is bought muft weigh no more
than 88.64 grains ftandard filver : that is, they muff:
lofe 4.29 grains, and are reduced to of a pound
troy.
But it is not neceffary that bullion be bought with
fhillings : no ftipulation of price is ever made farther,
than at fo many pence fterling per ounce. Does not
this virtually determine the value of fuch currency
with regard to all the currencies in Europe? Did a
Spaniard, a Frenchman, or a Dutchman, know the
exaft quantity of filver bullion which can be bought
in the London market for a pound fterling, would he
inform himfelf any farther as to the intrinfic value of
that money unit ? would he not underftand the value
of it far better from that civcumftance than by the
courfe of any exchange, fince exchange does not
mark the intiinfic value of money, but only the va¬
lue of that money tranfported from one place to ano¬
ther ? •
The price of bullion, therefore, when it is not in¬
fluenced by extraordinary demand, (fuch as for the
payment of a balance of trade, or for making an ex-
S f traordinary
Money.
M ON [' 322 ] M
traorcmary provifion of plate), but when it (lands at ment for a pound ide-rling ;
what every body knows to be meant by the
meant by the common
marKet price, is a very tolerable raeafure of the value
of the actual money (landard in any country.
I) lt; he therefore true, that a pound (lerling cannot
purenafe above 1638 grains of fine filver bullion, it
will require not a little logic to prove that it is really,
or has been for thefe many years, worth any more ;
not with (landing that the (landard weight of it in "Eng¬
land is regulated by the laws of the kingdom at 1718.7
grains of fine filver.
If to this valuation of the pound (lerling drawn
from the price of bullion, we add the other drawn
from the courfe of exchange •, and by this we find,
that when paper is found for paper upon exchange, a
pound ileiling cannot purchafe above 1638 grains of
fine filver in any country m Europe: upon thefe two
authorities we may very fafely conclude (as to the mat¬
ter of fact at lead) that the pound (lerling is not
Avorth more, either in London or in any other trading
city •, and if this be the cafe, it is juft worth 20 (hil¬
lings of 65 to the pound troy.
Ir therefore the mint were to coin (hillings at that
rate,, and pay for filver bullion at the market price,
that is, at the rate of 65 pence per ounce in thofe new
coined (hillings, they would be in proportion to the
gold • (liver would be carried to the mint equally with
gold, and would be as little fubjeft to be exported or
melted down.
It may be inquired in this place, how far the coining
tne pound troy into 65 (hillings is contrary to the laws
of England ?
1 he moment a (late pronounces a certain quantity
©f gold to be worth a certain quantity of filver, and
orders thefe refpe&ive quantities of each metal to be
received as equivalents of each other, and as lawful
money in payments, that moment gold is made a ftand-
ard as much as (liver. If therefore too fmall a quan¬
tity of gold be ordered or permitted to be confidered
as an equivalent for the unit, the filver ftandard is from
that moment debafed } or indeed, more properly fpeak-
mg, all filver money is from that moment proferibed ;
or who, from that time, will ever pay in (liver, when
he can pay cheaper in gold ? Gold, therefore, by fuch
a aw, is made the ftandard, and all declarations to the
contrary are againft the matter of faft.
Were the king, therefore, to coin filver at 65 (hil¬
lings m the pound, it is demonflration, that by fuch am
j he would commit no adulteration upon the ftand-
?.rc! : the adulteration is already committed. The
flandard has defeended to where it is by (low de¬
grees, and by the operation of political caufes only ;
and nothing prevents it from falling lower bul the
ftandard of the'gold coin. Let guineas be now left
to leex their value as they did formerly, and let light
iilver continue to go by tale, we (hall fee the guineas
up at 30 (hillings in 20 years time, as was the cafe in
J695.
It is as abfurd to fay that the ftandard of Queen
izabeth has not been debafed by enafting that the
Enghfti unit (hall be acquitted with 113 grains of fine
goid as it would be to affirm that it would not be de-
baled from what it is at prefent by enafting that a
pound of butter (hould everywhere be received in pay.
O N
although the pound fter- Money.
ling (hould continue to confill of three ounces, 17 penny- ——v 
weights, and 10 grains of ftandard filver, according to
the fiatute of the 43d of Elizabeth. In that cafe, moft
debtors would pay in butter ; and filver would, as at
prefent, acquire a conventional value as a metal, but
would be looked upon no longer as a ftandard, or as
money.
If therefore, by the law of England, a pound fter-
ling^ muft conlift of 1718.7 grains troy of fine filver 5
by tne law of England alio, 113 grains of gold mult
be of the fame value : but no law can eftablifh that
proportion j conlequently, in which ever ivay a refor¬
mation be brought about, Come law muft be reverfed j
confequently, expediency, and not compliance with
law, mufi be the motive in reforming the abufe.
from what has been (aid, it is not at all furprifmg
that the pound fterling fhould in faft be reduced near¬
ly to the value of the gold. Whether it ought to be
kept at that value is another queftion. All that we
here decide is, that coining the pound troy into 65
(hidings would reftore the proportion of the metals,
and render both fpecies common in circulation. But
reftoring the weight and proportion of the coin is not
the difficulty which prevents a reformation of the Eng¬
lish coinage.
8. Circnmjlances to be attended S in a New Regulation
of the Britijh Coin.
To.people who do not underftand the nature of fuch
operations, it may have an air of juftice to fuppoit
the unit at what is commonly believed to be the ftand¬
ard of Queen Elizabeth, viz. at 1718.7 grains of fine
filver.
The regulating the ftandard of both filver and gold
4:o fi fine, and the pound fterling to four ounces
ftandard (liver, as it flood during the reign of Queen
Mary I. has alfo its advantages, as Mr Harris has ob-
ferved. It makes the crown-piece to weigh juft one
ounce, the (lulling four pennyweights, and the penny
eight grains: confequently, were the new ftatute to
bear, that the weight of the coin (hould regulate its
currency upon certain occafions, the having the pieces
adjufted to certain aliquot parts of weight would make
weighing eafy, and would accuftom the common people
to judge of the value of money by its weight, and not
by the (lamp.
In that cafe, there might be a conveniency in ftrik-
ing the gold coins of the fame weight with the filver j
becaufe the proportion of their values would then ccn-
ftantly be the fame with the proportion of the metals.
The gold crowns would be worth at prefent, 3]. 12s.
6d. the half-crowns il. 16s. 3d. the gold (hillings 14s.
6d. and the half 7s. 3d. I his was anciently the prac¬
tice in the Spaniffi mints.
I he interefts within the (late can be nowife per-
fedlly protefled, but by permitting converfions of value
from the old to the new ftandard, whatever it be, and
by regulating the footing, of (uch converfions by aCl of
parliament, according to circumftances.
For this purpofe, rve (hall examine thofe interefts
which will chiefly merit the attention of governmer*
when they form a regulation for the future of acquit!
ting
Money.
MON [ 323 ] MO N
ting permanent contrafls already entered into. Such
as may be contra&ed afterwards will naturally follow
the new ftandard.
The landed intereft is no doubt tl# moft confider-
able in the nation. Let us therefore examine, in the
firlt place, what regulations it may be proper to make,
in order to do juflice to this great clafs, with refpeCt to
the land tax on one hand, and with refpeCt to their lef-
fees on the other.
The valuation of the lands of England was made
many years ago, and reafonably ought to be fupported
at the real value of the pound fterling at that time,
according to the principles already laid down. The
general valuation, therefore, of the whole kingdom
will rife according to this fcheme. . This will be con-
fidered as an injufticej and no doubt it would be fo, if
for the future, the land tax be impofed as heretofore,
without attending to this circumftance 5 but as that im-
pofition is annual, as it is laid on by the landed intereif
itfelf, who compofe the parliament, it is to be fuppofed
that this great clafs will at lead take care of their own
intereft.
Were the valuation of the lands to be ftated accord¬
ing to the valuation of the pound fterling of 1718.7
grains of filver, which is commonly fuppofed to be the
flandard of Elizabeth, there would be no great injury
done : this would raife the valuation only 5 per cent,
and the land tax in proportion.
There is no clafs of inhabitants in all England fo
much at their eafe, and fo free from taxes, as the clafs
of farmers. By living in the country, and by confutn-
ing the fruits of the earth without their fullering any
alienation, they avoid the effef! of many excifes,
which, by thofe who live in corporations, are felt upon
many articles of their confumption, as well as on thofe
which are immediately loaded with thefe impofitions.
For this reafon it will not, perhaps, appear unreafon-
able, if the additional 5 per cent, on the land tax
were thrown upon this clafs, and not upon the land¬
lords.
With refpeft to leafes, it may be obferved, that wm
have gone upon the fuppofttion that the pound fterling
in the year 1 728 wTas worth 1718.7 grains of fine filver,
and 1x3 grains of fine gold.
There would be no injuftice done the leflees of all the
lands in the kingdom, were their rents to be fixed at
the mean proportion of thefe values. We have obferved
howr the pound fterling has been gradually diminiftiing
in its worth from that time by the gradual rife of the
filver. This mean proportion, therefore, will nearly
anftver to w'hat the value of the pound fterling was in
1743 ; fuppofing the rife of the filver to have been uni¬
form.
It may be farther alleged in favour of the landlords,
that the gradual debafement of the ftandard has been
more prejudicial to their intereft in letting their lands,
than to the farmers in difpofing of the fruits of them.
Proprietors cannot fo eafily raife their rents upon new
leafes, as farmers can raife the prices of their grain
according to the debafement of the value of the cur¬
rency.
The pound fterling, thus regulated at the mean pro¬
portion of its worth, as it Hands at prefent, and as it
flood in 1728, may be realized in 1678.6 grains of fine
filver, and J 15.76 grains fine gold j which is 2.4 per
cent, above the value of the prefent currency. No in¬
jury, therefore, would be done to leflees, and no un-
reafonable gain would accrue to the landed intereft, in
appointing converfions of all land rents at 24 per cent,
above the value of the prefent currency.
Without a thorough knowledge of every circumftance
relating to Great Britain, it is impoflible to lay down
any plan. It is fufficient here briefly to point out the
principles upon which it muft be regulated.
The next intereft to be confidered is that of the na¬
tion’s creditors. The right regulation of their concerns
wall have a confiderable influence in eftablifhing public
credit upon a folid bafis, by making it appear to all the
wmrld, that no political operation upon the money of
Great Britain can In any refpeft either benefit or pre¬
judice the intereft of thofe wTho lend their money upon
the faith of the nation. The regulating alfo the inte¬
reft; of fo great a body, wall ferve as a rule for all cre¬
ditors w'ho are in the fame circumftances, and will upon
other accounts be produftive of greater advantages to
the nation in time coming.
In 1749, a new regulation w’as made with the pub¬
lic creditors, when the intereft of the whole redeemable*
national debt was reduced to 3 per cent. This cir¬
cumftance infinitely facilitates the matter with refpeft
to this clafs, fince, by this innovation of all former con-
tradls, the w'hole national debt may be confidered as
contracted at, or pofterior to, the 25th December
1749.
Were the ftate, by an arbitrary operation upon
money (which every reformation muft be), to diminiih
the value of the pound fterling in which the parlia¬
ment at that time bound the nation to acquit thofe
capitals and the intereft upon them, would not all Eu¬
rope fay, That the Britifh parliament had defrauded
their creditors ? If therefore the operation propofed to
be performed fhould have a contrary tendency, viz. to
augment the value of the pound fterling wdth which
the parliament at that time bound the nation to ac¬
quit thsfe capitals and interefts, muft not all Europe
alfo agree, That the Britifh parliament had defrauded
the nation ?
The convention with the ancient creditors of the
ftate, who, in confequence of the debafement of the
ftandard, might have juftly claimed an indemnification
for the lofs upon their capitals, lent at a time when
the pound fterling w'as at the value of the heavy fil¬
ver, removes all caufes of complaint from that quarter.
There was in the year 1749 an innovation in all
their contracts $ and they are n»w to be confidered
as creditors only from the 25th of December of that
year.
Let the value of the pound fterling be inquired in¬
to during one year preceding and one pofterior to the
tranfaftion of the month of December 1749. The
great fums borrowed and paid back by the nation dur¬
ing that period, will furnifh data fufficient for that
calculation. Let this value of the pound be fpecified
in troy grains of fine filver and fine gold bullion, with¬
out mentioning any denomination of money according
to the exact proportion of the metals at that time.
And let this pound be called the pound of natio?ial
credit.
This firft operation being determined, let it be enact¬
ed, that the pound fterling, by which the ftate is to
S f 2 borrow'
Money.
M ON [32
Money, borrow Tor the future, and that in which the creditors
“-''v are to be paid, fhall be the exa& mean proporfon be¬
tween the quantities of gold and filver above fpecified,
according to the aftual pronortion of the metals at the
time fuch payments uiall be made : or that the fums
(hall be borrowed or acquitted, one half in gold and
one half in filver, at the refpedive requifitions of the
creditors or of the Hate, when borrowing. All debts
contradfed pofterior to 1749 may 'oe mads liable to
converfions.
The confequence of this regulation will be the infen-
fible eflablifhment of a bank money. Nothing would
he more difficult to eftabliih, by a pofitive revolution,
than fuch an invariable meafure $ and nothing will be
found fo eafy as to let it efttiblifti itfelf by its own ad¬
vantages. This bank money will be liable to much
fewer inconveniencies than that of Amfterdam. There
the perfons tranfadling muft be upon the fpct •, here,
the fieriing currency may, every quarter of a year,
be adjufiect by the exchequer to this invariable ftand-
ard, for the benefit of all debtors and creditors who
incline to profit of the liability of this meafure of va¬
lue.
This fcheme is liable to no inconvenience from
the variation of the metals, let them be ever fo fre¬
quent or hard to be determined •, becaufe upon every
occafion where there is the fmalleft doubt as to the
adlual proportion, the option competent to credi¬
tors to be paid half in filver and half in gold wull re¬
move.
Such a regulation will alfo have this good effedl,
that it will give the nation more juft ideas of the na¬
ture of money, and confequently of the influence it
ought to have upon prices.
If the value of the pound fterling ftrall be found
to have been by accident lefs in December 1749 than
it is at prefent ; or if at prefent the currency be found
below wffiat it has commonly been fince 1749 5 ’n juftice
to the creditors, and to prevent ail complaints, the
nation may grant them the mean proportion of the
value of the pound fterling from 1749 to 1760, or
any other which may to parliament appear reafon-
able.
z This regulation muft appear equitable in the eyes
of all Europe •, and the ftrongeft proof of it will be,
that it will not produce the fmalleft effeft prejudicial
to the intereft of the foreign creditors. The courfe
of exchange wuth regard to them will fland precifely
as before.
A Dutch, French, or German creditor, will receive
the fame value for his intereft in the Englifti flocks as
heretofore. This muft filence all-clamours at home,
being the moft convincing proof, that the new regu¬
lation of the coin will have made no alteration upon
the real value of any man’s property, let him be debtor
cr creditor.
The intereft of every other denomination of credi¬
tors, whofe contrails are of a frefh date, may be regu¬
lated upon the fame principles. But where debts are
of an old Handing, juftice demands, that attention be
had to the value of money at the time of contrailing.
Nothing but the liability of the Englifti coin, when
compared with that of other nations, can make fuch a
propofal appear extraordinary. Nothing is better
known in France than this ftipulation added to obli-
4 1
MON
gations, Argent cm cours de ce jour; that is to fay, That
the fum (hall be repaid in coin ot the fame, inuinfic ‘
value with what has been lent. YY by fhould luch a
claule be thought reafonabie for guarding people
againft arbitrary operations upon the numerary value
of the coin, and not be found juft upon every occafion
where the numerary value of it is found to be changed,
let the caufe be wffiat it will ?
The next intereft we lhall examine is that of trade.
When men have attained the age of 21, they have no
more occafion for guardians. This may be applied to
traders; they can parry with their pen every inconve¬
nience which may refult to other people from the
changes upon money, provided only the laws permit
them to do themfelves juftice with refpedft to their en¬
gagements. This clais demands no more than a right
to convert all reciprocal obligations into denominations
of coin of the fame intrinfic value with thofe they have
Mdnev.
contra&ed in.
The next intereft is that of buyers and fellers ; that
is, of manufacturers with regard to confumers, and of
fervants with refpeft to thole who hire their perfonal
fervice.
The intereft of this clafs requires a moft particular
attention. They muft, literally fpeaking, be put to
fchool, and taught the firft principles of their trade,
which is buying and felling. They muft learn to judge
of price by the grains of filver and gold they receive :
they are children of a mercantile mother, however war¬
like the father’s difpofition. If it be the intereft of the
Hate that their bodies be rendered robuft and aClive,
it is no lefs the intereft of the ftate that their minds be
inftrufted in the firft principles of the trade they exer-
cife.
For this purpofe, tables of converfion from the old
ftandard to the new muft be made, and ordered to be
put up in every market, in every Ihop. All duties, all
excifes, muft be converted in the fame manner. Uni¬
formity muft be made to appear everywhere. The
fmalleft deviation from this will be a Humbling block
to the multitude.
Not only the intereft of the individuals of the clafs
we are at prefent confidering, demands the nation’s
care and attention in this particular ; but the profpe-
rity of trade, and the w7ellbeing of the nation, are alfo
deeply interefted in the execution.
The whole delicacy of the intricate combinations of
commerce depends upon a juft and equable vibration
of prices, according as circumftances demand it. The
more, therefore, the induftrious claffes are inftrufted in
the principles which influence prices, the more eafily
will the machine move. A workman then learns to
fink his price without regret, and can raife it without
avidity. When principles are not underftood, prices
cannot gently fall, they muft be pulled down; and mer¬
chants dare not fuffer them to rife, for fear of abufe*
even although the perfedlion of an infant manufacture
fnould require it.
The laft intereft is that of the bank of England,
which naturally muft regulate that of every other.
Had this great company follow^ed the example of
other banks, and eftablifhed a bank-money of an inva¬
riable ftandard as the meafure of all their debts, and
credits, they would not have been liable to any incon¬
venience upon a variation of the ftandard.
The
MON [ 325 ] MON
Money. The bank of England was proje£led about the year
—-Y—- 1694, at a ^me when the current money of the nation
was in the greateft diforder, and government in the
greateft didrefs both for money and for credit. Com¬
merce was then at a very low ebb ; and the only, or
at lead the mod profitable, trade of any, was jobbing
in coin, and carrying backwards and forwards the pre¬
cious metals from Holland to England. Merchants
profited alfo greatly from the effe£ls which the utter
diforder of the coin produced upon the price of mer-
chandife.
At fuch a juncture the refolution was taken to fnake
a new coinage ■, and upon the profpedt of this, a com¬
pany was found, who, for an exclufive charter to hold
a bank for 13 years, willingly lent the government
upwards of a million derling at 8 per cent (in light
money we fuppofe), with a profpedt of being repaid
both intered and capital in heavy. This was not all :
part of the money lent was to be applied for the eda-
blidiment of the bank j and no lefs than 40C0I. a-year
was allowed to the company, above the full intered,
for defraying the charge of the management
Under fuch circumdances the introdudion of bank-
money was very fuperfluous, and would have been very
impolitic. That invention is calculated againd the
raifing of the dandard : but here the bank profited of
that rife in its quality of creditor for money lent; and
took care not to commence debtor by circulating their
paper until the effect of the new regulation took place
in 1695 ; that is, after the general re-coinage of ail the
clipped filver.
From that time till norv, the bank of England has
been the balls of the nation’s credit, and with great
reafon has been condantly under the mod intimate pro-
teflion of every minider.
The value of the pound derling, as we have feen, has
been declining ever fince the year 1601, the dandard
being fixed to filver during all that century, while the
gold wTas condantly riling. No fooner had the pro¬
portion taken another turn, and filver begun to rife,
than the government of England threw the dandard
virtually upon the gold, by regulating the value of the
guineas at the exadl proportion of the market. By
thefe operations, however, the bank has condantly
been a gainer (in its quality of debtor) upon all the
paper in circulation ; and therefore has lod nothing by
not having edablilbed a bank-money.
The intered of this great company being edablifhed
upon the principles wTe have endeavoured to explain, it
is very evident, that jhe government of England never
will take any dep in the reformation of the coin which
in its confequences can prove hurtful to the bank.
Such a dep would be contrary both to judice and to
common Jenfe. To make a regulation which, by raif¬
ing the dandard, would prove beneficial to the public
creditors, to the prejudice of the bank (which we may
call the public debtor), would be an operation upon
public credit like that of a perfon who is at great pains
to fupport his houfe by props on all fides, and who at
the fame time blows up the foundation of it with gun¬
powder.
We may therefore conclude, that with regard to the
bank of England, as well as every other private bank¬
er, the notes which are condantly payable upon de¬
mand mud be paade liable to a converfion at the a£!ual
value of the pound derling at the time of the new re¬
gulation.
That the bank will gain by this, is very certain; but
the circulation of their notes is fo fwift, that it would
be abfurd to allow to the then poflelfors of them that
indemnification w’hich naturally fhould be diared by all
thofe through whofe hands they have pafled, in pro¬
portion to the debafement of the dandard during the
time of their refpedlive pofieflion.
Befides thefe confiderations, which are in common to
all dates, the government of Great Britain has one pe-
fculiar to itfelf. The intered of the bank, and that of
the creditors, are diametrically oppofite : every thing
which raifes the dandard hurts the bank ; every thing
w’hich can fink it hurts the creditors: and upon the
right management of the one and the other, depends
the folidity of public credit. For thefe reafbns, with¬
out the mod certain profpeft of conducing a reditution
of the dandard to the general advantage as well as ap¬
probation of the nation, no minider will probably ever
undertake fo dangerous an operation.
We (hall now propofe an expedient which may re¬
move at lead fome of the inconveniences which would,
refult from fo extenfive an undertaking as that of regu¬
lating the refpe£Hve intereds in Great Britain by a po-
fitive law, upon a change in the value of their money of
account.
Suppofe then, that, before any change is made in the
coin, government fliould enter into a tranfa&iqn with
the public creditors, . * d afeertain a permanent value
for the pound derling for the future, fpecified in a de¬
termined proportion of the fine metals in common bul¬
lion, without any regard to money of account, or to any
coin whatever.
This preliminary dep being taken, let the intended
alteration of the dandar.d be proclaimed a certain time
before it is to commence. Let the nature of the
change be clearly explained, and let all fuch as are en-*
gaged in, contra&s which are diffolvable at will upon
the predations dipulated, be acquitted between the
parties, or innovated as they (hall think proper ; with
certification, that, poderior to a certain day, the di-
pulations formerly entered into fhalLbe binding accord¬
ing to the denomiviations of the money of" account in
the new dandard.
As to permanent contrafb, which cannot at bnce
be fulfilled and diflblved, fuch as lealies, the parliament
may either preferibe the methods and terms of conver¬
fion or a liberty may be given to the parties to annul
the contra6l, upon the 'debtor’s refufing to perform bis
agreement according to the new dandard. Contrails,
on the other hand, might remain dable, with refpeft to
creditors w’ho would be fatisfied with payments made
on the footing of the old dandard. If the rife intended
(hould not be very confiderable, no great injudice can
follow fuch a regulation.
Annuities are now thoroughly .underdood, and the
value of them is brought to fo nice a calculation,
that nothing will be eafier than to regulate thefe
upon the footing of the value paid for them, or of
the fubjeft affefled by them. If by the regulation,
land rents are made to rife in denomination, the an¬
nuities charged upon them ought to rife in propor¬
tion ; if in intrinfic value, the annuity diguld remain
as it was.
9. Regulation} .
MON
"Money.
9. ’Regulations which the Principles of this Inquiry point
out as expedient to be made by a new Statute for regu¬
lating the Britijh Coin.
Let us now examine what regulations it may be
proper to make by a new ftatute concerning the coin
of Great Britain, in order to preferve always the fame
exafl; value of the pound fterling realized in gold and
in filver, in fpite of all the.incapacities inherent in the
metals to perform the fun&ions of an invariable fcale or
meafure of value.
r. The firft point is to determine the exaft number
of grains of fine gold and fine filver which are to com-
pofe it, according to the then proportion of the metals
in the London market.
2. To determine the proportion of thefe metals
with the pound troy ; and in regard that the'ftandard
of gold and filver is different, let the mint price of
both metals be regulated according to the pound troy
fine.
3. To fix the mint price within certain limits ; that
is to fay, to leave to the king and council, by pro¬
clamation, to carry the mint price of bullion up to
the value of the coin, as is the prefent regulation, or
to fink it to per cent, below that price, according
as government fhall incline to impofe a duty upon
coinage.
4. To order, that filver and gold coin {ball be (truck
of fuch denominations as the king fhall think fit to ap¬
point j in which the proportion of the metals above
determined fhall be conftantly obferved through every
denomination of the coin, until neceflity (hall make a
new general coinage unavoidable.
5. To have the number of grains of the fine metal
in every piece marked upon the exergue, or upon the
legend of the coin, in place of fome initial letters of
titles, which not one perfon in a thoufand can decy¬
pher ; and to make the coin of as compact a form as
poffible, diminifhing the furface of it as much as is
confident with beauty.
6. That it (hall be lawful for all contra&ing parties
.to fiipulate their payments either in gold or filver
coin, or to leave the option of the fpecies to one of
the parties.
7. That where no particular flipuhtion is made,
creditors (hall have power to demand payment, half in
one fpecies, half in the other; and when the fum can¬
not fall equally into gold and filver coins, the fraclions
to be paid in filver.
8. That in buying and felling, when no particular
fpecies has been ftipnlated, and when no aft in writing
has intervened, the option of the fpecies (hall be com¬
petent to the buyer.
9. That all fums paid or received by the king’s re¬
ceivers, or by bankers, (hall be delivered by weight, if
demanded.
10. That all money which (hall be found under the
legal weight, from whatever caufe it may pjoceed, may
be rejefted in every payment whatfoever*, or if offered
in payment of a debt above a certain fum, mi', be taken
according to its weight, at the then mint price, in the
option of the creditor.
11. That no penalty (hall be incurred by thofe who
melt down or export the nation’s coin ; but that walk¬
ing, clipping, or diminifhing the weight of any part
[ 326 ] MON
of it (hall be deemed felony, as much as any other
theft, if the perfon fo degrading the coin (hall after- U
wards make it circulate for lawful money.
7 o prevent the inconveniencies proceeding from the
variation in the proportion between the metals, it may
be provided,
12. That upon every variation of proportion in the
market price of the metals, the price of both (hall be
changed, according to the following rule :
Let the price of the pound troy fine gold in the coin
be called G.
Let the price of ditto in the filver be called S.
Let the new proportion between the market price
of the metals be called P.
Then (fate this formula:
G S
^p+—=to a pound troy fine filver, in fterling currency.
pound troy fine gold, in fieri, currency.
This wull be a rule for the mint to keep the price
of the metals conftantly at par with the price of the
market j and coinage may be impofed, as has been
defcribed, by fixing the mint price of them at a
certain rate belowT the value of the fine metals in the
coin.
13. As long as the variation of the market-price of
the metals fhall not carry the price of the rifing metal
fo high as the advanced price of the coin above the
bullion, no alteration need be made on the denomina¬
tion of either fpecies.
14. So foon as the variation of the market price of
the metals (hall give a value to the rifing fjiecies, above
the difference between the coin and the bullion 5 then
the king (hall alter the denominations of all the coin,
filver and gold, adding to the coins of the rifing metal
exaftly what is taken from thofe of the other. An ex¬
ample will make this plain :
Let us fuppofe that the coinage has been made ac¬
cording to the proportion of 14.5 to 1 ; that 20 (hil¬
lings, or 4 crown-pieces, (hall contain, in fine filver,
14.5 times as many grains as the guinea, or the gold
pound, (hall contain grains of fine' gold. Let the new
proportion of the metals be fuppofed to be 14 to 1.
In that cafe, the' 20 (hillings, or the 4 crowns, wrill
contain Ay more value than the guinea. Now fince
there is no queftion of making a new' general coinage
upon every variation, in order to adjuft the propor¬
tion of the metals in the weight of the coins, that pro¬
portion might be adjufted by changing their refpedive
denominations according to this formula :
Let the 20 (hillings, or 4 crowns, in coin, be called
S. Let the guinea be called G. Let the difference
between the old proportion and the new, which is Aw
be called P. Then fay.
P p
S~~ =a pound fterling, and G-f-——a pound fieri.
By this it appears that all the filver coin niuft be
raifed in its denomination and all the gold coin
mull be lowered in its denomination ^ > yet (till S+G
will be equal to two pounds fterling, as before, whe¬
ther they be confidered according'to the old or ac¬
cording to the new denominations.
But it may be obferved, that the impofition of coin¬
age rendering the value of the coin greater than the
value
I
M ON [ 327 ] MON
•’vToney. value of the bullion, that circumftance gives a certain
latitude in fixing the new denominations of the coin,
fo as to avoid minute fractions. For, providing the
deviation irom the exaft proportion fhall fall within
the advanced price of the coin, no advantage can be
taken by melting down one fpecies preferably to ano¬
ther ; fince, in either cafe, the lofs incurred by melting
the coin nauft be greater than the profit made upon
felling the bullion. The mint price of the metals,
however, may be fixed exactly, that is, within the value
. of a farthing upon a pound of fine filver or gold. This
is eafily reckoned at the mint; although upon every
piece in common circulation the fractions of farthings
would be inconvenient.
15. That notwithftanding of the temporary varia¬
tions made upon the denomination of the gold and
filver coins, all contrails formerly entered into, and all
ftipulations in pounds, (hillings, and pence, may con¬
tinue to be acquitted accoiding to the old denomina¬
tions of the coins, paying one-half in gold and one-
half in fiJver : unlefs in the cafe where a particular
Ipecies has been ftipulated ; in which cafe, the fums
muil be paid according to the new regulation made
upon the denomination of that fpecies, to the end
that neither profit or lofs may refult to any of the
parties.
16. That notwithftanding the alterations @n the
mint price of the metals, and in the denomination of
the coins, no change ftiall be made upon the weight
of the particular pieces of the latter, except in the
cafe of a general re-coinage of one denomination at
lead : that is to fay, the mint muft not coin new gui¬
neas, crowns, &c. of a different weight from thqfe al¬
ready in currency, although by fo doing the fradlions
might be avoided. This would occafien confufion,
and the remedy would ceafe to be of any ufe upon a
new change in the proportion of the metals. But it
may be found convenient, for removing the fmall frac¬
tions in {hillings and lixpences, to recoin fuch deno¬
minations altogether, and to put them to their in¬
teger numbers of twelve and of fix pence, without
changing in any refpeft their proportion of value to
all other denominations of the coin : this will be no
great expence, when the bulk of the filver coin is put
into 5 {hilling pieces.
By this method of changing the denominations of
the coin, there never can refult any alteration in the
value of the pound fterling ; and although fraflions
of value may now and then be introduced, in order to
prevent the abufes to which the coin would othemlfe Money,
be expofed by the artifice of thofe who melt it down,  —
yet ftill the inconvenience of fuch fra£lions may be
avoided in paying, according to the old denomina¬
tions, in both fpecies, by equal parts. This will
alfo prove demonilratively, that no change is there¬
by made in the true value of the national unit of
money.
17. That it be ordered, that (hillings and fixpences
{hall only be current for 20 years j and all other coins,
both gold and filver, for 40 years, or mere. For af-
certaining which term, there may be marked, upon
the exergue of the coin, the laft year of their cur¬
rency, in place of the date of their fabrication. This
term elapfed, or the date effaced, that they {hall have
no more currency whatfoever j and, when offered ii*
payment, may be received as bullion at the actual
price of the mint, or refufed, at the option of the cre¬
ditor.
iS. That no foreign coin ftnall have any/^a/cur¬
rency, except as bullion at the mint price.
By thele and the like regulations may be pre¬
vented, imo, The melting or exporting of the coin in
general. 2(fo, The melting or exporting one fpecies,
in order to fell it as bullion at an advanced price.
pio, The profit in acquitting obligations preferably
in one fpecies to another. 4(0, The degradation of the
ftandard, by the wearing of the coin, or by a change
in the proportion oetween the metals. 5/0, The circu¬
lation of the coin below the legal weight. 6ta, The
profit that other nations reap by paying their debts;
more cheaply to Great Britain than Great Britain can
pay her’s to them.
And the great advantage of it is, that it is an uni¬
form plan, and may ferve as a perpetual regulation,
compatible with all kinds of denominations of coins,
variations in the proportion of the metals, and with the
impofition of a duty upon coinage, or with the pre-
ferving it free ; and further, that it may in time be
adopted by other nations, who will find the advantage
of having their money of account preferved perpetually
at the fame value, with refpedl to the denominations o£
all foreign money of account eftablilhed on the fame
principles. But for a fuller difeuflion of this fubje£t
we muft: refer cur readers to Mr Wheatley’s Effay on
the Theory of Money and Principles of Commerce.
London 1807 ; and to a Treatife on the Coins of the
Realm, in a letter to the king, by the Earl of Liver¬
pool, London 1805.
A TABLE
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UNIVERSAL
EUROPE, Northern Parts.
E 329 ]
UNIVERSAL TABLE
Of the prefent State of the Real and Imaginary Moneys of the World".
f This mark is prefixed to the Imaginary Money, or Money of Account.
All Fractions in the Value Englifh are Parts of a Penny.
— This mark fignifies is, make, or equal to.
A Farthing
2 Farthings
2 Halfpence
4 Pence
6 Pence
12 Pence
5 Shillings
20 Shillings
21 Shillings
ENGLAND and SCOTLAND.
London, Brijlol, Liverpool, <fa’c.
Edinburgh, Glafgow, Aberdeen, b'c.
J£-
a Halfpenny
a Penny
a Groat
a Half Shilling
a Shilling
a Crown
-j- a Pound Sterling
a Guinea
d.
oi
1
4
6
o
o
o
o
IRELAND,
Dublin, Cork, Londonderry, fa'c.
A Farthing - - - o O
2 Farthings zr a Halfpenny - 00
2 Halfpence f a Penny - 00
6i Pence a Half Shilling o o
12 Pence fa Shilling Irith o o
13 Pence a Shilling - O I
65 Pence a Crown - 05
f a Pound Irifh o 18
a Guinea - I I
fillings
20 i
22^ Shillings
Ott
off
°if
6
11^
o
o
5i
o
FLANDERS and BDABANT.
Ghent, OJlend, b'c, Antwerp, BruJJels, b'c.
f A Pening
4 Peningens
8 Peningens
2 Grotes
6 Petards
7 Petards
40 Grotes
Scalins
240 Grotes
an Urche
f a Grote
a Petard
f a Scalin
a Scalin
f a Florin
a Ducat
f a Pound Flem.
0
TIJo
o
°‘gV
Oro
5t
6to
6
3
o
HOLLAND and ZEALAND.
Amjlerdam, Rotterdam, Middleburg, Flujhing, <b’c.
f A Pening
8 Peningens “f a Grote
2 Grotes^ a Stiver
6 Stivers a Scalin
20 Stivers a Guilder
5°
Stivers
a Rixdollar
Vol. XIV. Part I.
°tVo
T I
■‘T'o
6tV
9
4i
a,
60 Stivers
105 Stivers
6 Guilders
HOLLAND, &c^
zr a Dry Guilder
a Ducat
fa Pound Flem.
jr. s. d,
053
093
o 10 6
HAMBURG. Altona, Lubec, Bremen, <b'c.
f A Tryling
2 Trylings
2 Sexlings
12 Fenings
16 Shillings
2 Marcs
3 Marcs
6-5- Marcs
120 Shillings
f a Sexling
a Fening
a Shilling Lub.
f a Marc
a Slet Dollar
a Rixdollar
a Ducat
f a Pound Flem.
o
o
o
o
I
3
4
9
11
0x4*
OflTT
°tV
H
6
o
6
4t
3
HANOVER. Lunenburg, rLell, bst’c.
f A Fening — _ o
3 Fenings a Dreyer - o
8 Fenings a Marien - o
12 Fenings a Grofh - o
8 Grofhen a Half Gulden o
16 Grofhen a Gulden - o
24 Grofhen f a Rixdollar - o
32 Grofhen a Double Gulden o
4 Guldens a Ducat - o
°T^
o£
oi
2
4
6
8
2
SAXONY and HOLSTEIN.
Drefden, Leipjic, <b'c. Wiftnar, Keil, is'c.
f An Heller z= - - . o o o-sr'
a Fening
2 Hellers
6 Hellers
16 Hellers
12 Fenings
16 Grofhen
24 Grofhen
32 Grofhen
4 Goulds
a Dreyer
a Marien
a Grofh
a Gould
f a Rixdollar
a Specie Dollar
a Ducat
7
9"5'
op
BRANDENBURG and POMERANIA.
Berlin, Potfdam, is’c. Stetin, <b'c.
f A Denier
9 Deniers
18 Deniers
3 Polchens
20 Grofhen
a Polchen
a Grofh
an Abrafs
f a Marc
T t
OTfo
O-tV
°tV
OtV
9t
30 Grofhen
EUROPE, Northern Parts.
Germany.
t 330 ]
30 Grofhen
90 Groflien
108 Groflien
8 Florins
MON
BRANDENBURG, See.
a Florin
fa Rixdollar
an Albertus
a Ducat
o
o
o
o
d.
2
6
2
4
COLOGN. Menlx, Triers, Liege, Munich, Mttnjler,
Paderbourn, is'e.
A Date
3 Dates r
2 Cruitzers
8 Dutes
3 Stivers
4 Plaperts
40 Stivers
2 Guilders
4 Guilders
a Cruitzer
an Albus
a Stiver
a Piapert
a Coplluck
a Guilder
a Hard Dollar
a Ducat
Oro
2tV
BOHEMIA, SILESIA, and HUNGARY.
Prague, Brejlaw, Prejburg, Sec.
A Fening - - o o <
a Dreyer - 00
a Groflr - 00
a Cruitzer - O o
a White Grofli - 00
a Gould - 0 2
fa Rixdollar - 0 3
a Hard Dollar - 04
a Ducat - 0 9
2 Fenings
3 Fenings
4 Fenings
2 Cruitzers
60 Cruitzers
90 Cruitzers
2 Goulds
4 Goulds
°To
ofW
°tV
ofr
4
6
8
AUSTRIA and SWABIA.
Vienna, Triejle, (b'c. Augsburg, Blenheim, rb'c.
A Fening - - 00
2 Fenings zz a Dreyer - 00
4 Fenings a Cruitzer - 00
14 Fenings a Grofh - 00
4 Cruitzers a Batzen - 00
15 Batzen a Gould - 0 2
90 Cruitzers fa Rixdollar - 0 3
30 Batzen a Specie dollar - 04
60 Batzen a Ducat - ° 9
"j o'
°Fo
°tV
lx
7
4
6
FRANCONIA. Francfort, Nuremburg, Dettingen, b'c>
A Fening - - o O
4 Fenings a Cruitzer - 00
3 Cruitzers a Keyler Grolli - 00
4 Cruitzers a Batzen - 00
15 Cruitzers an Ort Gould - 00
16 Cruitzers a Gould - o 2
90 Cruitzers fa Rixdollar - 0 3
2 Goulds a Hard Dollar - 048
'24c Cruitzers a Ducat - 094
POLAND and PRUSSIA.
Cracow, Warfaw, b?c. Danisic, Koningsberg, b'c.
A Shelon - . 000
3 Shelons zz a Grofh
5 Grofhen a Couftic
3 Couflics a Tinfe
o o
o o
o o
24
MON
POLAND, &c.
18 Grofhen ~
30 Grofhen
90 Grofhen
8 Florins
5 Rixdollars
an Ort
a Florin
fa Rixdollar
a Ducat
a Frederic d’Or
o o
O I
° 3
o 9
o 17
d.
8f.
2
6
4
6
LIVONIA.
Biga, Revel, Narva, b'c.
A Blacken - - 00
6 Blackens — a Grofh - 00
9 Blackens a Vording - 00
2 GrolLen a Whiten - 00
6 Grofhen a Marc - 00
30 Groflien a Florin - 01
90 Grofhen fa Rixdollar - 0 3
108 Groflien an Albertus - 04
64 Whitens a Copperplate Dollar c 5
°TT
Oto
of-f
r 1
2
2
6
2-V
Zi s
DENMARK, ZEALAND, and NORWAY.
Copenhagen, Sound, b'c. Bergen, Drontlmm, rh'c.
A Skilling - - 00 O-j^j
6 Skillings — a Duggen - o o 3-g-
16 Skillings fa Marc - 009
20 Skillings a Rixmarc - o o
24 Skillings a Rixort - o 1 i-§
4 Marcs a Crown - 030
6 Marcs a Rixdollar - 046
11 Marcs a Ducat - 083
14 Marcs a Hatt Ducat - o 10 6
SWEDEN and LAPLAND.
Stockholm, Upfal, L'c. Thorn, Ac.
f A Runftick - - 00
2 Runfticks = a Stiver - 00
8 Runflicks a Copper Marc o o
3 Copper Marcs a Silver Marc - 00
4 Copper Marcs a Copper Dollar o o
9 Copper Marcs a Caroline - 01
3 Copper Dollars a Silver Dollar - 01
3 Silver Dollars a Rixdollar - 0 4
2 Rixdollars a Ducat - 0 9
°T^
°tV
44
6f-
2
6t
8
4
RUSSIA and MUSCOVY.
Peterjburg, Archangel, Ac. Mofcow, Ac.
A Polufca - - 00
2 Polufcas r; a Denufca - 00
2 Denufcas fa Copec - 00
3 Copecs an Altin - 00
10 Copecs a Grievener - 00
25 Copecs a Polpotin - 01
5c Copecs a Poltin - 02
100 Copecs a Ruble - 0 4
2 Rubles a Xervonitz - 09
n * 7
°Too'
O———
w i o o
n 2 7
0To
lU
Sr
i4
3
6
BASIL. Zurich, Zug, Ac.
A Rap - - 000
3 Rapen = a Fening - o o O-^
4 Fenings a Cruitzer - o o of
12 Fenings fa Sol - o o if
15 Fenings-,
'TT
4
EUROPE, Southern Parts.
France and Navarre. Switzerland.
15 Fenings
18 Fenings
20 Sols
60 Cruitzers
108 Cruitzers
M O N
BASIL, &c.
= a Coarfe Batzen
a Good Batzen
f a Livre
a Gulden
a Rixdollar,
C 331 1
£■
O
O
O
o
o
A Denier
4 Deniers
3 Cruitzers
4 Cruitzers
5 Cruitzers
6 Cruitzers
20 Sols
75 Cruitzers
135 Cruitzers
BERN. Lucern, Neufchatel, <b'c.
a Cruitzer
fa Sol
a Plapert
a Gros
a Batzen
fa Livre
a Gulden
a Crown
GENEVA.
A Denier
2 Deniers =
I 2 Deniers
12 Deniers current
12 Small Sols
20 Sols current
lof Florins
15!- Florins
24 Florins
Pekay, Bonne, $2*c.
a Denier current
a Small Sol
a Sol current
fa Florin
fa Livre current
a Patacon
a Croifade
a Ducat
6
6
6
St GALL. Apenfal, is'c.
A Heller - - 00
2 Hellers = a Fening - 00
4 Fenings a Cruitzer - 00
12 Fenings fa Sol - 0 0
4 Cruitzers a Coarfe Batzen O O
5 Cruitzers a Good Batzen o O
20 Sols fa Livre - 0 2
60 Cruitzers a Gould - 02
102 Cruitzers a Rixdollar - 04
O-ry
o-s-
0-J
2
6
6
3
°-n>
°x.
it
if
2
2f
O
6
6
°TT
of
of
4f
3
nf
1 of
o
Cambray, Valenciennes, itfc.
A Denier - - 00
12 Deniers =r a Sol - 00
15 Deniers fa Patard - 00
15 Patards fa Piette - 00
20 Sols a Livre Tournois o o
20 Patards fa Florin - 01
60 Sols an Ecu of Ex. o 2
1 of Livres a Ducat - ° 9
24 Livres a Louis d’Or 1 o
o/t
Of
Of
9t
10
of
6
3
o
Dunkirk, St Omers, St Quintin, is'c.
A Denier - - 00
12 Deniers a Sol - 00
15 Deniers fa Patard o o
15 Sols fa Piette o o
20 Sols fa Li-vre Tournois o o
3 Livres an Ecu of E^ o 2
24 Livres a Louis d’Or 1 o
254 Livres a Guinea - 1 1
32f Livres a Moeda - 17
U2-T
of
of
7f
10
6
o
o
o
'M O N
Paris, Lyons, Marfei/les, is'c. Bourdeaux, Bayonne, is'c.
A Denier
3 Deniers
2 Liards
12 Deniers
20 Sols
60 Sols
6 Livres
10 Livres
24 Livres
a Liard
a Dardene
a Sol
fa Livre Tournois
an Ecu of Ex.
an Ecu
fa Piftole
a Louis d’Or
£•
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I
d.
Ott
Of
Of
Of
10
6
o
4
o
PORTUGAL. Lifbon, Oporto, fa'c.
f A Re
10 Rez
20 Rez
5 Vintins
4 Teftoons
24 Vintins
10 Teftoons
48 Teftoons
64 Teftoons
o o
a Half Vintin o o
a Vintin O o
a Teftoon - 00
a Crufade of Ex. o 2
a New Crufade o 2
fa Milre - 05
a Moeda - 1 7
a Joanefe - 1 16
O 17
°Too
off
6f
3
7f
o
o
Madrid, Cadiz, Seville, is’c. New Plate.
A Maravedie - - o
a Quartil, - o
a Rial - o
a Piftarine o
fa Piaftre of Ex. o
a Dollar - o
fa Ducat of Ex. o
fa Piftole of Ex. o
a Piftole - o
2 Maravedies
34 Maravedies
2 Rials
8 Rials
10 Rials
375 Maravedies
3 2 Rials
36 Rials
o
o
o
o
3
4
4
14
16
OfVv
OtVs
5t
10
7
6
nf
4
9
Gibraltar, Malaga, Denia, is'c. Velon.
f A Maravedie
2 Maravedies
4 Maravedies
34 Maravedies
15 Rials
512 Maravedies
60 Rials
2048 Maravedies
78 Rials
— an Ochavo
fa Quartil
fa. Rial Velon
a Piaftre of Ex.
fa Piaftre
fa Piftole of Ex.
a Piftole of Ex.
a Piftole
3
3
14
16
16
OtVt
Barcelona, Saragojfa, Valencia, isr'c. Old Plate.
A Maravedie - - o
ka Soldo - o
a Rial Old Plate o
fa Libra - a
fa Ducat - o
fa Dollar - o
fa Ducat - o
fa Ducat - o
a Piftole - o
16 Maravedies =2:
2 Soldos
20 Soldos
24 Soldos
16 Soldos
22 Soldos
21 Soldos
60 Soldos
o
o
o
5
6
4
6
5
16
0fVf
3f
6f
7f
9
6
2f
lof
9
GENOA. AW/, &3V.
A Denari
CORSICA. Bajlia, is’c.
1 2 Denari
4 Soldi
20 Soldi
30 Soldi
a Soldi
a Chevalet
fa Lire
a Teftoon
X t 2
O ^!
(JTW5-
n 5*' 5
°To^
Iff
8f
5 Lires
Southern Parts,
W
Ch
O
Mi/an, Modena, Parma, Pavia, <b'c.
A Denari - - - o O
3 Denari = a Q^uatrini o o
12 Denari a Soldi - o o
20 Soldi a Lire - o o
115 Soldi a Scudi current o 4
1x7 Soldi f a Scudi of Lx. o 4
6 Lires a Philip - 04
22 Lires a Piftole - o 16
23 Lires a Spanith Piftole o 16
5 Lires
115 Soldi
6 Te ft oons
20 Lires
MON
GENOA, See.
a Croifade
f a Pezzo of Ex.
a Genouine
a Piftole
[ 3.32 1
0 3 7
042
062
o 14 4
PIEDMONT, SAVOY, and SARDINIA.
Turin, Chamberry, Cagliari, is'e.
A Denari - - o
3 Denari rz a Quatrini - o
12 Denari a Soldi - O
12 Soldi f a Florin - o
20 Soldi f a Lire - o
6 Florins a Scudi - o
7 Florins a Ducatoon - o
13 Lires a Piftole - o
16 Lires a Louis d’Or 1
o
o
o
o
I
4
5
16
o
Leghorn, Florence, iv'e.
A Denari - - _ o
4 Denari • = a Quatrini - o
12 Denari a Soldi - o
5 Quatrini a Craca - o
8 Cracas a Quilo - o
20 Soldi f a Lire - o
6 Lires a Piaftre of Ex. o
yi Lires a Ducat - o
22 Lires » a Piftole - o
o
o
o
o
o
o
4
5
15
ROME.
A Quatrini
5 Quatrini —
8 Bayocs
10 Bayocs
24 Bayocs
10 Julios
12 Julios
18 Julios
31 Julios
Cwita Vecclua, Ancona.
a Bayoc
a Julio
a Stampt Julio
a Teftoon
a Crown current
f a Crown ftampt
a Chequin
a Piftole
o
o
o
o
I
5
6
9
x5
NAPLES. Gaeta, Capua, is'e.
A Quatrini
3 Quatrini
10 Grains
40 Quatrini
20 Grains
40 Grains
100 Grains
23 Tarins
25 Tarins
a Grain
a Carlin
a Paulo
a Tarin
a Teftoon
a Ducat of Ex.
a Piftole
a Spstnilh Piftole
°tV
CrV
o?
9
3
6
3
3
o
°u
851
°3T
3
4i
o
9
°t4t
°tV
oTt
o
1 s
T (T
s
5
8t
2
24
6
°Tc
6
74
6
o
o
o
6
o
o
o
o
o
X
3
15
16
OtV
o-l-
4
5t
8
4
4
4
9
&-
O
MON
SICILY and MALTA. Palermo, MeJJiva, is'e.
L' s- d.
A Pichila - - -00
6 Pichili zr: a Grain - 00
8 Pichili a Ponti - 00
10 Grains a Carlin - 00
20 Grains a Tarin - 00
6 Tarins -j- a Florin of Ex. o o
13 Tarins a Ducat of Ex. o. 3
60 Carlins f an Ounce - 07
2 Ounces a Piftole - 015
Bologna, Ravenna, iv’e.
A Quatrini
6 Quatrini
10 Bayocs
20 Bayocs
3 Julios
80 Bayocs
105 Bayocs
100 Baj-ocs ,
31 Julios
a
f a
a
a
a
a
a
a
Bayoc
Julio
Lire
Teftoon
Schudi of Ex.
Ducatoon
Crown
Piftole
o 15
VENICE. Berg ham, (b’c.
A Picoli
1 2 Picoli
61 Soldi
18 Soldi
20 Soldi
3 Jules
1 24 Soldi
24 Gros
17 Lires
a
t a
a
f a
a
a
f a
a
Soldi
Gros
Jule
Lire
Teftoon
Ducat current
Ducat of Ex.
Chequin
Turkey.
A Mangar
4 Mangars :
3 Afpers
5 Afpers
10 Afpers
20 Afpers
80 Afpers
100 Afpers
10 Solotas
Morea, Candia, Cyprus, is'e.
fan Afper
a Parac
a Beftic
an Oftic
a Solota
f a Piaftre
a Cara grouch
a Xeriff
o
o
o
o
o
I
4
5
10
ARABIA.
A Garret
5I Garrets —
7 Garrets
80 Garrets
18 Comalhees
60 Comaftiees
80 Caveers
too Comafhees
80 Larins
Medina, Mecca, Mocha, Is’c.
a Career
a Comafhee
a Larin
an Abyfs
f a Piaftre
a Dollar
a Sequin
f a Tomond
°tV
01T
°To-
G-V
3tt
4
8 +
4
o-rV
oi
6
o
6
3
3
o
6
of
24
6
64
6
5t
4
2
rV
T
4
S'
S’
1 15
O Oj
o of-
O Or%
o 10J
X
4
4
7
7
4f
6
6
6
6
A Coz
4 Coz
10 Coz
20 Coz
2 5 Coz
/l n a m » cv
  ir
PERSIA. Ifpahan, Ormus Gombroon, bye.
a Bifti
a Shahee
a Mamooda
a Larin
an Abaftiee
o o^-
o if
o 4
o 8
o 10
1 4
5 Abaftiees
/
5 Abafhees
12 Abadiees
50 Abadiees
MON
an Or
a Bovello
■f~ a Tumond
[ 333 1
£■ '■
o 8
o 16
3 6
GUZZERAT.
A Pecka
Surat, Cambay, is’c.
2 Peckas
4 Pices
5 Pices
10 Pices
4 Anas
2 Rupees
14 Anas
4 Pagodas
a Pice
a Fanam
a Viz
an Ana
a Rupee
an Englifti Crown
a Pagoda
a Gold Rupee
o p
o o
o o
o o
o o
O 2
° 5
o 8
1
I1
2-U
74;
6
o
9
o
Bombay, Dabul, fa’c,
f A Budgrook
2 Budgrooks rr
5 Rez
16 Pices
20 Pices
240 Rez
4 (Quarters
14 (Quarters
60 Quarters
fa Re
a Pice
a Laree
a Quarter
a Xerapnim
a Rupee
a Pagoda
a Gold Rupee 1
o
o
o
o
o
1
2
8
O-g-Vo
O5V0
si
64
4f
3
o
Goa, Vifapour, is’e.
f A Re
2 Rez
2 Bazaracos
20 Rez
4 Vintins
3 Larees
42 Vintins
4 Tangus
8 Tangus
a Bazaraco
a Pecka
a Vintin
a Laree
a Xeraphim
a Tangu
a Paru
o
o
o
o
o
I
4
18
a Gold Rupee 1 15
O^JL
O O
°T0T5-
°T?fo
^ *2 O*
5r
4I-
6
o
o
COROMANDEL. Madrafs, Pondicherry, is’e.
• HR 00
a Viz . o o Oy
a Pice - 000^
a Pical - 002^
a Fanam - 003
a Rupees - 026
an Englilh Crown 050
a Pagoda - 089
a Gold Rupee - 1150
A Calh
5 Cadi :
2 Viz
6 Pices
8 Pices
10 Fana'ms
2 Rupee
36 Fanams
4 Pagodas
3Tr
BENGAL. Callicut, Calcutta, is’e.
A Pice - - 00
4 Pices a Fanam - 00-
6 Pices a Viz - 00
12 Pices an Ana - 00
10 Anas a Fiano - 01
16 Anas a Rupee - 0 2
2 Rupees a French Ecu - 0 5
2 Rupees an Englidi Crown o 5
^56 Anas a Pagoda - © 8
o
o
1 is
64
6
o
o
9
CO
i
1 3
T<f
SIAM.
MON
Pegu, Malacca, Cambodia, Sumatra,
Borneo, is’e.
Java,.
A Cori
Boo Cori
125 Fettees
250 Fettees
500 Fettees
900 Fettees
2 Ticals
4 Soocos
8 Sateleers
L
a Fettee
a Sateleer
a Sooco
a Tutal
a Dollar
a Rial
an Ecu
a Crown
r. d.
o o
o
o
1
2
4
5
5
° 5
>T5"& 6’ O
°To
74-
3
6
6
o
o
o
CHINA. Pekin, Canton, isc.
A Caxa
10 Caxa ;
10 Candereens
35 Candereens
2 Rupees
70 Candereens
7 Maces
2 Rupees
to Maces
a Candereen
a Mace
a Rupee
a Dollar
a Rixdollar
an Ecu
a Crown
fa Tale
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
JAPAN. Jeddo, Meaco, is'e.
A Plti
20 Pitis =
15 Maces
20 Maces
30 Maces
13 Ounces Silver
2 Ounces Gold
2 Japanefes
a Mace
an Ounce Silver
a Tale
an Ingot
an Ounce Gold
a Japanefe
a Double
O Of
o 4
4 10-r
6 8
2r Ounces Gold fa Cattee
9
3 3
6 6
12 12
66 3
u
t—I
Pd
EGYPT. 0/V and New Cairo, Alexandria, Sayde, is’e.
An Afper
3 Afpers :
24 Medins
80 Afpers
30 Medins
96 Afpers
32 Medins
200 Afpers
70 Medins
a Medin
an Italian Ducat
fa Piaftre
a Dollar
a Ecu
a Crown
a Sultanin
a Fargo Dollar
o 10
o 10
°4-
1t
4
o
6
o
o
o
o
BARBARY. Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Una, is'e.
10
An Afper
Afpers
Afpers
2 Rials
4 Doubles
24 Medins
30 Medins
180 Afpers
15 Doubles
a Medin
a Rial old Plate
a Double
a Dollar
a Silver Chequin
a Dollar
a Zequin
a Pi dole
o o
O I
o ‘ 6
1 1
4 6
3 4
4 6
8 10
016 9
MOROCCO.
A Fluce
24 FIuqcs
Santa Crux, Mcquiruz,, Fec,
Sallee, is’e.
— a Blanquin
Tangier s^,
O O Cxbr
0 0 2
4 Blanquils
West-Indies.
<3
o
•—t
fit
<1
4 Blanquils
7 Blanquils
14 Blanquils
2 Q^uartos
28 Blanquils
54 Blanquils
100 Blanquils
MON
MOROCCO, &c.
— an Ounce
an Oflavo
a (Quarto
a Medio
a Dollar
a Xequin
a Piftole
r
ENGLISH. Jamaica, Barbadoes, <b’c.
f Halfpenny
2 Halfpence
yf Pence
12 Pence
75 Pence
7 Shillings
20 Shillings
24 Shillings
30 Shillings
f a Penny
a Bit
f a Shilling
a Dollar
a Crown
f a Pound
a Piftole
a Guinea
o
o
o
o
4
5
16
1
[ 334 1 MO N
'ENGLISH. AWtf Scotia, Virginia, New England, b'c.
o o
1
2
4
4
9
o 16
d.
8
2
4'
8
6
o
9
n 5 7
o-rg-s:
ii
8^
6
o
3
9
o
FRENCH,
f A Half Sol
2 Half Sols =
7i Sols
15 Sols
20 Sols
7 Livres
8 Livres
26 Livres
32 Livres
St Domingo, Martinico, b'c.
o
o
o
o
o
o
-f a Sol
a Half Scalin
a Scalin
f a Livre
a Dollar
an Ecu
a Piftole
a Louis d’Or
o
o
o
o
o
4
4
16
o
°!-T2r
°T^
2-H-
5i
7-4
6
ioi
9
o
C
u
t—i
o4
H
<1
f A Penny
12 Pence
2® Shillings
2 Pounds
3 Pounds
4 Pounds
5 Pounds
6 Pounds
7 Pounds
8 Pounds
9 Pounds
10 Pounds
f a Shilling
f a Pound
001
010
100
The value of the Currency al¬
ters according to the Plenty or
Scarcity of Gold and Silver Coins
thafc are imported.
Canada, Florida, Cayenne, b'c.
f A Denier
12 Deniers
20 Sols
2 Livres
3 Livres
4 Livres
5 Livres
6 Livres
7 Livres
8 Livres
9 Livres
10 Livres
f a Sol.
f a Livre.
The value of the Currency al¬
ters according to the Plenty or
Scarcity of Gold and Silver Coins
that are imported.
Note. For all the S/>ani/b, Portuguefe, Dutch, and Danifh
Dominions, either on the Continent or in the Weft Indies, fee
the Moneys of the refpe&ive nations.
Ancient Monux. See Coins and Medals.
Paper Monet. See the article Bank.
MONK anciently denoted, “ a perfon who retired
from the world to give himfelf up wholly to God, and
to live in folitude and abftinence.” The word is de¬
rived from the Latin monachus, and that from the Greek
“ folitary j” of pwos^folus, “ alone.”
The origin of monks leems to have been this : The
perfecutions which attended the firft ages of the Gofpel
forced fome Chriftians to retire from the w7orld, and
live in deferts and places moft private and unfrequented,
in hopes of finding that peace and comfort among
beafts which were denied them among them. And this
being the cafe of fome very extraordinary perfons, their
example gave fo much reputation to retirement, that
the practice was continued when the reafon of its com¬
mencement ceafed. After the empire became Chriftian,
inftances of this kind were numerous j and thofe whofe
fecurity had obliged them to live feparately and apart,
became afterwards united into focieties. We may alfo
add, that the myftic theology, w?hich gained ground
towards the clofe of the third century, contributed to
produce the fame effect, and to drive men into folitude
for the purpofes of enthufiaftic devotion.
J he monks, at leaft the ancient ones, were diftin-
guifhed into folitaries, ccenobites, and farabaites.
The folitary are thofe who live alone, in places- re-
aiote from all towns and habitations of men, as do ftill
4
fome of the hermits. The ccenobites are thofe who live
in community with feveral others in the fame houfe,
and under the fame fuperiors. The farabaites were
ftrolling monks, having no fixed rule or refidence.
The houfes of monks again w'ere of two kinds, viz.
monq/leries and laurce. See Monastery and Laura.
Thofe we call monks now-a days are ccenobites, who
live together in a convent or monaftery, who make
vows of living according to a certain rule eftabliftied by
the founder, and wear a habit which diftinguifties their
order.
T hofe that are endowed, or have a fixed revenue, are
moft properly called monks, tnonachi; as the Chartreux,
Benediftines, Bernardines, &c. The Mendicants, or
thofe that beg, as the Capuchins and Francifcans, are
more properly called religious and friars ; though the
names are frequently confounded.
The firft monks were thofe of St Anthony; who, to¬
wards the cloie of the fourth century, formed them
into a regular body, engaged them to live in fociety
wdth each other, and prefcribed to them fixed rules for
the direaion of their conduft, Thefe regulations, which
Anthony had made in Egypt, were foon introduced into
Paleltine and Syria by his difciple Hilarion. Almoft
about the fame tirpe, Aones or Eygenius, with their
companions Gaddanas and Azyzas, inftituted the mo-
naftic order in Mefopotamia and the adjacent countries ;
and their examplejwas followed with fuch rapid luccefs,
that
MON [ 335 .1
.that in a fhort time the whole eaft was filled with a lazy in the year
fet of mortals, who, abandoning all human connexions,
advantages, pleafures, and concerns, wore out a lan-
guiihing and miferable life amidft the hardflnps of want,
and various kinds of fulfering, in order to arrive at a
more clofe and rapturous communication with God and
angels. _
From the eaft this gloomy inftitution palled into the
weft, and firft into Italy and its neighbouring iflands ;
though it is uncertain who tranfplanted it thither.
St Martin, the celebrated biftiop of Tours, erefted the
firft mcnafteries in Gaul, and recommended this religi¬
ous folitude with fuch power and efficacy, both by his
inftru&ions and his example, that his funeral is faid to
have been attended by no lefs than 2000 monks. Fiom
hence the monaftic difcipline extended gradually its pro-
grefs though the other provinces and countries of
Europe. There W'ere befides the monks of St Bafil
(called in the Eaft Calogeri, fromxaAs? ysgwv, “good old
man”) and thofe of St Jerome, the hermits of St Au-
guftine, and afterwards thofe of St Benedict and St
Bernard 5 at length came thofe of St Francis and St
Dominic, with a legion of others j all which fee under
their proper heads, Benedictines, &c.
Towards the clofe of the 5th century, the monks,
who had formerly lived only for themfelves in folitary
retreats, and had never thought of affuming any rank
among the facerdotal order, were now gradually di-
ftinguiffied from the populace, and endowed with luch
opulence and honourable privileges that they found
themfelves in a condition to claim an eminent ftation
among the fupports and pillars of the Chriftian com¬
munity. The fame of their piety and famftity was fo
great, that bifliops and prefoyters wTere often chofen
out of their order; and the paffion of ereTing edifices
and convents, in which the monks and holy virgins
might ferve God in the moft commodious manner, w7as
at this time carried beyond all bounds. How'ever their
licentioufnefs, even in this century, was become a pro¬
verb 5 and they are faid to have excited the moft
dreadful tumults and feditions in various places. The
monaftic orders were at firft under the immediate jurif-
di&ion of the biffiops, from which they were exempted
by the Roman pontiff about the end of the 7th century j
and the monks, in return, devoted themfelves wholly
to advance the interefts and to maintain the dignity of
the biftiop of Rome. This immunity which they ob¬
tained was a fruitful fource of licentioufnefs and diforder,
and occafioned the greateft part of the vices with which
they were afterwards fo juftly charged. In the 8th
century the monaftic difcipline was extremely relaxed
both in the eaftern and w^eftern provinces, and all
efforts to reftore it were ineffeflual. Neverthelefs, this
kind of inftitution was in the higheft efteem, and no¬
thing could equal the veneration that was paid about
the clofe of the 9th century to fuch as ’devoted them¬
felves to the facred gloom and indolence of a convent.
This veneration induced feveral kings and emperors to
call them to their courts, and to employ them jn civil
affairs of the greateft moment. Their reformation was
attempted by Louis the Meek, but the effedl was of
ffiort duration. In the I ith century they were exempt¬
ed by the popes from the authority of their fovereigns,
and new orders of monks were continually eftabliftied j
infemuch that in the council of Lateran that was held
MON
I215, a decree was paffed, by the advice
of Innocent III. to prevent any new monaftic inftitu-
tions; and feveral were entirely fuppreffed. In the
1 5th and 16th cenuries, it appears, from the teftimonies
of the beft writers, that the monks were generally lazy,
illiterate, profligate, and licentious epicures, whole
views in life w7ere confined to opulence, idlenefs, and
pleafure. However, the Reformation'had a manifeft
influence in reftraining their exceffes, and rendering
them more circumfpett and cautious in their external
conduft.
Monks are diftinguilhed by the colour of their ha¬
bits into black, white, graij, &c. Among the monks,
fome are called monks of the choir, others profejfed monks,
and others lay monks ; which laft are dellined for the
fervice of the convent, and have neither clericate nor
literature.
Cloijlered Monks, are thofe who actually refide in
the houfe : in oppolition to ^/rr?-monks, who have
benefices depending on the monaftery.
Monks are alfo diftinguilhed into reformed, whom
the civil and ecclefiaftical authority have made mailers
of ancient convents, and put in their power to retrieve
the ancient difcipline, which had been relaxed ; and
ancient, who remain in the convent, to live in it ac¬
cording to its eftablilhment at the time when they
made their vows, without obliging themlelves to any
new r'eform. ,,
Anciently the monks were all laymen, and were only
diftinguifhed from the reft of the people by a particular
habit and an extraordinary devotion. Not only the
monks were prohibited the priefthood, but even pnefts
were exprefsly prohibited from becoming monks, as ap¬
pears from the letters of St Gregory. Pope Syricius
was the firft who called them to the clericate, on oc-
cafion of fome great fcarcity of priefts, that the church
was then fuppoled to labour under: and fince tiiat
time, the priefthood has been ufually united to the
monaftical profeffion.
Monk, George, a perfonage memorable for having
been the principal agent in reftoring Charles II. to his
crow7n, w7as defcended from a very ancient family, and
born in Devonftiire in 1608. Being an unprovided
younger fon, he dedicated himfelf to arms from his
youth, and obtained a pair of colours in the expedition
to the Ifle of Rhee : he ferved afterwards in the Low
Countries wfith reputation, in both King Charles’s nor¬
thern expeditions ; and did fuch fervice in quelling the
Iriffi rebellion, that he was appointed governor of
Dublin, but was fuperfeded by parliamentary authority.
Being made major-general of the Irilh brigade employ¬
ed in the fiege of Nantwich in Chelhire, he was taken
prifoner by Sir Thomas Fairfax, and remained confined
in the Tourer of London until the year 1646 ; when,
as the means of obtaining liberty, he took the covenant,
and accepted a command in the Irifh fervice under the
parliament. He obtained the command in chief of all
the parliamentary forces in the north of Ireland, where
he did fignal fervices, until he was called to account
for a treaty made wflth the Iriffi rebels; a circumftance
wfliich was only obliterated by fiis future good fortune.
He ferved in Scotland under Oliver CromwHl with
fuch fuccefs, that he was left there as commander in
chief-, and he was one of the commiffioners for uniting
that kingdom with the new erected commonwealth.,.
He
Monk.
MON
Monk He ferved at fea. alfo againft the Dutch ; and was trea-
•MonJomh ted OH return> Oliver is faid to have
^ t- 'grown jealous of him. He was, however, again fent to
Scotland as commander in chief, and continued there
five years: when he diffembled fo well, and improved
circumftances fo dexteroufly, that he aided the defires
of a wearied peoole, and reitored the king without any
difturbance : for which he was immediately rewarded
both with honours and profit : (See Britain, N° 194,
&c.)—He was created duke of Albemarle, with a
grant of ^ocol. per annum eltate, befide other emo¬
luments ; and enjoyed the confidence of his mailer
without forfeiting that of the people. After his death
in 1670, there was published a treatife compofed by
him while he remained prifoner in the l ower, en¬
titled, “ Obfervations on Military and Political Af¬
fairs,” a fmall folio.
Monk Fifh. See Squalus, Ichthyology Index.
Monk's Head, or Wolf's bane. See Aconitum, Bo¬
tany Index.
MONKEY. See Simia, Mammalia Index.
MONMOUTH, James, Duke of, fon to Charles
II. by Mrs Lucy Walters, was born at Rotterdam in
1649. Upon the Relloration, he w’as called over to
England, wEere the king received him with all ima¬
ginable joy, created him earl of Orkney (which w^as
changed into that of Monmouth), and he took his feat
in the houfe of peers in the enfuing felfion of parliament.
He married Anne, the heirefs of Francis earl of Buc-
cleugh and hence it came to pafs that he had alfo the
title of Buccleugh, and took the furname of Scot, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of Scotland. In 166S his father
made him captain of his life-guard of horfe ; and in
1672 he attended the French king in the Netherlands,
and gave proofs of bravery and condufl. In 1673 the
king of France made him lieutenant-general of his
army, wdth which he came before Maeftricht, and be¬
haved himfelf with incredible gallantry, being the firlt
who entered it himfelf. He returned to England, was
received with all poflible refpedl, and wras received
chancellor of the univerfity of Cambridge. After this
he went to aflift the prince of Orange to raife the fiege
of Mons, and did not a little contribute towards it.
He returned to England 5 and was fent in quality of
his father’s general, to quell an infurre&ion in Scot¬
land, whch he effefted •, but foon after he fell into
difgrace; for, being a Protefiant, he w’as deluded into
ambitious fchemes, upon the hopes of the exclufion of
the duke of York : he confpired againft his father and
the duke and wdien the latter came to the throne by
the title of James II. he openly appeared in arms, en¬
couraged by the Proteftant army ; but coming to a de-
cifive battle before he had fufficient fcices to oppofe the
royal army, he was defeated, taken foon after concealed
in a ditch, tried for high treafon, condemned, and be¬
headed in 1685, aged 36. See Britain, N° 242, 249
—265.
Monmouth, the capital of the county of Mon-
mouthlhire in England, 129 miles from London. 
It has its name from its fituation at the conflux of
the Monow or Mynwy, and the Wye, over each of
which it has a bridge, and a third over the Frothy. 
Here was a cable in William the Conqueror’s time,
which Henry III. took from John baron of Mon-
jniouth. It afterwards came to the houfe of Lan-
r 336 1
MON
cafter, who bellowed many privileges upon the town.
Here Henry V. furnamed of Monmouth, was born.
1 he famous hiftorian Geoffrey was alfo born at this
place. Formerly it gave the title of ear/ to the fa¬
mily of Carey, and of duke to King Charles the Se¬
cond’s eldeft natural fon ; but now of earl to the
Mordaunts, who are alfo earls of Peterborough. It
is a populous and well-built place, and carries on a
confiderable trade with Briftol by means of the Wye.
It has a weekly market, and three fairs.
Monmouthshire, a county of England; anciently-
reckoned a part of Wales, but in Charles II.’s time ta¬
ken into the Oxford circuit, and made an Englilh coun¬
ty. It is bounded on the north by Herefordlhire, on
the eaft by Gloucefterlhire, on the fouth by the river
Severn, and on the weft by the Wellh counties of
Brecknock and Glamorgan. Its extent from north to
fouth is about 30 miles, from eaft to weft 26, and in
circumference no. It is fubdivided into fix hundreds,
and 127 parilhes. In 1801, this county contained
8948 houfes, and 9903 families. The whole popula¬
tion amounted to 45,582 perfons. It fends only three
members to parliament, that is, one for Monmouth, and
two for the county. The air is temperate and healthy j
and the foil fruitful, though mountainous and woody.
The hills feed (beep, goats, and horned cattle ; and the
valleys produce plenty of grafs and corn. This county
is extremely well watered by feveral fine rivers 5 for,
befides the Wye, which parts it from Gloucefterfliire,
the Mynow, which runs between it and Herefordlhire,
and the Rumney, which divides it from Glamorgan-
fhire, it has, peculiar to itfelf, the Ulk, which enters
this county a little above Abergavenny, runs moftly
fouthward, and falls into the Severn by the mouth of
the Ebwith ; which laft river runs from north to fouth,
in the weftern fide of the county. All thefe rivers, ef-
pecially the Wye and Ufk, abound with fifh, particu¬
larly falmon and trout.
MONOCEROS, Unicorn, in AJlronomy, a fouth-
ern conftellation formed by Hevelius, containing in his
catalogue 19 (tars, and in the Britannic Catalogue 31,
Monoceros. See Monodon, Cetology Index.
MONOCHORD J an inftrument by which the fe¬
veral proportions of mufical founds and intervals, as
well in the natural as in tempered fcales arc tried.
Originally it had, as its name implies, only one ftringj
but it is better conftrufted with two ; for, by means of
this additional firing, we have an opportunity of judg¬
ing of the harmony of two tempered notes in every pof-
fible variety of temperament.
The reader who may wifh for further information re-
fpe&ing the conftruftion and ufe of monochords, may
confult the appendix to Mr Atwood’s Treatife on Rec¬
tilinear Motion, and Mr Jones’s obfervations on the
fcale of mufic, monochord, &c. in his Phyfiological
Difquifitions.
Monochord is alfo ufed for any mufical inftru-
ment that confifts of only one firing or chord ; in this
fenfe the trumpet marine may properly be called a mo¬
nochord.
MONOCULUS, a genus of.infedfs of the order of
aptera. See Entomology Index.
MONODON, a genus of filhes belonging to the or¬
der of cete. See Cetology Index.
MONODY, in ancient poetry, a mournful kind of
fong,
Monmouth-
(hire
I!
Monody.
MON r 357 1 Mo N
Mbnceda fong, fung by a petfon all alone, to give vent to his
M ^ , grief. The word is derived from |t4«yas*, “ alone,” and
fites. y" “ 1 fing-”
u—y-  MONOECIA, from uwo;, alone, and e<xe5, a houfe ;
the name of the 2ift clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual method.
See Botany.
MONOGAMY, compounded of ^ova?, folus, and
yxpv;, “ marriage,” the date or condition of thofe who
have oply married once, or are reftrained to a Angle
wife. See Polygamy.
MONOGLOSSUM, in Ancient G'eographj, a mart
town of the Hither India, fituated on the Sinus Canthi,
into which the Indus empties itfelf. Said to be Man-
galor on the coaft of Malabar. E. Long. 740, N. Lat.
I3°*
MONOGRAM, a chara&er or cypher, compofed
of one, two, or more letters interwoven ; being a kind
of abbreviation of a name, anciently ufed as a feal,
badge, arms, &c.
MONOGYNIA, from alone, and yw,, a wo¬
man ; the name of the firft order or fubdivifion in the
firft 13 claffes of Linnaeus’s fexual method ; confiding
of plants which, beddes their agreement in their cladic
character, generally derived from the number of their
flamina, have only one dyle.
MONOMOTAPA, a country of Africa, has the
maritime kingdom of Sofala on the ead, the river Del
Spiritu Santo on the fouth, the mountains of Caffraria
on the wed, and the river Cauma on the north, which
parts it from Monemugi. The air of this country is
very temperate j the land fertile in padures and all the
neceffaries of life, being watered by feveral rivers.
The inhabitants are rich in black cattle, which they
value more than gold. They have a vad number of
elephants, as appears from the great quantity of ivory
that is exported from thence. There is alfo a condder-
able trade in gold dud.—The inhabitants are lovers of
war, which is the employment followed by all thofe
who do not apply themfelves to commerce. This
country is divided into feven provinces or petty king*
doms, vaflals to the king j viz. Monomotapa Proper,
Quiteve, Manica, Inharabana, Inhemior, Sabia, and
Sofala.
MONOPETALOUS, in Botany, a term applied
to flowers that have only one petal or dower-leaf.
MONOPHYSITES, (from po^cg, folus, and Qvo-ig,
natura), a general name given to all thofe fe&aries in
the Levant who only own one nature in Jefus Chrid 5
and who maintain, that the divine and human nature
of Chrid were fo united as to form only one nature, yet,
without any change, confufion, or mixture of the two
natures.
The Monophysites, however, properly fo called, are
the followers of Severus, a learned monk of Paledine,
who was created patriarch of Antioch in 513, and Pe¬
trus Fullends.
The Monophyfites were encouraged by the emperor
Anadafius, but deprefled by Judin and fucceeding em¬
perors. However, this fe<d was redored by Jacob Ea-
radaeus an obfcure monk, infomuch that when he died
biihop of Edeffa, A. D. 588, he left it in a mod dou-
rifhing date in Syria, Mefopotamia, Armenia, Egypt,
Nubia, Abydinia, and other countries. The laborious
efforts of Jacob were feconded in Egypt and the adja¬
cent countries, by Theododus bidiop of Alexandria)
Vol. XIV. Part I.
and he became fo famous that all the Monophydtes of Monophy,
the ead conddered him as their fecond parent and found- ^tes’
er, and are to this day called Jacobites, in honour of 0n°P0 ^
their new chief. The Monophydtes are divided into
two fedls or parties, the one African, the other Ada-
tic 5 at the head of the latter is the patriarch of An¬
tioch, U'ho reddes for the mod part in the monadery of
St Ananias, near the city of Merdin : the former are
under the jurifdiftion of the patriarch of Alexandria^
who generally reddes at Grand Cairo, and are fubdi-
vided into Cophts and Abydinians. From the 15th
century downwards, all the patriarchs of the Monophy¬
dtes have taken the name of Ignatius, in order to Ihow
that they are the lineal fucceffors of Ignatius, who was
biihop of Antioch in the drd century, and confequent-
ly the lawful patriarch of Antioch. In the 17th cen¬
tury, a fmall body of the Monophydtes in Ada aban¬
doned for fome time the doftrine and inditution of their
ancedors, and embraced the communion of Rome : but
the African Monophyfites, notwdthdanding that pover¬
ty and ignorance which expofed them to the fedu&ions
of fophidry and gain, dooff drm in their principles, and
made an obdinate reddance to the promifes, prefents,
and attempts employed by the papal midionaries to
bring them under the Roman yoke : and in the 18th
century, thofe of Ada and Africa have perdded in their
refufal to enter into the communion of the Romilh church,
notwithdanding the earned entreaties and alluring of¬
fers that have been made from time to time by the
pope’s legates, to conquer their indexible condancy.
The Monophydtes propagate their dodtrine in Ada
with zeal and adiduity, and have not long ago gained
over to their communion a part of the Nedorians, who
inhabit the maritime coads of India.
MONOPOLY, one or more perfons making them¬
felves the foie maders of the whole of a commodity,
manufa&urc, and the like, in order to make private ad¬
vantage of it, by felling it again at a Very advanced
price. Or it is a licenfe or privilege allowred by the
king for the foie buying and felling, making, vrorking,
or udng any thing whatfoever.—Monopolies had been
carried to an enormous height during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth 5 and were heavily complained of by
Sir Edward Coke, in the beginning of the reign of
King James I.: but were in great meafure remedied
by datute 21 Jac. I. c. 3. which declares fuch monopo¬
lies to be contrary t* law, and void ; (except as to pa¬
tents, not exceeding the grant of 14 years, to the au¬
thors of new inventions 5 and except alfo patents con¬
cerning printing, faltpetre, gunpowder, great ordnance,
and flrot) ; and monopolids are punidied with the for¬
feiture of treble damages and double cods, to thofe
whom they attempt to didurb } and if they procure any
adion, brought againd them for thefe damages, to be
dayed by any extrajudicial order, other than of the
court wherein it is brought, they incur the penalties of
prcetnunire. Combinations alfo among victuallers or ar¬
tificers, to raife the price of providons, or any commo¬
dities. or the rate of labour, are in many cafes feverely
punilhed by particular datutes ; and, in general, by da¬
tute 2 and 3 Edward VI. c. 15. with the forfeiture of
id. or 20 days imprifonment, with an allowance of on¬
ly bread and water for the fird offence 20I. or the
pillory for the fecond 5 and 40I. for the third, or elfe
the pillory, lofs of one ear, and perpetual infamy. In
0 u the
M O N r 338 1 MON
Moj.ofyl- the fame manner, by a conftitution of die emperor Ze-
ijblc n0) aij monopolies and combinations to keep up the
Monro. Pr‘ce merchandife, provisions, or workmanfliip, were
-—y——' prohibited, upon pain of forfeiture of goods and perpe¬
tual banilhment.
MONOS\ LLABLE, in Grammar, a word that
confifts only of one fyliable, and is compofed either of
one or more letters pronounced at the fame time.
The too frequent ufe of monofyllables has a very bad
effedt in Englilh poetry, as Mr Pope both intimates and
exemplifies in the fame verfe, viz.
“ And ten flow words oft creep in one dull line.”
MONOTHELITES, (compounded of fmo?, “ An¬
gle,” and !h\ripct, “ will,” of S-sA&i, vo/o, “ I will,”)
an ancient fed!, which fprung out of the Eutychians ;
thus called, as only allowing of one will in Jefus
Chrifl.
The opinion of the Monothelites had its rife in 630,
and had the emperor Heraclius for, an adherent : it was
the fame with that of the Acephalous Severians. They
allowed of two wills in Chrifl, confidered with regard
to the two natures j but reduced them to one, by
reafon of the union of the two natures 5 thinking it ab-
lurd there ihould be two free wills in one and'the fame
perfon. They were condemned by the fixth general
council in 6S0, as being fuppofed to deflroy the per-
fedfion of the humanity of Jefus Chfift, depriving it of
will and operation. Their fentiments were afterwards
embraced by the Maronites.
MONOTONY, an uniformity of found, or a fault
in pronunciation, when a long feries of words is de¬
livered in one unvaried tone. See Reading.
MONOTROPA, Bird’s-nest 5 a genus of plants
belonging to the monandria clais ; and in the natural
method ranking with tbofe of which the order is doubt¬
ful. See Botany Index. *
MQNRE AL. See Montreal.
MONRO, Dr Alexander, fenior, a celebrated
phyfician and anatomift, was the fen of Mr John Mon¬
ro who was for feme years a furgeon in the army under
King W illiam in Flanders, and who afterwards fettled
as a furgeon in Edinburgh. The fubjedt of this bio¬
graphical iketch was born in London in 1697.
He Ihowed an early inclination to the fludy of phv-
fc ; and the father, after giving him the beft educa¬
tion that Edinburgh then afforded, fent him fucceflive-
ly to London, Paris, and Leyden, to improve himfelf
further in his profeffion. At London, he attended the
lectures of Meffrs Hawkflbee and WTifton on experi-
mental pbilofopby, and the anatomical demonftrations
of Mr Chefelden. At Pa ris, he attended the hofpitals,
and the ledhues on the different branches of phync and
furgery ; and, towards the end of autumn 1718, he
went to Leyden, and ftudied under the great Boer-
haave.
On his return to Edinburgh in autumn 1719,
Meffrs Drummond and Macgill, who were then con¬
junct nominal profeffors and demonftrators of anatomy
to the Surgeons Company, having refigned in his fa¬
vour, his father prevailed on him to read fome public
leisures on anatomy, and to illuftrate them by (bowing
* the curious anatomical preparations which he had made
and lent home when abroad. He at the fame time per-
fuaded Dr Alflon, then a young man, to give feme
public lectures on botany. Accordingly, in the begin¬
ning of the winter 1720, thefe two young profeffors be¬
gan to give regular courfes of lectures, the one on the
materia medica and botany, the other on anatomy and
furgery ; which were the fhft regular courfes of lectures
on any of the branches of medicine that had ever been
read at Edinburgh, and may be looked upon as the
opening of that medical fchool which has fince acquired
fuel) great reputation all over Europe.
In fummer 1721 and 1722, Dr Monro, by the per-
fuafion of his father, read fome le&ures on chirurgical
fubje&s, particularly on wounds and tumors, which he
never would publifli, having written them in a hurry
and before he had much experience ; but inferted from
time to time the improvements he thought might be
made in furgery, in the volumes of Medical Effays and
Obfervations to be hereafter mentioned.
About the year 1720, his father communicated to
the pbyficians and furgeons at Edinburgh, a plan which
he had long formed in his own mind, of having the dif¬
ferent branches of phyfic and furgery regularly taught
at Edinburgh ; which was highly approved of by them,
and by their intereit regular profefforfhips of anatomy
and medicine were inftituted in the univerfity. His fon,
Dr Monro, was firft made univerfity profeffor of ana¬
tomy j and two or three years afterwards, DrS Sinclair,
Rutherford, Innes, and Plummer, were made profeffors
of medicine ; the profefibrfhip of materia medica and
botany, which Dr Alfton then held, having been added
to the univerfity many years before. Immediately after
thefe gentlemen were elefled profeffors, they began to
deliver regular courfes of le'&ures on the different
branches of medicine, and they and their fucceffors have
uniformly continued fb to do every winter.
The plan for a medical education at Edinburgh was
ff ill iiTccmplete without an hofpital, where ftucents could
fee the practice of phyfic and furgery, as well as hear
the le&ures of the profeflbrs. A fcheme was therefore
propofed by Dr Monro’s father, and others, particular¬
ly the members of the Royal College of Phyficians and
Board of Surgeons, for railing by fubfeription a fund
for building and fupporting an hofpital for the reception
of difeafed poor ; and our author published a pamphlet
fetting forth the advantages that would attend fuch an
infiitution. In a fliort time a ccnfiderable fum of money
was raifed, a fmall houfe was fitted up, and patients
were admitted into it, and regularly attended by many
of the phyficians and furgeons in town. The fund for
this charity increafing very confiderably, in a great
meafure from the activity and influence of that very
worthy citizen and magiflrate George Drummond, Efo.
the foundation was laid of the prefent large, commodi¬
ous, and ufeful hofpital, the Royal Infirmary; in the
planning of which Dr Monro fuggefted many ufeful
hints, and in particular the elegant room for chirurgical
operations was defigned and executed under his direc¬
tion. Provoft Drummond and he were nominated the
building committee y and the fabric was entirely com¬
pleted in a ihort fpace of time. It has fince been fo
largely endowed, as to be capable of receiving a great
number of difeafed poor, whofe cafes the ftudents of
phyfic and furgery have an opportunity of feeing daily
treated with the greateft attention and care by phyfici¬
ans and furgeons eminent in their profeflion •, and a re-
gifier of the particulars of all the cafes which have been
received
Monro.
MON [33
received into the houfe fince its fir ft opening has been
kept, in books appropriated for that purpofe, for the
ufe of the ftudents.
In order to make the hofpital of ftill farther ufe to
the ftudents, Dr Monro frequently, while he continued
profeffor of anatomy, gave leftures on the chirurgical
cafes ; and Dr Rutherford, then profeflbr of the prac¬
tice of phyfic, began, in the year 1748, to deliver cli¬
nical leisures, to be continued every winter, on the
moft remarkable cafes in the hofpital.
Dr Monro, though he was elefted profeflbr of ana¬
tomy in the year 1721, was not received into the uni-
verfity till the year 1725, when he was induced along
with that great mathematician the late Mr Colin Mac-
laurin, with whom he ever lived in the ftnfleft friend-
fttip. From this time he regularly every winter gave
a courfe of lectures on anatomy and furgery, from Oc¬
tober to May, upon a moft judicious and comprehenfive
plan : A talk in which he perfevered with the greateft
afliduity ; and without the leaft interruption, for near
40 years; and fo great was the reputation he had ac¬
quired, that ftudents flocked to him from the molt di-
ftant corners of his majefty’s dominions.
In 1759, our profeifor entirely relinquilhed the bu-
finefs of the anatomical theatre to his fon Dr Alexander,
who had returned from abroad, and had affifted him in
the courfe of leftures the preceding year. But after
this refignation, he ftill endeavoured to render his la¬
bours uieful to mankind, by reading clinical lefiures at
the hofpital for the improvement of the ftudents ; of
which Dr Duncan, who was one of his pupils, has gi¬
ven the following account. “ There I had my felt the
happinefs of being a pupil, who profited by the judici¬
ous condudl of his pradlice, and was improved by the
wifdom and acutenefs of his remarks. I have indeed to
regret that I attended only the laft courfe of ledlures in
which he had ever a lhare, and at a time when he w’as
fubjefled to a difeafe which proved at length fatal.
Still, how'ever, from what I faw and from what I
heard, I can venture to aifert, that it is hardly poflihle
to conceive a phyfician more attentive to pradlice, or a
preceptor more anxious to communicate inftruftions.
His humanity, in the former of thefe charafters, led
him to beftow the moft anxious care on his patients
while they were alive 5 and his zeal in the latter indu¬
ced him to make them the fubje<ft of ufeful leflbns
when they happened to die.—J» the different ftations
of phyfician, of lefturer, and of manager in the hofpi¬
tal, he took every meafure for inquiring into the caufes
of difeafes by diiTeftion.— He peiTonally attended the
opening of every body j and he not only ciiftated to the
ftudents an accurate report of the difletflion, but with
nice difcrimination contrafted the difeafed and found
ftate of every organ. Thus, in his own perfon, be af¬
forded to the .ftudents a confpicuous example of the ad¬
vantages of early anatomical purfuits, as the happieft
foundation for a medical fuperftru61ure. His being at
once engaged in two departments, the anatomical thea¬
tre and clinical chair, furnifhed him with opportuni¬
ties both on the dead and living body, and placed
him in the moft favourable fituation for the improve¬
ment of medicine ; and from thefe opportunities he
derived every poftible advantage which they could af¬
ford.”
His father, old Mr Monro, lived to an advanced age ;
Q ] M O N‘
and enjoyed the unfpeakable pleafure of beholding a Monro,
fon, elteemed and regai'ded by mankind, the principal v
aftor in the execution of his favourite plan, the great
objeft of his life, the founding a feminary of medical
education in his native country : The fon, who furviv-
ed him near 30 years, had the fatisfadlion to behold this
feminary of medical education frequented yearly by 300
or 400 Undents, many of whom came from the moft
diflant corners of his majeily’s dominions, and to lee it
arrive to a degree of reputation far beyond his moft fan-
guine hopes, being equalled, by few, and inferior to
none, in Europe.
Dr Monro was not only very a£live in the line of his
own profeftion, but as a citizen and general member of
the community ; for, after he had refigned the anato¬
mical chair to his fon, he executed with the ftrifteft
punctuality the duties of ieveral engagements both of a
civil and political nature : He was a direftor of the
Bank of Scotland, a juftice of the peace, a commiffion-
er of high roads, &c. At length, after a life fpent in
the molt aftive induftry, he became affliCted with a te¬
dious and painful dheafe, which he bore w’ith equal cou- -
rage and refignation till his death, which happened on
July 10. 1767,'in the 70th year of his age.
Of his wTorks, the firft in order is his Ofteology,
which was written for the ufe of Undents, but is capa¬
ble alfo of affording inftruCtion to the oldeft. and moft
experienced praCUtioner j as, befides a minute deferip-
tion of the parts copied from nature, it everywhere a-
bounds with new and important observations immedi¬
ately applicable to praCtice. It has been tranflated in¬
to many different languages has palled through nume¬
rous editions *, and has been reprinted in foreign coun-.
tries in the moft: fuperb manner, accompanied with ele¬
gant and mafterly engravings. His defeription of the
Ladeal Sac and Thoracic DuCt contains the moft accu¬
rate account of that important part of the body which
has been yet publilbed j and his Anatomy of the Nerves
will tranfmit to pofterity an excellent example of accu¬
rate duTeclion, faithful defeription, and ingenious rea-
foning. The fix volumes of Medical Elfays and Obfer-
vations, publilhed by a fociety in Edinburgh, are uni-
verfally known and efteemed. To that fociety he was
appointed fecretary ■, but, after the publication of the
firft; volume, to wftiich be had largely contributed, the
members growing remift in their attendance, he be¬
came the foie colleflor and publither of the work : To
him we are therefore in a great meafure indebted for
thofe numerous and important difeoveries with which
this publication has enriched every department of medi¬
cal knowledge. In the two firft volumes of the Phyfi-
cal and Literary Effajs, publiihed by the phyfical lo-
ciety of Edinburgh, in which be had the rank of one
of the prefidents, we find feveral papers written by him,
which are not the leaf! ornaments of that collection.
His account of the Succefs of Inoculation in Scotland
may be confidered as his laft publication : It demon-
ftrates his extenfive correfpor.dence and indefatigable in¬
duftry, and has had great influence in promoting that
falutary prafcice. Belides thefe. he was alfo the author
of feveral other elegant and mafterly productions, which
were either never publithed, or were publithed without
his knowledge and from incorreCt copies. A collec¬
tion of all his rvorks, properly arranged, corrected, and
illuftrated with copperplates, lias been publiflied by Dr
U u 2 Alexander
*
\
MON
[ 34-0 j
M O NT
i\lons
Alexander Monro, his fon and fucctflor in the anato¬
mical chair, in a fplendid quarto volume, printed for
Elliot, Edinburgh, 17815 to which is prefixed a life
of the author, by another of his fons, Dr Donald, phy-
lician in London. The obfervation of an excellent
judge, the illuflrious Haller, concerning our author’s
Medical Eflfays and Obfervations, which now form a
part of this collection, may with no lefs juitice be ap¬
plied to the whole : “ It is a book which ought to be
in the poffeflion of every medical praftitioner.”
MONS, an ancient, large, handfome, rich, and very
ftrong city of the Auftrian Netherlands, in Hainault.
There is a chapter, confiding of 30 ladies of diftinc-
tion, who have the liberty of leaving the community
when they intend to marry. They have feveral manu¬
factures, and a good trade. It was taken by the allies
in 1709, and by the French in July 17465 but ren¬
dered back by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, after the
fortifications were demolifhed. It Hands partly on a
hill, and partly on a plain in a marlhy foil, on the ri¬
vers Haine and Trouilli, by which the country about it
may be overflowed at pleafure. It w-as taken by the
French in 1794. E. Long. 4. 31. N. Lat. 50. 25.
Mows Sacet', in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
the Sabines beyond the Anio, to the eafi of Rome ;
whither the common people retired once and again to
avoid the tyranny of the Patricians. From this fecef-
fion, and the altar of Jupiter Terribihs ereCled there,
the mountain took its name.
MONSEIGNEUR, in the plural Mejfeigneurs, a
title of honour and refpeCt ufed by the French in writ¬
ing to perfons of fuperior rank or quality, before the
late abolition of all ranks.
Dukes, peers, archbifliops, bilhops, and prefidents
h la mortier, wrere complimented with the title of Mon-
feigneur. In the petitions prefented to the fovereign
courts, they ufed the term Mejfeigneurs.
Monseigneur, absolutely ufed, was a title reftrained
to the dauphin of France. This cuftom was unknown
till the time of Louis XIV. before which the dauphin
was ftyled Monjieur le Dauphin.
MONSELEMINES, a people inhabiting that part
of Biledulgerid, which borders on the territories of the
emperor of Morocco. They are a mixed race, de-
fcended from the ancient Arabs and fugitive Moors.
Their country extends from about 90 miles beyond
Cape Non, to the diftance of 60 miles from St Croix.
It is moftly fertile 5 and, with little cultivation, pro¬
duces the neceffaries of life. A number of dreams wa¬
ter the plains, which abound with fig, date, palm, and
almond trees. The gardens produce excellent grapes,
which the Jews convert into brandy after they have
been dried by the Arabs.
The Monfelemine territory is very populous, and
would be much more fo, w'ere it not for the almod
continual wars in wdiich the people are engaged againd
the emperor of Morocco 5 for, as this country is the re¬
treat of the rich Moors, w7ho wifh to fly from the ty¬
ranny of the emperor, they are too well acquainted
with the Moorifh cufloms to be furprifed by that prince.
As foon as a Moorifh army takes the field, the inhabi¬
tants mount their horfes, and occupy the paflfes of the
mountains 5 wfliile the women and flaves retire to the
interior parts of the country, or to the defert, if they
are hard prefled. Their horfes, which they break in
Monfoon.
an admirable manner, are faid to be the bed in the MenCieur
w7orld ; obedient to the voice of their mader, and al¬
lowing no dranger to mount them.
The people derive their name and origin from one
Mofeilama, who was contemporary with Mahomet.
They refpetl the prophet, as do other Mahometans 5
but neither believe that he w’as infallible, nor that his
defcendants are all infpired by God, nor that their will
fhould be a law, nor that fuch faith is neceflary in or¬
der to be a good Mahometan. The influence of their
high pried is nearly defpotic 5 for though he has no
troops, he may command the nation, and peace and
war depend upon his will. He has no property, yet
every thing is at his difpofal 5 he requires nothing from
any, yet all are difpofed to give him.
The Monfelemines, on Friday, meet in their mofques
for prayer, and the fame is likewife the day of their
principal market, when their goods are expofed to lale
in the public fquares. They never attempt to make
profelytes ; and they treat their Chridian flaves with
humanity, which may perhaps be owing to the avarice
of their maders. The Jews are allowed among them,
the free exercife of their religion. Polygamy is per¬
mitted among them 5 but the fituation of the women is
more refpeddable, and they are not fo much fecluded as
among the Moors, mingling more in fociety, walking
at large, and vifiting their friends. The Monfelemine
children are brought up with great care, and are not
obliged to exhibit proofs of their courage till they can
be confidered as men.
MONSIEUR, in the plural Mejfieurs, a term or title
of civility, ufed by the French in fpeaking to their
equals, or thofe a little below them, anfwering to Mr
or Sir among the Englifli.
Monsieur, abfolutely ufed, w7as a title or quality
appropriated to the fecond fon of France, or the king’s
brother. The king was alfo called Monjieur^ but that
only by the children of France.
MONSONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
polyadelphia clafs. See Botany Index.
MONSOON, a regular or periodical wind, in the
Ead Indies, blowing condantly the fame way, during
fix months of the year, and the contrary way the re¬
maining fix.
In the Indian ocean, the wands are partly general,
and blow all the year round the fame way, as in the
Ethiopic ocean 5 and partly periodical, i. e. half the
year blow one w7ay, and the other half year on the op-
pofite points : and thofe points and times of {hiding
differ in different parts of this ocean. Thefe latter are
what we call monfoons.
The finding of thefe monfoons is not all at once 5
and in fome places the time of the change is attended
with calms, in others with variable winds, and parti¬
cularly thofe of China, at ceafing to be wederly, are
very fubjedl to be tempeduous 5 and fuch is their vio¬
lence, that they feem to be of the nature of the Weft
India hurricanes, and render the navigation of thofe
feas very unfafe at that time of the year. Thefe
tempeds the feamen call the breaking up of the mon¬
foons.
Monfoons, then, are a fpecies of what we otherwife
call trade winds. They take the denomination mon¬
foon from an ancient pilot, who fird crofled the Indian
fea by means hereof. Though others derive the name
from
MON [ 34i 1
fiom a Portuguefe word, fignifying motion or ciiange an uiethra
of wind and fea.
Lucretius and Apollonius make mention of annual
winds which arife every year, etefw flabria, which feem
to be the fame with what in the Eaft Indies we now call
monfoons. For the phyfical caufe of thefe winds, fee
Meteorology.
MONSTER ; a birth or produ&ion of a living be¬
ing, degenerating from the proper and ufual difpofition
of parts in the fpecies to which it belongs r As, wdien
there are too many members, or too few •, or fome of
them are extravagantly out of proportion, either on the
fide of defeft or excefs. The word comes from the
Latin monjlrunt, of monjlrando, “ (howing.” Whence
alfo the box wherein relicks were anciently kept to be
ftiown, was called monjlrum. Dugdale mentions an
inventory of the church of York with this article, Item
unum monjlrum cum ojjlbus fanEh Petri in beryl, et cru-
cifixo in fummitate.
Ariftotle defines a monfter to be a defe£t of nature,
when, afting towards fome end, it cannot attend to it,
from fome of its principles being corrupted.
Monfters do not propagate their kind •, for which
reafon fome rank mules among the number of monffers,
as alfo hermaphrodites.
Females which bring forth twins, are found moft li-
able to produce montlers. The reafon, probably,, is
owing to this j that though the twins are covered with
one common chorion, yet they have each their ieparate
amnios, which by their contiguity may chance to grow
together, and fo occafion a confufion or blending of the
parts. Hence fo many double creatures.
Various theories have been propofed by philofophers
and phyfiologifts to account for the production of mon¬
fters. But after all, it muflfbe confeffed, that we are
very little acquainted with thole deviations from the or¬
dinary courfe of nature. For each organized being
there appears to exift a primitive germ or model of the
different fpecies drawn by the Creator, determined by
forms and fexes, and realized in the individuals of both
fexes, which muft unite in order to their reprodu&ion.
From this model nature never departs, unlefs when
compelled by circumftances which derange the primi¬
tive organization common to the fpecies, and produce
what are called monjlers.
With refpeft to ftru&ure, monfters are of various
kinds. Some have an excefs or defeft in certain parts ;
fuch as thofe which are called acephalous, or who wrant
the head •, thofe which have two heads, two. arms, two
legs, and one body, or which have two bodies.and one
head, or which have three legs •, and thofe which want
the arms or the legs. Others err through an extraor¬
dinary and deformed conformation, through an unnatu¬
ral union of certain parts or vlfcera, through a great
derangement in one or more of their members, and
through the extraordinary place which thefe often oc¬
cupy ‘in confequence of this derangement or tranfpofi-
tion. The monfter defcribed by Dr Eller of the aca¬
demy of Berlin was of this kind. It was a foetus of nine
months, 28 inches long, with an enormous head and
frightful countenance 5 and in the middle 01 a broad
and vaft forehead it had a reddilh eye, without either
eyebrow’s or eyelids, and funk deep into a fquare hole.
Immediately below this eye wras an excrefcence which
Tirongly refembled a penis with a glans, a prepuce, and
M O N
the part covered with hair was likewife be¬
low the nape of the neck. In other monfters wre meet
with the unnatural union of fome parts, which, from
their deftination and functions, ought always to be fe-
parate \ and the feparation of other parts, which,, for
the fame reafons, ought conftantly to be united, .the
reader may fee the different ways in which the formation
of monfters takes place, in four memoirs by M. Leme-
ry, inferted in I?Hijloire de PAcademic des Sciences,
1738 and 1739. M. du Verney has likewife publiftied
a memoir on the fame fubjeft.
In the volume publiftied by the Academy of Sciences
in 1724, mention is made by M. Geoffroy of a monfter
born in Barrois 1722. This monftrous. produffion .
confifted of two children ivitnout the inferior extiemi-
ties, joined together by a common navel : each of
them had a nurfe, fucked, and eat pap ; and the one
fucked while the other flept. I he reader may like¬
wife confult the fecond part of Wliiflow’s Memoirs on
Monfters, inferted in the volume publiftied by the .Aca¬
demy of Sciences in I734> where lie Hncl ^ie
of twm very extraordinary twin monfters, who. eviden¬
ced during their life a great difference in their moral
and phyfical qualities. We are obliged fimply to re¬
fer to thefe Memoirs, as they are too long for abridge-
ment. .
It is obferved by Haller, that in fome monfters tne
natural ftrudlure is changed by fome ftiock or paflion..
in others the ftrudlure, independent of any -accident is
originally monftrous •, fuch as when all the members
are reverfed from left to right, when the perfon has
fix fingers, and in many other.inftances.. M. de Mau-
pertuis mentions, that there is at Berlin a family who
have had fix fingers on each hand for feve.ral genera¬
tions. Mi. de Riville faw an inftance of tms at ivfalta,
of which he has given a defcription. M. .Renou, fur-
geon at Pommeraye in Anjou, has publiftied an ac¬
count of fome families with fix fingers, wnich are to
be found in feveral parifhes of the Lower Anjou, and
which have exifted there from time immemorial. This
deformity is perpetuated in tnefe families even when,
they intermarry wfith perfons wftio are free from it.
Whether the propagation of thefe fupernume.rary or¬
gans, w’hich are not only ufelefs but inconvenient and
even difagreeable, be owing to the father or mother,
their; children of both fexes are fubjeft. to it indifcri-
minately. A father or mother with fix fingers fre¬
quently have a part, and fometimes the whole,, of their
children, free from this deformity ; but it again makes
its appearance, and in a very great degree, in the third
generation. From this it appears, that this fault m
the conformatioh is hereditary. M. Reaumur has like¬
wife publithed the hiftory of a family in the ifland of
Malta, the children of wftiich are born wfith fix^fingeis
and fix toes. But it deferves to be inquired, Whether
thefe fupernumerary fingers are real fingers ? ihe rea¬
der may here confult the 'journal de Physique for No¬
vember 1774, p. 37 2. This variety oifexdigitary hands
and feet is not comprehended in the Recherches fur
quelqites conformations monjlrueufes des doigts dans
Phomme, which is inferted in the Memoirs of the A.ca-
demy of Sciences for 177 1. In the journal de Physique
for-Auguft 1776, w7e find a defcription of a double ute¬
rus and vagina obferved in a wmman who died in child¬
bed, by Dr Purcell cf Dublin ; and in that for June
*78.85
Monftcr.
er
M O N [ 342 1 MON
1788, we Lave an account of a man with feven fingers
on each hand, by Baron Dietrich.
Several raonfirous produftions are to be feen in the
cabinet at Chantilly. 1. T wo calves joined together
in the body, with each a feparate head and neck, and
four legs in whole. 2. Two calves united only by the
pelvis, with only one anus and one tail : the whole is
fupported by fix legs, four before and two behind.
3. A lamb with fix legs, four of which are behind.
4. The Ikelcton of a ram, which has likewife fix legs.
5. A he rmaphrodite deer. 6. The head of a foal,
which has only one eye in the middle of the forehead.
7. Some leverets with fix and eight legs. 8. A puppy,
the lips of which are divided fourfold. 9. Some fce-
tufes of a hog which have a kind of tube upon their
forehead one or two inches long ; and another, the
hinder part of which is double in every thing. 10. Two
double human foetufes joined by the belly, with four
fnns and three legs. 11. A young chicken with two
bodies and one head. 12. A pigeon and a duck, each
with two bills. 13. A duck with two heads. 14. A
pigeon until four feet. 15. A capon with three feet;
the third being fixed to the anus. 16. Two heads of
ft calf joined together, each of them with two ears :
the'e two fields were both fixed to cne neck. 17. In
the Menagerie at Chantilly there was formeily to be
feen a cow with five feet, the fifth of which was con-
nefled with the dug. 18, A rabbit without ears.
19. Two cats, each having two heads. 20. Two leve¬
rets newly brought forth, well fhaped in the body and
•legs, but connecled together by means of only one
head. 21. Several eggs, in the figure of which there
occur fome monftrous appearances and extraordinary
deformities, fufficient to fliow that they are contrary to
to the eftablilhed form of nature.
Mr Home, furgeon, fome time ago prefented to Mr
John Hunter, the double Jkull of a child, born at Cal-
• cutta in May 1783 of poor parents aged 30 and 35,
and 'which lived to be nearly two years old. The
body of this child was naturally formed : but the head
had the phenomenon of appearing double; another
head of the fame fize, and almoft equally perfeft, be¬
ing attached to its upper part. In this extraneous and
preternatural head no pulfation could be felt in the ar¬
teries of the temples, but the fuperficial veins were
very evident; one of the eyes had been hurt by the fire,
upon which the midwife, in her firlt alarm, threw the
child: the other moved readily; but the iris was not
affecled by the approach of any thing to it. The ex¬
ternal ears of this head were very imperfeft ; the
tongue adhered to the lower jaw, except for about half
an inch at the lip, which was loofe ; the j3w was ca¬
pable of motion, but there were no teeth. The child
was fhown about the ftreets of Calcutta for a curiofity ;
but was rendered unhealthy by confinement, and died
at laft of a bite of the cobra de capelin. It was
dug up by the Eaft India Company’s agent for fait
at I umlock, and the Ikull is now in the mufeum of
Mr Hunter.
. Among the monfirous produ&ions of the animal
kingdom, we may rank thole individuals which ought
only to pofiefs one fex, but in which we obferve the
union or the appearance of two. See the articles Av-
i*ROGYM:s and Hermaphrodite.
M. Fabri arranges mutilations of the members, dif-
3\
tortions, gibbofities, tumors, divifions of the lips or Monfter.
of the palate, comprefiions of the cranium, and many
other deformities of this kind, in the dais of morbific
monftruolities. In that which he calls connatural
(connaturelle) monftruofities, are placed the plurality,
tranfpofition, and infertion of the parts. To explain
thefe faffs, a great many writers have had recourie to
the effefl of the imagination of pregnant women 
I he caules of the firft clafs of monllruofities are dif-
culled by M. Fabri, who obferves, that fome of them,
are internal with regard to the mother, and others ex¬
ternal. By an internal caufe he here means all thofe
depravations or morbific principles which can afiefl
the fluids, and which vitiate the form and ftruffure of
the folids; in particular the uterus, in which fuch de¬
pravations have often been found to occur. To thefe
he adds violent affeclions of the mind, fpafmodic con-
traflions, hyfteric convulfions, and the many inconve¬
niences of this kind to which women are'extremelv
fubjecf. External caufes comprehend every thing
which can act externally upon the foetus contained in
the uterus, fuch as the prefiure of the clothes ; and in
fiicrt every thine which prevents the free dilatation of
the belly in wmnen that are pregnant, violent mo¬
tions, falls, blows, and all accidents of this kind. Thefe
external caufes, and efpecially the firfl, comprefs the
foetus in the womb, and oblige it to remain in a very-
confined fituation. This according to the obfervation
of Hipocrates, produces thole embryos which are born
with fome entire part wounded. M. Fabri maintains,
that all deformities of the foetus proceed, from fome me¬
chanical and accidental caufes.
The name of monjlers is likewife given to animals
enormous for bulk ; fuch as the elephant among ter-
reftrial quadrupeds, and the fhark and the whale
among fea animals; to other animals remarkable for
fiercenefs and cruelty ; and to animals of an extraordi¬
nary fpecies, which, we are told, arifes from the
copulation of one animal with another of a different
genus. According to the report of travellers, Africa
abounds with monfters of this kind ; and accounts of
the Faff are full of defcriptions of fea monfters, which,
however are feldom to be feen, fuch as fea men, mer¬
maids, <&'c.
Monfters are more common and more extraordinary
in the vegetable than in the animal kingdom, becaufe
the different juices are more eafily deranged and con¬
founded together. Leaves are often feen, from the in¬
ternal parts of which other leaves fpring forth, and it
is not uncommon to fee flowers of the ranunculus from
the middle of which iffues a ftalk bearing another
flowen M. Bonnet informs us, that in certain warm
and rainy years he has frequently met with monfters
or this kind in rofe trees. This obferver faw a rofe,
from the centre of which iffued a fquare ftalk of a
whitilh colour, tender, and without prickles, which at
its top bore two flower buds oppofite to each other,
and totally deflitute of a calyx ; a little above the
buds iflued a petal of a very irregular fliape. Upon
the prickly ftalk which fupported the rofe, a leaf was
obferved which had the fliape or a trefoil, together with
a broad flat pedicle. In the memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for 1707, p. 448, mention is made of a
rcfe, from the centra of the leaves of which iffued a
rofe branch two or three inches long, and furnilhed
with
MON [ 343 ] MON
J.ionfler with leaves. See the fame Memoirs For 1749, p. 44.
II and for 1724, p. 20. In the Memoirs for 1775, a
Montague. yery fingu]ar inftance is mentioned of a monftruoiity
~ observed by M. Duhamel, in an apple tree ingrafted
with clay. At the place of the infertioa, there ap¬
peared a bud which produced a ftalk and fome leaves ;
the ftalk and the pedicle of the leaves were of a pulpy
fubftance, and had the moft pcrfeft refemblance both
in tafte and fmell to the pulp of a green apple. An
extraordinary chamcemelum is mentioned in the Acia
Helvetica. M. Bonnet, in his Recherches fur Rufagc
dec feuilles, mentions likewife fome monftrous produc¬
tions which have been found in fruits with kernels,
analogous in their nature to thofe which occur in the
flowers of the ranunculus and of the rofe tree. He has
feen a pear, from the eye of which iffued a tuft of
13 or 14 leaves, very w ell ftiaped, and many of them
of the natural fize. He has feen-another pear which
gave rife to a ligneous and knotty ftalk, on which
grew another pear fomewhat larger than the firft.—
The ftalk had probably flouriihed, and the fruit had
formed. The lilium album po/yanthos, obferved fome
years ago at Breflaw, which bore on its top a bundle
of flowers, conftfting of 102 lilies all of the common
fhape, is well known. M. Reynier has mentioned
fome indivieiuals monftrous with refpect to the flower,
in the Journal de Physique et /Plliftoire Naturelle, for
November 1785. He has likewife .mentioned a mon¬
ftrous tulip which is feen in the gardens of fome ama¬
teurs ; juniper berries with horns ; a balfamine with
three fpurs, &c.
Thefe vegetable produdlions which are fo extra¬
ordinary, and fo contrary to the common courfe of
things, do neverthelefs prefent deviations fubjedf to
particular laws, and reducible to certain principles, by
diftinguiftiing fuch as are perpetuated either by feed
or by tranfplanting, from thofe which feem to be only
accidental. Monftruoflties which are perpetuated exift
in the original organization of the leed of the plant,
fuch as marked or curled leaves, &c. The word moti-
fer is more properly applied to thofe irregularities in
plants, which arife from frequent tranfplantation, and
from a particular culture, fuch as double flowers, Sic. :
but thofe monflruofities which are not perpetuated, and
which arife from accidental and traniient caufes deran¬
ging the primitive organization of the plant when it
comes to be unfolded, as is the eflfecl of difeafes, of heat
or cold, of a fuperfluity or fcarcity of juiceK, of a de¬
pravation of the veffels contributing to nutrition, of the
fting of infefts, of contuflons and natural grafts, retain
alfo the name of monfers. Of this kind are knobs
or fwellings, Hunting, gall nuts, certain ftreaks, and
other fimilar defeSls.
MONT •BLANC. See MJlt-BlANC.
MONTAGUE, Lady Mary Wortley, accom¬
panied her huiband who was fent on an embafly to Con-
ftantinople in the beginning of the 18th century. On
her return (he introduced the praclice of inoculation
into England, and thence acquired great celebrity. She
cultivated the belles lettres *, and at one period of her
life (he was ’the friend of Pope, and at another his
enemv. While they were at enmity with each other,
Lady Mary Montague embraced every opportunity of
defaming the poet, who well knew how to take re¬
venge. Both of them carried their animofity to fo
great a height, that they became the fubjecl of public Mon
converfation. After a long life, full of Angular and ~
romantic adventures, (lie died about the year 1760.
From her we have Letters, written during her travels
from the year 1716 to the year 1718. They have been
tranflated into French, and publilhed at Rotterdam
1764, and at Paris 1783, one ,vol. 12mo. They are
compofed in a lively, interefting, and agreeable ftyle,
and contain many curious fafts relating to the manners
and government of the Turks, which are nowhere elfe
to be found. The Baron de Tott, who lived many
years at Conftantinople, attacked them with great Se¬
verity ; but they have been defended with equal zeal
by M. Guis of Marfeilles, who has published a valuable
work on Turkey. It need not appear extraordinary,
that perfons who have vilited the fame country Ihouid
not fee things in the fame light. How few travellers
agree in their accounts of the fame objefls, which they
neverthelefs pretend to have feen and to have examined
with attention.
Montague, Edward Wortley, fon of the former,
palled through fuch variegated feenes, that a bare re¬
cital of them would favour of the marvellous. From
. Weftufnfler fchool, where he was placed for education,
he ran away three feveral times. He exchanged
clothes with a chimney-iweeper, and he followed for
fome time that footy occupation. He next joined
himfelf to a filherman, and cried flounders in Rother-
hithe. He then failed as a cabin boy to Spain ; where
he had no fooner arrived, than he ran away from the
veffel, and hired himfelf to a driver of mules. After
thus vagabondizing it for fome time, he was difeovered
by the conful, who returned him to his friends in Eng¬
land. They received him with a joy equal to that of
the father of the prodigal fon in the gofpel. A private
tutor was employed to recover thofe rudiments of learn¬
ing which a life of dlflipation, of blackguardifm, and"
of vulgarity, might have obliterated. Wortley was
fent to the WTeft Indies, where he remained fome time ;
then returned to England, afted according to the dig¬
nity of his birth, was chofen a member, and ferved in
two fucceflive parliaments. His expences exceeding hi.s
income, lie became involved in debt, quitted his native
country, and commenced that wandering traveller he
continued to the time of his death. Having viflted
moft of the eaftern countries, he contrafled a partiali¬
ty for their manners. He drank little wine, a great
deal of coffee ; wore a long beard ; fmoked much :
and, even whilft at Venice, he was habited in the eaft¬
ern ftyle. lie fat crofs legged in the Turkifti faftrion
through choice. With the Hebrew, the Arabic, the
Chaldaic, and the Perfian languages, he was as well ac-
quainted as with his native tongue. He publiftred (e-
veral pieces. One on the “ Rife and Fall of the Ro¬
man Empiree.” Another an exploration of “ The
Caufes of Earthquakes.” As this gentleman was
remarkable for the uncommon incidents which at¬
tended his life, the clofe of that life was no lefs
marked with Angularity. Pie had been early mar¬
ried to a woman who afpired to no higher a cha¬
racter than that of an induftrioijs waftrerwoman. As
the marriage was folemnized In a frolic, Wortley ne¬
ver deemed her fufficiently the wife of his bofom to'
cohabit with her. She was allowed a maintenance.
She lived contented, and was too fubmiffive to be
trouble forr.L .
MON [ 344 1 M O N
Montague troublefome on account of the conjugal rites. Mr Mon-
tugue, on the other hand, was a perfect patriarch in his
jVorna.i.i,-. manners. He had wives of almoft every nation. When
he was with Ali Bey in Egypt, he had his houiehold
of Egyptian females, each ft riving who fhould be the
happy (lie who could gain the greateft afcendency
over this Anglo-Eaftern baftiaw. At Conftantinople,
the Grecian women had charms to captivate this un¬
fettled wanderer. In Spain a Spanifh brunette, in
Italy the olive-complexioned female, were folicited to
partake the honours of the bridal bed. It may be
afked what became of this group of wives ? Mr Mon¬
tague was continually ftiifting the place, and confe-
quently varying the fcene. - Did he travel with his
wives as the patriarchs did with their flocks and herds ?
No fuch thing. Wortley, confidering his wives as
bad travelling companions, generally left them behind
him. It happened, however, that news reached his
ears of the death of the original Mrs Montague the
wafherwoman. Wortley had no iffue by her •, and
without iffue male, a very large eflate would revert to
the fecond fon of Lord Bute. Wortley, owing the fa¬
mily no obligations, was determined, if poflible, to
defeat their expectations. He refolved to return to
England and marry. He acquainted a friend with his
intentions : and he commiflioned that friend to adver-
tife for any young decent woman who might be in a
pregnant Rate. Several ladies anfwered it. One out
of the number was felefted, as being the moft eligible
objeCt. She waited with eagernefs for the arrival of
her expeCted bridegroom •, but, behold, whilft he was
on his journey, death very impertinently arrefted him
in his career.
Montague Iflartd, one of the Hebrides, in the South
fea, near Sandwich ifland. E. Long. 168. 37. S. Lat.
17. 26.
MONTAIGNE, Michel de, a French gentleman,
was born in Perigord in 1533. His father educated
him with great care, and made him learn Latin as
other children learn their mother tongue. His tutors
wTere Nicholas Gronchi, who wrote De Comitiis Roma-
norum ; William Guerenti, who wrote on Ariftotle j
George Buchanan j and M. Anthony Muret. He was
alfo taught Greek by way of recreation j and becaufe
fome think that darting children out of their fleep
fpoils their underftanding, he was awakened every
morning with the found of mufic. He was counfellor
for a while in the parliament of Bourdeaux •, after¬
wards made mayor of Bourdeaux. He publiftied his
Ejftiys, fo much known in the world, in 1580. Mon¬
taigne had a great deal of wit and fubtlety, but no fmall
(hare of conceit and vanity. The learned and ingenious
are much divided in their opinion about his works. He
died in 1592.
MONTALCINO, a fmall populous town of Italy,
in Tufcany, and in the territory of Sienna, with a bi-
ihop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain, 17 miles fouth-
eaft of Sienna, and 44 fouth-eaft of Florence. E. Long.
II. 30. N. Lat. 43. 7.
MONTALTO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
Marca of Ancona j feated on the river Monacio, 10
miles north of Afcoli, and 45 fouth of Ancona. E.
Long. 13. 30. N. Lat. 42. 54.
MONTAN1STS, Chriftian heretics, who fprang
up about the year 171, in the reign of the emperor
I
Marcus Aurelius. They were fo called from their Montanifts-
leader, the herefiarch Montanas, a Phrygian by birth ; ^ ^
wdrence they are fometimes ftyled Phrygians and Caia- ti-;j "
Phrygians.  , —. J
Montanus, it is faid, embraced Chriftianity in hopes
of rifing to the dignities of the church. He pretended
to infpiration 5 and gave out, that the Holy Ghoft had
inftruCted him in feveral points, which had not been
revealed to the apoftles. Prifcilla and Maxrmilla, two
enthuftaftic women of Phrygia, prefently became bis
difciples j and in a ftiort time he had a great number
of followers. The biftiops of Alia, being affembled
together, condemned his prophecies, and excommuni¬
cated thofe who difperfed them. Aftenvards they
wrote an account of what had paffed to the wreftem
churches, where the pretended prophecies of Montanus
and his followers were likewdfe condemned.
The Montanifts, finding themfelves expofed to the
cenfure of the whole church, formed a Ichifm, and fet
up a diftinft fociety under the direftion of thofe who
called themfelves prophets. Montanus, in conjumftion
with Prifcilla and Maximilla, was at the head of the
fed!.
Thefe fedfaries made no alteration in the creed.
They only held, that the Holy Spirit made Montanus
his organ for delivering a more perfedf form of difci-
pline than what was delivered by the apoftles. They
refufed communion for ever to thofe who were guilty
of notorious crimes, and believed that the biftiops had
no authority to reconcile them. They held it unlaw¬
ful to fly in time of perfecution. They condemned fe¬
cond marriages, allowed the diffolution of marriage,
and obferved three lents.
The Montanifts became feparated into two branches,
one of which were the difciples of Proclus, and the
other of HLfchines. The latter are charged with fol¬
lowing the heterodoxy of Praxes and Sabellius con¬
cerning the Trinity.
MONTARGIS, a confiderable town of France, in
the Orleannois, and capital of the Gatinois $ feated on
the river Loire, 62 miles fouth of Paris. E. Long. 2.
36. N. Lat. 48. 1.
MGNTAUBAN, a confiderable towm of France,
in Guienne, and territory of Quercy, feated on the
river Tame, 20 miles north of Touloufe. E. Long. 1.
27. N. Lat. 43. 56.
MONTBAZON, a town of France, in Touraine,
135 miles fouth-weit of Paris. E, Long. o. 45. N. Lat.
47. 17.
MONTBELLIARD, a ftrong town of France, ca¬
pital of a province of the fame name, between Alface
and the Franche Compte, feated near the rivers Alaine
and Doux, 33 miles weft of Bafle, and 45 north-eaft of
Bezan$on. E. Long. 6. 30. N. Lat. 47. 31.
MONTBLANC, a tor n of Spain, in the province
of Catalonia, 15 miles north of Tarragon. E. Long. 1.
5. N. Lat. 41. 20.
MONTBRISION, a confiderable town of Fiance,
and capital of Forez, feated on the river Veziza, 4ct
miles weft of Vienne, and 250 fouth by eaft of Paris.
E. Loner. 4, 27. N. Lat. 4^. 32.
MONTECCHIO, a conftderable town of Italy, ire
the duchy of Reggio, id miles fouth-eaft of Parma,
and eight north-weft of Reggio. E. Loner. \ r r4.
N. Lat. 38. 8.
M ONT £-FALCcy
MON [ 345 1 M ° N
Monte- MONTE-Falco, a town of Italy, in the territory
Falco 0f Church and duchy of Snoletto •, feated on a
,, ^ r mountain near the river Clitunno, 12 miles welt of
quieu." Spoletto. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 42. 58.
— MoNTE-Falcone, a town of Italy, in Friuli, with
a caftle. It belongs to the Venetians, and is near the
river Ponzano, 10 miles north-weft of Aquileia, and
12 north-weft of Triefte. E. Long. 13 o. N. Lat.
46. 4.
Monte Fiafcone, a fmall but populous town of Italy,
in the territory of the Church, with a biihop’s lee 5
feated on a mountain, near the lake Boliena, in a coun¬
try abounding with excellent wine, 1 2 miles fouth-weft
of Orvieto, and 45 north-weft of Rome. E, Long.
12.4. N. Lat. 42. 26.
MoNTE-Marano, a populous town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Principato;
feated on the river Galore, 18 miles fouth of Benevento.
E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 40. 48.
Monte-Alor-o-novo, or Monte-major el-novo, a con-
fiderable town of Portugal, on the road from Lilbon
to Badajoz. W. Long, 9. 35. N. Lat. 38. 42.
„ MoNTE-Mor-o-velho, or Monte-major-el-velho, a town
of Portugal in the province of Beira, with a very large
caftle, feated in a fertile country, 10 miles fouth-weft
of Coimbra, and 83 north of Lilbon. W. Long. 8. 9.
N. Lat. 40. 5.
MoNTE-Pelofo, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Bafilicata 5 feated on a
mountain near the river Bafiento, 14 miles call of Ci-
renza. E. Long. 16. 28. N. Lat. 40. 46.
Monte Pulfiano, a town of Italy, in Tufcany, with a
biihop’s fee ; feated on a high mountain, near the river
Chiana, in a country noted lor excellent wine, 25 miles
fouth-eaft of Sienna, and 50 fouth by eaft of Florence.
E. Long. 11. 49. N.'Lat. 43. 10.
MoNTE-San&o, formerly called Mount Athos, a moun¬
tain of Turkey in Europe, on the gulf of Contefla. It
is called Monte-Sanao, or the Holy Mount, becaufe
there are 2 2’ monafteries thereon, in which are 4000
monks, who never fuller a woman to come near them.
It is 17 miles fouth of Salonichi. E. Long.-24. 39.
N. Lat. 40. 27.
MoNTE-Verde, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the farther Principato, with a biihop’s
lee : 6o'miles eaft of Naples. E. Long. 15. 42. N. Lat.
40. 51. .
MONTEGO bay, a town of Jamaica, and, next to
Kingfton, the moft flourifhing in the ifland. It has a
very conliderable commerce. T he harbour is capaci¬
ous ; but rather expofed to the north winds, which at
certain times in the year blow with great violence. In
June 1795, a fre confumed an immenfe quantity of
llores, and great part of the town.
MONTESA, a very ftrong town of Spain, in the
kingdom of Valencia. It is the feat of an. order of
knighthood of the fame name ; and is five miles from
Xativa. W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 39. o.
MONTESQUIEU, Charles de Sexondat, Ba¬
ron, a moft illuftrious Frenchman defcended, from an
ancient and noble family of Guienne, was born at. the
caftle of La Brede, near Bourdeaux, in 1689. The
greateft care was taken of his education ; and at the
age of 20 he had aftually prepared materials for his
Spirit of Laws, by well digefted extracts from thofe
Vol. XIV. Part I.
immenfe volumes of civil law which he had ftudied, Montef-
not barely as a civilian, but as a philofopber. He be- (lmeu'
came a counfellor of the parliament of Bourdeaux in
1714, and was received prefident a mortier two years
after. In 1721 he pubiifhed his Perfian Letters ^ in
which, under the fcreen of Oriental manners, he fatiri-
zed thofe of France, and treated of feveral important
fubjedts by delicate tranfient glances: he did not avow
this publication 5 but was no fooner pointed out as the
author, than zeal without knowledge, and envy under
the malk of it, united at once againft the Perfian
Letters. He was received into the French academy in
1728 ; and having previoully quitted his civil employ¬
ments, he entirely devoted bimfelf to his genius, and was
no longer a magiftrate, but a man of letters, Fla¬
ying thus fet himfelf at liberty, he travelled through
Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England,
in which laft country he refided three years,, and con¬
tracted intimacies with the greateft men .hen alive ; for
Locke and Newton were dead. The refult of his ob-
fervations was, “ that Germany was fit to travel in,
Italy to fojourn in, England to think in, and France
to live in.” On his return he retired for tivo years to
his eftate at La Brede, where he finilhed his work
On the Caufes of the Grandeur and Declenfion of the
Romans; which appeared in 1734. The reputation
acquired by this laft wmrk only cleared the way for his
greater undertaking, the Spirit of Laws, which was
printed at Geneva in 2 vols. qto, 1750. This was
immediately attacked by the adverfaries of his Perfian
Letters, in a multitude of anonymous pamphlets ; con¬
taining all the reproaches to which a liberal mind is
expofed from craft and ignorance. M. Montefquieu
drew7 up a defence of this work ; which for truth, mo¬
deration, and delicacy of ridicule, may be regarded as
a model in its way. This great man w*as peaceably
enjoying that fulnefs of efteem which his great merits
had procured him, when he fell fick at Paris, and
died on the 10th of February 1755.—The following
charadler of this great man is drawn by Lord Chefter-
field. “ His virtues did honour to human nature, his
writingsjuftice^ A friend to mankind, he afferted their
undoubted and unalienable rights with freedom, even
in his own country ; whofe prejudices in matters of
religion and government he had long lamented, and
endeavoured, not without feme fuccefs, to remove. He
well knew, and juftly admired, the happy conftitution
of this country, where fixed and known laws equally
reftrain monarchy from tyranny, and liberty from li-
centioufnefs. His works will illutlrate his name, and
furvive him, as long as right reafon, moral obligation,
and the true fpirit of laws, ihall be underftood, re-
fpedfed, and maintained.” As to his perional qualities,
we are ^old by his eulogift, M. d’Alembert, that “ he
was of a fweet, gay, and even temper. Plis converfation
was fpirited, agreeable, and inftrudfive. Nobody told a
^ftory in a more lively manner, or with more grace and
lefs a {lie dilation. He had frequent abfence of mind ;
but always awaked from it by feme unexpedted ftroke
that re-animated the languiftiing converfation. Though
he lived with the great, he retired whenever he could
to his eftate in the country, and. there met his books,
his philofophy, and his repofe. Surrounded at his
leifure hours with peafants, after paving ftudi.ed man
in the commerce of the world, he ftudied him in thoie
X x fimple
M ON [ -
Monipzu- ample people folely inftruaed by nature. With them
l-—t-^— - ^'e cheeirally conyerfed 5 he endeavoured, like Socrates,
to find out their genius, and appeared as happy with
them as in the moft brilliant aflemblies ; efpecially
u'ien reconciled their difterences, and by his bene¬
ficence relieved them from their dilli-eires.”
Lefides the works already mentioned, JVI. Montef-
quieu wrote feveral fmall pieces, as the Temple of Gni-
du.', Lyfimachus, atid an EiTayupon rafie, whiclr is left
rinfinilhed. His works have been collefted fince his
deatn, and printed at Paris in a fplendid edition, in
quaiio. i. ney have hkewife all of them been tranflated
into Englifii.
^ EZUMA, or Moxte^uma, was emperor
or king of Mexico when Cortez invaded that coun¬
try in 1518, invited thither, as he pretended, by the
inhabitants, whofe children Montezuma, in the blind-
r.efs^of his fuperftition, had facrificed to his idols. The
warlike animals on which the Spanilh officers were
mounted, the artificial thunder with which they were
timed, the wooden cafiles on which they had croffed
the ocean, the armour with which they were covered,
the vidfories which they gained wherever they went •
all thefe circumftances, added to that foolifli difoolition
to wonder which always characterizes a fimple people,
fo operated upon the minds of the Mexicans, that when
Cortez arrived at the city of Mexico, he was received
by Montezuma as his mafter, and by the inhabitants
as a god. At firft they fell down in 'the ftreefs when
a Spamlh valet paffed by 5 but by degrees the court of
Montezuma grew familiar with the It rangers, and ven¬
tured to treat them as men. Montezuma, unable to
expel^ them by force, endeavoured to infpire them with
confidence at Mexico by expreflions of frienbfhip
while he employed fecret means to weaken their power
in other quarters. With this view, one of his generals
, who had private orders to that purpofe, attacked a
paity of the Spaniards wdio were Rationed at Vera
Cruz ; and, although his troops were unfuccefsful, yet
three or four of the Spaniards were killed. The head of
one of them was carried to Montezuma. In confequence
or tuis, Cortez did what has been reckoned one of the
boldeff political ftrokes that ever was performed, file
ran to the palace, followed by fifty of his troops : and,
by perfuaflon and threats, carried the emperor prifoner
into the Spamfh quarters. He afterwards obliged him
to deliver up thofe who had attacked his troops at
Vera Cruz : and, like a general who puniihes a com¬
mon loldier, he loaded Montezuma with chains. He
next obliged him to acknowledge himfelf in public the
vaflal of Charles V.; and, in name of tribute for this
homage, Cortez received 600,000 merks of pure gold.
Montezuma foon afterwards fell a facrifice to his fub-
miffiion to the Spaniards. He and Alvaro, the lieu¬
tenant of Cortez, were befieged in the palace by
i2°0r°ir0 ^f‘;x,crans* The emperor propofed to (how
!Unr™r0 hlS ,fubje£h’ tb3t he perfuade them
to defift from the attack : but the Mexicans no longer
confidered him m any other light but as the fiave^of
loreign conquerors. In the midft of his fpeecli, he
received a blow with a Rone which wounded him mor¬
tally; and he expired foon after, A. D. 1520 See
Cortez. This unfortunate prince left two fons and
three daughters, who embraced the ChriRian faith
The eldeft received baptifm, and obtained from Charles
46 ]
M O N
^ . lands, revenues, and the title of count de IMontc-
i-uma. He died in 1608 ; and his family is one of the
mofl powerful in Spain.
MONTFERRAT, a province of Italy, with the
title of a duchy ; bounded on the eaft by the duchy of
Miian, and part of the territory of Genoa ; on the
north, by the Vercellefe and Canavefe ; on the we if, by
Piedmont properly fo called; and on the fouth by the
territory of Genoa, from whence it is feparated by the
Apennine mountains. It contains 200 towns and
caitles ; and is very fertile and well cultivated, abound¬
ing in corn, wine, oil, and filk. It belongs to the king
or Sardinia, and Cafal is the capital town."
MONTFORT, a town of France, in Upper Bre¬
tagne, feated on the River Men, 12 miles from Rennes.
Wi Long. 1.58. N. Lat. 48. S.
^ Montfort, a hand fame and flrong town of the
Netherlands, in the United Provinces, with an ancient
caiile ; feated on the river Yflel, {even miles from
Utrecht. E. Long. 5. o. N. Lat. 52. 4.
Monti ort, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, on the confines of Tirol, 16 miles fouth of
Lindow, and the lake Conflance. It is capital of a
country of the fame name, which has been almofl all
purchafed by the houfe of Auftria. E. Long. o.
N. Lat. 47. 22.
. Moxtfort-de-lf.mos, an ancient town of Spain,
intne kingdom of Galicia, with a magnificent caftle,
wnere the Comarca of Lemos refides. It is feated in
a fertile country, 25 miles north-eafl of Orenfa, and ? c
fouth-eaft of Compofiella. W. Long. 7. 9. N. Lat.
AIontfort-l’amuly, a town in the IRe of France,
vMlh the title of a duchy, 25 miles from Paris. E. Long
2. 50. N. Lat. 48. 45. 6'
MON 1 GAI Z, a to\vn ijf Lowrer Hunga-y, in the
county of Pereczas, with a Rrong fortrefs. It is en-
compalled with a great morafs, and art and nature have
rendered it almofl impregnable. It was defended by th"
princefs Ragotfky, wife of Count Tekeli, when befieged
by an army of the imperialiRs, who were obliged" to
raife the fiege in 1688. E. Long. 21. cc.N. Lat. 46. 26
MONTGERON, Louis-Basile-Carre be, was
born at Paris in 1 686 : his father was mafler of re-
quefls. He was fcarcely 25 years of age when he pur-
chafed the place of counfellor in parliament, where by
bis wit and external qualifications he gained confider-
ab'e reputation. Deeply engaged in all the vices
which Row from irreligion, he was converted by an
extraordinary circumftance. He went on the 7th of
September 1731 to the tomb of Deacon Paris, with
an intention to examine, with the rigour of the fevereR
critic, the miracles which were reported to be per-
ormed there. But, according to his own account, he
felt himfelf fuddenly beat, to the earth by innumerable
baflies of light with which lie was furrounded. His
incredulity was converted into flaming zeal, and he
Became the apoflle of the faint whom he formerly ri¬
diculed. . Prom that moment be devoted himfelf to
the fanatic!fm of convuljions, with the fame impetuo-
flty of chara&er with which he had run into the mofl
fliameful exceffes. He had not long been the difciple
of Janfenifm when he fuffered perfecution. When
the chamber of inquefls. was banifhed in 1732, he
v-.ms lent into the mountains of Auvergne; which, in-
Read
Montferrat
il
Montgeron.
M O N
Montgeran Resd of cooling, tended rather to
Montgome-
ryfhire.
inflame
During his exile, he formed the plan of colle&ing the
proofs of the miracles wrought at the tomb of the
abbe Paris, and of compofmg what he called a De-
monjlration of them. On his return to Paris, he pre^
pared to execute this plan 5 and on the 29th of July
1757, he actually prefented to the king at Verfailles
a volume in quarto luperbly bound. This work he
accompanied with a fpeech, which is a mixture or
zeal and argument in a tolerable ftyle. In confe-
quence of this work, which fome confider as a mafter-
piece of eloquence, and others as a mafs of abfurdi-
ties, he was committed to the Baftile. After a few
months confinement, he was fent to an abbey of Be-
nedi&ine monks in the diocefe of Avignon 5 whence
he was, in a ihort time carried to Viviers. Pie was
afterwards confined in the citadel of Valence, where
he died, A, D. 1 574> agec* 68- The work which he
prefented to the king was entitled La verite des Mi-
+ * Krty* /I in tevs'e/lififi /JP A/f. P/71'7 C (7*1*/?.——
tacles operees par Lintercc{jion de M. Pans, <b'c. <b'c
The critics, even to this day, feem to be guided in
their opinion concerning this book either by hatred
or by enthufiafm. “ It would be extremely rafli (fays
the abbe de St Pierre, in the fecond volume of his
Annales, p. 593-) to maintain with the Molinids, that
no miraculous cure was ever performed at the tomb
of the abbe Paris 5 and to fay with the Janfenifts,
that thefe cures were performed by a fupernatural
power, would be the height of fa'naticifm. The truth
is (adds the fame author), that no miracle appears ever
to have -been performed at this tomb except in the
cure of the human body *, in all other cafes, there
would have been the want of that imagination on
which the whole miracle depended.” Thus, although
Montgeron ventured to compare thefe prodigies with
the miracles of Jefus Chrift and his apoftles, yet we
find no perfon railed from the dead, no multiplication
of loaves, no command obeyed by the elements, and
no blind or deaf reflored to their fight or hearing. ^ It
belongs to the Author of nature alone, or to thole
who have derived power from him, to work fuch mi-
rr.cles as are recorded by the evangelifts, or in the
hifiory of the apollles. Montgeron added a fecond
and third volume on the fame lubjeft : he left alfo in
manufeript a work which he compcfed in prifon
centre les Incredules. Religion, it muft be ccnfefled,
has had much more powerful advocates. Fortunately
Pafcal and Boffuet are among the number : and it
could well have wanted both Paris and Montgeron,
wdiatever virtues they might poffefs in other refpebls.
MONTGOMERY, the capital of a county of the
fame name in North Wales, 158 miles from London,
took its name from Roger de Montgomery earl of
Shrewfbury, who built the caftle. It is called by the
Welfn Tre Valdwin, that is, Baldwin’s town j having
been built by Baldwin, lieutenant of the marches of
Wales, in the reign of William I. The Wellh, after
having put the garrifon to the fword, demolilhed it in
1095 •, but Henry III. rebuilt it, and granted it the
privileges ot a free borough, with other liberties. It is
a large and tolerably well built town, in a healthful li-
tuation and fertile foil.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE, a county of North
Wales, 40 miles in length and 37 breadth $ bounded
on the north by Merionethflure and Denbighihire, on
[ 347 ] MON
his zeal, the north-eafl and eaft by Shropshire, on the fouth by
Radnorfliire and Cardiganlhire, .and on the weft by
the laft mentioned count) and part of Merionetnftiire.
It is divided into fix hundreds; and contains five market
towns, 47 parifhes, and 47,978 inhabitants. It lies in
the three feveral diocefes of St Ataph, Bangor, and
Hereford ; but (ends only two members to parliament,
one for the county, and one for the town of Montgo¬
mery. The air is pleafant and falubrious; but this
county, being extremely mountainous, is not very fer¬
tile, except in the valleys, which afford fome corn and
plenty of pafture ; but the fouth, fouth-eaft, and north-
eaft parts, being more level, are extremely fruitful, efpe-
cially a pleafant vale, watered by the Severn.
MONTH, the twelfth part of a year. See Chro¬
nology, N° 17.
Month, in its proper acceptation, is that fpace of
time w’hich the moon takes up in paffing from any
certain point to the fame again, which is called a pe¬
riodical month ; or it is the fpace of time between two
conjunctions of the moon with the fun, which is called
a Jynodical month. That fpace of time which the fun
takes up in palling through one fign or 1 2th part of
the zodiac, is alfo called (but improperly) a month.
So that there are two forts of months ; lunar, which
are meafured by the moon } and folar, which are mea-
fured by the fun. The lunar periodical month con-
fifts of 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes 5 feconds :. The
lunar fynodical month is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes
3 feconds and 11 thirds. A folar month contains, upon a
mean calculation, 30 days 10 hours 29 minutes 5 feconds.
The Jews, Greeks, and Romans, made ufe of lunar
fynodical months 5 but, to avoid fraCIions, they con¬
fided alternately of 29 and 30 days. The former, the
Romans called caviy and the Greeks j the latter
were termed plem and
1. The Hebrew months were ranged differently in
their facred and in their civil year.
Order of the Sacred Year.
f March.
1 Nlfan
2 Ja ir
3 Sivan
4 Thammu%
5 dlb
6 Elul
7 Tifri
8 Marfchevan
9 Cafleu
10 Thebet
x1 Sebat
12 Adar
April.
May.
Tune.
July.
Anfwering^ Auguft.
to our September.
OCIober.
November.
December.
January.
(February.'
Order of the Civil Year.
1 Tifri
2 Marfchevan
3 Cafeu
4 Thebet
5 Sebat
6 Adar
7 difan
8 Jair
9 Sivan
10 Thamnnm
11 Ab
12 Elul
d
Anfwering
to our
J
X x 2
r September.
OCiob^
November.
December.
January.
February.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
„ Auguft.
Month.
Thefe
M O N
1 hefe months being lunar cannot exa&ly anfvver to
our folar months', but every Jewilh month muft be con¬
ceived to anfvver to two ot ours, and partake of both.
As thefe i 2 lunar months confided only of 354 days,
tne Jews, in order to bring it nearer to the true year,
took care every three years to intercalate a 13th month
into the number, which they called Ve adar, or the
feccnd Adar. I be new moon was always the beginning
of tne month ; and it is faid the Jews had people port¬
ed on elevated places, to give notice to the Sanhedrim
as loon as ihe made her appearance : ,A'ter this, pro¬
clamation was made by found of trumpet, and “ the
ieart of the new moon, the feail: of the new moon,”
rdbunded .amongil; the people.
ihe ancient Hebrew months were of 30 days each,
excepting the lart, which confided of 35 j fo that the
year contained 365 days, with an intercalary month
at the end of 1 20 years, which, by abforbing the odd
hours which remained at the conclufion of each year,
brought it back nearly to its proper place. This
regulation or tire year was borrowed from the Egyp¬
tians.
2. The months of the Athenian year, as we have
before obferved, confifted alternately of 29 and 30
days. The firft month, according to Meton’s re¬
formation of the kalendar, began with the firtl new
moon after the fummer lolftice, and was called heca-
tembceon, anfwering to the latter half of June, and the
former half of July. The order of the months, with
the number of days in each, are as follow :
[ .348 J
MON
1 Hecatombceon,
2 Met age it n io n,
3 Boedrotnion,
4 Mtemacleriorty
5 Pflnep/ton,
6 yinthe/Ierion,
30
29
3°
29
3°
29
7 Pojtdion,
8 Gamelion,
9 Elaghebolion,
10 Mnnichion,
11 Thargelion,
12 Scirrophorion,
3°
29
3°
29
3°
29
Each month was divided into three decades of days
called The firft was called or
huaivy, or the decade of the beginning, of the month 5
the fecond was Mupa? pzimvloi or the decade of the
middle j and tne third was M,',vag Trcu/owesg or A<$-
yo’flcs, the decade of the expiring month.
1 he firft day of the firft; decade was termed vioptnvict,
becaufe the firft month began with the new moon ;
tne lecond day was dsvlegct Waitivy; the third rgfin trxxivx,
&c. The firft day of the fecond decade was ^2-
the fecond oaflsgcc ftss-uvleg., &c.—the days of this
decade were alio called g^ri catet oncx, S'CC.
JilC In ft day of the third decade was see hkcc^i', the
fecond was hvPga iP &c. i. e. the firft, fecond,
&c. alter 20, becaufe the laft decade began on the
20th day. 1 his decade was alfo counted by inverfion
thus; (pHiva'jiog ozxxj.i the 2^11, (p3~:ycv]c; zvyatj'/i the 22d,
(pSn/onio; cyooi) the 23d, and fo of the reft to the laft day
of the month, which was called sv*) xoa vsst, the old and
the new, becaufe one part of that day belonged to
tne old and the other to the new moon •, but after the
time of Demetrius, the laft day of the month was
called from him j it fcmetimes was named
The Grecran mouth;, thus confiding of 29 and 30
days alternately, fell ftioit of the folar year 11 days
6 hours. To remedy this defect, the cycle of four
years, called was invented.—In this cycle,
arter the firft two years, they added an intercalated
month'called spliXipos, confiding of 22 days 5 and
again, after the expiration of two years more, they
infcited another month of 23 days, the fourth part of
a day having in the fpace of four years amounted to a
whole day. See Year.
3. The Roman year under Romulus confifted of 10
months only, and began with March, which contained
31 days j then followed April which had 30, May 31,
June 30, ^uzntilis 31, Sex libs 30, September 30, Oc¬
tober 31, November 30, December 30. Thefe 10
months containing no more than 304 days, this ac^-
count was in a fhort time found to be deficient. Numa
Pompilius, there tore, took away one day from each of
thefe fix months, April, June, Sextihs, September, No¬
vember, December ; and to the fix days thus obtained
he added 51, which was the number that Romulus’s
year, in his opinion, wanted to make it per fed!. Numa
had now 57 days to difpofe- of; he therefore divided
them, and conftituted two other months, January and
February ; the former confiding of 29 and the latter of
28 days. The month of January, which he placed at
the winter foldice, he made indead of March to begin
the year. Thus. Numa’s-year confifted of 355 days:
but this being found 10 days 6 hours fhort of the folar
year, he made ufe of the intercalation of 90 days at
the expiration of eight years perpetually ; which num¬
ber, Jieing made up of the 11 days and a quarter,
kept the year pretty well to its place. The beginning >
of the year in Julius Csefar’s time had anticipated its
true place 67 whole days : thefe he intercalated be¬
twixt November and December : fo that the year con¬
fided, for this onetime, of 15 months or 443 days,
lids reformation was called the 'Julian correShon, and
and this year the year of confufon. At the end of 1 2
years,^ by the ignorance of priefts, who did not under-
ftand intercalation, 12 days had been intercalated for
nine. This was obferved by Auguftus Caefar, and rec¬
tified, by ordering 12 years to pais without any interca¬
lary days. 1 he order and fuccefiion of months was
the fame as that of Numa: But January, March, May,
/hnnti/is, Sexti/is, October, and December, had each
31 days; April, June, September 30, and February,
in common years, 28 ; but every fourth year or biflex-
tile 29. This, with a very little difference, is the ac¬
count obferved at prefent. ^umti/is, in compliment to
Julius Caefar was called July, becaufe in this month he
was born ; and Sextihs, in honour of Auguftus, was
called Auguft; both which names are flill continued.——
See Year.
Each month by the Romans was divided into ka¬
lends, nones, and ides, ad of which were reckoned back¬
wards. Ihe kalends were the firft day of the month.
J he nones fell on the feventh, *nd the ides on the 13th,
of March, May, July, Oftober—but in all other
months the nones were on the fifth, and the ides on
the 13th. For the more eafy comprehenfion of the
Roman manner of dating, according to this divifion
of the months, here follows adable.
Mon tfi.
March
M O N
Month
' - 11 .
Montpelier.
March
May
July
Odlober
KalencLe
6
j 5
4 4
5! 3 .
6 Pnd. Non.
~j\ No rue
8
7
6
5
4
3 .
Prid Idas
Idas
n
16
15
M
13
12
I I
IO
January
Auguft
December
April
June
September
November
Februarv.
7
6
5
4
3
rid.
Kal.
Kalends
4
3
Prid. Non.
Nome
8
7
6
5
4
3
Pn>/. Zst/j-
fans
T9
18
*7
16
x5
'M
!3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Kal.
Kalends
4
3 .
Prid. Non.
Nonce
8
7
6
5
4
3 .
Prid. Idas
Idas
18
■7
16
15
J4
*3
12
11
10
9
7
6
5
4
3
Prid.
Kalendce
4
_3 .
/V/<7. iYo«.
No ns.
8
7
6
5
4
3 .
pr/r/. /c/wr
Idas
16
I5
14
J3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Pn’c/. Kal.
Kal.
N. B. Every leap year, February coniriling of 29
days, the 24th and 25th of that month are written
fexto Kal. Mart. ; hence leap year is called BiJJcxtihs.
MONTI A, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
MONTINIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia clafs. See Botany Index.
MONTMEDI, a fmall but rtrong town of France,
in Luxemburg, feated on the river Chire, which di¬
vides it into the upper and lower towns. It is 22
miles fouth-eaft of Sedan, 27 fouth-rveft of Luxem¬
burg, and 135 north-eald of Paris. E. Long. 5. 23.
N. Lat. 49. 32.
MONTMORENCI, Francois Htnry dp:. See
Luxemburg.
MONTMORENCY, a town of France, with the
title of a duchy, remarkable for the tombsmf the dukes
of this name. It is feated on a hill, near a large val¬
ley, fertile in fruits, efpecially excellent cherries. E.
Long. 2. 24. N. Lat. 48. 59.
MONTPELIER, one of the finefl: towns of France,
and the mod confiderable in the department of Herault,
excepting Thouloufe, is fituated in E. Long. 3. 58. N.
Lat. 43. 37. This town has been long famous for its
falubrious air, and on this account has been the frequent
349 ] MON
refort of invalids. But the climate, according to fomeNontpclier,
travellers, is conllderably changed, having at times con- :^QJtrea1,
dant rains for three months together, and often very
thick fogs. Its dtuation, though on an eminence, never
could be healthy; for between it and the Mediter¬
ranean (which is about three leagues dillant) it is one
continued marfti, covered with noxious vapours, which,
when the fea breeze fets in, blows direttly on the town
and the country adjacent 5 of the fad effects of which,
its unhealthy inhabitants, with their meagre looks, are
the mod convincing prools.
This city Hands upon a riling ground fronting the
Mediterranean •, on the other fide is an agreeable plain,
extending about the fame diftance towards the moun¬
tains of the Cevennes. It is reckoned well built, yet
the dreets are in general narrow and the houfes dark.
The inhabitants, many of whom are Protedants, are
fuppofed to amount to 40,000, are fociable, gay, and
good tempered. The trade oi Montpelier is very ex-
teniive in wane, cordials, oil, verdigris, and iakpetre \—-
and the manufactures in filk and woollen goods are con¬
fiderable. The markets are w?ell fupplied with filh, poul¬
try, butcher’s meat, and game, at reaionable rates. The
wine of the country is itrong and harlh : Burgundy
is dear, and fo is Iweet wine of Frontignan, though
made in the neighbourhood of Cette. Liquors of
various forts are compounded and diddled at Mont¬
pelier. The environs are extremely plealant, having on
xone fide La Place de Peyrou, which forms a fine ter¬
race. From thence on a clear day, may be teen to the
eaftward the Alps, which form the frontiers of Italy *,
to the fouth weft, the Pyrenean mountains, which form
thofe of Spain, both at about 50 leagues diftant ; and
to the fouthward a mold extenfive view of the Mediter¬
ranean. Not far from thence is a noble aqueduCf, with
a double tier of arches 5 by this, water is brought from
a mountain at three leagues diftance, into two bafons
in a finall elegant temple at the weft end of the totvn.
Here alfo is a royal garden, where on certain days-
public ledfures wrere formerly held on botany. On the
other fide of the town is the eiplanade, a beautiful wralk,
bordered on each fide by olive trees, from whence
there as a pleafing profpedi of the fea and the country
adjacent to the town. Previous to the revolution,
Montpelier had a univerfity, an academy of fciences,
and it was the fee of a bilhop.
MONTREAL, an illand of North America, in the
river St Lawrence, nine leagues in length, and three
leagues broad, and about 60 miles above Quebec. It
was taken from the French by generals Amherft and
Murray on the 8th of September 1760. The foil of
the ifiand is exceedingly rich and good, producing all
kinds’of European fruits and vegetables in great abun¬
dance, with variety of garden fruits. The iouth fide
is the moft inhabited, and of courfe beft cultivated j
and befides the fettlements, which are numerous, the
ifland is adorned with villas, for the retirement of the
more wealthy merchants during the fummer fealbn.
Since this place has been in the pofleflion of Britain, it
has fullered much by fires, the houfes being moftly built
of wood.
The town of Montreal, fituated on this illand,
and formerly called Ville Marie, is the fecond place in
Canada for extent, buildings and ftrength 5 and befides.
polfelling the advantage of a Ids rigorous climate, for
delightfulnefe-
M ON [ z
Mor.trcal denghtfulnefs of fit oat ion is infinitely preferable to Que-
MontirrEt.be.C: ftands on 1,16 fic^e orr a ^!J5 doping to the fouth,
——y—1'with many acrreeable villas upon it, which, with the
ifiand of St Helen, and the river (which is here about
two miles broad), form a moll charming landfcape.
Though the city is not very broad from north to fouth,
it covers a great length of ground from ead to well,
and is nearly as large and populous as Quebec. The
ilreets are regular, forming an oblong fquare; the
houfes well ' uilt, and in particular the public eidhce<q
which far exceed thofe of the capital in beauty and com-
modioitfnefs; the refidence of the knights hofpitallers
being extremely magnificent.—There are feveral gar¬
dens within the walls, in which, however, the proprie¬
tors have confulted ufe more than elegance, particularly
thofe the Sillers of the Congregation, the Nunnery
Hofpital, the Recoliets, Jefuit Seminary, and Governor.
The number of inhabitants is faid to be between 5000
and 6000. By the fituation of the place, the inhabi¬
tants aie well fupplied with all kinds of river fiih, fome
of which are unknown to Europeans, being peculiar to
the rivers and lakes of this country. They have like-
wife plenty of black cattle, bodes, hogs, and poultry.
The neighbouring (bores fupply them with a great va-
nty of game in the different feafons ; and the illand
abounds with fprings of good water and numerous ri¬
vulets. 1 he trade in lurs is confiderable, and veffels of
200 tons can come up to the town.
Montreal, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ar-
ragon, with a cable, feated on the river Xiloea, 25
miles north-well of Terville, and 40 fouth-eab of Cala-
- taud.—W. Long. 1. 2. N. Lat. 41. 9.
Montreal, a town of Sicily, and in the valley of
Mazara, with an archbilhop’s fee ; feated on a rivulet,
five miles weft of Palermo, and 50 north-eaft of Mazara.
E. Long. 13.31. N. Lat. 38. 14.
Montreal, or Mount Royal, a fortrcfs of Ger¬
many, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eledlorate
of Triers ; feated on the river Mofelle, 2 2 miles north-
eaft of Triers. L. Long. 7. 6. N. Lat. 49. 59.
MONTROSE, a handfome town of North Britain,
in the (hire of Angus, fituated at the mouth of the ri¬
ver Elk, on the German ocean, 46 miles north-eaft of
Edinburgh. The houfes are neat, and many of them
in the modern tafte. The moll remarkable public
buildings are, the town-houfe, the church, and an ele¬
gant epifcopal chapel.—Montrofe is a parliament town,
and a dukedom in the family of Graham. It Hands
between trvo rivers, the fouth and north Elks, over the
latter of w hich there is a handfome Hone bridge, and over
the former there is one of wood. The falmonf.lheties on
thefe rivers are very extenfive, and form a confiderable
branch of commerce. The harbour is a fine femicircu-
lar bafon defended by a handfome ftone pier. A great
number of trading veffels belong to this port. The
population of Montrofe in 1801 amounted to nearly
8doo. W. Long. 2. 32. N. Lat. 36.40.
Montrose, Marquis of. See Graham ; and Bri¬
tain, N° 137, 138, 143, 265.
MONT SERRAT, a mountain of Spain, in Catalo¬
nia, one of the moft lingular in the world for fituation,
ftiape, and compolition. It Hands fugle, towering over
a hilly country like a pile of grotto^ work or Gothic
fpires *, and its height fo great, that to a beholder on the
top the neighbouring mountains appear to be funk to a
;5o ] MON
level with the plain. It is compofed of fteep rocks,Mortferrat.
which at a diftance feem indented ; whence it is faid to v—
have received the name Monferrat from the Latin word
ferro, a “ faw.” It is impoftible to defcribe the beau¬
ty, richnefs, and variety, of the landfcapes difcovered
from the moft elevated point : but the extenfivenefs of
the profpefl may be conceived by the reader, upon be¬
ing told that the illands of Minorca and Majorca, w hich
are at the diftance of 60 leagues, are difcovered from
this elevation.
Montferrat is particularly famous for ths. adoration
that is paid to an image of the Virgin, which according
to tradition was found in a cave in this mountain by
fome Ihepherds in the year 880. Over this image,
Guthred carl of Barcelona caufed a monaftery and cha¬
pel to be elected ; but after remaining in this recepta¬
cle upwards of 700 years, Philip II. and Philip HI.
built a magnificent church for its reception. Innume¬
rable and aftonilhing miracles are afcribed to this holy
image. The convent or monaftery is fituated in a nook
of the mountain ; it feems as if vaft torrents of water,
or fome violent convulfion of nature, had fplit the eaft-
ern face of Montferrat, and formed in the cleft a fufti-
cient platform to build the monaftery upon. The river
Llobregat roars at the bottom, and perpendicular walls
of rock of prodigious height, rife from the water edge
near half way up the mountain. Upon thefe mafifes of
white ftone refts the fmall piece of level ground which
the monks inhabit. Clofe behind the abbey, and in
fome parts impending over it, huge cliffs (hoot up in a
femicircle to a ftupendous elevation : their fummits are
fplit into (harp cones, pillars, pipes, and other odd
lhapes, blanched and bare; but the interftices are filled
up with forefts of evergreen and deciduous trees and
plants. Fifteen hermitages are placed among the
woods; nay, fome of them on the very pinacles of the
rocks, and in cavities hewn out of the loftieft of thefe
pyramids.
The monaftery is one of the 45 religious houfes of
the Spanifh congregation of the order of St Benediff;
their general chapter is held every fourth year at Val¬
ladolid, where the deputies choofe abbots and other
dignitaries for the enfuing quadrennium. In this mo-
naftery, they cleft for abbot a Catalan and a Caftilian
alternately. Their poffeflions are great, confiding of
nine villages lyine; to the fouth of the mountain ; but
the king has lately curtailed their income about 6000
livres a year, by appropriating to his own ufe the belt
houfe in each village, fome of which, with their
tythes, are wmrth 200 dollars per annum. Their ori¬
ginal foundation, in 866, gave them nothing but the
mountain ; and to donations and economy they owe
the great increafe of their landed property. They are
bound to feed and harbour for three days all poor pil¬
grims that come up and pay their homage to the Vir¬
gin ; and the allowance is a luncheon of bread in the
morning, as much more, with broth at noon, and
bread again at night. Sometimes, on particular felti-
vals, 7000 perfons arrive in one day ; but people of con¬
dition pay a reafonable price for wdiat they eat. 
J he number of profeffed monks, according to Mr
Swu-nburne, is 76 (according to M. Bourgonane 60) ;
of lay brothers, 28; and of finging boys 25; befides
phyfician, furgeon, and fervants. The church is a
gloomy edifice ; and the gilding is much fullied with
the
\ \
MON [ 35
Montferrat. the fmoke of 85 lamps of fiiver, of various forms and
v-—y—— ^zes> ^3,. ]lang vourKl the cornice of the fanfluary.
Funds have been bequeathed by different devotees for
furnifhing them with oil. T iie choir above flairs is de¬
corated with the life of Chrift, in good wooden carv¬
ing. A gallery runs on each fide of the chancel, for
the convenience of the monks. A large iron grate di¬
vides the church from the chapel of the Virgin, where
the image Hands in a niche over the altar, before which
burn four tapers in large fiiver candleflicks, the prefent
of the duke of Medina Cell. In the facrifly, and
paffages leading to it, are prelfes and cupboards full
of relicks and ornaments of gold, fiiver, and precious
ftones ; they point out, as the moil remarkable, two
crotvns for the virgin and her fon, of ineftimable va¬
lue *, fome large diamond rings: an excellent cameo of
Medufa’s head; the Roman emperors in alabafter }
and the fword of St Ignatius. But as no offerings to
this miraculous flatue can be rejedled or otherwife dif-
pofed of, the ihelves are crorvded with moil vvhinifical
ex votos, viz. fiiver legs, fingers, breafls, ear rings,
watches, two wheeled chaifes, boats, carts, and fuch
like trumpery.
On different parts of the mountain, as already noti¬
ced, are a number of hermitages. Each of thefe fo-
litary retreats, which at a diftance feem deftitute of
every thing, has a chapel, a cell, a well in the rock,
and a little garden. The inhabitant of one of them,
which is dedicated to St Beneto, has the privilege of
making an annual entertainment on a certain day j on
which day all the other hermits are invited, when they
receive the facrament from the hands of the mountain
vicar, and after divine fervice dine together. I hey
meet alfo at this hermitage, on 'the days of the faints
to which their feveral hermitages are dedicated, to fay
mafs and commune with each other. But at otner
times they live in a very folitary and recline manner,
perform various penances, and adhere to very rigid
rules of abflinence ; nor do they ever eat flefh j nor
are they allowed to keep within their walls either dog
cat, bird, or any living thing, led their attention
fhould be withdrawn from heavenly to earthly affec¬
tions. Moil of thefe hermits are faid to be perions of
fortune and family, difgufled with the world, who have
retired thither to devote themfelves to meditation, felf-
denial, and contrition.
Montserrat, one of the Caribbee ifles, belonging
to Great Britain. It is a very fmall, but very plea-
fant illand, fo called by Columbus from its refemblance
to the famous mountain near Barcelona in Catalonia.
It lies in W. Long. 6r. o. N. Lat. 16. 50. having
Antigua to-the north-eafl, St Chriflopher’s and Nevis
to the north-w7eil, and Guadaloupe lying fouth fouth-
eafl at the diilance of about nine leagues. It is about
nine miles in diameter, and is fuppofed to contain about
40,000 or 50,000 acres. The climate is warm, but
lefs fo than in Antigua, and is efteemed very healthy.
The furface is mountainous, but with pleafant, rich, and
fertile valleys ; the hills are covered with cedars and
other fine trees. Here are all the animals as well as
vegetables and fruits that are to be found in the other
iilands. The inhabitants railed formerly a confiderable
quantity of indigo. The produce now is chiefly cotton,
rum, and fugar. There is no good harbour, but three to¬
lerable roads, at Plymouth, Old Harbour, and Ker’s Bay.
Meon.
i ] M O O
MONUMENT, in arckiteflure, a building deflined Monument
to preferve the memory, &c. of the perfon who raffed
it, or the perfon for whom it was raifed } fuch are a .
maufoleum, a triumphal arch, a pyramid, &c.^
MOOD, or Mode. See Mode.
Moods of SyIlogifm. See Logic, N° 85.
Mood, or Mode, in grammar, the different manner
of conjugating verbs. See Gravktar.
MOON, {Luna D ), in afironorny, one of the hea¬
venly bodies, ufually ranked among the planets ; but
with more propriety accounted a fatellite, or fecondary
planet.
Among the ancients, the moon was an objecl of prime
regard.—-By the Hebrews (he wras more regarded than
the fun, and they were more inclined to rvorfhip her as
a deity. The new moons, or firft days of every month,
were kept as feflivals among them, which were cele¬
brated with found of trumpets, entertainments, and fa-
crifice. (See Numb, xviii. 11. x. 16. 1 Sam. xx. 5—
18.) People were not obliged on thefe days to reft.
The feafis of new moons were a miniature reprefentation
of the fealt of trumpets, which was held on the firft of
the month Tifri, which was the beginning of the civil
year. The Jews not being acquainted with the phyfical
caufe of eclipfes, looked upon them, whether of fun or
moon, as figns of the divine difpleafure. The Grecians
looked upon the moon as favourable to marriage ; and
the full moons, or the times of conjundlion of fun and
moon, were held the mofl lucky feaions for'celebrating
marriages ) becaufe they imagined the moon to have
great influence over generation. The full moon was
held favourable for any undertakings by the Spartans :
And no motive could induce them to enter upon an ex¬
pedition, march an army, or attack an enemy, till the
full of the moon. The moon was fuppofed both by
Greeks and Romans to prefide ever child-birth.—The
patricians at Rome wrore a crefcent on their fhoes, to
diftinguifh them from the other orders of men. This
crefcent was called Lunula. Some fay it was of ivory,
ethers that it was worked upon the Ihoe, and others
that it was only a particular kind of fibula or buckle.
For the aftronomical phenomena conne£led with the
moon, fee Astronomy Index.
Harvejl-Moon.—It is remarkable, that the moon,
during the week in which fhe is full in harveft, riles
fooner after funfetting than fhe does in any other full
moon week in the year. By doing .fo, file affords an
immediate fupply of light after funfet, which is very
beneficial to the farmers for reaping and gathering in
the fruits of the earth : and therefore they diilinguifh
this full moon from all the others in the year, by call¬
ing it the harvejl moon.
Influence of the Moon on the Human Body.—The fa¬
mous Dr Mead was a believer in the influence of the
fun and moon on the human body, and publifhed a book
to this purpofe, entitled Ds Imperio Solis ac Lunce in
Corpore humano : but this opinion has been exploded by
moft philofophers, as equally unreafonable in itfelf, and
contrary to fa£l. As the mofl accurate and fenfible
barometer is not affeiled by the various pofitions of the
moon, it is not thought likely that the human body
fhould be affefled by them. Several learned and in¬
genious men, however, Hill confider Dr Mead’s doc¬
trine as far from being unfounded.
Moon, Influence of on the Earth's Atniofpherc.—It
> . has
Moon.
MOO [35
has been the opinion of the vulgar in almofl all ages
and countries, that the changes which take place in
]
MOO
the Hate of our atmofphere, or the changes of the wea¬
ther, depend in a great meafure on certain fituations of
the moon. This particular opinion is alluded to by
Virgil (a), and is applied in the (hepherd of Banbury’s
rules forjudging 'of the weather (b). We have, under
Meteorology, N° 90 to 92, given the refult of lome
oblervafions on the connetfion between the changes
of the moon and thofe of the weather.
It can fcarcely be c^oubted that an opinion fo gene¬
rally received muft be founded on fomething more than
fancy orprejudce and ; indeed the obfei vations of feveral
eminent meteorologiffs within the laft thirty years have
contributed materially to favour this opinion. Inde¬
pendent of aflual obfervation, it appears reafonable to
infer, that a body fo large, and fo near the earth, as the
moon, whofe gravitating influence on the earth’s furface
in producing the flux and reflux of the flea, cannot be
altogether inactive with refpedt to the air, a fluid much
more fufceptible of changes than the fea.
We have already noticed (Meteorology, N® 14.)
the theory' of Mr Luke How’ard, on the moon’s influ¬
ence on the mercury of the barometer, and we are now
to give a fliort account of what has been advanced on
her general influence by the philofophers of the conti¬
nent. Among thefe, Signior Toaldo may be faid to
have led the way.
from obfervations made at Padua, during fifty years,
.on the (late of the weather that correfponded to certain
changes of the moon, he found that thefe changes were
always accompanied by good or bad weather; and he at
length became enabled to foretel with fome degree of
certainty what would be the flate of the atmofphere
that fhould follow any fituation of the moon. There
are ten fituations of the moon, which, according to
Toaldo, are capable of producing a fenfible effedt on the
See A[lro- earth’s atmofphere. Thefe are the fy^igies* or new and
full moon; the quadratures ; the affldes, or apogee and
perigee ; the lunflices, or thefe points when the moon
is neareft to our zenith and at the greateft diftance from
it; and the moon’s equinoxes. There are three differ¬
ent relations of the moon’s motion producing a corre-
fponding number of revolutions, each having a certain
duration, and each correfponding to fome of the above
ten fituations, as it will be feen by the following table.
nomyy
i\° 90,
Revolutions.
1. Synodical, in regard
to the fun; continues 29 days ■
I 2 hour's 44 minutes.
2. udnomaltflic, in regard'
to the moon’s courfe ; con¬
tinues 27 days 13 hours 43
minutes.
Situations.
'New moon.
Firfl. quarter.
Full moon.
_Laft quarter.
Apogeum.
Perigeum.
3. Periodical, in regard to T Afcending equinoxes,
the moon’s paiiing the equa j Northern luniflices.
tor ; continues 27 days, 7 J Defcending equinoxes,
hours, 43 minutes. (_Southern luniilices.
Sig. Toaldo has calculated a feries of probabilities
that a change of weather will take place on the approach
of any one of thefe ten fituations, and thefe he has ex-
preffed in a tabular form as follows.
That a change
will take
place at
' Ncwt moon
Fir ft quarter
Full moon
Laft quarter
Perigeum
Apogeum
Afceqding equinox
Northern lunlftice
Defcending equinox
[_ Southern luniftice
> is
Moon.
6:1
5:2
5:2
5:4
7:1
4:1
r3:4
11:4
. 11:4
J l 3:I
In general, each of the ten fituations changes the
weather that prevailed under the preceding fituatiem,
and it feldoru happens that a change of weather takes
place without a correfponding change in the lunar
fituations. From the inequality of their revolutions,
thefe fituations are often combined, and by this union
their effeef in producing changes of the atmofphere is
greatly increafed, efpecially when a union takes place
between the fyzigies and apfides. Thus,
r New' moon with perigee
That a change N Ditto with apogee
will follow j Full moon with perigee C IS
v Ditto with apogee J
Thefe combined fituations are generally accompanied
or followed by ftorms and tempefts, efpecially when they
take place near the moon’s paffage over the equator.
This is more particularly the cafe ,in the months of
March and September, and we find that at the new
and full moon in thefe months, the w'eather takes a
certain charadler, by which it is diftinguifhed for the
fucceeding three or fix months. The fame takes place
at the folftices, efpecially at the winter folftice. The
new moon does not always, however, produce a change
of weather; and this want of effebt is moft likely to hap¬
pen at thofe new moons which are moft diflant from
the apfides.
Though Toaldo confiders it as perfectly afeertained
that each fucceeding fituation of the moon alters that
ftate of the atmofphere which had been produced by
the preceding fituation ; it muft, however, be obferved
to at lome fituations of the moon favour good and others
bad weather. Thus the perigee, the new and full
moon, the paffage over the equator, and the northern
luniftice are favourable to bad weather, while the apo¬
gee
(A)-
lunafque fequentes
Ordine refpicies ; nunquam te craflina fallet
Hora, neque infidiis nobfis capiere ferenae.
Georg. I. 424.
(B) 1. IJorns of the moon obfeure—Rain.
2. When the moon is red—Wind.
3. On the fourth day of the new moon, ir bright,
with lharp horns—iVo winds nor ram till the month
he flnijhed.
4
MOO [ 353 1 MOO
Moon, gee, quadratures, and louthern lunitlice, are more favour-
*r‘~^ able to good weather.
The changes produced by the influence of the lunar
fituations, feldom take place on the exadt days on
which thefe fituations happen, but either precede or
follow them; and Toaldo has found that, in the fix winter
months, the changes of weather commonly precede the
lunar fituations, whereas in the fix fummer months they
more commonly follow them.
There are certain days before and after new and full
moon, which deferve particular attention in forming
our judgements of the weather, efpecially the odlants or
the fourth day before new and full moon, as at thefe
times the weather is inclined to change, and it may be
pretty certainly predicted, that a change will follow at
the next lunar fituation. Virgil has particularly noti¬
ced this fourth day as a fure mark of the fucceeding
weather (c). If the weather continues unchanged on
the fourth, fifth, and fixth day of the moon, it proves
that the lunar influence is at that time very weak, and
we are to expeft no change till the full moon, or perhaps
till the next new moon.
Sig. Toaldo compared a diary which he had kept
for many years of the ftate of the barometer with the
ten fituations of the mopn, and from the comparifon
deduced the following -conclufions, viz.
1. That at the time of the moon’s apogee, the mer¬
cury rifes higher by the fixth part of a line than at the
perigee.
2. That at the time of the quadratures it is higher
by the tenth of a line than at the time of the fyzigies.
3. That it is higher by a fourth of a line at the
fouthern than at the northern luniffice. This corre-
fpondence of the lunar fituations with the afcent of the
mercury in the barometer does not hold at the time of
the moon’s paffage through her equino61ial points. The
mercury is then higher, efpecially when file is palling in
Libra ; and as fuch fituations of the moon generally indi¬
cate bad weather, this circumftance is not conformable
to meteorological obfervations.
In this cafe Toaldo thinks that we muft be guided, in
our jifHgement of the weather, rather by the moon than
by the barometer.
The cafe is fimilar during the coincidence of the
equinoffial points with the perigee, at which time the
mercury is unufually high j but this coincidence is a fign
of great irregularity.
According to Toaldo, the rifing and fetting of the
moon, as well as its fuperior and inferior paffage of the
meridian, all which fituations he calls the moon’s angles,
may ferve for foretelling rain. The feafons moft expo-
fed to rain, are the riling and fetting of the moon j while
it;, paffage over the meridian is moft favourable to good
weather. It has ever been obferved that during rainy
days, the fky ahvays clears a little while the moon is
palTing the meridian. An exception to this rule muft,
however, be made when the moon’s angle does not coin¬
cide with that of the fun.
You XIV. Part I.
(c) Luna revertentes cum primum colligit ignes,
Si nigrum obfeuro comprenderit aera cornu j
Maximus agricolis pelagoque parabitur imber.
At, fi virgineum fuffuderit ore ruborem,
Ventus erit j vento femper rub«t aurea Phoebe.
Bad years take place when the apfides of the moon Moon,
fall in the four cardinal points of tile zodiac. f heir —"
intervals, therefore, are as four to five, eight to nine,
&c. or as the intervals of the paffage of the apfides
through the four cardinal points of the zodiac. Thus
the year 1777 was, in general, a bad year j and in that
year the apfides of the moon were in the equinoifial
figns $ and it is probable that the years in which the
apfides fall in the figns Taurus, Leo, Virgo and Aqua¬
rius, will be good and moderate years, as the year
1776 really was j and in that year the apfides of the
moon were in Taurus and Virgo.
Every iBth year muft be fimilar. We, however,
cannot depend upon a return altogether the fame, on
account of the three different revolutions of the moon j
and therefore it may happen, that the epoch of this ex¬
traordinary year may be retarded a year or perhaps two.
Though approximations only are here given, this does
not prevent their being ufeful to farmers, if they only
pay attention to circumftances. Belides, various excep¬
tions muft be made for different parts of the earth 5 and
it is difficult to determine thefe before-hand, as what
regards this fyftem is applicable to the wffiole globe ;
but when the refult of the fyftem has been improved by
local obfervations, the conjectures for each country will
be attended with more certainty.
The 54th year muft have a greater fimilarity to the
firft than to all the reft j becaufe, at this period, the
fituations of the moon, in regard to the fun and the
earth, are again found in the fame points.
The quantity of the rain which falls in nine fucceffive
years, is almoft equal to that which falls in the next
following nine. But this is not the cafe when we com¬
pare in like manner the quantity of rain which falls in
fix, eight, or ten years*. * See Phil
The obfervations of M. Lamarck, though they con- vo1,
firm the opinion of the moon’s general influence on the
atmofphere, do not agree with thofe of Toaldo, as to
the fituations of that luminary which correfpond to the
changes of the weather. He could not find that agree¬
ment between the fyzigies and quadratures of the moon
and a change of weather, which has been fo much
dwelt on by Toaldo; but he is of opinion, that we are to
confider the declination of the moon as the principal caufe
of her influence on the atmofphere.
Lalande had conceived the idea that when the moon
entered the northern hemifphere, or had north declination,
the weather was moft likely to be cold and dry, and
that when fhe paffed to the fouth of the equator, it wras
likely to be rainy. The obfervations of Lamarck,
however, tend to eftablifh the contrary opinion.
Lamarck confiders the two following principles as
eftabliffied by his obfervations 5 viz.
1. That it is in the elevation af the moon above, and
her deprejjion below, the equator that we are to fearch for
thofe regularly varied effeBs which floe produces on our
atmofphere.
2. That the determinable circumjlances, which con-
Y y fpb'e
Sin ortu in quarto (namque is certiffimus au&or)
Pura, neque obtufis per coelum cornibus ibit j
Totus et ille dies, et qui nafeentur ab ilio
Exaftum ad menfem, pluvia ventifque carebunt.
See Note (b) Georg. I 427.
MOO [ 35+ J MOO
Moon, fpirc to increafe or diminijh the moon's influence in her
' v different declinations, are her apogees and perigees, her
eonjuTiciionx with and oppofltions to the fun; and laflly, the
folar fo/flices and equinoxes.
Confidcring that every lunar month, or every revolu¬
tion of the moon in the zodiac, may be divided into two
diftindl portions, each containing about fourteen days,
and each giving occafion to a particular atmofpheric
conltitutmn, we may affume thefe as two circumllances
of importance in meteorology, and we may call one the
boreal or northern conliitution, viz. that in which the
moon paffes through the fix northern figns of the
zodiac, and the other, the auflrai or fouthern conflitu-
tion, viz. that in which file traverfes the fix fouthern
figns. _ ,
Lamarck is convinced by obfervation, that in thefe
climates, during a boreal conflitution, there chiefly pre-
vai loutherly, fouth-wreflerly, and wefterly winds, though
fometimes, in the fummer, the winds pafs to the fouth-
eaft. In general, during this conftitution, the barome¬
ter exhibits only moderate elevations of the mercury ;
mofl commonly the feafon is rainy or moifl, and the air
loaded wdth clouds. And laftly, it is particularly
during this conftitution that we obferve the effects of
llorms and tempefis, when the caufes which occafion
them become active.
.On the contrary, during an auftral conftitution, the
winds which chiefly predominate blow from the north
and north-w’eft, and in the fummer north-eaft, and even
eafterly winds. In general during this conftitution, the
barometer exhibits confiderable elevations-in the column
of mercury, at leaft.if the wind is not very ftrong j the
weather is then moft ufually clear, cold and dry, and
in the fummer it is feldom (we might almoft fay never)
during this conftitution that ftorms are formed.
Thefe atmofpheric conftitutions are not, however, fo
permanently charadlerifed as to render it eafy to diftin-
guilh them at all times by the ftate of the atmofphere.
The atmofpheric air is a moveable fluid, and fo eafily
difplaced, that it is not furpriling that in the temperate
zones, wdiere the influence of the heavenly bodies a£ls
lefs ftrongly than between the tropics, from various
caufes, that counteraft very often the regular influence
of the moon, and tend to malk and even change its ef-
fedls.
The perturbations which thefe variable caufes pro¬
duce on the regular effe£Is of the influence of the inoon
on the atmofphere, occafion in fadt many variations in
the two atmofpheric conftitutions which we have been
deferibing ; and this is doubtlefs the reafon why they
have been hitherto difregarded. M. Lamarck pofitive-
ly aflerts, that thefe perturbations, though frequent, and
fometimes very confiderable, do not prevent the cha-
radler ot each of thefe conftitutions from being remark¬
ed in the greateft number of cafes.
The probability that he finds, according to his ob-
fervations, is eftimated at five out of eight j that is to
fay, out of 48 atmcfpheric conftitutions comprehended
in the lunar year, he eftimates there will be found at
leaf! 30 agreeing with the principles pointed out in his
memoir j and he adds, that among the difturbing caufes
which modify the before-mentioned effects, feveral may
be forefeen, and perhaps even appreciated as to their
quantity of effedl.
He confiders what is here pointed out as a fad! \ as an
order of things which any one may prove by obferva- Moon,
tion *. ' v *
Lamarck has alfo endeavoured to afeertain what truth 'y0^*
there may be in the periodical return of the variations^, and
of the atmofphere at the end of nineteen years ; and \\zNtchol.
has found, by comparing meteorological oblervations,^0^' 4toj
that this return is far from being fo corredt as is gene-v0^' ^v‘
rally believed.
Aftronomers alfo know7 well, that the cycle of nine¬
teen years is not exadt within an hour and a half; an
error which amounts to a whole day in the courfe of
308 yearsf Phil.Mag,
M. Cotte has alfo bellowed much attention on this ' ’ V*
fubjed! of the moon’s influence j but appears to think
that our obfervations are not fufficiently. numerous or
accurate, to deduce any thing like a corredt theory,
and he is not difpofed to go fo far as M. Lamarck.
M. Cotte agrees in general with Mr Luke Howard’s
obfervations on the moon’s influence. (See Meteoro¬
logy). He noted, during the fpace of 34 years and
five months, (from the lit of January 1768, to the
22d of May 1802), the afeending and delcending di-
redtion of the barometer in each of the fyzigies and
quarters of the moon which have occurred through that
period of lime. He ftates the total fum of the eleva¬
tions and depreffions of the mercury at each of the
phafes as follow7s»
F°r 3+i Years. New Moon, ift Quar. Full Moon. 2d Quar.
Sum of elevations 218 296 199 290 times.
 depreflions 281 229 279 106
Differences 63 67 80 84
Thefe refults, of nearly 35 years’ obfervations, con¬
firm, as will be feen, the conclufions drawn by Mr Ho¬
ward, both from his obfervations for one year at Plaiftow7,
and thofe made for 10 years in the Royal Society’s
apartments.
It is to be remarked, iff, That the four numbers,
which exprefs the differences between the elevations and
depreflions are nearly in an exadt proportion, fince
63 : 67 :: 80 . 85^.
2dly, That the two latter phafes, viz. the full moon
and laft quarter, have more effedt than the two firft.
jdly, He examined what phafes of the moon corre-
fponded to the greateft and leaf! height of the mercury
for each month during ten years, and obtained the fol¬
lowing refults.
Fono Years. New Moon. 1 ft Quar. Full Moon.
Greateft elevation 7
occurred at
Greateft depref- 7
fion occurred at _y3°
40
34
26
29
2d Quar.
28 times.
27
Differences 4 6
3
1
T he fcience may be therefore faid to have advanced
one ftep farther towards perfedlion on this occafion ^
and it is to be hoped that, by redoubling our diligence
in multiplying obfei vations, and combining them in va¬
rious ways to obtain their refults, its progrefs may be
ftill accelerated. The uieful purpoles which may be
thereby anfwered in philofophy, agriculture, and medi¬
cine, may be properly urged to cbfervers as the means
of
MOO
Moon 0f fapporting their ardour, and indemnifying them for
Moore t^°^e farcafms and relieftions which even fome karned
i  men have been pleafed to beifow upon obfervations of
*Fhil.Mag. this fort, together with their authors. *
v»l. xiii. MeoN-Eyes, among horfes, when the weaknefs of
the eye increafes or decreafes according to the courfe of
the moon ; fo that in the wane of the moon his eyes
are muddy and troubled, and at new moon they clear
up. This obfervation is probably inaccurate.
MooN-Jlone, or Adularia. See Adularia, Mine¬
ralogy Index.
Moon-Wort. See Lunaria, Botany Index.
MOOR, in country affairs, denotes a traft of land,
ufually overrun with heath.
MooR-Cock, or Gor-Cock. See Tetrao, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
Moor Land, or moory foil, in Agriculture, is a
black, light, and foft earth, very loole, and without
any admixture of Hones 5 and with very little clay or
fand.
MOORE, or More, Edward, an ingenious writ¬
er, was bred a linen draper, but quitted bufinefs to join
the retinue of the Mufes; and he certainly had a very
happy and pleafing talent for poetry. In his Trial of
Selim the Perfian, he complimented Lord Lyttleton in
an elegant kind of panegyric, couched under the ap¬
pearance of accufation : and his Fables for the Female
Sex, for eafy verfification, poignant fatire, and ftriking
morals, approach nearer to the manner of Gay than
any other of the numerous imitations of that author.
He wrote alfo three dramatic pieces ; The Gamefler, a
tragedy ; The Foundling, and Gil Bias, comedies.
The fuccefs of thefe was not fuch as they merited, the
firff of them having met with a cold reception, for no
other apparent reafon but becaufe it too nearly touched
a favourite and fafhionable vice j and the fecond hav¬
ing been condemned for its fuppofed refemblance to Sir
Richard Steele’s Confcious Lovers, but to which good
judges have been inclined to give it greatly the prefe¬
rence. Mr Moore married a lady of the name of Ha¬
milton, daughter to Mr Hamilton table-decker to the
princefles, who had herfelf a very poetical turn, and
has been faid to have affifted him in the writing of his
tragedy. One fpecimen of her poetry, however, was
handed about before their marriage, and has fmee ap¬
peared in print in different colledlions of fongs, parti¬
cularly in one called the Goldfinch. It was addreffed
to a daughter of the famous Stephen Duck ; and be¬
gins with the following ftanza :
Would you think it, my Duck ? (for the fault I
muff own),
Vour Jenny at laft is quite covetous grown :
Though millions if Fortune fhould lavilhly pour,
I Hill would be wretched if I had not More.
And after half a dozen ftanzas more, in which, with
great ingenuity and delicacy, and yet in a manner that
expreffes a great affeftion, fhe has quibbled on our au¬
thor’s name, fhe concludes with the following lines :
You may wonder, my girl, who this dear one can be,
Whofe merit can boaff fuch a conqueft as me :
But you fhan’t know his name, tho’ I told you be¬
fore,
It begins with an M, but I dare not fay More.
MOO
In the year 17J3, Mr Moore commenced a weekly Mooring
mifcellaneous paper, entitled, The 'World, by Adam H ^
Fit%-Adam, in which undertaking he was afiifled by 1 oor an ,s;
Lord Chefterfield with fome effays. This paper was
colle&ed into volumes, and Mr Moore died foon
after.
MOORING, the a£t of confining and fecuring a
fhip in a particular ftation, by chains or cables, which
are either faftened to the adjacent fliore, or to anchors
in the bottom.
A (hip may be either moored by the head, or by the
head and Hern j that is to fay, fhe may be fecured by
anchors before her, without any behind •, or (lie may
have anchors out, both before and behind her ; or her
cables may be attached to ports, rings, or moorings,
which anfwer the fame purpofe.
When a fhip is moored by the head with her own
anchors, they are difpofed according to the circum-
ftances of the place where (lie lies and the time (he is
to continue therein. Thus, wherever the tide ebbs and
flows, it is ufual to carry one anchor out towards the
flood, and another towards the ebb, particularly where
there is little room to range about ; and the anchors
are laid in the fame manner, if the veflfel is moored
head and ftern in the fame place. The fituation of the
anchors, in a road or bay, is isfually oppofed to the
reigning winds, or thofe which are moft dangerous 5 fo
that the (hip rides therein with the effort of both her
cables. Thus if fire rides in a bay, or road, which is
expofed to a northerly wind and heavy fea from the
fame quarter, the anchors parting from the oppofite
bows ought to lie eaft and weft from each other :
hence both the cables will retain the fhip in her fta¬
tion with equal effort againft the a<ftion of the wind and
fea.
Moorings, in fea language, are ufually an aflem-
blage of anchors, chains, and bridles, laid athwart the
bottom of a river or haven, to ride the (hipping con¬
tained therein. The anchors employed on this occa-
flon have rarely more than one fluke, which is funk in
the water near low-water mark. Two anchors being
fixed in this manner in the oppofite fide of the river,
are furnilhed with a chain extending acrofs from one to
the other. In the middle of the chain is a lar-ge fquare
link, whofe lower end terminates in a fwivel, which
turns round in the chain as about an axis, whenever
the fhip veers about with the change of the tide. To
this fwivel link are attached the bridles, which are (hort
pieces of cable, well ferved, whofe upper ends are
drawn into the (hip at the mooring ports, and after¬
wards faftened te> the mafts or cable bolts. A great
number of moorings of this fort are fixed in the har¬
bours adjacent to the king’s dock-yards, as Deptford,
Chatham, Portfmouth, Plymouth, &c.
MOORLANDS, a tradl fo called, in the north
part of Staffbrdftiire, where the land rifes gradually in¬
to fmall hills, which run through the midft of England
in one continued ridge, rifing higher and higher to
Scotland, and fending forth many rivers. The foil here
is fo foul and cold, that the fnows lie almoft all the
year on the, tops of the hills; and it is withal very rug¬
ged and barren : it, however, yields plenty of ccai,
lead, copper, rance-marble, and millftones •, and fome
of the limeilone hills bear fuch a fweet though (hort
grafs, as is very.grateful to the oxen, of which here is
Y y 2 a
[ .155 1
MOP
[ 356 ]
M O R
Mrors
M opfus.
a very good breed. It is obferved here, that the weft
wind always brings rain, and the eaft and fouth fair
weather 5 that though this tra6l is full of bogs, it is as
healthy as any other part of the county 5 and that it
produces the fame plants as the Peak of Derby.
MOORS. See Morocco.
Moors, in the Me of Man, thofe who fummon the
courts for the feveral (headings j fuch as the lords bai¬
liff’s. Every moor has the like office with our bailiff of
the hundred.
MOOSE, or Elk. See Cervus, Mammalia
Index.
MOOT, a difficult cafe, argued by the young bar-
riffers and (Indents at the inns of court, by way of
exercife, the better to qualify them for practice, and
to defend the caufes of their clients. This, which is
called mooting, is the chief exercife of the inns of
court. Particular times are appointed for the arguing
moot cafes: the place where this exercife is performed
was anciently called t/ioot-hall; and there is a bailiff,
or furveyor of the moots, annually chofen by the
bench to appoint the moot men for the inns of chan¬
cery, and to keep an account of the performance of
txercifes. The word is formed either from the Saxon
vie tan, gemetan, “ meeting j” or from the French mot,
“ word.”
MOPSUS, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated pro¬
phet, fon of Manto and Apollo, during the Trojan war.
H e was confulted by Amphimachus, king of Colophon,
who wiffied to know what fuccefs would attend his arms
in a war which he was going to undertake. He pre¬
dicted the greateff calamities $ but Calchas, who had
teen a foothfayer of the Greeks during the Trojan war,
promifed the greateff fucceffes. Amphimachus follow¬
ed the opinion of Calchas \ but the prediction of Mop-
fus was fully verified. This had fuch an effedt upon
Calchas, that he died foon after. His death is attri¬
buted by fome to another mortification of the fame na¬
ture. The two foothfayers, jealous of each other’s
fame, came to a trial of their (kill in divination. Cal¬
chas firft alked his antagonift, how many figs a neigh¬
bouring tree bore ? 10,000 except one, replied Mopfus,
and one (ingle veffel can contain them all. The figs
w'ere gathered, and his conjedtures w*ere true. Mopfus
now to try his adverfary, a(ked him how many young
ones a certain pregnant fow would bring forth ? Cal^
chas con felled his ignorance ; and Mopfus immediately
faid that the fow7 would bring forth on the morrow ten
young ones, of which only one (hould be a male, all
black, and that the females (hould all be known by
their white (freaks. The morrow proved the veracity
of his prediction ; and Calchas died by excefs of the
grief which his defeat produced. Mopfus after death
was ranked among the gods, and had an oracle at Ma-
lia, celebrated for the true and decifive anfwers which
it gave.—Another Mopfus, fon of Ampyx and Chloris,
born at Titareffa in Theffaly, He was the prophet
and foothfayer of the Argonauts, and died at his re¬
turn from Colchis by the bite of a ferpent in Libya.
Jafon eredled him a monument on the fea (bore, where
afterwards the Africans built him a temple, where he
gave oracles. He has often been confounded with the
fen of Manto, as their profeflions and their names were
alike.
MORiEA, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
andria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 6th order, Enfatce. See Botany Index.
MORAI, is the name given at Otaheite in the
South fea to the burying grounds, w’hich are alfo places
of worffiip. This is a pile of (lone railed pyramidically
upon an oblong bafe or fquare 267 feet long and 87
wide. On each fide is a (light of (leps 5 thofe at the
(ides being broader than thofe at the ends j fo that it
terminated not in a fquare of the lame figure wdth the
bafe, but in a ridge like the roof of a houfe. There
w7ere 11 of thele fteps to one of thefe morais, each of
which w7as 4 feet high, fo that the height of the pile
w7as 44 feet •, each ftep was formed of one courfe of
white coral (lone, which was neatly fquared and poliffi-
ed ; the reft of the mafs (for there was no hollow with¬
in) confided of round pebbles, wffiich, from the regula¬
rity of their figure, feemed to have been wrought. The
foundation was of rock ftones, which were alfo fquared.
In the middle of the top flood an image of a bird carved
in wTood, and near it lay the broken one of a filh carved
in (lone. The whole of this pyramid made part of one
fide of a fpaxious area or fquare 360 feet by 354, which
was walled in with (lone, and paved with flat ftones in
its whole extent. About 100 yards to the weft of this
building was another paved area or court, in which
were feveral fmall ftages raifed on wooden pillars aboufc^
feven feet high, which are called by the Indians ewat-
tas, and feem to be a kind of altars, as upon thefe are
placed provifions of all kinds, as offerings to their gods-
On fome of them were feen whole hogs, and on others
the fkulls of above 50, befides the (kulls of many dogs.
The principal objeft of ambition among the natives is
to have a magnificent morai. The male deities (for
they have them of both fexes) are wmrffiipped by the
men, and the female by the women •, and each have
morais, to which the other fex is not admitted, though
they have alfo merais common to both.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY, or MORALS.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY is, “ The rdence of
manners or DUTY •, which it traces from man’s
nature and condition, and (hows to terminate in his hap-
pinefs.” In other words, it is, “ The knowledge of
our DUTY and felicity $” or, “ The art of being vir¬
tuous and happy.”
It is denominated an art, as it contains a fyftem of
rules for becoming virtuous and happy. Whoever
pra61ifes thefe rules, attains an habitual power or fa¬
cility of becoming virtuous and happy. It is likewife
called a fcience, as it deduces thofe rules from th^
principles and connexions of our nature, and proves
that the obfervance of them is produilive of our happi-
nefs.
It is an art, and a fcience of the higheft dignity, im¬
portance, and ufe. Its object is man’s duty, or his con¬
duct
357
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Hiftory.
du& in the feveral morr.1 capacities and connexions
which he fuftains. Its office is to dire6t that condudl j
to (how whence our obligations arife, and wffiere they
terminate. Its ufe, or end, is the attainment of hap-
pinefs } and the means it employs are rules for the right
conduct of our moral powers.
Moral Philofophy has this in common with Natural
Phijofophy, that it appeals to nature or fad ; depends
on obfervation j and builds its reafonings on plain un¬
controverted experiments, or upon the fulleft indudion
of particulars of which the fubjed will admit. We
muft obferve, in both thefe fciences, how nature is af-
feded, and what her condud is in fuch and fuch cir-
cumftances : Or, in other words, we muft colled the
appearances of nature in any given inflance j trace thefe
to fome general principles or laws of operation j and
then apply thefe principles or laws to the explaining of
other phenomena.
Therefore Moral Philofophy inquires, not how man
might have been, but how he is, conftituted : not into
'what principles or difpofitions his adions may be art¬
fully refolved, but from what principles and difpofi¬
tions they adually flow : not what he may, by educa¬
tion, habit, or foreign influence, come to be or do, but
wdrat, by his nature, or original conftituent principles,
he is formed to be and do. We difcover the office, ufe,
or deflination of any work, whether natural or artificial,
by obferving its ftrudure, the parts of which it confifts,
their connexion or joint adion. It is thus we under-
itand the office and ufe of a watch, a plant, an eye, or
hand. It is the flare with a living creature of the ra¬
tional or brute kind. Therefore, to determine the of¬
fice, duty, or deftination of man ; or, in other words,
what his bufinefs is, or what condud he is obliged to
purfue; wre mufl: infped his eonftitution, take every
part to pieces, examine their mutual relations one to
the other, and the common effort or tendency of the
whole.
It has not been thus, however, that the fcience has
always been taught. The earlieft moralifts did not
ered fyftems upon a juff analyfis of the powers of the
human mind 5 nor have all thole who thought fuch a
foundation neceffary to be laid, deduced their theories
from the very fame principles. As moral truths are
not capable of rigid demonifration, it appears to us,
that we cannot more properly introduce the fyftem
which we have adopted, than by giving our readers a
ftiort view of the rnofl celebrated fyflems that have been
maintained by others. They will thus have an oppor¬
tunity of judging for themfelves of the refpedive me¬
rits of the different theories, and of adopting that which
{hall appear to them to place pradical virtue on the
fixmeft bafis.
r History of the Science of Morals.
Various 0-
pinions Whilff there has been a remarkable agreement
concerning among the writers on morality, as to the particular
the cnten- a&;ons which are virtuous and thofe which are vici-
tue°8tcr* ous > an(* they have uniformly taught, that it
is our duty and our intereft to perform the one and
to avoid the other •, they have yet differed exceedingly
concerning the tef or criterion of virtue, as well as con¬
cerning the principle or motive by which men are in¬
duced to purfue it. One caufe of this difference in
opinion refpeding matters of fuch univerfal import¬
ance, may perhaps be traced to the miflakes into
which philofophers are apt to fall concerning the ori¬
ginal ftate of man.
It is very generally taken for granted, that the firft Probable
men were lavages of the loweft rank, and that the race cau.Ie t^1*s
gradually civilized itfelf during the courfe of manyvariety*
fucceeding ages. Without mutual intercourfe, the
progrefs of civilization could never liave commenced ;
and as the pradice of juftice is abfolutely neceffary to
every fpecies of friendly intercourfe, thofe original fa-
vages, it is fuppofed, muff have been juff in their deal¬
ings, and juff upon fome principle which has its fouiv*
dation in human nature. But to develope the prin¬
ciple by which lavages are influenced in their condud,
no tedious or intricate procefs of reafoning can be ne¬
ceffary. It muft have a place in every mind, and be
inftantaneous in all its decifions. ITtnce it has been
fuppofed, that the principle to which modern philo¬
fophers have given the name of the moral fenfe, is iti-
ftindive j that it is the foie judge of virtue and vice ;
and that Jts admonitions have fuch authority, as to en¬
force obedience wuthout regard to the confequences of
any adion.
Other philofophers, who deny that the moral fenfe
is inftindive, and who yet fuppofe that the original
ftate of man was favage, are forced to pile hypothefis
upon hypothefis, each unnatural in itfelf, and all con-
tradidory to one another, in order to account for the
commencement of civilization and the formation of &-
ciety. It has been fuppofed, that the defire of felf-
prefervation and the love of power are the governing
principles in human nature ; that in the favage ftate
every man had a right to every thing which he could
feize by fraud or force ; that all had an innate propen-
fity to invade each other’s property ; and that hence
war, rapine, and bloodlhed, prevailed univerfally, till
the favages difcovered the expediency of uniting under
fome form of government for their mutual protedion.
But before the original ftate of man had been made
the bafis of fuch oppofite theories as thefe, it would
furely have been proper to inquire upon what grounds
that Hate has been fuppofed to be favage. To us thefe
grounds appear to be nothing better than mere ima¬
ginations ; the dreams of poets, and of fuch philofo¬
phers as bend fads to their own fyftems. In the au¬
thentic hiftory of our fpecies, there is no evidence, in¬
deed there can be no evidence, that the firft men were
favages ; and every thing which we know of human
nature leads us to believe, that had they been fo, the
race could never have been civilized but by the mira--
culous interpofition of lome fuperior being. The only
record of the earlieft ages of the world to which the
fmalleft credit is due, reprefents all the nations of the
earth as having fprung from one pair, and that pair as
having been inftruded in their duty by their beneficent
Creator. If this be the fad, and no confiftent theift
can controvert it, the- precepts of morality would be
originally conveyed from one generation to another; ^
not in a fyftematical or fcientific form, but as the laws Modes of
of the Univerfal Sovereign, whofe authority demand- communi-
ed implicit obedience. Accordingly
the firft teachers of morals were men of fuperior rank,
as well as of eminent talents, who formed colledions Heft mora*
of iRaxims derived from theij: snceftors, “ with the lifts.
view
358 MORAL PH
\fements 0r Pe^e^‘ng Subordination *, poliibing manners,
the Science a, educating youth. Such were the Proverbs of
of Ethics. the Words of Agur, and the Wifdoni of
the fon or S!rach.,, Ihefe inftru6fors did not analyze
the human mind into its various faculties, and build a
fydem of morals either upon a particular inftindt point¬
ing to the fupreme good, or upon the fitnefs of things
diicovered by reafon. Short ifolated fentences were the
mode in which they conveyed their precepts; wdiich
they prefaced by obferving, that “ the fear of the
Lord is the beginning of knowledge j” and enforced
by the aflurance, that “ length of days, and long life,
and peace, fliould they add to thofe who obeyed them.”
The fayings of the celebrated wife men of Greece w^ere
colle&ions of apophthegms, made in the fame manner,
and delivered with fimilar views. Thales and Pytha-
t Bmce's gcras f, who founded the one the Ionic and the other
B-lements, the Italic fchool, made collefrions of precepts for the
field’s’lli- C0nc^u<^: as we^ a ftate as °f private life. “ Neither
JloryofPbi-^e crimes 110r the thoughts of bad men (faid Thales)
lofophy. are concealed from the gods. The only method of be-
ing juft, is to avoid doing that which we blame in
others.” Of Pythagoras it is related by Porphyry
and Laertius, that from Samos he repaired to Delos,
x and after prefenting an offering of cakes to Apollo,
there received, or pretended to receive, moral dogmas
from the prieffefs; which he afterwards delivered to
his difciples under the charafter of divine precepts.
Among!! thefe w’ere the followung : That, “ next to
gods and demons, the higheft reverence is due to pa¬
rents and legillators ; and that the laws and cuftoms of
our country are to be religiouily obferved.”
To thefe maxims or apophthegms, which, for the
fake of delighting the ear and aiding the memory,
were fometimes delivered in verfe, fucceeded, as has
been fuppofed, the mode of inftru6tion by fable or al¬
legory. But the truth (eems to be, that this method
of communicating moral and political wifdom w’as as
ancient as the other; for we have a beautiful fpecimen
of it in the ninth chapter of the book which relates the
tranfaftions of the Judges of Ifrael. The fables of Efop,
too, which were written at a very early period, remain
lafling modes of this fpecies of art among the Greeks.
When the inftruftors of mankind had proceeded
thus far as to give an artificial form to their precepts
they foon advanced a ftep farther, and reduced their
obfervations into claffes or predicaments. Pythago¬
ras, who vifited Egypt, has been fuppofed to have
learned from its priefts the method of arranging the
virtues into difiind claffes. But it is the opinion of
4•Mr ifrw<?.an excellent writer J, founded on the previous afpefts
of ethics, and on the comprehenfive talents of the Sa¬
mian philofbpher, that the honour of the invention
ought to be afcribed to himfelf. Be this as it may, it
was obferved by the inventor, that “ all the maxims
of morality might be referred to the duties which men
owe to themfelves, and the duties which they owe to
each other.” Hence the four cardinal virtues of the
ancients, PRUDENCE, TEMPERANCE, FORTITUDE, and
justice ; of which the firft three refer to the indivi-
^ dual, and the fourth to fociety.
The moral Hitherto lefions in morality had not taken a fyfte-
principles matlc form ; but they were gradually approaching to
of Socrates, it, Socrates was perhaps the firft Pagan philofopher
who eftabliftied all his precepts on one fare and fteady
ILOSOPHY. Hiftory
bafis. In his le&ures and difeourfes, he feems to have
had one great objedt in view J, to connedt the moral 1 Bruce’s
maxims which wTere fitted to regulate the condudt 0[Blernents,
mankind, with fublime conceptions refpedfing the
charadler and government of a fupreme Being. They?or>', &c.
firft principles of virtuous condudf-which are common
to all mankind, are, according to this excellent moral-
ift, laws of God: and the conclufive argument by
which he fupports this opinion is, that no man departs
from thefe principles with impunity. “ It is fre¬
quently poftible (fays he) for men to fereen themfelves
from the penalty of human laws, but no man can be
unjuft or ungrateful without fuffering for his crime ;
hence I conclude, that thefe laws mull have proceed¬
ed from a more excellent legiflator than man.” From
this it would appear, that in the opinion of Socrates,
conference, or the moral fenfe, approving of any ac¬
tion, is the criterion by which it is known to be vir¬
tuous, and the will of God that which obliges men to
perform it.
Socrates himfelf left no writings behind him, nor, as Origin of
far as we know, offered any regular and complete theorythe Grei'k
of ethics. . His difciplcs, however, who were nume-^c^s‘
ious and diftinguifhed, became the founders of the ce¬
lebrated Greek fedls. Among them the firft great
queftion was, “ what are the foundations of virtue ?”
and the fecond, “ what are the diftindlions betwixt
good and evil, happinefs and mifery ?” The anfwers
given to thefe important queftions divided the philo-
fophvTs and their difciples into diftmbf orders.
In aniuer to the former queftion, Plato taught *, * Enfield.
that ‘ virtue is to be purfued for its own fake ; and <5
that being a divine attainment, it cannot be taught Theories
but is the gift of God.” This feems to differ in no-°f Plat0’
thing, but the name, from the doctrine of thofe mo¬
derns who place the foie foundation of virtue in the
approbation of the moral fenfe. The founder of the
academy indeed has no fuch phrafe as moral fenfe in
any _ of _ his writings with which we are acquainted ;
but if virtue cannot be taught, and if it is to be pur-
iued for its own fake, it muft in itfelf be good, and
the objeft of fome feeling, whether called fenfe, in-
Jhnfl, or pafjion. His folution of the fecond queftion
agitated among the fedls is not indeed very confident
with this neceffary inference from his anfwer to the ’
firft; but for his inconfiftencies we are not account¬
able. “ Our higheft good (he fays) confifts in the
contemplation and knowledge of the firft good, which
is mind or God ; and all thofe things which are called
good by men, are in reality fuch only fo far as they are
derived, from the firft and higheft good. The only
power in human nature which can acquire a refem-
blance to the fupreme good, is reafon ; and this re-
emblance confifts in prudence, juftice, fandlity, and
temperance.”
Ariftotle, the founder of the Peripatetic fchool, wasof Anlto-
the pupil of Plato ; but of the two great moral quef-tle,
Dons.he gives folutions fomewhat different from thofe
of his mafter. “ Virtue (according to him J) is ei-t EnfeldL
ther.theoretical or practical. Theoretical virtue con¬
fifts in the due exercife of the underftanding ; pradlical,
in the purfuit of what is right and good. Practical vir¬
tue is acquired by habit and exercife.” This theory
feems to differ little from that adopted by Cudworth,
Clarke, and Price, whien fhall be confidered afterwards.
With
359
Hiftory. MORAL PH
With refpefl to happinefs or good, the doftrine of
Ariffotle is very rational. “ Pleafures (he fays) are
effentially different in kind. Difgraceful pleafures are
wholly unworthy of the name. The purelt and nobleft
pleafure is that which a good man derives from virtu¬
ous actions. Happinefs, which confifls in a conduct
conformable to virtue, is either contemplative or ac¬
tive. Contemplative happinefs, which confifls in the
purfuit of knowledge and wifdom, is fuperior to adlive
happinefs, becaufe the underflanding is the higher part
of human nature, and the objedts on which it is em¬
ployed are of the nobleft kind. The happinefs which
arifes from external poffefiions is inferior to that which
arifes from virtuous adtions j but both are neceffary to
> produce perfedt felicity.”
8 The Stoics, another celebrated fedt of Greek phi-
efthe lofophers, maintained *, that “ nature impels every
^tpCS’ , man to purfue whatever appears to him to be good.”
J ‘ ‘ According to them, “ felf-prefervation and defence is
the firft law of animated nature. All animals necef-
farily derive pleafure from thofe things which are fuit-
ed to them j but the firft objedt of purfuit is, not plea¬
fure, but conformity to nature. Every one, there¬
fore, who has a right difcernment of what is good,
will be chiefly concerned to conform to nature in all
his adtions and purfuits. This is the origin of moral
obligation.” With refpedt to happinefs or good, the
Stoical dodtrine was altogether extravagant: They
taught, that “ all external things are indifferent, and
cannot affedt the happinefs of man ; that pain, which
does not belong to the mind, is no evil; and that a
wife man will be happy in the midft of torture, becaufe
virtue itfelf is happinefs (a).”
As the Stoics held that there is but one fubftance,
partly adlive and partly paflive, in the univerfe (fee
Metaphysics, N° 261, 262), and as they called the
adlive principle God, their dodlrine, which makes vir¬
tue conlift in a conformity to nature, bears no fmall
refemblance to that of thofe moderns who reft moral
obligation on the Divine will. It was therefore on
better grounds than has been fometimes fuppofed,
that Warburton, when cbaradlerizing the founders of
} D/i> I^eg t^ie th1"66 principal fedls in Greece, reprefented J Plato
of Mops. as the patron of the moralfenfe; Arijlotle, of the effen-
tial differences ; and Zeno, of arbitrary will. Thefe
principles, when feparated from each other, and treated
in the manner of the ancients, may not each be able
to bear the fuperftrudlure which wras raifed upon it ;
but the principles of moft of the other fedls were much
lefs pure, and infinitely more dangerous.
$ 'Eternal Cudworth $, whofe teftimony wmen relating the
and immu- dodtrines of antiquity is entitled to the fulleft credit,
tralit^°~ aff*rrns> that Ariftippus the founder of the Cyrenaic
9 fchool, Derriocritus, and Protagoras, with their follow-
of Anftip- ers among the atomills, taught, that “the diftindtion
Pus> Demo- between virtue and vice is merely arbitrary ; that no-
cntus, ai d thing is juft «>r unjuft, facred or profane, but as it is
° ’ agreeable or contrary to ellablilhed laws and cuftoms ;
IL o s o P H Y.
that what is juft to-day, hirnian authority may make
unjuft to-morrow ; and that prefent pleafure is the fo-
vereign good of man.” 10
With thefe impieties, the moral dodtrines of Epi-and °f Epi¬
curus have very unjuftly been confounded. The phy-cumf*
fical and metaphyfical fyftems of that philofopher are
indeed ftrange compofitions of ingenuity and abfurdity,
truth and falfehood ; and the moral precepts of many
of his follow’ers were in the higheft degree licentious
and impure. But his own life was exemplary; and
his ethical fyftem, if candidly interpreted, is much
more rational than that of the Stoics; though it muft
be confefied, that no fedl produced men of more deter¬
mined virtue than the fchool of Zeno. According
to Epicurus *, “ the end of living, or the ultimate * EnfielcCr
good which is to be fought for its owm fake, is hap- Hifiory.
pinefs. The happinefs which belongs to man, is that
ftate in which he enjoys as many of the good things,
and fuffers as few of the evils incident to human na¬
ture as poflible; palling his days in a fmooth courfe
of tranquillity. Pleafure is in its own nature good,
as pain is in its nature evil. The one is therefore to
be purfued, and the other to be avoided, for its own
fake. Pleafure and pain are not only good and evil
in themfelves, but they are the meafure of what is
good or evil in every abjeft of delire and averfion ;
for the ultimate reafon w’hy we purfue one thing and
avoid another is, becaufe we expedl pleafure from the
former, and apprehend pain from the latter.—That
pleafure, however, rvhich prevents the enjoyment of a
greater pleafure, or produces a greater pain, is to be
Ihunned ; and that pain which either removes a greater
pain, or procures a greater pleafure, is to be endured.”
Upon thefe felf-evident maxims, Epicurus builds his
fyftem of ethics ; and proves, with great force of ar¬
gument, “ that a Heady courfe of virtue produces the
greateft quantity of happinefs of which human nature
is capable.” Without a prudent care of the body, and
a Heady government of the mind, to guard the one from
difeafes and the other from the clouds of prejudice,
happinefs is unattainable. By temperance we enjoy
pleafure, without fuffering any confequent inconveni¬
ence. Sobriety enables us to content ourfelves with
Ample and frugal fare. Gentlenefs, as oppofed to an
irafcible temper, greatly contributes to the tranquillity
and happinefs of life, by prefevving the mind from
perturbation, and arming it againft the alfaults of ca¬
lumny and malice. Fortitude enables us to bear thofe
pains which prudence cannot Ihun, and banilhes fear
from the mind ; and the practice oijiflice is abfolutely
neceilary to the exiftence of fociety, and by confe-
quence to the happinefs of every individual.” Thefe
reafonings come home to every man’s bofom ; and had
not this philofopher, by denying the providence, if
not the being, of God, moft unhappily excluded from
his fyftem the very poflibility of a future ftate of re¬
tribution, his moral philofophy would have 'been the
moft rational, and of courfe the moft ufeful, of anv
thai
(a) Since this fhort hiftory was written, a very pleafing view of Stoicifm has been giyen to the public in
Fergufon’s Principles of Moral and Political Science ; a work which the ftudent of ethics will do well to confult.
Perhaps the amiable author may unintentionally have loftened the auftere dogmas of the Porch, by transfufing in¬
to them fomething of the mild fpirit of the gofpel; but, if fo, he has much improved the fyftem of Zenoa
3<5o
II
The eclec¬
tic philofo-
phers of
Alexan¬
dria.
12
Extinction
and revival
of moral
fcience in
Europe.
*3
Theories
«f Hobbes,
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Hiftory.
that was taught in the fchools of Greece. This enor¬
mous defect, however, laid it open to the groffell cor¬
ruptions 5 and by his followers it was in fadt corrupted
fo as to countenance the mod impure and criminal
pleafures of fenfe.
Thefe feveral fyftems of ethics continued to be cul¬
tivated wfth more or lefs purity through all the revo¬
lutions of the Grecian dates, and they were adopted
by the Romans after Greece itfelf became a province
of the empire. They had been introduced into Egypt
during the reigns of the Ptolemies, and were taught
with much celebrity in the fchools of Alexandria.—
The philofophy which was mod cultivated in thofe
fchools was that of Plato ; but from a dedre of uni¬
formity which took poffefTion of the Alexandrian Pla-
tonids, many of the dogmas of Aridofle and Zeno,
as well as the extravagant fidlions of the ead, were in¬
corporated with the principles of the old academy.—
The patrons of this heterogeneous mafs have been call¬
ed ecleBic philofophers, becaufe they profeffed to felefl
from each fydem thofe dofrrines which were rational
and important, and to rejeft every thing which was
falfe or futile •, but they added nothing to the purity of
Plato’s ethics, and they increafed the obfcurity and my-
fticifm of his phyfics and metaphyfics.
After the fubverfion of the Roman empire, every
fpecies of philofophy, if fyllogidic wrangling deferve
not that name, was banifhed for ages from the fchools
ofjEurope ; and ethics, properly fo called, gave place to
ecclefiadical cafuidry, and to the dudy ®f the civil and
canon law. When the Greeks, whom the fury and
fanaticifm of Mahomet II. had driven from Condanti-
nople, introduced into Italy the knowledge of their
own language, the cabinets of ancient philofophy were
again unlocked •, the fydems of the different.fe&s were
adopted with the utmod avidity/} and, without ac¬
curate invedigation of their refpe&ive merits, men be¬
came Platonids, Peripatetics, or Stoics, as fancy or
caprice prompted them to choofe their leaders. The
of Aridotle, in particular, had not lefs autho¬
rity over his modern admirers than it had of old in the
Lyceum at Athens. At length the fpirit of Luther
and the genius of Bacon broke thefe fetters, and taught
men to think for themfelves as well in fcience as in
religion. In phyfics, the effetts produced by the writ¬
ings of Bacon wTere great and rapid } for in phyfics the
ancient theories were totally and radically wrong.—
With refpeft to morals, however, the cafe was differ¬
ent. Each of the celebrated fchools of antiquity was
in poffeffion of much moral truth, blended indeed with
error : and long after the Stagyrite and his rivals had
lod all influence in phyfical fcience, philofophers of
eminence followed them implicitly in the fcience of
ethics.
At this day, indeed, there is hardly a theory of mo¬
rals at all diftinguifhed, to w’hich fomething very fimilar
may not be found in the writings of the ancients.—
Hobbes adopted the principles of Democritus and
Protagoras, and taught exprefsly that “ there is no
criterion of juflice or injudice, good or evil, befides
the laws of each ftate j and that it is abfurd to inquire
at any perfon except the eftablilhed interpreters of the
the law, whether an a£Hon be right or wrong, good or
evil (b).” Thefe impious abfurdities have been often
confuted. Cud worth, who compofed his True Intel¬
lectual Syltcm of the Univerfey in order to trace the meta-
phyfical atheifm of Hobbes to its fource, and to ex-
pofe it to the public in all its wTeaknefs, undertook
likewife to overthrow his ethical fyftem, in a treatife,
entitled Of Eternal and Immutable Morality. That
work was left unfinifhed } but the theory of its great
author was adopted, illufirated, and very ably fupport-
ed, by the doctors Clarke and Price.
According to thefe three admirable fcholars, “ we 0f
feel ourfelves irrefiftibly determined to approve fome worth,
afiions, and to difapprove others. Some aftions we Clarke, ^
cannot but conceive of as and others as ; anc^ I>nc€*.
and of all aftions we are led to form fome idea, as ei¬
ther ft to be performed or unfit, or as neither fit nor
unfit to be performed, i. e. as indifferent. The pow-er
within us which thus perceives and determines, they
declare to be the underjfanding ; and they add, that it
perceives or determines immediately or by intuition,
becaufe right and wrong denote fimple ideas. As there
are fome propofitions, which when attended to necef-
farily determine all minds to believe them, fo are there
fome adlions whofe natures are fuch, that when obferv-
ed, all rational beings immediately and neceffarily ap¬
prove them. He that can impartially attend, it is laid,
to the nature of his own perceptions, and determine that
when he conceives gratitude or beneficence to be right,
he perceives nothing true of them, or underflands no¬
thing, but only fujfers from a fenfe, has a turn of mind
which appears unaccountable : for the more we ex¬
amine, the more indifputable it will appear to us, that
we exprefs necefffary truth, w'hen we fay of fome adlions
that they are right, and of others that they are wrong.”
It is added, that “ we cannot perceive an aftion to be
right without approving it, or approve it without being
confcious of fome degree of fatisfaBion and compla¬
cency } that we cannot perceive an adlion to be wrong
without difapproving it, or difapprove it without being
difpteafed with it j and that the fiffl muff be liked, the
lajl difliked ; the firfi loved, the lafil hated.” By the
patrons of this fyftem, obligation to aftion, and rightnefs
of aflion, are held to be coincident or identical. “ Vir-
ture, they affirm, has a real, full, obligatory power, an¬
tecedently to all laws, and independently of all will }
for obligation is involved in the very nature of it. To
affirm that the performance of that which to omit
would be wrong is not obligatory, unlefs conducive to
private good, or enjoined by a fupericr power, is a mani-
feii contradiffion * * Price's
Few men have deferved better of letters and philo- Review,
fophy than Cud worth, Clarke, and ’Price} and yet an<l Clarke
their theory of morals appears to us to be contradic-
tory and unintelligible. It is certainly romantic, and
founded upon principles which, if they be denied, no
' man
(b) Do<ffrinas de jufto et injufto, bono et malo, praeter leges in unaquaque civitate conftitutas, authenticas effe
nullas: ft uttum aliqua aflio jufta vel injufta, bona vel mala futura fit, a nemine inquirendum effe, praeterquam
.ab illis, quibus legum fuatum interpretationem civitas demand aver it. De Civei p. 343.
2
3^1
Hiftory. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
man by argument can be compelled to grant. There
is, fay they, an abfolute right and wrong, fitnefs and
unfitnefs, in afHons; but if fo, the actions which are
right andjif/ muft be right and fit for fomething, be-
caufe fitnefs, which refpe&s no end, is wholly incon¬
ceivable. To fay that any particular aftion is jit, and
yet fit for no particular purpofe, is juft as abfurd as to
fay that the angles at the Safe of an ifofceles triangle
are equal, but neither to one another, nor to any other
angles; and we may with no lefs propriety talk of the
relation of equality attaching to a particular angle, and
to nothing elfe with which the angle is equal, than of the
abfolute fitnefs or rightnefs of any aftion or courfe of
actions. If it be faid that fuch aftions are fit and
right, becaufe they tend to promote the harmony of
the world and the happinefs of men, this may be grant¬
ed j but it overturns the intelleflual theory from its
very foundation. A6Hons which are fit and right only
for their confequences, are approved and liked for the
fake of thofe confequences; and the happinefs of men,
among whom the virtuous perfon himfelf is certainly
to be included, is the motive or ultimate obligation to
their performance.
Similar to this theory, and liable to the fame objec¬
tions, is that which refolves moral approbation into a
fenfe of propriety ; for if aflions be approved becaufe
they are proper, it muft be becaufe they are proper for
fome end or purpofe, propriety in the abftra£l; being a
j- word without meaning.
Of Lord Many philofophers, feeling the force of thefe and
Shaftefbury, of fimilar objections to the intelleflual theory of Cud-
Hutshefon, Clarke, and Price, as well as to a fenfe of pro¬
priety in the abftract, have had recourfe to another hy-
pothefis, apparently better founded. Obferving that all
mankind decide on the morality of characters and ac¬
tions inftantaneoufly, without weighing their confe¬
quences in the balance of reafon, they fuppofe that
fuch decifions are made by an inf inti of our common
nature, implanted in the human breaft by the hand
that formed it. To this inftinCt fome of them give
the name of confcience, and others that of moral fenfe,
in contradiction to external fenfe the other great and
univerfal inlet of human knowledge. By this moralfenfe
we intuitively difcover an effential difference in the
quality of all thoughts and aCtions, and a general dif-
tinCtion of them into good and evil, juft as by the
tongue and palate we difcover an effential difference in
the tafe of all objeCts, and a general diitinCtion of
them into pleafant and unpleafant. The ableft advocates
for this inftinCtive fyftem agree, that the moral fenfe
is the immediate and involuntary criterion of only a
few general truths, which in their joint operation up¬
on the mind, lay the bafis of moral obligation. Others
have carried it to what we think a very dangerous ex¬
treme ; as by affirming that we cannot prove, in regard
to our moral feelings, that they are conformable to any
extrinfic and eternal relations of things, they feem to
wifti that reafon were banifhed from the fcience of e-
thics. Were this true, it would in many cafes be im-
poftible to diftinguifh the prejudices of early education
from the pure diftates of original inftinCt, and the moft
pernicious conduft might be fanClified with the appro¬
bation of what would be deemed the ultimate teft of
virtue and vice.
To remedy the defeCls of the intelleClual and in-
Vol. XIII. Part L
ftin&ive theories of morality, Mr Hume blended them
together *, and, upon the broader bafis of reafon and
internal fenfe co-operating with each other, he reared a
fyftem which, though different from thofe of all his pre-
deceffors, he rendered plaufible, and fupported with his
ufual ingenuity. i£
According to Wra., fentiment and reafon concur in al-°fMr
moft all moral determinations; and he proves, that Hume‘
for this purpofe, “ there is implanted in the human
breaft a difinterefted principle of or fympathy
which makes men take pleafure in each other’s happi¬
nefs. The merit or demerit of aCHons confifts wholly
in their utility or natural tendency to add to the fum
of human happinefs; and the fame he holds to be true
of qualities whether bodily or mental. This utility
or natural tendency it is the office of reafon to difco¬
ver j for that faculty alone can trace relations and con¬
fequences. Such qualities or adtions as reafon difco-
vers to be ufeful, either to the individual or fociety,
the inftindfive principle of benevolence makes us in-
ftantly approve, and this approbation conftitutes their
morality. Thus, temperance, fortitude, courage, in-
duftry, &c. reafon difcovers to be ufeful to him who
poffeffes them j and upon this difcovery they are ap¬
proved of by the fentiment of fympathy. They are
therefore moral qualities and the fources of the private
virtues. In like manner, generofity, cheerfulnefs of
temper, mercy, and juftice, are difcovered to be ufeful
to fociety, and are accompanied with the approbation
of that fentiment of fympathy which makes every man
feel a fatisfadlion in the felicity of all other men. They
therefore conftitute the facial virtues. Of every qua¬
lity and every adlion, the merit or demerit, and of con-
fequence the degree of approbation or difapprobation
which is beftowed upon it, is in exa£l proportion to
its utility and the circumftances of the cafe in which
it occurs. The focial virtues are therefore greater than
thofe which are private, and one focial virtue is greater
than another ; but every quality and every adlion which
is ufeful, either to fociety or to the individual, is more or
lefs virtuous, provided the good of the individual be con-
fidered as fubordinate to the good of the public.”
This theory is ingenious $ and in placing the merit
of adfions in their utility, it furnifties a criterion of
virtue which can be employed by reafon *, but it feems
not to be wholly free from error, and it is obvioufty
defedlive. By pretending that the fame fentiment of
approbation is given to ufeful aflions voluntarily pex*-
formed and to ufeful qualities which are merely con-
ftitutional, Mr Hume confounds the merit of virtuous
habits with the value of natural talents. Yet every
man’s confcioufnefs will furely tell him, that the feel¬
ing or fentiment which attaches to deeds of juftice,
clemency, and beneficence, is very different from that
which attaches to beauty of form, ftrength of body,
vigour of mind, and mere extent of capacity. AH
thefe actions and qualities are ufeful 5 but when we ap¬
prove of the former, befides attending to their utility,
we confider them as in the man’s power, and attribute
the merit of them immediately to himfelf. When we
approve, or rather admire, the latter ou account of their
utility, we know them to be not in the man’s power,
and we attribute the merit of them immediately to the
Author of nature.
But the defefls of this theory are in praftice more
Z z pernicious
Sz
MORAL PH
pernicious that its errors. The author well obferves,
th^t the end of all moral fpeculations is to teach us our
duty } and by proper reprefentations of the deformity
of vice and beauty of virtpe, to beget correfpondent ha¬
bits, and engage us to avoid the one and embrace the
other } but the theory under review holds out no mo¬
tive fufficient in all cafes for this purpofe.
It is indeed true, as ?»Ir Hume affirms, that the vir¬
tues which are immediately ufeful or agreeable to the
perfon poffeffed of them, are defirable in a view to
felf-intereft, and that a regard to felf-intereft ought
to engage us in the purfuit. It is likewife true, that
the virtues which are nfeful and agreeable to others, are
generally more defirable than the contrary qualities}
for as by the conftitution of our nature no enjoyment
is fincere without feme reference to company and fo-
ciety j fo no foofety can be agreeable, or even tolerable,
where a man feels his prefence unwelcome, and difeo-
vers all around him fymptoms of difguft and averfion.
Thefe confiderations he deems fufficient to enforce the
duties of humanity, clemency, and beneficence j but
he ftates a cafe himfelf, in which they w'ould certainly
fail to make a man abftain from his neighbour’s proper¬
ty. The greater part of property he confiders, and
rightly confiders, as having its foundation in human
laws, which are fo calculated as to preferve the peace
and promote the general good of the fociety, at the un¬
avoidable expence fometimes of the individual. Now,
in particular incidents, a fenfible knave, by fecretly pur¬
loining from the hoards of a worthlefs mifer might
make himfelf comfortable and independent for life, with¬
out caufing any breach in the focial union, and even
without hurting a fingle individual. What then ffiould
hinder him from a£Hng thus ? His felf-intereft would
be promoted ; and if he pofleffed a generous fpirit, he
might gratify his fentiment of benevolence or fympa-
thy by doing good with his money to the poor, which
the mifer never did. For enforcing the uniform prac¬
tice of juftice in fucli cafes as this, Mr Hume’s theory
of morals contains no adequate motive j but a very
fufficient one is held out by the fyftem which we are
jy now to confider
Afyltem That fyftem, which feems to have been unknown to
*f ethics the ancients, is built upon religion, of which indeed
^buiit upon conflitutes a very efiential part j and thofe by wdiom
^ ° ‘ ft has been taught, maintain that no other foundation
is fufficient to bear a regular fuperftru£lure of pra&ical
ethics. The philofophers of this fchool (d) define vir¬
tue to be il the doing good to mankind, in obedience
to the will of God, and for the fake of everlafting hap-
pinefsSo that with them “ the good of mankind”
is thefubjeSi, “ the will of God” the criterion or rule,
and “ everlafiing happinefs” the motive, of human vir¬
tue. The moral fenfe, fuppofing it real, they confi¬
der as a very inadequate rule of condufl, as being in
many cafes difficult to be diftinguiffied from prejudice $
and many of them confidently deny its exiftence. The
other rules, fuch as the Jitnefs of things, abftraft right,
th e truth of things, the law of reafon, &c. they confider
cither as unintelligible, or as relative to fome end by
IL O S OP H Y. . Hiftoiy.
which the rules muft themfelves be tried. The tw’o
great queftions, which in the fyftem of thefe religious
philofophers demand folution, are : \Jl, By what means
ffiall a man in every cafe difeover precifely what is the
will of God ? and, zd/y, What evidence have we that
there will be a future ftate of retribution and of ever-
lafting happinefs ?
Of thefe two queftions, the latter belongs wholly te
religion } and to folve it they call in the aid of revela¬
tion, as well as of that which is called the religion of
nature. The former queftion is in the province of mo¬
rality ; and to find anfwers to it which will apply t*
every cafe, is the whole bufinefs of their fyftem.
The will of God refpedling human conduft may be
difeovered by reafoning a priori from his exiftence and
attributes, or a poferiori from the tendency of his
works. Being himfelf independent and all perfesfl, it
is inconceivable that his view in creating the world
could be any thing elfe than to communicate fome por¬
tion of his own felicity. (See Metaphysics, N°3i2.j)
This conclufion is agreeable to what we perceive of
his works, in wffiich there are a thoufand contrivances,
all tending to give happinefs to man, and to all ani¬
mated nature j and of not one of which the natural ten¬
dency is to inflidl pain, or prove ultimately injurious.
Mankind are linked together by various ties, and made
to depend in a great meafure upon each other’s con-
dud. That condud, therefore, which is naturally
produdive of the greateft fum of human happinefs,
muft be agreeable to the will of God ; or, in other
wTords, virtuous condud. That, of w hich the natural
tendency is the reverfe, muft be vitious j and that
condud, if there be any fuch, which tends to produce
neither happinefs nor mifery, muft he indifferent, i. e.
neither morally good nor morally evil. It is to be ob-
ferved, how^ever, that as, previous to their own obedi¬
ence or difobedience, all men ftand in the fame relation
to their Creator, it muft be his will that an equal por¬
tion of the bappinefs of which human nature is ca¬
pable be communicated to all by whom that nature
is ffiared. Whence it follows, that only fuch condud
as, if univerfally purfued by all men in the fame ftation
and circumftances, would be produdive of the greateft
fum of human happinefs^on the whole, can be agreeable
to the will of the Creator j and that, in judging of the
morality of adions, we are not to regard their immedi¬
ate confequences in a particular cafe, but their natural
and ultimate tendency if performed in all cafes.
This is a criterion of virtue which differs widely
from the local or occafional utility fet up by Mr
Hume $ for the particular confequences of an adion
and its general tendency may often be at variance, fo
that what might in certain circumftances be imme¬
diately ufeful, Would yet be highly criminal and ul¬
timately pernicious. The general tendency of ac¬
tions, too, may be always known, and known with the
utmoft certainty; the whole of their particular con¬
fequences can never be difeovered. One thing, how¬
ever, is evident, that if all men in their refpedive fta-
tions would regulate their condud by the natural ten¬
dency
(Dj Gastrell, Cumberland, Puffendorff, Norris, Berkeley, Gay, Law, Rutherforth, Soame
Jfnyns, Dr Johnson, Mr Paley, and Mr Gisborne, &c.
13
Hiftory. MO UAL PH
deucy of every aftion, the particular and general confe-
quences of their condudt would be the fame, and the
greateft happinefs would refult from it of which hu¬
man nature is in this world capable. And therefore,
flnce it is only through the perverfenefs of fome perfon
or perfons concerned, that the particular confequences
of any adlion, of which the natural tendency is to pro¬
duce mifery, can ever bring happinefs to a Angle indivi¬
dual j it can no more be the will of God that we make
thefe occajional and diftorted confequences the rule of
our conduct, than it can be his will that the vices of
other men Ihould be the balls of our virtues. Accord¬
ing to this fcheme of morals, which refts all obligation
on private happinefs, the whole difference between an
aft of prudence and an aCt of duty, is this : That in the
former cafe we confider only what we fhall gain or lofe
in this world ; in the latter, what we lhall gain or lofe
in the world to come.
Although the patrons of this theory queltion the
reality of the moral fenfe as an inltinCl, they allow' that
a fentiment of approbation or difapprobation of ac¬
tions, according as they are virtuous or vitious, is ge¬
nerated by the affociating principle (fee Instinct, and
Metaphysics, N° 97.) •, and that this fentiment, though
factitious, operates inftantaneoufly as if it wrere in-
flinCtive. They infill that our earlieft aCtions are the
refult of imitation •, that wThen we firlt begin to trace
confequences, education and the delire of immediate en¬
joyment are our only guides ; that as our mind ex¬
pands and our knowledge increafes, the hopes and fears
of futurity become the motives, and the wall of God
the rule of our conduCt; and that long praCtice in vir¬
tue, upon thefe principles, produces habits by which
we go on with fatisfaClion in the fame courfe, without
looking forward, on every particular occafion, to the
ultimate confequences and firft motives of eur aCtions,
Thus do habits of jullice, benevolence, clemency, and
moral approbation, fpring through a proper courfe of
tlifcipline, out of the felfilh principle j and when thefe
ILOSOFHY.
63
habits are completely formed and deeply rooted, man
has attained the utmoft perfection of which he is capa¬
ble in this Hate of probation, and is fitted for another
of retribution and happinefs. 19
That thefe philofophers have not a juft view of hu- Defeats ant?
man nature, when they deny that there are any innate ^^e*rcy
principles of benevolence in man, we lhall endeavour •
to fliow when we lay the foundation of that theory
which we think deferves to be preferred to all others y
but we fully agree with a candid and able wrker-f-, who f Stuart's
feems to conlider them as under the fame miftake, “ that
their theory of morals has no tendency to weaken ^^iofophy of
foundations of virtue ; and that by the account which the Human
it gives of the rife of the focial affeCtions, it obviates Mind.
many of the arguments which had formerly been urged
againft the felfilh fyftem.” Nay, we fcruple not to
confefs, that the mode of invelligation which it employ*
in all cafes to difcover the wall of God, may in fame
cafes be neceffary in any fyftem which does not banilb
the ufe of reafon from the fcience of ethics. On this
account, as well as out of refpeCl to the firft moralift X 1 j’&njfen,
of the age, w'ho affirms, that “ it mull be embraced by
all who are willing to know why they aft, or why they
forbear, to give any reafon of their conduft to them-
felves or to others,” we lhall apply it to one of thofe
cafes of focial duty which Mr Hume’s principle of uti¬
lity could not refolve. Such an example will enable the
meaneft of our readers to decide between the merits of
it and of the theory which we {hall adopt; or, as we
rather hope, it will Ihow them that the two therories
lead to the fame practical conclulions.
Having thus given our readers a fliort view of the moll
celebrated fyftems of ethics which have prevailed from
the earlieft ages of the world to the prefent day, we now
proceed, agreeably to our definition of the Icience, to
trace man’s duty from his nature and connexions, and
to Ihovvthat the fteady praftice of virtue muft terminate
in his ultimate happinefs.
PART I.
*0
Man’s in¬
font (late.
Chap. I. O/Man and his Connexions.
MAN is born a weak, helplefs, delicate crea¬
ture, unprovided with food, clothing, and whatever
elfe is neceflary for fubfiftence or defence. And yet,
expofed as the infant is to numberlefs wants and dan¬
gers, he is utterly incapable of fupplying the former,
or fecuring bimfelf again!! the latter. But, though
thus feeble and expofed, he finds immediate and lure
refources in the affection and care of his parents, who
refufe no labours, and forego no dangers, to nurfe and
rear up the tender babe. By thefe powerful inftinfts,
as by fome mighty chain, does nature link the parent
to the child, and form the ftrongeft moral connexion
on his part, before the child has the leaf! apprehenfion
of it. Hunger and thirfl, with all the fenfations that
accompany or are connefted with them, explain them-
felves by a language ftrongly expreffive, and irrefifti-
bly moving. As the feveral fenfes bring in notices
and informations of furrounding objefts, W’e may per¬
ceive in the young fpeftator early figns of a growing
•wonder and admiration. Bright objefts and ftriking
founds are beheld and heard with a fort of commotion
and furprife. But, without refting on any, he eager¬
ly paffes on from objeft to objeft, Hill pkafed with
whatever is newel!. Thus the love of novelty is
formed, and the paffion of wonder kept awake. By
degrees he becomes acquainted with the moft familiar
objefts, his parents, his brethren, and thofe of the
family who are moft converfant with him. He con-
trafts a fondnefs for them, is uneafy when they are
gone, and charmed to fee them again. Thefe feel¬
ings become the foundation of a moral attachment on
his fide ; and by this reciprocal fympathy he forms the
domeftic alliance with his parents, brethren, and other
members of the family. Hence he becomes interefted
in their concerns j and feels/y or grief, hope or fear,
on their account, as well as his ov/n. As his affec¬
tions now point beyond himfelf to others, he is deno¬
minated a good or ill creature, as he Hands well or ill
aJfeEled to them. Thefe, then, are the firft links of the
Z z 2 vtiral
!
3*54
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part I.
Of Man
and his
moral chain ; tke early rudiments, or outlines, of his
,, charafter : his firft rude eiiays towards agency, freedom,
manhood.
When he begins to make excurfions from the nur-
fery, and extends his acquaintance abroad, he forms
a little circle of companions, engages with them in
play, or in queft of adventures; and leads, or is led
by them, as his genius is more or lefs afpiring. Though
this is properly the feafon in which appetite and paf-
Jion have the afcendant, yet his imagination and intel¬
lectual powers open apace ; and as the various images
of things pafs before the mental eye, he forms variety
of taftes j relilhes fome things, and dillikes others, as
his parents, companions, and a thoufand other circum-
flances, lead him to combine agreeable or difagreeable
fets of ideas, or reprefent to him obje&s in alluring or
.odious lights.
As his views are enlarged, his aClive and facial
powers expand themfelves in proportion ; the love of
aElion, of imitation, and of praife, emulation, curiofty,
docility, apaffon for command, and fondnefs of change.—
His paflions are quick, variable, and pliant to every
impreffion ; his attachments and difgults quickly fuc-
ceed each other. He compares things, diflinguilhes
actions, judges of charaflers, and loves or hates them,
as they appear well or ill affected to himfelf, or to thofe
he holds dear. Meanwhile he foon grows fenfible of
the confequences of his own actions, as they attradl ap-
plaufe, or bring contempt: he triumphs in the former j
and is afhamed of the latter, wants to hide them, and
blufhes when they are difcovered. By means of thefe
powers he becomes a fit fubjefl of culture, the moral
tie is drawn clofer, he feels that he is accountable for his
conduft to others as well as to himfelf, and thus is gra¬
dually ripening for fociety and adlion.
As man advances from childhood to youth, his paf-
fions as well as perceptions take a more extenfive
range. New fenfes of pleafure invite him to new
purfuits j he grows fenfible to the attractions of beauty,
feels a peculiar fympathy with the fex, and forms a
more tender kind of attachment than he has yet expe¬
rienced. This becomes the cement of a new moral
relation, and gives a fofter turn to his paffions and be¬
haviour. In this turbulent period he enters more
deeply into a relifh of friendfhip, company, exercifes,
and diverfons; the love of truth, of imitation, and
of de/ign, grows upon him j and as his connexions
fpread among his neighbours, fellow citizens, and coun¬
trymen, his thirf of praife, emulation, and facial af-
fedions grow more intenfe and aCtive. Meanwhile,
it is impofiible for him to have lived thus long without
having become fenfible of thofe more auguft fignatures
of order, wifdom, and goodnefs, which are damped
on the vifible creation 5 and of thofe ftrong fuggeftions
within himfelf of a parent mind, the fource of all in¬
telligence and beauty j an objeCl as well as fource of
that aCtivity, and thofe afpirations which fometimes
roufe his inmofl frame, and carry him out of himfelf
to an almighty and all-governing powder : Hence arife
thofe fentiments of reverence, and thofe affeCtions of
gratitude, refgnation, and love, which link the foul with
the Author of Nature, and form that mod fublime and
godlike of all connexions.
Man having now reached his prime, either new
padions fucceed, or the old fet are wound up to a
22
^Gs. youth.
23
His man¬
hood.
higher pitch. For, growing more fenfible of his con- Of Man
nexions with the public, and that particular commu-c and his
nity to which he more immediately belongs; and tak-, " T
ing withal a larger profpeCt of human life, and its
various wants and enjoyments j he forms more inti¬
mate friendfhip, grafps at power, courts honour, lays
down cooler plans of intefed, and becomes more at¬
tentive to the concerns of fociety: he enters into fa¬
mily connexions, and indulges thofe charities which
arife from thence. The reigning pafiions of this pe¬
riod powerfully prompt him to provide for the decays
of life : and in it companion and gratitude exert their
influence in urging the man, now in full vigour, to re¬
quite the affeCtion and care of his parents, by fupply-
ing their wants and alleviating their infirmities.
At length human life verges downwards j and old
age creeps on apace, with its anxiety, love of eafe,
interefednefs,fearfulnefs,forefght, and love of offspring.
—The experience of the aged is formed to direft,
and their coolnefs to temper, the heat of youth : the
former teaches them to look back on pad follies 5 and
the latter to look forward into the confequences of
things, and provide againfl the word. Thus every age
has its peculiar genius and fet of padions correfponding
to that period, and mod conducive to the profperity of
the red. And thus are the wants of one period fupplied
by the capacities of another, and the weahneffes of one
age tally to the paffons of another. 25
Befides thefe, there are other padions and affections Paffions c£
of a lefs ambulatory nature, not peculiar to one period, every a£e*
but belonging to every age, and acting more or lefs in
every bread throughout life. Such are fe/f-love, bene-
valence, love of life, honour, fhame, hope, fear, defre,
averfion, joy, forrow, anger, and the like. The two
fird are affections ef a cooler drain j one pointing to
the good of the individual, the other to that of the
fpecies: joy and forrow, hope and fear, feem to be
only modifications, or different exertions, of the fame
original affeCtions of love and hatred, defre and avcr-
fon, arifing from the different circumdances or pofi-
tion of the objeCt defired or abhorred, as it is prefent
or abfent. From thefe likewife arife other fecondary
or occafonal padions, which depend, as to their exid-
ence and feveral degrees, upon the original affeCtions
being gratified or difappointed } as anger, complacence,
confidence, jealoufy, love, hatred, deje&ion, exultation,
contentment, difgufi, which do not form leading padions,
but rather hold ot them.
By thefe fimple but powerful fprings, w hether /te-Their joint
riodical or fixed, the life of man, weak and indigenteffec^£'
as he is, is preferved and fecured, and the creature is
prompted to a condant round ©f aCtion, even to fup-
ply his own numerous and ever-returning wants, and
to guard againd the various dangers and evils to which
he is obnoxious. By thefe links men are connected
with each other, formed into families, drawn into par¬
ticular communities, and all united as by a common
league into one fydem or body, whofe members feel
and fympathife one wdth another. By this admirable
adjudment of the conditution of man to his fate, and
the gradual evolution of his powers, order is main¬
tained, fociety upheld, and human life filled wdth that
variety of paflion and aCtion wdrich at oiice enliven and
diverfify it. 2-7
This is a fliort Iketch of the principal movements of Tlie c-ir£K^-
the mg P°wef*
Parti. MORAL PH
°f M?" the human mind. Yet thefe movements are not the
am his wh0]e 0f man . tjjey jmpei t0 adtion, but do not diredt
^ it : they need a regulator to guide their motions, to
meafure and apply their forces ; and accordingly they
have one that naturally fuperintends and dire&s their
adlion. We are confcious of a principle within us,
which examines, compares, and weighs things j notes
the differences, obferves the forces, and forefees the
confequences, of affedtions and adtions. By this power
we look back on paft times, and forward into futurity,
gather experiences, eftimate the real and compara¬
tive value of objedts, lay out fchemes, contrive means
to execute them, and fettle the whole order and eco¬
nomy of life. This power we commonly diftinguifh
by the name of reafon or refletlion, the bulinefs of
which is not to fuggeft any original notices or fen-
fations, but to canvafs, range, and make dedudtions
28 from them.
Thejudg- We are intimately confcious of another principle
ing or ap- within us, which approves of certain fentiments, paf-
powerf Jions, and aBions, and difapproves of their contraries.
In confequence of the decifions of this inward judge,
we denominate fome adfions and principles of condudt
right, honejl, good; and others wrong, dijhoneft, ill.
The former excite our ejleem, moral complacence, and
affeBion, immediately and originally of themfelves,
without regard to their confequences, and whether
they affedt our intereft or not. Th.e latter do as natu¬
rally and neceffarily call forth our contempt, /corn, and
averjion. That power by which w'e perceive this dif¬
ference in affedtions and adlions, and feel a confe-
quent relilh or diflike, is commonly called confcience or
the moralfenfe.
That there is fuch a power as this in the mind of
every man of found underftanding, is a fad! which
cannot be controverted •, but whether it be an inftinc-
tive power, or the refult of early and deep-rooted
affociations, has been long and ably debated. The
queftion is. of importance in the fcience of human na¬
ture, as well as in afcertaining the ftandard of pradli-
cal virtue j but to us it appears that the contending
parties have carried their refpedtive opinions to danger¬
ous extremes.
When it is affirmed, as it fometimes has been, that
reafon has nothing to do in ethical fcience, but that in
every poffible fituation our duty is pointed out and
the performance of it enforced by mere fentiment, the
confequence feems to be, that virtue and vice are no¬
thing permanent in themfelves, but change their na¬
ture according to local circumftances. Certain it is,
that fentiment has in fimilar fituations approved of very
different pradfices in different ages and different na-
An attempt tions. At prefent this fentiment in Europe approves of
to prove the univerfal pradlice of juftice, and of parents proted!-
thatwe jng tjjejr children, whether well or ill formed, whether
natureno ^rong °r wea^ : ^ut Sparta we know that theft,
fuch if dexteroufly pradlifed, wras approved, and not unfre-
powers. quently rewarded $ and that the expofition of lame and
deformed children was not only permitted, but abfo-
lutely enjoined. There is nothing which our confcience
or moral fenfe condemns with greater feverity, or views
as a crime of a deeper dye, than children’s unkind
treatment of their aged parents ; yet there are favages,
among whom inftindls of all kinds ought to prevail in
greater purity than in civilized nations, whofe moral
I L O S O P H Y. 365
fenfe permits them to put their aged and decrepid pa- Of Man
rents to death. If this fenfe be inftin&ive, and the and his
foie judge of right and wrong, how comes it to decide Conn^xlonsi‘
fo differently on the fame line of condu6f in different
ages and diftant countries ? The inflinfts of brutes, in
fimilar circumftances, prompt uniformly' to fimilar ac¬
tions in every age and in every region where the fpe-
cies is found 5 and the external fenfes of man afford
in all nations the fame unvaried evidence concerning
their refpe&ive objects. To thefe obfervations we may
add, that inftin&s muft be calculated for the ftate of
nature, whatever that ftate may be, and therefore can¬
not be fuppofed capable of direding our fteps through
all the labyrinths of poliflied fociety, in which duties
are to be performed that in a ftate of nature would
never have been thought of.
But though for thefe reafons it is apparent that
mere fentiment, whether called confcience or the mo¬
ral fenfe, would alone be a very unfafe guide to virtue
in every individual cafe that may occur, we think that
thofe who refolve all fuch fentiment into habit and
the effed of education, without giving any part of it
to nature, advance an opinion which is equally ill-
founded and not lefs dangerous There are, indeed,
men who affirm that all benevolence is hypocrify,
friendfhip a cheat, public fpirit a farce, fidelity a fnare
to procure truft and confidence j and that while all of
us at bottom purfue only our private intereft, we wear
thofe fair difguifes, in order to put thofe off their
guard with whom we have to deal, and to expofe
them the more to our wiles and machinations. Others
again, too virtuous to accufe themfelves and all man¬
kind of dired knavery, yet infift, that whatever affec¬
tion one may feel, or imagine he feels, for others, no
paffion is or can be difinterefted $ that the moft gene¬
rous friendihip, however fincere, is only a modification
of felf-love $ and that even unknown to ourfelves we
feek only our own gratification, while we appear the
moft deeply engaged in fchemes for the liberty~and
happinefs of mankind.
Surely the mildeft of thefe reprefentations is an
exaggerated pidure of the felfiftmefs of man. Self-
love is indeed a very powerful as well as an effential
principle in human nature j but ^hat we have likewife
an inftindive principle of benevolence, which, without
any particular regard to our own intereft, makes us feel
pleafure in the happinefs of other men, is a fad which
we think admits of very complete proof. For, as Mr
Hume well argues, “ when a man grieves for a friend
who could be of no fervice to him, but on the con- .
trary flood in need of his conftant patronage and pro-
tedion, how is it poffible to fuppofe that fuch paffion-
ate tendernefs arifes from felf-intereft, which has no
foundation in nature? What intereft (alks the, fame Examined,
deep thinker) can a fond mother have in view, who andftiow* .
lofes her health by her affiduous attendance on her fick
child, and afterwards languifhes and dies of grief when
freed by its death from the flavery of attendance ?—
Have we no fatisfadion (continues he) in one man’s
company above another’s, and no defire of the welfare
of our friend, even though abfence or death ffiould
prevent us from all participation in it ? Or what is
it commonly that gives us any participation in it, even
while alive and prefent, but our affedion and regard to
him ?” Nor is it to contemporaries and individuals
366
Of Man elene, tliat, mciependent of all intereft, we feel a bene-
and his voient attachment. We conftantly beftow praife on
onn^ on , a^.jori3 caicuiated to promote the good of mankind,
though performed in ages very diftant and in countries
nod remote*, and he who was the author of luch ac-
tions is the objeft of our efteem and affe£tion. There
is not perhaps a man alive, however felfiih in his dif-
pofition, who does not applaud the fentiment of that
emperor, who, recollefling at fupper that he had done
nothing in that day for any one, exclaimed with re¬
gret, that the day had been loft! yet the utmoft fub-
tility of imagination can difcover no appearance of in¬
tereft; that we can have in the generofity of Titus, or
find any connexion of our prefent happinefs with a
character removed fo far from us both in time and in
place. But, as Mr Hume juftly obferves, if we even
feign a chara£ter confiding of all the moft generous and
beneficent qualities, and give inftances in which thefe
difpfay themfelves, after an eminent and moft extraor¬
dinary manner, for the good of mankind, we fliall in-
ilantly engage the efteem and approbation of all our
audience, who \yill never fo much as inquire in what
age or country the accompliftred perfon lived.
Thefe are fa<fts -which cannot be controverted ; and
they are wholly unaccountable, if there b^not in hu¬
man nature an inftintHve fentiment of benevolence or
Sympathy which feels a difinterefted pleafure in the
happinefs of mankind. But an end in which rve feel
pleafure we are naturally prompted to purfue j and
therefore the fame fentiment impels every man, with
greater or lefs force, to promote the happinefs of other
men, which by means of it becomes in reality his own
good, and is afterwards purfued from the combined
motives of benevolence and felf-enjoyment. For in
obeying this fentiment we all feel an inward complacency,
felf-approbation, or confcioufnefs of worth or merit ;
and in difobeying it, which cannot be done but with
reluftance, we feel remorfe, or a confcioufnefs of un-
worthinefs or demerit. It appears, however, from hi-
ftory, that the fentiment, as it is inftin&ive, points only
to the good of mankind, without informing us how
that good is {to be promoted. The means proper for
this purpofe muft be difeovered by reafon •, and when
they are brought into view, this fentiment, confcience, or
moral fenfe, inftantly ftiows us that it is our duty to
purfue them.
^ Hence we fee how different lines of conduft may in
nate in the fimilar circumftances be approved of as virtuous in dif-
objedWs ferent nations. When the Spartan expofed his fickly
miftaking^ anj deformed child, and when the favage put his aged
«f thofe111 Parents to death, neither of them erred from want of
powers; fentiment, or from having fentiments originally differ¬
ent from ours. Their errors refulted from a defeft in
reafoning. They both imagined that they were obey¬
ing the law of benevolence by preventing mifery : for
a weak and deformed perfon was very ill qualified to
exift with any degree of comfort under the military
conftitution of Sparta, where all were foldiers, and
under the neceffity of enduring the greateft hard-
fhips $ and in a ftate where the people have no fixed
habitations, and where the chafe fupplies even the ne-
ceffaries of life, an aged and infirm perfon is in danger
©f periftiing through hunger, by one of the cruelleft
Part X.
and moft lingering of deaths. The theft allowed in Of'-'an
Sparta, if theft it may be called, was a ftlil lefs devia- s
tion from the inftindtive law of benevolence "Boys were c-oni‘'^,Jon8;
taught to flip as cunningly as they could into the gardens
and public halls, in order to fteal away herbs or meat j
and if they were caught in the fa£t, they were punish¬
ed for their want of dexterity. This kind of theft,
fince it was authorized by the law and the confent of
the citizens, was no robbery j and the intention of
the legiflator in allowing it, w7as to infpire the Spartan
youth, who were all designed for war, with the greater
boldnefs, fubtlety, and addrefs j to inure them be¬
times to the life of a foldier; and to teach them to
fhift for themfelves, and to live upon little. That the
Spartan legillator did wrong in giving his countrymen
a conftitution, of which luccelsful rvar was the ulti¬
mate obje£! } and that favages, rather than kill their
aged parents, or fuffer them to die of hunger, ought
to cultivate the ground, and abandon the chafe ; is
readily granted: but the faults of the one as well as
of the other arofe not from any improper decifion of
the moral fenfe, but from a defedl in their reafoning
powers, which were not able to eftimate the advantages
and difadvaiitages of different modes of life. In moral
decifions, therefore, confcience and reafon are aiding
to each other. The former principle, w’hen feparated *
from the latter, is defe&ivc, enjoining only the good
of mankind, but unable to point out the means by
which it can be moft e fife dually promoted ; and the
latter principle, when feparated from the former, only
direds a man to do what is moft prudent, but cannot
give him a conception of duty. 3*
Thefe two powers of reafon and confcience are evi- which are
dently principles different in nature and kind from the^Tureand
paflions and affedions. For the paftlons are mere force kind from
or power, blind impulfes, ading violently and without the paffiom
choice, and ultimately tending each to their reipedive a.nci a^ec"'
objeds, without regard to the intereft ©f the' others,tl0ns‘
or of the whole fyftem. Whereas the direSling and
judging powers diftinguilh and afeertain the different
forces, mutual proportions and relations, which the
paliions bear to each other, and to the whole j recog¬
nize their feveral degrees of merit, and judge of the
whole temper and condud, as they refped either the
individual or the fpecies j and are capable of direding
or reftraining the blind impulfes of paffion in a due
confiftency one with the other, and a regular fubordi-
nation to the whole fyftem. 33
This is fome account of the confituent principles 0fDIvifion
our nature, which, according to their different mix-^paf'’
tures, degrees, and proportions, mould our charader lQaS'
and fway our condud in life. In reviewing that large
train of affedions which fill up the different ftages of
human life, we perceive this obvious diftindion among
them ; that fome of them refped the good of the in¬
dividual, and others carry us beyond ourfelves to the
good of the fpecies or kind. The former have therefore
been called private, and the latter public affedions. Of
the firft fort are love of life, of pleafure, of power, and
the like. Of the laft are companion,gratitude, friendfhip>
natural afftfiion, and the like. Of the private paf-
fions (d), fome refped merely the fecurity and defence,
of the creature, fuch as refentment and fear; whereas
others
MOkAL PHILOSOPHY.
(d) Here we ufe pafuens and affedions without diftindion. Their difference will be marked afterwards.
Part I.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
3«
Public paf-
fyns.
otliers aim at fomepojltive adrantage or good, as wealth,
eafe,fame. The former fort, therefore, becaufe of this
difference of objects, may be termed defenjive paflions.
Thele anfvver to our dangers, and prompt us to avoid
them if we can, or boldly to encounter them when we
cannot.
The other clafs of private paflions, which purfue
private pojitive good, may be called appetitive. How¬
ever, we fhall ftill retain the name of private in con-
tradiflin&ion to the defenjive paflions. Man has a
great variety of wants to fupply, and is capable of
many enjoyments, according to the feveral periods of
his life, and the different fituations in which he is pla¬
ced. To thefe therefore a fuitable train of private paf-
fions correfpond, which engage him in the purfuit of
whatever is necelfary for his fubfiftence or welfare.
Our public or facial affe&ions are adapted to the fe-
vcral facial connexions and relations which we bear to
Others, by making us fenfible of their dangers, and in-
terefting us in their wants, and fo prompting us to fe-
Cure them againft one and fupply the other.
This is the firfl: ftep then to difcover the duty and
dejlination of man, the having analyzed the principles
of which he is compofed. It is neceffary, in the next
place, to confider in what order,proportion, and meafure,
of thofe inward principles, virtue, or a found moral
temper and right condudt, confifts j that we may dif¬
cover whence moral obligation arifes.
Chap. II. O^Duty, or Moral Obligation.
360
37
'‘The' mea- lx is by the end or defign of any power or movement
fure of tlurt we muft direct its motions, and effimate the degree
powers. of force neceffary to its juft aftion. If it wTant the force
requifite for the obtaining its end, we reckon it defec¬
tive j if it has too much, fo as to be carried beyond it,
we fay it is overcharged j and in either .cafe it is im¬
perfect and ill contrived. If it has juft enough to
reach the fcope, we' efteem it right and as it ftiould be.
38 Let us apply this reafoning to the paflions.
Meafure of The defence and fecurity of the individual being the
fvve paf-1* a^m t^ie defenfive pajfions, that fecuritij and defence
|^ns> muft be the meafure of their frength or indulgence. If
they are fo weak as to prove infufticient for that end,
or if they carry us beyond it, i. e. raife unneceflary com¬
motions, or continue longer than is needful, they are
unfit to anfwer their original deiign, and therefore are
in an unfound and unnatural (late. The exercife of
fear or of refentment has nothing defirable in it, nor
can we give way to either without painful fenfations.
Without a certain degree of them, we are naked and
expofed. With too high a proportion of them, we
are miferable, and often injurious to others. Thus
cowardice or timidity, which is the excefs of fear, in-
ftead of faving us in danger, gives it too formidable an
appearance, makes us incapable of attending to the
beft means of prefervation, and difarms us of courage,
our natural armour. Fool-hardinefs, which is the rvant
of a due meafure of fear, leads us heedlefsly into dan¬
ger, and lulls us into a pernicious fecurity. Revenge,
i. e. excejjive refentment by the violence of its commo
tion, robs us of that prefence of mind which is often the
beft £uard againft injury, and inclines us to purfue the
aggtetTb> with more feverity than felf-defence requires.
Tufllanimity, or the want of a juft indignation againft
wrong, leaves us quite unguarded, and tends to fink Of Moral
the mind into a paflive enervated tamenefs. There- QbllSatl0ff,f
fore, “ to keep the defenfive paflions duly propor- “
tioned to our dangers, is their natural pitch and te-
nor.” ^
The private paflions lead us to purfue fome poftivc Meafure of
fpecies of private good : that good therefore which is the private
the objeCl and end of each muft be the meafure of their pa 10
refpeClive force, and direCl their operation. If they
are too weak or fuggifh to engage us in the purfuit of
their feveral obje&s, they are evidently deficient; but
if they defeat their end by their impetuojity, then are
they drained beyond the juft tone of nature. Thus
vanity, or an excejjive pajjion for applaufe, betrays into
fucb meanneffes and little arts of popularity, as make
us forfeit the honour we fo anxioufly court. On the
other hand, a total indifference dbout the ejleem of man-,
kind, removes a ftrong guard and fpur to virtue, and
lays the mind open to .the moft abandoned profecutions.
Therefore, “ to keep our private paflions and defires pro¬
portioned to our wants, is the juft meafure and pitch
of this clafs of affeCtions.” 4#
The defenfve and private paflions do all agree in Compara*
general, in their tendency or conduciveneis to the in-tive forc<^‘
terert o«r good of the individual. Therefore, when
there is a collifion of intereft, as may fometimes hap¬
pen, that aggregate of good or happinefs, which is com¬
pofed of the particular goods to which they refpec-
tively tend, muft be the common ftandard by wdiich
their comparative degrees of ftrength are to be meafured:
that is to fay, if any of them, in the degree in which
they prevail, are incompatible with the greateft aggre¬
gate of good or moft extenfive intereft of the indivi¬
dual, then are they unequal and difproportionate. For
in judging of a particular fystem or conjlitution of powers,
we call that the fupreme or principal end, in w’hich the
aims of the feveral parts or powers coincide, and to-
which they are fubordinate ; ancffteckon them in due
proportion to each other, and right with regard to the
whole, when they maintain that fubordination of fub-
ferviency. Therefore, “ to proportion our defenfive
and private paflions in fuch meafure to our dangers
and wants as beft to fecure the individual, and obtain
the greateft aggregate of private good or happinefs, is
their juft balance or comparative ftaii jard in cafe of
competition.” ^
In like manner as the public or facial affeClions point Meafure
at the good of others, that good muft be the meafure the P?bIic
of their force. When a particular affeCtlon, as
gratitude or friendfhip, which belongs to a particular
focial connexion, viz. that of a bencfaOtor or of a friend,
is too feeble to make us act the grateful or friendly part,
that affeCtion, being infuflicient to anfwer its end, is
defective and unfound. If, on the other hand, a parti¬
cular palfion of this clafs counteract or defeat the inte¬
reft it is defigned'-to promote, by its violence or dif-
proportion, then is that paflion exeejjive and irregular.
Thus natural ajfe&ion, if it degenerates into a pefionate
fondnefs, not only hinders the parents from judging
coolly of the intereft of their offspring, but often
leads them into a moft partial and pernicious indul¬
gence. ' . 4* •
As every kind affeCtion points at the good of its Collifi0" of-
particular objeCt, it is poflible there may fometimes be^aI
a. coDifion of interefts or goods. Thus the regard due
368
Of Moral
Obligation
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Jalance of
affedlion.
44
(Limits of
private af-
fe&ions.
to a friend may interfere with that which we owe to
• a community. In fuch a competition of interefts, it is
evident that the greatejl is to be chofen ; and that is
the greatell intereft which contains the greateft fum or
a£8regate public good, greateft in quantity as well as
duration. This then is the common Jiandard by which
the refpedtive forces and fubordinations of the focial
affections muft be adjufted. Therefore we conclude
that “ this clafs of affeCtions are found and regular
when they prompt us to purfue the intereft of indivi¬
duals in an entire confiftency with the public good f or
in other words, “ when they are duly proportioned
to the dangers and wants of others, and to the va¬
rious relations in which we ftand to individuals or to fc-
cietij.^
Thus we have found, by an induction of particulars,
the natural pitch or tenor of the different orders of af'ec-
tion, confidered apart by themfelves. Now, as the vir¬
tue or perfection of every creature lies in following its
nature, or aCHng fuitably to the juft proportion and
harmony of its feveral powers ; therefore, “ the vir¬
tue of a creature endowed with fuch affeftions as man
muft confift in obferving or aCHng agreeably to their
natural pitch and tenor 1''
But as there are no independent affeClions in the
fabric of the mind, no paffion that ftands by itfelf,
without fome relation to the reft, we cannot pronounce
of any one, conftdered apart, that it is either too ftrong
or too weak. Its ftrength and juft proportion muft be
meafured not only by its fubferviency to its own im¬
mediate end, but by the refpeCt it bears to the whole
fyftem of affeClions. Therefore we fay a paftion is too
ftrong, not only wTen it defeats its own end, but when
it impairs the force of other pafllons, which are equally
neceffary to form a temper of mind fuited to a certain
economy or fate; and too weak, not merely on account
of its infufficiency to anfwer its end, but becaufe it
cannot fuftain its pa t or office in the balance of the
whole fyftem. Thus the love of life may be too fron%
when it takes from the regard due to one’s country,
®nd will not allow one bravely to encounter dangers,
or even death, on its account. Again, The love of
fame may be too weak when it throws down the
fences which render virtue more fecure, or weakens
‘the incentives which make it more aClive and public
fpirited.
If it be alked, “ How far may the affe&ions towards
private good or happinefs be indulged ?” One limit
was before fixed for the particular indulgence of each,
viz. their fubordination to the common aggregate of
good to the private fyftem. In thefe therefore a due
regard is always fuppofed to be had to health, reputa¬
tion, fortune, the freedom of a El ion, the unimpaired exer-
cfe °f reafon, the calm enjoyment of one's felf which
are all private godds. Another limit now refults from
the balance of affedlion juft named, viz. “ The fecurity
and happinefs of others or, to exprefs it more gene¬
rally, “ a private affedtion may be fafely indulged,
when, by that indulgence, we do not violate the obli¬
gations which refult from our higher relations or public
connexions.” . A juft refpeft therefore being had to
thefe boundaries which nature has fixed in the breart
of every man, what fhould limit our purfuits of private
happinefs ? Is nature fullen and penurious ? or, does
Part I
the God of nature envy the happinefs of his off- Of Moral
fpring ? Obligation.
Whether there is ever a real collifion of xntereffs v J
between the public and private fyftem of affeftions, or Collifion of
the ends which each clafs has in view, will be after-interefts.
wards confidered ; but where there is no collifion,
there is little or no danger of carrying either, but
efpecially the public affedfions, to excefs, provided both
kinds are kept fubordinate to a difereet and cool felf-
love, and to a calm and unive'rfal benevolence, which
principles ftand as guards at the head of each fyftem. 45
This then is the conduct bf the paflions, confidered
as particular and fparate forces, carrying us out to their
refpedtive ends j and this is their balance or economy,
confidered as compoundpowers, or powers mutually re¬
lated, adting in conjundtion towards a common end, and
confequently as forming a fystetn or whole. ^
Now, whatever adjufts or maintains this balance
whatever in the human conftitution is formed for di-tl0n
reeling the paffions fo as to keep them from defeating Powers*
their own end or interfering with each other, muft be
a principle of a fuperior nature to them, and ought to
diredt their meafures and govern their proportions.
But it was found that reafon or refledtion is fuch a
principle, which points out the tendency of our paf¬
fions, weighs their influence upon private and public
happinefs, and (hows the beft means of attaining either.
It having been likewife found that there is another
direfting or controlling principle, which we call con¬
science or the MORAL SENSE, which, by a native kind
of authority, judges of affedlions and adtions, pronoun¬
cing [ovaejuf and good, and others unjuf and ill; it
follows, that the paffions, which are mere impulfe or
blind forces, are principles inferior and fubordinate to
this judging faculty. Therefore, if we would follow
the order of nature, i. e. obferve the mutual refpedls
and the fubordination which the different parts of the
human conftitution bear one to another, the paffions
ought to be fubjedted to the diredtion and authority of
the leading or controlling principles. ^
We conclude, therefore, from this induElion, that In what it
the confutation or juft economy of human nature confifts0011^5*
in a regular fubordination of the paftions and affeEtions
to the authority of conftcience and the dircElion of rea¬
fon.
That fubordination is regular, when the proportion Economy of
formerly mentioned is maintained; that is to fay, nature or
“ when the defenfve paflions are kept proportioned n^t tem*
to our dangers; when the private paffions are propor-1**'
tioned to our wants; and when the public affedlions
are adapted to our public connexions, and proportioned
to the wants and dangers of others.”
But tht natural fate, or the found and vigorous co/z-Human
fitution o; any creature, or the juft economy of its virtue and
powers, we call its health and perfeElion; and the adling perfection,
agreeably to theie, its virtue or goodnefs. Therefore,
“ the health and perfeElion of man muft lie in the
aforefaid fupremacy of confcience and reafon, and in the
fubordination of the paflions to their authority and di-
reElion. And his virtue ox goodnefs muft confift in adt-
ing agreeably to that order or economy."
That fuch an ornament of the mind, and fuch ahowcon-
condudl of its powers and paffions, will ftand the tefttormal?!e
of reafon, cannot admit of any difpute. For, upon at<J realan'
fait
I
Part T.
MORAL PH
Of Moral fair examination into tlie confequences of things, or
Obligation. t}ie relati0ns and aptitudes of means to ends, reafon evi-
dently demonftrates, and experience confirms jt, that,
“ to have our defenfive pajfwns duly proportioned to
our dangers, is the iureft way to avoid or get clear of
them, and obtain the fecurity we feek after.—To pro¬
portion our private pajjions to' our wants, is the belt
means to fupply them }—and, to adapt our public af-
feBions to our facial relations, and the good of others, is
'the mod effe&ual method of fulfilling the one, and procur¬
ing the other” In this fenfe, therefore, virtue may be
faid to be a “ conduB conformable to reafon” as rea¬
fon difeovers an apparent aptitude, in fuch an order and
economy of powers and palTions, to anfwer the end for
which they are naturally formed.
^. n If the idea of moral obligation is to be deduced mere-
betweenaf-ly from this aptitude or connexion between certain paf-
fedlions and lions, ora certain order and balance of paffions, and
ends, not certain ends obtained or to be obtained by them, then
the Tbif 5s reafon or reflcBion, which perceives that aptitude or
ration.03 connexion, the proper judge of moral obligation-, and
on this fuppofition it may be defined, as hath been
done by fome, the connexion between the affeBion ana
the end, or, which is the fame thing, between the ac¬
tion and the motive ; for the end is the motive or the
final caufe, and the ajfeBion is the aBion, or its imme¬
diate natural caufe. A man, from mere felf-love,
may be induced to fulfil that obligation which is
founded on the connexion between the defenjive paf¬
fions and their ends, or the private paffions and their
ends ; becaufe in that cafe his own intereft will prompt
him to indulge them in the due proportion required.
But if he has no aflfe&ions which point beyond him-
felf, no principle but felf-love, or fome fubtle modifi¬
cation of it, what fhall intereft him in the happinefs
of others, where there is no connexion between it and
his own ? or what fenfe can he have of moral obliga¬
tion to promote it ? Upon this fcheme, therefore, with¬
out public or focial affe£tion, there could be no motive,
and confequently no moral obligation, to a beneficent
difinterefted conduft.
But if the mere connexion between certain paffions,
or a certain order of paffions, and certain ends, is
what conflitutes or gives us the idea of moral obliga¬
tion, then why may not the appofitenefs of any tem¬
per or conduct, nay, of any piece of machinery, to ob¬
tain its end, form an equally flri£l moral obligation ?
for the connexion and aptitude are as ftrong and in¬
variable in the latter inftances as in the former. But
as this is confounding the moft obvious differences of
things, wre muff trace the idea of moral obligation to
another and a more natural fource.
Idea^of it Let us appeal, therefore, to our inmoft fenfe and
from expe- experience, “ how we Hand affefted to thofe different
rience. fe^ 0f paffions, in the juft meafure and balance of
which we found a right temper to confifL” For this
is entirely a matter of experience, in which wre muft
examine, as in any other natural inquiry, \\hat aie
the genuine feelings and operations of nature, and
what affeSions or fymptoms of them appear in the
given inflance.’1
The defenfive paffions, as anger and fear, give us
uciciinvc rather pain than pleafure, yet we cannot help feeling
paflions ap-them when provoked by injury, or expofed to haim.
proved. acc0unt the creature imperfe6l that .wants them,
Vol. XIV. Part I.
54
Why the
defenfive
IL O S O P H Y. .3^9
becaufe they are neceffary to his defence. Nay, we Of Mora/
fhould in fome meafure. condemn curfelves, did we u
wrant the neceffary degree of refentment and caution.
But if our refentment exceeds the wuong received, or
our caution the evil dreaded, we then blame ourfelves
for having overaffed our part. Therefore, while
wTe are in danger, to be totally deftitute of them we
reckon a blameable defeB, and to feel them in a juft,
i. e. neceffary meafure, we approve, as fuited to the
nature and condition of fuch a creature as man. But
our fecurity obtained, to continue to indulge them, w’e
not only difapprove as hurtful, but condemn as unmanly,
unbecoming, and mean fpinted: Nor will fucli a conduct
afford any felf-approving joy when we coolly refle£t
upon it.
With regard to the private paffions, fuch as love of
life, pleafure, cafe, and the like, as thefe aim at pri- private.,
vate good, and are neceffary to the perfection and
happinefs of the individual, we fhould reckon any
creature defeBive, and even blameable, that was deftitute
of them. Thus, we condemn the man who impru¬
dently ruins his fortune, impairs his health, or expofes
his life; we not only pity him as an unfortunate crea¬
ture, but feel a kind of moral indignation and contempt
of him, for having made himfelf fuch. On the other
hand, though a difereet felf-regard does not attract
our efteem and veneration, yet we approve of it in fome
degree, in a higher and different degree from what
we would regard a well contrived machine, as neceffary
to conftitute a finifhed creature, nay, to complete the
virtuous character, as exaCtly fuited to our prefent in¬
digent ft ate. There are fome paffions refpeCting pri¬
vate good, towards which we feel higher degrees of
approbation, as the love of knowledge, of aBion, of ho¬
nour, and the like. We efteem them as marks of an
ingenious mind j and cannot help thinking the character
in which they are wanting remarkably ftupid, and in
fome degree immoral. $6
With regard to the focial affeCtions, as compaffion{Why the
natural affeBion, friendjhip, benevolence, and the like, public,
we approve, admire, and love them in ourfelves, and,
in all in whom we difeover them, with an efteem and
approbation, if not different in kind, yet furely far fu-
perior in degree, to what we feel towards the other paf¬
fions. Thefe we reckon neceffary, juft, and excellent¬
ly fitted to our ftruCiure and ftate ; and the creature
which wants them we call defeClive, ill-conftituted,
a. kind of abortion. But the public affeClions we ef¬
teem as felf-rvorthy, originally and eternally amiable. ^
But among the facial affeCf ions we make an obvious Diftindfio*
and conftant diftinCtion, viz. between thofe particular between
paffions which urge us with a hidden violence, and un*
eafy kind of fenfation, to purfue the good of their re- aft-ecqions.
fpeClive objefts, as pity, natural affeBion, and the like ;
and thofe calm difpaffionate affeClions and defires which
prompt us more fteadily and uniformly to promote the
happinefs of others. The former we generally call paf-
fons, to diftinguifh them from the other fort, which go
more commonly by the name of affeBions, or calm de¬
fires. The firft kind we approve indeed, and delight
in ; but we feel ftill higher degrees of approbation and
moral complacence towards the lafi, and towards all li¬
mitation of the particular inftinCls, by the principle of
univerfal benevolence. The more objeCls the calm af¬
feClions take in, and the worthier thefe are, their dig-
3 A nity
37°
Of Moral nity rifes in proportion, an i with this our approbation
Obligation, keeps in exa£t pace. A chara£ter, on the other hand,
which is quite divefted of thefe public affedlions, which
feels no love for the fpecies, but inftead of it entertains
malice, rancour, and ill will, we reckon totally immo¬
ral and unnatural.
Such then are the fentiments and difpofitions we feel
when thefe feveral orders of affedlions pafs before the
mental eye.
Therefore, “ that ftate in which we feel ourfelves
moved, in the manner above deferibed, towards thofe
affections and paffions, as they come under the mind’s
review, and in which we are, inftantaneoufly and inde¬
pendently of our choice or volition, prompted to a cor-
refpoiident conduct, w’e call a Hate of moral obligation.'''*
Let us fuppofe, for inftance, a parent, a friend, a be¬
nefactor, reduced to a condition of the utmolt indigence
and diitrefs, and that it is in our power to give them
immediate relief. To what conduCt are we obliged ?
what duty does nature didtate and require in fuch a
cafe ? Attend to nature, and nature will tell, with a
voice irrefiftibly audible and commanding to the human
heart, with an authority which no man can filence with¬
out being felf-condemned, and which no man can elude
but at his peril, “ that immediate relief ought to be gi¬
ven.” Again, Let a friend, a neighbour, or even a
flranger, have lodged a defiofte in our hands, and after
feme time reclaim it ; no fooner do thefe ideas of the
confidence repofed in us, and of property not transfer¬
red, but defiofted, occur, than wre immediately and un¬
avoidably feel and recognize the obligation to refiore it.
In both thefe cafes we fhould condemn and even loathe
ourfelves if we adted othenvife, as having done, or
omitted doing, what rve ought not, as having added be¬
neath the dignity of our nature ;—contrary to our moft
intimate fenfe of right and wrong:—we fhould accufe
ourfelves as guilty of ingratitude, injuflice, and inhu¬
manity,—and be confcious of deferving the cenfure, and
therefore dread the refentment, of all rational beings.—
J3ut in complying with the obligation, we feel joy and
felf-approbation,—are confcious of an inviolable harmo¬
ny between our nature and duty, and think ourfelves
entitled to the applaufe of every impartial fpedfator of
our condudt.
Moral obli- T0 deferibe, therefore, what we cannot perhaps de-
gation. fine, a Hate of moral obligation is “ that Hate in which
a creature, endued with fuch fenfes, powers, and af-
fedtions as man, would condemn himfelf, and think
he deferved the condemnation of all others, fhould
he refufe to fulfil it ; but would approve himfelf, and
expedt the approbation of all others, upon complying
^ with it.”
Moral And we call him a moral AGENT, who is in fuch a
agent. fate, or is fubjedi to moral obligation. Therefore, as
man’sfiruElure and connexions often fubjedi him to fuch
a Hate of moral obligation, we conclude that he is a mo-
ral agent. But as man may fometimes adl without
knowing what he does, as in cafes of fretrzy or dtfeafe,
or in many natural funElions; or, knowing what he
does, he may adl without choice or ajfe&ion, as in cafes
of necefiity or compulfion ; therefore, to denominate an
Moral ac- a&'on mora^ i- e. approveable, or blameable, it mufl be
tion good done knowingly and willingly, or from afifedlion and
and bad. choice. “ A morally good aBion, then, is to fulfil a
moral obligation knowingly and willingly.” And a
Part I.
morally bad aBion, or an immoral aBion, is, “ to vio- Of Moral
late a moral obligation knowingly and willingly.” Obligation.
As not an aBion, but a feries of aBions, confiitute a
charaBer ; as not an offeBion, but a feries of ajfeBions, Moral cha-
conHitute a temper; and as we denominate things by rafter and
the grofs, a fortiori, or by the qualities which chielly temper
prevail in them ; therefore wTe call that a “ morally good an<*
charaBer, in which a fcries of morally good aBions pre¬
vail j” and that a “ morally good temper, in which a
feries of morally good ajfeBions have the afeendant.”
A bad charadler and bad temper are the reverfe. But
wdiere the above-mentioned order or proportion of paf¬
fions is maintained, there a feries of morally good ajftc-
tions and aBi{>ns will prevail. Therefore, “ to maintain
that order and proportion, is to have a morally good
temper and charaBer.'1'1 But a “ morally good temper
and charadler is moral rcBitude, integrity, virtue, or the
completion of duty.'1'1 ^
If it be afked, after all, “ bow we come by the idea jjow we
“ of moral obligation or duty /” we may anfvver, That come by
we come by it in the fame way as by our other original^ idea of
and primary perceptions. We receive them ail from naofai °^‘"
nature, or the great Author of nature. For this idea Satl011*
of moral obligation is not a creature of the mind, or de¬
pendent on any previous adl of volition ; but arifes on
certain occafions, or when certain other ideas are pre-
fented to the mind, as neceffarily, inHantaneouily, and
unavoidably, as pain does upon too near an approach to
the fire, or pleafure from the fruition of any good. It
does not, for inflance, depend on our choice, whether
we Ihall feel the obligation to fuccour a uillreffed parent,
or to reHore a depofite intruded to us when it is recal¬
led. We cannot call this a compound idea made up of
one or more fimple ideas. We may indeed, nay we
mull, have feme ideas antecedent to it, e. g. that of a
parent—in didrefs—of a child—able to relieve—of the
relation of one to the other—of a trufl—of right, &c.
But none of thefe ideas conftitute the perception of
obligation. This is an idea quite diilindl from, and
fomething fuperadded to, the ideas of the correlatives,
or the relation fubfilling between them. Thefe indeed,
by a law of our nature, are the occafion of CuggcHing
it *, but they are as totally different from it as colours
are from founds. By fenfe of refledlion we perceive the
correlatives ; our memory recals the favours or depofite
we received; the various circumHances of the cafe are
matters of fa£l or experience ; but fome delicate inward
organ or power, or call it what we pleafe, does, by a
certain indantaneous fympathy, antecedent to the cool
deductions of reafon, and independent of previous in-
druClion, or volition, perceive the moral harmony, the
living, irrcfifiible charms of moral obligation, which im¬
mediately intereds the correfpondent padions, and
prompts us to fulfil its lawful dictates. ^
We need not apprehend any danger from the quick-The me of
nefs of its decifions, nor be frightened becaufe it looks rea^on'n
like mfiinB, and has been called fo. Would we ap- moxa^ cafcs<
prove one for deliberating long, or realoning the mat¬
ter much at leifure, whether he lliould relieve a di-
ftreffed parent, feed a darving neighbour, or redore
the trull committed to him ? Ihould we not fufpeCt
the reafoner of knavery, or of very weak affeCtions to
virtue ? We employ reafon, and worthily employ it,
in examining the condition, relations, and other cir-
cumftances of the agent or patient, or of thofe with
whom
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part I.
Of Percep¬
tion and
Affeddion.
64
Pleafure
not ti.e
idea of obi
gation.
MORAL PH
whom either of them are conne&ed, or, in other words,
ihejlate of the cafe: and in complicated cafes, where
the circumllances are many, it may require no fmall
attention to find the true ftate of the cafe *, but when
the relations of the agent or patient, and the circum-
flances of the aflion are obvious, or come out fuch
after a fair trial, we (hould fcarcely approve him who
demurs on the obligation to that condutl which the
cafe fuggefis*
From what has been faid, it is evident, that it is net
the pleafure or agreeable fenfations which accompany
"the exercife of the feveral affe&ions, nor thofe con-
fequent to the aftions, that conftitute moral obliga¬
tion, or excite in us the idea of it. I hat pleafure is
poftcrior to the idea of obligation ■, and frequently we
are obliged, and acknowledge ourfelves under an obli¬
gation, to iuch affeftions and actions as are attended
with pain *, as in the trials of virtue, where we are obli¬
ged to facrifice private to public good, or a prefent
pleafure to a future interefl. We have pleafure in ferv-
ing an aged parent, but it is neither the perception nor
profpeft of that pleafure which gives us the idea of ob¬
ligation to that conduct.
Chap. III. The Final Caufes of our moral Faculties
c/'Perception and Affection.
The furve We have now taken a general profpeft of MAN and
propofed. y of his moral powers and connexions, and on tbefe erect¬
ed a fchetre of duty, or moral obligation, which feems
to be confirmed by experience, confonant to reafon, and
approved by his molt inward and moll [2.0x0.^ fenfes. It
may be proper, in the next place, to take a more par¬
ticular view of the final catfcs of thofe delicate fprings
by which he is impelled to action, and of thofe clogs by
\vhich he is reftrained from it. By this detail w’e {hall
be able to judge of their aptitude to anfwer their end,
in a creature endued with his capacities, fubjeft to his
wants, expofed to his dangers, and fufceptible of his
enjoyments ; and from thence we fhall^be in a condition
to pronounce concerning the end of his wholefirudlure,
its harmony with itsJlate, and confequently its fubiervi-
enev to anfwer the great and benevolent intentions of
its Author. ,
T ward The fupreme Being has feen fit to blend m the whole
anatomy of of things a prodigious variety of difeordant and contra-
thc fyftem j-y principles, light and darhiefs, pleafure and pain,
of the ,-0(Jg and eviP There are multifarious natures, higher
mInd‘ and lower, and many intermediate ones between the
wide-diftant extremes. Thefe are differently fituated,
varioufly adjulled, and fubjedled to each other, and
all of them fubordinate to the order and perfection
of the whole. We may fuppofe man placed as in a
centre amidft thofe innumerable orders of beings, by
his outward frame drawing to the material fyffem, and
by his inward conne&ed with the INTELLECTUAL or
moral, and of courfe affcCled by the laws wFich go¬
vern both, or affedied by that good and that ill which
refult from thofe laws. In this infinite variety of re¬
lations with which he is furrounded, and of contingencies
to which he is liable, he feels ffrong attraaions to
the good, and \blent repulfions or averfions to the ill.
But as good and ill are often blended, and wonder¬
fully complicated one with the other ; as they fome-
times immediately produce ard run up into each other,
I LO SOPHY. 37*
and at other times lie at great diftar.ces, yet by meins 0fPeroT-
of intervening links introduce one another j and as ^”p-’on-
thefe effeas are often brought about in confequence ot
hidden relations and general laws, of the energy of
which he is an incompetent judge ; it is eaiy ;or b.m
to miftake good for evil, and evil for good, and con¬
fequently he may be frequently attraaed by uch
things as are deftruaive or repel luch as are falutary.
Thus, by the tender and complicated frame of his
body, he is fubjeaed to a great variety of ills, to fich-
nefs, cold, heat, fatigue, and innumerable wants. Yet
his knowledge is fo narrow withal, and his reafun (o
w-eak, that in many cafes he cannot judge, in the way
of inveftigation or reafoning, of the connexions of
thofe effeas with their refpeaive caufes, or_ of the
various latent energies of natural things. He is there¬
fore informed of this connexion by the experience
of certain fenfes or organs of perception, w’hich by a
mechanical inilantaneous motion, feel the good and
the ill, receiving plealure from one, and pain from the
other. By thefe, without any reafoning, he is taught
to attraa or choofe what tends to his welfare, and to
repel and avoid what tends to his ruin. Ihus, by
his fenfes of tafle and finell, or by the pleafure he re¬
ceives from certain kinds of food, he is admonilhed
w’hich agree wTith his conllitution ; and by an oppO-
fite fenfe of pam he is informed which fort difagree,
or are dellruftive of itbut is not by means of this^
inltrudled in the inward natures and conllitutions of
things. ^ 67
Some of thefe fenfes are armed with ftrong degrees ufe 0fap.
of uncafinefs or pain, in order to urge him to feek after petites and
fuch objedls as are fuited to them. And thefe re-P‘!®ou'‘
fpe£t his more immediate and pretling wants ; as the
fenfe of hunger, thirfi, cold, and the like j which, by
their painful importunities, compel him to provide
food, drink, raiment, (belter. Thofe inffbas by which
we are thus prompted wTith fome kind of commotion
or violence to attraa and purfue good, or to repel and
avoid ill, we call appetites and paffions. By our fenfes
then wre are informed of what is good or ill to the pri¬
vate fystem, or the individual; and by our private appe¬
tites and pajjions we are impelled to one, and rellrained
from the other. _ 63
In confequence of this machinery, and the great Man’s out-
train of wants to W’hich our nature fubjeas us, we are ward ftate.
engaged in a continued feries of occupations, which
often require much application of thought, or great
bodily labour, or both. The neceffaries of life, food,
clothes, Ihelter, and the like, mull be provided 5 con-
veniencies mull be acquired to render life lliil more
eafy and comfortable. In order to obtain thefe, arts,
indullry, manufaaures, and trade are neceffary. And
to feeure to us the peaceable enjoyment ot their fruits,
civil government, policy, and laws, muff be contrived,
and the various bufinefs of public life carried on : thus,
while man is concerned and bulled in making provifion,
or obtaining fecurity for himfelf, he is by aegrees en¬
gaged in connexions with a family, friends, neighbours,
a community, or a commonwealth. Hence arife new
wants, new interells, new’ cares, and new employments.
The pafiions of one man interfere with thofe of another.
Interells are oppofed. Competitions arife, contrary
courfes are taken. Hifappointments happen, dillinc-
tions are made, and parties formed. Ibis opens a vail
3 A 2 bene
372
Cf Percep
tion and
Afiedti'on.
69
Provillons
for it.
7° _
By public
fcni'es and
paliions.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
71
Pity.
72
Congratu¬
lation.
73
Refent-
inent.
74
Public af-
leblions.
■ fcene cf dlifraftion and embarrafiment, and introduces
a mighty train of good and ill, both public and private.
Yet amidft all this confufion and hurry, plans of action
muft be laid, confequences forefeen or guarded againft,
inconveniences provided for 5 and frequently particular
refolutions mult be taken, and fchemes executed, with¬
out reafoning or delay.
Now what provilion has the Author of our nature
made for this neceditous'condition ? how has he fitted
the after, man, for playing his part in this perplexed
and bufy fcene ?
Our fupreme Parent, watchful for the wdiole, has not
left himfelf without a witnefs here neither, and hath
made nothing imperfect, but all things are double one
againtt the other. He has not left man to be informed,
only by the cool notices of reafion, of the good or
the happinefs or mifenj of his fellow creatures.—He has
made him fenfible of their good and happinefs,•• but ef-
pecially of their ill and mifery, by an immediate fym-
pathy, or quick feeling of pleafure and oipain.
The latter we call pity or compassion. For the
former, though every one, who is not quite divefted of
humanity, feels it in feme degree, vve have not got a
name, unlefs w’e call it congratulation or joyful
sympathy, or that good humour which arifes on feeing
others pleafed or happy. Both thefe feelings have been
called in general the public or common sense, y.or>A
(t'.xpotrvw, by wdiich we feel for others, and are intereft-
ed in their concerns as really, though perhaps lefs fen-
fibly, than in our own.
When we fee our fellow creatures unhappy through
the fault or injury of others, we feel refentment or in¬
dignation againft the unjuf caufers of that mifery.—If
we are confcious that it has happened through our fault
or injurious conduct, we feel Jlmnic; and both thefe
clafies offenfes and pafions, regarding mfery and wrong,
are armed with fuch iharp fenfations of pain, as not on¬
ly prove a powerful guard and fecurity to the fpecies,
or public fjstcm, againft thofe ills it may, but ferve alfo
to leffen or remove thofe ills it does, fuffer. Compaffion
draws us out of ourfelves to bear a part of the misfor¬
tunes of others, powerfully folicits us in their favour,
melts us at the fight of their diitrefs, and makes us in
feme degree unhappy till they are relieved from it. It
is peculiarly well adapted to the condition of human
life, becaufe it is much more and oftener in our power
to do mifehief than good, tmd to prevent or leflen mi¬
fery than to communicate pofitive happinefs ; and there¬
fore it is an admirable reftraint upon the more felfjh
pafiions, or thofe violent impulfes that carry us to the
hurt of others.
There are other particular inflinBs or pajjions which
intereft us in the concerns of others, even while vve
are moft bufy about our own, and which are ftrongly
attraflive of good., and repulfive of ill to them. Such
are natural ajiciion, friendfhip, love, gratitude, defre
of fame, love of fociety, of one's country, and others
that might be named. Now as the private appetites and
pailions were found to be armed with ftrong fenfa¬
tions of defire and uneafinefs, to prompt man the
more effectually to fuftain labours, and to encounter
dangers in purfuit of thofe goods that are neceflary to
the prefervation and welfare of the individual, and to
avoid tbofe ills which tend to his deflrudtion 5 in like
manner it was neceffary, that this other gjafs of defires
Part T.
^and affections fhould be prompted with as quick fen- Of Percep-
fations of pain, not only to counteract the ftrength of t °.n,f.nc*
their antagofliits, but to engage us in a virtuous aCti-,
vjty for our relations, families, friends, neighbours,
country. Indeed our ferfe of right and wrong will ad-
monifh us that it is our duty, and reafon and experience
farther affure us that it is both our interef and beit
fecurity, to promote the happinefs of others 5 but that
fenfe, that reafon, and that experience, would frequent¬
ly prove but weak and ineffectual prompters to fuch
a conduCt, efpecially in cafes of danger and hard-
Ihip, and amidit all the importunities of nature, and
that conftant hurry in which the private paffions in¬
volve us, without the aid of thofe particular i/W affec¬
tions which mark cut to us particular fpheres of duty,
%nd with an agreeable violence engage and fix us down
to them. ^ _
It is evident, therefore, that thofe two claffes of Contralto?
affeCtion, the private and public, are fet one againft the baltnce ot'
other, and defigned to contr®! and limit each other’s
influence, and thereby to produce a juft balance in
the whole*.' In general, the violent fenfations of * Vid.
pain and uneafinefs which accompany hunger, thirft, chefcn's
and the other private appetites, or too great fatigue ^
of mind as well as of body, prevent the individualy/ow,Treat,
from running to great exceffes in the exercife of the u §• 2.
higher functions of the mind, as too intenfe thought
in the learch of truth, violent application to bufinefs
of any kind, and different degrees of romantic heroifm.
On the other hand, the finer fenfes of perception, qnd
thofe generous defires and affeBions which are connected
with them, the love of aBion, of imitation, of truth,
honour, public virtue, and the like, are wifely placed
in the oppofite fcale, in order to prevent us from fink¬
ing into the dregs of the animal life, and debafing the
dignity of man below the condition of brutes. So
that, by the mutual reaClion of thofe oppofite powers,,
the bad effefts are prevented that would naturally re-
fult from their aCling fingly and apart, and the good
effeCls are produced which each are feverally formed to
produce. ^
The fame wholefome oppofitioff appears likewife Contraft 03
in the particular counter-workings of the private and balance of
public affeCtions one againft the other. Thus compaf- ^
fon is adapted to counterpoife the love of eafe, of plea- plffions.
fare, and of life, and to difarm or to fet bounds to re¬
fentment ; and refentment of injury done to ourfelves,
or to our friends who are dearer than ourfelves, pre¬
vents an effeminate compajfton or conf emotion, and
gives us a noble contempt ol labour, pain, and death.
Natural affeBion, friendfhip, love of one's country, nay,
‘zeal for any particular virtue, are frequently more
than a match for the whole train of felffh' paflions.
—On the other hand, without that intimate over¬
ruling pafilon of felf love, and thofe private defires
which are conneCIed with it, the facial and tender in-
finBs of the human heart would degenerate into the
wildeft dottage, the moft torturing anxiety, and down¬
right frenzy. 77
But not only are the different orders or clafles of Contrails
affeClion checks one upon another, but paflions of theam°n&£.
fame claffes are mutual clogs. Thus, how many are tjlc rame
withheld from the violent outrages of refentment by clafles.
fear ! and how eafily is fear controlled in its turn,
while mighty w’rongs awaken a mighty refentment l
The
Part I.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Of Percep- The private paffions often interfere, and therefore mo-
Afl'1/>-nd derate the violence of each other ; and a calm felf-
A cction. js piace(j at thtir head, to direft, influence, and
control their particular attraftions and repulfions.
The public afifeftions likewife reftrain one another j
and all of them are put under the controul of a calm
difpaflionate benevolence, which ought in like manner
to direht and limit their particular motions. Thus
mod part, if not all the paffions, have a twofold afpedt,
and ferve a twofold end. In one view they may^ be
confidered as powers, impelling mankind to a certain
courfe, with a force proportioned to the apprehended
’moment of the good they aim at. In another view they
appear as weights, balancing the adflion oi the powers,
and controlling the violence of their impulfes. By
means of thefe powers and weights a natural poife is fet¬
tled in the human bread by its all-wile Autnor, by
W’hich the creature is kept tolerably fleady and regular
in his courfe, amidft that variety of dages through
-75 wdiich he mud pafs.
Particular But this is not all the proviflon which God has made
perceptions f05- flurry and perplexity of the fcene in which
er inftir.as man ;3 dgftined to aa. Amidd thofe infinite attrac¬
tion.^ ^ °'J" tions and repulfions towards private and public good
and ill, mankind either cannot often forefee the confe-
quences or tendencies of all their aftions towards one
or other of thefe, efpecially where thofe tendencies
are intricate and point difterent ways, or thole conie-
quences remote and complicated $ or though, by care¬
ful and cool inquiry, and a due improvement of their
rational powers, they might find them out, yet, di-
ftraiifed as they are with bufinefs, amufeo with tribes,
diffipated by pleafure, and didurbed by paffion, they
either have or can find no leifure to attend to thole
confequences, or to examine how far this or that con-
duff is produffivc of private or public good on the
whole. Therefore, w7ere it left entirely to the flow
and fober deduflions of reafon to trace thofe tenden¬
cies, and make out thofe confequences, it is evident,
that in many particular indances the bufinefs of Ike
mud dand dill, and many important occafions of ac¬
tion be lod, or perhaps the groffed blunders be com¬
mitted. On this account, the Deity, befides that ge¬
neral approbation wffiich we bedow on every, degree
of hind a deed ion, has moreover implanted in man
many particular perceptions or determinations. to ap¬
prove of certain qualities or actions, which, in eftecf,
tend to the advantage of fociety, and are connefled
with private good, though he does not always fee that
tendency, nor mind that connexion. And .thefe per¬
ceptions or determinations do, without reafoning, point
out, and, antecedent to views of intered, prompt to a
conduff beneficial to the public, and ufeful to the pri¬
vate fyflem. Such is that fenfe of candour and veracity,
that abhorrence offraud and fa fehood,^ dc\-d.t fenfe of fide-
lily, jufiice, gratitude, greatnefs of mind, fortitude, cle¬
mency, decorum, and that difapprobation of hnayeiy, in-
jufiice, ingratitude, meannefs offpint, cowardice, cruel¬
ty, and indecorum, w’hich are natural to the human
mind. The former of thofe difpofitions, and the. ac¬
tions flowing from them, are approved, and thofe ot
the latter kind difapproved by us, even abftra^ed “um
the view of their tendency or conduciveneis the hap-
pinefs Or milery of others, or of ourlelves. In one we
difeern a beauty, a fupenor excellency, a congrusty to the.
dignity of man ; in the other a deformity, a littlenefs, a
debafement, of human nature.
There are other principles alfo connected with tne
good of fociety, or the happinefs and perfection of the
individual, though that connexion is not immediately
apparent, which we behold with real complacency and
approbation, though perhaps inferior in degree, if not
in kind, fuch as gravity, madefy, fimplicity of deport¬
ment, temperance, prudent economy; and we feel fome
degree of contempt and dilliKe where they are want¬
ing", or where the oppoflte qualities prevail. . Thefe
and the like perceptions ox feelings are either different
modifications of the moralfenfe, ox fubordinate to it, and
plainly ferve the fame important purpofe, being expedi¬
tious monitors, in the levejral emergencies of a various
and diltracled life, of what is right, what is wrong,
what is to be purfued, and what avoided,■ and, by the
pleafant or painful confcioufnefs which attends them,
exerting their influence as powerful prompters to a fuit-
able conduft.
From a flight infpeCion of the above-named prin¬
ciples, it is evident they all carry a friendly. afpedt. to
fociety and the individual, and have a more immediate1
or a more remote tendency to promote the perfeShon
or good of both. I his tendency cannot be always
forefeen, and wrould be often miftaken or feldom at¬
tended to by a weak, bufy, ftiort-fighted creature like
man, both rafli and variable in his opinions, a .dupe to
his own paffions, or to the defigns of others, liable to
ficknefs, to wrant, and to error. Principles, therefore,
which are fo nearly linked with private fecurity and
public good, by diredling him, without operole realon-
ing, where to find the one, and how to promote the other ;
and, by prompting him to a condudt conducive to both,
are admirably adapted to the exigencies of his prefent
ftate, and wifely calculated to obtain the ends of uni-
verfal benevolence.
It were eafy, by confidering the fubjeft in another
light, to ffiow, in a curious detail of particulars, how
wonderfully the infide of man, or that aftonilhing train
of moral powers and affections with which he is en¬
dued, is fitted to the feveral ftages.of that progreffive
and probationary Hate through which he is deftined
to pafs. As our faculties are narrow and limited, and
rife from very fmall and imperfect beginnings, they
mufl: be improved by exercife, by attention, and re¬
peated trials. And this holds true not only of our in-
telleBual but of our moral and aBive powers. The for¬
mer are liable to errors in fpeculation, the latter to
blunders in practice, and both often terminate in mil-
fortunes and pains. And thofe errors and blunders
are generally owing to our pafhons, or to our too foi-
w’ard and warm admiration of thofe partial goods they
naturally purfue, or to our fear of thofe partial ills they
naturally repel. Thofe misfortunes, therefore, lead us
back to confider where our mifeonduft lay, and whence
our errors flowed j and confequently are ialutary pieces
of trial, which tend to enlarge our views, to correB
and refine our paffions, and confequently improve both
our intelleBual and moral powers. Our paffions then
are the rude materials of our virtue, which Heaven has
given us to work up, to refine and polilh into a harmo¬
nious and divine piece of workmanlhip. They furnilh out
the whole machinery, the calms and {forms, the lignts
and Ihades of human life. They Ihow mankind in every
attitude
373
Of Percep¬
tion and
Affection.
79 ,
Others of
an inferior
order.
So
Their gene¬
ral tender.-
Paffions fit¬
ted to a
ftate of
tiial;
374
Of Duty
Virtue.
83
Harmony
of our
itrudture
and Hate.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
or attitude and variety of chara&er, and give virtue both
its ftruggles and its triumphs. To conduct them well
in every fiate, is merit j to abufe or mifapply them, is
demerit.
The different fets of fenfes, powers, and pajjions,
which unfold themfelves in thofe iucceflive flages, are
both neceffary and adapted to that rtjirig and progrejjive
ftate. Enlarging views and growing connexions re¬
quire new paflions and new habits; and thus the mind,
by thefe continually expanding and finding a progref-
live exercife, rifes to higher improvements, and pulhes
forward to maturity and perfe-ffion.
In this beautiful economy and harmony of our
ftrudture, both outward and inward, with that ftate,
we may at once difcern the great lines of our duty
traced out in the faireft and brighteft charafters, and
contemplate with admiration a more auguft and mar¬
vellous fcene of divine wifdom and goodnefs laid in the
human breaft, than we ftiall perhaps find in the whole
Compafs of nature.
From this detail it appears, that man, by his original
Part II.
frame, is made for a temperate, compajjionate, benevo- Of Duty or
lent, achve, and progrejjive ftate. He is ftrongly at- ^ ntue.
traiiiVe of the good, and repu/Jive of the ills which be- ^ *
fal others as well as himfelf. He feels the higheft ap- in what
probation and moral complacence in thofe affections, and economy
in thofe aftions, which immediately and diredtly refpe<5t Fltue con'
the good of others, and the higheft difapprobation and !l^S*
abhorrence of the contrary. Befides thefe, he has many
particular perceptions or inJUnRs of approbation, which,
though perhaps not of the fame kind with the others,
yet are accompanied with correfpondent degrees of af-
fedtion, proportioned to their refpedlive tendencies to
the public good. Therefore, by acting agreeably to thefe
principles, man acts agreeably to his ftrudture, and ful¬
fils the benevolent intentions of its Author. But we
call a thing good when it anfwers its end, and a crea¬
ture good, when he adts in a conforrmtij to his confuta¬
tion. Confequently, man muft be denominated good or
virtuous when he adds fuitably to the principles and ds-
Jlination of his nature.
PART II.
Chap. I. The principal DiJlinRions c/' Duty or
Virtue.
WE have now confidered the conJUtution and con¬
nexions of man, and on thofe eredted a general fyftem of
duty or moral obligation, confonant to reafon, approved
by his moft facred and intimate fenfe, fuitable to his
mixed condition, and confirmed by the experience of
mankind. We have alfo traced the f.nal caufes of his
moral faculties and aJ'eRions to thofe noble purpofes
they anfwer, with regard both to the private and the
,. public fystem.
General di- From this indudlion it is evident, that there is one
vifion of order or clafs of duties which man owes to himfelf: an-
fluty- ^ other to fociety : and a third to God.
Duty to I'he duties he owes to himfelf are founded chiefly on
one’s felf. the defenfve and private paflions, wdffch prompt him to
purfue whatever tends to private good ox happinefs, and
to avoid or ward off whatever tends to private ill or mi-
fery- Among the various goods which allure and foli-
cit him, and the various ills which attack or threaten
him, “ to be intelligent and accurate in feledting one,
and rejedling the other, or in preferring the moft excel¬
lent goods, and avoiding the moft terrible ills, when
there is a competition among either, and to be difereet
in ufing the beft means to attain the goods and avoid
the ills, is what we call prudence." This, in our in¬
ward frame, correfponds to fagacity, or quicbiefs of
fenfe, in our outward.—“ To proportion our defenfive
pajjions to our dangers, we call fortitude ; which always
implies “ a juft mixture of calm refentment or animofi-
ty, and well-governed caution.” And this firmnefs of
mind anfwers to the Jlrength and mufcling of the body.
And ‘ duly to adjuft our private pajjions to our wants,
or to the refpe&ive moment of the good we affeft or
purfue, we call temperancewhich does therefore al¬
ways imply, in this large fenfe of the word, “ a juft
balance or command of the paflions.”
2
The fecond clafs of duties arifes from'the public or Duties to
facial aJfeRions, “ the juft harmony or proportion offcciety.
which to the dangers and wants of others, and to the
feveral relations we bear, commonly goes by the name
o£ jufice" This includes the whole of our duty to
fociety, to owe parents, and the general polity of nature ;
particularly gratitude, friend/hip, fincerity, natural affec¬
tion, benevolence, and the other facial virtues : This, be¬
ing the noblefl temper, and fairefl complexion of the foul,
correfponds to the beauty and fne proportion of the per-
fon. The virtues comprehended under the former
clafs, efpecially prudence and fortitude, may likewife be
transferred to this , and according to the various cir-
cumftances in which they are placed, and the more
confined or more extenfive fphere in which they ope¬
rate, may be denominated private, economical, or civil
prudence, fortitude, &c. Thefe direft our conduft with
regard to the wants and dangers of thofe leffer or
greater circles with which they are connected. gs
The third clafs of duties refpe&s the Deity, and Duties to
arifes from the public affections, and the feveral glorious God.
relations, which he fuftsins to us as our Creator, Benefac¬
tor, Lawgiver, fudge, <b’c.
We choofe to confider this fet of duties in the laft Method,
place ; becaufe, though prior in dignity and excellency
they feem to be lafl in order of time, as thinking it
the moft fimple and eafy method to follow’ the gradual
progrefs of nature, as it takes its rife from individuals,
and fpreads through the focial fyftem, and ftil] afeends
upwards, till at length it ftretches to its almighty Pa¬
rent and Head, and lo terminates in thofe duties which
are highefl and befi. 9C
The duties refulting from thefeare, reve-
rence, gratitude, love, refignation, dependence, obedience
warfeip, praife: W’hic’n, according to the model of our
finite capacities, muft maintain fome fort of proportion
to .the grandeur and perfection of the objeft whom
we venerate, love, and obey. “ This proportion or
harmony is expreffed by the general name of piety or
devotion"
Part II.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Of Man’s
duty to
Himfelf.
9;
Gonfcience.
devotion” which is always ftronger or weaker according
to the greater or lefs apprehended excellency of its
objeft. This fublirae principle of virtue is the en¬
livening foul which animates the moralfi/Jiem, and
that cement which binds and fuflains the other duties
which man owes to himfelf or to fociety.
This then is the general temper and conftitution of
virtue, and thefe are the principal lines or divifions of
duty. To thofe good difpofitions which refpeft the
federal objefls of our duty, and to all aftions which
Hove from fuch difpofitions, the mind gives its fanc-
tion or teflimony. And this fanclion or judgement
concerning the moral quality, or the goodnefs of ac¬
tions or difpofitions, moralifts call confcience. When
it pudges of an a61ion that is to be performed, it is cal¬
led an antecedent confcience; and when it paffes fentence
on an aftion which is performed, it is called a fubfe-
quent confcience. The tendency of an a£lion to produce
happinefs, or its external conformity to a law, is
terrtied its material goodnefs. Hut the good difpofi¬
tions from which an action proceeds, or its confor¬
mity to law in every refpeif, confiitutes its formal
ltsdh2ifiom.g0°£?efs* , . , . . • , . f1
When the mind is ignorant or uncertain about the
moment of an aftion or its tendency to private or
public good ; or when there are feveral circumltances
in the cafe, feme of which, being doubtful, render, the
mind dubious concerning the morality of the afti.on.j
that is called a doubtful or fcrupulous confcience ; if it
miftakes concerning thefe, it is called an erroneous
confcience. If the error or ignorance is involuntary or
invincible, the a£lion proceeding from that error,. or
from that ignorance, is reckoned innocent, or not im¬
putable. If the error or ignorance \sfupine or affect¬
ed, i. e. the effe61 of negligence, or of affectation and
wilful inadvertence, the conduct flowing from fuch
error, or fuch ignorance, is criminal and imputable.—
Not to follow one’s confcience, though erroneous and
ill-informed, is criminal, as it is the guide of life •, and
to counteract it, (hows a depraved and incorrigible
fpirit. Yet to follow an erroneous confcience is.like-
wife criminal, if that error wdiich milled the confidence
* Eutchef, was the effea of inattention, or any criminal paffion*.
Mor. Inf- If it be alked, “ How an erroneous confcience (hall
lib. ii. c. 3. rectified, fince it is fuppofed to be the only guide
of life, and judge of morals ?” we anfwer, In the very
fame way that wre would reCtify reafon if at any time
it fiiould judge wrong, as it often does, viz. by giving
^it proper and fufficient materials for judging right,
t>erectified.^ ^ ^ inqu:ring into the whole itate of the cafe, the
relations, connexions, and feveral obligations of the ac¬
tor, the confequences and other circumftances of the
aCtion, or the furplufage of private or public . good
which refults, of is likely to refult, from the aCtion or
from the omiflion of it. If thofe circumftances are fair-
Iv and fully ftated, the confcience will be juft and im¬
partial in its decifion ; for, by a neceffary law of our
nature, it approves and is well affeCted to the moral
form / and if it feems to approve of vice or immorality,
it is always under the notion or malk of fome virtue.
So that, ftriCtly fpeaking, it is not confcience which
errs; for its fentence is always conformable to the
view of the cafe which lies before it; and \% jufl, upon
the fuppofition that the cafe is truly fuch as it is repre-
fented to it. AH the fault is to be imputed to the
375
93
How con
fcience is to
agent, who negleCls to be better informed, or who, Of Alan’a
through weaknefs or wickednefs, haftens to pafs fen-
tence from an imperfeCt evidence. > , V "7 f
Chap. II. Of Man's Duty to Himself. Of the
Nature of Good, and the Chief Good.
94
Every creature, by the conftitution of his nature, isDivifionsef
determined to love himfelf •, to purfue whatever tends good,
to his prefervation and happinefs, and to avoid what¬
ever tends to his hurt and mifery. Being endued with
fenfe and perception, he muft neceffarily receive plea-
fur e from fome objeCts, and pain from others. Thofe
objeCts which give pleafure are called good; and thofe
which give pain, evil. To the former he feels that
attraction or motion we call defre, or love ; to the lat¬
ter, that impulie we call averfion, or haired.—To ob-
jeCts which fuggeft neither pleafure nor pain, and are
apprehended of no ufe to procure one or ward off' the
other, we feel neither defre nor averfon ; and fuch ob-
jeCts are called indifferent. Thofe objeCts which do not
of themfelves produce pleafure or pain, but are the
means of procuring either, we call ufeful or noxious.
Towards them we are affeCted in a fubordinate manner,
or with an indireSi and refective rather than a dir eft and
immediate A11 the original and particular af-
feClions of our nature lead us out to and ultimately reft
in the firft kind of objeCts, viz. thofe which give imme¬
diate pleafure, and which we therefore call gooddireft/y
fo. The calm affeCtion of felf-love alone is converfant
about fuch objeCts as are only confequentially good, or
merely ufeful to ourfelves. 95
But, befides thofe forts of objeCts which w7e call Moral
good, merely and folely as they give pleafure, or are§00^’
means of procuring it, there is a higher and nobler
fpecies of good, towards which we feel that peculiar
movement we call approbation or moral complacency;
and which we therefore denominate moral good. Such
are our affeCtions, and the confequent aCtions to them.
The perception of this is, as has been already obferv-
ed, quite diftinCt in kind from the perception of other
fpecies ; and though it may be connected with plea¬
fure or advantage by the benevolent conftitution of
nature, yet it conftitutes a good independent of that
pleafure and that advantage, and far fuperior not in
degree only but in dignity to both. The other, viz.
the natural good, confifts in obtaining thofe pleafures
which are adapted to the peculiar fenfes and paflions
fufceptible of them, and is as various as are thofe
fenfes and paflions. This, vi%. the moral, good, lies
in the right conduft of the feveral fenfes and paflions,
or their juft proportion and accommodation to their
refpeCtive objefts and relations, and this is of a more
Ample and invariable kind.
By our feveral fenfes we are capable of a great va-^uman.
riety of pleafing fenfations. Thele conftitute diftinCt
ends or objeCts ultimately purfuable for their own
fake. To thefe ends, or ultimate objeCts, correfpond
peculiar appetites or affeCtions, which prompt the
mind to purfue them. When thefe ends are attained,
there it refts, and looks no farther. Whatever there¬
fore is purfuable, not on its own account, but as fub-
fervient or neceffary to the attainment of fomething
elfe that is intrinfically valuable for its-own fake, be
that value ever fo great or ever fo fmall, we call a
mean.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part II.
97.
^Gradation
jo£ goods.
98
Goods of
the body.
99
Good
health;
mean, and not an end. So that ends and means con-
ftitute the materials or the very cjfence of our hapjn-
nefs. Confequently happinefs, z. c. human happinefs,
cannot be one ample uniform thing in creatures con-
ffituted, as we are, with fuch various fenfes of plea-
fure, or fuch different capacities of enjoyment. Now
the fame principle, or law of our nature, which de¬
termines us to purfue any one end or fpecies of good,
prompts us to purfue every other end or fpecies of
good of which we are fufceptible, or to which our
Maker has adapted an original propenfion. But
amidft the great multiplicity of ends or goods which
form the various ingredients of our happinefs, we
perceive an evident gradation or fubordination fuit-
ed to that gradation of fenfes, powers, and paffions,
which prevails in our mixed and various conftitution,
and to that afcending fenes of connexions which
open upon us in the different ftages of our progreflive
ftate.
Thus the goods of the body, or of the externalfenfes,
feem to hold the lowed rank in this gradation or fcale
of goods. Thefe we have in common with the brutes;
and though many men are brutifli enough to purfue
the goods of the body with a more than brutal fury,
yet, when at any time they come in competition with
goods of an higher order, the unanimous verdidt of
mankind, by giving the lad the preference, condemns
the fird to the meaned place. Goods confiding in
exterior focial connexions, as fame, fortune, power,
civil authority, feem to fucceed next, and are chiefly
valuable as the means of procuring natural or moral
good, but principally the latter. Goods of the intel-
leEt are dill fuperior, as tqfle, knowledge, memory,
judgement, &c. The- highed are moral goods of the
mind, dire&ly and ultimately regarding ourfelves, as
command of the appetites and pajjions, prudence, forti¬
tude, benevolence, &c. Thefe are the great objefts of
our purfuit, and the principal ingredients of our hap¬
pinefs. Let us confrder each of them as they rife one
above the other in this natural feries or fcale, and touch
briefly on our obligations to purfue them.
Thofe of the body are health, frength, agility, har-
dinefs, and patience of change, neatnefs, and decency.
Good health, and a regular eafy flow of fpirits, are
in themfelves fweet natural enjoyments, a great fund
of pleafure, and indeed the proper feafoning which
gives a flavour and poignancy to every other pleafure.
The want of health unfits us for mod duties of life,
and is efpecially an enemy to the focial and humane af¬
fections, as it generally renders the unhappy fufferer
peevifli and fullen, difguded at the allotments of Pro¬
vidence, and confequently apt to entertain fufpicious
and gloomy fentiments of its Author. It obdruCts the
free exercife and full imprqvement of our reafon,
makes us a burden to our friends, and ufelefs to fo-
ciety. Whereas the uninterrupted enjoyment of good
health is a condant fource of good humour, and good
humour is a great friend to opennefs and benignity of
heart, enables us to encounter the various ills and dif-
appointments of life wdth more courage, or to fudain
them with more patience ; and, in fhort, conduces
much, if we are otherwife duly qualified, to our afting
our part in every exigency of life with more firmnefs,
confidency, and dignity. Therefore it imports us
much to preferve and improve a habit or enjoyment,
4
without which every other external entertainment is Of Man’s
tadelefs, and mod other advantages of little avail.—
And this is bed done by a driCl temperance in diet, ™ e ' .
and regimen, by regular exercife, and by keeping IOO
the mind fercne and unruffled by violent paflions, andHowpre-
unfubdued by intenfe and condant labours, which fervecI-
greatly impair and gradually dcdroy the dronged con-
ditutions.
Strength, agility, hardinefs, and patience of change,
fuppofe health, and are unattainable without it j but agility, Sec.
they imply fomething more, and are neceflary to guard
it, to give us the perfeCl ufe'of life and limbs, and to
fecure us againd many otherwife unavoidable ills.—■
The exercife of the neceflary manual, and of mod of
the elegant arts of life, depends on drength and agi¬
lity of body} perfonal dangers, private and public
dangers, the demands of our friends, our families, and
country, require them ; they are neceflary in war, and
ornamental in peace ; fit for the employment of a 103
country and a town life, and they exalt the entertain-How at-
ments and diverfiohs of both. They are chiefly ob-talnc£*'
tained by moderate and regular exercife. I0,
Few are fo much raifed above want and dependence, Patience of
or fo exempted from bufinefs and care, as not to bechange;
often expofed to inequalities and changes of diet, ex¬
ercife, air, climate, and other irregularities. Now, what
can be fo effedual to fecure one again ft the mifehiefs
arifing from fuch unavoidable alterations, as hardinefs,
and a certain verfatility of conftitution which can bear
extraordinary labours, and fubmit to great changes,
without any fenfible uneafinefs or bad confequences.
This is belt attained, not by an over great delicacy
and minute attention to forms, or by an invariable re-tainec}.
gularity in diet, hours, and way of living, but rather
by a bold and difereet latitude of regimen. Befides,
deviations from eftablifhed rules and forms of living,
if kept within the bounds of fobriety and reafon, are
friendly to thought and original fentiments, animate
the dull feene of ordinary life and bufinefs, and agree¬
ably ftir the paffions, which ftagnate or breed ill hu-,
mour in the calms of life.
Neatnefs, cleanlinefs, and decency, to which we nnayj^ea[°gf,
add dignity oi countenance, and demeanour, feem to have decency,
fomething refined and moral in them : at leal! we ge- Ge¬
nerally efteem them indications of an orderly, gen¬
teel, and well governed mind, confcious of an inward
wTorth, or the refpedl due to one’s nature. Whereas
nafinefs, fovenlinefs, awhwardnefs, and indecency, are
fhrewd fymptoms of fomething mean, carelefc, and
deficient, and betray a mind of untaught, illiberal, un-
confcious of what is due to one’s ielf or to others.
How much cleanlinefs conduces to health, needs hard¬
ly to be mentioned ; and howr neceflary it is to main¬
tain one’s character and rank in life, and to render us
agreeable to others as well as to ourfelves, is as evi¬
dent..—There are certain motions, airs, and geflures,
which become the human countenance and form, in
which we perceive a comelinefs, opennefs, fmplicity,
gracefulnefs; and there are others, which to our fenfe
of decorum appear uncomely, affeBed, di/ingenuous, and
awkward, quite unfuitable to the native dignity of our
face and form. The frf are in themfelves the molt
eafy, natural and commodious, give one boldnefs and
prefence of mind, a modeft affurance, an addn;fs both
awful and alluring ; they hefpeak candour and great-
nefs
Part II.
Of Man’s
duty to
Himlelf.
106
How at¬
tained.
107
Ooods of
exterior fo-
cial conuec-
tions.
xo8
Fame.
109
Fortune,
power, &c.
MORAL PH
nefs of mind, raife the moft agreeable prejudices in
one’s favour, render fociety engaging, command re-
fpedl, and often love, and give weight and authority
both in converfation and bufinefs ; in fine, they are the
colouring of virtue, which fhovv it to the greatell
advantage in whomfoever it is ; and not only imitate,
but in fome meafure fupply it where it is tyanting.
Whereas the laft, vi%. rtu/enefs, aJfeBation, indecorum, and
the like, have all the contrary effetts; they are burden-
fome to one’s felf, a diihonour to our nature, and a
nuifance in fociety. The former qualities or goods
are befl: attained by a liberal education, by preferving a
juft fenfe of the dignity of our nature, by keeping the
beft and politeft company, but, above all, by acquir¬
ing thofe virtuous and ennobling habits of mind which
are decency in perfeftion, which will give an air of
unaffedled grandeur, and fpread a luftre truly engaging
over the whole form and deportment.
We are next to confider thofe goods which confift
in exterior focial connexions, as fame, fortune, civil
authority, power.
The firit has a twofold afpedl, as a good pleafant
in itfelf, or gratifying to an original paftion, and then
as expedient or ufeful towards a farther end. Honour
from the wife and good, on the account of a virtuous
conduft, is regaling to a good man ; for then his heart
re-echoes to the grateful found. There are few quite
indifferent even to the commendation of the vulgar.
Though we cannot approve that conduct which pro¬
ceeds entirely from this principle, and not from good
affedtion or love of the condudt itfelf, yet, as it is of¬
ten a guard and additional motive to virtue in creatures
imperfedt as we are, and often diftradted by interfer¬
ing paffions, it might be dangerous to fupprefs it alto¬
gether, however wife it may be to reftrain it within
due bounds, and however laudable to ufe it only as a
fcaffolding to our virtue, which may be taken down
when that glorious ftrudfure is finithed, but hardly till
then. To purfue fame for itfelf, is innocent j to re¬
gard it only as an auxiliary to virtue, is noble j to feek
it chiefly as an engine of public ufefulnefs, is ftill more
noble, and highly praife-worthy. For though the opi¬
nion and breath of men are trarifient and fading things,
often obtained without merit, and loft without caufe ;
yet as our bufinefs is with men, and as our capacity of
ferving them is generally increafed in proportion to
their efteem of us, therefore found and well eftablifti-
ed moral applaufe may and will be modeftly, not of-
tentatioufly, fought after by the good; not indeed as
a folitary refined fort of luxury, but as a public and
proper inftrument to ferve and blefs mankind. At the
fame time they will learn to defpife that reputation
which is founded on rank, fortune, and any other cir
cumftances or accomplithments that are foreign to real
merit, or to ufeful fervices done to others, and think
that praife of little avail which is purchafed without
defert, and beftowed without judgement.
Fortune, power, and civil authority, or whatever is
called influence and weight among mankind, are goods
of the fecond divifion, that is, valuable and purfuable
only as they are ufeful, or as means to a farther end,
viz. procuring or preferving the immediate objects of
enjoyment or happinefs to ourfelves or others. There¬
fore to love fuch goods on their own account, and to
pur (he them as ends, not the means of enjoyment,
Vol. XIV. Part I.
I LO SO PHY. 577
muft be highly prepofterous and abfurd. There can Of Man’s
be no meafure, no limit, to fuch purfuit ; all muft be p-AL
whim, caprice, extravagance. Accordingly luch ap- , ^ <
petites, unlike all the natural ones, are increafed by
pofleflion, and whetted by enjoyment. They are al¬
ways precarious, and never without fears, becaufe the
objedls lie without one’s felf; thuy are ieldom without
forrow and vexation, becaufe no acceflion of wealth or no
power can fatisfy them. But if thofe goods are confi-'How far
dered only as the materials or means of private or pu- PurAab.e.
blic happinefs, then the fame obligations which bind
us to purfue the latter, bind us likevvife to purfiue the
former. We may, and no doubt we ought, to feck
fuch a meafure of wealth as is neceffary to fupply all
cur real wants, to raife us above fervile dependence,
and provide us with fuch conveniences as are fuited to
our rank and condition in life. To be regardiefs of
this meafure of wealth, is to expofe ourlelves to all
the temptations of poverty and corruption : to forfeit
our natural independency and freedom ; to degrade,
and confequently to render the rank we hold, and the
character we fuftain in fociety, ufelefs, it not con¬
temptible. When thefe important ends are fecured,
we ought not to murmur or repine that we poffefs no
more; yet wre are not fecluded by any obligation,
moral or divine, from feeking more, in order to give 1
us that happieft and moft godlike of all powers, the
power of doing good. A lupine indolence in this re-
fpect is both abfurd and criminal; abfurd, as it robs
us of an inexhaufted fund of the moft refined and
durable enjoyments; and criminal, as it renders us fo xn
far ufelefs to the fociety to which we belong. “ That Avarice,
purfuit of wealth which gees beyond the former end,
viz. the obtaining the neceffaries, or fuch ccnvenien-
cies of life, as, in the eftimation of reafon, not of va¬
nity or paflion, are fuited to our rank and condition,
and yet is not diretled to the latter, viz. the doing
good, is what we call avarice.^ And “ that purfuit
of power, which, after fecuring one’s felf, i. e. having
attained the proper independence and liberty of a ra¬
tional focial creature, is not diredted to the good of 112
others, is what we call ambition, or the lujl of power?"1 Ambitiofu
To what extent the Uriel meafures of virtue will allow
us to purfue either wealth or power, and civil authority,
is not perhaps pofftble precifely to determine. That
muft be left to prudence, and the peculiar charadfer,
condition, and other circumftances of each man. Only
thus far a limit may be fet, that the purfuit of either
muft encroach upon no other duty or obligation which
we owe to ourfelves, to fociety, or to its parent and
head. The fame reafoning is to be applied to power
as to wealth. It is only valuable as an inftrument of
our own fecurity, and of the free enjoyment of thofe
original goods it may, and often does, adminifter to
us, and as an engine of more extenfive happinefs to our
friends, our country, and mankind.
Now the beft, and indeed the only wray to obtain a How fame-
folid and lafting fame, is an uniform inflexible courfeanc* Pov^er
of virtue, the employing one’s ability and wealth in ^ attail!~
fupplying the wants, and ufing one’s power in pro¬
moting or fecuring the happinefs, the rights and liber¬
ties of mankind, joined to an univerfal affability and
politenefs of manners. And furely one will not miftake
the matter much, who thinks the fame courfe condu¬
cive to the acquiring greater acceflions both of wealth
3 B and
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part II.
GcofU of
the intel-
ledl.
”5
Their mo¬
ment.
* Philo/.
Sinic. Con-
/uc. lib. x.
§ 3, 4, &c.
n6
The plea-
fures they
give.
117
Knowledge
*nd tafte;
and power ; erpeclally if he adds to thofe qualifications
h vigorous induftry, a conftant attention to the cha-
rafters and wants of men, to the conjunctures of times,
and continually varying genius of affairs ; and a fteady
intrepid honeiiy, that will neither yield to the allure¬
ments, nor be overawed with the terrors, of that cor¬
rupt ard corrupting fcene in which vve live. We have
fometimes heard indeed of other ways and ’means, as
fraud, diflimulation, fervility, and proflitution, and the
like ignoble arts, by which the men of the world (as
they are called, fhrewd politicians, and men of addrefs!)
amafs wealth, and procure power •, but as we vrant
rather to form a man of virtue, an honeft, contented,
happy man, we leave to the men of the world their
own ways, and permit them, unenvied and unimitatcd
by us, to reap the fruit of their doings.
The next fpecies of objedts in the fcale of good, are
the goods of the intellect, as know/edge, memory, judge*-
merit, ta/Ie, fagacitij, docility, and whatever elfe we call
xntelledfual virtues. Let us confider them a little, and
the means as wTell as obligations to improve them.
As man is a rational creature, capable of knowing
the differences of things and adlions;—as he not only
fees and feels what is prefentj but remembers what is
paft, and often forefees what is future j—as be advances
from fmall beginnings by flow degrees, and with much
labour and difficulty, to knowledge and experience 5—
as his opinions fw'ay his paffions,—as his paffions in¬
fluence his condudf,—and as his conduft draws confe-
quences after it, which extend not only to the prefent
but to the future time, and therefore is the princi¬
pal fource of his happinefs or mifery ; it is evident,
that he is formed for intelledfual improvements, and
that it muff be of the utmoft confequence for him to
improve and cultivate his intelledfual powers, on
which thefe opinions, thofe paffions, and that condudf
depend *.
But befides the future confequences and moment of
improving our intelleflual powers, their immediate ex-
ercife on their proper objefts yields the moft rational
and refined pleafures. Knowledge, and a right tafte in
the arts of imitation and dejign, as poetry, painting, fculp-
ture, mujic, arclnteclure, afford not only an innocent,
but a moff fenfible and fublime entertainment. By
thefe the underftanding is inftruCled in ancient and
modern life, the hiftory of men and things, the ene-
gies and effe£fs of the. paffions, the confequences of
virtue and vice *, by thefe the imagination is at once
entertained and nourifhed with the beauties of nature
and art, lighted up and fpread out with the novelty,
grandeur, and harmony of the univerfe 5 and, in fine,
the paffions are agreeably routed, and fuitably enga¬
ged, by the greateft and moff interefting objecfs that
can fill the human mind. He who has a tafte formed
to thofe ingenious delights, and plenty of materials to
gratify it, can never want the moft agreeable exercife
and entertainment, nor once have reafon to make that
faffiionable complaint of the tedioufnefs of time. Nor
can he want a proper fubjeift for the difcipline and im¬
provement of his heart. For, being daily converfant
with beauty, order, and dejign, in inferior fubjefts, he
bids fair for growing in due time an admirer of what
is fair and well-proportioned in the condmff of life and
the order of fociety, which is only order and defign
exerted in their higheft fubjed. He will karp to
transfer the'numbers of poetry to the harmony of the Of 'tan’s
mind and of well-governed paffions j and, from admir- duty to
ing the virtues of others in moral paintings, come to L
approve and imitate them himfelf. Therefore, to cul- <r"“
tivate a true and corredi tajle muff be both our intereft
and our duty, when the circumflances of our itation
give leifure and opportunity for it, and when the doing
it is not inconfiftent with our higher obligations or en¬
gagements to fociety and mankind.
It is beft attained by reading the heft books, where How at-
good fenfe has more the afeendant than learning, and tamed,
which pertain more to pradlice than \.o/peculation ; by
ftudying the beft models, i. e. thofe which proieis to
imitate nature moft, and approach the neareft to it,
and by converfing with men of the molt refined tafte,
and the greateft experience in life. %
As to the other intelleftual goods, what a fund of Other9
entertainment muff it be to inveftigate the truth and inteUe&ualJ'
various relations of things, to trace the operations ofS00^*
nature to general laws, to explain by thefe its mani¬
fold phenomena, to underftand that order by which
the univerfe is upheld, and that economy by which it
is governed ! to be acquainted with the human mind,
the connexions, fubordinations, and ufes of its powers,
and to mark their energy in life ! horv agreeable to
the ingenious inquirer, to obferve the manifold rela¬
tions and combinations of individual minds in lociety,
to difeern the caufes why they flouriffi or decay, and
from thence to afeend, through the vaft fcale of be¬
ings, to that general Mind which prefides over all j
and operates unfeen in every fyftem and in every age,
through the whole ccmpafs and progrefflon of nature !
Devoted to fuch entertainments as thefe, the contem¬
plative have abandoned every other pleafure, retired
from the body, fo to fpeak, and fequeftered themfelves
from focial intercourfe : for thefe, the bu/y have often
preferred to the hurry and din of life the calm retreats
of contemplation j for thefe, when once they came to
tafte them, even the gay and voluptuous have throxvn
up the lawlefs purfuits of fenfe and appetite, and ac¬
knowledged thefe mental enjoyments to be the moft:
nfined, and indeed the only luxury. Befides, by a juft
and large knowledge of nature, we recognize the per¬
fections of its Author; and thus piety, and all thofe
pious affe&ions which depend on juft fentiments of
his character, are awakened and confirmed j and a
thoufand fuperftitious fears, that arife from partial
views of his nature and works, will of courfe be ex¬
cluded. An extenfive profpeCt of human life, and of
the periods and revolptions of human things, will con¬
duce much to the giving a certain greatnefs of mind,
and a noble contempt to thofe little competitions about
power, honour, and -wealth, which difturb and divide
the bulk of mankind ; and promote a calm endurance
of thofe inconveniencies and ills that are the common
appendages of humanity. Add to all, that a jufl know¬
ledge of human nature, and of thofe hinges upon which
the bufmefs and fortunes of men turn, will prevent our
thinking either too highly or too meanly of our fel¬
low creatures, give no fmall fcope to the exercife of
friendfhip, confidence, and good will, and at the fame
time brace the mind with a proper caution and diitruft
(thofe nerves of prudence), and give a greater maftery
in the conduCf of private as well as public life. There¬
fore, by cultivating our intellectual abilities, we fhall
be ft
I
Part II.
Of Man’s
duty to
Himfelf.
T 20
How at¬
tained.
in
Moral
goods.
122
Their mo¬
ment.
beft promote and fecure our intereft, and be qualified
for a£Hng our part in fociety with more honour to
ourfelves, as well as advantage to mankind. Confe-
quently, to improve them to the utmoft of our power
is our duty 5 they are talents committed to us by the
Almighty Head of fcciety, and we are accountable to
him for the ufe of them.
The intellectual virtues are bell improved by accu¬
rate and impartial obfervation, extenfive reading, and
unconfined converfe with men of all characters, efpe-
cially with thofe who, to private ftudy, have joined
the wideft acquaintance with the world, and greateft
praClice in affairs j but, above all, by being much in
the world, and -having large dealings with mankind.
Such opportunities contribute much to dived one of
prejudices and a fervile attachment to crude tyftems, to
©pen one’s views, and to give that experience on which
the molt ufeful becaufe the mod practical knowledge
is built, and from which the fared maxims for the con¬
duct of life are deduced.
The highed goods which enter into the compofition
of human happinefs are moral goods of the mind, di-
reCtly and ultimately regarding ourfelves •, as command
of the appetites andpajpons, prudence and caution, magna¬
nimity, fortitude, humility, love of virtue, love of God, re-
fignation, and the like. Thefe fublime goods are goods
by way of eminence, goods recommended and enforced
by the mod intimate and awful fenfe and confcioufnefs
of our nature 5 goods that conditute the quinteffence,
the very temper of happinefs, and form that complexion
of foul which renders us approveable and lovely in the
fight of God 5 goods, in fine, which are the elements
of all our future perfection and felicity.
Mod of the other goods we have confidered depend
partly on ourfelves, and partly on accidents which we
can neither forefee nor prevent, and refult from caufes
which we cannot influence or alter. They are fuch
goods as we may poffefs to day and lofe to-morrow,
and which require a felicity of conditution and talents
to attain them in full vigour and perfection, and a feli¬
city of conjunctures to fecure the poffeflion of them.
Therefore, did our happinefs depend altogether or
chiedy on fuch tranfitory and precarious pofledions, it
were itfelf mod precarious, and the highed folly to be
anxious about it. But though creatures, condituted
as we are, cannot be indifferent about fuch goods, and
mud differ in fome degree, and confequently have our
happpinefs incomplete without them, yet they weigh
but little in the fcale when compared with moral goods.
By the benevolent conditution of our nature, thefe
are placed within the fpbere of our aClivity, fo that no
man can be deditute of them unlefs he is fird want¬
ing to himfelf. Some of the wifed and bed of man¬
kind have wanted mod of the former goods, and all
the external kind, and felt mod of the oppofite ills,
fuch at lead as arife from without ; yet by poffeding
the latter, viz. the moral goods, have declared they
were happy ; and to the conviClion of the mod im¬
partial obfervers have appeared happy. The word of
men have been furrounded with every outward good
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
and advantage of fortune, and have podeffed great
parts \ yet for want of moral reCtitude, have been,
379
Of Man’s
duty to
Himfelf.
and have confeffed themfelves, notoriouily and exqui-
fitely miferable. The exercife of virtue has fupported
its votaries, and made them exult in the midd of tor¬
tures almod intolerable •, nay, how often has fome falfe
form or fhadow of it fudained even the greated (e) vil¬
lains and''bigots under the fame preffureS ! But no ex¬
ternal goods, no goods of fortune, have been able to al¬
leviate the agonies or expel the fears of a guilty mind,
confcious of the delerved hatred and reproach of man¬
kind, and the jud difpleafure of Almighty God. I2-
As the prefent condition of human life is wonder-The mixed
fully chequered with good and ill, and as no height ofc°"^o”
dation, no affluence of fortune, can abfolutely enfure^
the good, or fecure againil the ill, it is evident that apart;cuiar
great part of the comfort and ferenity of life mud lie virtues,
in having our minds duly afteCled with regard to both,
i. e. rightly attempered to the lofs of one and the fuf-
ferance of the other. Far it is certain that outward
calamities derive their chief malignity and preffure
from the inward difpofitions with which we receive
them. By managing thefe right, we may greatly abate
that malignity and preffure, and confequently diminida
the number, and weaken the force, of the ills of
life, if we ihould not have it in our power to obtain a
large diar. of its goods. There are particularly three
virtues which go to the forming this right temper to¬
wards ill, and which are of fingular efficacy, if not to¬
tally to remove, yet wonderfully to alleviate, the cala»
mities of life. Thefe are fortitude or patience, humility,
and refgnation. 124
Fortitude is that calm and deady habit of mind Fortitude,
which either moderates our fears, and enables us
bravely to encounter the profpedl of ill, or renders the
mind ferene and invincible under its immediate pref¬
fure. It lies equally didant from radmefs and cowar¬
dice : and though it does not hinder us from feeling,
yet prevents our complaining or flirinkmg under the
droke. It always includes a generous contempt of,
or at lead a noble fuperiority to, thofe precarious
goods of which we can enfure neither the poffefuoti
nor continuance. The man therefore who poffeffes
this yvirtue in this ample lenfe of it, dands upon an
eminence, and fees human things below him ; the
temped indeed mav reach him, but he dands fecure
and collefled againd it upon the bads ot confcious vir¬
tue, which the fevered dorms can feldom drake, and
never overthrow. / 125
Humility is another virtue of high rank and dignity, Humility,
though often midaken by proud mortals for meannefs
and pufillanimity. It is oppofed to pride, which com¬
monly includes in it a falfe or overrated edisnation of
our own merit, an afeription of it to ourfelves as its
only and original caufe, an undue comparifon of our¬
felves with others, and in confequence of that fuppofed
fuperiority, an arrogant preference of ourfelves, and a
fupercilious contempt of them. Humility, on the other
hand, feems to denote that moded and ingenuous
temper of mind, which arifes from a jud and equal
3 B 2 edimate
(e) As Ravaillac, who affaffinated Henry IV, of France j and Balthafar Geraerd, who murdered William f.
prince of Orange.
\
3S0
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
duty to
Himfelf.
iz6
Refigna-
tion.
e^imate our ®vvn advantages compared with thofe
ot others, and from a fenfe of our deriving all origi¬
nally from the Author of <pr being. Its ordinary at¬
tendants are mildnefs, a gentle forbearance, and an eafy
unafluming humanity with regard to the imperfedlions
and faults of others ; virtues rare indeed, but of the
faireft complexion, the proper offspring of fo lovely a
parent, the beft ornaments of fuch imperfedt creatures
as we are, precious in the fight of God, and which
fweetly allure the hearts of men.
Rejignation is that mild and heroic temper of mind
which arifes from a fenfe of an infinitely wife and
good providence, and enables one to acquiefce with a
cordial affedtion in its juft appointments. This virtue
has fomething very particular in its nature, and fublime
in its efficacy. For it teaches us to bear ill, not only
with patience, and as being unavoidable, but it trans¬
forms, as it were, ill into good, by leading us to con-
fider it, and every event that has the leaft appearance
of ill, as a divine difpenfation, a wife and benevolent
temperament of things, fubfervient to univerfal good,
and ofcourfe including that of every individual, efpe-
cially of fuch as calmly ftoop to it. In this light, the
adminiftration itfelf, nay every adt of it, becomes an
objedl of affedtion, the evil difappears, or is converted
into a balm which both heals and nourifheth the mind.
For though the firft unexpedfed accefs of ill may fur-
prife the foul into grief, yet that grief, when the mind
calmly reviews its objedi, changes into contentment,
and is by degrees exalted into veneration and a divine
compofure. Our private will is loft in that of the Al¬
mighty, and our fecurity againft every real ill refts on
the fame bottom as the throne of him who lives and
reigns for ever.
Before we finifh this fedlion, it may be fit to obferve,
^ that as the Deity is the fupreme and inexhaufted
an joimal.fource 0f g00d, on whom the happinefs of the whole
creation depends ; as he is the higheft objedl in nature,
and the only objedl who is fully proportioned to the in-
telledlual and moral powers of the mind, in whom they
ultimately reft, and find their moft perfedt exercife and
completion j he is therefore termed the Chief good of
man, objedlively confidered. And virtue, or the pro¬
portioned and vigorous exercife of the feveral powers
and affedlions on their refpedlive objedls, as above de-
fcribedjis, in the fchools, termed the chief good, formally
confidered, or its formal idea, being the inward temper
and native conflitution of human happinefs.
From the detail we have gone through, the following
corollaries may be deduced.
1. It is evident, that the happinefs of fuch a pro-
greffive creature as man can never be at a Hand, or
continue a fixed invariable thing. His finite nature,
let it rife ever fo high, admits flill higher degrees of
improvement and perfedtion. And his progreflion in
improvement or virtue always makes way for a pro-
greffion in happinefs. So that no poffible point can
be aftigned in any period of his exiftence in which he
is perfedlly happy, that is, fo, happy as to exclude high¬
er degrees of happinefs.. All his perfedlion is only
comparative. 2. It appears that many things muft
confpire to complete the happinefs of fa various a
creature as man, fubjedl to fo many wants, and fuf-
ceptible of fuch different pleafures. 3. As his capaci¬
ties of pleafure cannot be all gratified at the fame
Part IT.
Duties of
Society.
,t27
Chief good,
objeEli've
11S
(torollark 5.
time, and muft often interfere with each other in fuch
a precarious and fleeting ftate as human life, or be
frequently difappointed, perfedt happinefs, i. e. the v
undiflurbed enjoyment of the feveral pleafures of
which we are capable, is unattainable in our prefent
ftate. 4. That ftate is moft to be fought after, in
which the feweft competitions and dilappointments
can happen, which leaft of all impairs any fenfe of
pleafure, and opens an inexhaufted fource of the moft
refined and lafting enjoyments. 5. That ftate which
is attended with all thofe advantages, is a ftate or
courfe of virtue. 6. Therefore, a Hate of virtue, in
which the moral goods of the mind are attained, is the
happiejl ftate.
Chap. III. Duties of Society,
Sect. I. Filial and Fraternal Duty.
As we have followed the order of nature in tracing-
the hiftory of man, and thofe duties which he owes to
himfelf, it feems reafonable to take the fame method
with thofe he owes to fociety, which conftitute the
fecond clafs of his obligations. I2p
His parents are among the earlieft objedls of his at- Connedlioa
tention ; he becomes fooneft acquainted with them, ^:larents•
repofes a peculiar confidence in them, and feems to
regard them with a fond affedfion, the early progno-
ftics of his future piety and gratitude. Thus does nature
didfate the firft lines of filial duty, even before a juft
fenfe of the connexion is formed. But when the child
is grown up, and has attained to fuch a degree of un-
dei ftanding, as to comprehend the moral tie, and be
fenfible of the obligations he is under to his parents j
when he looks back on their tender and difinterefted
affedfion, their inceffant cares and labours in nurfing,
educating, and providing for him, during that ftate in
which he had neither prudence nor ftrength to care
and provide for himfelf, he muft be confcious that he
owes to them thefe peculiar duties. ^
1. To reverence and honour them, as the inftrumentS£)uties
of nature in introducing him to life, and to that ftate parentsi
of comfort and happinefs which he enjoys ; and there¬
fore to efteem and imitate their good qualities, to al¬
leviate and bear with, and fpread, as much as poflible,
a decent veil over their faults and weakneffes.
2. To be highly grateful to them, for thofe favours
which it can hardly ever be in his power fully to re¬
pay ; to lliow this gratitude by a ftrfdl attention tb
their wants, and a felicitous care to fupply them 3 by
a fubmiffive deference to their authority and advice,
efpecially by paying great regard to it in the choice of
a wife, and of an occupation 3 by yielding to, rather
than peevifnly contending with, their humours, as re¬
membering how oft they have been perfecuted by his 3
and, in fine, by foothing their cares, lightening their
fonaws, fupporting the infirmities of age, and making
the remainder of their life as comfortable and joyful as
poffible. 131
As his brethren and fillers are the next with whom Duties t#
the creature forms a focial and jnoral connexion, tot>rf-^en
them he owes a fraternal regard 3 and with themanu *
ought he to enter into a flridl league of friendfhip,
mutual fympathy, advice, aOiftance, and a generous
intercourfe of kind oftices, remembering their relation
to
Part II.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Duties of to common parents, and that brotherhood of nature
, iiQciety. which unites them into a clofer community of intereft
v and affe&ion.
Sect. II. Concerning Marriage.
Connexion When man arrives to a certain age, he becomes
with the fenfible of a peculiar fympathy and tendernefs towards
•ther fex. the other fex •, the charms of beauty engage his atten¬
tion, and call forth new and fofter difpofitions than
he has yet felt. The many amiable qualities exhibit¬
ed by a fair outfide, or by the mild allurement of fe¬
male manners, or which the prejudiced fpeftator with¬
out much reafoning fuppofes thofe to include, with
feveral other circumftances both natural and accident¬
al, point his view and affe£h‘on to a particular ob-
jte£l, and of courfe contract that general rambling re¬
gard, which was loft and ufelefs among the undiftin-
guifhed crowd, into a peculiar and permanent attach¬
ment to one woman, which ordinarily terminates in the
moft important, venerable, and delightful connexion in
^ life.
The*'* ftate of the brute creation is very different from
grounds of that of human creatures. The former are clothed
this con- and generally armed by their ftrufture, eafily find
aedhon. what is neceffary to their fubfiftance, and foon attain
their vigour and maturity -y fo that they need the
care and aid of their parents but for a Ihort while j
and therefore we fee that nature has afligned to them
vagrant and tranfient amours. The connexion being
purely natural, and merely for propagating and rear¬
ing their offspring, no fooner is that end anfwered^
than the connexion diffolves of courfe. But the hu¬
man race are ©f a more tender and defehcelefs confti-
tution; their infancy and non-age continue longer y.
they advance flowly to ftrength of body and maturi¬
ty of reafon ; they need conftant attention, and a long
feries of cares and labours, to train them up to de¬
cency, virtue, and the various arts of life. Nature has
therefore, provided them with the moft affe&ionate
and anxious tutors, to aid their weaknefs, to fupply
their wants, and to accomplifh them in thofe neceffar
ry arts, even their own parents, on whom fhe has de*
volved this mighty charge, rendered agreeable by the
moft alluring and powerful of all ties, parental affec¬
tion. But unlefs both concur in this grateful talk, and
continue their joint labours, till they have reared up
and planted out their young colony, it muft become a
prey to every rude invader, and the purpofe of nature
in the original union of the human pair be defeated.
Therefore our ftru&ure as well as condition is an evi¬
dent indication, that the human fexes are deftined for
a more intimate, for a moral and lafting union. It ap¬
pears likewife, that the principal end of marriage is not
to propagate and nurfe up an offspring, but to educate
and form minds for the great duties and extenfive def-
tinations of life. Society muft be fupplied from this
original nurfery with ufeful members, and its faireft or¬
naments and fupports.
MonUends The mind is apt to be diflipated in its views and
of mar- a£ls of friendfhip and humanity j unlefs xhz former \>z
liage. directed to a particular objeft, and the latter employ¬
ed in-a particular province. When men onae indulge
in this diffipation, there is no flopping their career j
they grow infenfible to moral attractions} and, by oh-
ftrufting or impairing the decent and regular exer-
cife of the tender and generous feelings of the human
heart, they in time become unqualified for, or averfe
to, the forming a moral union of fouls, which is the
cement of fociety, and the fource of the pureft do-
meftic joys. Whereas a rational, undepraved /ow,
and its fair companion, marriage, colled a man’s views,
guide his heart to its proper objeCl, and, by confining
his affedion to that objeCt, do really enlarge its in¬
fluence and ufe. Befides, it is but too evident from
the conduCl of mankind, that the common ties of hu¬
manity are too feeble to engage and intereft the paf-
fions of the generality in the affairs of fociety. The
connexions of neighbourhood, acquaintance, and gene¬
ral intercourfe, are too wide a field of aClion for many,
and thofe of a public or community are fo for more;
and in which they either care not or know not how to
exert themfelves. Therefore nature, ever,wife and
benevolent, by implanting that ftrong fympathy which
reigns between the individuals of each fex, and by
urging them to form a particular moral connexion,
the fpring of many domeftic endearments, has meafured
out to each pair a particular fphere of afiion, proportion¬
ed to their views, and adapted to their refpeClive capa¬
cities. Befides, by interefting them deeply in the con¬
cerns of their own little circle, fhe has conneCled them
more clofely with fociety, which is compofed of parti¬
cular families, and bound them down to their good be¬
haviour in that particular community to which they be¬
long. This moral connexion is marriage, and this fphere
of action is a family. I3^
Of the conjugal alliance the following are the riatu- Duties of
ral laws. Firit, Mutual fidelity to the marriage bed. marriaSe»'
Difloyalty defeats the very end of marriage j diffolves
the natural cement of the relation-, weakens the mo¬
ral tie, the chief ftrength of which lies in the reciproca¬
tion of affeflion y and by making the offspring uncer¬
tain, diminifhes the care and attachment neceffary to
their education.
2. A confpiration of counfels and endeavours to pro¬
mote the common intereft of the family, and to educate
their common offspring. In order to obferve thefe
laws, it is neceffary to cultivate, both before and during
the married ftate, the ftri&eft decency and chaftity of
manners, and a juft fenfe of what becomes their refpec-
tive charadters.
3. The union muft be inviolable, and for life. The
nature of friendfhip, and particularly of this fpecies of
it, the education of their offspring, and the order of
fociety and of fucceffions, which would otherwfife be
extremely perplexed, do all feem to require it. To
preferve this union, and render the matrimonial ftate
more harmonious and comfortable, a mutual efteem
and tendernefs, a mutual deference and forbearance,
a communication of advice, and afljftance and autho¬
rity, are abfolutely neceffary, If. either party keep
within their proper departments, there need be no
difputes about power, or. fuperiority, and there will be
none. They have no oppofte no feparate interefts, and
therefore there can be no juft ground for oppofition of
condudt. T36
From this detail, and the prefent ftate of things, in Polygam3£*
which there is pretty near a parity of numbers of both
fexes, it is evident that polygamy is an unnatural ftate 5
and though it ftiould be granted to be mote fruitful
of
3*2
Duties of of cliildreti, xvhlch however it is not found to be, yet
^ is by no means fo fit for rearing minds, which feems
to be as much, if not more, the intention of nature than
the propagation of bodies.
MORAL philosophy.
Part IT.
Sect. III. Of Parental Duty.
137
Connection
ofparents
and chil¬
dren.
138
The autho
•rity found¬
ed on that
.eonneCtion.
HP
Duties of
parents.
140
Education.
The connexion of parents with their children is a
natural confequence of the matrimonial connexion ;
and the duties which they owe them refult as natural¬
ly from that connexion. The feeble ftate of children,
fubjefl to fo many wants and dangers, requires their
inceflant care and attention their ignorant and uncul¬
tivated minds demand their continual inftru&ion and
culture. Had human creatures come into the world
with the full ftrength of men, and the weaknefs of rea-
fon and vehemence of paffions which prevail in chil¬
dren, they would have been too ftrong or too flubborn
to have fubmitted to the government and inftruftion of
their parents. But as they were defigned for a progref-
fion in knowledge and virtue, it was proper that the
growth of their bodies {hould keen pace with that of
their minds, left the purpofes of that progreftion {hould
have been defeated. Among other admirable purpofes
which this gradual expanfion of their outward as well
as inward ftrudlure ferves, this is one, that it affords
ample fcope to the exercife of many tender and gener¬
ous affedions, which fill up the domeilic life with a
beautiful variety of duties and enjoyments ; and are of
courfe a noble difeipline for the heart, and a hardy kind
of education for the more honourable and important
duties ai.public life.
The above mentioned weak and ignorant ftate of
children feems plainly to invert their parents with fuch
authority and power as is necelfary to their fupport,
protedion, and education j but that authority and
power can be conftrued to extend no farther than is
neceflary to anfwer thofe ends, and to laft no longer
than that weaknefs and ignorance continue ; where¬
fore, the foundatien or reafon of the authoritv and
power ceafing, they ceafe of courfe. Whatever power
or authority then it may be neceflary or lawful for pa¬
rents to exercife during the non-age of their children,
to aflume or ufurp the fame when they have attained
the maturity or full exercife of their ft l ength and rea¬
fon would be tyrannical and unjuft. From hence it is
evident, that parents have no right to punilh the per-
fons of their children more feverely than the nature of
their wardfhip requires, much lefs to invade their lives
to encroach upon their liberty, or transfer them as their
property to any mafter whatfoever.
The firft clafs of duties which parents owe their
children refped their natural life ; and thefe compre¬
hend protedion, nurture, provifion, introducing them
into the world in a manner fuitable to their rank and
fortune, and the like.
The fecond order of duties regards the intelle&ual
and moral life of their children, or their education in
fuch arts and accomplifhments as are neceflary to qua¬
lify them for performing the duties they orve to them-
felves and to others. As this was found to be the prin¬
cipal defign of the matrimonial alliance, fo the fulfil¬
ling that defign is the moft important and dignified of
all the parental duties. In order therefore to fit the
child for ading his part wifely and worthily as a
3
man, as a cui%en, and a creature of God, both parents Duties of
ought to combine their joint wifdorn, authority, and Socitty*
power, and each apart to employ thofe talents which
are the peculiar excellency and ornament of their re-
fpedive fex. The father ought to lay cut and fuper-
intend their education, the mother to execute and ma¬
nage the detail of which fhe is capable. The former
ftiould dired the manly exertion of the intelledual and
moral powers of his child. His imagination, and the
manner of thofe exertions, are the peculiar province
of the latter. T\xt. former Should advife, proted, com¬
mand, and, by his experience, malculine vigour, and
that fuperior authority which is commonly aferibed
to his fex, brace and ftrengthen his pupil for adlive
life, for gravity, integrity, and firmnefs in fuffenng.
The bufinefs of the latter is to bend and foften her
male pupil, by the charms of her converfation, and
tire foftnefs and decency ef her manners, for facial Wie,
for pohteneis of tafte, and the elegant decorums and
enjoyments of humanity ; and to improve and refine
the tendernefs and modefty of her female pupil, and
form her to all thofe mild domeftic virtues which are
the peculiar charaderiitics and ornaments cf her fex :
lo condud the opening minds of their fweet charge
through the feveral periods of their progrefs, to af-
fift them in each period, in throwing out the latent
feeds of reafon and ingenuity, and in gaining frefh ac-
ceflions of light and virtue j and at length, with all
thefe advantages, to produce the young adventurers
upon the great theatre of human life, to play their
feveral parts in the fight of their friends, of fociety,
and mankind.
Sect. IV. Herile and Servile Duty.
In the natural courfe of human affairs, it muft necef-The ground
farily happen that fome of mankindTvill live in plenty this con.
and opulence, and others be reduced to a ftate of in-'Iect‘orl•
digence and poverty. The former need the labours
of the latter, and the latter provifion and fupport of
the former. This mutual neceftity is the foundation
of that connexion, whether we call it moral or civil,
which fubfifts between mafters and fervants. He who
feeds another has a right to fome equivalent, the labour - I4a
of him whom he maintains, and the fruits of it. And t‘:
he who labours for another has a right to expedl thatvke!° ^
he fhould fupport him. But as the labours of a man of
ordinary ftrength are certainly of greater value than
mere food and clothing ; becaufe they w'ould aftually
produce more, even the maintenance of a family, were
the labourer to employ them in his own behalf j 'there¬
fore he has an undoubted right to rate and difpofe of
his fervice for certain wages above mere maintenance ;
and if he has incautioully difpofed of it for the latter
only, yet the contrad being of the onerous kind, he
may equitably claim a fupply of that deficiency. If
the fervice be fpecified, the fervant is bound to that
only 5 if not, then he is to be conftrued as bound only
to fuch Cervices as are confiftent with the laws of juftice
and humanity. By the voluntary fervitude to which
he fubjeds himfelf, he forfeits no rights but fuch as
are neceflarily included in that fervitude, and is ob¬
noxious to no punifhment but fuch as a voluntary
failure in the fervice may be fuppofed reafonably to
require. The offspring offuch fervants have a right to
that
Part IT. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 383
Duties of that liberty which neither they nor their parents have
Society, forfeited.
As to thofe who, becaufe of fome heinous offence,
The cafe ofor for fome notorious damage, for which they cannot
rear offen-otherwife compepfate, are condemned ^to perpetual fer-
ers* vice, they do not, on that account, forfeit all the rights
of men ; but thofe, the lofs of which is neceflary to fe-
cure fo&iety againft the like offences for the future, or
to repair the damage they have done.
Th *?afe With regard to captives taken in war, it is barba-
of captives, rous and inhuman to make perpetual flaves of them, un-
lefs f'me peculiar and aggravated circumftances of
guilt have attended their hoftility. . The bulk of the
fubje&s of any government engaged in war may be
fairly efleemed innocent enemies 5 and therefore they
have a right to that clemency which is confiftent with
the common fafety of mankind, and the pirticular fe-
curity of that fociety againft which they are engaged.
Though ordinary captives have a grant of their lives,
yet to pay their liberty as an equivalent is much too
high a price. There are other ways of acknowledging
or returning the favour, than by furrendering what is
Mor'lnl ^ar dearer than life itfelf*. To thofe who, under pretext
PhilAib. n'i. of the neceflities of commerce, drive the unnatural trade
C. 3. of bargaining for human flefh, and configning their in¬
nocent but unfortunate fellow creatures to eternal fer-
vitude and mifery, we may addrefs the words of a fine
writer; “ Let avarice defend it as it will, there is an
honeft reluctance in humanity againft buying and fell¬
ing, and regarding thofe of our own fpecies as our
wealth and poffeflions.”
Sect. V. Social Duties of the private Kind.
Hitherto we have confidered only the domejlic econo¬
mical duties, becaufe thefe are firft in the progrefs of
nature. But as man paffes beyond the little circle of
a family, he forms connexions with relations, friends,
neighbours, and others ; from whence refults a new
train of duties of the more private focial kind, as
« friendftiip, chaftity, courtefy, good neighbourhood,
*45 charity, forgivenefs, hofpitality.”
Man’s apti- Man is admirably formed for particular focial at-
tude for lb- tachments and duties. There is a peculiar and ftrong
propenfity in his nature to be affeCted with the fenti-
ments and difpofitions of others. Men, like certain
mufical inftruments, are fet to each other, fo that the
vibrations or notes excited in'one raife correfpondent
notes and vibrations in the others. The impulfes of
pleafure or pain, joy or forrow, made on one mind, are
by an inftantaneous fympathy of nature communicated
in fome degree to all; efpecially when hearts are (as
a 'humane writer expreffes it) in unifon of kindnefs 5
the joy that vibrates in one communicates to the other
alfo. We may add, that though joy thus imparted
fwells the harmony, yet grief vibrated to the heart of
a friend, and rebounding from thence in fympatbetic
notes, melts as it were, and almoft dies away. All
the p’aflions, but efpecially thofe of the focial kind,
are contagious; and when the paflions of one man
mingle with thofe of another, they increafe and mul¬
tiply prodigioufly. There is a moft moving eloquence
in the human countenance, air, voice, and gefture,
wonderfully expreflive of the moft latent feelings and
paflions of the foul, which darts them like a fubtle
flame into the hearts of others, and raifes correfpon- Duties of
dent feelings there : friendftiip, love, good humour, Society.
joy, fpread through every feature, and particularly ,r_¥
(hoot from the eyes their fofter and fiercer fires with
an irrefiilible energy. And in like manner the oppo-
fite paftions of hatred, enmity, ill humour, melancholy,
diffufe a fullen and faddening air ever the face, and,
flaftiing from eye to eye, kindle a train of fimilar paf-
fions. By thefe, and other admirable pieces of ma¬
chinery, men are formed for fociety and the delightful
interchange of friendly fentiments and duties, to increafe
the happinefs of others by participation, and their own
by rebound; and to diminiih, by dividing, the common
flock of their mifery. i4(f
The firft emanations of the focial principle beyond Duties acli
the bounds of a family lead us to form a nearer con- from
junftion of friendftiip or good will with thofe who are rc‘4‘
anywife conne&ed with us by blood or domefic al¬
liance. To them our affe&ion does commonly exert
itfelf in a greater or lefs degree, according to the
nearnefs or diftance of the relation. And this pro¬
portion is admirably fuited to the extent of our powers
and the indigence of our ftatej for it is only within
thofe lefler circles of confanguinity or alliance that
the generality of mankind are able to difplay their a-
bilities or benevolence, and confequently to uphold
their connexion with fociety, and fubferviency to a
public intereft. Therefore it is our duty to regard
thefe clofer connexions as the next department to that
of a family, in which nature has marked out for us a
fphere of aftivity and ufefulnefs j and to cultivate the
kind affedions which are the cement of thefe endear¬
ing alliances.
Frequently the view of diftinguifhing moral quali-
ties in fome of our acquaintance may give birth to 0f friend-,
that more noble connexion we call FRIENDSHIP, which fldp.
is far fuperior to the alliances of conlanguinity. For
thefe are of a fuperficial, and often of a tranfitory na¬
ture, of which as they hold more of infinB than of rea-
fon, we cannot give fuch a rational account. But
friendjhip derives all its ftrength and beauty, and the
only exiftence which is durable, from the qualities of
of the heart, or from virtuous and lovely difpofitiorts.
Or, ftiould thefe be wanting, they or fome ftiadow of
them muft be fuppofed prefent.—Therefore friendjhip
may be deferibed to be, “ The union of two fouls by
means of virtue, the common obje6t and cement of
their mutual affedion.” Without virtue, or the fup-
pofition of it, friendfhip is only a mercenary league, an
alliance of intereft, which mull diffblve of couife when
that intereft decays or fubfifts no longer. It is not fo
much any particular paffion, as a compofition of fome
of the nobleft feelings and paflions of the mind. Good
fenfe, a jufl tafe and love of virtue, a thorough candour
and benignity of heart, or what vve uiually call a good
temper, and a generous fympathy of fentiments and
aftetrions, are the neceffary ingredients of this virtuous
conne&ion. When it is grafted on efteem, ftrengthen-
ed by habit, and mellowed by time, it yields infinite
pleafure, ever new and ever growing ; is a noble lup-
port amidft the various trials and viciflitudes of life, and
a high feafoning to moft of our other enjoyments.-—
To iorm and cultivate virtuous friendlhip, mult be
very improving to the temper, as its principal objeB
is virtue, fet off with all the allurement of countenance.
148
Its duties.
149
Love and
chaftity.
See Serd.
*i. of this
chapter,
air, and manttcrs, (Inning forth in the native graces
of manly honed fentiments and affe&ions, and ren¬
dered vi/ib/e as it were to the friendly fpeftator in
a conduft unafteSedly great and good ; and as its
principal exercifes are the very energies of virtue, or
its effect and emanations. So that wherever this
amiable attachment prevails, it will exalt our admira¬
tion and attachment to virtue, and unlefs impeded in
its courfe by unnatural prejudices, run out into a
friendihip to the human race. For as no one can
merit, and none ought to ufurp, the facred name
of friend, who hates mankind ; fo whoever truly loves
them, poffelfes the mod effential quality of a true
friend.
The duties of friendfhip are a mutual edeem of each
other, unbribed by intered, and independent of it $ a
generous confidence, as far didant from fufpicion as
from referve ; an inviolable harmony of fentiments and
difpofiticns, of defigns and intereds •, a fidelity undta-
ken by the changes of fortune ; a condancy unalterable
by didance of time or place j a refignation of one’s per-
fonal intered to thofe of one’s friend, and a recipro¬
cal, unenvious, unreferved exchange of kind offices.—
But, amidd all the exertions of this moral connexion,
humane and generous as it is, we mud remember that
it operates within a narrow fphere, and its immediate
operations refpedl only the individual; and therefore
its particular impulfes mud dill be fubordinate to a
more public intered, or be always direfled and con¬
trolled by the more extenfive connexions of our na¬
ture.
When our friend (hip terminates on any of the other
fex, in whom beauty or agreeablenefs of perfon and
external gracefulnefs of manners confpire to exprefs
and heighten the moral charm of a tender honed heart,
and fweet, ingenuous, moded temper, lighted up by
good fenfe •, it generally grows into a more foft and
endearing attachment. When this attachment is im¬
proved by a growing acquaintance with the worth of
its objedt, is conducted by difcretion, and iffues at
length, as it ought to do, in the moral connexion for¬
merly mentioned f, it becomes the fource of many
amiable duties, of a communication of palfions and in¬
tereds, of the mod refined decencies, and of a thou-
fand namelefs deep-felt joys of reciprocal tendernefs
and love, flowing from every look, word, and aftion.
Here friendihip a6ts with double energy, and the na¬
tural confpires with the moral charms to drengthen
and fecure the love of virtue. As the delicate nature
of female honour and decorum, and the inexpredible
grace of a chade and moded behaviour, are the fured
and indeed the only means of kindling at fird, and ever
after of keeping alive, this tender and elegant flame,
and of accomplithing the excellent ends defigned by
it; to attempt by fraud to violate one, or, under pre¬
tence of paffion, to fully and corrupt the other, and,
by fo doing, to expofe the too often credulous and un¬
guarded objetd, with a wanton cruelty, to the hatred
of her owm fex and the fcorn of ours, and to the
lowed infamy of both, is a condu£l not only bafe and
criminal, but inconfident with that truly rational and
refined enjoyment, the fpirit and quinteffence of which
are derived from the balhful and facred charms of virtue
kept untainted and therefore ever alluring to the lover’s
heart.
M O It A L PHI L O S O P H V
Courteft/, good neighbourhood, affability,
Part IT.
u ^ V, nd the like Duties of
duties, which are • founded on our private fecial con- Society,
nexions, are no lefs neceffary and obligatory to crea- ' v~—'
tures united to fociety, and fupporting and fupport- Court ^
ed by each other in a chain of mutual want and de- good C J’
pendence. They do not confid in a fmooth addrefs, neighbour-
an artificial or obfequious air, fawning adulations,fi°0^> &c-
or a polite fervility of manners; but in a jud and
moded fenfe of our own dignity and that of others,
and of the reverence due to mankind, efpecially to
thofe who hold the higher links of the focial chain ;
in a difereet and manly accommodation of ourfelves
to the foibles and humours of others ; in a drift ob-
fervance of the rules of decorum and civility ; but,
above all, in a frank obliging carriage, and generous
interchange of good deeds rather than words. Such a
conduft is of great ufe and advantage, as it is an excel¬
lent fecurity againd injury, and the bed claim and re¬
commendation to the efteem, civility, and univerfal re-
fpeft of mankind. This inferior order of virtues unites
the particular members of fociety more clofely, and
forms the leffer pillars of the civil fabric ; w'hich, in
many indances, fupply the unavoidable defefts of laws,
and maintain the harmony and decorum of focial inter-
courfe, where the more important and effential lines of
virtue are wanting.
Charity and for given efs are truly amiable and ufe-r,, 151
ful duties of the focial kind. There is a twofold di- forftvenefa.
dinftion of rights commonly taken notice of by moral 0
writers, viz. perfeB and imperfeB. To fulfil the for¬
mer, is neceflary to the being and fupport of fociety ;
to fulfil the latter, is a duty equally facred and obliga¬
tory, and tends to the improvement and profperity of
fociety ; but as the violation of them is not equally pre¬
judicial to the public good, the fulfilling them is not
fubjefted to the cognizance of law, but left to the can¬
dour, humanity, and gratitude of individuals. And by
this means ample fcope is given to exercife all the ge-
nerofity, and difplay the genuine merit and luitre, of
virtue. Thus the wants and misfortunes of others call
for our charitable afliftance and feafonable fupplies.
And the good man, unconftrained by law, and uncon¬
trolled by human authority, will cheerfully acknow'-
ledge and geijeroufly fatisfy this mournful and moving
claim ; a claim fupported by the fanftion of heaven,
of whofe bounties he is honoured to be the grateful
truftee. If his own perfeB rights are invaded by the
injuftice of others, he will not therefore rejeft their
imperfeB right to pity and forgivenefs, unlefs his grant
of thefe fhould be inconfiftent with the more exten- •
five rights of fociety, or the public good. In that cafe
he will have recourfe to public juftice and the law's,
and even then he will profecute the injury with no un-
neceffary feverity, but rather with mildnefs and hu¬
manity. When the injury is merely perfonal, and of
fuch a nature as to admit of alleviations, and the for¬
givenefs of which would be attended with no worfe
confequences, efpecially of a public kind, the good
man will generoufly forgive his offending brother.
And it is his duty to do fo, and not to take private re¬
venge, or retaliate evil for evil. For though refent-
ment of injury is a natural paffion, and implanted, as
was obferved * above, for wife and good ends ; yet,
confidenng the manifold partialities which moil^ men “ceP.arJ*'
have for themfelves, was every one to aft as judgeandLv.1’
• in
1
Part IT. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 3^5
Duties of ;n own caufe, and to execute the fentence difta-
, Society. ted by j, is own refentment, it is but too evident that
^ mankind would pafs all bounds in their fury, and the
laft fufterer be/provoked in his turn to make full re-
prifals. So that evil, thus encountering with evil,
would produce one continued feries of violence and
mifery, and render fociety intolerable, if not imprac¬
ticable. Therefore, tvhere the fecurity of the indivi¬
dual, or the good of the public, does not require a
proportionable retaliation, it is agreeable to the general
law of benevolence, and to the particular end of the
paffion (which is to prevent injury and the mifery oc-
cafioned by it), to forgive perfonal injuries, or not to
return evil for evil. This duty is one of the noble re¬
finements which Chriftianity has made upon the gene¬
ral maxims and practice of mankind, and enforced,
with a peculiar flrength and beauty, by fandlions no lefs
alluring than awful. And indeed the practice of it is
generally its own reward ; by expelling from the mind
the moft dreadful intruders upon its repofe, thofe ran¬
corous paffions which are begot and nurfed by refent¬
ment, and by difarming and even fubduing every enemy
one has, except fuch as have nothing left of men but the
outward form.
Hofpitali- q'|ie moft enlarged and humane connexion of the
private kind feenis to be the hofpitable alliance, from
which flow the amiable and difmterefted duties we
owe to ft rangers. If the exercife of paffions of the
moft private and inftindlive kind is beheld with moral
approbation and delight, how lovely and venerable
mull thofe appear which refult from a calm philan¬
thropy, are founded in the common rights and con¬
nexions of fociety, and embrace men, not of a parti¬
cular fetft, party, or nation, but all in general without
diftinfhon, and without any of the little paitialities of
felf-love.
Sect. VI. Social Duties of the Commercial Kind.
Cominer- The next order of connexions are thofe which arife
cial duties. ;frcm tbe wants and weaknefs of mankind, and from the
various circumftances in which their different fitua-
tions place them. Thefe we may call commercial con-
neflions, and the duties which refult from them com¬
mercial duties, as juf ice, fair-dealing Jtncerity, fidelity to
•j.. compa&s, and the like. _
Theirfoun- Though nature is perfect in all her works, yet (he
dation. has obferved a maniieft and eminent diftin£lion among
them. To all fuch as lie beyond the reach of human
ikill and power, and are properly ot her own depart¬
ment, (he has given the finifhing hand. Thefe man
may defign after and imitate, but he can never rival
them, nor add to their beauty or perfe&ion. Such are
the forms and ftnnfture of vegetables, animals, and
many of their produftions, as the honey comb, the
fpider’s web, and the like. There are others of her
works which (lie has of defign left unfinifhed, as it
were in order to exercife the ingenuity and power
of man. She has prefented to him a rich profufion of
materials of every kind for bis conveniency and ufe j
but they are rude and unpolifhed, or not to be come
at without art and labour. Thefe therefore he mutt
applv, in order to adapt them to his ufe, and to enjoy
them in perfection. Thus nature hath given him an
infinite variety of herbs, grains, foffils, minerals, woods,
Vol. XIV. Part I.
water, earth, air, and a thoufand other crude mate- Duties of
rials, to fupply his numerous wants. But he muft low, ,
plant, dig, refine, poliih, build, and, in (hort, manu-
fatture the various produce of nature, in order to
obtain even the neceffanes, and much more the
conveniencies and elegancies of life. Thefe then
are the price of his labour and induftry, and, without
that, nature will fell him nothing. But as the wants
of mankind are many, and the Angle ftrength of indi¬
viduals fmall, they could hardly find the neceflaries,
and much Jefs the conveniences of life, without unit¬
ing their ingenuity and ftrength in acquiring thefe, and
without a mutual intercourfe of good offices. Some
men are better formed for fome kinds of ingenuity
and labour, and others for other kinds; and differ¬
ent foils and climates are enriched with different pro-
du&ions; fo that men, by exchanging the produce of
their refpedlive labours, and fupplying the wants of
one country with the fuperfluities of another, do in
effeiff diminifh the labours of each, and increafe the
abundance of all. This is the foundation of all com¬
merce, or exchange of commodities and goods, one
with another j in order to facilitate which, men
have contrived different fpecies of coin, or money,
as a common ftandard by v/hich to eftimate the
comparative values of their refpefbve goods. But
to render commerce fure and effeftual, juflice, fair-
dealing, f twenty, and fidelity to compacls, are abfolutely
neceffary. 155
'"inf ice or fair-dealing, or, in other words, a dif-Juiiice;
poiition to treat others as we would be treated by
them, is a virtue of the firft importance, and infepa-
rable from the virtuous character. It is the cement of
fociety, or that pervading fpirit which conne&s its
members, infpires its various relations, and maintains
the order and fubordination of each part of the whole.
Without it, fociety would become a den of thieves and
banditti, hating and hated, devouring and devoured,
by one another.
And here it may be proper to take a view of Mr
Hume’s fuppofed cafe of the fenfible knave and the
worthlefs mifer (N° 16), and confider what would be
the duty of the former according to the theory of thofe
moraliffs who hold the will of God to be the criterion
or rule, and everlafing happinefs the motive of human
virtue. »
It has been already obferved, and the truth of theunive5rfa[.
obfervation cannot be controverted, that, by fecretly a ^ty on
purloining from the coffers of a mifer, part of that the princi-
gold which there lies ufelefs, a man might in parti-P1^ of thofe
cular circumftances promote the good, of fociety,of
without doing any injury to a ffngle individual : and God t0 be
it was hence inferred, that, in fuch circumftances, it the eiiteri-
vvould be no duty to abftain from theft, were local uti-«n of vir-
lity a riling from particular confequences the real crite-tue-
rion or ftandard of juftice. Very different, however,
is the conclufion which muft be drawn by thofe who
confider the natural tendency of a£Hons,.if univerfally
performed, as the criterion of their merit or demerit,
in the fight of God. Such philofophers attend, not
to the particular confequences of a fingle aftion in
any given cafe, but to the general confequences of the
principle from which it flows, if that principle were
univerfally adopted. You cannot (fay they) permit
one adlion and forbid another, without (howing a dif-
^ C ference
386 ^ MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
^oc'et<n ^erellce between them. The fame fort of a&ions,
therefore, mud be generally permitted or generally
: forbidden. But were every man allowed to afeertain
for himfelf the circumftances in which the good of fo-
ciety w'ould be promoted, by fecretly abftrafling the
luperlluous wealth of a worthlefs mifer, it is plain that
no property could be fecure ; that all incitements to
induftry w'ould be at once removed j and that, what¬
ever might be the immediate confequences of any par-
ticular tjieft, the general and ncadfamj confequences of
the principle by which it was authorized mull foon
prove fatal. Were one man to purloin part of the
riches of a real mifer, and to coniider his condudh as
vindicated by his intention to employ thofe riches in
a£!s of generofity, another might by the fame fort of
cafuiftry think himfelf authorized ' '
Part II.
vate or public good can poflibly counterbalance the ill Duties of
confequences of fuch a violation. Society.
Fidelity to promifes, cornpaBs, and engagements, is ^" vs J
llkeW’k* ^ rlnfrir (n/>L "r-.4-^« 4-^ vV. 1.— V   _ 5
i-S7
Sijrcenty.
to appropriate to
himfelf part of his wealth ; and thus theft would
fpread through all orders of men, till fociety were dif-
fblved into feparate, hoftile, and favage families, mu¬
tually dreading and fhunning each other. The general
confequences, therefore, of encroaching upon private
property tend evidently and violently to univerfal mi-
fery.
On the other hand, indeed, the particular and im¬
mediate confequences of that principle which confi-
ders every man’s property as facred, may in fome cafes,
fuch as that fuppoied, he in a fmall degree injurious
to a fewr families in the neighbourhood of the mifer
and the knave. But that injury can never be of long
duration *, and it is infinitely more than counterbalan¬
ced by the general good confequences of the principle
from w7hich it accidentally refults; for thefe confe¬
quences extend to all nations and to all ages. With¬
out a facred regard to property, there could neither be
arts nor induflry nor confidence among men, and
happinefs would be for ever baniflied from this W’orld,
But the communication of happinefs being the end
which God had in view wrhen he created the world,
and all men handing in the fame relation to him, it is
impoffible to fuppofe that he does not approve, and will
not ultimately reward, thofe voluntary abfions of which
the natural tendency is to increafe the fum of human
happinefs ; or that he dees not difapprove, and will
not ultimately punifh, thofe which naturally tend to
aggravate human mifery. The conclufion is, that a
drift adherence to the principle of juftice is univerfal-
ly, and in all poilible circumltances, a duty from which
w7e cannot deviate without otiending our (Creator, and
ultimately bringing mifery upon ourfelves.
Sincerity, or veracity, in our words and aftions, is
another virtue or duty of great importance to fociety,
being one of the great bands of mutual intercourfe,
and the foundation of mutual truit. Without it, fo¬
ciety. would be the dominion of fhiftruft, jealoufy, and
fraud, and converfation a traffic of lies and diffimula-
tion. It includes in it a conformity of cur words
with our fentiments, a correfpondence between our
actions and difpofitions, a flrift regard to truth, and an
irreconcilable abhorrence of falfehood. It does not
indeed require, that wre expofe our fentiments indif-
crcetly, or tell all the truth in every cafe; but certainly
it does not ahd cannot admit the lead: violation of
truth or contradiftion to our fentiments. For if thefe
bounds are once palled, no poflible limit can be afligned
where the violation fhall hop, and no pretence of pri-
a duty of luch importance to the fecurity of Fjjejjfy t0
commerce and interchange of benevolence among promifes,
mankind, that fociety would foon grow intolerable Conapaft?*
without the flrift obfervance of it. Hobbes, and o-^*
thers who follow the farce track, have taken a wonder¬
ful deal of pains to puzzle this fubjeft, and to make all
the virtues of this fort merely artificial, and not at all
obligatory, antecedent to human conventions. No
doubt compafts fuppofe people who make them ; and
promifes perfons to whom they are made ; and there¬
fore both fuppofe fome fociety, more or lefs, between
thofe who enter into thefe mutual engagements. But
is not a compaft or promife binding, till men have
agreed that they lhall be binding ? or are they only
binding, becaufe it is our intereft to be bound by them,
or to fulfil them ? Do not we highly approve the man
who fulfils them, even though they fhould prove to be
again ft his intereft ? and do not we condemn him as
a knave who violates them on that account ? A promife
is a voluntary declaration by words, or by an aftion
equally fignificant, of our refolution to do fomething
in behalf of another, or for his fervice. When it is
made, the peribn who makes it is by all fuppofed un¬
der an obligation to perform it. And he to whom it
is made may demand the performance as his right.
That perception of obligation is a fimple idea, and i$
on the fame footing as our other moral perceptions,
which may be deferibed by inftances, but cannot be
defined. Whether we have a perception of fuch ob¬
ligation quite diftinft from the intereft, either public
or private, that may accompany the fulfilment of it,
muft be referred to the confcience of every indivi¬
dual. And whether the mere fenfe of that obligation,
apart from its concomitants, is not a fufficient induce¬
ment or motive to keep one’s promife, without hav¬
ing recourfe to any felfiih principle of our nature,
muft be likewife appealed to the confcience of every
honeft man.
It may, however, be not Improper to remark, that shov/ifto
in this, as in all other inftances, our chief good is be duties
combined with our duty. “ Men aft from expefta-in,!eI)(''1d-
tion. Expeftation is in moft cafes determined by the eut,ot
affurances and engagements which we receive from 0f the mo«
others. If no dependence could be placed upon thefe ral fenfev
affurances, it would be impoflible to know what judge¬
ment to form of many future events, or how to regu¬
late our conduft with refpeft to them. Confidence,
therefore. In promifes, is effential to the intercourfe of
human life, becaufe without it the greateft part of our
conduft would proceed upon chance. But there could
be no confidence in promifes, if men were not obliged
to perform them. Thofe, therefore, who allow not
to the perceptions of the moral fenfe all that autho¬
rity which we attribute to them, muft ftill admit the
obligation to perform promifes; becaufe fuch perform¬
ance may-be fhown to be agreeable to the will of
God, in the very fame manner in which, upon their
principles, we have Ihown the uniform praftice of juftice
to be fo. _ . l5o
Fair dealing and fidelity to cotnpaBs require that we What thofe
take no advantage of the ignorance, pafnon, or inca- datiesre-
pacity of others, from whatever caufe that incapacity <lu‘rc•
arifes y
II. MORAL PH
of arifes;—that we be explicit and candid in making
bargains, juft and faithful in fulfilling our part of them.
And if the other party violates his engagements, re-
drefs is to be fought from the laws, or from thofe who
are intruded with the execution of them. In fine, the
commercial virtues and duties require that we not only
do not invade, but maintain the rights of others •,—
that we be fair and impartial in transferring, bartering,
or exchanging property, whether in goods or fervice •,
and be inviolably faithful to our word and our en¬
gagements, where the matter of them is not crimi¬
nal, and where they are not extorted by force. See
Promise.
Sect. VII. Social Duties of the POLITICAL Kind.
We are now arrived at the laft and higheft order of
duties refpedling fociety, which refult from the exercife
of the moil generous and heroic affedlions, and are
founded on our moft enlarged connexions.
The facial principle in man is of fuch an expanfive
nature, that it cannot be confined within the circuit
of a family, of friends, or a neighbourhood ; it fpreads
into wider fyftems, and draws men into larger confe¬
deracies, communities, and commonwealths. It is in
thofe only that the higher powers of our nature attain
the higheft improvement a»d perfedlion of which they
are capable. Thefe principles hardly find objefts in
the folitary ftate of nature. 'There the principle of
aiftion rifes no higher at fartheft than natural ajfeHion
towards one’s offspring. There perfonal or family
wants entirely engrofs the creature’s attention and la¬
bour, and allow no leifure, or, if they did, no exer¬
cife for view’s and affe&ions of a more enlarged kind.
In folitude all are employed in the fame way, in pro¬
viding for the animal life. And even after their ut-
moft labour and care, Angle and unaided by the m-
duftry of others, they find but a forry fupply of their
wants, and a feeble precarious fecurity againft dan¬
gers from wild beafts; from inclement fkies and fea-
fons ; from the miftakes or petulant paflions of their
fellow creatures; from their preference of themfelves
to their neighbours; and from all the little exorbi-
tancies of felf-love. But in fociety, the mutual aids
which men give and receive ftiorten the labours of
each, and the combined ftrength and reafon of indivi¬
duals give fecurity and protedlion to the whole body.
There is both a variety and fubordination of genius
among mankind. Some are formed to lead and direft
others, to contrive plans of happinefs for individuals
and of government for communities, to take in a pu¬
blic intereft, invent laws and arts, and fuperintend
their execution, and, in Ihort, to refine and civilize
human life. Others, who have not fuch good, heads,
may have as honeft hearts, a truly public fpirit, love
of liberty, hatred of corruption and tyranny, a gene¬
rous fubmifiion to laws, order, and public inftitutions,
and an extenfive philanthropy. And others, who
have none of thofe capacities either of heart or head,
may be well formed for manual exercifes and bodily
labour. The former of thefe principles have no fcope
in folitude, where a man’s thoughts and concerns do
all either centre in himfelf or extend no farther than
a family ; into which little circle all the duty and vir¬
tue of the folitary mortal is crowded. But fociety
ILOSOPHY. ~ 387
finds proper objedls and exercifes for every genius, Dutie»of
and the nobleft ebjedls and exercifes for the nobleft t
geniufes, and for the higheft principles in the human
conftitution ; particularly for that warmeft and moft
divine paffion w’hich God hath kindled in our bofoms,
the inclination of doing good, and reverencing our
nature ; which may find here both employment and
the moft exquifite fatisfaflion. In fociety, a man has
not only more leifure, but better opportunities, of ap¬
plying his talents w’ith much greater perfedlion and
fuccefs, efpecially as he is furnilhed with the joint ad¬
vice and affiftance of his fellow creatures, who are
now more clofely united one with the other, and fuf-
tain a common relation to the fame moral fyftem or
community. This then is an objedl proportioned to
his moft enlarged focial affeiftions; and in ferving it
he finds fcope for the exercife and refinement of his
higheft intelleflual and moral powers. Therefore fo¬
ciety, ox a fate of civil government, refts on thefe two
principal pillars, “ That in it we find fecurity againft
thole evils which are unavoidable in folitude,—and
obtain thofe goods, fome of which cannot be obtain¬
ed at all, and others not fo w7ell, in that ftate where
men depend folely on their individual lagacity and in-
duftry.”
From this ihort detail it appears, that man is a fa¬
cial creature, and formed for a focial ftate ; and that
fociety, being adapted to the higher principles and
deftinations of his nature, muft of neceflity be his na¬
tural ftate. jg2
The duties fuited to that ftate, and refulting from Political
thofe principles and deftinations, or, in other words, duties,
from our focial paflions and focial connexions, or re¬
lation to a public fyftem, are, love of our country,
refgnation, and obedience to the laws, fniblic fpirit, love
of liberty, facrifce of life and all to the public, and the
like. . l63
Love of our country, is one of the nobleft paflions Love of
that can warm and animate the human breaft. It in-one’$ coali3
eludes all the limited and particular afteflions to our
parents, friends, neighbours, fellow citizens, country¬
men. It ought to direft and limit their more confined
and partial actions within their proper and natural
bounds, and never let them encroach on thofe facred
and firft regards we ow'e to the great public to which
we belong. Were we folitary creatures, detached
from the reft of mankind, and without any capacity
of comprehending a public interef, or without affec¬
tions leading us to defire and purfue it, It would not
be our duty to mind it, nor criminal to neglefl it. But
as we are parts of the public fjjlem, and are not only
capable of taking in large views of its interefts, but by
the ftrongeft affeftions conne£l:ed w’ith it, and prompt¬
ed to take a (hare of its concerns, we are under the
moft facred ties to profecute its fecurity and welfare
with the utmoft ardour, efpecially in times of public
trial. This love of our country does not import an at¬
tachment to any particular foil, climate, or fpot of
earth, where perhaps we firft drew our breath, though
thofe natural ideas are often affbeiated wfith die moral
ones, and, like external figns or fymbols, help to af-
certain and bind them ; but it imports an aft'eiftion to
that moral fyftem, or community, which is governed
by the fame laws and magiftrates, and whofe feveral
parts are varioufly connefted one with the other, and
I
388
•Duties of all united upon the bottom oF a common mtereft. Per-
, si haps indeed every member of the community cannot
comprehend fo large an objeft, efpecially if it extends
through large provinces, and over vait trafts of land j
and iti!l Ids can ho form fuch an idea, if there is no
public, i. e. if all are fubjeft to the caprice and unli¬
mited will of one man 5 but the preference the gene¬
rality ihow to their native country, the concern and
longing after it which they expiefs when they have
been long abfent from it ; the labours they undertake
and fufferings they endure to fave or ferve it, and
the peculiar attachment they have to their country¬
men, evidently demonftrate that the paffion is natu¬
ral, and never fails to exert itfelf when it is fairly dif-
engaged from foreign clogs, and is diredled to its pro¬
per objedl. Wherever it prevails in its genuine vigour
and extent, it fwallows up all fordid and felfiih regards;
it conquers the love of eafe, power, pleafure, and
wealth; nay, when the amiable partialities oi fnend-
Jbip, gratitude, private affc-Bion, or regards lo a fami¬
ly, come in competition with it, it will teach us bravely
to facrifice all, in order to maintain the rights, and
promote or defend the honour and happinels/ of our
164 country.
Refi'j nat °n Rejignalion and obedience to the laws and orders of
encet 'the^6 ^oc^ety to which we belong, are political duties
laws, &c. neceffary to its very being and fecurity, without which
it muft foon degenerate into a ftate of licentioufnefs and
anarchy. The welfare, nay, the nature of civil io-
ciety, requires, that there fliould be a fubordination of
orders, or diverfity of ranks and conditions in it ;—
that certain men, or orders of men, be appointed’ to
fuperintend and manage inch affairs as concern the
public fafety and happinefs •,—that all have their par¬
ticular provinces afligned them ;—that fuch a fubordi¬
nation be fettled among them as none of them may
interfere with another; and finally, that certain rules
or common meafures of cdhon be agreed on, by which
each is tq difeharge his refpedtive duty to govern or
be governed, and all may concur in fecuring the order,
and promoting the felicity, of the whole political
body. Thofe rules of aclion are the laws of the. com¬
munity ; and thofe different orders are the feveral of¬
ficers or magiftrates appointed by the public to explain
them, and fuperintend or aflifl in their execution. In
confequence of this fettlement of things, it is the duty
of each individual to obey the laws enabled •, to fubrnit
to the executors of them with all due deference and
homage, according to their refpeftive ranks and dig¬
nity, as to the keepers of the public peace, and the
guardians of public liberty ; to maintain his own rank,
and perform the funblions of his own ftatioh, with di¬
ligence, fidelity, and incorruption. The fuperiority
of the higher orders, or the authority with which the
Hate has invefted them, entitle them, efpecially if they
employ their authority well, to the obedience and fub-
miffion of Dae. lower, and to a proportiona te honour
and refpebl from all. The fubordination ot the lower
ranks claims, protection, defence, and fecurity from
the higher. And the laws, being fuperior to all, re¬
quire the obedience and fubmiffion of all, being the
laft refort, beyond which there is no decifion or ap¬
peal.
Public fpirit, heroic t&eal, love of liberty, and the
other political duties, do, above all others, recommend
Part II.
thofe who praclife them to the admiration and ho- Dimes of
mage of mankind; becaafe, as they are the offspring Societv-
of the nobleft minds, fo are they the parents of the " ff
greateft biefling to fociety. Yet, exalted as they are, Foundation
it is only in equal and free governments where they of public
can be exercifed and have their due tfieff ; for thereiove
only does a true public fpirit prevail, and theie only
is the public good made the ftandard of the civil con-w"C'
ftitution. As the end of fociety is the common inte-
ref and welfare of the people afibciated, this end muff
of ncceffiiy be the fupreme law, or common fandard, by
which the particular rules of ablion of the feveral
members of the focicty towards each other are to be
regulated. But a common interf can be no other than '
that which is the refult of the common reafon or com¬
mon feelings of all. Private men, or a particular or¬
der of men, have interefts and feelings peculiar to
themfelves, and of which they may be good judges;
but thd'e may be feparate from, and often contrary to,
the interefls and feelings of the reft of the focietv ;
and therefore they can have no right to make, and
much left to impofe, laws on their fellow citizens, in-
coriliftent with, and oppofite to, thofe interefis and
thofe feelings. Therefore, a focicty, a government, or
real public, truly worthy the name, and not a confe¬
deracy of banditti, a clan of lawlefs faVages, or a band
of Haves under the whip of a matter, muit be iuch a
one as confiits ct freemen, drooling 01 contenting to
laws themfelves ; or, fincc it often happens that they
cannot afl’emble and abt in a collective body, delega¬
ting a fufficient number of reprefenlatives, i. e. fuch
a number as ihall molt fully comprehend, and nroft e-
qually repreient, their common feelings and common inte-
refs, to, digeft and vote laws tor the conduct and con-
troul of the whole body, the moft agreeable to thofe
common feelings and common interetts. '
A fociety thus conftituted by common reafon, and Political
formed on the plan of a common mteref, becomes im-duties of
mediately an objedt of public attention, public venera-evei7 chi-
tion, public obedience, a public and inviolable attach-zen'
merit, which ought neither to be feduced by bribes,
nor awed by terrors ; an objedt, in fine, of all thofe
extenfive and important duties which ariie from to glo¬
rious a confederacy. To watch over tuch a tyliem ;
to contribute all he can to promote its good by his
reaton, his ingenuity, his ftrengtb, and every other
ability, whether natural or acquired ; to reli.i, and,
to the utmoft of his power, defeat every encroachment
upon it, whether carried on by a fecret corruption or
open violence ; and to iacrifice his eafe, his wealth, his
power, nay life ittclf, and, what is dearer Hill, his fa¬
mily and friends, to defend or fave it, is the duty, the
'honour, the intereft, and the happinefs of every citi'-
zen ; it will make him venerable end beloved while he
lives, be lamented and honoured if he falls in fo glori¬
ous a caufe, and tranfmit his name with immortal re¬
nown to the lateft polterity.
As the PEOPLE are the fountain of power and au-Qft^
thority, the original feat of majefty, the authors ofpeopie#
laws, and the creators of officers to execute them ; if
they ffiall find the power they have conferred abufed
by their truftees, their majeily violated by tyranny or
by ufurpation, their authority prollituted to fupport
violence or fereen corruption, the laws giown perni¬
cious through accidents unforefeen or unavoidable, or
rendered
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Fart II.
Dut y to
God.
* F-jTays,
vol. i.
168
Divine
connex¬
ions.
169
Exiftence
ef God.
MOUAL PH
rendered in'efFedtual tVsrougli the infidelity ^ d corrup¬
tion ofi the executors of them ; then it is their right,
and v hat is their right is their duty, to refume that
deleg ued power, and call their truftces to an account ;
to re tilt the ufurpntion, and extirpate the tyranny •,
to rcllore their fullied majefly and proftituted autho¬
rity ; to fufpend, alter, or abrogate thofe laws, and
punifli their unfaithful and corrupt officers. Nor is it
the duty . n!y of the united body 5 but every member
of it ought, according to his refpedlive rank, power,
and weight in the community, to concur in advancing
and fupporting thefe glorious defigns.
Rehftanc , therefore, being undoubtedly lawful in
extraordinary emergencies, the queflion, among good
reafoners, can only be with regard to the degree of
neceffity which can juftify refinance, and render it ex¬
pedient or commendable. And here we mull acknow¬
ledge, that, with Mr Hume *, “ we ihall always in¬
cline to their fide that draw the bond of allegiance
very clofe, and who confider an infringement of it as
the laif refuge in defperate cafes, when the public is
in the higheft danger from violence and tyranny. For
befides the mifehiefs of a civil war, which commonly
attends iniurreftion, it is Certain, that where a difpo-
fition to rebellion appears among any people, it is one
chief caufe of tyranny in the rulers, and forces them
intd many violent meafures, which, had every one been
inclined to fubmiffion and obedience, they would never
have embraced. Thus the tyrannicide, or aflfaffination
approved of by ancient maxims, inftead of keeping
tvrants and ufurpers in awe, made them ten times more
fierce and unrelenting ; and is now juftly aboliffied on
that account by the laws of nations, and univerfally con¬
demned, as a bafe and treacherous method of bringing
to juftice thofe diflurbers of fociety.”
Chap. IV. Duty to God.
Of all the relations which the human mind fuftains,
that which fubfifts between the Creator and his crea¬
tures, the fupreme La wgiver and his fubje&s, is the
higheft and the beft. This relation ariles from the na¬
ture of a creature in general, and the conjhtution of the
human mind in particular; thenobleft powers and afiec-
tions of which point to an univerfal Mind, and would be
imperfect and abortive without fuch a direffion. How
lame then muft that fyftem of morals be, which leaves a
Deity out of the queflion ! How difconfolate, and how
deftitute of its firmed fupport !
It does not appear, from any true hiftory or expe¬
rience of the mind’s progrefs, that any man, by any
formal dedu&ion of his difeurfive power, ever reafon-
ed himfelf into the belief of a God. Whether fuch a
belief is only fome natural anticipation of foul, or is
derived from father to fon, and from one man to ano¬
ther, in the way of tradition, or is fuggefted to us m
confequence of an immutable law of our nature, on be¬
holding the auguft afpeft and beautiful order of the
univerfe, we will not pretend to determine. What
feems moft agreeable to experience is, that a JenJe of
its beauty and grandeur, and the admirablefitnefs of one
thing to another in its vaft apparatus, leads the mind
neceffarily and unavoidably to a perception of a deftgn
or of a drfgnirtg caufe, the origin of all, by a progrefs
as fimple and natural as that by which a beautiful pvc-
ILO SOPHY. 389
ture or 9. fine building fuggefls to us the idea of an rx- Dr.tv to
cellent art if. For it ieenis to hold universally true that ooci‘ ,
wheiever we difeern a tendency or co-operation of lings
towards a certain end, or producing a common effid,
there, by a neediary law of affociation, we apprehend
dejign, a defgning energy or caufe. No matter whether
the objects are natural or artificial, frill that fuggeilion
is unavoidable, and the connexion between the effect and
its adequate caufe obtrudes itfelf on the mind, and it re¬
quires no nice fearch or elaborate deduction of reafon
to traefe or prove that connexion. We are particu¬
larly fatisfied of its truth in the fubjed before us by a
kind of direct intuition ; and we d( not feem to attend
to the maxim we learn in {’chock, “ That there can¬
not be an infiniteferies of caufes and' effects producing
and produced by one another.” That maxim is fami¬
liar only to metaphyficians ; but all men of found un-
derftanding are led to believe the exiftence of a God.
We are conicious of our exidence, of thought, fentiment,
and pajjion, and fenfible withal that thefe came not of
ourfelves ; therefore we immediately recognize a parent
mind, an original intelligence, from whom we borrowed
thofe little portions of thought and activity. And
while we not only feel land aifedions in ourfelves, and
difeover them in others, but iikewife behold round us
fuch a number and variety of creatures, endued with
natures nicely adjufled to their feveral ftations and
economies, fupportiag and fupported by each other,
and all fuftained by a common order of things, and Inu¬
ring different degrees of happinefs according to their
refpedive capacities, we are naturally and necelfarily
led up to the Father of fuch a numerous offspring, the
fountain of fuch wide-fpread happinefs. As we con¬
ceive this Being before all, above all, and greater than
all, we naturally, and without reafoning, aferibe to
him every kind of perfection, wifdom, power, and
goodnefs without bounds, exifting through all time, 170-
and pervading all fpace. We apply to him thofe glo- His relation
rious epithets of our Creator, Preferver, Benefactor, thet0
fupreme Lord and Lawgiver of the whole fociety of ra-   
tional and intelligent crt,?Aures. Not only the imper-
feClions and wants-of our being and condition, but
fome of the nobleft inftinCts and affedions of our
minds, conned us with this great and univerfal nature.
The mind, in its progrefs from object to object, from
one character and profpeCt of beauty to another, finds
fome blemifh or deficiency in each, and foon exhaufts
or grows weary and diffatisfied with its fubjeCt; it
fees no character of excellency among men equal to
that pitch of efteem which it is capable of exerting ;
no objeCt within the compafs of human things ade¬
quate to the ftrength of its affeCtion : nor can it liny
anywhere in this felf expanfive progrefs, or find repofe
after its higheft flights, till it arrives at a Being of
unbounded greatnefs and worth, on whom it may em¬
ploy its fublimeft powers without exhaufting the fub¬
jeCt, and give fcope to the utmoft force and fulnefs of
its love without fatiety or diiguft. So that the nature
of this Being correfponds to the nature of man ; nor
can his intelligent and moral powers obtain their entire
end, but on the fuppofition of fuch a Being; and with¬
out a real fympathy and communication with him.
Tile native propenfity of the mind to reverence what¬
ever is great and wonderful in nature, finds a proper
obieCt of homage in him who fpread out the heavens
and.
*
A
/*■ *
Duty to
God.
. r72
Right opi_
nions of
God.
anii tue earth, and who fuftains and governs the whole
of things. The admiration of beauty, the love of or-
Q^r, and the complacency we feel in goodnefs, mult rife
t o the htghefl pitch, and attain the full vigour and joy
or their operations, when they unite in him who is the
171 fum and fource of all perfection.
onmpk-ty^ ’S ev^ent ^rom lhc flighted furvey of morals,
that how pu'.iftual foerer one may be in performing
toe duties whicii refult from our relations to mankind,
yet to be quite deficient in performing thofe which
aine from our relation to the Almighty, muft argue a
llrange perveriion of reafon or depravity of heart. If
imperfect degrees of worth attract our veneration, and
if the want of it would imply an infenfibility, or,
which is v\'Oife, an averfion to merit, what lamenefs
of afFeCtion or immorality of character muft it be to
be unaffeCted with, and much more to be ill-affedted
to, a Being of fuperlative worth ! To love focicty, or
particular members of it, and yet to have no fenfe of
our connexion with its Head, no affection to our com¬
mon I arent and BenefaCtor } to be concerned about
the approbation or cenfure'of our fellow’ creatures, and
yet to feel nothing of this kind towards him who fees
and we’ghs our aCtions with unerring wifdom and
juflice, and can fully reward or punifh them, betrays
equal madnefs and partiality of mind. It is plain,
therefore, beyond all doubt, that fome regards are due
to the great l ather of all, in whom every lovely and
adorable quality combines to infpire veneration and
homage.
As it has been obferved already, that our ajfeBions
depend on our opinions of their objeCts, and generally
keep pace with them, it muft be of the higheft im¬
portance, and feems to be among the firft duties wTe
owe to the Author of our being, “ to form the leait
imperfeCt, fince we cannot form perfeCt, conceptions
ot his charaBer and adminiflraticn.'1'' For fuch concep¬
tions, thoroughly imbibed, will render our religion ra¬
tional, and our dijpojltions refined. H our opinions are
diminutive and diftorted, our religion will be fuper-
llitious, and our temper abject. Thus, if we aferibe
to the Deity that falfe majefty which confifts in the
unbenevolent and fallen e.xercife of mere will or power,
or fuppofe him to delight in the proftrations of fervile
fear, or as fervile praife, he will be worfhipped with
mean adulation and a profufion of compliments. Far¬
ther, If he be looked upon as a ftern and implacable
Being, delighting in vengeance, he will be adored with
pompous offerings, facrifices, or whatever elfe may be
thought proper to foothe and mollify him. But if
we believe perfeB goodnefs to be the character of the
fupreme Being, and that he loves thofe moft who re-
femble him moft, the worfhip paid him will be rational
and fublime, and his worfhippers will feck to pleafe
him by imitating that goodnefs which they adore.
The foundation then of all true religion is a rational
faith. And of a rational faith thefe feem to be the
chief articles, to believe, “that an infinite all-perfect:
Mind exifts, who has no oppofite nor any feparate in-
tereft from that of his creatures: that he fuperintends
and governs all creatures, and things;—that his good¬
nefs extends to all his creatures, in different degrees
indeed, according to their refpe&ive natures, but with¬
out any partiality or envy :—that he does every thing
for the beft, or in a fubferviency tc the perfection and
3
M O H A L PHILOSOPHY.
Part II.
>73
Rational
foith.
liappinefs of the whole j particularly that he direCts
and governs the affairs of men, infpeCls their aCtions,
diilinguifhes ihe good from the bad, loves and befriends
the former, is dilpleafed with and pities the latter in
world, and will according to their refpeCtive de¬
fects reward one and punifh the other in the next: 
that, in fine, he is always carrying on a: fcheme of vir¬
tue and happinefs through an unlimited duration ; and
is ever guiding the univerfc, through its fucceftive
ftages and periods, to higher degrees ot perfection and
felicity.” i his is true Theifm, the glorious fcheme
or divine faith j a fcheme exhibited in all the works
of God, and executed through his whole adminiftra-
tion.
This faith, well founded and deeply felt, is nearly MorJlny
conne£led with a true moral tafe, and hath a powerful theiftni
elncacy on the temper and manners of the the'ft. He
who admires goodnefs in others, and delights in the
practice of it, muft be confcious of a rei^nin^ order
wubin,^ a reflitude and candour of heart,0whfch dif-
pofes him to entertain favourable apprehenfions of men,
and, from an impartial iuivey of things, to prefume
that good order and good meaning prevail in the univerfe;
and if good meaning and good order, then an order-
mg, an intending mind, who is no enemy, no tyrant to
his creatures, but a friend, a benefaBor, an indulgent
fovereign. On the other hand, a bad man, having no-r ..
thing goodly or generous to contemplate within, no right of athdfnif
intentions, nor honefty of heart, fufpe&s every perfon
and every thing \ and, beholding nature through the
gloom of a felfifh and guilty mind, is either averfe to
the belief of a reigning order, or, if he cannot (upprefs
the unconquerable anticipations of a governing mind,
he is prone to tarnilh the beauty of nature, and to im¬
pute malevolence, or blindnefs and impotence at leaff,
to the Sovereign Ruler. He turns the univerfe into
a forlorn and horrid wafte, and transfers his own cha-
ra&er to the Deity, by aferibing to him that uncom¬
municative grandeur, that arbitrary or revengeful fpi-
rit, which he affeiffs or admires in himfelf. As fuch
a temper of mind naturally leads to atheifn, or to a fu-
perfition fully as bad j therefore, as far as that temper de¬
pends on the unhappy creature on whom it prevails, the
propenfity to atheifm or fuperftition confequent thereto
muft be immoral. Farther, If it be true that the belief
or fenfe of a Deity is natural to the mind, and the evi¬
dence of his exiftence reflefted from his works fo full as
to itrike even the moft fuperficial obferver with convic¬
tion, then the fupplanting or corrupting that fenfe, or
the want of due attention to that evidence, and, in con-
fequence of both, a fupine ignorance or affcfled unbe-
liei Os a Deity, muft argue a bad temper or an immoral
turn of mind. In the cafe of invincible ignorance, or a
very bad education, though nothing can be concluded
directly againft the character ; yet whenever ill paflions
and habits pervert the judgement, and by perverting the
judgement terminate in atheifm, then the cafe becomes
plainly criminal.
But let cafuifts determine this as they will, a true xhe con-
faith in the divine charadter and adminiftration is ge-nedlion of
nerally the confequence of a virtuous ftate of mind. an<^
The man who is truly and habitually good, feels thevirtue‘
love of order, of beauty, and goodnefs, in the ftrongeft
degree ; and therefore cannot be infenfible to thofe ema¬
nations of them which appear in all the works of God,
nor
Part II.
Duty to nor help loving their fupreme fource and model. He
God' cannot but think, that he who has poured fuch beauty
w goodnefs over all his works, muft himfelf delight in
beauty and goodnefs, and what he delights in mufl be
both amiable and happy. Some indeed there are, and
it is pity there Ihould be any fuch, who, through the
unhappy influence of a wrong education, have entertain¬
ed dark and unfriendly thoughts of the Deity and his ad-
rniniflration, though otherwife of a virtuous temper them-
felves. However, it muft be acknowledged, that fuch
fentiments have, for the moft part, a bad effeft on the
temper j and when they have not, it is becaufe the un¬
depraved affeftiens of an honeft heart are more power¬
ful in their operation than the fpeculative opinions of an
,7* ill-informed head.
Duties of But wherever right conceptions of the Deity and his
gratitude, providence prevail, when he is confidered as the inex-
J^ve, hayfj-gj feurce of light, and love, and joy, as acting
in the joint charafter of a Father and Governor,, impart¬
ing an endlefs variety of capacities to his creatures,
and fupplying them with every thing neceffary to
their full completion and happinefs ; what veneration
and gratitude muft fuch conceptions, thoroughly be¬
lieved, excite in the mind ? How natural and delight¬
ful muft it be to one whofe heart is open to the per¬
ception of truth, and of every thing fair, great, and
wonderful in nature, to contemplate and adore him
who is the firft fair, the firft great, and firft wonderful;
in whom wifdorn, power, and goodnefs, dwell vitally, el-
fentiolly, originally, and aft in perfect concert ? What
grandeur is here to fill the moft enlarged capacity,
what beauty to engage the moft ardent love, whatamafs
of wonders in fuch exuberance of perfection to aftonifh
and delight the human mind through an unfailing du¬
ration !
Other affec- If the Deity is confidered as our fupreme 'Guardian
tions. and Benefactor, as the Father of ivIeYcies, who loves
his creatures with infinite tendernefs, and, in a particu¬
lar manner all good men, nay all who delight in good¬
nefs, even in its raoft imperfeft degrees j what • refig-
nation, what dependence, what generous confidence,
W'hat hope in God and his all-wife providence, muft
arife in the foul that is potfelTed of fuch amiable views
of him ! All thofe exercifes of piety, and above aril a
fuperlative efteem and love, are direfted to God as to
their natural, their ultimate, and indeed their only ade¬
quate objeft 5 and though the immenfe obligations we
have received from him may excite in us more lively
feelings of divine goodnefs than a general and abflraft-
ed contemplation of it, yet the affeftions of gratitude
and love are of tbemfelves of the generous difinterefted
kind, not the refult of felf-intereft, or views of reward.
A perfeft charafter, in which we always fuppole infi¬
nite goodnefs, guided by unerring vyifdom, and^ fup-
ported by almighty power, is the proper objeft: or per-
feft love •, which, as fuch, we are forcibly drawn to
purfue and to afpire after. In the contemplation of the
divine nature and attributes, we find at laft what t.re
ancient philofophers fought in vain, the SUPREME akd
SOVEREIGN GOOD \ from which all other goods arife,
and in which they are all contained. The^Deity there¬
fore challenges our fupreme and fovereign love, a fenu-
ment which, whofoever indulges, muft be confirmed in
' the love of virtue, in a defire to imitate its a.l-perfeft
pattern, and in a cheerful fecurity that all nis great
39 £
concerns, thofe of his friends and of the univerfe, fliall Duty to
be abfolutely fafe under the conduft of unerring wif-, GQ(*' .
dom and unbounded goodnefs. It is in his care and
providence alone that the good man, wftio is anxious
for the happinefs of all, finds perfeft ferenity ; a fereni-
ty neither ruffled by partial ill nor foured by private dif-
appointment.
When we confider the unftained purity and abroIuteRepent-
perfeftion of the divine nature, and reflect withal onance»^S,
the imperfeftion and various blemtlhes of our own, we
muft fink, or be convinced we ought to fink, into the
deepeft humility and proftration of foul before him who
is fo wonderfully great and holy. When, further, we
call to mind what low and languid feelings we have of
the divine prefence and majefly, what infeniibility of
his fatherly , and univerfal goodnefs, nay, what un¬
grateful returns w:e have made to it, how far we
come Ihort of the perfeftion of his law and the dignity
of our own nature, how much we have indulged the felfilh
paffions, and how little we have cherilhed the benevolent
ones ; we muft be confcions that it is our duty to re¬
pent of a temper and conduft fo unworthy our nature
and unbecoming our obligations to its Author, and to
refolve and endeavour to aft a wifer and better part for
the future. jg®
Neverthelefs, from the charafter which his works Hopes of
exhibit of him, from thofe delays or alleviations of pu-pardorr.
nilhment which offenders often experience, and from
the merciful tenor of his admlniftration in many other
inftances, the fincere penitent may entertain good hopes
that his Parent and Judge will not be drift to mark
iniquity, but will be propitious and favourable to him,
if he honeftly endeavours to avoid his former praftices,
and fubdue his former habits, and to live in a greater
conformity to the divine will for the future. If any
doubts or feais Ihould ftill remain, how far it may be
confiftent with the reftitude and equity of the divine
government to let his iniquities pafs unpunilhed, yet he
cannot think it unfuitable to his paternal clemency and
wifdom to contrive a method of retrieving the penitent
offender, that fliall unite and reconcile the majefty and
mercy of his government. If reafon cannot of itfelf
fuggeft fuch a fcheme, it gives at leaft feme- ground to
exp eft it. But though natural religion cannot let in
moral light and affurance on fo interefting a fubjeft,
yet it will teach the humble theift to wait with great
fubmiffion for any farther intimations it may pleafe the
fupreme Governor to give of his will; to examine with
candour and impartiality whatever evidence ftiall be
propofed to him of a divine revelation, whether that evi¬
dence is natural or fupernatural; to embrace it with
veneration and cheerfulnefs, if the evidence is clear and
convincing ; and, finally, it it bring to light any new
relations or connexions, natural religion will perfuade its
fincere votary faithfully to comply with the obligations,
and perform the duties which refult from thofe relations ■
and connexions. This is theiftn, piety, the completion
of morality! isr
We muft farther obferve, that all thofe affeftionsWorthip,
which we fuppofed to regard the Deity as their imme-V^de,
diale and primary objeft, are vital energies of the foul,^.4*^1*
and confequently exert themfclves into aft, and, like0' ‘
all other energies, gain ftrength or greater aftivity by
that exertion. It is therefore our duty as well as high-
eft interejl, often at ftated times, and by- decent and fo-
lemn
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
392 MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Part IT.
-Dui} to lemn ac^s, to cortteraplate and adore the great Original
i _ ot our exiltence, the Parent of all beauty and of all
good ; to exprefs cur veneration and love by an awful
and devout recognition of his perfections ; and to evi¬
dence our gratitude by celebrating his goodnefs, and
thankfully acknowledging all his benefits. It is like-
wife our duty, by proper exercifes of forrow and humi¬
liation, to confefs our ingratitude and folly ; to fignify
our dependence on God, and our confidence in his
goodnefs, by imploring his bfeffing and gracious con¬
currence in allifting the weaknefs and curing the cor¬
ruptions of our nature •, and, finally, to teftify our fenfe
or his authority, and our faith in his government, by
devoting ourfelves to do his will, and refigning ourfelves
to his difpofal. Tbefe duties are not therefore obliga¬
tory, becaufe the Deity needs or can he profited by
them ; but as they are apparently decent and moral,
Imtable to the relations he fuftains of our Creator, Be-
nefa&or. Lawgiver, and Judge ; expreffive of our ftate
and obligations; and improving to our tempers, by
making us more rational, focial, god-like, and confe-
iSz quently more happy.
External We have now confidered Internal piety, or the
worth ip. worjhip of the ?nind, that which is in fpirit and in
truth ; we (hall conclude the feftion with a fliort ac¬
count of that which is External. External worihip
is founded on the fame principles as internal, and of
» as flrift moral obligation. It is either private or pub¬
lic. Devotion that is inward, or purely intellectual, is
too fpiritual and abftraCted an operation for the bulk
of mankind. The operations of their minds, fuch efpe-
cially as are employed on the moll fublime, immaterial
objeCIs, mull be alhlled by their outward organs, or by
lome help from the imagination ; otherwife they will Duty to
foon be dilfipated by fenfible hnpreffions, or grow tire- ^0f*-
fome if too long continued. Ideas are fuch fleeting
things, that they mull be fixed ; and fo fubtle, that
they mult be expreffed and delineated, as it were, by
fenfible marks and images ; otherwife we cannot attend
to them, nor be much affe&ed by them. Therefore,
verbal adoration, prayer, praife, thankfgiving, and con-
faffon, are admirable aids to inward devotion, fix our
attention, compofe and enliven our thoughts, imprefs
us more deeply with a fenfe of the awful prefence in
which we are, and, by a natural and mechanical fort
of influence, tend to heighten thofe devout feelings and
affetStions which we ought to entertain, and after this
manner reduce into formal and explicit acl.
This holds true in a higher degree in the cafe ofpY'b?
public worihip, where the prefence of our fellow-crea- worihip.
tures, and the powerful contagion of the focial affec¬
tions, confpire to kindle and fpread the devout flame
with greater warmth and energy. To conclude : As
God is the parent and head of the focial fysiem, as he
has formed us for a focialJlate, as by one we find the
bell fecurity againfl the ills of life, and in the other
enjoy its greatell comforts, and as, by means of both,
our nature attains its highell improvement and perfec¬
tion ; and moreover, as there are public blejjings and
crimes in which we all fnare in fome degree, and pub¬
lic wants and dangers to which all are expofed-—-it is
therefore evident, that the various and folemn offices
of public religion are duties of indifnen fable moral ob¬
ligation, among the bell cements of fociety, the firm-
ell prop of government, and the fairell ornament of
both.
PART III. *
1S4
Dignity
ami import¬
ance of the
ihbjeft.
185
Senfiblc
ideas and
fenfible
tafte.
Chap. I. O/Tractical Ethics, or /^Culture
of the Mind.
WE have now gone through a particular detail of
..the feveral duties we owe to Ourselves, to Society,
and to God. In confidering the firjl order of duties,
we juft touched on the methods of acquiring the differ¬
ent kinds of goods which we are led by nature to pur-
fue ; only we left the confideration of the method of
acquiring the moral goods of the mind to a chapter by
itfelf, becaufe of its lingular importance. This chapter
then will contain a brief enumeration of the arts of ac¬
quiring virtuous habits, and of eradicating -vicious ones,
as far as is confillent with the brevity of fuch a work :
a fubjeft of the utmoli difficulty as well as importance
in morals; to which, neverthelefs, the lealt attention
has been generally given by moral writers. This will
properly follow’ a detail of duty, as it will direfl us to
fuch means or helps as are molt neceffary and conducive
to the practice of it.
In the firll part of this inquiry we traced the order
in which the paffions Ihoot up in the different periods
of human life. That order is not accidental, or depend¬
ent on the caprice of men, or the influence of cuflem
and education, but arifes from the original conffitution
and laws of our nature ; of which this is one, viz.
3
“ That fenflble objects make the full and ftrongeft im-
preflions on the mind.” Thefe, by means of our out¬
ward organs, being conveyed to the mind, become ob¬
jects of its attention, on which it refledts when the out¬
ward objedls are no longer prefent, or, in other words
when the impreflions upon the outward organs ceafe
Thefe objedls of the mind’s refledlion are called ideas
or notions. Towards thefe, by another law of our na¬
ture, we are not altogether indifferent ; but correfpond-
ent movements of define or averfion, love or hatred,
arife, according as the objedls which they denote made
an agreeable or difagreeable impreflion on our organs.
Thole ideas and affections which we experience in the
JirJl period of life, we refer to the body, or to fenfe;
and the tajle, which is formed towards them, wre call
a fenjible, or a merely natural tajle; and the objects
correiponding to them wTe in general call good or plea-
fant- . ^ _ _ . ' 1S6
But as the mind moves forward in its courfe, it ex- m . r
tends its views, and receives a new and more beauty amj
fet of ideas, in which it obferves uniformity, variety, a fine tafte.
funilitude, fymmetry of parts, reference to an end, no¬
velty, grandeur. Thefe cornpofe a vail train and diver-
fuy of imagery, which the mind compounds, divides,
and moulds into a thoufand forms, in the abfence of
thole objects which firlt introduced it. And this more
complicated imagery luggefls a new train of defines and
affeBions,
Part HI.
end a mo
ral taite.
lS8
Sources of
sdTociation.
M ORAL P
Culture of affections, full as fpriglitly and engaging as any which
the Mind, have yet appeared. This whole clafs of perceptions or
' imprejfftons is referred to the imagination, and forms a
higher talle than the ffenjible, and which has an imme¬
diate and mighty intluence on the finer paffions of our
nature, and is commonly termed a fine tafie.
The objefls which correfpond to this tafte we ufe to
call beautiful, great, harmonious, or wonderful, or in
tSy general by the name of beauty. /
Moral ideas The mind, ftill pufhing onwards and increanng its
Hock of ideas, afcends from thofe to a higher fpecies of
objefts, viz. the order and mutual relations of minds to
each other, their reciprocal ajfeEhons, charaBers, ac¬
tions, and various afipeBs. In thefe it dilcovers a beau¬
ty, a grandeur, a decorum, more interefting and allur¬
ing than in any of the former kinds. Thefe objedts, or
the notions of them, patling in review before the mind,
do, by a neceffary law of our nature, call forth ano¬
ther and nobler fet of aflfedlions, as admiration, efieem,
love, honour, gratitude, benevolence, and others of the
like tribe. 'This clafs of perfeBions, and their corre-
fpondent ajfeBions, we refer, becaufe of their objedts
(manners'), to a moral fenfe, and call the tafie or tam¬
per they excite, moral. And the objedls which are
agreeable to this tafie or temper we denominate by the
general name of moral beauty, in order to diftinguifh it
from the other, which is termed natural.
Thefe different fets of ideas or notions are the ma¬
terials about which the mind employs itfelf, which it
blends, ranges, and diverfifies ten thoufand different
ways. It feels a ftrong propenfion to conned! and af-
fociate thofe ideas among which it obferves arty fimili-
tude or any aptitude, whether original and natural, or
cufiomary and artificial, to fuggeft each other. See
Metaphysics.
UBw= But whatever the reafons are, whetherfimilitude, co-
iffociation. exi/lence,caufality, or any other aptitude or relation, why
any two or more ideas are connedled by the mind at
firft, it is an eftablifhed law of ®ur nature, “ that when
two or more ideas have often ftarted in company, they
form fo ftrong an union, that it is very difficult ever af¬
ter to feparate them.” Thus the lover cannot feparate
the idea of merit from his mifirefs ; the courtier that of
■dignity from his title or ribbon ; the mifier that of happi-
nefis from his bags. It is thefe affociations of worth or
happinefs with any of the different fets of objeBs or ima¬
ges before fpecified that form our tafie or complex idea
of good. By another law of our nature, “ our ajfeBions
follow and are governed by this tafie. And to thefe
ajfeBions our charaBer and conduB are fimilar and pro¬
portioned on the general tenor of which our happinefs
principally depends.”
■leaning ^5 all our leading paflions then depend on the di-
invtafte01" re&i°n which our tafie takes, and as it is always of
the fame ft rain with our leading affociations, it is worth
while to inquire a little more particularly how thefe
are formed, in order to detedl the fecret fources from
whence our paftions derive their principal ftrength,
their various rifes and falls. For this will give us the
true key to their management, and let us into the
right method of correcting the bad and improving the
191 good.
'heimpor- kind of objedls make fo powerful an imprefiion
mce and on us ag t|10fe which are immediately impreffed on our
na-ina-6 fienfiesi or hrol1gly painted on our imaginations. What-
on? Vol. XIV. Part I. ,
rSp
Laws of
H I L O S O P H Y. 393-
ever is purely intelleBual, as abftracled or feientific Cultme 01
truths, the fubtle relations and difterences of things,
has a fainter fort of exiftence in the mind ; and though
it may exercife and whet the memory, the judgement,
or the reafomngpower, gives hardly any impulfe at all
to the aBive powers, the pajfions, which, are the main
fprings of motion. On the other hand, were the mind
entirely under the diredtion oifenfe, and impreffible on¬
ly by fuch objedfs as are prefent, and ftrike fome of the
outward organs, we ftiould then be precifely in the ftate
of the brute creation, and be governed folely by infiinB
or appetite, and have no power to control whatever im-
preftions are made upon us: Nature has therefore en¬
dued us with a middle faculty, wonderfully adapted to
our mixed ftate, which holds partly of fenfe and partly
of reafon, being ftrongly allied to ‘Cae. former, and the
common receptacle in wdrich all the notices that come
from that quarter are treafured up .; and yet greatly
fubfervient and minifterial to the latter, by giving a bo¬
dy, a coherence, and beauty to its conceptions. This
middle faculty is called the imagination, one of the moft
bufy and fruitful powers of the mind. Into this com¬
mon ftorehoufe are likewife carried all thofe moral
forms which are derived from our moral faculties of
perception ; and there they often undergo new changes
and appearances, by being mixed and wrought up with
the ideas and forms of fenfible or natural things. By
this coalition of imagery, natural beauty^ is dignified and
heightened by moral qualities and perfeBions, and mo¬
ral qualities are at once exhibited and let off by natural
beauty. The fenfible beauty, or good, is refined from
its drofs by partaking of the moral; and the moral st-
ceives a ftamp, a vilible charafter and currency, from
the fenfible. 192
As we are firft of all accuftomed to fenfible impref-Its energy
190
Leading
fions and fenlible enjoyments, we contrail early z fenfuatipff™^
relijh or love of pleafure, in the lower lenle 01 the worc**}iej2{lten_
In order, however, to juftify this relifh, the mind, as jng fengble
it becomes open to higher perceptions of beauty and pleafures;.
good, borrows from thence a noble fet of images, %.sfine
tafie, generofity, foctal ajfeBions, fnendjhip, good fel-
lowjhip, and the like; and, by drefling out the old
purluits with thefe new ornaments, gives them an addi¬
tional dignity and luftre. By thefe ways the defire of a
table, love of finery, intrigue and pleafure, are vaftly in-
creafed beyond their natural pitch, having an impulfe
combined of the force of the natural appetites, and of
.the fuperadded ftrength of thofe pajjions which tend to I93
the moral fpecies. When the mind becomes more fen-in height-
fible to thofe objeas or appearances in which it per-ening the
ceives beauty, uniformity, grandeur, and harmony, as
fine clothes, elegant furniture, plate, pictures, gardens, jiarmonjrj
houfes, equipage, the beauty of animals, and particu- gtc.
larly the attractions of the fex ; to thefe objeCts the
mind is led by nature or taught by cujlom, the opinion
and example of others, to annex certain ideas of moral
charaBer, dignity, decorum, honour, liberality, tender-
nefs, and aBive or facial enjoyment. The confequence
of this affociation is, that the objefts to which thefe are
annexed muft rife in their value, and be purfued with
proportionable ardour. The enjoyment of them is often
attended with pleafure; and the mere poffieffion of them,
where that is wanting, frequently draws refpeft from
one’s fellow’-creatures : This refpeB is, by many,
thought equivalent to the pleafure of enjoyment. Hence
3 D it .
394
Culture of
the Mind.
If>4 ,
in raid itr
-the value
of external
fvmbois,
S' r
CvC«
<95
in height¬
ening the
Value of
wealth,
power, &c.
\()G
its i id li¬
enee on all
the paffion
MOPtAL PH
it happens that the idea of happinefs is conncfled with
the mere pojfejjion, which is therefore eagerly foufjht af¬
ter without any regard to the generous ufe or honourable
enjoyment. Thus the paffion, retting on the. means, not
the end, i. e. lofing light of its natural object, be¬
comes wild and extravagant.
In fine, any object, or external denomination, z jlajf,
a garter, a cap, a crown, a title, may become a moral
badge or emblem of merit, magnificence, or honour, ac¬
cording as thefe have been found or thought, by the
pofic-ffofs or admirers of them, to accompany them ;
yet, by the deception formerly mentioned, the merit
or the conduct which entitled, or Ihould entitle, to thofe
marks of diuinff'on, Ihall be forgot or neglected, and
the badges themfelves be palfionately afi'etted or pur¬
ified, as including every excellency. If thefe are at¬
tained by any means, all the concomitants which na¬
ture, cicflom, or accidents have joined to them, will be
fuppofed to follow of courfe. Thus, moral ends with
which the unhappy admirer is apt to colour over his
paffion and views will, in his opinion, juillfy the molt
immoral means, as projlitution, adulation, fraud, treache¬
ry, and every fpecies of knavery, whether more open or
more difguifed.
AVhen men are once engaged in adhve life, and find
that wealth and power, generally called INTKREST, are
the great avenues to every kind of enjoyment, they are
apt to throw in many engaging moralforms to the ob-
jedd cf their purfuit, in order to jufiify their paffion,
and vamilh o\er the mealures they take to gratify it, as
independency on the vices or pafjions of others, provifon
and fecurity to themfelves and friends, prudent economy
or well-placed charity, facial communication, fuperiority
to their enemies, w ho are all villains, honourable fervice,
and many other ingredients of merit. To attain fuch
capacities of ufefulnefs or enjoyment, what arts, nay
what meanneffes, can be thought blameable by thofe
cool purfuers of intereft ?—Nor have they whom the
gay world is pleafed to indulge with the title of men cf
pleafure, their imaginations lefs pregnant with moral
images, with which they never fail to ennoble, or, if
they cannot do that, to-palliate their grofs purfuits.
Thus admiration of wit, of feiitiments and merit, fnend-
Jhip, love, generous fympathy, mutual confidence, giving
and receiving pleafure, are the ordinary ingredients with
which they leafon their gallantry and pleafurable enter¬
tainments \ and by which they impofe on themfelves,
and endeavour to impofe on others, that their amours
are the joint HTue of good fenfe and virtue.
Thefe ojfociations, varioufly combined and propor¬
tioned by the imagination, form the chief private paf-
’ lions, which govern the lives of the generality, as- the
love of aBion, of plea fur e, power, wealth, and fame;
they influence the defenjive, and affeef the public paf¬
jions, and raife joy or farrow as they are gratified or
difappointed. bo that in elfebl thefe affociations of
good and evil, beauty and deformity, and the paffions
they raife, are the main hinges of life and manners, and
the great fources of our happinefs ur mifery. It is evi¬
dent, therefore, that the whole of moral culture mull
depend on giving a right <d\rc&l\QX\ to'Ciw, leading paf¬
jions, and duly proportioning them to the value of the
objeBs or purfued, under what name loever they
may appear.
Now, in order to give them this right, dircBion and
ipS
rby feh'de-
I L O S O P H Y. Part III.
due proportion, it appears, from the foregoing detail, Culture of
that thole afociations cf ideas, upon which the paffions t*ie M nd.
depend, mult be duly regulated j that is to lay, as an ^
exorbitant paffion for wealth, pleafure, or power, ilows Mor;u'cul-
from an affocialion or opinion, shat more beauty and ture, by
good, whether natural or moral, enters into the enjoy-correcting
ment or poffeffion of them, than really belongs to ei-°'Jr t °*
ther ; therefore, in rettoring thofe paffions to their juft AA''4"
proportion, we mult begin with correcting the opinion,
or breaking l\\e fa/fe affociatign, or, in other words, we
mult decompound the complex phantom of happinefs cr
good, which we fondly admire ; difunite thofe ideas that
have no natuivl alliance $ and feparate the original idea
of wealth, power, or pleafure, from the foreign mix¬
tures incorporated with it, which enhance its value, cr
give it its chief power to enchant and (educe the mind.
For infiance, let it be confidered how poor and inconfi-
derable a thing wealth is, if it be disjoined from real
or from ideas of capacity in the poileffor to do good,
from independence, generofty, provifon for a family or
friends, and facial communication with others, iiy this
fandard let its true value be fixed j let its rniiapplica-
ticn, or unbenevolent enjoyment, be accounted ibrdid
and infamous $ and nothing worthy or ettimable be af-
cribed to the merepofiefiun of it, which is not borrow¬
ed from its generous uje.
If that complex form of good which is called pleafure
engage us, let it be analyzed into its, conli’tucnt prin-nial and«
ciples, or thofe allurements it draws from the counter-
arid imagination, in order to heighten the low part ofProcels»
the indulgence j let t'atfigarate and comparative mo¬
ment of each be diltincUy afeertained and deduced from
that grofs part, and this remainder of the accumulated
enjoyment will dwindle down into a poor, inlipid, trun-
fitory thing. In proportion as the opinion of the good
permed abates, the admiration mull decay, and the paj'-
fi.ons lofe ttrength of courfe. One elfebtual w7ay to
lower the opinion, and confequently to weaken the ha¬
bit founded upon it, is to prabiife leffer pieces of feltb
denial, or to abftain, to a certain pitch, from the pur¬
fuit or enjoyment of the favourite objeft 5 and, that this
may be the more ealily accompliihed, one mud avoid
thoie occafions, that company, thofe places, and the
other circutnliances, that inriamed one and endeared the
other. And, as a counter-procefs, let higher or even
different enjoyments be brought in view, other paffions
played upon the former, different places frequented,
other exercifes tried, company kept with perfpns a
different or more correft way of thinking both in natu¬
ral and mioral fubjefts. I59
As much depends on our felting out well in life, let by a found
the youthful fancy, which is apt to be very florid andan<*natura*
luxuriant, be early accuiicmed by inJlruBion, example
and fignificant moral exercifes, nay, by looks, gellures,
and every other teftimony of juft approbation or blame,
to annex ideas of merit, honour, and happinefs, not to
birth, drefs, rank, beauty, fortune, power, popularity,
and the like outward things, but moral and truly vir¬
tuous qualities, and to thofe enjoyments which fpring from,
a well-informed judgement and a regular conduft of the
affeftions, el’pecially thofe of the facial and dfinterefied
kind. Such dignified forms of beauty and good, often
fuggefted, and, by moving piftures and examples warm¬
ly recommended to the imagination, enforced by the au- '
thcrity of confidence, and demoniirated by reafon to be
Part III.
MORAL PHI
200
by rightly
ftuoyng
irormnt
and abat
merits of
different
goods;
Culture of the fureft means of enjoyment, and the only indcpen-
the Mind. undeprivable, and durable goods, will be the belt
' ' counterbalance to meaner paffions, and the filmed foun¬
dation and fecurity of virtue.
It is of great importance to the forming a juft tajle,
or pure and large conceptions of happinefs, to ftudy and
human na- Underftand human nature well, to remember what a
complicated fyflem it is, particularly to have deeply
imprinted on our mind that gradation ofye^/iv, yi/-
cu/ties, and powers of enjoyment formerly mentioned,
and the fuhordination of goods refulting from thence,
which nature’points out, and the experience of man¬
kind confirms. Who, when they think ferioufly, and
are not under the immediate induence of fame vio¬
lent prejudice or paflion, prefer not the pleafures of ac¬
tion, contetnplation, focicty, and mold exercifes and joys
of the moral kind, as friendjhip, natural ajfecUon, and
the like, to all fenfualgratifications whatfoever ? Where
the different fpecies of pleafure are blended into one
complex form, let them be accurately diftinguifhed, and
be referred each to its proper faculty and fenfe, and
examined apart what they have peculiar, what common
toI with others, and what foreign and adventitious. L't
by compa- wealth, grandeur, luxury, love, fame, and the like, be
ring the tried by this telt, and tbe.r true alloy will be round out.
Let it be further confidered, whether the mind may
not be eafy and enjoy itfelf greatly, though it want
many of thole elegancies and fup'erduities of life which
fome poffefs, or that load of wealth and power which
others eagerly purfue, and under which* they groan.
Let the difficulty of attaining, the precarioufnefs of po!-
felfing, and the many abatements in enjoying over¬
grown wealth and envied greatnefs, of which the weary
polfefibrs fo frequently complain, as the hurry of buli-
nefs, the burden of company, of paying attendance to
theyko, and giving it to many, the cares of keeping,
the fears of lofing, and the delires of increaling what
they have, and the other troubles which accompany
this pitiful drudgery and pompous fervitude ; let the'e
and the like circumftances be often confidered, that are
conducive to the removing or leffening the opinion of
fuch goods, and the attendant pafion or fet of paffions
202 will decay of courfe.
by obferv- Let the peculiar bent of our nature and character be
ingourewn0j,fei.vet|^ wbether we are molt inclined to form affoci-
charafter at!ons and rel“h objeas of the fenflhle-> iniclleBual, or
’ moral kind. Let that which has the aicendant be par¬
ticularly watched •, let it be directed to right objects,
be improved by proportioned exercifes, and guarded by
proper checks from an oppofite quarter. Thus the fen-
jible turn may be exalted by the intelleBual, and a tafte
for the beauty of the fine arts, and both may be made
fubfervient to convey and rivet fentiments highly moral
and publicfpirited. This inward furvey mult extend to
the ftrengih and weaknejfes of one’s nature, one’s condi¬
tions, connexions, habitudes, fortunes, Jiudies, acquaint¬
ance, and the other ciicumitances of one’s life, from
which every man will form the jufteft efiimate of his
xnvn difpofitions and character, and the belt rules for
correcting and improving them. And in order to do
this with more advantage, let thofe times or criticalfea-
fons be watched when the mind is belt difpofed towards
a change ; and let them be improved by rigorom refo-
I'utions, promifesy or whatever elfe will engage the mind
See.
LOSOPnx. 395
to perfevere in virtue. Let the cor duel, in fine, be of- Culture ox
ten reviewed, and the caufesoi its corruption or improve- MincL^
be carefully obferved. . 20?
It will greatly conduce to refine the moral tejie and by frequent
{Lengthen the virtuous temper, to accuftom the mind to moral exer-
the frequent exercife of moralfentiments and determine- tiks.
tions, by reading nifory, poetry, particularly of the
pi&urefque and dramatic kind, the lludy or the fne
arts; by converfing with the molt imminent for good
fenfe and virtue ; but above all, by frequent and re¬
peated aits of humanity, compajjhn, friendjhip, polite-
nefs, and hofpitality. It is exercife that gives health
and ftrength. He that realons molt frequently be¬
comes tiie wifell, and molt enjoys thg pleafures of
wifdom. He who is mod often affefted by objects of
compatfion in poetry, hiitory, or real life, will have his
foul mod open to pity, and its delightful pains and
duties. So he alfo who praCtifes molt ddigently the
offices of kindnefs and charity, will by it cultivate
that difpofition from whence ail his pretenfions to per-
fonal merit mud arife, his prelent and his future happi-
nefs. 204
An ufeful and honourable employment in life willHan hQ'
adminider a thoufand opportunities of this kind, and.
greatly itrengthen a fenfe of virtue and good affections,*
which mud be nouridied by right training, as well as
our underdandings. For fuch an employment, by en-
larging one’s experience, giving a habit of attention
4md caution, or obliging one, from neceflity or intereft,
to keep a guard over the padlons, and Itudy the out¬
ward decencies and appearances of virtue, will by de¬
grees produce good habit, and at length iniinuate the
love of virtue and honedy for its own fake. 20-
It is a great inducement to the exercife of benevo-by viewing
lence to view human nature in a favourable light, tomenanc9
obferve the characters and circumdances of mankind‘TI ,nrA''s xn
on the faircjl fides, to put the bed condruCtions. 011“
their aCtions they will bear, and to confi 'er them as
the refult of partial and mjiaken rather than ill affec¬
tions, or, at word, as the excefies of a pardonable ielf-
love, feldom or never the effeCt of pure malice.
Above all, the nature and confequences of virtue and’0!' ccnfulp-
vice, their confequences being the law of our nature
and will of heaven 5 the light in which they appear tOcifes.
our fupreme Parent and Lawgiver, and the reception
they will meet with from him, mult be often attend¬
ed to. The exercifes of piety, as adoration and praife
of the divine excellency, invocation of and dependence
on his aid, confejfon, thanhfgiving, and rejignation, are
habitualiy to be indulged, and frequently performed,
not only as medicinal, but highly improving to the
temper. 207
To conclude: It will be of admirable efficacy to-by juft
wards eradicating bad habits, and implanting good^'v* °j^
ones, frequently to contemplate human life as the great
nurfery of ow future and immortal extjlence, as that fate aecHon
of probation in which we are to be educated for a divine with a fu-
life ; to remember, that our virtues or vices will be zV/z-bue.
mortal as ourfelves, and influence our future as well as
our prefent happinefs—and therefore, that every difpo¬
fition and action is to be regarded as pointing beyond
the prefent to an immortal duration.—An habitual atten¬
tion to this wide and important connexion will give a vaff
compafs and dignity to our fentiments and aCtions, a no-
3- D 2 bk
' a fair light;
3q6 MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Motives to ble fuperionty. to tlie pleafures and pains of life, and a
Virtue. ^ generous ambition to make our virtue as immortal as
v our 'being.
Part III.
Chap. II. Motives to Virtue from Perfotial
Happiness.
208
Motives We have already confidered our obligations to the
from per- pradfice of virtue f*AvX\\\g from the conjlitution of our'
{onal hap- nature^ which we are led to approve a certain order
and economy of ajfe&ions, and a certain courfe ofaElion
* Vide correfpondent to it *. But, befides this, there are fe-
P,artL. .. veral motives which ftrengthen and lecure virtue,
cn..p. 1. n. tjloUg|) not tberT1fe]ves 0f a moral kind. Thefe are,
its tendency to perfonal happinefs, and the contrary ten¬
dency of vice. “ Perfonal happinefs arifes either from
the Hate of a man’s own mind, or from the Hate and
209 difpolition of external caufes towards him.”
Happinefs \ye fliaH firft examine the “ tendency of virtue to
f om^v th happinefs with refpeft to the Hate of a man’s own
ia. mind.” This is a point of the utmoft confequence in
morals, becaufe, unlefs we can convince ourfelves, or
{how to others, that, by doing our duty, or fulfilling
our moral obligations, we confult the greateft fatisfac-
tion of our own mind, or our higheft intereft on the
whole, it will raife ftrong and often unfurmountable
prejudices againft the praftice of virtue, efpecially
whenever there arife any appearances of oppqfition be¬
tween our duty and our fatisfaciion or interejl. To crea¬
tures fo defirous of happinefs, and averfe to mifery,
as we are, and often fo oddly fituated amidft contend¬
ing paffions and intereils, it is neceffary that virtue
appear not only an honourable but a pleafng and benefi¬
cent form. And in order to juftify our choice to our¬
felves as well as before others, we muit ourfelves feel
and be able to avow in the face of the whole world,
that her ways are ways of pleafantnefs, and her paths
the paths of peace. This will ihow, beyond all con-
tradi£lion, that we not only approve, but can give a
210 fufficient reafon for what we do.
Influence of Let any man in a cool hour, when he is difengaged
vice on the from bufmefs, and undifturbed by paffion (as fuch cool
temper of w;j] fbmetimes happ en), fit down, and ferioufiy
e min ’ refleft wnth himfelf what ftate or temper of mind he
would choofe to feel and indulge, in order to be eafy
and to enjoy himfelf. Would he choofe, for that pur-
pofe, to be in a conllant diffipation and hurry of
thought; to be difturbed in the exercife of his rea¬
fon •, to have various and often interfering phantoms
of good playing before his imagination, folicitiiog and
diftra&ing him by turns, now foothing him with amuf-
ing hopes, then torturing him with anxious fears ; and
to approve this minute what he fliall condemn the
next ? Would he choofe to have a ftrong and painful
fenfe of every petty injury 5 quick apprehenfions of
every impending evil; inceffant and infatiable defires
of power, wealth, honour, pleafure j an irreconcilable
antipathy againft all competitors and rivals \ inlolent
1 and tyrannical difpofitions to all below him j fawning,
and at the fame time envious, difpofitions to all above
him •, wdth dark fufpicions and jealoufies of every
mortal ? Would he choofe neither to love nor be belov¬
ed of any 5 to have no friend in whom to confide, or
with whom to interchange his fentiments or defigns •,
bo favourite, oa whom to bellow his kindnefs, or vent
his paflions; in fine, to be confcious of no merit with FromHap-
mankind, no efteem from any creature, no good affec- , Pinet~- [
tion to his Maker, no concern for, nor hopes of, his
approbation 5 but, inftead of all thefe, to hate, and
know that he is hated, to condemn, and know' that he
is condemned by all ; by the good, becaufe he is fo un¬
like *, and by the bad becaufe he is fo like themfelves;
to hate or to dread the very Being that made him •,
and, in Ihort, to have his breaft the feat of pride and
paflion, petulance and revenge, deep melancholy, cool
malignity, and all the other furies that ever polfeifed
and tortured mankind ?—Would our calm inquirer af¬
ter happinefs pitch on fuch a ftate, and fuch a temper
of mind, as the molt likely means to put him in pof-
fefllon of his defired eafe and felt-enjoyment ? 2II
Or would he rather choofe a ferene and eafy flow of Influence of
thought ; a reafon clear and compofed ; a judgementvir,:iie on
unbiaffed by prejudice, and undiftra&ed by paflion j a die temper,
fobef and well-governed fancy, which prefents the
images of things true, and unmixed with delufive and
unnatural charms, and therefore adminifters no impro¬
per or dangerous fuel to the paflions, but leaves the
mind free to choofe or rejeft, as becomes a reafon.able
creature ; a fweet and fedate temper, not eafily ruf¬
fled by hopes or fears, prone neither to fufpicion nor
revenge, apt to viewr men and things in the faireft
lights, and to bend gently to the humours of others
rather than obftinately to contend with them ? Would
he choofe fudi moderation and continence of mind, as
neither to be ambitious of power, fond of honours, co¬
vetous of wealth, nor a flave to pleafure; a mind of
courfe neither elated with fuccefs, nor dejedfed with
difappointment $ fuch a modeft and noble fpirit as
fupports power without infolence, wears honour with¬
out pride, ufes wealth without profufion or parfimony ;
and rejoices more in giving than in receiving pleafure ;
fuch fortitude and equanimity as rifes above misfor¬
tunes, or turns them into bleflings 5 fuch integrity
and greatnefs of mind, as neither flatters the vices,
nor triumphs over the follies of men •, as equally fp'urns
fervitude and tyranny, and will neither engage in low
defigns, nor abet them in others ? Would he choofe,
in fine, fuch rnildnefs and benignity of heart as takes
part in all the joys, and refufes none of the forrows, of
others •, ftands well afteifted to all mankind ; is confci¬
ous of meriting the efteem of all, and of being beloved
by the beft j a mind which delights in doing good
without any fnow, and yet arrogates nothing on that
account; rejoices in loving and being beloved by its
Maker, adls ever under his eye, refigns itfelf to his
providence, and triumphs in his approbation ? Which
of thefe difpofitions would be his choice in order to
be contented, ferene, and happy f The former tem¬
per is vice, the latter VIRTUE. Where one prevails,
there misery prevails, and by the generality is ac¬
knowledged to prevail. Where the other reigns, there
happiness reigns, and by the confeflion of mankind
is acknowdedged to reign. The perfeBion of either
temper is ?niferij or happinefs in perfeBion.—There¬
fore, every approach to either extretne is an approach
to mifery or to happinefs; i. e. every degree of vice or
virtue is accompanied with a proportionable degree of
mifery or happinefs. 3I3
The principal alleviations of a virtuous man’s cala- The allevi-.
mities are thefe ;—That though fome of them may at|ons ofhzs
have lll&
213
His enjoy¬
ments.
Part III. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Motives to have been tbe effect of his imprudence or weaknefs,
, Virtue. ' yet few Qf them are fharpened by a fenfe of guilt, and
v none of them by a confcioufnefs of wickedhefs, which
furely is their keeneft fting ;—that they are common
to him with the beft of men ;—that they feldom or
never attack him quite unprepared, but rather guarded
with a confcioufnefs of his own fincerity and virtue,
with a faith and truft in Providence, and a firm refig-
nation to its perfedl orders;—that they may be im¬
proved as means of correffion, or materials ' to give
fcope and liability to his virtues;—and, to name no
more, they are confiderably leffened, and often fweet-
ened to him, by the general fympathy of the wife and
good.
His enjoyments are more numerous, or, if lefs nu¬
merous, yet more intenfe than thofe of the bad man :
for he fhares in the joys of others by rebourid ; and
every increafe of general pr particular happinefs is a real
addition to his own. It is true, his friendly fympathy
with others fubje&s him to fome pains which the hard¬
hearted wretch does not feel ; yet to give a loofe to
it, is a kind of agreeable difcharge. It is fuch a for-
row as he loves to indulge 5 a fort of pleafing anguilh
that fweetly melts the mind, and terminates in a felf-
approving joy. Though the good man may want
means to execute, or be difappointed in the fuccefs of,
fA-ePartll. jjjg benevolent purpofes j yet, as was formerly f ob-
£ ap. 1. fej-ye^ he is ftill confciqus of good affe&ion, and that
confcioufnefs is an enjoyment of a more delightful
favour than the greateil triumphs o^fuccefsful vice.
If the ambitious, covetous, or voluptuous, are difappoint¬
ed, their paffions recoil upon them with a fury propor¬
tioned to their opinion of the value of what they pur-
fue, and their hope of fuccefs; while they have no¬
thing within to balance the difappointment, unlefs it
is an ufelefs fund of pride, which, however, frequently
turns mere accidents into mortifying affronts, and ex¬
alts grief into rage and frenzy. Whereas the meek,
humble, and benevolent temper, is its own reward, is
fatisfied from within ; and, as it magnifies greatly the
pleafure of fuccefs, fo it wonderfully alleviates, and in
a manner annihilates, all pain for the want of it.
As the good man is confcious of loving and wifh-
ing well to all mankind, he muft be fenfible of- his de-
, ferving the efteem and good-will of all; and this fup-
P pofed reciprocation of focial feelings is, by the very
frame of our nature, made a fource of very intenfe and
enlivening joys. By this fympathy of affe&ions and
interefls, he feels himfelf intimately united with the
human race ; and, being fenfibly alive over the whole
fyflem, his heart receives and becomes refponfive to
every touch given to any part. So that, as an eminent
philofopher * finely expreffes it, he gathers contentment
and delight from the pleafed and happy Hates of thofe
around him, from accounts and relations of fuch hap¬
pinefs, from the very countenances, geftures, voices,
and founds, even of creatures foreign to our kind,
whofe figns of joy and contentment he can any way
, difeern.
Do not in- Nor do thofe generous affe&ions flop any other na-
terfere with tural fource of joy whatever, or deaden his fenfe of
other joys. any innocent gratification. They rather keep the
feveral fenfes and powers of enjoyment open and difen-
gaged, intenfe and uncorrupted by riot or abufe as
is evident to any one who conliders the diflipated, un-
397
Fr9m me¬
rited ef¬
teem and
* Vide
Shafted}.
Inq. into
Virtue,
Book II.
feeling Hate of men of pteafure, ambition, or interejl, FromHap-
and compares it with the ferene and gentle Hate of a Pinet:s-
mind at peace with itfelf, and friendly to all mankind, '
unruffled by any violent emotion, and fenfible to every The mifery
good-natured and alluring joy. ofexcefsin
It were eafy, by going through the different fets 0fthePrivate
affe£Hons mentioned formerly f, to fflow, that it is onty A^,°part r
by maintaining the proportion fettled there, that the chap. Hi. *
mind arrives at true repofe and fatisfaftioni If fear
exceeds that proportion, it finks into melancholy and
deje&ion. If anger paffes juft bounds, it ferments into
rage and revenge, or fubfides into a fullen corroding
gloom, which embitters every good, and renders one
exquifitely fenfible to every ill. The private paffions,
love of honour zfytcAtMq, whofe impulfes are more
generous, as its effefts are more diffufive, are inftru-
ments of private pleafure ; but if they are difpropor-
tioned to our wants, or to the value of their feveral
objects, or to the balance of other paffions equally ne-
ceflary and more amiable, they become inftruments of
intenfe pain and mifery. For, being now deftitute of
that counterpoife which held them at a due pitch,
they grow turbulent, peeviffi, and revengeful, the caufe
of conftant reftleffnefs and torment, fometimes flying
out into a wild delirious joy, at other times fettling »
in a deep fplenetic grief. The concert between rea-
fon and paffion is then broke : all is difibnance and
diftra&ioii within. The mind is out of frame, and feels
an agony proportioned to the violence of the reigning
paffion. 3Iy
The cafe is much the fame, or rather worfe, when In the pn>~
any of the particular bind affettions are out of their b.lic affec~
natural order and proportion ; as happens in the cafe tlon‘
of effeminate pity, exorbitant love, parental dotage, or
any party pafjion, where the juft regards to fociety are
fupplanted. The more focial and dijinterefled the paf¬
fion is, it breaks out into the wilder exceffes, and makes
the more dreadful havpek both within and abroad ; as
is but too apparent in thofe cafes where a falfe fpecies
of religion, honour, •zeal, or party-rage, has feized on
the natural enthufiafm of the mind, and wmrked it up
to madnefs. It breaks through all ties natural and ci¬
vil, difregards the moft facred and folemn obligations,
filences every other affedtion whether public or private,
and transforms the moft gentle natures into the moft
favage and inhuman. 218-
Whereas, the man who keeps the balance of affeBion Happinefc
even, is eafy and ferene in his motions; mild, and ^
affedhonate 5 uniform and confiftent with himfelf: is paffions..
not liable to difagreeable collifions of interefts and paf¬
fions ; gives always place to the moft friendly and hu¬
mane affedfions, and never to difpofitions or adls of re-
fentment, but on high occafions, when the fecurity of
the private, or welfare of the public lyftem,^pr the great
jnterejls of mankind, neceffarily require a noble indig¬
nation j and even then he obferves a juft meafure in
wrath ; and laft of all, he proportions every paffign to
the value of the objedt he affedfs, or to the importance
of the end he purfues. ^
To fum up this part of the argument, the of th«
and good man has eminently the advantage of the bnav- argumente
dfh and felfifh wretch in every refpedf. The pleafures
which the lafl enjoys flow chiefly from external ad¬
vantages and gratifications; are fuperficial and tranfi-
tory; dallied with long intervals of fatiety, and fre¬
quent
393 MCRAE PH
Motives to rjuent returns of remorfo and fear 5 dependent on fa-
-w vourable accidents and conjunctures; and fubjected to
tbe humours of men* But the %ood man is fatisfied
from himfelf j Ins principal potTeffions lie within, and
therefore beyond the reach of the caprice of men or
fortune; In's enjoyments are exquifite and permanent:
accompanied with no inward checks to damp them,
and always with ideas of dignity and feif-approbation ;
may be tailed at any time, and in any place. The
gratifications of vice are turbulent and unnatural, ge¬
nerally aiding from the relief of paffions in themfelves
intolerable, and iifuing in tormenting refleClion ; often
irritated by difappointmenf, always Inflamed bv en¬
joyment, ami yet ever cloyed with repetition. The
pleafures of virtue are calm and natural ; flowing from
the twercife of kind affeflions, or delightful refleClions
in confequence of them ; not only agreeable in 'the
proipeCl, but in the prefent feeling ; they never fa-
tiate nor lofe their rtUfa ; nay, rather the admiration
■of virtue grows Wronger every day; and not only is
the define but the enjoyment heightened by every new
gratification ; and, unlike to moil others, it is in-
creafed, not diminiihed, by fyrnpathy and communi-.
cation.— In fine, the fatisfaclions of virtue may be
purchafed without a bribe, and pofieffed In the lium-
bleit as well as the molt triumphant fortune ; they can
bear the fit riel ed review, do not change with circum-
ilances, nor grow old with time. Force cannot rdb,
nor fraud cheat us of them ; and, to crown all, inffead
of abating, they enhance every other pleafure.
But the happy confequences of virtue are feen not
only in the internal enjoyments it affords a man, but
“ in the favourable difpofition of external caufes to¬
wards him, to which it contributes.”
As virtue gives the fober pcfTtffion of one’s felf,
and the command of one’s pafiions, ■ the confequence
mu ft be heart’s eafe, and a fine natural flow of fpirits,
which conduce more than any thing elfe to health and
long life. Violent paffions, and the exceffes they occa-
fion, gradually impair and wear down the machine.
But the calm placid ifate of a temperate mind, and the
healthful exercifes in which virtue engages her faithful
votaries, preferve the natural functions in full vigour
End harmony, and exhilerate the fpirits, which are the
chief inilruments of a9:'on.
   „ It may by fome be thought odd to affert, that vir-
fortune, in- tue is no enemy to a man’s fortune in the prefent (late
tejelh&c. 0f things.—But if by fortune be meant a moderate or
competent (hare of wealth, power, or credit, not over-
grown degrees of them ; what ihould hinder the vir¬
tuous man from obtaining that ? He cannot cringe or
fawn, it is true, but he can be civil and obliging as
well as the knave ; and furely his civility is more allu¬
ring, becaule it has more manlinefs and grace in it than
the mean adulation of the other : he cannot cheat or
undermine ; but he may be cautious, provident, watch¬
ful of occafions, and equally prompt with the rogue
in improving them : he fcorns to proftitute himfelf as
a pander to the paftions, or as a tool to the vices, of
mankind ; but he may have as found an underftanding
and as good capacities for promoting their real interefts
as the veriefl court Have : and then he is more faithful
and true to thofe who employ him. In the common
courfe of bufinefs, he has the fame chances with the
knave of acquiring a fortune, and rifing in the world.
223
External
efFefts of
virtue,
2.21
On the
body.
222
On one’s
I L O S O P H Y. part in.
He may have equal abilities, equal indaftry, equal at- FromHap-
tention to bufinefs; and in other refpecls he has greatly ;-ln
the advantage ot him. People love better to deal with "v
him ; they can truft him more ; they know he will not
impofe on them, nor take advantage of them, and can
depend more on his word than on the oath or It rung eft
fecurities ot others. Whereas what is con;manly called
cunning, which is the offspring oj ignorance, and con-
ftant companion of knavery, is not only a me'an-f.dmed,
but a very lliqrt-fighted talent, and a fundamental p-
ftacle in the road of bulmefs. It may indeed procure
immediate and petty gains ; but it is attended with
dreadful abatements, which do more than overbalance
them, both as it links a man’s credit when difeovered,
and cramps that largenefs of mind which extends to the
remoteft as well as the neareft intereil, and takes in the
moft durable equally with the moll tranfient gains. It
is therefore eafy to fee how much a man’s credit and re¬
putation, and confequently his tuccefs, depend on his
honefty and virtue.
With regard to fecurity and peace with his neigh.- cn one’s
boars,^ it may be thought, perhaps, that the man of a peace and
quiet forgiving temper, and a flowing benevolence and lscurity*
courtefy, Is much expo fed to injury and affronts from
every proud or peevifti mortal, who has the power or
will to do mifehief. If we fuppofe, indeed, this quiet-
nefs and gentlenefs of nature accompanied with cowar¬
dice and pujiilanimity, this may often be the cafe ; but
in reality the good man is bold as a lion, and fo much
the bolder tor being the calmer. Such a pertbn will
hardly be a butt to mankind. The ill natured will be
afraid to provoke him, and the good natured will not
incline to go it. Betides, true virtue, which is con¬
ducted by reafon, and exerted gracefully and without
parade, is a moft infinuating and commanding thing ;
it it cannot difarm malice and refentment at once, it
will wear them out by degrees, and fubdue them at
length. How many have, by favours and prudently
yielding, triumphed over an enemy, who would have
been inflamed into tenfold rage by the fierceft oppofi-
tion! In fine, goodnefs is the moft univerfaUy popular
thing that can be.
To conclude; the good man may have fome ene-On cue’s
mies, but he will have more friends; and, having given
fo many marks of private friend thin or public virtue,
he can hardly be deftitute of a patron to protect, or a
fanfluary to entertain him, or to protect or entertain
bis children when he is gone. Though he thould havfi
little elfie to leave them, he bequeaths them the faireft,
and generally the moft unenvied, inheritance of a tfood
name, which, like good feed fown in the field of futu¬
rity, will often raife up unfollcited friends, and yield
a benevolent harvert of unexpected charities. But
ftiould the fragrance of the parent’s virtue prove offen-
five to a perverfe or envious age, of even draw per-
fecution on the friendlefs orphans, there is tne in
heaven who will be more than a father to them, and
recompenfe their parent’s virtues by ftiowering down
bleffings on them.
Chap. III. Motives to Virtue from the Being and
Providence of God.
225.
Besides the intereftihg motive mentioned in the Two exter-
virtue,
ftriftly
laft Chapter, there are two great motives of virtue, nal motives
n • ,-.1. to virtue.
Part III.
M O K A L P HI L O SOPH Y.
399
flricUy conne£led with human life, and refultin<
the very conflitution of the human mind. The
22(5
Their im¬
portance.
227
t'iety,
, .228
a fupport
to virtue;
229
a guard
and en¬
forcement
t© virtue.
from
rv conjtitution 01 tne numan mma, J.'he firft is
the Being and Providence of God •, the fecond is the
Immortality of the Soul, with future rewards and
punijhmcrits.
It appears from Chap IV. of Part II. that man, by
the conjHtution of his nature, is dengned to be a Re¬
ligious Creature. He is intimately connected with
the Deilij, and neceifarily dependent on him. From that
connexion and neceffary dependence remit various obliga¬
tions and duties, without -fulfilling which, foroe of his
fublimeft powers and affe&ions would be incomplete
and abortive. If he be likewife an Immortal creature,
and if his pveftni conduEl (halt affect his future happinefs
in another ilate as well as in the prefent, it is evident that
we take only a partial view of the creature, if we leave
out this important property of his nature ^ and make a
partial cjlimats of human life, if we (trike out of the
account, or overlook, that "part of his duration which
runs out into eternity-.
It is evident from the above-mentioned Chapter,
that “ to have a refpcft to the Deity in our temper
and conduit, to venerate and love his char abler, to a-
dare his goodnfs, to depend upon and refign ourfelves to
bis providence, to feeh ids approbation, and a61 under a
fenfe of his authority, is a fundnmentalpart oi moral vir¬
tue, and the completion of the highejl dfin at ion of our
nature.”
But as piety is an effenlial part of virtue, fo likewife
it is a great fupport and enforcement to the praihee cf
it. To contemplate and admire a Being of fuch tranf-
cendent dignity and perfection as God, muff naturally
and nectlfarily open and enlarge the mind, give a
freedom and amplenefs to its powers, and a grandeur
and elevation to its aims. For, as an excellent divine
obferves, “ the gre itnefs of an c-bjeft, and the excel¬
lency of the ail of any AGENT about a tranfeendent
objeil, doth mightily tend to the enlargement and im¬
provement of his faculties.” Little objects, mean
company, mean cares, and mean bufinels, cramp the
mind, contrail its views, and give it a creeping sir
and deportment. But when it foars above mortal cares
and mortal purfuits into the regions of divinity, and
convenes with the greateff and belt of Beings, it
fpreads itfelf into a wider compafs, takes higher flights
in reafon and goodnefs, becomes godlike in its air and
manners. Virtue is, if one may fay ib, both the (feci
and caufe of largenefs of mind. It requires that one
think freely, and a cl nobly. Now rvhat can conduce
more to freedom of thought and dignity of adlion,
tli» n to conceive worthily of God, to reverence and
aucre his unrivalled excellency, to imitate •* d tran-
feribe that excellency into our own nature, to remember
our relation to him, and that we are the images and
representatives of his glory to the reft cf the creation ?
Such feelings and exercifes muft and will make us
fcorn all adions that are bale, unhandfome, or un¬
worthy our ftate ; and the relation We (land in to
God will irradiate the mind with the light cf wif-
dom, and ennoble it with the liberty and dominion of
v;rtue.
The influence and efficacy of religion may be con-
ffdcred in another light. We all know that the pre¬
fence of a friend, a neighbour, or any number of fpec-
tators, but efpecially an augufl affembly of them, ufes
to be a confiderable check upon the conducl cf one From the
who is not loft to all fenfe of honour and ihame, and
contributes to reftrain many irregular faliies of paffion. soul.
In the fame manner we may imagine, that the awe —
of feme fuperior mind, who is fuppoied privy to our
fecrct condud, and armed with full power to reward
or punifh it, will itnpofe a reftraint on us in fuch ac¬
tions as fall not under the controul or animadverfion of
others. If we, go ftill higher, and fuppofe our in moil:
thoughts and darkeit defigns, as well as our moil fe-
cret adions, to lie open to the notice of the fupreme
and univerfal Mind, who is both l\it fpecla'or and judge
of human adions, it is evident that tl e belief of io au-
guft a prefence, and fuch awful inipedion, muft carry
a reftraint and weight with it proportioned to tne
(Length of that belief, and be an additional motive to
the pradice of many duties which would not have been
performed without it. 23,s
It may be obferved farther, that “ to live under an Exercifes
habitual fenfe of the Deity and his great adminijlration, ^
is to be converfant with wijdom, order, and beauty, int0 virtue,
the higheft fubjeds, and to receive the delightful re¬
flexions and benign feelings which thefe excite while
they irradiate upon him from every feene of nature and
providence.” How improving muft fuch views be to
the mind, in dilating and exalting it above thofe puny
interefts and competitions which agitate and inflame the
bulk of mankind againft each other !
Chap, IV. Motive to Virtue from the I mm ORTA*
lity of the Soul, CV.
23*
The other motive mentioned was the immortality of Mctaph*-
the foul, with future rewards and pumfhments. The
metaphyfcal proofs of the foul’s immortality are com-its immoX-
monly drawn from—its Jimple, uncompounded, and indi- tality..
vifible nature •, from whence it is concluded, that it can¬
not be corrupted or extinguhlied by a diffolution or dc- -
ftrudioo of its parts:—from its having a beginning of
motion within itfeif; whence it is inferred, that it can¬
not difeontinue and lofe its motion :—from the different
properties cf matter and mind, the fuggifmefs and inac¬
tivity of the one, and the immenfe activity of the other ; .
its prodigious flight of thought and imagination ; its pe¬
netration, memory,forefight, and anticipations cd futurity;
from whence it is concluded, that a being of fo divine
a nature cannot be extiuguiihed. But as thefe meta*
phyfical proofs depend on intricate reafonings concern¬
ing the nature, properties, and df inal 10ns ot body and
mind, with which we are not very well acquainted, they
are not obvious to ordinary underftandings, and are fel-
dom fo convincing even to thofe ol higher reach, as not
to leave forae doubts behind them. Therefore perhaps
it is not fo fafe to reft the proof of fuch atY important
article on what many may call the fubtilities oi fchool
learning. Thofe proofs which are brought from ana-
logy, from the moral confiiution and phenomena of the
human mind, the moral attributes of God, and the pre¬
fent courfe of thing 1, and which therefore are called
the moral arguments, are the plaineft and generally the
moil fatisfying. We (hall feleft only one or two from
the reft. _ 23s.,.
In tracing the nature and d(fin at ion of any being, Mon.l
we form the fureft judgement from his powers of aflion, from
and the fcope and limits of thefe, compared with his hQd ugy*
A-'G
Virtue.
/
400 M O R A L P H
Mobves to JJate, or with that field in which they are exercifed. If
this being pafl'es through different ftates, or fields of
action, and we find a fucctfilon of powers adapted to
the different periods of his progrefs, tve conclude that
he was defxined for thofe fuccefiive ftates, and reckon
his nature progrefijive. If, befides the immediate fet of
powers which fit him for aftion in his prefent ftate,
we obferve another fct which appear fupertluous if he
were to be confined to it, and which point to another
or higher one, we naturally conclude, that he is n^t
defigned to remain in his prefent ftate, but to advance
to that for which thofe fupernumerary powers are ad*
apted. Thus We argue, that the infedi, which has
wings forming or formed, and all the apparatus pro¬
per for flight, is not deftined always to creep on the
ground, or to continue in the torpid ftate of adhering
to a wall, but is defigned in its feafon to take its flight
in air. Without this farther deftination, the admir-
, able mechanifm of wungs and the other apparatus
would be ufelefs and abfurd. The fame kind of rea-
foning may be applied to man, while he lives only a
fort of vegetative life in the wTomb. He is furnifhed
even there with a beautiful apparatus of organs, eyes,
ears, and other delicate fenfesj which receive nourifh-
ment indeed, but are in a manner folded up, and have
no proper exercife or ufe in their prefent confine-
* Vide Lu- ment *. Let us fuppofe fome intelligent fpe&ator,
dov. Viv. who never had arty connexion with man, nor the leaft
% ReJis' acquaintance with human affairs, to fee this odd phe-
Lib II. de nornenon, a creature formed after fuch a manner, and
vita Uteri, placed in a fituation apparently unfuitable to fuch va-
rious machinery: muft he not be ftrangely puzzled
about the ufe of his complicated ftru&ure, and rec¬
kon fuch a profufion of art and admirable workman-
fhip loft on the fubjedf j or reafon’-by way of anticipa¬
tion, that a creature endued wuth fuch various yet un¬
exerted capacities, w?as deftined for a more enlarged
fphere of aftion, in which thofe latent capacities fhall
have full play ? The vaft variety and yet beautiful fym-
metry and proportions of the feveral parts and organs
with which the creature is endued, and their apt cohe-
fion with, and dependence on, the curious receptacle of
their life and nourifhment, w’ould forbid his concluding
the whole to be the birth of chance, or the bungling
effort of an unfkilful artift •, at leafi: would make him
demur a while at fo harfh a fentence. But if, while
he is in this ftate of uncertainty, we fuppofe him to
fee the babe, after a few fuccefsful ftruggles, throw¬
ing off his fetters, breaking loofe Trom his little dark
prifon, and emerging into open day, then unfolding his
reclufe and dormant powers, breathing in air, gazing at
light, admiring colours, founds, and all the fair variety
of nature, immediately his doubts clear up, the proprie¬
ty and excellency of the workmanfhip dawn upon him
rvith full luftre, and the whole myftery of the firft pe¬
riod is unravelled by the opening of this new feene.
Though in this fiecond period the creature lives chiefly a
kind of animal life, i. e. offenfe and appetite, yet by va¬
rious trials and obfervations he gains experience,and by
the gradual evolution of the powers of imagination he ri¬
pens apace for a higher life, for exercifing the arts of
defign and imitation, and of thofe in w'hich ftrength or
dexterity are more requifite than^acutenefs or reach of
judgement. In the fucceeding rational or intelledlual
period, his underfunding, which formerly crept in a
4
I L O S O P H Y. Part III.
lower, mounts into a higher fphere, canvaffes the na- From the
tures, judges of the relations of things, forms fchemes, Immortali-
deduces confequences from what is pall, and from pre-
lent as well as paft collects future events. By this fuc- - ^ ‘ /
ceflion of ftates, and of correfpondent culture, he grows
up at length into a moral, a facial, and a political crea¬
ture. This is the lait period at which we perceive him
to arrive in this his mortal career. Each periodh intro-
dudfory to the next fucceeding one •, each life is a field
of exercife and improvement for the next higher one $
the life of the feetus for that of the infant, the life of
the infant for that of the child, and all the low'er for
the higheft and beft —But is this the laft period of$ See
nature’s progreffion ? Is this the utmoft extent of her Butler’s
plot, where ftie winds up the drama, and difmiffes the ,
adlor into eternal oblivion ? Or does he appear to be 1 li
inverted with fupernumerary powers, which have not
full exercife and fcope even in the laft feene, and reach
not that maturity or perfedlion of which they are capa¬
ble ; and therefore point to forne higher feene where
he is to fuftain another and more important charadfer
than he has yet fuftained ? If any fuch there are,
may wTe not conclude by analogy, or in the fame way
of anticipation as before, that he is deftined for that
after part, and is to be produced upon a more augufl:
and folemn ftage, where his fublimer powers {hall have
proportioned adlion, and his nature attain its comple-
tion- . ... 233
If rve attend to that cunofity, or prodigious tlnrfi of Powers in
knowledge, which is natural to the mind in every pe- which
riod of its progrefs, and confider withal the endlefs an
round of bufinefs and care, and the various hardftiips to L 2-4 *
which the bulk of mankind are chained down j it is Intcllec-
evident, that in this prefent ftate it is impoflible to ex-tual.
pedt the gratification of an appetite at once fo infa-
tiable and fo noble. Our fenfes, the ordinary organs by
which knowledge is let into the mind, are always im-
perfedl, and often fallacious j the advantages of aflift-
ing or correcting them are poflefled by few } the diffi¬
culties of finding out truth amidft the various and con-
tradidlory opinions, interefts, and paflions of man¬
kind, are many $ and the wants of the creature, and of
thofe with whom he is connedted, numerous and urgent:
fo that it may be faid of moil men, that then intelledlual
organs are as much (hut up and fecluded from proper
nouriftunent and exercife in that little circle to which
they are confined, as the bodily organs are in the
womb. Nay, thofe who to an afpiring genius have ad¬
ded all the atfiftances of art, leifure, and the moft liber¬
al education, what narrow profpedls can even they take
of this unbounded feene of things from that little emin¬
ence cn which they Hand ? and howr eagerly do they
ftill grafp at new difeoveries, without any fatisfadlion or
limit to their ambition ? 235
But (hould it be faid, that man is made for Moral
and not for fpeculation, or fruitlefs fearches after knovv-Powers*
ledge, we alk, For what kind of adlion ? Is it only for
bodily exercifes, or for moral, political, and religious
ones ? Of all thefe fie is capable •, yet, by the unavoid¬
able circumftances of his lot, he is tied down to the
former, and has hardly any leifure to think of the lat¬
ter, or, if he has, wants the proper inftruments of ex¬
erting them. The love of virtue, of one's friends and
country, the generous fympathy with mankind, and heroic
zeal of doing good, which are all fo natural to great and
good
/
wmsmw-